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-The Project Gutenberg EBook of Every Boy's Book: A Complete Encyclopædia
-of Sports and Amusements, by Various
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
-almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
-re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
-with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
-
-
-Title: Every Boy's Book: A Complete Encyclopædia of Sports and Amusements
-
-Author: Various
-
-Editor: Edmund Routledge
-
-Release Date: February 23, 2013 [EBook #42172]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EVERY BOY'S BOOK: SPORTS AND AMUSEMENTS ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Chris Curnow, Harry Lamé and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
-file was produced from images generously made available
-by The Internet Archive)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
- TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:
-
- The following transcriptions have been used:
-
- Italic text in the original work have been transcribed between
- underscores as in _text_.
-
- Small capitals in theoriginal work have been transcribed as ALL
- CAPITALS.
-
- Subscript text has been transcribed as _{text}.
-
- Greek words have been transliterated as [Greek: ...].
-
- The OE and oe ligatures have been transcribed as [OE] and [oe],
- respctively.
-
- Letters with a dot below them have been transcribed as [t.],
- [h.] and [g.].
-
- Letters that are intended to describe a shape have been
- transcribed between square brackets, as in [S] or [X] for S- and
- X-shaped.
-
- More Transcriber's Notes may be found at the end of this text.
-
-
-[Illustration:
-
- EVERY
- BOY'S
- BOOK
-
- GEORGE ROUTLEDGE & SONS
- LONDON
- AND NEW YORK.]
-
-
- EVERY BOY'S BOOK:
-
- A COMPLETE ENCYCLOPÆDIA
- OF
- _SPORTS AND AMUSEMENTS_.
-
-
- EDITED BY
- EDMUND ROUTLEDGE.
-
-
- With more than Six Hundred Illustrations
- FROM ORIGINAL DESIGNS.
-
-
- LONDON:
-
- GEORGE ROUTLEDGE AND SONS,
- THE BROADWAY, LUDGATE.
- NEW YORK: 416, BROOME STREET.
-
- 1869.
-
-
- _R. Clay, Son, and Taylor, Printers,
- Bread Street Hill, London._
-
-
-
-
-EDITORS PREFACE.
-
-
-The twelve years that have passed since the first edition of EVERY BOY'S
-BOOK was published, have brought so many changes in our national sports
-and pastimes, and have seen the introduction of so many new games, that
-it has been thought desirable to remodel this work, in order to bring it
-down to the requirements of the present time. In carrying out this plan
-effectually, EVERY BOY'S BOOK has been almost entirely rewritten; and
-scarcely anything now remains of the old work except the title.
-
-All the articles that were in the former edition have been thoroughly
-revised, and papers on Boxing, Canoeing, Croquet, Fives, Golf, Rackets,
-Sliding, Billiards, Bagatelle, Dominoes, Spectrum Analysis, Canaries,
-Hedgehogs, Jackdaws, Jays, Magpies, Owls, Parrots, Ravens, Boats,
-Cryptography, Deaf and Dumb Alphabet, Dominoes, Mimicry and
-Ventriloquism, Shows, Stamp Collecting, and Tinselling, appear now for
-the first time.
-
-In carrying out this work much valuable assistance has been given by
-Professor Pepper, the Rev. J. G. Wood, W. B. Tegetmeier, Clement Scott,
-Sidney Daryl, J. T. Burgess, Dr. Viner, Thomas Archer, W. Robinson of
-the _Field_, Cholmondeley Pennell, and other well-known writers on
-sports.
-
-The articles at the end of this work on American Billiards, Base Ball,
-and the Canadian sport of La Crosse, have been contributed by Henry
-Chadwick, the leading authority on these games in America.
-
-CHRISTMAS, 1868.
-
-
-
-
-PREFACE TO THE ORIGINAL EDITION.
-
-
-It would be impossible for a single author to produce a book of this
-description with a fair prospect of success, because it necessarily
-treats of many subjects; and a perfect acquaintance with some of the
-more important would occupy a lifetime. The reading and researches of
-one man would not be sufficiently extensive to embrace the rich variety
-of the materials required. Being fully convinced of this fact, the
-Publishers have endeavoured to obtain the aid of the most distinguished
-writers in the various departments of knowledge which the following
-pages are intended to illustrate. Thus each contributor, in furnishing
-his quota of information for the work, has been engaged in a congenial
-task, one best suited to his peculiar turn of mind, as well as to his
-individual acquirements, and one upon which he could, therefore, with
-the greatest ease and accuracy dilate. This brief explanation will
-show in what spirit the Publishers embarked in the undertaking; and
-the accompanying list of the writers may be received as a proof that
-they have succeeded in securing the services of the most competent
-authorities. With that portion of the book with which he was practically
-acquainted each of the following gentlemen has dealt: W. Martin, Esq.,
-C. Baker, Esq., R. B. Wormald, Esq., J. F. Wood, Esq., A. McLaren, Esq.,
-Stonehenge, author of "Rural Sports," and the Rev. J. G. Wood, author
-of several works on Natural History, who also furnished some of the
-designs. The remaining illustrations are by William Harvey and Harrison
-Weir; and the credit for the able manner in which they have been
-engraved is due to the brothers Dalziel.
-
- 2, FARRINGDON STREET,
-
- _February, 1856_.
-
-
-
-
-CONTENTS.
-
-
-PART I.
-
-EASY GAMES WITHOUT TOYS.
-
-OUTDOOR.
-
- PAGE
- Hop, Step, and Jump 1
- Hopping on the Bottle 2
- Hop-Scotch 2
- French and English 3
- Drawing the Oven 4
- I Spy 4
- Pitch-Stone 3
- Duck-Stone 5
- Prisoner's Base, or Prison Bars 5
- Fox 7
- Baste the Bear 7
- Leap-Frog 8
- Fly the Garter 8
- Spanish Fly 9
- Touch 10
- Touch-Wood and Touch-Iron 10
- Buck, Buck, how many Horns do I hold up? 10
- Warning 10
- Follow my Leader 11
- The Fugleman 11
- Hare and Hounds 11
- Steeple Chase 13
- Duck and Drake 13
- Simon Says 14
- King of the Castle 14
- Battle for the Banner 14
- Snow-Balls 15
- Snow Castle 16
- Snow Giant 17
- Jack! Jack! show a Light! 18
- Jingling 19
- Jump little Nag-tail! 19
- Jumping Rope 20
- My Grandmother's Clock 20
- Rushing Bases 21
- See-saw 21
- Thread the Needle 22
- Tom Tiddler's Ground 22
- Two to One 22
- Walk, Moon, Walk! 22
- Want a day's work? 23
- Will you List? 23
- Whoop! 24
- High Barbaree! 24
- Bull in the Ring 24
- Cock Fight 25
- Dropping the Handkerchief 25
-
-INDOOR.
-
- Blind Man's Buff 26
- Bob-Cherry 26
- Buff 27
- Concert 27
- Consequences 28
- Cross Questions & Crooked Answers 28
- Dumb Motions 29
- Family Coach 29
- Frog in the Middle 30
- The Four Elements 31
- Hand 31
- Hot Boiled Beans 32
- Hot Cockles 32
- How? Where? and When? 32
- Hunt the Slipper 33
- Hunt the Ring 33
- Hunt the Whistle 33
- Magic Music 34
- Post 34
- Proverbs 35
- Puss in the Corner 36
- Red-Cap and Black-Cap 36
- Shadow Buff 37
- Slate Games 37
- Trades 40
- Trussed Fowls 40
- The Two Hats 40
- What is my Thought like? 41
-
-EASY GAMES WITH TOYS.
-
-OUTDOOR.
-
- BALLS 43
- Catch Ball 43
- Doutee-Stool 43
- Egg-Hat 44
- Feeder 44
- Monday, Tuesday 45
- Nine-Holes 46
- Northern Spell 46
- Rounders 46
- Sevens 48
- Stool-Ball 48
- Trap, Bat, and Ball 48
-
- HOOPS 49
- The Hoop 50
- Encounters 50
- Hoop Race 51
- Posting 51
- Tournament 52
- Turnpike 52
-
- KITES 53
- How to make a Kite 53
- Flying the Kite 54
- Messengers 55
- Calico Kites 55
- Fancy Kites 55
-
- MARBLES 57
- Bounce Eye 58
- Conqueror 58
- Die Shot 58
- Eggs in the Bush 59
- Increase Pound 59
- Knock out, or Lag out 59
- Long Taw 60
- Nine-Holes, or Bridge Board 60
- Odd or Even 61
- Picking the Plums 61
- The Pyramid 61
- Ring Taw 61
- Spans and Snops, and Bounce About 62
- Teetotum Shot 62
- Three-Holes 62
- Tipshares, or Handers 63
-
- TOPS 64
- The Humming-top 64
- Peg-top 65
- Spanish Peg-top 65
- The Whip-top 65
- Chip-stone 66
- Peg-in-the-Ring 66
-
- MISCELLANEOUS TOYS 68
- The Apple Mill 68
- Aunt Sally 68
- Baton 69
- Cat 69
- Cat and Mouse 70
- Knock-'em-down 71
- Pea-shooters 71
- Quoits 71
- Nine-pins 72
- Skittles 72
- Dutch-pins 73
- Throwing the Hammer 73
- The Boomerang 74
- The Skip-jack, or Jump-jack 74
- The Sling 74
- Walking on Stilts 76
- The Sucker 76
-
-INDOOR.
-
- Battledore and Shuttlecock 78
- Bandilor 79
- Cup and Ball 79
- The Cutwater 79
- Fox and Geese 80
- Goose 81
- Head, Body, and Legs 81
- Knuckle-bones 82
- Merelles, or Nine Men's Morris 83
- Paper Dart 83
- The Popgun 84
- Push-pin 84
- Schimmel 84
- Spelicans 86
-
-
-PART II.
-
-ATHLETIC SPORTS AND MANLY EXERCISES.
-
- ANGLING 89
- A Word about Fish 90
- About the Rod 91
- Choosing the Rod 91
- Lines or Bottoms 92
- Shotting the Line 93
- The Float 93
- Reels or Winches 94
- Reel Lines 94
- Hooks 94
- How to bait a Hook 95
- Baits 95
- To Bait with Greaves 97
- To Scour and Preserve Worms 97
- The Plummet 97
- Plumbing the Depth 97
- Landing-hook and Landing-net 98
- Clearing Ring and Line 98
- Drag-hook 98
- Bank Runner 98
- Live-bait Kettle 99
- Disgorger 99
- Angling Axioms 99
- Salmon 100
- Trout 100
- Jack or Pike 101
- Gudgeon 103
- Roach 104
- Dace 105
- Perch 106
- Grayling 107
- Chub 108
- Carp 109
- Tench 110
- Pope, or Ruff 110
- Bream 111
- Flounder 111
- Eels 112
- Stickleback and Minnow 113
- Barbel 114
- Natural Fly-fishing, or Dipping 115
- Fly-fishing and Artificial Flies 115
- Materials for making Flies 115
-
- ARCHERY 121
- The Long-bow 122
- The Cross-bow 122
- Feats of the Bow 123
- Length of Bows and Arrows, and how used in
- Ancient Times 124
- Marks for Shooting at 124
- Equipment for Archery 125
- Ancient Directions for Archery 125
- Decline of Archery 125
- Modern Archery 126
- The Bow 126
- The String 126
- Stringing the Bow 127
- The Arrows 127
- The Quiver 128
- The Tassel, Brace, Belt, and Pouch 128
- Shooting Glove, and Grease Pot 129
- The Target 129
- Butts 130
- How to draw the Bow 130
- Flight Shooting 131
- Clout Shooting 131
- Roving 131
- General Hints for Archers 132
-
- BOXING 133
-
- CANOES AND CANOEING 140
-
- CRICKET 143
- The Bat 145
- The Ball 145
- The Stumps 145
- Pads or Guards 146
- Batting Gloves 147
- Wicket-keeping Gloves 148
- The Laws of Cricket 148
- The Laws of Single Wicket 152
- The Batsman.--Hints to Young Players 153
- Fielding 159
- Bowling 162
- The Wicket-keeper 165
- Long-stop 166
- Point 166
- Short-slip 166
- Cover-point 167
- Long-slip 167
- Long-on 167
- Long-off 167
- Leg 167
- Mid-wicket on and off 167
- Third Man up 167
- Diagram I.--Fast Round-arm Bowling 168
- Diagram II.--Medium Pace Round-arm Bowling 169
- Diagram III.--Slow Under-hand Bowling 169
-
- CROQUET.--Materials of the Game 170
- The Mallets 170
- The Balls 171
- The Hoops 171
- The Posts 172
- Clips 172
- Marking Board 173
- Tunnel 173
- The Cage 173
- A Croquet Stand 174
- How the Game is played 174
- Diagram, No. I. 177
- " " II. 178
- " " III. 179
- " " IV. 180
- Rules 181
- Striking 181
- Order of Playing 181
- The Croquet 182
- The Posts 185
- The Rover 185
- Hints to Young Players 186
-
- DRIVING 192
- Introduction 192
- The Horse in Harness 193
- The Horse 194
- The Harness 194
- The Carriage 195
- Putting to 196
- Directions for Driving 196
-
- FENCING 198
- The Guard 199
- Advance 200
- Retreat 201
- The Longe 201
- The Recover 201
- The Engage 202
- Parades 202
- Quarte 203
- Tierce 203
- Seconde 205
- Demi-Cercle 205
- Octave 206
- Contre-Parades 206
- Attacks 207
- The Straight Thrust 207
- The Disengagement 207
- The One-Two 208
- The Beat and Thrust 208
- The Beat and Disengagement 208
- Cut over the Point 208
- Cut over the Disengagement 208
- Double 209
- All Feints 209
- The Assault 209
- General Advice 210
- Broadswords 210
- Positions 211
- Target 212
- Cuts and Guards 213
- Cuts 213
- Points 214
- Guards 215
- Parry 215
- Hanging Guard 216
- Inside Guard 216
- Outside Guard 217
- Attack and Defence 217
- Draw Swords 218
- Recover Swords 219
- Carry Swords 219
- Slope Swords 219
- Return Swords 219
- Practices 220
- Second Practice 220
- Third Practice 220
- Fourth Practice 221
- Fifth Practice 221
- Fort and Feeble 222
- Drawing Cut 222
- General Advice 222
-
- FIVES 223
-
- FOOT-BALL 224
-
- GOLFING 226
-
- GYMNASTICS 228
- Introduction 228
- Historical Memoranda 229
- Modern Gymnastics 230
- Walking 230
- The Tip-toe March 231
- Running 232
- Jumping 232
- Leaping 233
- To climb up a Board 234
- Climbing the Pole 234
- " " Rope 235
- " Trees 235
- The Giant Stride, or Flying Steps, and its
- capabilities 235
- Parallel Bars 241
- The Horizontal Bar 243
- The Horse 246
- The Swing 249
- Throwing the Javelin 253
- The Trapeze, Single and Double 254
- Tricks and Feats of Gymnastics 262
-
- HOCKEY 265
-
- RACKETS 268
-
- RIDING 270
- The Horse 271
- The Marks of Age in the Horse 271
- The Paces of the Horse 272
- Terms used by Horsemen 274
- Form of the Horse 274
- Varieties of the Horse suitable for Boys 274
- The Accoutrements and Aids 275
- Mounting 277
- Dismounting 278
- The Management of the Reins 278
- The Seat 279
- The Control of the Horse 280
- Management of the Walk 280
- The Trot and Canter 281
- The Management of the Gallop 282
- Leaping 282
- Treatment of Vices 284
-
- ROWING 288
- Historical Memoranda 288
- Construction of Ancient Ships and Galleys 289
- Roman Galleys, Ships, &c. 290
- Of Boats 291
- The Component Parts of Boats 292
- The Oars and Sculls 293
- Sea Rowing 293
- River Rowing 293
- Management of the Oar 294
- The Essential Points in Rowing 295
- Management of the Boat 295
- Rowing together 296
- Caution to Young Rowers 296
-
- SAILING 297
- Characters of a Yacht 301
- Various kinds of Yachts 302
- Description of the Cutter Yacht 303
- Construction of the Hull 303
- Something about the Masts, Spars, Ropes, &c. 306
- Sailing a Yacht 308
- Bringing up 310
- Making Snug 310
- Going back 310
- Jibing 310
- Bringing up at Moorings 310
- Of the Mariners' Compass, and various Nautical
- Terms 311
- Cautions and Directions 312
- Nautical Terms 312
-
- SKATING 316
- The Skate 317
- Putting on the Skates 318
- How to start upon the Inside Edge 319
- Movement on the Outside Edge 319
- Forward Roll 320
- The Dutch Roll 320
- The Figure of Eight 321
- The Figure of Three 321
- The Back Roll 321
- General Directions to be followed by Persons
- learning to Skate 322
-
- SLIDING 323
-
- SWIMMING 325
- Places and Times for Bathing and Swimming 327
- Entering the Water 328
- Aids to Swimming 328
- Striking off and Swimming 329
- How to manage the Legs 330
- Plunging and Diving 330
- Swimming under Water 331
- Swimming on the Side 332
- Swimming on the Back without employing the Feet 332
- Floating 333
- Treading Water 333
- The Fling 333
- Swimming on the Back 334
- Thrusting 334
- The Double Thrust 335
- To Swim like a Dog 335
- The Mill 335
- The Wheel backwards and forwards 335
- To Swim with one Hand 336
- Hand over Hand Swimming 336
- Balancing 336
- The Cramp 337
- Saving from Danger 337
- Sports and Feats in Swimming 338
- Bernardi's system of Upright Swimming 338
- The Prussian System of Pfuel 339
-
- TRAINING 342
-
-
-PART III.
-
-SCIENTIFIC PURSUITS.
-
- ACOUSTICS 347
- Difference between Sound and Noise 347
- Sounds, how propagated 347
- To show how Sound travels through a Solid 347
- To show that Sound depends on Vibration 347
- Musical Figures resulting from Sound 347
- To make an Æolian Harp 348
- The Invisible Girl 348
- Ventriloquism 349
-
- AERONAUTICS 350
- Balloons 350
- How to make an Air-balloon 351
- How to Fill a Balloon 352
- To make Fire-Balloons 352
- Parachutes 352
-
- CHEMISTRY 353
- Gases 357
- Oxygen Gas 358
- Experiments 359
- Nitrogen 360
- Experiments 361
- Atmospheric Air 362
- Hydrogen 364
- Experiments 364
- Water 365
- Experiment 366
- Chlorine 367
- Experiments 368
- Muriatic Acid Gas, or Hydric Chloride 369
- Experiments 370
- Iodine 371
- Experiments 371
- Bromine 371
- Experiments 371
- Fluorine 372
- Experiment 372
- Carbon 372
- Experiments 373
- Carbon and Hydrogen 374
- Experiment 375
- Coal Gas 376
- Experiment 376
- Phosphorus 377
- Experiments 377
- Sulphur 378
- Metals 379
- Potassium 381
- Experiments 381, 382, 383
- Crystallization of Metals 383
- Experiment 383
- To form a Solid from two Liquids 384
- To form a Liquid from two Solids 384
- Experiments 384
- Changes of Colour produced by Colourless Liquids 385
-
- ELECTRICITY 386
- Simple Means of producing Electricity 386
- Attraction and Repulsion exhibited 387
- How to make an Electrical Machine 388
- The Conductor 389
- The Plate Electrical Machine 389
- How to draw Sparks from the tip of the Nose 389
- How to charge a Leyden Jar 390
- The Electrical Battery 390
- Dancing Balls and Dolls 391
- The Electrical Kiss 391
- Ringing Bells 391
- Working Power of Electricity 392
- The Electrified Wig 392
- Imitation Thunder Clouds 393
- The Lightning Stroke imitated 393
- The Sportsman 394
-
- GALVANISM, OR VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY 395
- Origin of Galvanism 395
- Simple Experiment to excite Galvanic Action 396
- With Metal Plates in Water 396
- To make a Magnet by the Voltaic Current 397
- Effects of Galvanism on a Magnet 397
- Change of Colour by Galvanism 397
- The Galvanic Shock 398
- The Electrotype 398
- How to make an Electrotype Apparatus 398
- To obtain the Copy of a Coin or Medal 399
-
- HEAT 399
- Heat or Caloric 399
- Expansion 402
-
- HYDRAULICS 404
- The Syphon 405
- The Pump 405
- The Hydraulic Dancer 406
- The Water Snail or Archimedean Screw 407
-
- MAGNETISM 408
- Relation of Magnetism to Electricity 408
- To make Artificial Magnets 409
- How to Magnetise a Poker 409
- To show Magnetic Repulsion and Attraction 409
- North and South Poles of the Magnet 410
- Polarity of the Magnet 410
- The Magnetic Fish 410
- " Swan 411
- To suspend a Needle in the Air by Magnetism 411
- To make Artificial Magnets without the aid either
- of Natural Loadstones or Artificial Magnets 411
- Horse-shoe Magnets 412
- Experiment to show that soft Iron possesses
- Magnetic Properties while it remains in the
- vicinity of a Magnet 412
- Electro-Magnetism 413
- Power of the Electro-Magnet 413
- The Mariner's Compass, and Experiments with a
- Pocket Compass 413
- Variation of the Needle 414
- Dip of the Needle 414
- Useful Amusement with the Pocket Compass 414
- Interesting Particulars concerning the Magnet 415
-
- MECHANICS 417
- Experiment of the Law of Motion 417
- Balancing 418
- The Prancing Horse 418
- To construct a Figure, which being placed upon a
- curved surface and inclined in any position,
- shall, when left to itself, return to its former
- position 418
- To make a Carriage run in an inverted position
- without falling 418
- To cause a Cylinder to roll by its own weight
- up-hill 418
- The Balanced Stick 419
- The Chinese Mandarin 419
- To make a Shilling turn on its edge on the point
- of a Needle 419
- The Dancing Pea 420
- Obliquity of Motion 420
- The Bridge of Knives 421
- The Toper's Tripod 421
-
- THE MICROSCOPE 422
- The Compound Microscope 432
-
- OPTICS AND OPTICAL AMUSEMENTS 455
- Light as an Effect 455
- Refraction 456
- The Invisible Coin made Visible 456
- The Multiplying Glass 457
- Transparent Bodies 457
- The Prism 457
- Composition of Light 457
- A Natural Camera Obscura 458
- Bullock's-eye Experiment 458
- The Camera Obscura 458
- The Camera Lucida 459
- The Magic Lantern 460
- Painting the Slides 460
- To exhibit the Magic Lantern 461
- Effects of the Magic Lantern 461
- Tempest at Sea 461
- The Phantasmagoria 462
- Dissolving Views 462
- How to raise a Ghost 462
- The Thaumatrope 463
- The Bird in the Cage 463
- Construction of the Phantasmacope 464
- Curious Optical Illusions 464, 465
- The Picture in the Air 465
- Breathing Light and Darkness 466
- To show that Rays of Light do not obstruct each
- other 466
- Optics of a Soap-bubble 467
- The Kaleidoscope 467
- Simple Solar Microscope 468
- Anamorphoses 468
- The Cosmorama 470
- Distorted Landscapes 470
-
- PHOTOGRAPHY 472
- How to make the Negative on Glass, using
- Collodion bromoiodized for Iron development 472
-
- PNEUMATICS 477
- Weight of the Air Proved by a pair of Bellows 477
- The Pressure of the Air shown by a Wine-glass 478
- Another Experiment 478
- Elasticity of the Air 478
- Reason for this 479
- The Air-Pump 479
- To prove that Air has Weight 479
- To prove Air elastic 480
- Sovereign and Feather 480
- Air in the Egg 480
- The Descending Smoke 480
- The Soundless Bell 481
- The Floating Fish 481
- The Diving Bell 482
- Experiments 482, 484, 485
- With Ice or Snow 485
- Without Snow or Ice 485
-
- SPECTRUM ANALYSIS 486
- How to use the Spectroscope 488
- To obtain the Bright Lines in the Spectrum given
- by any Substance 488
- Professor Stokes' Absorption Bands 489
- To Map out any Spectrum 489
-
-
-PART IV.
-
-DOMESTIC PETS.
-
- BEES AND BEE-KEEPING 493
-
- THE CANARY 497
-
- DOGS 506
-
- GOLD AND SILVER FISH 516
- Glasses 517
- Feeding 517
- Diseases 517
-
- THE GUINEA PIG 518
-
- THE HEDGEHOG 520
-
- THE JACKDAW 521
-
- THE JAY 523
-
- THE MAGPIE 524
-
- OWLS 526
-
- THE PARROT 532
-
- PIGEONS 541
- Varieties of Pigeons 545
- Blue Rock Dove 545
- The Antwerp, or Smerle 546
- The Pouter 547
- The Carrier 548
- The Dragon 549
- The Tumbler 549
- The Barb 550
- The Owl 551
- The Turbit 551
- The Fantail 551
- The Trumpeter 552
- The Jacobin 553
-
- POULTRY 554
- Fowls 554
- Fattening 555
- Laying 555
- Hatching 555
- Rearing of Chickens 556
- The Pintado, or Guinea Fowl 557
- Ducks 558
-
- THE RABBIT 560
-
- THE RAVEN 570
-
- SILKWORMS 574
- Food of the Silkworm 576
- Hatching, Feeding, and Temperature 576
- Moultings 577
- The Cocoon 577
- The Aurelia 578
- Winding the Silk 578
- The Moth 578
- General Remarks 579
-
- THE SQUIRREL 580
-
- WHITE MICE 587
-
-
-PART V.
-
-MISCELLANEOUS.
-
- BAGATELLE 591
- English Bagatelle 591
- The French Game 591
- Sans Egal 591
- The Cannon Game 592
- Mississippi 592
-
- BILLIARDS 593
- The Angles of the Table 597
- The American Game 602
- Pyramids, or Pyramid Pool 602
- Winning and Losing Carambole Game 602
- Pool 603
- Italian Skittle Pool 604
-
- BOAT-BUILDING 605
- Cutter 606
- Smack 607
- Schooner 607
- Lugger 608
-
- CARPENTERING 609
- The Shop and Bench 609
- Of Planes 610
- Saws 611
- The Spoke Shave 613
- Stock and Bits 613
- How to make a Wheelbarrow 613
- The Way to make a Box 615
- To cut the Dovetails 615
- The Bottom of the Box 616
-
- THE GAME OF CHESS 617
- The Laws of the Game 618
- The King's Knight's opening 620
- Game I.--Philidor's Defence 621
- " II.--Petroff's " 622
- Variation A. on White's 5th Move 622
- Game III.--The Giuoco Piano 622
- Variation A. on White's 6th Move 622
- Game IV.--The Evans' Gambit 623
- Variation A. on White's 9th Move 623
- " B. " " " 624
- " A. on Black's 10th Move 624
- The Gambit declined 625
- Game V.--Ruy Lopez Knight's Game 626
- Variation B. on Black's 3rd Move 627
- " C. " " " 627
- Game VI.--The Scotch Gambit 627
- Variation A. on Black's 4th Move 628
- The King's Bishop's Opening 630
- Game I.--The Lopez Gambit 630
- Variation A. on White's 4th Move 631
- Game II.--The Double Gambit 631
- Game III. 631
- Variation A. on Black's 4th Move 632
- The King's Gambit 632
- Game I. 632
- The Salvio Gambit 633
- Variation A. on Black's 4th Move 633
- Game II.--The Muzio Gambit 633
- Game I.--The Allgaier Gambit 635
- Game II. 635
- Game I.--The Bishop's Gambit 636
- Game II. 636
- The Gambit refused 638
- Game I. 638
- Game II. 639
- The Centre Gambit 639
- Game I. 639
- Variation A. on Black's 3rd Move 640
- Game II. 640
- The Queen's Gambit 641
- Game I. 641
- Variation A. on Black's 3rd Move 641
- Game II. 642
-
- THE YOUNG CONJURER 643
- Sleight of Hand 645
- The Flying Shilling 645
- Another Method 646
- The Beads and Strings 646
- To get a Ring out of a Handkerchief 647
- To tie a Knot in a Handkerchief which cannot be
- drawn tight 647
- The Three Cups 648
- To tie a Handkerchief round your Leg, and get it
- off without untying the Knot 648
- The Magic Bond 649
- The Old Man and his Chair 649
- To tie a Knot on the Left Wrist without letting
- the Right Hand approach it 651
- The Handcuffs 651
- To pull a String through your Button-hole 652
- The Cut String restored 652
- The Gordian Knot 653
- The Knot loosened 653
- To put Nuts into your Ear 654
- To crack Walnuts in your Elbow 654
- To take Feathers out of an empty Handkerchief 654
- Tricks requiring Special Apparatus 654
- The Die Trick 655
- The Penetrative Pence 656
- The Doll Trick 657
- The Flying Coins 657
- The Vanished Groat 658
- The Restored Document 658
- The Magic Rings 658
- The Fish and Ink Trick 659
- The Cannon Balls 659
- The Shilling in the Ball of Cotton 660
- The Egg and Bag Trick 660
- The Dancing Egg 661
- Bell and Shot 661
- The Burned Handkerchief restored 662
- The Fire-Eater 662
- Tricks with Cards 663
- To make the Pass 663
- To tell a Card by its Back 664
- The Card named without being Seen 664
- The Card told by the Opera Glass 664
- The Four Kings 666
- Audacity 666
- The Card found at the Second Guess 666
- The Card found under the Hat 667
- To call the Cards out of the Pack 667
- Heads and Tails 667
- The Surprise 668
- The Revolution 668
- The Slipped Card 668
- The Nailed Card 668
- To ascertain the Number of Points on three Unseen
- Cards 669
- To tell the Numbers on two Unseen Cards 669
- The Pairs repaired 669
- The Queen digging for Diamonds 670
- The Triple Deal 670
- The Quadruple Deal 671
- Tricks with Cards that require Apparatus 671
- The Cards in the Vase 671
- The Metamorphosis 672
- To change a Card in a Person's Hand 673
-
- CRYPTOGRAPHY 674
-
- THE DEAF AND DUMB ALPHABET 682
- The Alphabet 682
- The Numbers 685
-
- DOMINOES 685
- The ordinary Boy's Game 686
- All Fives 687
- The Matadore Game 687
- All Threes 687
- Tidley-Wink 688
- The Fortress 688
- Whist Dominoes 688
-
- DRAUGHTS 689
- How to play the Game 690
- The Moves 690
- Laws of the Game 690
- Games for Practice 691
- Game I. 691
- Game II. 692
-
- FIREWORKS 693
- Gunpowder 693
- How to make Touch-paper 694
- Cases for Squibs, Flower-pots, Rockets, Roman
- Candles, &c. 694
- To choke the Cases 694
- Composition for Squibs, &c. 694
- How to fill the Cases 695
- To make Crackers 695
- Roman Candles and Stars 695
- Rockets 696
- Rains 696
- Catherine Wheels 696
- Various Coloured Fires 696
- Crimson Fire 696
- Blue " 697
- Green " 697
- Purple " 697
- White " 697
- Spur " 697
- Blue Lights 697
- Port or Wild Fires 697
- Slow Fire for Wheels 697
- Dead Fire for Wheels 697
- Cautions 697
- To make an Illuminated Spiral Wheel 698
- The Grand Volute 698
- A brilliant Yew-tree 699
-
- GARDENING 700
- On Laying out a Small Garden 702
- Planting the Ground with Trees, Flowers, &c. 703
- The Noblest Kind of Gardening for Boys 703
- The Boy's Flower Garden 710
- " " Fruit Garden 717
- Cropping the Ground 719
- Digging 719
- Hoeing 720
- Raking 720
- Weeding 720
- Sowing Seeds 721
- Transplanting 721
- Watering 722
- Various Modes of Propagation 723
- Layers 723
- Pipings 723
- Grafting 724
- Tongue-Grafting 724
- Budding 725
- Inarching 725
- Grafting Clay 726
- Pruning 726
- Training 726
- Insects and Depredators 727
- Protection from Frost 727
- The Young Gardener's Calendar for the Work to be
- done in all the Months of the Year 728
- January 728
- February 729
- March 729
- April 729
- May 730
- June 730
- July 731
- August 731
- September 731
- October 732
- November 732
- December 732
-
- MIMICRY AND VENTRILOQUISM 733
-
- PUZZLES 736
- The Divided Garden 736
- The Vertical Line Puzzle 736
- The Cardboard Puzzle 736
- The Button Puzzle 736
- The Circle Puzzle 737
- The Cross Puzzle 737
- Three-Square Puzzle 737
- Cylinder Puzzle 737
- The Nuns 738
- The Dog Puzzle 738
- Cutting out a Cross 738
- Another Cross Puzzle 738
- The Fountain Puzzle 738
- The Cabinet-maker's Puzzle 739
- The String and Balls Puzzle 739
- The Double-headed Puzzle 739
- The Row of Halfpence 740
- Typographical Advice 740
- The Landlord made to Pay 740
- Father and Son 740
- ANSWERS TO PUZZLES 741
- The Divided Garden 741
- Vertical Line Puzzle 741
- Cut Card Puzzle 741
- Button Puzzle 741
- Circle Puzzle 741
- The Cross Puzzle 742
- Three-Square Puzzle 742
- Cylinder Puzzle 742
- The Nuns' Puzzle 742
- The Dog's Puzzle 742
- Cutting out a Cross Puzzle 743
- Another Cross Puzzle 743
- The Fountain Puzzle 743
- The Cabinet-maker's Puzzle 743
- String and Balls Puzzle 744
- Double-Headed Puzzle 744
- The Row of Halfpence 744
- Typographical Puzzle 745
- The Landlord made to Pay 745
- Father and Son 745
-
- SHOWS 746
- Punch and Judy 746
- Fantoccini 749
- The Sailor 751
- The Juggler 751
- The Headless Man 751
- The Milkwoman 751
-
- POSTAGE-STAMP COLLECTING, OR PHILATELY 752
-
- TINSELLING 768
-
- THE AMERICAN GAME OF BASE-BALL 769
-
- American Billiards 797
-
- La Crosse 812
-
-
-
-
-PART I.
-
-
-EASY GAMES WITHOUT TOYS.
-
-
-OUTDOOR.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-HOP, STEP AND JUMP.
-
-Make a mark on the ground at a place called the "starting point." At ten
-yards' distance from this make another, called the "spring." Then let
-the players arrange themselves at the starting point, and in succession
-run to the second mark called the spring. From the spring make first a
-_hop_ on one leg, from this make a long _step_, and from the step a long
-_jump_. Those who go over the greatest space of ground are of course the
-victors.
-
-
-HOPPING ON THE BOTTLE.
-
-Various games are in vogue among boys, in which hopping on one foot is
-the principal object. Among these is one which not only assists in
-strengthening the limbs, but also teaches the performers the useful art
-of balancing themselves upon a movable substance. A wooden bottle, a
-round wooden log, or something of that description, is laid upon the
-ground, a mark is made at a certain distance, and the players have to
-hop from the mark upon the bottle, and retain their possession while
-they count a number agreed upon. In the olden times of Greece, this was
-considered an exercise of sufficient importance to give it a place at
-the public games. The performer in this case had to hop upon inflated
-leather bags, carefully greased, and of course, by their inevitable
-upsettings and floundering, caused great amusement to the spectators.
-The sports took place on the Dionysia, or festivals of Bacchus, when the
-vintage was gathered in, and the victor was appropriately rewarded with
-a cask of wine. The rustics in many parts of England introduce a
-modification of this game in their rural festivals. Two men place
-themselves opposite to each other, the right knee of each being
-supported on a wooden cylinder, while the remaining foot is totally
-unsupported. When they are fairly balanced, they grasp each other by the
-shoulders, and endeavour to cast their opponent to the ground, while
-themselves retain their position upon their fickle support.
-
-
-HOP-SCOTCH.
-
-This is a game played by hopping on one foot and kicking an oyster-shell
-or piece of tile from one compartment to the other, without halting the
-lifted foot, except in one case, to the ground, and without suffering
-the shell or tile to rest on any of the lines. A diagram is first drawn
-similar to the subjoined. It consists of twelve compartments, each being
-numbered, and at its further end the pleasant and inviting picture of a
-plum pudding with knife and fork therein stuck. In commencing the game,
-the players take their stand at the place marked by a star, and "quoit"
-for innings. The object is, that of doing what every boy is supposed to
-like above all things to do, _i. e._ "pitch into the pudding," and he
-who can do this, and go nearest to the plum in the centre, plays first.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-_Method of Playing._--The winner begins by throwing his shell into No.
-1; he then hops into the space, and kicks the tile out to the star *; he
-next throws the tile into No. 2, kicks it from No. 2 to No. 1, and
-thence out. He then throws it into No. 3, kicks it from 3 to 2, from 2
-to 1, and out. He next throws it into No. 4, kicks it from 4 to 3, from
-3 to 2, from 2 to 1, and out; and so he proceeds till he has passed the
-cross and comes to No. 7, when he is permitted to rest himself, by
-standing with one foot in No. 6 and the other in No. 7; but he must
-resume hopping before he kicks the tile home. He then passes through the
-beds 8, 9, 10 and 11, as he did those of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c., and so on,
-till he gets to plum pudding, when he may rest, and placing his tile on
-the plum, he is required, while standing on one foot, to kick it with
-such force as to send it through all the other beds to * at one kick. If
-one player throws his tile into the wrong compartment, or when he is
-kicking it out, he loses his innings, as he does also if the tile or his
-foot at any time rests on a line, or if he kicks his tile out of the
-diagram.
-
-
-FRENCH AND ENGLISH.
-
-This is an old Greek game, and, like very many simple boys' games, has
-retained its popularity to the present day. Its Greek name was rather a
-jaw-cracking one, but may be literally translated by "Pully-haully." It
-consists of two parties of boys, who are chosen on different sides by
-lots. One party takes hold of one end of a strong rope, and the other
-party of the other end. A mark being made midway between the parties,
-each strives to pull the other over it, and those who are so pulled
-over, lose the game.
-
-In this game, two leaders should be appointed, who must calculate the
-powers of their own side, and concert plans accordingly. The leader of
-either side should have a code of signals, in order to communicate with
-his own friends, that he may direct them when to stop, when to slacken,
-or when to pull hard. So important is the leader's office, that a side
-with a good leader will always vanquish a much superior force which has
-no commander to guide it. For example, when all the boys are pulling
-furiously at the rope, the leader of one side sees that his opponents
-are leaning back too much, depending on their weight more than on their
-strength. He immediately gives the signal to slacken, when down go half
-the enemy on their backs, and are run away with merrily by the
-successful party, who drag them over the mark with the greatest ease. Or
-if the enemy begins to be wearied with hard pulling, an unanimous tug
-will often bring them upright, while they are off their guard, and once
-moved, the victory is easily gained. We have seen, assisted, and led
-this game hundreds of times, and never failed to find it productive of
-very great amusement. No knots are to be permitted on the rope, nor is
-the game to be considered as won, unless the entire side has been
-dragged over the line.
-
-
-DRAWING THE OVEN.
-
-This is a game not very dissimilar to the preceding, but not so much to
-be recommended, as the clothes are very apt to be torn, and if the
-players engage too roughly, the wrists are not unfrequently injured. The
-method of playing the game is as follows:--Several boys seat themselves
-in a row, clasping each other round the waist, thus fantastically
-representing a batch of loaves. Two other players then approach,
-representing the baker's men, who have to detach the players from each
-other's hold. To attain this object, they grasp the wrists of the second
-boy, and endeavour to pull him away from the boy in front of him. If
-they succeed, they pass to the third, and so on until they have drawn
-the entire batch. As sometimes an obstinate loaf sticks so tight to its
-companion, that it is not torn away without bringing with it a handful
-of jacket or other part of the clothing, the game ought not to be played
-by any but little boys.
-
-
-I SPY.
-
-This is a capital game for the summer months. The players divide
-themselves into two parties, one party remaining at a spot called
-"Bounds," and concealing their faces, while the other party goes out and
-hides. After waiting for a few minutes, the home party shouts, "Coming,
-coming, coming." After a short pause they repeat the cry, and after
-another short interval they again shout, "Coming." If any out-player is
-not concealed, he may cry, "No," and a few minutes more are allowed. At
-the last shout, the home players, leaving one to guard bounds, sally
-forth in search of their hidden companions. Directly one of the seekers
-sees one of the hiders, he shouts, "I Spy," and runs home as fast as he
-can, pursued by the one he has found, who tries to touch him before he
-can reach bounds. If he succeeds, the one so touched is considered
-taken, and stands aside. If the hiding party can touch three, or more,
-if especially agreed upon, they get their hide over again. The object of
-the hiders is to intercept the seekers, and prevent them from reaching
-bounds without being touched. The worst player is left at the bounds, in
-order to warn his companions, which he does by the word "Home," as any
-hider may touch any seeker.
-
-
-PITCH-STONE.
-
-This game is played by two boys, each of whom takes a smooth round
-pebble. One player then throws his pebble about twenty feet before him,
-and the next tries to strike it with his stone, each time of striking
-counting as one. If the two pebbles are near enough for the player to
-place one upon the other with his hand, he is at perfect liberty to do
-so. It is easy enough to play at this game when the pebbles are at some
-distance apart; but when they lie near each other, it is very difficult
-to take a good aim, and yet send one's own pebble beyond the reach of
-the adversary's aim. Two four-pound cannon balls are the best objects to
-pitch, as they roll evenly, and do not split, as pebbles always do when
-they get a hard knock.
-
-
-DUCK-STONE.
-
-This game may be played by any number of players. A large stone is
-selected, and placed on a particular spot, and the players first "Pink
-for Duck," that is, they each throw their stones up to the mark, and the
-one who is farthest from it becomes "Duck." The Duck places his stone on
-the other, while the rest of the players return to the bounds, and in
-succession pitch their stones at his with the endeavour to knock it off.
-If this is accomplished, Duck must immediately replace it, and the
-throwers must pick up their stones and run to the bounds. As soon as
-Duck has replaced his stone, he runs after any of the other players, and
-if he can succeed in catching or merely touching any one of them, the
-player so touched becomes Duck.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-PRISONER'S BASE, OR PRISON BARS.
-
-This is a most delightful game, and is a very great favourite among boys
-of all classes. It is commenced by choosing Captains, which is either
-done by lot or by the "sweet voices" of the youths. If by lot, a number
-of straws of different lengths are put in a bunch, and those who draw
-from one end, the other being hidden, the two longest straws, are the
-two "Captains;" each of which has the privilege of choosing his men: the
-drawer of the longest of the two straws has the first choice. When this
-has been arranged each Captain selects, alternately, a boy till the
-whole are drawn out.
-
-This method is, however, often attended with considerable inconvenience,
-as it is not impossible that the lots may fall on the two worst players.
-It is very much better to let the boys choose the two Captains, as the
-two best players will then assuredly be elected, and most of the success
-of the game depends on the Captains.
-
-The leaders being thus chosen, the next point is to mark out the homes
-and prisons. First, two semicircles are drawn, large enough to hold the
-two parties, the distance between the semicircles being about twenty
-paces. These are the "homes," or "bounds." Twenty paces in front of
-these, two other semicircles, of a rather larger size, are marked out.
-These are the prisons; the prison of each party being in a line with the
-enemy's home. These preliminaries being settled, the sides draw lots;
-the side drawing the longest straw having to commence the game. The
-Captain of side A orders out one of his own side, usually a poor player,
-who is bound to run at least beyond the prisons before he returns.
-Directly he has started, the Captain of side B sends out one of his men
-to pursue, and, if possible, to touch him before he can regain his own
-home. If this is accomplished, the successful runner is permitted to
-return home scathless, while the vanquished party must go to the prison
-belonging to his side; from which he cannot stir, until some one from
-his own side releases him, by touching him in spite of the enemy. This
-is not an easy task; as, in order to reach the prison, the player must
-cross the enemy's home. It is allowable for the prisoner to stretch his
-hand as far towards his rescuer as possible, but he must keep some part
-of his body within the bounds; and if several prisoners are taken, it is
-sufficient for one to remain within the prison, while the rest, by
-joining hands, make a chain towards the boy who is trying to release
-them. When this is accomplished, both the prisoner and his rescuer
-return home, no one being able to touch them until they have reached
-their home and again started off. But the game is not only restricted to
-the two originally sent out. Directly Captain A sees his man pressed by
-his opponent, he sends out a third, who is in his turn pursued by
-another from side B; each being able to touch any who have preceded, but
-none who have left their home after him. The game soon becomes spirited;
-prisoners are made and released, the two Captains watching the game, and
-rarely exposing themselves, except in cases of emergency, but directing
-the whole proceedings. The game is considered won, when one party has
-succeeded in imprisoning the whole of the other side. Much depends upon
-the Captains, who sometimes, by a bold dash, rescue the most important
-of their prisoners, and thereby turn the fate of the battle; or, when
-the attention of the opposite side is occupied by some hardly-contested
-struggle, send some insignificant player to the rescue; who walks
-quietly up to the prison, and unsuspectedly lets out the prisoners one
-by one. No player is permitted to touch more than one person until he
-has returned to his home; when he can sally out again armed with fresh
-strength, like Antæus of old, who could not be conquered at wrestling,
-because whenever he touched the ground his strength was renewed by his
-mother Earth.
-
-
-FOX.
-
-This game was extensively played at the school where our boyhood was
-passed; but we never saw it elsewhere. It used to afford us such
-amusement in the long summer evenings, that it deserves a place in this
-collection of sports. One player is termed Fox, and is furnished with a
-den, where none of the players may molest him. The other players arm
-themselves with twisted or knotted handkerchiefs, (one end to be tied in
-knots of almost incredible hardness,) and range themselves round the den
-waiting for the appearance of the Fox. He being also armed with a
-knotted handkerchief, hops out of his den. When he is fairly out, the
-other players attack him with their handkerchiefs, while he endeavours
-to strike one of them without putting down his other foot. If he does so
-he has to run back as fast as he can, without the power of striking the
-other players, who baste him the whole way. If, however, he succeeds in
-striking one without losing his balance, the one so struck becomes Fox;
-and, as he has both feet down, is accordingly basted to his den. The den
-is useful as a resting-place for the Fox, who is often sorely wearied by
-futile attempts to catch his foes.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-BASTE THE BEAR.
-
-This is a funny game. The players generally draw lots for the first
-Bear, who selects his own Keeper. The Bear kneels on the ground, and his
-Keeper holds him with a rope about four feet long, within a circle of
-about five feet in diameter. The other players tie knots in their
-handkerchiefs, and begin to strike or baste the Bear, by running close
-to, or into the ring. Should the Keeper touch any of the boys while they
-are at this sport without dragging the Bear out of the ring, or should
-the Bear catch hold of any player's leg, so as to hold him fast, the
-player so touched or caught becomes Bear. The second Bear may select his
-Keeper as before, and the play continues.
-
-[Illustration: AN INSTRUMENT OF TORTURE.]
-
-
-LEAP-FROG.
-
-This is an excellent game of agility, and very simple. It consists of
-any number of players; but from six to eight is the most convenient
-number. Having by agreement or lots determined who shall give the first
-"back," one player so selected places himself in position, with his head
-inclined and his shoulders elevated, and his hands resting on his knees,
-at ten yards' distance from the other players; one of whom immediately
-runs and leaps over him,--having made his leap, he sets a back at the
-same distance forward from the boy over whom he has just leaped. The
-third boy leaps over the first and second boy, and sets a "back" beyond
-the second; and the fourth boy leaps over the first, second, and third,
-and sets a "back" beyond the third, and so on till the players are out.
-The game may continue for any length of time, and generally lasts till
-the players are tired; but the proper rule should be, that all who do
-not go clean over should be out. Those who "make backs" should stand
-perfectly stiff and firm; and those who "make leaps" should not rest in
-their flight heavily upon the shoulders of their playmates, so as to
-throw them down, which is not fair play.
-
-
-FLY THE GARTER.
-
-Chalk or make a line, or, as it is usually termed, "a garter," on the
-ground; on this line one of the players must place himself and bend down
-as in leap-frog, while the other players in rotation leap over him, the
-last one as he flies over calling out "Foot it." If he should fail in
-giving this notice, he is out, and must take the other boy's place at
-the garter. The boy, immediately the word is given, rises, and places
-his right heel close to the middle of the left foot; he next moves the
-left forwards and places that heel close up to the toes of his right
-foot, and bends down as before. This movement is called a "step," and is
-repeated three times. The other players should fly from the garter each
-time a step is made, and the last player must invariably call out "Foot
-it" as he leaps over. After making the three "steps," the player giving
-the back takes a short run, and, _from_ the spot where he made his last
-step to, jumps as far forwards as he possibly can, and bends down again;
-the others jump from the garter and then fly over. Should any of the
-players be unable to jump easily over the one giving the back, but
-rather slide down upon, or ride on him, the player so failing must take
-the other's place at the garter, and the game be begun again; if, also,
-through the impetus acquired in taking the jump from the garter, a
-player should happen to place his hands on the back of the player
-bending down, and then withdraw them in order to take the spring over,
-he is out, and must take his turn at the garter. It is usual, in some
-places, for the boy giving the back to take a hop, step, and a jump
-after he has footed it three times, the other players doing the same,
-and then flying over.
-
-
-SPANISH FLY.
-
-This game is capable of being varied to any extent by an ingenious boy,
-but it is generally played in the following way:--One boy, selected by
-chance, sets a back, as in "fly the garter," and another is chosen
-leader. The game is commenced by the leader leaping over the one who
-gives the back, and the other players follow in succession; the leader
-then leaps back, and the others follow; then they all go over in a cross
-direction, and return, making, in all, four different ways. The leader
-then takes his cap in both hands, and leaves it on the boy's back while
-he is "overing," and his followers perform the same trick; in returning,
-the last man takes the lead, and removes his cap without disturbing the
-others, and each boy does the same: this trick is repeated in a cross
-direction. The next trick is throwing up the cap just before overing,
-and catching it before it falls; the next, reversing the cap on the
-head, and so balancing it while overing, without ever touching it with
-the hands; both tricks must be performed while leaping the four
-different ways. The leader, with his cap still balanced, now overs, and
-allows his cap to drop on the opposite side; the others do likewise, but
-they must be careful not to let their caps touch the others, nor to let
-their feet touch any of the caps in alighting; the leader now stoops
-down, picks up his cap with his teeth, and throws it over his head and
-the boy's back; he then leaps after his cap, but avoids touching it with
-his feet. The other players follow him as before. The next trick is
-"knuckling,"--that is to say, overing with the hands clenched; the next,
-"slapping," which is performed by placing one hand on the boy's back,
-and hitting him with the other, while overing; the last, "spurring," or
-touching him up with the heel. All these tricks must be performed in the
-four different directions, and any boy failing to do them properly goes
-down, and the game begins afresh.
-
-
-TOUCH.
-
-This is a brisk game, and may be played by any number of boys. One of
-the players being chosen as Touch, it is his business to run about in
-all directions after the other players, till he can touch one, who
-immediately becomes Touch in his turn. Sometimes when the game is played
-it is held as a law that Touch shall have no power over those boys who
-can touch iron and wood. The players then, when out of breath, rush to
-the nearest iron or wood they can find, to render themselves secure.
-Cross-touch is sometimes played, in which, whenever another player runs
-between Touch and the pursued, Touch must immediately leave the one he
-is after to follow him. But this rather confuses, and spoils the game.
-
-
-TOUCH-WOOD AND TOUCH-IRON.
-
-These games are founded on the above. When the boys pursued by Touch can
-touch either wood or iron they are safe, the rule being that he must
-touch them as they run from one piece of wood or iron to another.
-
-
-BUCK, BUCK, HOW MANY HORNS DO I HOLD UP?
-
-This is a very good game for three boys. The first is called the Buck,
-the second the Frog, and the third the Umpire. The boy who plays the
-Buck gives a back with his head down, and rests his hands on some wall
-or paling in front of him. The Frog now leaps on his back, and the
-Umpire stands by his side: the Frog now holds up one, two, three, five,
-or any number of fingers, and cries, "Buck! Buck! how many horns do I
-hold up?" The Buck then endeavours to guess the right number; if he
-succeeds, the Frog then becomes Buck, and in turn jumps on his back. The
-Umpire determines whether Buck has guessed the numbers rightly or not.
-In some places it is the custom to blindfold the Buck, in order to
-prevent him seeing. This plan, however, is scarcely necessary.
-
-
-WARNING.
-
-This is an excellent game for cold weather. It may be played by any
-number of boys. In playing it "loose bounds" are made near a wall or
-fence, about four feet wide and twelve long. One of the boys is
-selected, who is called the Cock, who takes his place within the bounds;
-the other players are called the Chickens, who distribute themselves in
-various parts of the playground. The Cock now clasps his hands together,
-and cries, "Warning once, warning twice, a bushel of wheat, and a bushel
-of rye, when the Cock crows out jump I." He then, keeping his hands
-still clasped before him, runs after the other players; when he touches
-one, he and the player so touched immediately make for the bounds; the
-other players immediately try to capture them before they get there; if
-they succeed, they are privileged to get upon their backs and ride them
-home. The Cock and his Chick now come out of the bounds hand-in-hand,
-and try to touch some other of the players; the moment they do this they
-break hands, and they and the player now touched run to the bounds as
-before, while the other players try to overtake them, so as to secure
-the ride. The three now come from the bounds in the same manner, capture
-or touch a boy, and return. If, while trying to touch the other boys,
-the players when sallying from the grounds break hands before they touch
-any one, they may immediately be ridden, if they can be caught before
-they reach the bounds. Sometimes when three players have been touched
-the Cock is allowed to join the out party, but this is of no advantage
-in playing the game.
-
-
-FOLLOW MY LEADER.
-
-This may be played by any number of boys: one being selected as the
-Leader, and the others are the Followers. The Followers arrange
-themselves in a line behind the Leader, who immediately begins to
-progress, and the others are bound to follow him. The fun of this sport
-is in the Leader carrying his Followers into "uncouth places," over
-various "obstacles," such as hedges, stiles, gate-posts, &c., through
-"extraordinary difficulties," as ditches and quagmires,--every player
-being expected to perform his feats of agility; and those who fail are
-obliged to go last, and bear the emphatic name of the "Ass." The game
-lasts till the Leader gives up, or the boys are all tired out.
-
-
-THE FUGLEMAN.
-
-This is a game something like the above. It consists of the Fugleman and
-his Squad. The Fugleman places himself in a central spot, and arranges
-his Squad before him in a line. He then commences with various odd
-gestures, which all the Squad are bound to imitate. He moves his head,
-arms, legs, hands, feet, in various directions, sometimes sneezes,
-coughs, weeps, laughs, and bellows, all of which the Squad are to
-imitate. Sometimes this is a most amusing scene, and provokes great
-laughter. Those who are observed to laugh, however, are immediately
-ordered to stand out of the line, and when half the number of players
-are so put out, the others are allowed to ride them three times round
-the playground, while the Fugleman with a knotted handkerchief
-accelerates their motions.
-
-
-HARE AND HOUNDS.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-This is perhaps the very best game that can be introduced into a school.
-The principle of it is very simple, that one boy represents the Hare and
-runs away, while the others represent the Hounds and pursue him. The
-proper management of the game, however, requires some skill. When we
-were at school in the north, this game was extensively played; and in
-more recent times, when we ourselves were masters instead of scholars,
-we reduced the game to a complete system. The first thing to be done is
-to choose a Hare, or if the chase is to be a long one, two Hares are
-required. The Hare should not be the best runner, but should be daring,
-and at the same time prudent, or he may trespass into forbidden lands,
-and thereby cause great mischief. A Huntsman and Whipper-in are then
-chosen. The Huntsman should be the best player, and the Whipper-in
-second best. Things having advanced so far, the whole party sally forth.
-The Hare is furnished with a large bag of white paper torn into small
-squares, which he scatters on the ground as he goes. An arrangement is
-made that the Hare shall not cross his path, nor return home until a
-certain time; in either of which cases he is considered caught. The
-Hounds also are bound to follow the track or "scent" implicitly, and not
-to make short cuts if they see the Hare. The Hare then starts, and has
-about seven minutes' grace, at the expiration of which time the Huntsman
-blows a horn with which he is furnished, and sets off, the Hounds
-keeping nearly in Indian file, the Whipper-in bringing up the rear. The
-Huntsman is also furnished with a white flag, the Whipper-in with a red
-one, the staves being pointed and shod with metal. Off they go merrily
-enough, until at last the Huntsman loses the scent. He immediately
-shouts "Lost!" on which the Whipper-in sticks his flag in the ground
-where the scent was last seen, and the entire line walks or runs round
-it in a circle, within which they are tolerably sure to find the track.
-The Huntsman in the meanwhile has stuck his flag in the ground, and
-examines the country to see in what direction the Hare is likely to have
-gone. When the track is found, the player who discovers it shouts Tally
-ho! the Huntsman takes up his flag, and ascertains whether it is really
-the track or not. If so, he blows his horn again, the Hounds form in
-line between the two flags, and off they go again. It is incredible how
-useful the two flags are. Many a Hare has been lost because the Hounds
-forgot where the last track was seen, and wasted time in searching for
-it again. Moreover, they seem to encourage the players wonderfully. We
-used often to make our chases fourteen or fifteen miles in length; but
-before such an undertaking is commenced, it is necessary to prepare by a
-series of shorter chases, which should however be given in an opposite
-direction to the course fixed upon for the grand chase, as otherwise the
-tracks are apt to get mixed, and the Hounds are thrown out. The Hare
-should always carefully survey his intended course a day or two
-previously, and then he will avoid getting himself into quagmires, or
-imprisoned in the bend of a river. A pocket compass is a most useful
-auxiliary, and prevents all chance of losing the way, a misfortune which
-is not at all unlikely to happen upon the Wiltshire downs or among the
-Derbyshire hills.
-
-
-STEEPLE CHASE.
-
-This is a trial of speed and agility, and may be played by any number of
-boys. It consists in the boys agreeing upon some distant object for a
-mark, such as a conspicuous tree, or house, or steeple. The players then
-start off in whatever direction they please, each one being at liberty
-to choose his own course. In a long run of a mile or so it very often
-happens that hedges, ditches, and other obstructions, have to be got
-over, which adds great interest to the play, and the best climbers and
-jumpers are the most likely to come in victors. He who comes in first to
-the appointed object is called the King, the second the Duke, the third
-the Marquis, the fourth the Viscount, the fifth the Earl, the sixth the
-Knight. The last receives the dignified appellation of the Snail, and
-the last but one the Tortoise.
-
-At Oxford there were in our undergraduate days two clubs for the purpose
-of Steeple-chasing, one named the Kangaroo Club, and the other the
-Charitable Grinders, whose performances over hedges and ditches were
-really astonishing. There was also a club which kept a set of beagles,
-and used to hunt a red herring with intense perseverance.
-
-
-DUCK AND DRAKE.
-
-This is a very simple sport, but necessarily restricted to those spots
-where there is a river, or a pond of some magnitude. It consists in
-throwing oyster-shells, flat stones, or broken tiles along the water, so
-as to make them hop as often as possible. One hop is called Dick, the
-second Duck, and the third Drake. The sea-shore is a capital place for
-this sport, as, if the player can only succeed in making the stone touch
-the top of a wave, it is tolerably certain to make a succession of hops
-from wave to wave. If a rifle-bullet is shot along the water, it will go
-a great distance, making very long hops, and splashing up the water at
-every bound. In war, this method of firing at an enemy that lies low is
-extensively made use of, and is called "ricochet practice." It is also
-much used in naval warfare.
-
-
-SIMON SAYS.
-
-This, if well managed, is a very comical game. The players are arranged
-as in Fugleman, the player who enacts Simon standing in front. He and
-all the other players clench their fists, keeping the thumb pointed
-upwards. No player is to obey his commands unless prefaced with the
-words, "Simon says." Simon is himself subjected to the same rules. The
-game commences by Simon commanding,--"Simon says, _turn down_:" on which
-he turns his thumbs downwards, followed by the other players. He then
-says, "Simon says, _turn up_," and brings his hands back again. When he
-has done so several times, and thinks that the players are off their
-guard, he merely gives the word, "Turn up," or "Turn down," without
-moving his hands. Some one, if not all, is sure to obey the command, and
-is subject to a forfeit. Simon is also subject to a forfeit, if he tells
-his companions to turn down while the thumbs are already down, or _vice
-versâ_. With a sharp player enacting Simon, the game is very spirited.
-
-
-KING OF THE CASTLE.
-
-This is a very good game, and to play it properly there must be in the
-centre of the playground a small hill or hillock. One player, selected
-by choice or lot, ascends this hill, and is called the King; and the
-object of the other players is to pull or push him from his elevation,
-while he uses his endeavours to keep his "pride of place." Fair pulls
-and fair pushes are only allowed at this game; the players must not take
-hold of any part of the clothes of the King, and must confine their
-grasps to the hand, the leg, or the arm. If a player violates these
-rules, he is to sit down upon the ground, and is called "Dummy." The
-player who succeeds in dethroning the King, takes his place, and is
-subjected to the like attacks.
-
-
-BATTLE FOR THE BANNER.
-
-This game is to be played from a mound, the same as the above, and it
-may consist of any number of players. Each party selects a Captain, and
-having done this, divide themselves into Attackers and Defenders. The
-defending party provide themselves with a small flag, which is fixed on
-a staff on the top of the mound, and then arrange themselves on its side
-and at its base, so as to defend it from the attacks of their opponents,
-who advance towards the hillock, and endeavour to throw down those that
-oppose them. Those that are so thrown on either side, are called "dead
-men," and must lie quiet till the game is finished, which is concluded
-either when all the attacking party are dead, or the banner is carried
-off by one of them. The player who carries off the banner is called the
-Knight, and is chosen Captain for the next game.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-SNOW-BALLS.
-
-Every boy has played at snow-balls, from the time that his little
-fingers were first able to grasp and mould a handful of snow. Elderly
-gentlemen know to their cost how apt the youthful friend is to hurl very
-hard snow-balls, which appear to pick out the tenderest parts of his
-person, generally contriving to lodge just at the juncture of the chin
-and the comforter, or coming with a deafening squash in the very centre
-of his ear. Even the dread policeman does not always escape; and when he
-turns round, indignant at the temporary loss of his shiny hat, he cannot
-recognise his assailant in the boy who is calmly whistling the last new
-nigger-song, as he saunters along, with both his hands in his pockets.
-The prudent schoolmaster will also not venture too near the playground,
-unless he has provided himself with an umbrella. It is rather a
-remarkable fact, that whenever a Grammar-school and a National-school
-are within a reasonable distance of each other, they are always at
-deadly feud. So it was at the school where our youthful days were
-passed. One winter's morning, just after school had opened, the door was
-flung violently open, and a party of National-school boys hurled a
-volley of snow-balls at the head-master. He, after the door had been
-secured, remarked in a particularly mild voice,--"Now, boys, if _I_ had
-been at school, and _my_ schoolmaster had been assaulted by
-National-school boys, _I_ should have gone out and given them a
-thrashing. Remember, I do not at all advise you to do so, but merely
-mention the course that I should have adopted under such circumstances.
-We will resume lessons at three." So saying, he took off his gown, put
-on his hat and gloves, and walked out to see the fun. Now, the prospect
-of a morning's holiday would have made us attack a force of twenty times
-our number, but as they only out-numbered us threefold, we commenced a
-pursuit without hesitation. After a sharp engagement, we drove them back
-to their own schoolroom. The cause of their yielding was, that they
-threw at random among us, whereas each of our balls was aimed at the
-face of an opponent, and we very seldom missed. When they had reached
-their school, they closed and barred their door; at which we made such a
-battering, that their master, a large negro, rushed out upon us, vowing
-vengeance, and flourishing a great cane. He was allowed to proceed a few
-yards from the door, when one snow-ball took off his hat, and two more
-lodged in his face. He immediately went to the right-about, and made for
-the school, which he reached under an avalanche of snow. We pursued, but
-he had succeeded in fastening the door, and we could not open it for
-some time. When we did, the school was deserted; not a boy was to be
-seen. There was no back entrance to account for their disappearance, and
-we were completely puzzled. At last, when we had quieted down a little,
-a murmuring was heard apparently below our feet, and on examination we
-found that the entire school had taken shelter in the coal-cellar. We
-made a dash at the door (a trap-door), and in spite of the showers of
-coal that came from below, fastened and padlocked the door, carefully
-throwing the key among a clump of fir-trees, where it was not likely to
-be found. Having achieved this victory, we had a snow-ball match among
-ourselves, and then returned to school. About five o'clock, in rushed
-the black schoolmaster, who had only just been liberated by the
-blacksmith, and who came to complain of our conduct. So far, however,
-from obtaining any satisfaction, he was forced to apologise for the
-conduct of his boys.
-
-
-SNOW CASTLE.
-
-The object of this game is, that a castle of snow is built, which is
-attacked by one party and defended by the other. The method of building
-the castle is as follows:--A square place is cleared in the snow, the
-size of the projected castle. As many boys as possible then go to some
-distance from the cleared square, and commence making snow-balls,
-rolling them towards the castle. By the time that they have reached it,
-each ball is large enough to form a foundation-stone. By continuing this
-plan, the walls are built about five feet six inches high, a raised step
-running round the interior, on which, the defenders stand while hurling
-the balls against their opponents. In the centre are deposited
-innumerable snow-balls, ready made; and a small boy is usually pressed
-into the service, to make snow-balls as fast as they are wanted. If the
-weather is very cold, some water splashed over the castle hardens and
-strengthens it considerably. The architect of the castle must not forget
-to leave space for a door.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-SNOW GIANT.
-
-This is made in the same way as the snow castle, that is, by rolling
-large snow-balls to the place where the giant is to be erected, and then
-piled up and carved into form. He is not considered completed until two
-coals are inserted for eyes, and until he is further decorated with a
-pipe and an old hat. When he is quite finished, the juvenile sculptors
-retire to a distance, and with snow-balls endeavour to knock down their
-giant, with as much zest as they exhibited in building him. If a snow
-giant is well made, he will last until the leaves are out, the sun
-having but little power on so large a mass of hard snow. There is a
-legend extant respecting the preservation of snow through the warmer
-parts of the year. A certain Scotch laird had for a tenant a certain
-farmer. The laird had been requested by influential personages to
-transfer the farm to another man directly the lease was run out. The
-farmer's wife, hearing of this from some gossip of hers, went to her
-landlord, and besought him to grant a renewal of the lease. When she
-called, he was at dinner with a numerous party of friends, and replied
-in a mocking tone, that the lease should be renewed when she brought him
-a snow-ball in July. She immediately called upon the guests to bear
-witness to the offer, and went home. In due time the winter came, and
-with it the snow. One day, her husband, an excellent labourer, but not
-over bright, asked her why she was wasting so much meal. At that time,
-she had taken a large vessel of meal to a valley, and was pouring it
-into the space between two great stones. Upon the meal she placed a
-large quantity of snow, which she stamped down until it was hard. Upon
-this she poured more meal, and placed upon the meal a layer of straw.
-The whole affair was then thickly covered over with straw and reeds. To
-her husband, who thought she had fairly lost her senses, she deigned no
-reply, except that the meal would repay itself. So affairs went on until
-July, when the good dame, hearing that her landlord had invited a large
-party to dine with him, many of whom had been at the party when the
-promise was made, proceeded to the store of snow, which she found about
-half diminished. The remainder she kneaded hard, and put it in a
-wheelbarrow, well covered with straw, which she rolled up to the laird's
-own house. When once there, she took out her snow-ball, and presenting
-it to her landlord, before all his guests, demanded the renewal of her
-lease. It may be satisfactory to know, that the laird, struck with her
-ingenuity and perseverance, at once granted her request.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-JACK! JACK! SHOW A LIGHT!
-
-This game can only be played in the dusk of evening, when all the
-surrounding objects are lost in the deepening gloom. The players divide
-into two parties, and toss up for innings, which being gained, the
-winners start off to hide themselves, or get so far away that the others
-cannot see them; the losers remaining at the home. One of the hiding
-party is provided with a flint and steel, which, as soon as they are all
-ready, he strikes together; the sparks emitted guide the seekers as to
-what direction they must proceed in, and they must endeavour to capture
-the others ere they reach home; if they cannot touch more than two of
-the boys, the hiders resume their innings, and the game continues as
-before. It is most usual, however, for the boys at the home to call out,
-"Jack, Jack! show a light!" before the possessor of the flint and steel
-does so. When one party is captured, the flint and steel must be given
-up to the captors, that they may carry on the game as before.
-
-
-JINGLING.
-
-The jingling match is a common diversion at country wakes and fairs, and
-is often played by schoolboys. The match should be played on a soft
-grass-plot within a large circle, enclosed with ropes. The players
-rarely exceed nine or ten. All of these, except one of the most active,
-who is the "jingler," have their eyes blindfolded with handkerchiefs.
-The jingler holds a small bell in his hand, which he is obliged to keep
-ringing incessantly so long as the play continues, which is commonly
-about twenty minutes. The business of the jingler is to elude the
-pursuit of his blindfolded companions, who follow him by the sound of
-the bell in all directions, and sometimes oblige him to exert his utmost
-abilities to effect his escape, which must be done within the boundaries
-of the rope, for the laws of the sport forbid him to pass beyond it. If
-he be caught in the time allotted for the continuance of the game, the
-person who caught him wins the match; if, on the contrary, they are not
-able to take him, he is proclaimed the winner.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-JUMP LITTLE NAG-TAIL!
-
-In this game, six or eight players on each side is the best number. The
-two leaders should toss up for choice of partners, and after selecting
-them, toss again for innings. The loser must then place himself quite
-upright, with his face to a wall, against which he rests his hands; and
-one of his partners should next stoop down, and put his head against his
-leader's skirts, as shown in the annexed illustration; another partner
-also bends, and places his head against the skirts of the second player,
-and the rest of the partners must take their places in the same manner,
-one behind the other: when thus arranged, they are called "nags." One of
-the winning party next takes a run, and placing his hands on the back of
-the last player or "nag," endeavours to spring on to the back of the
-first, or at least to clear as many "nags" as he possibly can, in order
-to allow room for those following him to leap on the backs of the other
-"nags," which they should do in succession, until they are all fairly
-astride. If any of the "nags" sink under the weight, or in trying to
-support themselves touch the ground either with their hands or knees, or
-if the riders can keep their seats without touching the ground, whilst
-their leader counts twenty, or repeats the words, "Jump little nag-tail
-one, two, three!" three times, concluding with "off, off, off!" the
-riders resume their innings, and begin again; on the contrary, should
-there not be sufficient space for all to leap on, or they are unable to
-keep their seats on the backs of the "nags," they lose their innings,
-and become "nags" in their turn. The "nags" must, while in the line,
-hold either by the trousers of the player before them, or else lean
-their hands on their knees, or cross their arms on their breasts. Each
-rider must call out "Warning" before he leaps on the back of one of the
-"nags."
-
-
-JUMPING ROPE.
-
-Two players swing round a long rope, and when the revolutions become
-tolerably regular, one, two, or even more boys step forwards, and
-allowing it to swing over their heads, jump up as it descends, so as to
-let it pass under their feet as in the case of the common skipping-rope.
-The leapers must step forwards the moment the rope is at its highest, in
-order to be ready to skip over as it swings close to the ground; and
-they should be careful to keep the same time with the motions of the
-boys holding the rope, so as not to be struck by it in its circuit.
-Another game may be played with a long skipping-rope, by the player at
-one end holding the rope in his outside hand, making a step or two
-towards the other player, and with his help swinging it round, and then
-skipping over it.
-
-
-MY GRANDMOTHER'S CLOCK.
-
-In this amusing sport the players join hands, and extend their arms to
-their full extent. One of the outside players remains stationary, and
-the others run round him as fast as they can, which proceeding is called
-"winding the clock." In this manner the straight line becomes a confused
-spiral, and all the players get huddled together in a most laughable
-manner. The winding of the clock usually leads to such disorder that it
-is next to impossible to unwind it without breaking the line of boys.
-
-
-RUSHING BASES.
-
-Two bases having been made, one at each end of the playground, all the
-players take up their position in one of them, except one, who is
-generally elected by counting out; this player, who is called "the
-King," stations himself midway between the bases, and endeavours to
-catch the others as they rush through his territory from base to base.
-Should the king succeed in catching one of the trespassers, he raps him
-on the head, saying, "I crown thee king!" and the one so crowned joins
-the first king between the bases, and helps to catch the other players.
-When the out-players considerably outnumber those remaining in the
-bases, they may enter the bases, and, if they are strong enough, pull
-the others out and crown them. In this lively game the rule is, that a
-player must run to the opposite base if he puts both feet outside his
-own. In some parts of England this game is known by the name of "King
-Cæsar."
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-SEE-SAW.
-
-For this amusement a stout plank should be laid across a felled tree or
-a low wall; it must be very nicely balanced if the players are of the
-same weight; but if one is heavier than the other, the end on which he
-intends to sit should be the shortest. Two players then take their seats
-on the plank, one at each end, whilst a third stations himself on the
-middle of it, as represented in the illustration; the name of this
-player is in some places Jack o' both Sides, and in others Pudding. As
-the players by turns make slight springs from their toes, they are each
-alternately elevated and depressed, and it is the duty of Pudding to
-assist these movements by bearing all his weight on the foot, on the
-highest end of the plank, beyond the centre of the tree or wall on which
-it rests. This will be best understood by referring to the illustration:
-thus, A is the trunk of a tree; across it a plank is laid, on which two
-players, B, C, take their seats; D is "Pudding;" it will be seen that
-his left foot is beyond the centre of the trunk A, on the highest end of
-the board, and consequently his weight being added to that of B will
-depress that end of the plank, and the end on which C sits must, of
-course, rise; Pudding then bears on his right foot, and C in turn
-descends; and thus the game continues during pleasure, Pudding bearing
-alternately on each side.
-
-
-THREAD THE NEEDLE.
-
-This game can be played by any number of boys, who must all join hands;
-the game is begun by the outside players at each end of the line holding
-the following dialogue: "How many miles to Babylon?" "Threescore and
-ten." "Can I get there by candle-light?" "Yes, and back again." "Then
-open the gates without more ado, and let the king and his men pass
-through." The player and the one next to him at the end of the line
-opposite the last speaker then elevate their joined hands as high as
-they can, to allow the speaker to run under, and the whole line follows
-him, still holding hands. This should be done, if possible, without
-breaking the line by letting the hands go, and is styled "threading the
-needle." When all the boys have passed through, the same conversation
-begins again, excepting that the respondent in his turn becomes the
-inquirer, and runs between the opposite players, the others following as
-before.
-
-
-TOM TIDDLER'S GROUND.
-
-This is a very favourite game with little boys, and may be considered as
-a modification of rushing bases. A large base is formed by drawing a
-line across the playground, and one boy, called "Tom Tiddler," takes his
-station within it, while the others run in crying out, "Here am I on Tom
-Tiddler's ground, picking up gold and silver." If Tom Tiddler can touch
-any boy while he is on his ground, the boy so touched takes his place as
-the guardian of the imaginary gold and silver.
-
-
-TWO TO ONE.
-
-Two to one is a very capital exercise with a common skipping-rope. It is
-done by skipping in the usual way for a short time, and then increasing
-the rapidity of your movements, and leaping tolerably high, endeavouring
-to swing the rope round so quickly that you can pass it twice under your
-feet while you are taking the leap; practise this till you are quite
-proficient, and then try to pass the rope three times under your foot
-instead of twice.
-
-
-WALK, MOON, WALK!
-
-This may be played by any number of boys, who all tie large knots in one
-corner of their pocket-handkerchiefs, and then toss up to see who shall
-be "Moon;" the loser is the one to whom the part falls, and he must be
-blindfolded. "Moon" now stands with his legs stretched apart, while his
-playmates go behind him in succession, and jerk their handkerchiefs
-between his legs, as far as they can and in whatsoever direction they
-please. When all the boys have done this, one of them cries "Walk, Moon,
-walk!" which is a signal for the blindfolded player to walk forwards
-until he treads upon one of the handkerchiefs, when in an instant the
-other players pick up their knotted handkerchiefs, with which they
-belabour the unlucky owner of the one trodden upon by Moon, as he runs
-to a distant base and back; after which he becomes Moon, and the game
-continues as before.
-
-
-WANT A DAY'S WORK?
-
-This is a capital game when well played, and the antics and grimaces of
-boys who are mimics cause great merriment. It also gives a boy a good
-notion of how mechanical labour is done, as no boy will ask for work
-unless he understands something of the nature of the business he
-solicits to be employed upon. The game begins thus, and it matters not
-how many boys are engaged in it:--A line is drawn; within that line is
-the shop, and when a bad workman is discharged he is pushed across the
-line. The employer, or master, should be a very sharp lad. A boy comes
-up, and the master asks him if he wants a day's work; the boy says he
-does. He is then asked what trade he is; if he says a tailor, a coat is
-supposed to be given to him to make; if a shoemaker, a pair of shoes; if
-a tinker, a saucepan to bottom; if a stonemason, a stone to cut or saw,
-and every boy must imitate the actions of the tailor, shoemaker, &c.,
-while at work, whatever the trades may be. Then the master looks over
-the work, finds fault, gets in a rage, discharges the workman, and, if
-he can, turns him out of the shop. But if in the struggle the boy turns
-the employer out, he then becomes master, and the other is set to work.
-So that, after a few good-natured trials of strength, each boy in turn
-generally becomes master.
-
-
-WILL YOU LIST?
-
-This is a very old game, and in some places is called "playing at
-soldiers;" the whole ceremony of enlisting is gone through, taking the
-shilling and swearing to serve the Queen, &c. But there ought to be two
-parties of boys, of not less than a dozen, with a commanding officer on
-each side. After learning their exercise, such as shouldering arms and
-marching, war breaks out; then one party is English and the other the
-enemy. Their weapons ought to be bulrushes, or stout reeds, such as are
-used in building, or something that will not do any injury when the
-charge commences. The side that breaks or takes away the most weapons is
-the conqueror, and much skill may be displayed in capturing the arms of
-others, and retaining your own. If boys can get some old soldier to
-drill them a few times, this may be made as good a game as they can play
-at. We have too few military amusements in our English games.
-
-
-WHOOP!
-
-One player takes his station at a spot called the "home," while the
-others go to seek out various hiding-places in which to ensconce
-themselves; when all are ready, one of them calls out "Whoop!" on which
-the player at the "home" instantly goes in search of the hiders, and
-endeavours to touch one of them as they run back to "home;" if he can do
-so, the one caught takes his place at the "home," while he joins the out
-players.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-HIGH BARBAREE!
-
-In this game sides are chosen, and one party remains "at home," while
-the other hides. When the hiders are all ready, one of them calls out
-"High Barbaree!" upon which the seekers sally forth to look for them, as
-in "Whoop!" If the seekers can succeed in touching a certain number of
-the hiders before they can get to "home," they take their turn at
-hiding. The number to be caught must be agreed upon beforehand, and of
-course depends upon the number of players. It is usual to mention this
-number in the cry--thus, "High barbaree! _three_ caught he!"--"_four_
-caught he!" and so forth. As a general rule, the number to be caught
-should exceed half the number of the hiders.
-
-
-BULL IN THE RING.
-
-This active, merry, noisy game can be played by any number of boys, and
-commences by their joining hands and forming a ring, having enclosed
-some boy in the middle, who is the Bull. It is the Bull's part to make a
-rush, break through the ring, and escape, and the part of the boys who
-form the ring to hold their hands so fast together that he cannot break
-their hold. Before making a rush the Bull must cry "boo" to give
-warning, so that the boys may grasp their hands more tightly. The whole
-ring generally replies to the Bull's challenge by crying "boo" all
-together, and a pretty noise they make. When the Bull breaks through the
-ring he is pursued until captured, and the boy who seizes him first is
-"Bull" when they return. A good "Bull" will lead them a pretty dance,
-clearing hedges and ditches; and if he gets back and touches some mark
-agreed upon, near to where he broke through the ring, he is "Bull"
-again.
-
-
-COCK FIGHT.
-
-This humorous sport must not be confounded with the cruel battles
-between game-cocks once so popular in England. Two boys represent the
-feathered combatants; each hops upon one leg, with his arms folded, and
-bumps against the other, endeavouring to compel him to put both feet to
-the ground. The boy who keeps up longest wins the game.
-
-
-DROPPING THE HANDKERCHIEF.
-
-A tolerably large ring should be formed by several boys standing in a
-circle and joining hands; another boy, who stands out, when all are
-ready walks round outside the ring, drops a handkerchief behind one of
-the players, and immediately runs off; he is instantly followed by the
-one behind whom he dropped the handkerchief, and who must track him in
-all his windings in and out under the arms of the boys in the ring, who
-elevate them for the purpose, and indeed wherever he runs to; should the
-pursuer be able to touch the pursued, the former takes the handkerchief
-in his turn, and the latter joins hands in the circle. If the boy who
-dropped the handkerchief is enabled to elude his follower by passing
-through and about the ring, he walks again round and drops the
-handkerchief behind some other player.
-
-
-EASY GAMES WITHOUT TOYS
-
-
-INDOOR.
-
-
-BLIND MAN'S BUFF
-
-[Illustration: "SEEING'S BELIEVING."]
-
-Consists in one person having a handkerchief bound over his eyes, so as
-to completely blind him, and thus blindfolded trying to chase the other
-players, either by the sound of their footsteps, or their subdued
-merriment, as they scramble away in all directions, endeavouring to
-avoid being caught by him; when he can manage to catch one, the player
-caught must in turn be blinded, and the game be begun again. In some
-places it is customary for one of the players to inquire of Buff (before
-the game begins), "How many horses has your father got?" to which
-inquiry he responds, "Three." "What colours are they?" "Black, white,
-and grey." The questioner then desires Buff to "turn round three times,
-and catch whom you may," which request he complies with, and then tries
-to capture one of the players. It is often played by merely turning the
-blindfold hero round and round without questioning him, and then
-beginning. The handkerchief must be tied on fairly, so as to allow no
-little holes for Buffy to see through. Blind Man's Buff is a very
-ancient pastime, having been known to the Grecian youths. In England it
-formerly went By the name of Hoodman Blind, because it was customary to
-blind Buff with his hood.
-
-
-BOB-CHERRY.
-
-Attach a cherry to a piece of string, and then fasten it to a door,
-sufficiently high to compel the player to jump a little in order to
-catch the cherry in his mouth. The cherry is then set swinging; and the
-players, ranging themselves in line, jump at the cherry, one after the
-other. This game is productive of much amusement, and may be kept up for
-a long time.
-
-
-BUFF.
-
-In this game one of the players enters the room, armed with a poker,
-with which he taps on the floor. "Where do you come from?" inquires one
-of the company. "Alas! from poor Buff, who is full of grief." "And what
-did he say to you?" "He spoke thus," is the reply--
-
- "Buff said 'Baff,'
- And gave me this staff,
- And bade me not laugh
- Till I came to his house again."
-
-Having thus spoken, the messenger leaves the room. While he has been
-delivering his speech, the company, however, endeavour to make him
-laugh, by asking him any absurd questions that may present themselves to
-their imagination. If they do not succeed in this, the emissary of the
-great Buff delivers himself of a more lengthy address:--
-
- "Buff says 'Baff' to all his men,
- And I say 'Baff' to you again;
- But he neither laughs nor smiles
- In spite of all your cunning wiles,
- But keeps his face with a very good grace,
- And carries his staff to the very next place."
-
-
-CONCERT.
-
-A noisier game than this could scarcely be desired by the most
-boisterous of our young friends. The players having selected a
-"conductor," seat themselves round him in a circle. The conductor now
-assigns to each a musical instrument, and shows how it is to be played.
-When all are provided with their imaginary instruments, the conductor
-orders them to tune, and by so doing, he gives each musician a capital
-opportunity for making all sorts of discordant noises. When the
-different instruments have been tuned, the conductor waves an unseen
-_bâton_, and commences humming a lively air, in which he is accompanied
-by the whole of his band, each player endeavouring to imitate with his
-hands the different movements made in performing on a real instrument.
-Every now and then the conductor pretends to play on a certain
-instrument, and the player to whom it belongs must instantly alter his
-movements for those of the conductor, and continue to wield the _bâton_
-until the chief player abandons his instrument. Should a player omit to
-take the conductor's office at the proper time, he must pay a forfeit.
-The fun of this game greatly depends upon the humour of the conductor,
-and the adroitness with which he relinquishes his _bâton_ and takes up
-the instruments of the other players.
-
-
-CONSEQUENCES.
-
-The first player writes an _adjective_ on the upper part of a slip of
-paper, and then folds the slip so that the written word cannot be seen
-by the next player, who writes the _name of a gentleman_, real or
-imaginary, on the paper, which he passes to another after having folded
-it over again. The third player writes an _adjective_; the fourth, _a
-lady's name_; the fifth, the _name of a place_; the sixth, _what the
-gentleman said to the lady_; the seventh, the _lady's reply_; the
-eighth, the _consequences_; and the ninth, _what the world said about
-the whole affair_. One of the players now unfolds the slip and reads
-what has been written by the different persons engaged in the game,
-adding a few words to unite the disjointed members of the little
-narrative. As a specimen of the ludicrous result which arises from each
-player's ignorance of what has been written by his companions, we give
-the following pathetic tale, in which the words and phrases printed in
-italics represent those written on the slip of paper:--"The
-_ill-favoured Peter Wilkins_ met the _adorable Jenny Jones_ in _the
-silver mine of Potosi_. He said to her, '_Will you love me then as
-now?_' and she replied, '_When did I refuse you anything?_' The
-consequences were, _he drowned himself in the water-butt and she married
-the baker_, and the world said, '_Served them right!_'" When there are
-only three or four players, the slip of paper is to be passed round from
-one to another until it is filled up. When the players are numerous,
-three or four slips may be commenced simultaneously by different
-persons.
-
-
-CROSS QUESTIONS AND CROOKED ANSWERS.
-
-This game will be best described by a short dialogue.
-
-_Harry._--I am going to put a question in a whisper to Tom, who is
-seated on my right hand, to which he will reply in the same tone. _He_
-will then put a question to _his_ next neighbour, and receive his
-answer. When the tour of the circle is made, I shall commence by stating
-aloud the question put to me by my left-hand neighbour, answering it by
-the reply received in answer to my own from Tom. He will then do the
-same, giving my question and his next neighbour's reply.--(Whispers to
-Tom.) Of what use are the bellows?
-
-_Tom._--To blow up the fire.--(To Charles) Of what use is a fire-engine?
-
-_Charles._--To put out a fire.--(To John) Of what use is a plough?
-
-_John._--To plough up the ground.--(To James) Of what use is a cap?
-
-_James._--To cover the head.--(To Edward) Of what use is a shoe?
-
-_Edward._--To protect your foot.--(To William) Of what use is a black
-pin?
-
-_William._--To fasten your collar with.--(To Harry) Of what use is a
-barometer?
-
-_Harry._--To tell the weather.--(Aloud) William has just asked me the
-use of a barometer? Tom replies, "To blow up the fire!"
-
-_Tom._--Harry has asked me the use of the bellows; and Charles replies,
-"To put out the fire!"
-
-_Charles._--Tom wishes to know the use of the fire-engine, and John
-tells him, "To plough up the ground," &c.
-
-Any mistake is punished by a forfeit.
-
-
-DUMB MOTIONS.
-
-The players form sides, and decide who shall be _masters_ and who _men_.
-The principal aim of the _men_ is to keep working as long as possible,
-and to prevent the _masters_ taking their places. The men consult
-secretly among themselves, and decide upon some trade or profession, the
-practice of which may be certain movements of the arms, hands, or legs.
-They now range themselves opposite the masters, and the foreman tells
-them the first and last letters of the trade they are about to exercise;
-as for example, C--r for carpenter, D--t for druggist, B--h for
-blacksmith, and so on. The men now set to work and express in dumb
-motions the various labours belonging to the craft they have chosen. Let
-us suppose that they have selected the trade of blacksmith: one of the
-players will appear to be blowing the forge bellows, another will seem
-to be filing something in a vice, while others will be violently
-exerting themselves by wielding imaginary sledge-hammers round an unseen
-anvil. If any of the men speak at their work, or make use of
-inappropriate gestures, the whole side is out. The masters are allowed
-one guess each, and if none of them can hit upon the right trade, the
-men tell them their occupation, and then fix upon another. If the
-masters can guess the name of the trade, the men are out and become
-masters. The men need not continue their labours until all the masters
-have guessed, but may stop working, and demand their wages, after having
-plied their craft for a reasonable time. When the name of a trade
-consists of two words, the men must tell the first and last letter of
-each word, as C--h B--r, for coach builder.
-
-
-FAMILY COACH.
-
-The chief player in this amusing game must possess the faculty of
-inventing a long story, as well as a tolerably good memory. This player
-gives to each of the others the name of some person or thing to be
-mentioned in the story he is about to relate. For example, he may call
-one "the coachman," another "the whip," another "the inn," another the
-"old gentleman," another the "footman," another "the luggage," and so
-on, until he has named all the persons engaged in the game. The
-story-teller now takes his stand in the centre of the room, and
-commences his narrative; in the course of which he takes care to mention
-all the names given to the players. When the name of a player is
-mentioned, he must immediately rise from his seat, turn round, and sit
-down again, or else pay a forfeit for his inattention; and whenever "the
-family coach" is named, _all_ the players must rise simultaneously. In
-the following example of a story, the names given to the different
-players are printed in italics: "An _old gentleman_, dreading an attack
-of the gout, resolved to pay a visit to the hot wells of Bath; he
-therefore summoned his _coachman_, and ordered him to prepare THE FAMILY
-COACH (all the players rise, turn round, and sit down again). The
-_coachman_, not liking the prospect of so long a journey, tried to
-persuade the _old gentleman_ that THE FAMILY COACH was out of repair,
-that the _leader_ was almost blind, and that he (the _coachman_) could
-not drive without a new _whip_. The _old gentleman_ stormed and swore
-upon hearing these paltry excuses, and ordered the _coachman_ out of the
-room, while the _little dog_ sprang from under his master's chair and
-flew at the calves of the offender, who was forced to make a precipitate
-exit. Early the next morning, THE FAMILY COACH belonging to the _old
-gentleman_ stopped at an _inn_ on the Bath road, much to the surprise of
-the _landlord_, who had never seen such a lumbering conveyance before.
-THE FAMILY COACH contained the _old gentleman_, the _old lady_ (his
-wife), and the _little dog_ that had made such a furious attack on the
-poor _coachman's_ legs. The _landlord_ called the _landlady_, who came
-bustling out of the _inn_ to welcome the _old gentleman_ and _old lady_.
-The _footman_ jumped down from behind THE FAMILY COACH, and helped the
-_old gentleman_ and the _old lady_ to alight, while the _boots_ and
-_chambermaid_ belonging to the _inn_ busied themselves with the
-_luggage_. The _little dog_ trotted after the _old lady_, but just as it
-was going into the _inn_, the _coachman_ gave it a cut with his _whip_.
-The _little dog_ howled, upon which the _old gentleman_ turned round,
-and seeing the _coachman_ with his _whip_ raised, he seized him by the
-throat. The _footman_ came to the assistance of his friend the
-_coachman_, and the _ostler_ belonging to the _inn_ took the side of the
-_old gentleman_. The _landlord_, _landlady_, _chambermaid_, _boots_,
-_cook_, _stable-boy_, _barmaid_, and all the other inmates of the _inn_,
-rushed into the road to see what was the matter, and their cries, joined
-to the yells of the _little dog_ and the screams of the _old lady_, so
-frightened the _leader_, the _white horse_, and the _brown mare_, that
-they ran away with THE FAMILY COACH." Of course this tale might have
-been continued to any length, but the specimen we have given will be
-sufficient to give the story-teller some idea of what is expected from
-him to keep up the fun of the game.
-
-
-FROG IN THE MIDDLE.
-
-This is a highly amusing, though very simple game. One player seated on
-the ground is surrounded by his comrades, who pull and buffet him till
-he can catch one of them, when the person so caught takes his place, and
-is buffeted in like manner. As the players sport round the Frog, they
-usually cry, "Frog in the middle--can't catch me!" but they frequently
-find that this is vain boasting, as Froggy does catch them now and then.
-
-
-THE FOUR ELEMENTS.
-
-The party being seated in a circle, the player who has been chosen to
-commence the game takes a knotted handkerchief, and throws it suddenly
-into another's lap, calling out at the same time either "Earth!"
-"Water!" "Air!" or "Fire!" If "Earth" be called out, the player into
-whose lap the handkerchief has fallen must name some _quadruped_ before
-the other can count ten; if "Water!" he must name a _fish_; if "Air!" a
-_bird_; and if "Fire!" he must remain silent. Should the player name a
-wrong animal, or speak when he ought to be silent, he must pay a forfeit
-and take a turn at throwing the handkerchief; but should he perform his
-task properly, he must throw the handkerchief back to the first player.
-Those who have never joined in this simple game can have no idea of the
-absurd errors into which the different players fall when summoned
-unawares to name a particular kind of animal.
-
-
-HAND.
-
-The game of Hand is of great antiquity, and is common to almost every
-nation, whether savage or civilized. In many of the rural districts of
-England this universal pastime is known by the name of "Coddem." To play
-at Hand, sides must be formed, and the players of each side must seat
-themselves at a table opposite their antagonists. Chance decides which
-of the sides shall first hide the _piece_; which may be any small object
-that can be easily held in the closed hand of one of the players. One of
-the fortunate players now exhibits the piece to his opponents; having
-done which, he cries out, "Hands down!" at which signal he and his
-comrades put their hands out of sight, and in the language of the game,
-commence "working the piece," which operation is performed by shifting
-the piece from hand to hand, so as to deceive the opposite players as to
-its whereabouts. When the piece has been properly worked, the chief
-player calls out, "Hands up," and he and all his comrades simultaneously
-place their closed fists on the table. The top player on the opposite
-side has now to fix upon the hand in which the piece is concealed. There
-are two ways of guessing, either of which he may adopt; the first is to
-point at once to the hand supposed to contain the piece, and cry out,
-"Hand!" The second mode of guessing is to point to those hands which
-appear to be empty, saying with each guess, "Take that hand away!" and
-when most of the hands have been removed from the table, to fix upon the
-most likely-looking one among those that remain. If the guesser can find
-the piece without making a mistake, he claims it for his party, and is
-entitled to guess again when the opposite side regains it; but if he
-makes a mistake, either by ordering the hand that holds the piece to be
-removed, or by "handing" an empty fist, his antagonists retain the
-piece, and having concealed it, the second player attempts to discover
-its whereabouts. From our description, the reader will probably regard
-Hand as a mere frivolous game of chance; but we can assure him that
-chance has little to do with the discovery of the piece. A good Hand
-player watches the faces of his opponents while their hands are engaged
-in working the piece under the table; he scrutinises the different
-hands, and does not allow himself to be misled by any of the cunning
-devices which the hiders employ to throw him off the right scent; again,
-when he has the piece in his possession, he takes care not to let a
-tightly-clenched fist, a guilty smile, or an anxious expression, betray
-the fact to his wary antagonist.
-
-
-HOT BOILED BEANS.
-
-In this game, one of the players is sent out of the room, while the
-others hide a handkerchief or any small article that can be easily
-secreted. When the article has been concealed, the door is opened, and
-the seeker is invited to enter in these words: "Hot boiled beans and
-butter; walk in and find your supper." The seeker now sets to work to
-look for the hidden article. When he approaches the place of
-concealment, his playmates must give him notice of it, by telling him
-that he is "rather warm," "very hot," or, if he gets very near it, that
-he "burns." When he wanders away from the object of his search, he is
-told that he is "cold;" and if he persists in his mistaken course, he is
-informed that he "freezes." Should the seeker succeed in finding the
-hidden article, another player goes out of the room in his stead.
-
-
-HOT COCKLES.
-
-One player with his eyes bandaged lays his head on a chair, or in
-another player's lap, while the others strike him on his back with their
-open hands. In this unenviable position he remains until he can guess
-who strikes him, when the striker takes his place. The poet Gay
-describes this pastime in the following lines:--
-
- "As at Hot Cockles once I laid me down,
- And felt the weighty hand of many a clown,
- Buxoma gave a gentle tap, and I
- Quick rose, and read soft mischief in her eye."
-
-
-HOW? WHERE? AND WHEN?
-
-One of the players is sent out of the room, while the others fix upon a
-subject, which may be anything to which the three questions, "How do you
-like it?" "Where do you like it?" and "When do you like it?" will apply.
-When the subject has been decided upon, the out-player is summoned. He
-now puts the first question to the nearest player, who returns him a
-puzzling answer; he then passes to the next, and repeats the same
-question; then to the next, and so on, until he has made the round of
-the room. If none of the answers enable him to guess the subject, he
-tries each player with the second question, and if the answers to this
-leave him still in the dark, he solicits a reply from each to the third
-and last question. Should the player fail to guess the subject after
-asking the three questions, he pays a forfeit and takes another turn
-outside; but should he succeed in guessing it during his rounds, the
-player last questioned must pay a forfeit, and go out of the room in his
-place. The in-players should always endeavour to hit upon some word that
-has two or three meanings for a subject, as such a word renders the
-answers extremely confusing. For instance, if _Jack_ be the subject
-decided on, one of the players may say, in answer to the first query,
-that he likes it "fried," referring to fish called the Jack; in answer
-to the second, that he likes it "before the kitchen fire," referring now
-to a roasting-jack; and in answer to the third, that he likes it when he
-is "dressing," now regarding the subject as a boot-jack.
-
-
-HUNT THE SLIPPER.
-
-This old-fashioned pastime is so generally known that it is scarcely
-necessary to describe it; however, as it forms one of the merriest
-indoor sports for the long winter evenings, it would be absurd to omit
-it in this work. Several boys seat themselves in a circle on the ground,
-and another, taking his place inside the ring, gives a slipper to one of
-them, by whom it is immediately and secretly handed to one of his
-neighbours; it is now passed round from one sitter to another, with as
-much dexterity as possible, so as to completely perplex the "hunter" (or
-player standing in the middle) in his endeavours to "chase the slipper
-by its sound," and who must continue his search until successful. The
-player in whose possession it is found must in his turn "hunt the
-slipper," whilst the former hunter joins the sitters.
-
-
-HUNT THE RING.
-
-A game almost similar to the former. A piece of tape, on which a ring is
-fastened, is held by the players as they stand in a circle, with one in
-the middle. The ring is passed from hand to hand, and the hunter's
-business is to find out in whose hand the ring is.
-
-
-HUNT THE WHISTLE.
-
-A boy who has never seen the game played is elected hunter; the others
-seat themselves on the ground, as in Hunt the Slipper. The hunter,
-having been shown the whistle, kneels in the centre of the circle, and
-lays his head in the lap of one of the players until the whistle is
-concealed. While he is in this posture, the whistle is to be secretly
-attached to the back part of his jacket or coat, by means of a piece of
-string and a bent pin. One of the players now blows the whistle and
-drops it, and the hunter, being released, is told to find it; but this
-is no easy task, as he carries the object of his search about his own
-person. As the hunter kneels in the centre of the group, the different
-players blow through the whistle and drop it, as the opportunities
-occur. The puzzled hunter is sometimes fairly tired out before he
-discovers the trick that is played upon him. We need scarcely say that
-the whistle should be very small and light.
-
-
-MAGIC MUSIC.
-
-This is a very similar game to Hot Boiled Beans. One player having been
-sent out of the room, the others arrange some simple task for him to
-perform on his return. When this has been done, he is summoned by the
-magic music, which is played by one of his comrades, either by tapping a
-tea-tray with a key, or by rattling the poker and tongs together. The
-boy who has been sent out of the room must perform his appointed task
-under the guidance of the musician, who so regulates his performance on
-the rude instruments that the music gets loud and noisy when the puzzled
-player does what he ought not to do, and grows soft and quiet when he
-does anything towards the performance of his task. To render this game
-more intelligible, we will suppose the task to be the removal of a
-certain chair from one room to another. The player having entered the
-room is saluted by the magic music, the unmeaning clatter of which only
-confuses him at first. He walks towards the side of the room where the
-chair is stationed, and as he approaches it the clatter grows fainter;
-this informs him that he is in the right path. He touches the table, but
-removes his hand at the sound of the music, which suddenly gets terribly
-noisy. He touches the chair; the music ceases. He now knows that he is
-expected to do something with this particular chair, so he very
-naturally sits down upon it; but he jumps up directly he hears the
-"clatter, clatter, clatter" of the music. He lifts the chair, and as he
-does so the music grows soft again. He now turns the chair upside down;
-carries it into the middle of the room; places it on the sofa; but all
-to no purpose, as he cannot stop the continual clatter of the magic
-music. At last he carries the chair into the adjoining room; the music
-ceases, and his troublesome task is accomplished. In this noisy but
-amusing game the players go out of the room, and have tasks set them in
-turns. The musician generally retains his office throughout the game.
-
-
-POST.
-
-This exciting game may be played by an unlimited number, and is
-particularly adapted for a large party. One of the players, called "the
-postman," has his eyes bandaged as in Blind Man's Buff; another
-volunteers to fill the office of "postmaster-general," and all the rest
-seat themselves round the room. At the commencement of the game the
-postmaster assigns to each player the name of a town, and, if the
-players are numerous, he writes the names given to them on a slip of
-paper, in case his memory should fail him. These preliminaries having
-been arranged, the blind postman is placed in the centre of the room,
-and the postmaster-general retires to some snug corner, whence he can
-overlook the other players. When this important functionary calls out
-the names of two towns,--thus, "London to Halifax,"--the players who
-bear these names must immediately change seats, and as they run from one
-side of the room to another, the postman tries to capture them. If the
-postman can succeed in catching one of the players, or if he can manage
-to sit down on an empty chair, the player that is caught, or excluded
-from his place, becomes postman. The postmaster-general is not changed
-throughout the game unless he gets tired of his office. When a player
-remains seated after his name has been called he must pay a forfeit, or
-if the game is played without forfeits he must go to the bottom of the
-class, which is represented by a particular chair, and to make room for
-him all the players who were formerly below him shift their places.
-
-
-PROVERBS.
-
-One player leaves the room, and while he is absent the rest fix upon
-some proverb. The words are then distributed among them, and each
-player, in reply to a question asked by the guesser, has to introduce
-his particular word. When all the words have been introduced, the
-guesser has to guess the name of the proverb, and another player takes
-his place. If, however, he cannot make it out, he has to leave the room
-again.
-
-LIST OF PROVERBS.
-
- A false friend is worse than a bitter enemy.
- A penny saved is a penny gained.
- A man is known by the company he keeps.
- A bad workman quarrels with his tools.
- All is not gold that glitters.
- A friend in need is a friend indeed.
- A good name is better than wealth.
- A good word costs nothing.
- A little rain lays much dust.
- A little spark makes a great flame.
- A bird in hand is worth two in a bush.
- Better late than never.
- Barking dogs seldom bite.
- Cut your coat according to your cloth.
- Empty vessels make the most sound.
- Example is better than precept.
- Evil beginnings have bad endings.
- Friends are plenty when the purse is full.
- Good ware makes quick markets.
- Great cry and little wool.
- Gather thistles, expect prickles.
- Half a loaf is better than no bread.
- Hear twice before you speak once.
- In a calm sea every man is a pilot.
- Idle folks have the least leisure.
- It's an ill wind that blows nobody good.
- If a thing is worth doing, it is worth doing well.
- It's a sad heart that never rejoices
- Least said is soonest mended.
- Let them laugh that win.
- Look before you leap.
- Long looked for comes at last.
- Make hay while the sun shines.
- Many a slip between the cup and the lip.
- Make the best of a bad bargain.
- Marry in haste, repent at leisure.
- Of two evils choose the least.
- One good turn deserves another.
- Opportunity makes the thief.
- Out of sight out of mind.
- Penny wise and pound foolish.
- Prevention is better than cure.
- Pride will have a fall.
- Short reckonings make long friends.
- Strike while the iron's hot.
- Still waters run deep.
- Safe bind, safe find.
- The best part of valour is discretion.
- Waste not, want not.
- Where there's a will there's always a way.
- Wilful waste makes woful want.
-
-
-PUSS IN THE CORNER.
-
-Four players take their stations in the four corners of a room, and a
-fifth, called "Puss," places himself in the middle of it; the players in
-the corners then change places by running to the opposite ends, and Puss
-must endeavour to get into one of the vacant places before the opposite
-player is able to reach it; if he can do so, the player left out becomes
-Puss.
-
-
-RED-CAP AND BLACK-CAP.
-
-The players sit round in a circle, each taking a colour. Thus one is
-red-cap, another black-cap, and so on. One of them, who takes the place
-of master, and has no colour, taking up a cap says: "Hullo, here's a
-false stitch. Who made it, blue-cap?" Blue-cap then answers, "Who, sir?
-I, sir?" "Yes, you, sir!" "Not I, sir." "Who then, sir?" "Yellow-cap,
-sir." Yellow-cap then starts up and says, "Who, sir? I, sir?" and goes
-through the dialogues, giving another colour. The player who neglects to
-start up when his colour is mentioned, or who does not repeat the
-question correctly, pays a forfeit.
-
-
-SHADOW BUFF.
-
-Shadow Buff differs very materially from Blind Man's Buff, but it is
-equally amusing. A large piece of white linen should be fastened neatly
-up at one end of room, so that it hangs quite smooth; Buff (not blinded)
-seats himself on a low stool with his face to the linen, and a table, on
-which is a lighted candle, should be placed about four or five feet
-behind him, and the rest of the lights in the room extinguished. Buffy's
-playfellows next pass in succession, between the candle and him,
-distorting their features in as grotesque a manner as possible--hopping,
-limping, and performing various odd antics, so as to make their
-_shadows_ very unlike their usual looks. Buffy must then try to guess to
-whom the shadows belong, and if he guesses correctly, the player whose
-shadow he recognises takes his place. Buff is allowed only one guess for
-each person, and must not turn his head either to the right or left to
-see who passes.
-
-
-SLATE GAMES.
-
-_Birds, Beasts, and Fishes._--"Now, Tom," said Harry, "get your slate
-and pencil, and I'll show you such a jolly game. Well now, look here, I
-have put down h × × × a. Now that stands for a beast's name, the first
-and last letters of which are _h_ and _a_, with three letters between,
-represented by the crosses."
-
-"Let's see," replied Tom, scratching his head, "I know--Hare."
-
-"You muff! There are only four letters in 'hare,' and five in my word.
-Try again--mind you have only three guesses; so look out."
-
-Tom wondered again for a minute, and then suddenly blurted out, "I
-know--Horse."
-
-"Wrong again," replied Harry; "the last letter of Horse is _e_ and not
-_a_. Now be careful, Tom, for this is your last turn."
-
-Again Tom scratched his head, bit his fingers, and after meditating for
-at least two minutes and a half, shouted out in a moment of
-inspiration--"Hyena!"
-
-As he was right, it now became his turn to put down a name. So he wrote
-on the slate s × × × × × w, at the same time telling Harry it was a
-bird; for according to the rules of this game you must say whether this
-name represents a beast, a fish, a bird, an insect, or a reptile.
-
-Harry in a minute shouted "Sparrow!" and so the game went on; and such a
-capital game did Tom and Harry have, that they sent this account of it
-to us in the hope that we would make it known to the world in "Every
-Boy's Book."
-
-_French and English._--On the slate should be drawn a plan somewhat like
-the following. The dots represent soldiers, one side being termed French
-and the other English. Each player is provided with a sharply pointed
-pencil, and the game is played as follows:--English, keeping the point
-of his pencil on a spot denoted by a cannon, draws it quickly across the
-slate in the direction of the other army. The pencil naturally leaves a
-line to mark his track, and if this mark passes through any of the men
-belonging to the other side, they are considered dead. The game is over
-as soon as all the men on one side are dead. Each player has a certain
-space on the slate allotted to him, and he may dispose his men in
-whatever part of it he pleases. The track of the pencil must be straight
-or curved; any shot in which there is an angle does not count. In p. 38
-we give a battle-field where the strife is ended. In this the English
-side has killed all the opposite side in eight shots, while the French
-in eight have only been able to kill nine men.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-_Noughts and Crosses._--This is a capital game, and one which every
-school-boy truly enjoys. A figure is drawn as follows, and the object of
-the one player is to draw three crosses in a line before the other can
-draw three noughts. Thus A begins by drawing a + in the centre division;
-B follows with a nought in the top right-hand corner. A then draws a +
-in the bottom right-hand corner, because by this means he gets two
-crosses in a line, and spoils one of B's chances. B in a hurry instantly
-places a 0 in the top left-hand corner, and A follows by placing his +
-between the two 0's. B then, seeing that in the centre line A already
-has two crosses, places a 0 in the third vacant space of the line; while
-A, as a last resource, plants his + in the second space of the left-hand
-line. Then when B puts a 0 in the centre space at the left-hand, A
-places a + in the bottom left-hand corner, and the game is drawn, the
-plan standing as above.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-TRADES.
-
-Every player, except one who holds the office of reader, selects a trade
-or profession, which he must retain throughout the game. When all have
-chosen their trades, the reader opens a book at random, and reads a
-passage from it aloud; but when he comes to any common noun, he looks at
-one of the tradesmen, who must instantly name some article that he is
-supposed to have for sale, or some implement connected with the exercise
-of his craft. By this substitution of one noun for another, the most
-pathetic passage is converted into an indescribable jumble of
-absurdities. In the following burlesqued extract from an Eastern tale,
-the words in italics are supposed to be supplied by the different
-tradesmen, in place of the nouns omitted by the reader:--
-
-"One offered the prince a _bucket_ of the most precious _mutton chops_
-of Golconda; another a curious piece of a _Wellington boot_, made by a
-European artist; another a piece of the richest _plum-pudding_ from the
-looms of China; another _a gridiron_, said to be a sovereign remedy
-against all poisons and infectious diseases; another a choice piece of
-the most fragrant _Turkey rhubarb_, in _a warming-pan_, inlaid with
-_acid drops_; another _a coffin_ full of genuine _treacle_; another _a
-rocking-horse_ of the purest breed of Arabia; and another _a Flanders
-brick_ of exquisite beauty. The whole court of the palace was overspread
-with _gingerbread-nuts_; and long rows of slaves were continually
-passing loaded with _corn-plasters_, _tenpenny-nails_, _bees'-wax_, and
-other articles of high price."
-
-
-TRUSSED FOWLS.
-
-Two boys having seated themselves on the floor, are _trussed_ by their
-playmates; that is to say, each boy has his wrists tied together with a
-handkerchief, and his legs secured just above the ancles with another;
-his arms are then passed over his knees, and a broomstick is pushed over
-one arm, under both knees, and out again over the other arm. The
-"trussed fowls" are now carried into the centre of room and placed
-opposite each other, with their toes just touching. The fun now begins;
-as each fowl endeavours, with the aid of his toes, to turn his
-antagonist over on his back or side, and the one who can succeed in
-doing this wins the game. It frequently happens that both players turn
-over together, to the great amusement of the spectators. On board ship
-these comical encounters frequently take place between the boys, who are
-trussed by their elder shipmates.
-
-
-THE TWO HATS.
-
-This game, although only two persons are engaged in it at a time,
-furnishes much amusement, from the contradictory nature of its words and
-actions. The rules relative to it are as follow:--If three mistakes are
-made by the person who responds to the inquiries of the player who
-brings the hats round, and whom for distinction's sake we will call the
-questioner, he must pay three forfeits, and is out of the game; when the
-questioner desires the respondent to be seated, the latter must stand
-up; when he begs him to put his hat on, he must take it off; when he
-requests him to stand, he must sit; and in every point, the respondent
-must take special care to do always the very reverse of what the
-questioner wishes him. The questioner may sit down, stand up, put his
-hat on, or take it off, without desiring the respondent to do so, or
-giving him the least intimation of his intention; the latter must,
-therefore, be always on his guard, so as to act in a contrary way in an
-instant, else he incurs a forfeit. These rules being settled, the game
-is simply this: one player places a hat on his head, takes another in
-his hand, and gives it to one of the company; he then begins conversing
-with him, endeavouring both by words and actions to puzzle him as much
-as he can, so as to cause him to pay a forfeit. We will give a slight
-specimen of a dialogue, describing the accompanying movements of the
-hats, in which A is the questioner, B the respondent:
-
-A. (_taking his hat off._) A very beautiful evening, sir.
-
-B. (_putting his hat on._) Yes, indeed, a most lovely one.
-
-A. (_putting his hat on, and sitting down_, B. _instantly taking his off
-and getting up_.) Pray be seated, sir; I really cannot think of sitting
-while you stand (_gets up, and_ B. _sits down_). Have you been out of
-town this year? (_takes off his hat._)
-
-B. (_putting his on._) I have not yet, but I think I shall, before (A.
-_sits down_, B. _gets up_) the beauty of the season has entirely passed
-away, venture a few miles out of town.
-
-A. (_putting his hat on._) I beg ten thousand pardons, you are standing
-while I am sitting; pardon me, your hat is on--you must pay a forfeit.
-
-It generally happens, that before the dialogue has been carried thus far
-the respondent has incurred three forfeits, and is, of course, out; the
-questioner then goes in succession to the others, and the same scene is
-repeated by each: the conversation, it is almost needless to add, should
-be varied as much as possible, and the more nonsensical it is the
-better.
-
-
-WHAT IS MY THOUGHT LIKE?
-
-The leader of the game commences it by asking each of his companions in
-turn, "What is my thought like?" to which they reply at hazard, by
-mentioning anything that first comes into their thoughts, of course
-avoiding naming the same thing twice over, as that incurs the penalty of
-a forfeit. The leader carefully notes down all the answers he receives,
-and then revealing his thought, desires to know what the thing thought
-of resembles in what it has been compared to.
-
-_John._--Charles, what is my thought like?
-
-_Charles._--A young girl.
-
-_John._--James?
-
-_James._--A queen.
-
-_John._--Now, Harry?
-
-_Harry._--A lion.
-
-_John._--Tom?
-
-_Tom._--Beauty.
-
-_John._--You, William?
-
-_William._--An oak-tree.
-
-_John._--Alfred, it is your turn.
-
-_Alfred._--A beautiful woman.
-
-_John._--Andrew?
-
-_Andrew._--Hope.
-
-_John._--Arthur?
-
-_Arthur._--A hedgehog.
-
-_John._--Ben?
-
-_Ben._--A rose.
-
-_John._--And you, Cecil?
-
-_Cecil._--A vine.
-
-_John._--My thought was a rose; so now, Charles, tell me why a rose is
-like a young girl.
-
-_Charles._--Because it is loveliest when only half-blown.
-
-_John._--And why a queen?
-
-_James._--Because the rose is the queen of all flowers.
-
-_John._--Harry, why is a rose like a lion?
-
-_Harry._--Because it is one of the emblems of England.
-
-_John._--And why, Tom, is it like beauty?
-
-_Tom._--Because it soon fades.
-
-_John._--William, why is it like an oak?
-
-_William._--Because both spring from the earth.
-
-_John._--And you, Alfred; why is a rose like a beautiful woman?
-
-_Alfred._--Because its fragrance often remains after the charms are
-faded.
-
-_John._--Andrew, why is a rose like hope?
-
-_Andrew._--Because in returning sunshine it forgets the past storm.
-
-_John._--Arthur, why is a rose like a hedgehog?
-
-_Arthur._--Because its thorns defend it from a rough grasp.
-
-_John._--You, Ben, having fixed upon the same thing as myself, must pay
-a forfeit. Cecil, why is a rose like a vine?
-
-_Cecil._--Because in old times they were both considered essential to a
-banquet. I can think of nothing better.
-
-[Illustration: EASY GAMES WITH TOYS, OUTDOOR.]
-
-
-EASY GAMES WITH TOYS.
-
-
-OUTDOOR.
-
-
-[Illustration: BALLS]
-
-
-CATCH BALL.
-
-This is very simple play. The ball is thrown into the air by one player,
-the others standing round him. He calls out the name of the player, for
-whom the ball is thrown. If it be caught by the player so called, before
-the ball reaches the ground twice, he scores a point; if any of the
-other players catch it, they score a point, and the other loses one.
-
-
-DOUTEE-STOOL.
-
-This is a variety of the above game. A certain number of stools are set
-up in a circular form, and at a distance from each other, and every one
-is occupied by a single player; when the ball is struck, which is done,
-as before, by the hand, every one of them is obliged to alter his
-situation, running in succession from stool to stool; and if he who
-threw the ball can regain it in time to strike any of the players before
-he reaches the stool to which he is running, he takes his place, and the
-person touched must throw the ball, until he can in like manner return
-to the circle.
-
-
-EGG-HAT.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-All the players engaged in this favourite pastime must place their caps
-on the ground, close to the wall, in such a manner that a ball may be
-easily pitched into them. A line being marked on the ground about
-fifteen feet from the wall, one of the players takes his station at it,
-and begins the game by throwing the ball into one of the caps; the
-moment this is done all the boys run away, excepting the one into whose
-cap the ball is thrown, who immediately runs to take it out, and
-endeavours to strike one of the fugitives by throwing the ball at him;
-if he can do so, the one struck has a small stone, called "an egg,"
-placed in his cap, and has to take his turn at pitching the ball. Should
-the thrower fail to hit one of the boys as they are running away, an
-"egg" is put into his cap, and he has to pitch the ball into the caps
-again. If a player fails to throw the ball into a cap, he earns an
-"egg," but continues throwing until he succeeds. When a player gets
-three "eggs" in his cap, he is out. When all the players but one have
-been struck out, he is considered the winner, and the punishment of the
-losers then commences; one of them standing near the wall bounces the
-ball at it with all his force, and next stands with his back to the
-wall, stretching out his right arm, and placing the back of his hand
-quite close to the wall, while the winner, standing where the ball fell,
-takes aim, and throws the ball at the said loser's hand three times:
-each of the losers likewise receives the same punishment from him. In
-some places it is usual, when one boy gets out, for him to bounce the
-ball against the wall, and all the other players, standing at the spot
-where the ball first touched the ground, to have their three balls at
-his back, as he stands with his face to the wall. Should the ball in
-rebounding swerve either to the right or left, a line must be drawn,
-from the spot where it falls, to a place directly in a straight line
-from the boy at the wall; thus, suppose A is the boy who has just
-bounced the ball, which instead of going direct to B, has deviated from
-the straight line A B to C, a line should be drawn from C to B, and the
-winner should stand at the latter.
-
-
-FEEDER.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-In this game four or five stones or marks must be placed on the ground,
-as in the annexed figure, A, B, C, D, E, about twelve or fifteen yards
-asunder; these marks are called bases, and one of them, as A, is styled
-"home." The players next toss up for the office of "feeder," who takes
-his place about two yards in front of "home," as at F, and the rest of
-the players stand at and round the home. The feeder then calls out
-"Play!" and pitches the ball to the first player, who endeavours to
-strike it with a bat, as far as he possibly can; should he succeed in
-hitting the ball, he immediately drops the bat, and runs to the first
-base on his right hand, as E, while the feeder is going after the ball:
-but if he can run all the bases and then home, before the ball is in
-hand, so much the better. If, however, the feeder obtains the ball soon
-enough to throw it at, and strike him with it as he is running from base
-to base, the player is out; he is also out if the feeder catches the
-ball: in either case the player becomes feeder, and the latter runs home
-to join his playmates. Should any of the other players be out at the
-bases, when one is caught or struck out, they also must run home. If the
-first player could only reach the base E, after striking the ball, he
-should, when the second player strikes it, run to the base D, as it is
-not allowable for two persons to be at one base at one and the same
-minute; he proceeds in the same manner to the third and fourth bases,
-until he arrives home again, thus enabling the others to get to their
-bases and home in their respective turns. The player with the bat is not
-obliged to take every ball the feeder chooses to give him; if he does
-not like a throw, he catches the ball and throws it back again. He is
-not allowed to make more than three "offers" at the ball; if he does so
-he is out, and must be feeder.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-MONDAY, TUESDAY.
-
-This game, which takes its title from the names assumed by the players,
-is played by seven boys, each of whom calls himself after one of the
-days of the week. To show the manner of playing the game, we will
-suppose that some boys are playing at it, and that the ball is taken by
-"Wednesday;" he throws it up against a wall, calling out at the same
-time the assumed name of any one of the other players, who should be
-standing around--we will suppose, for instance, "Friday!" All the boys
-but Friday run away, and he endeavours to catch it ere it falls to the
-ground; if he can do so, he throws it up again, calling out another
-boy's name--say "Sunday!" Should the ball touch the ground before _he_
-can catch it, he must pick it up and throw it at the retreating party;
-and if he succeeds in hitting one of them, the boy struck has to throw
-the ball up the next time; but if he cannot strike one he loses a point,
-as in Egg-hat; indeed, in the rules respecting the punishment of the
-losers, and the number of points each player is restricted to, it
-resembles that game.
-
-
-NINE-HOLES.
-
-Dig near a wall nine holes, of about six inches in diameter, and three
-deep. Let each player have one of these, according to his number, which
-must be determined by lot. At about six yards from the holes draw a
-line, and from this, as a fielding place, one player pitches the ball
-into one of the holes. The boy to whom this hole is assigned immediately
-runs to it, while all the other players run off in different directions.
-The player snatches the ball from the hole, and throws it at one of the
-"runners;" if he hits him, the one so hit becomes "pitcher," and the one
-that struck him marks one. Should he not hit him, the player who throws
-the ball loses a point, and bowls. The player who misses his aim at
-throwing the ball at his partners a second time becomes a "Tenner." If
-he loses a third hit, he is a "Fifteener;" if the fourth, he stands out
-and can play no more. When all the players are thus out, the last player
-remaining in wins the game, and he can compel each of the losers to
-stand with their hands open against the wall, for him to throw at, and
-give what is called the "Brandy Ball." If the ball be a soft one, this
-conclusion of the game is all very well; but if a hard ball be used, it
-ought to be omitted, or the "Brandy" may be too strong.
-
-
-NORTHERN SPELL.
-
-This game is played with a trap and ball, which is struck with a bat or
-bludgeon at the pleasure of the players; but the latter is most commonly
-used. The performance of this game does not require the attendance of
-either of the parties in the field to catch or stop the ball, for the
-contest between them is simply who shall strike it the greatest distance
-in a given number of strokes; the length of each stroke is measured
-before the ball is returned, by means of a cord made fast at one end
-near the trap, the other being stretched into the field by a person
-stationed there for that purpose, who adjusts it to the ball, wherever
-it may be.
-
-The cord is divided into yards, which are properly numbered upon in it
-in succession, so that the person at the bottom of the ground can easily
-ascertain the distance of each stroke by the number of the yards, which
-he calls to the players to place to their account, and the ball is
-thrown back.
-
-
-ROUNDERS.
-
-This is a most excellent game, and very popular in some of our English
-counties. It is played with a moderate-sized ball and a hand-bat,
-_i. e._ a bat that can be held in one hand, and which is about two feet
-in length, smooth, and round. Two parties play at the game, and there
-ought not to be less than five on a side; and the first innings is
-decided by throwing up the ball, the party catching it being allowed to
-go in first.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-In playing the game, five stones, or stakes (called bases), or, if these
-be not convenient, as many holes may be made, at about sixteen yards
-apart, forming the five parts of a pentagon, as in the diagram. At the
-centre of this figure is a station called the feeder's place, being the
-spot at which one of the out party stands to give the ball to the
-batsman, or to "feed" him, as it is technically termed. The out party
-are distributed over the field, except the feeder, who takes his station
-at F to deliver the balls, while one of the in party takes the bat and
-places himself at Fig. 1, which is enclosed within a circle, and called
-the Home, and where all the rest of the in party stand. The feeder then
-says "Play," and delivers his ball to the batsman, who immediately
-strikes it as far as he can. As soon as he has done so, he drops his
-bat, and runs to as many of the stations as he can; but he must touch at
-all, or he will be out. If while he is running to the second, or between
-any of the bases, the returned ball is sent up and strikes him, he is
-out, and the next of the in party takes up the bat. If he is not struck
-while he runs, as soon as he reaches one of the stations the next of the
-in party takes up the bat, another ball is given by the feeder, and he
-runs to the first, or as many other of the stations as he can; the first
-batsman does the same, so as to go the whole round of the bases to the
-home at No. 1. The in player is also out if he tips the ball behind him,
-or if he misses striking it when delivered. The in players as they
-arrive at home take the bat again, till they are got out, according to
-the rules of the game just given. When it happens that all are out but
-two, the best of the two may, with the consent of the other, call for
-"three fair hits for the rounder." Standing at the home, the feeder then
-gives him in succession three balls. He may decline as many balls as he
-pleases, if they do not suit him; but if he strikes at the ball, he is
-only allowed to do so twice without running. On the delivery of the
-third ball, he must run the entire course, touching with his bat at
-every one of the five points. If, during his progress, he be touched by
-the ball, or it be grounded at the home while he is absent, he is
-declared out, and the opposite side go in and take their places. If, on
-the contrary, he reaches home without being struck or the ball grounded,
-his side go in again, and continue the game as before. Should he miss
-the ball when striking at it the third time, the rounder is lost. In the
-play the feeder is allowed to make feint or pretence of throwing the
-ball, in order to tempt a player to run from his base, so as to get a
-chance of hitting him. It is usual also for the out party to place a
-player behind the home, so that when a batsman makes a tip on the side
-of the home, he may seize the ball and strike him out before he reaches
-the first base.
-
-
-SEVENS.
-
-This game is very like Catch-ball. The object is to catch a ball seven
-times in a particular fashion; hence the name. The player begins by
-throwing the ball in the air and catching it seven times with both
-hands. Then he catches it seven times with the right hand, next seven
-times with the left. Then he throws the ball up, claps his hand while it
-is in the air, and catches it seven times with both hands, then with the
-right, and then with the left. The players are allowed to make as many
-more variations as they please; and he who goes through the series first
-wins the game.
-
-
-STOOL-BALL.
-
-This is an old English sport, mentioned by Gower and Chaucer, and was at
-one period common to women as well as men. In the northern parts of
-England, particularly in Yorkshire, it is practised in the following
-manner:--A stool being set upon the ground, one of the players takes his
-place before it, while his antagonist, standing at a distance, tosses a
-ball, with the intention of striking the stool. It is the former
-player's business to prevent this, by breaking it away with the hand,
-reckoning one to the game for every stroke of the ball; if, on the
-contrary, it should be missed by the hand, and touch the stool, the
-players change places. The conqueror of the game is he who strikes the
-ball most times before it touches the stool.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-TRAP, BAT, AND BALL.
-
-This game is so called from the trap used to elevate the ball when it is
-to be struck by the batsman. It is one of the earliest games played with
-the trap and ball, and we can trace it to the commencement of the
-fourteenth century. The manner in which it was then played was somewhat
-different to the style at the present day. As now played, the trap is no
-longer elevated, but set on the ground, and is generally made in the
-form of a shoe, the heel part being hollowed out for the reception of
-the ball: but some boys, when they cannot get a trap, make a hole in the
-ground, and having obtained the crochet bone of an ox, place it in a
-slanting position, one end being in the hole and the other out of it.
-The elevated end is then sharply struck with the bat, which causes the
-ball to rise to a considerable height, and then all the purposes of a
-trap are answered, especially if the ground be hard and dry.
-
-It is usual in the present game of Trap and Ball to place two
-boundaries, at a given distance from the trap, between which it is
-necessary for the ball to fall when struck by the batsman, for if it
-falls outside of either, he gives up his bat and is out. He is also out
-if he strikes the ball into the air, so that it is caught by an opposite
-player; and, again, if the ball when returned by an adversary touches
-the trap, or rests within one bat's length of it. Every stroke tells for
-one towards the striker's game.
-
-There are some variations in the play of the game in different counties.
-In Essex and Suffolk, for instance, the game is played with a cudgel
-instead of a bat, which would seem to be a preferable weapon, as those
-who strike with it rarely miss their blow, but frequently send it to an
-astonishing distance, no boundaries being set.
-
-The ball being stopped by one of the opposing party, the striker forms
-his judgment of the ability of the person who is to throw it back, and
-calls in consequence for any number of scores towards the game that he
-thinks proper. It is then returned, and if it appears to his antagonist
-to rest at a sufficient distance to justify the striker's call, he
-obtains his number; but when a contrary opinion is held, a measurement
-takes place, and if the scores demanded exceed in number the length of
-the cudgel from the trap to the ball, he loses the whole, and is out;
-while, on the other hand, if the lengths of the bat are more than the
-scores called for, the matter terminates in the striker's favour, and
-they are set up to his account.
-
-
-[Illustration: HOOPS]
-
-Trundling the hoop is a pastime of uncertain origin, but it has long
-contributed to the health and amusement of the youth of Great Britain.
-Iron hoops have almost superseded the old-fashioned wooden ones, and
-instead of being trundled with a stick, they are usually guided by an
-iron hook shaped like the annexed figure. On a cold frosty morning the
-hoop is an invaluable companion to a boy, as he is enabled by its aid to
-defy the weather, and dispense with overcoats, comforters, and all such
-devices for keeping out the wintry wind. Often have we envied our
-juvenile friends, as they have rushed past us with their hoops, and
-lamented that custom should prevent grown-up people indulging in the
-same healthful recreation.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE HOOP.
-
-The proper and legitimate hoop, however, should be made of a stout ashen
-lath, round on the outside and flat on the inside, and should be well
-fastened at its point of juncture; it should be in height so as to reach
-midway between the youngster's elbow and shoulder, so that he may not
-have to stoop while striking it. The stick should be about sixteen
-inches long, and made of tough ash; and, in bowling the hoop, the bowler
-should strike it vigorously in the centre, and in a direction horizontal
-with the ground. Such hoop exercise is exceedingly good, and a good run
-with such a hoop will warm the youth in the very coldest weather.
-
-The games, properly so called, that can be played with the hoop are very
-few, and not generally known.
-
-
-ENCOUNTERS.
-
-Two boys start at different ends of the playground with their hoops,
-and, meeting in the middle, each endeavours to knock down the hoop of
-his antagonist, while his own remains upright.
-
-There is no small skill required in this game, for it is not always easy
-to make the hoops touch each other at all. Then a light hoop has little
-chance against a heavy one, unless it can strike it sideways, for if it
-were struck directly in front, it would be certainly upset.
-
-Also, a ready hand at recovering a falling or tottering hoop wins many a
-game that appears to be hopelessly lost.
-
-Wooden hoops, also, give due exercise to the arm; and there is some tact
-required in knowing exactly where to strike a hoop, so as to propel it
-with the greatest force.
-
-This cannot well be done with iron hoops, and forms one of the
-objections to them. Moreover, boys always complain that they soon lose
-their round form, and are awkward to bowl. Still, there is something
-cheering in the ringing sound of an iron hoop, as it rushes along under
-the pressure of the curved iron rod that is used instead of a
-hoop-stick; and as long as boys don't drive them against the legs of
-unwary passengers, they are very well in their way.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-HOOP RACE.
-
-Any number of boys can join in this exciting sport, but they ought all
-to be provided with hoops as nearly equal in size as possible. At a
-given signal the players all start together, and each endeavours to
-reach the winning post (which may be any distant object) before his
-companions. He who arrives at the winning-post last is generally
-received with groans, hisses, and other vocal signs of disapprobation.
-
-
-POSTING.
-
-Bases, called _posting-stations_, are formed at regular distances, in a
-large circle or ellipse, and at each base a player is stationed. Every
-player, except the hoop-driver, has charge of a base. Let us suppose
-that there are seven players--A, B, C, D, E, F, and G, and that the
-latter holds the hoop: the other six players having taken possession of
-their stations, G now starts from the station belonging to F, and drives
-the hoop towards A, who waits, with hoop-stick in hand, ready to relieve
-G of his charge. G stops at the posting-station, while A trundles the
-hoop to B, who takes charge of it, and delivers it to C. C trundles the
-hoop to D; D transfers it to E; E delivers it to F; and F conveys it in
-safety to the first player, G. In this way the game continues, until all
-the players have worked round the circle five or six times. It is
-considered very disgraceful to touch the hoop with the hand, or to allow
-it to fall after it has been started on its journey. The game is
-rendered much more lively by increasing the number of players, and
-having two or three hoop-drivers to follow each other from base to
-base.
-
-
-TOURNAMENT.
-
-This game is almost the same as Encounters. Two boys drive their hoops
-one against the other, and he whose hoop falls in the encounter is
-conquered. With eight players this game may be rendered very exciting.
-Four of the players stand in a row, about six feet apart, and, at a
-considerable distance, the other four take their stand, facing them. At
-a given signal each player dashes towards his opponent, and strives to
-overturn his hoop. The four victors now pair off, and charge two against
-two. The conquerors then urge their hoops one against the other, and he
-who succeeds in overturning the hoop of his antagonist wins the game.
-Wooden hoops are more suitable for Tournament than iron ones, though the
-game is usually played with the latter.
-
-
-TURNPIKE.
-
-Five or six boys can play at this game, though only one hoop is
-required. Chance decides which of the players shall first take the hoop.
-The other players become turnpike-keepers. Each turnpike is formed of
-two bricks or stones, placed on the ground, and separated by about three
-fingers' breadths. These turnpikes are fixed at regular distances, and
-their number is regulated by the number of keepers. When all is ready,
-the first player starts his hoop, and endeavours to drive it through all
-the turnpikes; should he succeed in this, he turns the hoop, drives it
-back again, and retains it until it touches one of the turnpikes, the
-keeper of which now becomes hoop-driver. When a player touches the hoop
-with his hand, or allows it to fall, he must deliver it up to the
-nearest turnpike-keeper. Each keeper must stand on that side of his
-turnpike which is towards the right hand of the hoop-driver, and it
-therefore follows that he must alter his position when the hoop-driver
-returns. Should a keeper stand on his wrong side, the driver need not
-send the hoop through his turnpike. When the players are numerous, there
-may be two or more hoops driven at once.
-
-[Illustration: HOOP STICKS.]
-
-
-[Illustration: KITES]
-
-
-The form of the kite and manner of flying it must be familiar to all our
-readers. This favourite toy probably received its denomination from
-having originally been made in the shape of the bird called the kite.
-The flying of paper kites is a favourite pastime among the Chinese. On a
-certain day they hold a sort of kite festival, and then people of all
-ages hasten to the hills to fly their kites, the fantastic shapes and
-gaudy colours of which produce an extraordinary effect. Philosophers
-have occasionally taken the kite out of the hands of the schoolboy, and
-have applied it to useful and curious purposes. By means of a kite
-formed of a silk handkerchief stretched over a wooden frame, Dr.
-Franklin drew down lightning from the clouds, and demonstrated its
-identity with electricity. Many years ago Mr. Pocock, of Bristol,
-travelled on the road between Bath and London in a carriage drawn by two
-paper kites, supported at a moderate elevation, and impelled by the
-wind. The paper kite has also been employed to convey a line over the
-capital of Pompey's Pillar. We do not expect our readers to perform any
-electrical or locomotive experiments with their kites; but we are quite
-sure that they may derive great amusement from these little aërial
-machines, especially if they manufacture them with their own hands. We
-know of no pleasanter occupation for a summer's day than watching the
-graceful flight of a well-made kite.
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-HOW TO MAKE A KITE.
-
-For the upright get a good straight lath, as A B, in the annexed figure,
-and next procure half of a thin hoop or cane for the bow C D, and then
-tie the hoop to the upright at A, and take care to have as much on one
-side of the upright as on the other; otherwise your kite will be sure
-to fall on one side when flying. Notch the two ends of the bow C D, and
-tie a long piece of string to D; pass it round the upright at E, and
-then fasten it at C; next carry the string to A, pass it down to D, and
-tie it there: from thence it is to be continued to B, passed round a
-notch there, and carried up again to C, then down the upright at F, and
-up to D, where it is to be finally fastened off. The skeleton being thus
-finished, the next thing to be done is to paste several sheets of paper
-so as to form a surface large enough to cover the kite and allow of a
-little turn over to fasten the outer edges; after you have pasted the
-paper on to the skeleton, you must make two holes, in the upright, as at
-G, G, through which the belly-band is to be passed, knotting the two
-ends of the string to keep it from slipping through the holes. The wings
-are to be made of several sheets of paper, cut into slips, rolled close
-up, so as to bear some resemblance to a tassel, and tied to the sides of
-the kite at C, D. The tail, which should be about fifteen times the
-length of the kite, is made by folding a number of pieces of paper so as
-to be about an inch in breadth, and four inches in length, and
-afterwards tying them on a string at intervals of three inches, and is
-finished by affixing to the end of the string a large tassel made in the
-same manner as the wings. Tie the string with which you intend to fly
-the kite to the belly-band, and your kite is complete and ready for
-service.
-
-
-FLYING THE KITE.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-We need not enter very minutely into the rules to be observed in flying
-a kite, as every boy is acquainted with them. Unless there be a nice
-breeze stirring, the kite-flyer need not expect to have much sport, as
-nothing can be more vexatious than attempting to fly a kite when there
-is not sufficient wind for the purpose. To raise the kite in the first
-instance, the flyer will require the aid of another boy. The owner of
-the kite having unwound a considerable length of string, now turns his
-face towards the wind and prepares for a run, while his assistant holds
-the kite by its lower extremity as high as he can from the ground. At a
-given signal the assistant lets the kite go, and if all circumstances be
-favourable it will soar upwards with great rapidity. With a
-well-constructed kite, in a good breeze the flyer need not trouble
-himself to run very fast nor very far, as his kite will soon find its
-balance, and float quite steadily on the wind. The kite-flyer should be
-careful not to let out string too fast. When a kite pitches, it is a
-sign that it is built lop-side, or that its tail is not long enough.
-
-
-MESSENGERS.
-
-Some boys amuse themselves by sending messengers up to their kites when
-they have let out all their string. A messenger is formed of a piece of
-paper three or four inches square, in the centre of which a hole is
-made. The end of the string is passed through the hole, and the wind
-quickly drives the messenger up to the kite. The kite-flyer should be
-careful not to send up too many messengers, lest they weigh down the
-kite.
-
-
-CALICO KITES.
-
-Calico has many advantages over paper as a covering for kites; it is not
-so liable to be torn, is not damaged by wet, and may be sewn on the
-framework much more neatly than paper can be pasted. Being much heavier
-than paper, it is, however, only suited for large kites. A portable
-calico kite may now be procured at most of the toy-shops. The framework
-of this kite is formed of two slender pieces of wood, which turn on a
-common centre in such a manner that they can either be shut up, so that
-one piece lies flat upon the other, or opened out into the form of a
-cross. The calico covering is attached to this cross by means of tapes.
-This portable kite can be rolled up and carried to the field without
-inconvenience.
-
-
-FANCY KITES.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Ingenious boys now and then take a hint from the Chinese, and so shape
-and paint their kites that they resemble different animate and
-inanimate objects. The "officer kite," which has the figure of a soldier
-painted on it, and the "hawk kite," which rudely represents a flying
-hawk, are common forms of fancy kites. A very funny effect may be
-produced by painting a kite like a sailor, and attaching moveable arms,
-instead of the ordinary tassel wings, to the shoulders. We present our
-readers with a few suggestive forms, which are quite novel. All fancy
-kites should be painted with the most glaring colours, and the figures
-on them drawn as coarsely as possible, as they are intended to be seen
-at a great distance.
-
-[Illustration: A HIGH FLYER.]
-
-
-[Illustration: MARBLES]
-
-
-In ancient times, when we were boys, and indulged in the luxury of
-marbles, they were very different from their present form. They were
-made of stone, nicely polished, and some of them, called "alleys," of
-the purest marble. Many of the stone marbles were beautifully
-variegated, and now and then a fancy pet was treasured under the name of
-"taw," which had somewhat the virtues of a talisman, for to "lose it or
-to give it" were "such perdition," as Othello says, as could never be
-exceeded. Of late years, marbles, like all other matters, have undergone
-considerable change. Foreign marbles have been introduced, prodigiously
-cheaper, it is true, than our old English marbles, but infinitely worse;
-and various kinds of "patent marbles" have had their day. Some of these
-go by the name of Dutchmen, others are called Frenchmen, and others
-again Chinamen, while it is not quite impossible to procure some right
-old English marbles, which, if they can be procured, are still the best.
-We would advise all marble players to procure these, if they can, as
-"marbles" is a royal game, and ought to be duly honoured.
-
-[Illustration: HOW TO HOLD YOUR TAW.]
-
-_How to Shoot your Marble._--The art of holding a marble to shoot it
-properly seems to be lost among our London boys, who are generally
-content to throw one marble at another, or if they shoot it to hold it
-in the turn of the fore-finger, forcing it out by the thumb, which is
-placed behind it. This, in our boyish days, was held to be a very
-illegitimate way of proceeding, derogatory to the true marble-player,
-and bore the dishonourable appellation of "fulking," and any one who
-made it his rule to hold a marble in such a manner was looked upon as a
-charlatan, or almost a cheat. The true way to hold your taw is to place
-it between the point of the forefinger and the first joint of the thumb,
-and to propel it from the nail of the thumb with strong muscular force;
-and so great was the skill attained by many boys, that they would
-sometimes strike a marble at five yards' distance, and frequently shoot
-one to six or seven.
-
-
-BOUNCE EYE.
-
-This game is played by several players, each of whom puts down a marble
-in a small ring. One player then stands in a perpendicular position over
-the cluster of marbles, and, taking his own bounce in his hand, lets it
-fall from his eye on to the heap, and those forced out of the ring by
-this method are considered won. If he does not succeed in this, and his
-marble falls within the ring, it belongs to the common stock, and is
-there impounded.
-
-
-CONQUEROR.
-
-There is a game called "Conqueror," which is extensively played in some
-places. A piece of hard ground, and free from stones, is chosen for the
-spot. The first player lays his marble on the ground, and the second
-throws his own at it with all his force, and endeavours to break it. If
-he succeeds, his marble counts one, and the vanquished player lays down
-another marble. If two players have marbles that have already vanquished
-others, the "Conqueror" counts all the conquered of the other party in
-addition to his own. For example, suppose A, being conqueror of twenty,
-breaks B, also a conqueror of twenty, A counts forty-one, _i. e._ twenty
-of his own, twenty for the vanquished belonging to B, and one for B
-itself.
-
-Nuts, chestnuts, and other similar objects are also employed in this
-game, only they are fastened to a string, and swung against the
-opponent, instead of being thrown.
-
-
-DIE SHOT.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-This is a very good game, and requires both skill and caution. It is
-played by elevating a die upon a marble, whose sides are slightly ground
-down, so that it will stand firmly, and firing at it from an offing,
-which is generally at a distance of about four feet from it. The
-die-keeper undertakes to pay to the shooter who knocks down the die the
-number which falls uppermost, receiving one marble from each player as
-he shoots.
-
-
-EGGS IN THE BUSH.
-
-This game is a great improvement upon odd or even. Dick asks Tom to
-guess the number of "eggs in the bush"--that is, the number of marbles
-in his closed hand. If Tom can guess the right number, he takes all; but
-if he is out in his reckoning, he pays Dick as many marbles as will make
-up or leave the exact number. Suppose Dick has six marbles in his hand;
-now, if Tom should guess either four or eight, he would have to forfeit
-two marbles to Dick, because four is two less, and eight is two more,
-than the exact number. The players hold the "eggs in the bush"
-alternately.
-
-
-INCREASE POUND.
-
-In most respects resembles Ring taw, the variations being, that if
-before a marble is shot out of the ring one player's taw is struck by
-another's (excepting his partner's), or if his taw remains within the
-ring, he puts a shot in the pound, continues in the game, and shoots
-again from the offing before any of his companions. If his taw is struck
-after one or more marbles have been driven out of the ring, if he has
-taken any shots himself, he gives them to the player who struck him,
-puts a taw in the ring, and shoots from the offing, as before. If,
-however, he has not won any marbles during the game, before his taw is
-struck, he is "killed" and put out of the game; he is likewise out if,
-after any shots have been struck out, his taw gets within the pound--if
-it remains on the line it is nothing. He then puts the marbles (if he
-has won any) into the circle, adding one to them for the taw struck, and
-shoots again from the offing. In case he cannot gain any shots after his
-taw gets "fat," as remaining in the ring is termed, he is killed, and
-out for the rest of the game. When only one marble remains in the ring,
-the taw may continue inside it without being "fat." Each player seldom
-puts more than one marble in the ring at the beginning or a game.
-
-
-KNOCK OUT, OR LAG OUT.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-This game is played by knocking marbles against a wall, or perpendicular
-board set up for the purpose; and the skill displayed in it depends upon
-the player's attention to what is called in mechanics the resolution of
-forces: for instance, if an object be struck against the wall at A from
-the mark at B, it will return again to B in a straight line; if it be
-sent from C to A, it will, instead of returning to C, pass off aslant to
-D, and its course will form the angle C A D; the angle of incidence
-being equal to the angle of reflection.
-
-The game is played by any number of players: the first player throws his
-marble against the wall, so that it may rebound and fall about a yard
-distant from it; the other players then, in succession, throw their
-marbles against the wall, in such a way as to cause them to strike any
-of those already lagged out, and the marble struck is considered won by
-the owner of the taw that strikes it, in addition to which the winner
-has another throw. When only two boys play, each successively throws out
-till one of the "laggers" is struck, and he who strikes takes up all.
-
-
-LONG TAW.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Long taw is played by two persons in the following manner. One boy
-places his marble on the ground at A, the other at B; then both retire
-to the spot C. The first boy now shoots at B from a line marked at C. If
-he strikes it, he takes it and shoots at A; if he strikes A, he then
-wins the game. If, however, he misses B, the second boy then shoots at
-B; if he strikes it, he can then either shoot at the first boy's taw at
-the place at which it lies, or he can shoot at A. If he hits his
-opponent's taw, he is said to kill him, and wins the game, or if he
-shoots at A, and hits it. The boy who hits the last shot has the
-privilege of shooting at the taw of the other, provided it has not
-already been killed. If he hits it, the taw is taken, or the owner must
-pay one, and the game ends; and if he misses it, the game is then at an
-end also. Long taw is a game seldom played by London boys, but is very
-common in the different English counties.
-
-
-NINE-HOLES, OR BRIDGE BOARD.
-
-This game is played by means of a piece of board cut into the form of a
-bridge, having nine arches, and just large enough to let the marbles
-pass through, as in the subjoined diagram. One of the players undertakes
-to be "bridge-keeper," and the stipulation usually made is, that he
-should receive one for every unsuccessful shot, and pay to those who
-shoot their marbles through the arches the numbers standing over them.
-The place from which the players shoot their marbles is generally about
-four feet from the bridge.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-ODD OR EVEN.
-
-One player extends his closed hand containing some marbles, and asks his
-opponent to guess whether their number is odd or even. Should he guess
-wrong, he forfeits a marble, and his questioner tries him with another
-lot; but should he guess right, the first player must pay him a marble,
-and take a turn at guessing.
-
-
-PICKING THE PLUMS.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-This game consists in each player placing a marble on a line drawn upon
-the ground thus, and the whole shooting at them in succession from a
-mark about four feet off. The order of the shots is determined
-beforehand, by pitching at a marble from a six-feet offing, those
-nearest being first, second, third, and fourth in order, as the marbles
-lie. The marbles knocked off the line are won by the respective
-shooters.
-
-
-THE PYRAMID.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-In this game a boy generally sits upon the ground, with his legs open
-wide, and, making a small circle, places in it three marbles at the
-three points of a triangle, and the fourth on the top of them, so as to
-form a small pyramid. A distance of about four feet is then chosen as
-the point to shoot from, and the other players shoot at the pyramid.
-Those that strike it have all the marbles they knock out of the ring;
-but if they miss, they lose their shots.
-
-
-RING TAW.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Ring taw is a game requiring skill and judgment, and is a most excellent
-game. It is played as follows. Two rings are drawn upon the ground, a
-small one, six inches in diameter, enclosed by a larger one, six feet in
-diameter. Into the small ring each player puts a marble, called "shot."
-The players then proceed to any part of the large ring, and from thence,
-as an offing, shoot at the marbles in the centre. If a player knocks a
-marble out of the ring he wins it, and he is entitled to shoot again
-before his companions can have a shot. When all the players have shot
-their marbles, they shoot from the places at which their marbles rested
-at the last shot. If the shooter's taw remain in the small circle, he is
-out, and has to drop a marble in the ring, and he must put in besides
-all the marbles he had previously won in that game. It is a rule, also,
-that when one player shoots at and strikes another's taw, the taw so
-struck is considered dead, and its owner must give up to the striker of
-the taw all the marbles he may have previously won during the game. The
-game is concluded when all the marbles are shot out of the ring, or all
-the taws are killed.
-
-
-SPANS AND SNOPS, AND BOUNCE ABOUT.
-
-This consists of one boy laying down his taw, and, giving a distance,
-his antagonist shoots at it; if he misses, the first boy shoots at the
-taw of the second, till one is struck, which the striker claims. Bounce
-About is the same game played by throwing large marbles instead of
-shooting smaller ones, he who strikes the other's bounce being the
-winner.
-
-
-TEETOTUM SHOT.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-This is played on the same conditions as Die Shot. A teetotum is set
-spinning by the keeper, and, when in motion, any player is allowed to
-shoot at it, upon the payment of one marble, receiving, if he strikes,
-turns over, and stops the teetotum, as many marbles as are indicated on
-the side that falls uppermost. This is a very skilful game, and requires
-good shots.
-
-
-THREE-HOLES.
-
-This game is played by making three holes in the ground, about a yard
-and a half or two yards asunder. About two yards from the first hole a
-line is drawn. The right to shoot first is decided by chance. The first
-shooter now knuckles down at the line, and endeavours to shoot into the
-first hole. If he does this he proceeds to the second, then to the
-third, and wins the game; but this rarely occurs. If he misses the first
-hole, the other players shoot their taws, and if neither of them enter
-the hole, the first shot immediately does so; and then he has the
-privilege either of proceeding to the second hole, or of killing the
-other men by shooting at and hitting them, when they must either give up
-their taws or drop one. Sometimes a player will kill all his antagonists
-in succession without proceeding to any hole except the first, and thus
-wins the game; at other times the game may be won by any of the players
-killing their antagonists during any period of the game. It is a rule
-that no one can "kill a taw" till he has been in the first hole.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-TIPSHARES, OR HANDERS.
-
-This game is played by two or more players. To play it, a hole, of the
-diameter of three inches, is first made on a smooth or level piece of
-ground, and a line is marked at about seven feet from it. Each boy puts
-down two, three, or four marbles, as may be agreed upon, and then the
-whole party bowl for their throws, by retiring to three times the
-distance already marked from the hole, and bowling one marble to it; the
-order of throws being determined by the nearness that each boy's marble
-approaches the hole. When this is settled, the first thrower takes all
-the marbles in his hand, and throws them in a cluster towards the hole.
-If an even number falls in, such as 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, he wins all; but if
-an odd number falls in, he loses all.
-
-[Illustration: "MARBLES ARE OUT"]
-
-
-[Illustration: TOPS]
-
-The peg-top appears to be a modern invention, but the whip-top is of
-great antiquity, it having been used in remote times by the Grecian
-boys; it was well known at Rome in the days of Virgil, and in England as
-early at least as the fourteenth century, when its form was the same as
-it is now. Strutt, in his "Sports and Pastimes of the People of
-England," relates the following amusing anecdote of Prince Henry, the
-eldest son of James I., which he met with in an old manuscript at the
-British Museum: "The first time that the prince went to the town of
-Stirling to meet the king, seeing a little without the gate of the town
-a stack of corn in proportion not unlike to a top wherewith he used to
-play, he said to some that were with him, 'Lo, there is a goodly top!'
-Whereupon one of them saying, 'Why do you not play with it then?' he
-answered, 'Set you it up for me and I will play with it.'"
-
-
-THE HUMMING-TOP.
-
-These cannot easily be made, but can very easily be purchased by those
-who are so lucky as to have the money. They are made hollow, having at
-their crown a peg, round which is wound a string; this, being pulled
-through a kind of fork, gives motion to the top, and sets it
-spinning--the fork and the string being left in the spinner's hand. In
-spinning the top, care should be taken to wind the string firmly and
-evenly on the peg; and when it is pulled out, neither too much nor too
-little force should be used, and a firm and steady hand should be
-employed, while the top should be held in a perpendicular position. The
-string should be drawn with a steadily increasing force, or the top will
-not hum properly.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-PEG-TOP.
-
-There are various kinds of Peg-tops, and they also vary in shape, some
-being much rounder than others. Those are the best which are shaped like
-a pear. There is also great variety as regards the shape and size of the
-peg, which in some tops is short and thick, in others long and tapering.
-Again, tops are made of different kinds of wood, some being made of
-deal, others of elm, some of yew-tree, and others of boxwood. These last
-are the Boxers so highly prized. Some of the very best tops are made of
-lignum vitæ, with long, handsome pegs.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-SPANISH PEG-TOP.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The Spanish peg-top is made of mahogany. It is shaped somewhat like a
-pear; instead of a sharp iron peg, it has a small rounded knob at the
-end. As it spins for a much longer time than the English peg-top, and
-does not require to be thrown with any degree of force in order to set
-it up, it is extremely well adapted for playing on flooring or pavement.
-
-
-THE WHIP-TOP.
-
-Whip-top is a capital sport when played by two persons; and is played by
-first whirling the top into motion by turning it sharply with both
-hands, and then by flogging it till its motion becomes very rapid. When
-two persons play whip-top, the object should be for each to whip his top
-to a certain goal, he who reaches it first being the victor.
-
-
-CHIP-STONE.
-
-This game is played by two boys, in the following manner: Two lines,
-about six feet apart, are marked upon the ground, which ought to be
-smooth and hard. Some small stones are then procured and placed midway
-between the lines; they should not be larger than a small bean, and the
-black and polished ones are the most sought after. The tops are now set
-up spinning on the ground, and the players, being each provided with a
-small wooden spoon, dexterously introduce them under the pegs of the
-spinning tops, and then, with the top still spinning in the spoon, throw
-the point of the peg against the stone, so as to chip it out of bounds;
-he who does this the soonest being the victor. While the top continues
-to spin, he may take it up with the spoon as many times as he can, and
-when it spins out he must again wind up, pursuing the same plan till he
-"chips out."
-
-_Directions._--In winding up the top do not wet the end of the line too
-much, and take care to lay it closely and evenly within the grooves. In
-throwing the top from you, the line must be pulled in with a peculiar
-jerk of the hand, which practice alone can give. The string button
-should be held close in the hand, between the last two fingers of the
-hand. There is what is called an "underhand" way of spinning a top,
-_i. e._ by holding it peg downwards, throwing it in a straight line
-forward, and withdrawing the string; but as we dislike everything
-underhand, we shall not recommend this practice any more than we shall
-the Spanish tops, which are spun after this method.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-PEG-IN-THE-RING.
-
-This game may be played by any number of boys. A ring about a yard in
-diameter is first marked on the ground, and another ring surrounding
-the first, and at a yard's distance from it, is also marked. The players
-must stand on this ring, and from it throw their tops. One player begins
-by throwing his top spinning into the ring, and while it is there
-spinning the other players are at liberty to peg at it as quickly as
-they can. If none of them hit it while it is spinning, and if it rolls
-out of the ring, the owner is allowed to take it up, and having wound
-it, to peg at the others which may be still spinning in the circle.
-Should any of the tops, when they cease spinning, fall within the ring,
-they are considered dead, and are placed in the centre of the circle for
-the others to peg at. The player who succeeds in striking any of the
-tops out of the circle claims those so struck out. In some places each
-player may ransom his top with a marble.
-
-Sleeping tops are exposed to much danger in the play, for they offer a
-fair mark to the "pegger," and often get split, when the "peg" is taken
-by the splitter as his trophy. Long-pegged tops are the best for the
-game, for they lie more upon their sides after their fall, and, before
-the spinning entirely ceases, are the more likely to spin out of the
-ring.
-
-There is a way of making the top spring out of the ring directly it has
-touched the ground. Only long-pegged tops will execute this feat. It is
-done by drawing the hand sharply towards the body just as the top leaves
-the string. When the man[oe]uvre is well executed, the top will drive
-any opponent that it strikes entirely out of the ring, while it does not
-remain within the dangerous circle itself for more than a few seconds.
-
-[Illustration: "TOPS ARE IN."]
-
-
-[Illustration: MISCELLANEOUS TOYS]
-
-There are some out-door games played with toys which do not fall under
-any of our previous headings. These games we now lay before our reader,
-together with a description of the toys in common use.
-
-
-THE APPLE MILL.
-
-The Apple Mill is made by boring a hole in a nut, just large enough to
-pass a thin skewer through; the kernel should then be extracted, and
-another hole bored in the side of the nut, as A in the annexed figure. A
-skewer should next be cut or thinned, leaving it large enough at the top
-to form a head, as shown in the cut. A piece of string is then to be
-tied to the skewer, and passed through the hole in the side of the nut
-at A, and an apple stuck on the end of the skewer. The mill being now
-complete in all its works, it should be twirled round in the same manner
-as the humming top to wind up the string, holding the nut stationary
-between the forefinger and thumb of the left hand; when this is done,
-the string must be pulled out quickly, and the mill will immediately
-spin round. When an apple cannot be procured, a small potato will serve
-equally well.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-AUNT SALLY.
-
-This amusing game is of a very simple character, consisting essentially
-in throwing at a small object. Aunt Sally herself is composed of a head
-and bust cut out of a solid block of wood, and generally carved with
-negro features, and painted black. In the middle of her nose, or between
-her lips, a hole is bored, into which is stuck a short pipe. To break it
-is the object of the game. An iron rod serves to support the wooden
-figure at a proper elevation from the ground; and when in gala costume,
-Aunt Sally is usually arrayed in a mob cap and a petticoat. The mode of
-playing the game is as follows:--
-
-The iron rod is stuck in the ground, a pipe put into the old lady's
-mouth, and a line drawn upon the ground, at twelve, sixteen, or more
-paces. At this line the players stand, and each is furnished with three
-short cudgels, about eighteen inches in length, which they hurl at Aunt
-Sally's head, in hopes of hitting the pipe. The best plan is to throw
-the cudgels underhand, giving them a rapid rotatory movement at the same
-time. Some persons insert an additional pipe into each ear; but this is
-an innovation, and leads to careless throwing. It is better to hang a
-sheet, net, or large cloth behind Aunt Sally, in order to catch the
-sticks, and save the trouble of continually fetching them from a
-distance. Within doors, the iron rod is furnished with a loaded
-pedestal.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-BATON,
-
-Or, "Throwing Sticks." This very popular game among the Greeks was by
-them called Kyndalismos. It was played with short batons, and required
-considerable strength and quickness of eye. With us the game is played
-in much the same manner as the Greeks played it. A stick is fixed in a
-kind of cup or hole, about six inches deep, in a loose moist soil, and
-the players consist of the Keeper and Throwers. The Keeper places on the
-top of the stick some article, such as an apple or orange, and the
-Throwers endeavour to knock it off, by throwing at it with short thick
-sticks, or batons; whoever succeeds in doing this claims the prize,
-whenever it falls without the hole. The Thrower will soon find in his
-play, that to hit the stick is of little importance, as from the
-perpendicular line of gravity which the apple or orange will take in its
-descent, it is almost certain to fall into the hole. The aim, therefore,
-should be to strike the object from the stick. This game is very common
-at fairs and similar places, and three sticks, with articles upon them,
-are usually set up, but which offer no advantage to the throwers.
-
-
-CAT.
-
-Tip Cat, although not altogether a nice pastime, ought to be noticed
-here. It is a dangerous game, and should be played with great caution on
-the part of the players. It is a rustic game, well known, and generally
-goes by the name of Cat. It is played with a cudgel or bludgeon,
-resembling that used for trap-ball. Its name is derived from a piece of
-wood called a "Cat," of about six inches in length, and an inch and
-half, or two, in diameter, diminished from the middle to both the ends,
-being of the shape of a spindle or double cone; by this contrivance the
-places of the trap and ball are at once supplied, for when the Cat is
-laid upon the ground, the player with his stick tips it at one end by a
-smart stroke, which causes it to rise in the air with a rotatory motion,
-high enough for him to strike it as it falls, in the same manner as he
-would a ball.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-There are various methods of playing the game of Cat. The first is
-exceedingly simple, and consists in making a large ring upon the ground,
-in the middle of which the striker takes his station. His business is to
-beat the Cat over the ring; if he fails in so doing he is out, and
-another player takes his place; if he is successful, he judges with his
-eye the distance the Cat is driven from the centre of the ring, and
-calls for a number at pleasure to be scored for the game: if the number
-demanded be found, upon measurement, to exceed the same number of
-lengths of the bludgeon, he is out; on the contrary, if it does not, he
-obtains his call.
-
-The second method of playing Cat is to make four, six, or eight holes in
-the ground, in a circular direction, and as nearly as possible at equal
-distances from each other, and at every hole is placed a player with his
-bludgeon. One of the opposite party who stands in the field tosses the
-Cat to the batsman who is nearest him, and every time the Cat is struck
-the players are obliged to change their situations, and run once from
-one hole to another in succession. If the Cat be driven to any very
-great distance, they continue to run in the same order, and claim a
-score of one towards the game every time they quit one hole and run to
-another. But if the Cat be stopped by their opponents, and thrown across
-between any two of the holes, before the player, who has quitted one of
-them, can reach the other, he is out.
-
-
-CAT AND MOUSE.
-
-This sport, which is of French origin, is for two players only. Both
-being blindfolded, they are tied to the ends of a long string, which is
-fastened by a loose knot in the middle to a post, and, as the knot is
-very slightly tied, the players are enabled to move about with facility.
-The player who takes the part of the "mouse" scrapes two pieces of wood
-together, so as to make a grating noise, and for which purpose the edges
-of one of the pieces of wood are notched: the sound attracts the other
-player, who represents the "cat," and he immediately uses his utmost
-efforts to catch his prey, by following the noise as well as he can, the
-"mouse" at the same time struggling about, in order to escape being
-caught.
-
-
-KNOCK-'EM-DOWN,
-
-[Illustration]
-
-A similar game to Aunt Sally, but a simpler one, is made by scooping a
-hole in the ground, and placing in it an upright stick; on the top of it
-is placed a stone, or similar substance. The player then retires to a
-distance, and flings at the stone with cudgels or balls, the latter
-being preferable. If the stone falls into the hole, the player only
-counts one towards the game; but if it falls outside the hole, he counts
-two. This is a capital game for the seaside, and can be played upon the
-sands. This game is almost similar to Baton.
-
-
-PEA-SHOOTERS.
-
-The pea-shooter is a tube of metal, through which a pea may be propelled
-with great force by a puff of air from the mouth. The ordinary tin
-pea-shooters sold in the shops are comparatively worthless. We should
-advise the reader to procure a straight piece of brass tube from two to
-four feet long, and get a brazier to tin one end of it, so that the
-brass may not corrode when placed in the mouth. With such a tube peas,
-pellets of clay, and other projectiles may be shot with great precision
-to a considerable distance. The game of puff and dart is played with a
-long brass tube, and a small dart having a needle point. The dart is
-blown through the tube at a target, on which there are divisions bearing
-different numbers.
-
-
-QUOITS.
-
-The game of Quoits is very excellent. It seems to have derived its name
-from the ancient discus, and with us in the present day is a circular
-plate of iron perforated in the middle, not always of one size, but
-larger or smaller to suit the strength or convenience of the several
-candidates.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-To play at Quoits an iron pin called a hob is driven into the ground
-within a few inches of the top, and at the distance of eighteen or
-twenty yards, as may be agreed upon, a second pin of iron is also fixed.
-The players are generally divided into parties, and the players pitch
-the quoits from hob to hob; those who pitch the nearest reckoning
-towards the game. But the determination is discriminately made; for
-instance, if a quoit belonging to A lies nearest to the hob, and a quoit
-belonging to B the second, A can claim but one towards the game, though
-all his other quoits be nearer to the hob than all the other quoits of
-B, because one quoit of B being the second nearest to the hob, cuts out,
-as it is called, all behind it. If no such quoit had interfered, then A
-would have reckoned all his as one each. Having all cast their quoits,
-the players walk to the opposite side, and determine the state of the
-play. Then taking their stand there, throw their quoits back again, and
-continue to do so alternately, till the end of the game. A quoit that
-falls with its flat side upward does not count.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-NINE-PINS.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-This game, as its name denotes, is played by means of nine pins, which
-are set up in a regular order, the aim of the players being to throw
-down as many as possible in the fewest attempts. Each player is
-permitted to throw three times at the pins, and if he can knock them all
-down in two throws, it is called a "single," and they are again set up
-for his last throw; or, if he can knock them down in one throw, it is
-called a "double," and they are set up. A heavy wooden ball, called a
-"bowl," is used to throw at the pins.
-
-
-SKITTLES.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Skittles is played in a manner somewhat similar to the preceding game,
-but the number of pins is only four. These are very large, and are
-arranged on a square framework, so as to present one of the angles to
-the player. The bowl used for playing this game is of the shape of a
-cheese, and is usually made of lignum vitæ, as being very heavy and hard
-wood. The game requires more bodily strength than nine-pins, as the bowl
-must be thrown upon the skittles, and not rolled up to them.
-
-The best play is to throw the bowl with a round-handed swing of the arm,
-so as to strike the nearest skittle at the right of its upper third. The
-ball then springs to the second skittle, and from this generally twists
-to the third, while the fourth skittle is sent down by the roll of the
-one first struck. It is very difficult to make this throw successfully,
-and many players prefer driving down the first and third skittles with a
-straightforward shoot, and then making their second ball spring across
-from the second to the fourth. This latter stroke appears very
-difficult, but is soon learnt; the great point being to throw the bowl
-high, so that it may drop as perpendicularly as possible on the left of
-the upper third of the second skittle. In the long run, the constant
-repetition of this practice will overbalance occasional brilliancy of
-play.
-
-
-DUTCH-PINS.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-This game is nothing more than a modification of nine-pins; the pins
-being higher, and the centre one bearing the name of king, and a crown
-upon its head. The great point in this game is to strike the king out of
-the board without knocking down any of the subjects. If this can be
-done, the game is won. In all other cases, the king counts for no more
-than any of his subjects.
-
-
-THROWING THE HAMMER.
-
-This is a good athletic sport, but the Hammer can scarcely be called a
-toy. The hammer used by rustics is generally the sledge-hammer of the
-blacksmith, with a head weighing some twelve or fourteen pounds. The
-players are all single and do not join in parties, and the prize is
-given to him who makes the greatest number of long throws in a dozen. It
-does not merely require strength to throw the sledge-hammer, but a nice
-calculation of the area which the Hammer has to pass over in its flight,
-combined with the strength of the thrower.
-
-
-THE BOOMERANG.[1]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-This instrument is a curved piece of wood, flat on one side, and
-slightly rounded on the other. It is used by the natives of New South
-Wales, who can throw it so dexterously as to kill a man behind a tree,
-where he may have fled for safety. It should be held horizontally in
-throwing it, and cast by bringing the arm backwards, and after making a
-variety of curves it will come back again to the person who send it. If
-skilfully thrown, it may be made to go in almost any direction the
-thrower pleases.
-
- [1] The instrument represented in the cut is the Australian boomerang.
- Those used in England have a sharper curve.
-
-
-THE SKIP-JACK, OR JUMP-JACK.
-
-The skip-jack is manufactured out of the merry-thought of a goose, which
-must, of course, be well cleaned before it is used. A strong doubled
-string must be tied at the two ends of the bone, and a piece of wood
-about three inches long put between the strings, as shown in the
-marginal illustration, and twisted round until the string acquires the
-force of a spring. A bit of shoemaker's wax should then be put in the
-hollow of the bone at the spot where the end of the piece of wood
-touches, and when the wood is pressed slightly on the wax the jack is
-set; it adheres but a very short time, and then springs forcibly up. The
-skip-jack is placed on the ground with the wax downwards, and in some
-parts of the country it is usual to call out, "Up, Jack!" or "Jump,
-Jack!" just before it springs.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE SLING.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The art of slinging, or of casting stones with a sling, is of very high
-antiquity. We see it represented on the Nimroud monuments, and the feat
-of the divine youth, David, is familiar to every one. In the earliest
-times there were bands of slingers, and probably whole regiments of
-them, and there is little doubt that the art of slinging preceded that
-of archery. The former seemed, however, to belong to the Asiatic, as the
-latter did to the European nations. Our Saxon ancestors, also, seem to
-have been skilful in their manner of holding the sling. Its form is
-preserved in several of their paintings, and the manner in which it was
-used by them, as far back as the eighth century, may be seen in the
-annexed cut. We have also sufficient testimony to prove, that men armed
-with slings formed part of the Anglo-Norman soldiery.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-In country districts, slinging of stones is a common sport; and the
-sling so used consists simply of a piece of leather cut into the
-subjoined form, to which are affixed two cords, one having a loop. In
-using it, leather is suffered to hang from the strong downwards; the
-slinger places his little finger in the loop, and holds the other end in
-his hand, and then putting the stone in the hole of the sling at A,
-which prevents its falling, whirls the whole round for three or four
-times, to obtain a strong centrifugal force, and suddenly letting go of
-that part of the sling held in his hand, the stone flies forward with
-inconceivable rapidity, making a twanging sound in the ear as it flies.
-Slinging is a very good exercise for imparting strength to the arm, but
-young slingers should be very careful where they send their stones, or
-they may do much damage.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-If any of my readers may wish to construct a better kind of sling, they
-may do it in the following manner:--Get a currier to cut a piece of very
-strong buckskin leather in this shape, the centre being cut into bars.
-Two long strips of the same leather are then cut of this shape,
-
-[Illustration]
-
-two cuts being made along them, so as to leave three leather cords.
-These are plaited together, and the flat ends firmly sewn to the
-centrepiece. The shape will then be this:
-
-[Illustration]
-
-A sling made on this principle will carry a stone of a pound weight. The
-loop and point should be whipped with silk. The accuracy that can be
-obtained with such a weapon is astonishing, only the missiles should
-always be leaden bullets of the same weight--two or three ounces being
-the best average weight. At the school where my boyhood was spent, we
-used to send such bullets just over the weather-cock of one of the
-loftiest spires in England, and stripped a chestnut-tree of its
-blossoms. One year there was a solitary blossom on the top of the tree,
-which defied our efforts for many days. The blossoms were soon knocked
-off, but the green stalk resisted the blows for a long time. It was
-battered to pieces, but bent to the strokes, and had to be knocked off
-in fragments. I mention this to show the accuracy of aim that can be
-attained by practice.
-
-
-WALKING ON STILTS.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Among the Swiss, and in several districts in the South of France,
-walking on stilts is not only an amusing, but a useful, practice, as by
-means of these crane-like legs men and women transform themselves into
-the order of "Waders," emulating the long-legged storks and herons, and
-can cross over marshes and flooded grounds without wetting their feet.
-Stilts are easily made, being nothing but a pair of poles, with a wooden
-step at the sides for the feet to stand on. The poles are kept in their
-proper place by the hands. A little practice will soon render a youth
-"easy on his stilts," and they may be made an amusing and healthy
-exercise.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE SUCKER.
-
-The sucker is a toy of the simplest construction imaginable; it is made
-by merely cutting a circular piece out of some tolerably stout leather,
-boring a hole in its centre, and then passing a string through the hole,
-taking the precaution to make a large knot at the end of the string, to
-prevent its being drawn completely through the hole. Before using the
-sucker, it must be steeped in water until it becomes quite soft and
-pliable. If its smooth, moist surface be now pressed so closely against
-the flat side of a stone or other body, that the air cannot enter
-between them, the weight of the atmosphere pressing on the upper surface
-of the leather will cause it to adhere so strongly, that the stone, if
-its weight be proportioned to the extent of the disc of leather, may be
-raised by lifting the string. If the sucker could act with full effect,
-every square inch of its surface would support about the weight of
-fourteen pounds. The feet of the common house-fly are provided with
-minute natural suckers, by aid of which the insect is enabled to run up
-a smooth pane of glass and walk along the ceiling.
-
- * * * * *
-
-Our young readers will in all probability remark that we have laid but
-little stress on games with toys, and that comparatively few toys have
-been mentioned. We have done so intentionally, because the book is
-written expressly for boys, and those, English boys. Now an English boy
-always likes a toy that will _do_ something. For example, he cares not
-one farthing for all the elegant imitations of guns in the world, as
-long as he can have his pea-shooter; and the walnut stock, the
-glittering decorations, and the burnished but useless barrel of the toy
-gun, are nothing in his eyes, when compared with the plain tin barrel of
-his beloved pea-shooter, which will throw a missile with rifle-like
-accuracy of aim.
-
-For these reasons, we have mentioned but very few toys, looking with
-contempt upon those innumerable fabrications that find their place in
-the windows of toy-shops, and in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred are
-only purchased for the immediate gratification of spoilt children, who
-unconsciously illustrate the real objects of toys, by pulling them to
-pieces, and converting the fragments to unexpected uses.
-
-[Illustration: END OF TOYS.]
-
-
-EASY GAMES WITH TOYS.
-
-
-INDOOR.
-
-There are many elaborate toys which are not included under this head, as
-they are always sold with printed directions for using them. The games
-which follow are played with toys of the simplest construction, many of
-which may be easily manufactured by the reader.
-
-
-BATTLEDORE AND SHUTTLECOCK.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-This game is so well known as to require but little remark. The
-Battledores may be purchased at the toy-shops, as may also be the Cocks;
-but many of our young friends who know anything about carpentry may
-easily make both for themselves. The Battledores can be cut out with a
-key-hole saw into the subjoined shape. They should be about a quarter of
-an inch thick, the handles about six inches long, and the "spades" of
-about five inches long, and five broad. The Shuttlecock may be made by
-cutting a piece of cork into the following form, and placing a small
-brass nail at its lower end. The top should be plumed with five feathers
-standing outwards from the rim, being fastened by a little gum into
-small holes cut therein. The practice of the game is for two players to
-beat the Cock backwards and forwards from one to the other, and the one
-that lets it fall, by failing to strike it with his bat, is to give to
-the other a pea, bead, pin, or some other small article. Some
-foreigners, particularly the Chinese, play at this game with the toes,
-hands, elbows, and other parts of the body, and will keep the Cocks up
-in a most amusing manner, in the midst of many grotesque gestures.
-
-
-BANDILOR.
-
-This toy is simply a wheel or pulley of hard wood, having a very deep
-groove, round which a strong but fine cord is wound. The player holds
-the free end of the cord between his finger and thumb, gives a rapid
-rotatory motion to the bandilor, by allowing it to fall towards the
-ground; by a sudden jerk he now tightens the cord in the groove, and the
-toy rises towards his hand. A little practice will enable any one to
-keep the bandilor in motion for a considerable time by causing it to
-rise and fall alternately.
-
-
-CUP AND BALL.
-
-A ball of ivory or hard wood is attached to a stem of the same
-substance, having a shallow cup at one end and a point at the other. The
-player holds the stem in his right hand, as shown in the figure; and,
-having caused the ball to revolve by twirling it between the finger and
-thumb of his left, he jerks it up and catches it either in the cup, or
-upon the spike, to receive which a hole is made in the ball. We need
-scarcely say that the latter feat can only be performed by a skilful
-player. Cup and Ball was the favourite pastime at the court of Henry
-III. of France.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE CUTWATER.
-
-The Cutwater is a circular piece of sheet lead, notched like a saw round
-the edge, and having two holes pierced in it at some distance from each
-other, through which is passed a piece of string, the two ends being
-afterwards tied together. The annexed figure shows this toy, and the way
-it is to be held by the player. To set the Cutwater in action, the
-double string must be alternately pulled and slackened. Every time the
-string is relaxed the disc revolves, in consequence of the impetus it
-has acquired from the previous pull; and every time the string is
-tightened, it whirls round in an opposite direction, as the double
-string is then untwisted. If the edge of this toy be dipped in water, it
-may be made to sprinkle the bystanders and the player; hence its title
-of "Cutwater."
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-FOX AND GEESE.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Fifteen ordinary draughtsmen compose the flock of geese. The fox may
-either be two draughtsmen placed one upon another, or any small object
-which may be at hand. The game is played on a board marked as shown in
-the annexed engraving. The fox is placed in the middle of the board, and
-the geese on the points on one side of it, as shown in the illustration.
-The game is to confine the fox to some spot on the board, so that there
-shall be either the edge of the board or else two rows of men round him.
-When the fox cannot escape, the game is done, and the player of the
-geese wins; but when one of the geese is left on a point next to that
-occupied by the fox, and is not supported by another goose behind, or by
-the edge of the board, the fox can take it, and by jumping over its head
-to the next space, he may, perhaps, escape the persecutions of some of
-the others, as all the geese are compelled to move forwards towards the
-end of the board that was unoccupied at the commencement of the game.
-The fox is allowed to move either backwards or forwards. Neither fox nor
-goose must be moved more than one space at a time. If the fox neglects
-to take when he has a chance, he is huffed, and one of the captured
-geese is restored to the back of the board. The fox should avoid getting
-into the lower square of the board if possible, as he will find it
-difficult to extricate himself from a position which can be so easily
-blockaded.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-There is another method of playing fox and geese on a chessboard;
-namely, with four white men, representing the geese, and one black one,
-representing the fox.
-
-The geese are ranged on the four white squares nearest one player, and
-the fox may be placed where his owner pleases. The best place for him is
-that marked in the diagram, as he can man[oe]uvre in a very puzzling
-way.
-
-The geese can only move forward, and the fox moves either way. The
-object of the geese is to pen up the fox so that he cannot move, and the
-fox has to break through.
-
-If the game is properly played, the geese must win, the secret being to
-keep them all in line as much as possible. The fox tries to prevent this
-plan from being followed up; and if he can succeed in doubling the
-geese, or getting one to stand before another, he is nearly sure to pass
-through them.
-
-
-GOOSE.
-
-To play at Goose a board must be made containing sixty-three circles,
-placed so as to form some resemblance to the shape of a goose, and
-numbered consecutively. Two dice and a box, and as many counters as
-there are players, are required. Each player in turn throws the dice,
-and according to the number he throws, so he reckons, counting from No.
-1, and placing his counter on the number he obtains. The player who
-first reaches sixty-three wins the game. But mark; he must throw
-sixty-three exactly, or else he has to count the surplus number back
-from sixty-three. For instance, suppose when at sixty he throws eight,
-this makes sixty-eight, five over sixty-three. The player must,
-therefore, take five back from sixty-three, and leave his counter at
-fifty-eight. The game is called Goose from the fact that a goose is
-usually drawn on every fourth and fifth ring; and the player who lands
-on one of these, scores double the number he has just thrown. Several
-obstacles occur, however, on the journey. On one ring is drawn a bridge,
-to pass which a toll of one counter must be paid. A little farther on is
-an inn, where the player halts for two turns and pays two to the pool;
-but if he fall into the pond, the unfortunate wight has to stay there
-until another player tumbles in too, when he is allowed to proceed on
-his journey. The last hindrance is a gloomy prison, in which the same
-rule holds good, except that the relieving party, instead of going on as
-in the case of the pond, remains in durance vile until somebody else
-enters the prison-house. Other obstacles may be inserted at the players'
-option.
-
-
-HEAD, BODY, AND LEGS.
-
-One player takes an oblong piece of paper, and having divided it into
-three equal parts by folding, he sketches a comic _head_, either with
-pen or pencil, in the upper space; he then doubles the paper over, and
-hands it to another, who draws a _body_ in the middle compartment, folds
-the paper over once more, and passes it to a third, who completes the
-figure by drawing a pair of _legs_ in the lower space. The player who
-draws the head, must continue the neck a little way into the middle
-space, and he who sketches the body must just commence the legs in the
-lower compartment; this arrangement insures the connexion of head, body,
-and legs. Our first illustration shows how the paper is to be folded
-over for drawing the different parts of a figure. Each player should be
-provided with a pen or pencil, and a few pieces of paper; having drawn a
-head, he should fold his sketch in a proper manner and pass it to his
-right-hand neighbour; in this way a number of figures may be finished
-simultaneously. A knowledge of drawing is not expected of any player, as
-the crudest notion of a head, a body, or a pair of legs, will fully meet
-the requirements of the game. Those who have never played at Head,
-Body, and Legs, can have no idea of the absurd combinations that spring
-from the independent labours of the different players; thus, a man's
-body will sometimes get joined to a donkey's head, and be supported by
-the legs of an ostrich.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-KNUCKLE-BONES.
-
-This game is played with five little bones from a sheep's trotter. One
-player tosses up the knuckle-bones, sometimes one at a time, sometimes
-all together, and catches them either in the palm or on the back of his
-hand, according to certain rules. Should he fail to perform one of the
-tricks properly, he must hand the bones to his opponent, who attempts
-to go through the same series of man[oe]uvres with them. When the first
-player regains the bones through the unskilful play of his adversary, he
-once more attempts the feat he failed to accomplish before, and if he
-succeeds he tries to pass through the subsequent stages of the game. The
-player who first arrives at the end of the regulated series of tricks
-wins the game. It would be impossible to give the reader a clear idea
-of the manner of performing each trick without the aid of diagrams. In
-almost every school may be found an experienced player at knuckle-bones,
-whose directions will be of more value than any remarks we can make,
-though we were to devote a couple of pages to this pastime. In some
-parts of England a similar game, called "Jackstones," is played with
-small round pebbles.
-
-
-MERELLES, OR NINE MEN'S MORRIS.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-This is an ancient English game, and ought not to be laid aside; so we
-resuscitate it for the benefit of young England. It used to be played in
-England on the ground with stones, but may be played best on a table
-indoors. The form of the merelle-table, and the lines upon it, as it
-appeared in the fourteenth century, are here represented. These lines
-are still the same. The black spots at every angle and intersection of
-the lines are the places for the men to be laid upon. The men are
-different in form and colour, for distinction sake. The manner of
-playing is briefly thus: Two persons, having each of them nine pieces,
-or men, lay them down alternately, one by one, upon the spots; and the
-business of either party is to prevent his antagonist from placing three
-of his pieces so as to form a row of three without the intervention of
-an opposing piece. If a row be formed, he that made it is at liberty to
-take up one of his competitor's pieces from any part he thinks most to
-his advantage; excepting he has made a row, which must not be touched if
-he have another piece upon the board that is not a component part of
-that row. When all the pieces are laid down, they are played backwards
-and forwards in any direction that the lines run, but can only move from
-one spot to another at one time. He that takes all his antagonist's
-pieces, is the conqueror.
-
-
-PAPER DART.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-To form this dart you must take an oblong piece of paper, and fold it
-down the middle lengthwise; then double each of the lower corners up to
-the middle crease, and fold the doubled paper over to the same mark; you
-must now turn each folded side outwards, and your dart will resemble the
-annexed figure. The paper dart, when thrown from the hand, rarely hits
-the object aimed at, as it generally makes a graceful curve in passing
-through the air. Boys sometimes amuse themselves by fighting sham
-battles with these harmless weapons.
-
-
-THE POPGUN.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The best Popguns are made of a strong straight piece of elder-tree,
-which ought to be cut from an inner branch, and should be about six
-inches long. The pith of this should be pierced out by an iron ramrod
-fitting the hole; and when the inside is made thoroughly smooth by
-rubbing the rod up and down, it is ready for use. The pellets are made
-with moistened tow--brown paper is a nasty thing to put into the mouth,
-and we shall never advise the use of it. When the pellet is prepared, it
-should be laid over the mouth of the gun in such a quantity as to
-require squeezing and plugging in. The first pellet should be driven
-through the gun to its other end; the second pellet is to be driven in,
-in a similar manner to the first, and then it is forced through the gun:
-the air between the pellets being incompressible beyond a certain point,
-forces out the lower pellet with a loud "pop;" hence the the term
-"Popgun," which has been applied to them. Popgun-playing is not a very
-healthy exercise, the pressing of the rammer against the pit of the
-stomach frequently leading to derangement of that organ. To prevent
-this, the lad who plays at popgun should have a small round board slung
-over his neck by a string, hanging as low as the pit of his stomach,
-like a "conductor's ticket," against which he should press the handle of
-his ramrod when he fires off his popgun.
-
-
-PUSH-PIN.
-
-This trifling game is usually played by two boys. Each player places a
-pin on the table, and then endeavours to push one pin across the other
-with his finger-nail; should he succeed, both pins become his property.
-At starting, the pins must be placed head to head, and the players push
-alternately. Sometimes each player puts down two, three, or even more
-pins.
-
-
-SCHIMMEL.
-
-To play this amusing game, which is of German origin, it is necessary to
-be furnished with five cards, on which are painted the figures of a
-white horse, an inn, a bell, a hammer, and a bell and hammer; with eight
-little ivory cubes marked on one side only, six numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
-6, and the other two marked, one with a bell and the other with a
-hammer; with a box for throwing the dice, a hammer for disposing of the
-cards by auction, and a proportionate quantity of counters for the
-players. The cards, dice-box, and auctioneer's hammer, are shown in the
-annexed illustration. Any youth who can draw may easily prepare the
-cards; the cubes may be procured from an ivory-worker's and may be
-marked with ink. The game can be played by as many persons as are
-present. The counters are to be distributed by one of the players who
-holds the office of cashier, their value having been previously
-determined upon by the players. This being done, twelve are to be
-deposited by each player in the pool. The cashier then disposes of the
-five cards separately to the highest bidders, the produce of which is
-also to be placed in the pool. The white horse is by far the most
-valuable card, and therefore fetches the highest price in counters. The
-inn ranks next, and is usually purchased by the most speculative player,
-as its value depends upon circumstances. The bell and the hammer
-generally fetch the same number of counters, these cards being equally
-valuable, and the card upon which both bell and hammer are painted
-fetches about half the number that is given for one of the single
-figures. The bidders are not bound to confine themselves to the number
-of counters dealt out to them at the beginning of the game; should they
-exceed it, they may pay the remainder of the debt by instalments out of
-their receipts in the course of the game.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Each person is at liberty to purchase as many cards as he may think
-proper.
-
-The dice are then to be thrown by the players alternately, beginning
-with the holder of the white horse, any one being allowed to dispose of
-his throw to the highest bidder. When all blanks are thrown, each of the
-players pays one to the holder of the white horse, and he pays one to
-the inn. If with the blanks the bell, or hammer, or the bell and hammer
-together are thrown, the possessor of the card so thrown pays one to the
-white horse.
-
-When numbers accompany the bell, hammer, or bell and hammer, the cashier
-is to pay the counters, to the amount of numbers thrown, to the holder
-of such card, from the pool; but if numbers are thrown unaccompanied,
-the cashier then pays to the thrower.
-
-When the pool is nearly empty there arises an advantage to the inn, for
-if a player throws a figure greater than the quantity contained in the
-pool he pays the overplus to the inn; thus: suppose 4 are in the pool,
-if the players throws 10, he is to pay 6 to the inn; and if 2 are
-thrown, those 2 are paid to him from the pool, and so on till a figure
-is thrown which clears the pool, and so concludes the game.
-
-If all blanks are thrown after the inn begins to receive, the players
-pay nothing, but the owner of the white horse pays one to the inn; and
-should the bell, &c. be thrown with the blanks, the holder of that card
-pays one to the inn; and if numbers accompany the bell, &c. the holder
-of that card must pay to the inn the number thrown above those remaining
-in the pool. Nuts are sometimes used as counters, and the players keep
-their winnings. Sometimes the cashier receives a halfpenny or a penny a
-dozen for the counters, and when the game is finished the receipts are
-divided among the players according to their winnings. Those who do not
-hold cards frequently find themselves richer at the close of the game
-than their speculative companions, whose winnings do not always exceed
-the price paid for their cards.
-
-
-SPELICANS.
-
-Spelicans are made of thin pieces of ivory cut into different forms,
-some being like spears, others saws, bearded hooks, &c.; of some of the
-patterns there are duplicates, whilst of others only one. Each pattern
-has a value assigned to it, the lowest being five, and the highest
-forty; the numbers do not run in regular succession--as five, six,
-seven, eight--but irregularly, as five, sixteen, twenty-five. Hooks,
-made of bone, are used pointers.
-
-The game is played as follows:--One player should take up all the
-spelicans in a bundle, and holding them at a little height from the
-table, let them fall down in a confused heap on it; each player must
-then try alternately to take away a spelican from the heap without
-moving any of the others, and this it is generally very easy to
-accomplish at the first, for the top ones are mostly unconnected with
-the rest, but as the players proceed it requires some tact to jerk them
-out, with the help of the hook, made pointed for that purpose. The
-player who, at the entire removal of the heap, has the greatest number
-of spelicans, wins the game. Should any of the spelicans, while being
-removed shake the others, they must be put back into the heap again. It
-is usual in some places, instead of each player removing a spelican
-alternately, for one to continue lifting up the spelicans until he
-happens to shake one, when another player takes his turn until he in
-like manner fails, when another tries his fortune; and so the game
-continues, until all the spelicans are withdrawn.
-
-
-
-
-PART II.
-
-Athletic Sports and Manly Exercises:
-
-INCLUDING
-
-
- ANGLING,
- ARCHERY,
- BOXING,
- CANOES AND CANOEING,
- CRICKET,
- CROQUET,
- DRIVING,
- FENCING,
- FIVES,
- FOOT-BALL,
- GOLF,
- GYMNASTICS,
- HOCKEY,
- RACKETS,
- RIDING,
- ROWING,
- SAILING,
- SKATING,
- SLIDING,
- SWIMMING,
- TRAINING.
-
-[Illustration: ATHLETIC SPORTS.]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-ANGLING.
-
- "When I was a mere schoolboy,
- Ere yet I learnt my book,
- I felt an itch for angling
- In every little brook.
-
- "An osier rod, some thread for line,
- A crooked pin for hook;
- And, thus equipp'd, I angled
- In every little brook.
-
- "Where sticklebacks and minnows
- Each day I caught in store,
- With stone-roaches and miller's thumbs:--
- These brooks afford no more.
-
- "But I a little angler,
- With crooked pin for hook,
- Would shun each noisy wrangler,
- To fish the little brook."
-
-What can be more delightful than angling? Not indeed so much on account
-of the fish we may catch, but for the pleasantness of the recreation
-itself, for the cool streams, the shady trees, the little sunny nooks,
-the tiny or gigantic cascades, the meandering rills, the still pools,
-"with sedges overhung;" the picturesque mill-wheels, the deep
-mill-ponds, "smooth sheeted by the flood;" and above all, for the
-hair-breadth escapes, for the duckings, for the hazards, for the
-triumphs. We do not wonder at boys being fond of angling, it is almost
-an instinct with them, and has long been a favourite amusement with boys
-of all degrees, ages and constitutions. Therefore we shall be somewhat
-comprehensive in our notices of this interesting sport, that every boy
-who can bait a hook and hold a line may be an angler if he will.
-
-
-A WORD ABOUT FISH.
-
-First, however, let us say a word about fish in general, before we come
-to fish in particular. Fish or fishes are, to speak scientifically, a
-class of vertebrated animals (having a backbone) inhabiting the water;
-which breathe through the medium of that fluid by means of branchiæ or
-gills, instead of lungs; which swim by means of fins, and are mostly
-covered with scales. They are also generally furnished with a white
-membraneous bag close to the backbone, called the air bladder, by the
-dilatation or compression of which it is supposed they can rise or sink
-in the water at pleasure. All parts of their bodies seem to aid them in
-swimming in the water; their fins, their tails, and the undulation of
-their back-bones assist progression, and their whole structure is as
-much adapted for swimming as that of a bird is for flight.
-
-The fins of fish consist of thin elastic membrane, supported by bony
-rays, and are denominated according to their position--_dorsal_ on the
-back, _pectoral_ on the breast, _ventral_ near the vent, _anal_ that
-between the vent and the tail, and _caudal_ the tail fins. The dorsal
-and ventral fins appear to balance the fish, and the pectoral to push it
-forward; while the tail fins are the grand instruments of motion, and
-enable the creature to dart forward almost as rapidly as the bullet from
-a gun.
-
-With regard to the senses of fishes, the eye holds the first place; but
-this is best adapted for seeing under water. Of the organ of hearing
-there is no outward sign. The organ of taste is thought to be very
-unsensitive, and the sense of touch but slightly developed. To preserve
-their own existence, and to transmit it to their posterity, seems to be
-their only enjoyment; they move forward in pursuit of whatever they can
-swallow, conquer, or enjoy, and their insatiable appetite impels them to
-encounter every danger, whilst to their rapacity there seems to be no
-bound. A single pike has been known to devour a hundred roach in three
-days. The fecundity of fish is prodigious. The number of eggs in the
-codfish often amounts to more than three millions; those of flounders
-are above a million, of the mackarel 500,000, of the sole 100,000, and
-of the lobster 20,000; but the sturgeon is far more productive than any
-of these, as it has been known to have more than twenty millions of
-eggs!
-
-Without saying any more about "Fish in the abstract," as the angler
-called his "catch," when he returned without one, we must go to the art
-of "catching fish;" and the first thing to be attended to is the
-necessary fishing apparatus, which may be increased to any extent; but
-the _young_ angler would be wise to limit his stock as much as possible.
-We have fished many a hundred miles of water, and killed many a thousand
-of fish, with no better equipment than this:--One rod of about fourteen
-feet long, with three tops,--one stiff top, for bottom fishing and
-trolling, and two for fly-fishing. Two reels or winches, one holding a
-silk and hair line of thirty-five yards in length for fly-fishing, and
-the other holding a similar line, of forty yards, but much stronger, for
-bottom fishing, trolling, &c. One moderate-sized creel or fishing
-basket. One tin bait-box for worms or gentles; one tin live-bait can for
-carrying pike baits or minnows; and one strong _bag_ for carrying
-ground-bait. A landing-net; some shoemaker's wax in a piece of soft
-leather; a large clasp-knife; a pair of sharp-pointed scissors; a
-pocket-book, the centre filled with leaves of flannel to hold flies, and
-the remainder fitted up with gut, hooks, silk, baiting-needles, a pair
-of small pliers, split shot, floats, &c.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-ABOUT THE ROD.
-
-The rod is a material article in the young angler's catalogue, and much
-care should be taken to procure a good one. The fishing-tackle shops
-keep a great variety, made of bamboo cane, hazel, hickory, and other
-kinds of wood. Rods are of different lengths, some fitted as
-walking-canes, and others made to pack in canvass bags; the latter are
-preferred, because you may have them any length, and they are more true.
-Those made of bamboo cane are the best for general angling; but the rods
-made of the white cane much superior for fine fishing, particularly for
-roach, being very light in weight, but stiff.
-
-
-CHOOSING THE ROD.
-
-In choosing a rod (not a school rod, for no one likes to choose that),
-observe that it is perfectly straight, when all the joints are put
-together and that it gradually tapers from the butt to the top, and is
-from twelve to sixteen feet long. A bad rod is likely to snap in
-striking a heavy fish. Rods fitted with several tops are at once the
-best and most convenient. Some anglers have one rod for trolling,
-another for barbel, perch, or other heavy fish, as well as one for
-fly-fishing--which boys may have when they become men--but a thoroughly
-good rod will suit the juvenile for all purposes. We have now one with
-which we can fish for anything, from a bleak to a pike, by only changing
-the top and second joints.
-
-A good trolling rod should be made of the choicest stout and
-well-seasoned bamboo cane, from fourteen to sixteen feet in length. When
-trolling with the gorge, or live-bait fishing, a long rod is necessary,
-to enable the angler to drop in his baited hook over high sedges,
-rushes, &c. as also when the water is bright, for he should then keep as
-far away from it as he can, which a long rod enables him to do while
-dipping, casting, or spinning his bait. If either a jack or pike see
-him, it is very rare indeed that he will take the bait; and again, with
-a long rod you will be able to drop your baited hook in some very likely
-place for jack or pike, such as a small hole, division, or clear place
-among a bed of weeds, in a river or any other water where there are any
-weeds.
-
-There is some difference of opinion among anglers about the number of
-rings necessary for _trolling rods_: those who have their line on a
-thumb winder, or on a bank runner, seldom place more than two or three
-rings on their rod, and others have only one large ring at the top; but
-if a winch is used, there should be a ring to every joint including the
-butt; make each ring of double twist wire, fixed so as always to stand
-out, and nearly large enough to admit the top of your little finger; the
-top joint should have two rings, the top one nearly three times the size
-of the others; this prevents any obstruction of the line running, which
-is of material consequence. When not in use, rods should be kept nicely
-stowed in a moderately dry place, and they ought to be well scraped and
-revarnished every three years; should the joints become loose by
-shrinking, they should be slightly moistened. Should any accident befall
-a rod while fishing, and you should not have a spare top with you, your
-only remedy will be to splice your rod. To do this the ends of the
-broken pieces for about two inches must be laid parallel to each other,
-and then tightly bound together with waxed silk, or very strong yellow
-hempen twine.
-
-
-LINES OR BOTTOMS.
-
-Next to the rod the line is of the utmost importance. Good lines should
-be well twisted. The twisted lines should be made wholly of silk, or
-silk hair, but those made of gut are the strongest and best for young
-anglers; the twisted hair are the cheapest, and the single horsehair the
-finest. The young angler will find a line of about four yards in length
-the most useful. A single gut line, with a small porcupine float, is
-commonly useful for general fishing; the plaited silk lines are the best
-for trolling, and are less inclined to break or tangle than the
-twisted.
-
-
-SHOTTING THE LINE
-
-The line must be shotted, that the float may partially sink in the
-water; and in putting on the shots, place them all together within three
-inches of the bottom loop of the line; to which loop fix the loop of the
-hair or gut to which the hook is tied. When you make a line of silk,
-gut, or hair, remember it must be always finest at the bottom, where the
-hook is fastened, very gradually increasing in thickness to the top.
-
-
-THE FLOAT.
-
-There are various kinds of floats, each adapted for different kinds of
-fishing. The principal are: 1. Tip-capped floats; 2. Cork floats; 3.
-Plugged floats. The tip-capped floats are made of several pieces of
-quills, or of reed for the middle, and ivory or tortoiseshell for the
-top and bottom, and narrow at each end, gradually increasing in
-circumference to the middle. They are superior to all others for angling
-in waters which are not very rapid, particularly in roach fishing, as
-the least movement or fine bite sinks them below the water. The
-tip-capped float is also best for pond fishing for carp and tench, as it
-requires but few shot to sink it, and consequently disturbs the water
-but little when cast. The young angler should note that the caps which
-fix the lines to the float are not rough at the edge, as this roughness
-chafes and weakens a fine line; should this be the case, he should
-smooth them before use. The best caps are made of gutta-percha.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-_Cork Floats_ are generally made of quills at the top, with a piece of
-cork, which is burned or bored in the middle to admit the quill, and
-then filed or ground down smooth and painted. The bottom is plugged with
-wood, and has a ring to let the line pass through. Cork floats are well
-calculated to fish in heavy or rapid streams, as they require a great
-many shot to sink them, which weight of shot prevents the baited hook
-from passing too rapidly over the bottom. Cork floats are made of
-various sizes and forms; instead of common quills, some introduce the
-quills of the porcupine, which make an excellent strong float. Except
-for live-bait fishing a tapering cork float is preferable to a round
-one.
-
-_Plugged Floats._--These kind of floats are the cheapest, and made of
-indifferent quills, some of them of one goose quill with a wooden plug
-at the bottom, from which they take their name: they are very apt to
-loosen by the plug coming out. They are often used by the young angler,
-because they are cheap; but we may say in the words of the ancient
-Roman, "Bad is the best."
-
-
-REELS OR WINCHES.
-
-A reel or winch is a most necessary addition to the rod and line, as it
-enables you to vary the length of your line at pleasure, and to play
-your fish. The best winches are those to fix in a groove on the rod, and
-are fastened with brass ferrules made for the purpose on the butt,
-because you can fasten such a winch to any sized joint.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-There are three kinds of winches, check, multipliers, and plain: the
-multiplying winch is apt soon to get out of order, unless carefully and
-constantly oiled, and is otherwise the least efficient and most
-expensive of the three. I would recommend young anglers at first, to
-purchase a plain and strong winch, which will answer every purpose, and
-be much less expensive. A check winch is, however, the best.
-
-
-REEL LINES
-
-Are mostly made of silk and horsehair, twisted or plaited together, but
-some are made entirely of silk. I prefer the latter, as it is less
-likely to twist, runs more freely, and is less likely to rot. The length
-of lines vary from fifteen to eighty yards; but for general purposes
-thirty or five-and-thirty yards is quite long enough. The line should
-always be unwound after a day's fishing, as, if it is allowed to remain
-wet on the reel, it soon rots.
-
-
-HOOKS.
-
-Hooks are to be bought at the angling shops, of all sizes, and suitable
-for the kind of fish to be caught. There are great controversies among
-adept anglers about hooks, which are sometimes as violent as those upon
-politics or religion. Some anglers prefer what are called the Limerick
-hooks, some the Kendal; while others again prefer the Kirby or
-Sneckbend. We are hooked to the Kirby, as we consider those to be by far
-the best for holding the fish--a most important particular. The hooks
-found most suitable for the following fish are these:--
-
- BARBEL, 1, 7, 8, 9.
- BLEAK, 11,12, 13.
- BREAM, 10.
- CARP, 7, 8, 9.
- CHUB, 8, 9.
- DACE, 10, 11, 12.
- EELS, 8.
- FLOUNDERS, 3.
- GRAYLING, 10, 12.
- GUDGEON, 9, 10.
- LOACHES, 13.
- MILLER'S THUMB, 13.
- MINNOW, 13.
- PERCH, 7.
- ROACH, 10, 11, 12.
- RUDD, 10.
- RUFFE, 10.
- SMELT, 9, 10.
- TENCH, 9, 10.
- TROUT, 6, 10.
-
-
-HOW TO BAIT A HOOK.
-
-To bait a hook with a worm, use the following method: First enter the
-point of the hook close to the top of the worm's head, and carry it
-carefully down to within a quarter of an inch of its tail; to do which
-you must gently squeeze or work up the worm with your left thumb and
-finger, while with your right you are gradually working the hook
-downwards. The small lively piece of the worm at the point of the hook
-moving about will entice the fish; but, mind, if too much of the worm
-hangs loose, though it may entice fish to nibble, yet they will seldom
-take the whole in their mouth, so as to enable the angler to hook them;
-on the contrary, he is frequently tantalized with a bite, and, when he
-strikes, finds part of his worm gone, and his fish too. Therefore, to
-bait a hook well with a worm is necessary to ensure hooking a fish when
-you strike; and it consists in drawing the worm without injuring it (use
-him as you would a friend, Walton says) quite over and up the shank of
-the hook, leaving only a small lively part of the tail below. If you
-bait with half a worm, prefer the tail end, and enter the point of the
-hook into the top part, and bring it down nearly to the end of the tail,
-leaving only a very small piece of it loose. If you bait with two worms
-on the same hook, draw the first up above the shank, while you put the
-second on in the same manner as directed with one worm, but enter the
-hook near the tail of the second worm; then draw the first one down on
-the second over the shank of the hook, and all will then be well
-covered, and the bait will be a very _bon-bon_ for perch, chub, carp,
-barbel, and all large fish; but when angling for gudgeon, and other
-small fish, half a red worm is sufficient, and the tail end is best. If
-blood-worms are used, put on two or three, in doing which be tender, or
-you will burst them.
-
-
-BAITS.
-
-The principal baits are--
-
- 1. THE LOB-WORM.
- 2. THE BRANDLING.
- 3. THE MARSH-WORM.
- 4. THE TAGTAIL.
- 5. THE ASH-GRUB.
- 6. COWDUNG BAIT.
- 7. CATERPILLARS.
- 8. CABBAGE-WORMS.
- 9. CRAB-TREE-WORMS.
- 10. GENTLES.
- 11. CAD-WORMS.
- 12. FLAG-WORMS.
- 13. GRASSHOPPERS.
- 14. WASP-GRUB.
- 15. COCKCHAFERS.
- 16. BREAD PASTE.
- 17. CHEESE PASTE.
-
-1. _Lob-worms_ are found in gardens or churchyards, late in the evening;
-they have a red head, a streak down the back, and a broad tail. This is
-a good worm for salmon, chub, trout, barbel, eels, and large perch.
-
-2. _Brandling_ is found in old dunghills, rotten earth or cow-dung, and
-the best in tanners' bark. It is a good bait for any kind of fish.
-
-3. The _Marsh-worm_ is found in marshy grounds, or on the banks of
-rivers; and is a good bait for trout, perch, gudgeon, grayling, and
-bream.
-
-4. The _Tagtail_ is found in marly lands or meadows, after a shower; and
-is a good bait for trout when the water is muddy.
-
-5. The _Ash-grub_ is found in the bark of trees. It is a good bait for
-grayling, dace, roach, or chub.
-
-6. _Cowdung Bait_ is found under cowdung, from May to Michaelmas; and is
-good bait for grayling, dace, roach, or chub.
-
-7. _Caterpillars_ can be found on almost every tree or plant. Almost any
-small caterpillar will answer.
-
-8. The _Cabbage caterpillar_ is found on cabbages.
-
-9. The _Crabtree-worm_ can be taken by beating the branches of the
-crab-apple.
-
-10. _Gentles._ These are bred in putrid meat--liver producing the
-best--or may generally be obtained from the butchers. They are an
-excellent bait for most kinds of fish.
-
-[Illustration: THE CADDIS FLY.]
-
-11. _Caddis_ is found in ditches, or on the sides of brooks. It is an
-excellent bait for trout, grayling, roach, dace, or chub.
-
-12. _Flag-worms_ are found among flags in old pits or ponds, and are
-good bait for grayling, tench, bream, carp, roach, and dace.
-
-13. _Grasshoppers_ are found in sun-burnt grass, and are good bait for
-chub, trout, and grayling.
-
-14. _Wasp-grubs_ are to be obtained from wasps' nests, and are a good
-bait for most fish that will take gentles.[2]
-
- [2] Wasp-grubs will keep better, and be easier to fit on the hook, if
- they are baked for half-an-hour.
-
-15. _Cockchafers_ are found humming round the bushes at about dusk on a
-summer evening, and everywhere, and sometimes in cowdung; are a capital
-bait for chub, though not for anything else.
-
-16. _White-bread Paste_ is prepared by dipping white bread in water
-(soaking and squeezing it in the corner of a pocket-handkerchief is the
-best way), and then working it a little in the palm of the hand. It is a
-good bait for carp, tench, chub, or roach. Some add a little honey.
-
-17. _Cheese Paste_ is made with fresh cheese, worked up in the hand. It
-is a good bait for chub.
-
-18. _Ground Bait_ should be used in the spot about to be fished, and, if
-possible, the night before, and should be fresh. For carp, chub, roach,
-or dace, use white bread soaked in water, and mixed with bran, pollard,
-or meal. For barbel, chandler's greaves, boiled and worked up into a
-ball with clay. Gentles may also be used as ground bait for any of the
-above.
-
-
-TO BAIT WITH GREAVES.
-
-First select the whitest pieces from those you have soaked, and put two
-or three of them upon your hook, or as much as will cover it from the
-bend to and over the point; these pieces should be put on the hook
-separately, one after the other--not a large piece doubled, as some
-slovenly boys will do, for then the hook is prevented from entering
-firmly the fish you may strike. These little particulars of baiting are
-of considerable advantage to young anglers, who ought to remember also
-that it is a bad practice to soak greaves in hot water, for it makes
-them rotten, and they in consequence soon fall off the hook.
-
-
-TO SCOUR AND PRESERVE WORMS.
-
-To do this, the young angler should provide himself with a quantity of
-fresh moss. Wash out all the earth and squeeze it, but not too dry; then
-put it into a jar and squeeze it lightly down: throw in the worms upon
-it. The jar should be kept in a cool place in summer, and the moss
-changed once in three or four days. Gentles should be thrown into a
-mixture of damp sand or bran to scour them, and will be ready in two or
-three days.
-
-
-THE PLUMMET.
-
-Plummets are used by anglers for sounding the depth of a stream or hole.
-They are of two kinds, either the folding plummet, or the common
-plummet. The folding plummet, which is the better, is made of a slip of
-sheet lead, folded up; and this the young angler should never be
-without.
-
-
-PLUMBING THE DEPTH
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Is performed in the following manner: If a folding plummet, unfold about
-two inches of it, pass the hook over its side, and then fold the plummet
-up again: your hook is now secured from drawing away from the plummet.
-As success depends much in angling at a proper depth, the young angler
-should take due pains, and measure the depth accurately before he begins
-fishing. When the plumb-lead touches the bottom, and the top of the
-float is even with the surface of the water, you will have the true
-depth.
-
-
-LANDING-HOOK AND LANDING-NET.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The landing-hook or gaff is a large hook, which is sometimes barbed like
-a fish-hook, and sometimes plain, fastened to one end of a handle; this
-latter is occasionally composed of several pieces, which run one into
-another, like the slides of a telescope. A landing-net is a small net
-mounted on a iron ring, which is fastened, like the landing-hook, to the
-end of a handle or pole.
-
-
-CLEARING RING AND LINE.
-
-The clearing-line is made of several yards of strong small cord, to the
-end of which is fastened a heavy ring of lead or brass. If the hook
-should get fast in a heavy weed, post, or anything else, this ring is
-put over the butt of the rod, and suffered to slip down the line to the
-hook. The rod should be held in the right hand, the top pointing
-downwards, the clearing-line in the left, the ring falling on the hook,
-from its weight, generally clears the hook from what it may have struck
-against. If not, the angler should hold the rod firmly, and draw the
-line sideways, and break away. In this case, the angler seldom loses
-more than a hook, if he acts as above directed; but without the
-assistance of a clearing-line he frequently loses his float as well as
-his hook and line, and sometimes breaks his top joint. The brass
-clearing-rings are to be preferred, because they are jointed, and in
-consequence can be used when the angler has a winch in his rod, in which
-case the leaden ring could not be passed over the winch.
-
-
-DRAG-HOOK.
-
-The drag is a piece of iron with three or four stout wire hooks without
-barbs, placed back to back, fastened to a strong cord line, and which is
-used to draw away weeds.
-
-
-BANK RUNNER.
-
-The bank-runner is mostly used in the day-time, when the angler is
-fishing for roach, barbel, &c. It is stuck in the bank, the bottom
-being strong turned wood, sharpened for the purpose, with a winder at
-the top for the line, which should be from forty to sixty yards long,
-made of silk, thin cord, or plaited Dutch twine. But there should be a
-cork and bullet to the line, and the bait a dace or gudgeon, which
-should swim about mid-water.
-
-
-LIVE-BAIT KETTLE.
-
-This should be of an oblong form, and not round; bright inside, and
-brown out. In getting out the bait, never put your hand into the water,
-which frightens the fish, and, by heating the water, makes them sickly
-and dull; but make use of a small net, which is easily carried in the
-fish-kettle, by having a piece of the lid cut away in one corner.
-
-
-DISGORGER.
-
-This is an instrument with a forked top, about six inches long, made of
-iron, brass, or bone. Its use is to get the hook from a fish when
-swallowed; and in using it, the forked end is thrust down upon the
-swallowed hook with one hand, while the line is held tight with the
-other: pressure disgorges the hook, and it is then easily drawn out. In
-attempting to get a gorged hook from a fish without this instrument, you
-run a hazard of breaking the hook and hurting yourself. When the fish is
-hooked through the lip, the angler has only to hold the fish steadily in
-one hand, while with the other he carefully disengages the hook.
-
-
-ANGLING AXIOMS.
-
-1. Never fish any water without leave from the proprietor, unless it be
-water that is free to all comers.
-
-2. Never use unfair bait, or attempt to take fish in any but a fair and
-sportsmanlike manner.
-
-3. Never start on a day's fishing without first considering the wind,
-weather, and water.
-
-4. Never let your shadow fall on the water.
-
-5. Use the finest tackle of which your fishing will admit.
-
-6. Never begin bottom fishing without first plumbing the depth.
-
-7. Never intrude upon another fisherman's water.
-
-8. And always remember that nothing is lost by politeness.
-
-
-ACCOUNTS OF THE VARIOUS FRESH-WATER FISH,
-
-WITH THEIR HABITS, HAUNTS, SEASONS, AND THE METHODS OF TAKING THEM.
-
-
-THE SALMON.
-
-The Salmon is the king of fresh-water fish. It is handsome in form, its
-head is small, its nose pointed, its back and sides grey, its belly
-silvery, and its flesh the well-known salmon colour. The male may
-generally be distinguished by its having the lower jaw more "hooked," or
-turned up at the point, than the female; the head is also generally
-somewhat longer, in comparison to the rest of the body.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Salmon bite best from six till eleven in the forenoon, and from three in
-the afternoon until sunset, especially when there is a moderate breeze
-upon the water. The chief months to angle for them are March, April,
-May, and June. They are to be fished for with lob-worms, or in spinning
-with minnows, but a large artificial fly is the most killing bait. The
-rod, for a boy, should not be less than fifteen feet long, with a good
-running line, and the reel should contain at least fourscore yards. The
-hook must be large and long in the shank. Few of our young readers,
-however, will be able to go salmon fishing till they have reached
-maturity, and, therefore, to give detailed instructions as to the modes
-of capturing the fish would be superfluous.
-
-
-THE TROUT.
-
-This beautiful fish is much prized. Izaak Walton says of it, "It is more
-sharp-sighted than any hawk, and more watchful and timorous than your
-high-mettled merlin is bold." In its habits it is a very solitary and
-predacious fish.
-
-The trout are found in lakes and rivers and minor streams, and are
-finest in appearance from the beginning of April to the end of July or
-middle of August: their principal spawning time is from November to
-January. The most brilliant and beautiful trout are generally found in
-streams that flow rapidly over rocky or chalky bottoms. They feed upon
-worms, minnows, and other small fish, but their favourite food consists
-of insects, flies, caterpillars, &c. upon which they thrive and fatten
-prodigiously.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-In angling for the trout we must have a stout rod and running tackle.
-The principal baits for him are natural and artificial flies, minnows,
-and worms. The minnow is, perhaps, the most taking bait for large trout:
-it should be cast lightly on the water, and drawn trippingly against the
-current so as to spin. The angler must strike directly his bait is
-seized. The favourite haunts of the trout are scours, mill tails,
-eddies, pools, the roots of overhanging trees, and the "nethers" of
-bridges and weirs.
-
-
-THE JACK OR PIKE.
-
-The mighty luce or pike, says Walton, is taken to be the tyrant, as the
-salmon is the king, of the fresh waters. His aspect is savage but by no
-means repulsive, and when in fine condition a large pike is altogether a
-grand-looking fish. His teeth are very sharp and very numerous, being
-upwards of seven hundred, and his voracious appetite is such that
-nothing comes amiss to him. He has been known to swallow the plummet,
-and the clay and bran balls of ground bait of the angler, and he will
-prey upon "rats and mice and such small deer," with ducks, geese, and
-even swans, which he has been known to pull under water. He often grows
-to an enormous size (no wonder), and has been taken upwards of ninety
-pounds in weight.
-
-Pike are fond of dull, shady, and unfrequented waters, with a sandy,
-chalky, or clayey bottom, and are found among or near flags, bulrushes,
-or water docks. They seldom seek a very rapid stream, although weirs and
-mill-pools are often their favourite retreat in the early summer
-months--that is, in June and July, when they have recently spawned. In
-winter they retire into the depths, eddies, and waters little acted upon
-by the current.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The pike is in its prime during October and November, but is in season
-from June to February; the baits used for it are gudgeon, minnows, chub,
-and bleak, and should be about three or four inches in length. The rod
-should be strong; the line of dressed silk, at least sixty yards long,
-wound upon the winch already described. Hooks for trolling, called dead
-gorges, and other sorts for trolling, snap, &c. and fishing needles, are
-to be bought at every shop where fishing tackle is sold; in the choice
-of the first, let them not be too large, nor their temper injured by the
-lead on the shanks, nor the points stand too proud; and although usually
-sold on wire, it is recommended to cut off the wire about half an inch
-from the lead, and with a double silk, well waxed, fasten about a foot
-of good gimp to the wire, with a noose at the other end of the gimp
-large enough to admit the bait to pass through to hang it upon the line.
-The best baits are gudgeon and dace of a middling size; put the baiting
-needle in at the mouth and out at the middle of the tail, drawing the
-gimp and hook after it, fixing the point of the hook near the eye of the
-fish; tie the tail to the gimp, which will not only keep it in a proper
-position, but prevent the tail from catching against the weeds and roots
-in the water. Thus baited, the hook is to be fastened to the line and
-dropped gently in the water near the sides of the river, across the
-water, or where it is likely pike resort; keep the bait in constant
-motion, sometimes letting it sink near the bottom and gradually raising
-it. When the bait is taken, let the pike have what line he chooses. It
-will be soon known when he has reached his hole, which he generally
-flies to, by his not drawing more. Allow him ten minutes for gorging the
-bait, wind up the line gently till you think it is nearly at its
-stretch, and then strike. Manage him with a gentle hand, keeping him,
-however, from roots and stumps, which he will try to fasten the line
-upon, till he is sufficiently tired, and a landing net can be used; but
-by no means, however apparently exhausted he may be, attempt to lift him
-out with the rod and line only.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-In trolling, the bait hook should never be thrown too far; in small
-rivers the opposite bank may be fished with ease, though the violence of
-its falls upon the water in long throws soon spoils the bait by rubbing
-off its scales. In angling for pike always prefer a rough wind. If a
-pike goes slowly up a stream, after taking the bait, it is said to be
-the sign of a good fish.
-
-
-THE GUDGEON.
-
-Is one of the most delicious fish for eating, although small in size. It
-bites freely from the latter end of spring until autumn, in gloomy warm
-days, from an hour after sunrise to within the same space of its
-setting; and during the rest of the year, in the middle of the day, when
-it is warmest.
-
-In angling for gudgeon the tackle must be very fine, a single hair or
-fine gut fine, a hook No. 8 or 9, a short rod and line, and a small
-tapering cork float. The gudgeon will take the small red-worm greedily,
-and blood-worms--the first is perhaps the best. A rake or the boat-hook
-should be kept frequently stirring the bottom. To the spot so stirred
-gudgeon assemble in shoals, expecting food from the discolouring of the
-water. They are apt to nibble at the bait; the angler ought not,
-therefore, to strike till the float goes well down.
-
-[Illustration: GUDGEON AND BREAM.]
-
-Should any young angler desire a good day's fishing for gudgeon, and a
-pleasant walk into the bargain, he should seek out some sequestered
-gravelly stream, and providing himself with a rake with a long handle,
-he may have sport till he is tired of it. He will find the fish
-scattered up and down every river in the shallows during the heat of
-summer, but in winter they get into deeper water. Gudgeon are to be
-fished for there with your hook always touching the ground.
-
-
-THE ROACH.
-
-The roach is a handsome fish either in or out of the water. It inhabits
-many of our deep still rivers, delighting most in quiet waters. It is
-gregarious, keeping in large shoals. It delights in gravelly, sandy, or
-a kind of slimy marl bottom, under a deep gentle running stream; in
-summer it often frequents shallows near the tails of fords, or lies
-under banks among weeds, under the shades of boughs, and at or opposite
-the mouth of a rivulet or brook, that empties itself into a large river.
-In winter the roach like to get into clear, deep, and still waters.
-
-The tackle for roach must be fine and strong, a twelve-foot rod and a
-five-foot line, a porcupine float, and hooks No. 11 or 12. The bait,
-gentils, bread-paste, boiled wheat or red worms. The ground bait should
-be damp meal or bran, mixed with soaked bread or clay (the former best).
-In fishing for roach in ponds, chew and throw in white bread. The hook
-should be No. 6, and the bait either touch the bottom or lie within one
-inch of it. As many gentils should be put on the hook as will cover it,
-all but the barb. Strike _directly_ the float goes down.
-
-The season for roach fishing in the Thames begins about the latter end
-of August and continues through the winter. To London Bridge and among
-the shipping below it, numbers of roach return in June and July, after
-having been up the river to spawn, and many of them are taken by means
-of a strong cord, to which is fastened a leaden weight, more or less,
-according to the strength of the current; a foot above this lead a twine
-twelve feet long is joined to the cord, and to this twine at convenient
-distances are tied a dozen hair links, with roach hooks at the ends;
-these are baited with white snails or periwinkles, the fisherman holds
-the cord in his hand, and easily feels the biting of the fish, which is
-a signal to pull up, and frequently five or six are taken at a haul.
-
-[Illustration: ROACH AND DACE.]
-
-
-THE DACE.
-
-Dace are gregarious--are great breeders--very lively--and during summer
-fond of playing near the surface. Their haunts are deep water, near the
-piles of bridges, where the stream is gentle, and has a sandy or clayey
-bottom. They like deep holes that are shaded by water-lily leaves, and
-under the foam caused by an eddy; in the warm months they are to be
-found in shoals on the shallows and gravels.
-
-The baits for dace are red-worms, gentles, and small flies, natural or
-artificial, used as in fly-fishing for trout. In angling for dace with
-worms, maggots, &c. the tackle cannot be too fine, the float small, the
-hook No. 9, the shot a foot from it; by baiting the place with a few
-maggots before fishing, the diversion will be increased. If you angle in
-an eddy between two mill streams, and the water is only two or three
-feet deep, there will be a greater chance of success than where it is
-deeper; bait and strike as in roach fishing. The ground-bait may also be
-the same.
-
-Fish for dace within three inches of the ground, especially where the
-ant fly is the bait under water. In fishing, take advantage if you can
-of a still, warm, gloomy day, or go in a summer's evening to a gravelly
-or sandy shallow, or tail end of a mill-stream, and as long as the light
-continues the dace will yield diversion.
-
-
-THE PERCH.
-
-"Perch feed on perch," is an old maxim; the perch being the only one of
-all fresh-water fish that feeds on its own kind. His excuse is a
-prodigious appetite, like that of Saturn, who ate his own offspring.
-Notwithstanding this wicked propensity, the perch is a beautiful fish,
-the back and part of the sides being a deep green, marked with broad
-black bars, pointing downwards; the spaces between are golden, the belly
-white, and the fins tinged with scarlet. They vary greatly in size. The
-largest perch we ever caught weighed three pounds twelve ounces, and was
-taken with a roach bait near Richmond. Their general length is about ten
-or twelve inches.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Perch are found in ponds and in clear rivers with pebbly, clayey, or
-sandy bottoms. They are fond of water moderately deep, and frequent
-holes near to gentle streams where there is an eddy, the hollows under
-banks, among weeds and roots of trees, piles of bridges, or in ponds
-which are fed by a brook or rivulet. The perch is a bold biter in the
-summer, but scarcely ever in the winter. In the middle of a warm
-sunshiny day, you are sure to have him with a proper bait. In the winter
-he bites best in large quiet eddies, to which he retreats after the
-first heavy flood.
-
-The baits for perch are various, as well as the manner of using them. Of
-worms, the best are brandlings, and red dunghill-worms, well scoured.
-The hook may be varied from No. 2 to 6, being well whipped to a strong
-silkworm gut, with a shot or two a foot from it. Put the point of the
-hook in at the head of the worm, out again a little lower than the
-middle, pushing it above the shank of the hook upon the gut; then put
-the point of the hook into the worm again the reverse way, and draw the
-head part down so as to cover the hook entirely. This is the most
-enticing method that can be adopted in worm-fishing. Use a small cork
-float to keep the bait at six or twelve inches from the bottom, or
-sometimes about mid-water. In angling near the bottom, raise the bait
-very frequently from thence almost to the surface, letting it gradually
-fall again. Should a good shoal be met with, they are so greedy that
-sometimes they may be all caught.
-
-Other baits for perch are cadbait and gentles; but the best and most
-enticing bait is a live minnow. If you find the fish shy, try not long
-in one spot. In baiting your hook with the minnow, fix your hook through
-his upper lip, and use a small reel with your rod. Your hook should be
-No. 5, fastened to a link of gut.
-
-
-THE GRAYLING.
-
-The grayling is a fish of elegant form; the back is of a dusky purple,
-the sides of a fine silvery grey, with the scales in long parallel rows
-or lines (from which the fish derives its name), marked with black
-spots, irregularly placed. It is rather a hog-backed fish; and, from the
-nose and belly touching the ground together, is supposed to feed mostly
-at the bottom. In length it seldom exceeds sixteen inches, but some have
-been caught upwards of five pounds in weight.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The haunts of the grayling are in rapid, clear streams, particularly
-such as flow through mountainous countries. They are usually taken in
-the same manner as the trout, and with similar baits. They do not bite
-freely till late in August, or early in September, and may be found at
-the tails of sharp streams and in deep water. They rise more boldly than
-the trout, and if missed several times will still pursue the bait. They
-will bite during the whole of the cold cloudy days; but the preferable
-time to look after them is between eight and twelve o'clock in the
-morning, and from four in the afternoon till after sunset. Grasshoppers,
-wasp-grubs, maggots, and the artificial fly, are the most killing baits.
-
-
-THE CHUB.
-
-This fish takes its name from the shape of the head, not only in our
-own, but in other languages. The head and back are of a deep dusky
-green, the sides silvery. The tail is forked, and very black at the end,
-and altogether the chub is rather a handsome fish, although its flesh is
-not much in esteem.
-
-The haunts of the chub are in rivers whose bottoms are of sand or clay,
-or which flow over a gravelly bottom, in deep holes, under hollow banks;
-in summer, particularly where shaded by trees, &c. they frequently float
-on the surface, and are sometimes found in streams and deep waters,
-where the currents are strong. In ponds fed by a rivulet they grow to a
-large size.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-To fish for chub at the bottom, you should have a stout long rod, a
-strong line (and if you use a reel, you will be the better able to fish
-under bushes), with two yards or more of the best silkworm gut at
-bottom; a hook proportionate to the bait used; a swan-quill float; and
-the line so shotted, eight or ten inches from the hook, as to sink the
-float to a quarter of an inch above the surface. The same groundbait is
-to be used as for carp. The best baits are greaves, cheese paste, or the
-tail end of a well-scoured lob-worm. The cockchafer is also a very
-tempting bait, especially towards dusk: no float or shot are required
-for this.
-
-After baiting your hook with a cockchafer, move it two or three times
-near the surface, as in the act of flying; then drop it in the water,
-tapping the rod gently, which will cause the appearance of its
-struggling to escape. This attracts the chub, who are so fond of this
-bait, that they will rise two or three at a time to seize it. But mind
-and be ready with your landing-net.
-
-The chub will take a grub, wasps, maggots, paste of fine new bread
-worked in the hand, and tinged with vermilion, to make it look like
-salmon-roe; but the best bait for bottom or float-fishing for the chub
-is new Cheshire cheese, worked with the crumb of a new roll, or the pith
-from the backbone of an ox. In baiting with the cheese, put a round lump
-the size of a cherry on a large hook, so as to cover the bend, and some
-way up the shank; fish six inches from the bottom, or in cold weather
-the bait may lie on the ground. When there is a bite, the float will be
-drawn under water: strike immediately, and give him play, holding a
-tolerably tight line, to keep the fish clear from weeds and stumps.
-
-The best time for fishing for chub is chiefly before sunrise to nine in
-the morning, and from four till after sunset in the summer; but, in
-winter, the middle of the day is best. In hot weather, the chub is to be
-fished for at or near the top of the water, and not deeper than
-midwater; and in cold weather, close to or near the bottom; and the main
-point in taking the fish is for the angler to keep himself out of sight.
-A very deadly way of killing chub, and certainly the most artistic
-method, is with the artificial fly, used as in trout fishing. Flies are
-made expressly for this purpose, and of these the best are red and black
-palmers, and the Marlow buzz.
-
-
-THE CARP.
-
-Carp are esteemed among the richest fresh-water fish we have in the
-kingdom, and are as cunning as foxes. The angler, therefore, must be
-"wide awake" to catch him, and also as patient as a saint. He may,
-however, fish for him at any time in the day during warm weather. The
-bait may be either worms or paste. Of worms, the bluish marsh or meadow
-is the best; but a red-worm, not too big, will do: of paste, the best is
-made of bread and honey; and the spot intended should be well baited
-beforehand. In a large pond, to draw them together, throw in either
-grains, or soaked bread worked up with meal or bran; follow this with a
-few of the small baits you intend to angle with.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Whilst you are fishing, chew a little bread, and throw it in about the
-place where your float swims. In fishing for carp in ponds, the bait and
-about half a foot of the gut nearest the hook should _lie on the
-bottom_; otherwise the carp will continually suck the bait off. When the
-carp has fairly taken the bait, you will perceive the float move
-steadily away or under water, then strike, and not till then. In this
-way, with due patience, you will prove a match for these crafty fish.
-
-
-THE TENCH.
-
-The tench is one of our most useful fresh-water fishes, for the ease
-with which it may be preserved, and the goodness of its flesh. It is
-very usual to breed it in ponds, but naturally, like many others of the
-carp tribe, it is generally found in lakes and still waters; its
-favourite haunts are in places well shaded with bushes or rushes. In
-standing waters, it lies under weeds, near sluices, and at pond-heads.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The best baits for tench are bread paste and red worms, but he usually
-prefers the latter. He feeds best in the three hot months. The worm
-should be put on the hook in the method directed for perch, but the hook
-itself should be of a somewhat smaller size. Use a light float and
-strong gut line, and let the bait swim within an inch or two of the
-bottom.
-
-
-THE POPE, OR RUFF,
-
-Is something like a perch in shape, but more bluff and bulky. He is
-found principally in slow, deep, quiet rivers, which have a loamy
-bottom. The spawning time is in April. The best baits for him are
-red-worms and brandlings. The places where he is to be had are where
-the water is deep and still; and these places should be baited with some
-clay-balls, with which worms are mixed. Should the water be muddy, worms
-will do alone; but if clear, clay must be used to render it opaque
-before you fish. The fish will bite at any time of a warm summer's day,
-when the sky is cloudy. In angling, use a No. 8 or 9 hook, with a quill
-float; and the moment you see the float disappear, strike.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE BREAM.
-
-The bream, at full growth, is a large and stately fish, and is
-oftentimes as fat as a hog. He is principally found in large ponds or in
-lakes, and in still rivers where the waters are deep and shaded by
-weeds; and may be taken throughout the latter part of summer and autumn.
-
-The baits are many: paste made of white bread and honey, gentles,
-wasp-grubs, and brandlings; but much the best general bait is the tail
-end of a lob-worm. Use lob-worms, cut in pieces, brewers' grains, or
-greaves, as groundbaits in the places where you intend to angle. Use a
-gut line, quill float, and hook the same as for perch. Sound the bottom,
-which should be eight or ten feet deep, and stand at least two yards
-from the bank from which you fish; the bait should just touch or trip
-along the bottom.
-
-
-THE FLOUNDER.
-
-The flounder is a well-known flat-fish very common about our own coasts;
-and should any of our young friends be at the seaside, it is well that
-they should know how to take flounder. They are also found in rivers, at
-some distance from the sea. They may be taken in May, July, and
-August,--not in June, as that is their spawning time. The best baits
-are red-worms and marsh-worms, on a No. 6 hook; and you should fish at
-the bottom.
-
-[Illustration: THE FLOUNDER.]
-
-
-EELS.
-
-Eels are denizens of the mud; but they are fond of clean not foul mud,
-and ought never to be sought after in filthy places. There are many
-modes of taking them: by rod and line, by dead line, by sniggling, by
-bobbing, and by spearing. When a rod is used, you should put a brandling
-or red-worm on a No. 8 hook; the bait should touch the bottom; and, when
-you have a "bite," the float should be drawn quite under water before
-you strike.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The dead line is a line of whipcord, with hooks about two feet asunder,
-baited with lob-worms or small fish, and having a weight at the end. You
-should also have a bank-runner--a reel on a pin or stake stuck into the
-ground on the edge of the bank; the line and baits should be thrown in,
-and left for the eels to amuse themselves with,--looked to, and drawn up
-at your leisure.
-
-In sniggling, a lob-worm is put upon a stout worsted needle; the line is
-on a winder; and the fish will be found near flood-gates, wharfings,
-bridges, piles, holes in the banks of rivers, ponds, and canals. The
-bait should be put into the lurking-places of the eel, by means of a
-stick with a forked head; and when the bait is taken, which will easily
-be known by the pull of the string, strike.
-
-Bobbing for eels.--In this process long red-worms are strung on threads
-of worsted, until a bunch as large as the two fists is formed around a
-piece of lead. The whole is sunk to the bottom, or nearly so, then
-raised a little, then depressed, so as to induce the eels to bite. When
-this occurs, heave up without hurry. The number of eels taken in this
-way is often prodigious.
-
-In spearing eels, the spearer usually goes into the mud in a pair of
-pants or mud pattens, pieces of square board fastened into the heel to
-prevent sinking. He takes an eel-spear in his hand, something like
-Neptune's trident, and progs the mud all over, and the eels are caught
-between the forked blades of the spear. Great numbers of eels are taken
-in this way on the muddy ooze of salt or fresh-water rivers.
-
-
-THE STICKLEBACK AND MINNOW.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The stickleback is a dark-coloured little fish, found in ditches and
-ponds. They are best caught with a small hand-net, and are occasionally
-used as bait for perch. The minnow is very beautiful in appearance,
-being of a rose colour underneath, and may be taken with a worm and a
-No. 13 hook at any time of day; but more easily with a small hand-net.
-They are commonly found in little rivulets, rills, or small sandy
-streams, and are highly prized by the angler as baits for many kinds of
-fish.
-
-
-THE BARBEL.
-
-The barbel is a bold, sturdy, handsome-looking fish, although its flesh
-is coarse to the eater; but he is a rare fellow for sport, and often
-affords great amusement as well as chagrin to the angler by his bolting
-off with the line by a "coup de barbel," and breaking it with his tail.
-Izaak Walton says, that barbel "flock together like sheep."
-
-Barbel are to be found in the strongest runs of water. In summer, they
-love the shallowest and sharpest streams, and will lurk under weeds, and
-will root and dig in the sand like pigs. Sometimes he retires to deep
-and swift bridges, or to flood-gates or weirs, and will rest himself
-against piles or hollow places. In winter he gets into deep water.
-
-[Illustration: BARBEL WITH GOLD CARP.]
-
-In fishing for barbel in large streams, you should go out in a boat
-provided with greaves, gentles, and red-worms; and, before you begin
-fishing, you should throw in plenty of groundbait--such as soaked
-greaves, bran and clay made into small balls, maggots, or lob-worms.
-They may be angled for with a stout rod, strong running line, cork
-float, and No. 7 or 8 hook, baited with marshworms or greaves. The
-barbel being a sharp biter, strike the moment you feel a nibble. He may
-be caught from May to October all day, but best in the morning and
-evening. After he is struck he will frequently make a run, but you must
-play him gently; keep him clear of weeds, and try to get him into deep
-water; and when you have him, mind he does not bounce out of your hand
-and drop down the stream again.
-
-
-NATURAL FLY-FISHING, OR DIPPING.
-
-Fishing with a fly may be practised either with the natural fly, usually
-called "dipping," or with the artificial fly; in which latter case the
-sport is called "fly-fishing," or sometimes "whipping." Dipping requires
-a moderately long and _stiff_ rod, of about twelve or thirteen feet. The
-line should not be above a yard in length from the end of the rod, but
-the reel should contain sufficient to play the fish if necessary. When
-the river is much overhung with bushes, it is a good plan to wind the
-line round the end of the top joint, leaving only a few inches
-dependent; and then, having thrust the rod through some small opening in
-the bushes, gradually to unwind the line by turning the rod in the hand,
-so as to drop the fly on the water in the most gentle manner. In this
-insidious way large fish are often taken with any of the flies which are
-in season and found at the time on the banks of the river which is
-fished, especially if they are only just coming out, and the fish are
-not yet satiated with them. It is quite needless to give a list of the
-natural flies which are likely to prove serviceable to the fisherman,
-because he has only to look for those which _at the time_ are tempting
-the fish, and then to endeavour to find them on the banks, and at once
-to try their powers. In the case of chub, however, he will find
-grasshoppers and humble-bees more useful than any of the flies, and yet
-they are neither of them often seen upon the waters, and may be
-considered exceptional cases. The fish which will generally take the
-natural fly are grayling, trout, chub, and dace.
-
-
-FLY-FISHING AND ARTIFICIAL FLIES.
-
-For this delightful sport, which captivates alike the sexagenarian and
-the schoolboy, rods and tackle of the finest quality are required. It is
-true, that a good workman will take fish even with a willow wand, but
-still he would do far better with a rod turned out by a good maker; and
-few young hands will be able to do much without a well-finished specimen
-of the art of rod-making. The rod should be strong, yet fine, and either
-of dressed silk, or silk and hair mixed. The lower portion, called the
-foot-length, is of gut, generally occupying about five or six feet of
-it, to which one, two, or three flies are attached, the one at the end
-being called a stretcher, and the others droppers.
-
-The fly-fisher should be able to make his own flies, as there is a great
-advantage in being able to "do for oneself;" and it may sometimes happen
-that he may be out of a particular fly when far away from "fly shops."
-
-
-MATERIALS FOR MAKING FLIES.
-
-Feathers of various kinds; hairs of various kinds; very fine sewing
-silk; gold and silver twist. Of the first, the young fly-fisher must
-provide himself with the feathers of the duck, cock, grouse, snipe,
-bittern, woodcock, partridge, landrail, starling, jay, golden plover,
-and peacock. Of the second, the fur from Tommy's tail, from the skins of
-squirrels, moles, and water rats, camel's hair, hare's ear, fur from its
-neck, the yellow fur from the neck of the martin, mohairs of different
-shades, camlets, black horsehair, hog's down dyed various colours. And
-with these, gimps, silks, and tinsel, a good pair of pliers, and a pair
-of fine-pointed scissors.
-
-In making your fly, imitate as nearly as possible the natural fly you
-wish to represent; to do this properly, it will be well to dissect a
-natural fly, and to imitate its several parts, and then to reconstruct
-it with a reference to the whole. With a hook of the proper size, and a
-feather of the right colour, the fly-maker may now commence. His feather
-must be stripped down on each side, leaving just so much as will do for
-the wings at the fine end; a piece of fine gut, free from imperfection,
-and properly tested as to its strength; dubbing or hackle; and a piece
-of fine silk well waxed with shoemaker's wax.
-
-Let the essay be now made. Hold your hook in the left hand, wrap the
-silk round the bare hook two or three times, and put the finest end of
-the gut on the under side of the hook. If you are working for a tackle
-fly, begin at the band and work up to the head, after turning three or
-four times round the hook and gut; fasten on the tackle, and continue
-the winding of the silk until it reaches the end of the hook, then turn
-it back two or three times, to form the head. The dubbing must now be
-twisted round the silk, and wrapped upon the hook for nearly half the
-proposed length of the body; fasten it there by a single loop, that both
-hands may be at liberty to manage the tackle.
-
-When sufficient of the feather is wound upon the hook, the remainder
-should be held under the thumb of the left hand, and the entangled
-fibres picked out with a needle. The silk and dubbing must now be
-twisted over the end of the tackle, until the body of the fly is of the
-length required, and then fastened. If gold or silver twist is used, the
-twist should be fastened to the lower end of the body before the dubbing
-is applied to the silk.
-
-_To make a winged fly_, the same method must be observed in tying on the
-hook; then take the feather which is to form the wings, and place it
-even on the upper side of the shank, with the roots pointing towards the
-bend of the hook; fasten the feathers, by winding the silk over it, and
-cut the root end close with a pair of scissors, and divide the wings as
-equally as possible with a needle, passing the silk two or three times
-between them, to make them stand in a proper position; bring the silk
-down the shank of the hook the proposed length of the body, and fasten
-it, then apply the dubbing to the silk, and twist it towards the wings;
-fasten in the hackle for legs, and wind it neatly under the wings, so as
-to hide the ends of the cut fibres: the silk must be fastened above the
-wings--be careful of this.
-
-It would be impossible for us, nor would it be very useful to the young
-fly-fisher, to give him directions for making every kind of fly. We may,
-however, throw out a few hints concerning the making of most of the
-flies in common use, and of the materials employed.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-1. _The green drake or May fly._--This is one of the most killing trout
-flies, but it is seldom in the water for a longer period than three
-weeks. The time of its appearance varies in different rivers, but it
-generally rises about the last week in May, and continues for about
-three weeks. The wings are made of the light feathers of a grey drake,
-dyed a pale yellow-green colour, by being boiled for a minute or two in
-a decoction of green vitriol. The body is formed of amber-coloured
-mohair or silk ribbon, with dark green silk; the head of peacock's harl,
-and the tail of three long hairs taken from a sable muff.
-
-2. _The black gnat._--The body of this fly is made of black ostrich
-harl, and the wings of a pale starling's feather; it must be dressed
-short and thick. It is in use from the end of April till the end of May,
-and is a good killer when the water is low.
-
-3. _Hare's ear._--The wings are made from the feather of a starling's
-wing, the body from the fur of the hare's ear, the legs of a ginger
-cock's hackle.
-
-4. _Cock tail._--Wings of the light feather from a snipe's wing, the
-body of yellow mohair.
-
-5. _Whirling dun._--Wings of a snipe's feather, body of blue fur wrapped
-with yellow silk, and a blue cock's hackle for legs; the tail of two
-hairs from a coloured muff.
-
-6. _Grey drake._--Wings of a dark grey feather of the mallard, the body
-of white silk, striped with dark silk, the head of a peacock's harl, and
-the tail of three hairs from a sable muff.
-
-7. _Cowdung fly._--The wings of the feather of a landrail, the body of
-yellow camlet, mixed with a little brown bear-fur, and a ginger hackle
-for legs; the wings should be dressed flat.
-
-8. _Bee fly._--The body of thread of various colours, arranged in
-stripes of the following order:--black, white, light yellow, white,
-black, white; the legs of a black hackle; the wings from the feathers of
-a blue pigeon's wing: the body must be dressed thick.
-
-9. _Red palmer._--The body of dark-red mohair, ribbed with gold twist,
-and wrapped with a red cock's hackle.
-
-10. _Peacock palmer._--The body of a peacock's harl, wrapped with a
-dusky-red cock's hackle.
-
-11. _Kingdom fly._--Wings of a woodcock's feather, the body of white
-silk, striped with green, and the legs of a red cock's hackle.
-
-12. _White gnat._--The wings of a small white feather, the body of white
-silk, and the legs of a red cock's hackle.
-
-13. _Blue dun._--The wings of a starling's feather, the body of blue fur
-from a water rat, mixed with a little lemon-colour mohair; the tail is
-forked, and should be made of two fibres from the feather used for the
-wing.
-
-14. _Red ant._--The wings of a light starling's feather, the body of
-peacock's harl made thick at the tail, and a ginger hackle for legs.
-
-15. _Gold spinner._--Wings of a starling's feather, body of orange silk,
-ribbed with gold twist, and the legs of a red hackle.
-
-16. _Great white moth._--Wings of a feather from the wing of a white
-owl, the body of white cotton, and a white cock's hackle wrapped round
-the body.
-
-17. _Governor._--Wings of a woodcock's feather, the body of a peacock's
-harl, tied with orange silk.
-
-18. _March brown._--Wings of the dark mottled feather from the tail of a
-partridge, the body of fur from a hare's ear, well mixed with a little
-yellow worsted, and a grizzled cock's hackle for legs.
-
-19. _Stone fly._--Wings of a dusky-blue cock's hackle, or a mottled
-feather from a hen pheasant, the body of dark-brown and yellow camlet
-mixed, and a grizzled hackle for legs; the wings should be flat.
-
-20. _Black silver palmer._--The body of black ostrich harl, ribbed with
-silver twist, and wrapped with black cock's hackle.
-
-21. _Willow fly._--The wings of dark grizzled cock's hackle, the body of
-blue squirrel's fur, mixed with yellow mohair.
-
-22. _Yellow palmer._--The wings of white hackle, dyed yellow, the body
-of yellow silk.
-
-23. _Black palmer._--The body of black ostrich's harl, wrapped with a
-black cock's hackle.
-
-24. _Black palmer ribbed with gold._--The body of peacock's harl,
-wrapped with a black cock's hackle, and ribbed with gold twist.
-
-25. _Marlow Buzz or Cock-a-Boundhu._--This is one of the most killing
-flies known, and should never be off the line during the trout season.
-The body of peacock's harl, ribbed with gold twist, and a dark-red
-cock's hackle over all.
-
-26. _The Grouse Hackle._--This is also a very killing fly, especially
-late in the evening, during June, July, and August. Body of brown fur,
-ribbed with gold twist, and a grouse hackle over all; hook No. 10.
-
-The foregoing list comprises twenty-six of the most killing flies; and
-the following are the months in which they will be found to kill best.
-
-_February_, red cowdung fly, blue dun; _March_, brown; _April_, black
-gnat, stone fly, gravel or spider fly, the green tail, brown, blue dun;
-_May_, green drake, grey drake, oak fly, hazel fly, little iron blue and
-yellow sally; _June_, hare's ear, cock tail, whirling dun, marlow buzz,
-bee fly, kingdom fly, white gnat, blue gnat, blue dun, governor, fern
-fly; gold spinner; _July_, red ant, red spinner, yellow dun, coachman,
-fern fly; _August_, whirling blue, red spinner, pale yellow dun;
-_September_, willow fly, silver twisted blue, whirling blue.
-
-It would of course be impossible, in a work of this description, to give
-a list of all the artificial flies used by experienced fishermen, but
-the above are a few of the most killing. For bleak, dace, roach, chub,
-&c. a piece of a maggot, or a small piece of white leather, should be
-placed at the end of the hook.
-
-Having thus given the "order of flies," natural and artificial, we may
-imagine the young fly-fisher, with rod in hand, proportionate to his
-strength and the breadth of the stream, ready to throw his fly; but let
-his rod and running tackle be in good order, and the idea of the
-coachman's whip out of his mind. He is not to flog the water, but to
-tickle it. The novice should teach himself to handle the line, by
-beginning with it alone, (_i. e._ without flies or hook,) trying a short
-length first, and lengthening it gradually. In using the rod, it should
-be drawn vigorously back, though without a jerk, and thrown forward
-again _when the line has reached its full extent behind_. Take care in
-doing this, that the fly be not whipped off. When tolerably expert, put
-on one fly, and try awhile with that, adopting two or three when able to
-use them properly.
-
-In fly-fishing keep as far from the water as possible, especially if
-fishing for trout. Let only the flies touch the water, and keep moving
-them gently and slowly on the surface. When a fish rises, let not a
-moment elapse before you strike, and do it sharply.
-
-When you have two flies on your line, you must try to throw your line so
-that the bottom fly shall reach the water first; it must be done always
-as lightly as possible, so that it may resemble a natural fly settling
-upon the water. You must suffer the line to float gently down the
-stream, at the same time working it towards you.
-
-The best time for angling with the fly is when there is a gentle breeze
-upon the water; south and west winds are to be preferred, when the water
-has been disturbed by heavy rains and is just resuming its natural
-colour, or when the day is dull and cloudy. The best time, morning and
-evening. In cold weather the fish bite deeper, and you should then let
-the fly sink a little. Take care to have the wind in your back, and the
-sun in your face, if possible.
-
-When you see a rise, throw your fly about half a yard above the fish's
-nose, and let it fall down with the stream; watch it narrowly, and
-strike as the fish rises, giving him an "infinite little moment" to
-taste. When you have hooked, play your fish carefully, keeping up his
-head and running him down the stream, at the same time steering him
-towards you. If you see a fish rise at a natural fly, throw your bait a
-little before him, so that he may take it as "one of the number."
-
-To know what flies the fish are most likely to take, observe what
-natural flies are about the water, or on the grass, trees, or bushes in
-the vicinity of the river; and take that fly which is the most in
-abundance, either natural or artificial at your discretion.
-
-Such are a few practical particulars concerning angling and fly-fishing,
-sufficient to enable any young angler to begin. For more abundant
-information we refer him to Mr. Stoddart and Mr. Stewart, for
-fly-fishing, Mr. Cholmondeley Pennell for pike-fishing, "Hewitt
-Wheatley" for grayling fishing, and Mr. Francis Francis for the various
-modes of bottom fishing.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-ARCHERY.
-
- "And he was clad in coat and pode of grene;
- A shefe of pecocke arrows bryght and shene
- Under his belt he bare, ful threftely.
- Well coude he dresse his tackle yomanly.
- His arrows drouped not with feathers lowe,
- And in his hande he bare a myghty bowe."--CHAUCER.
-
-The skill of the English in archery was always very great. Our ancestors
-used the bow for a double purpose: in time of war, it was a far more
-dreadful instrument of destruction than our present soldier's musket;
-while in the "piping times of peace," it became an object of amusement.
-The victories the English obtained over their enemies in times of war
-were many, and what the world calls glorious; and they stand upon record
-in our history, where the young reader may peruse them with interest and
-advantage.
-
-[Illustration: SAXON BOW AND ARROW.]
-
-The Anglo-Saxons and the Danes were certainly well acquainted with the
-use of the bow, which they used, not so much for war purposes, as in
-the sports of the field. But it is well known that the Normans used the
-bow as a military weapon, and under their government the practice of
-archery was not only much improved, but generally diffused throughout
-the kingdom. The long-bow was an instrument of Norman introduction, and
-there seems good reason to believe that the arbalist, or cross-bow, was
-used by these sturdy invaders.
-
-
-THE LONG-BOW.
-
-[Illustration: NORMAN-BOW.]
-
-The use of the English long-bow arrived at the highest perfection in the
-reign of Edward III.; and, notwithstanding the introduction of
-fire-arms, continued for a long time after to be successfully
-cultivated. Cressy, Poictiers, Agincourt, and many other victories, were
-obtained by its use; and Sir John Fortescue writes, "That mighte of the
-realme of Englande standyth upon her archers,"--as it will now upon our
-riflemen or sharpshooters, when our army shall get the right kind of
-gun.
-
-
-THE CROSS-BOW.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The cross-bow, or arbalist, was a popular weapon with the Etolians, and
-was introduced into England in the thirteenth century. The arrows shot
-from it were called "guorrels." It was fastened upon a stock, and
-discharged by means of a catch or trigger, which probably gave rise to
-the lock on the modern musket. One historian informs us, that Richard
-the First was wounded by an arrow from a bow of this kind; and also,
-that the English cross-bow was used chiefly at sieges of fortified
-places, and on ship-board in battles upon the sea. It was, however, used
-in recreation, and acquired great reputation among the citizens of
-London, who had "butts" in various places for the practice of this kind
-of archery; as at Newington Butts, Brentford Butts, and other spots,
-which still retain the name of Butts: and in the reign of Edward IV. an
-act passed, which directed that butts should be in every township,
-where the inhabitants should shoot on every feast-day, under a penalty
-of a halfpenny when they shall omit the exercise.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-FEATS OF THE BOW.
-
-Mr. Grose informs us that an archer could shoot six arrows in the time
-necessary to charge and discharge a musket; and even in modern days, a
-practised bowman has been known to shoot twelve arrows in a minute into
-a circle not larger than the circumference of a man's hat, at a distance
-of forty yards. Of the power of the bow, and of the distance it will
-carry, some remarkable anecdotes are told. Xenophon mentions an
-Arcadian, whose head was shot through by a Carduchian archer. Stuart
-mentions a random shot of a Turk, which he found to be 584 yards; and
-Mr. Strutt saw the Turkish ambassador shoot 480 yards in the old
-archery-ground in London. An old author speaks of a Turkish bow, the
-arrow of which was known to pierce a steel target two inches thick. In
-the journal of King Edward VI., it is mentioned that 100 archers of the
-king's guard shot at an inch board, and that some of the arrows passed
-through this, and into another board behind it, although the wood was
-extremely solid and firm. William de Brensia relates that a Welshman
-having directed an arrow at a horse-soldier of his, who was clad in
-armour, and had his leathern coat under it, the arrow, beside piercing
-the man through the hip, struck also through the saddle, and mortally
-wounded the horse on which he sat. Another Welsh soldier having shot an
-arrow at one of his horsemen, who was covered with strong armour, the
-shaft penetrated through his thigh, and fixed in the saddle; but what is
-most remarkable is, that as the horseman drew his bridle aside, in order
-to turn round, he received another arrow in the opposite thigh, which
-passing through it, he was firmly fixed to the saddle on both sides. Mr.
-Barrington, in the "Archæologiæ," relates a tradition that one Leigh, an
-attorney (it must have been a barrister), shot an arrow a mile in three
-flights; and Carew, speaking of the Cornish archers two centuries back,
-says that the butts for long shooting were placed 480 yards apart. Such,
-my good friends, are the feats you may emulate with the bow.
-
-
-LENGTH OF BOWS AND ARROWS, AND HOW USED IN ANCIENT TIMES.
-
-[Illustration: NORMAN BOWMAN EQUIPPED FOR BATTLE.]
-
-The length of the bow varied, but was usually the height of the bearer,
-as the Act of Edward IV. commands every man to have a bow his own
-height. The arrows were of different weights and sizes; the lighter
-sort, for long ranges, about two feet three inches; while the heavy were
-a cloth yard in length. The heads had various shapes, among which the
-broad arrow extended in width to nearly four inches to the extremity of
-the wings. Of these, 24 in a sheaf were put into a quiver, and, in
-action, about 12 in the girdle. They were trimmed with three goose-quill
-feathers each, and when the archers shot in volley, the quantity of
-arrows in the air was compared by Froissart to a fall of snow. The
-farthest range of arrows was estimated at eleven score yards. The
-archers, in order of battle, generally carried, beside the bow, axe, and
-target, a stake pointed at both ends. They formed in open ranks, in
-files eight deep. When on the point of engaging, they advanced a few
-paces beyond the intended line, and fixed their stakes, inclined towards
-the enemy, in the ground. They then stepped backward, and from behind
-these chevaux-de-frise dealt forth their destructive arrows; and when
-the enemy were thrown into confusion, they sallied, and with small
-battle-axes and swords completed the defeat.
-
-
-MARKS FOR SHOOTING AT.
-
-The marks usually shot at by the archers for pastime were "butts,"
-"prickes," and "rovers." The "butt" was a level mark, made by placing a
-target on a slope of a hill or bank of earth, and required a strong
-arrow. The "pricke" was a "mark of compass," but always of one distance,
-and had some emblem on a pole for shooting at; and to this mark strong
-swift arrows of one flight, with a middling size feather, were best
-suited. The "rover" was a mark of uncertain length, and often an arrow
-shot forth from a bow. Other marks were used, as the standard, the
-target, hazel-wands, rose-garlands, and the popinjay, which was an
-artificial parrot or peacock, or sometimes the common cock, set upon a
-post or pole, as seen in the engraving.
-
-[Illustration: SHOOTING AT THE POPINJAY.]
-
-
-EQUIPMENT FOR ARCHERY.
-
-Roger Ascham, who was well versed in the subject of archery, says that
-it was necessary for the archer to have a bracer, or close sleeve, to
-lace upon the left arm; and to this was added a shooting-glove for the
-protection of the fingers. The bow was to be made of elm, ash, or yew;
-the bow-string to be composed of good hemp, flax, or silk; the arrows
-were to be made of oak, hornbeam, or birch. The feathers from a goose,
-and especially of a grey goose, he thought preferable to any for the
-pluming of an arrow.
-
-
-ANCIENT DIRECTIONS FOR ARCHERY.
-
-Ascham says: "First take care of a graceful attitude." The archer should
-stand fairly and upright with his body, his left foot at a convenient
-distance from his right, holding the bow by its middle, with his left
-arm stretched out, and with the first three fingers and the thumb of his
-right hand on the lower part of the arrow affixed to the string of the
-bow. The notch of the arrow to rest between the fore-finger and the
-middle finger of the right hand. The arrow, in drawing the bow, was to
-be elevated to the right ear. The shaft of the arrow below the feathers
-to be rested on the knuckle of the fore-finger of the left hand. The
-arrow was to be drawn to the head, and not held too long in that
-situation, but neatly and smartly discharged. Among the requisites
-necessary to constitute a good archer are, a clear sight steadily
-directed to the mark,--a proper judgment of distances, to determine the
-length of the ground. He ought also to know how to take advantage of a
-side-wind, and to be well acquainted with what compass his arrows would
-take in their flight. "Courage," he says also, "is an indispensable
-requisite; as he who shoots with the least trepidation is sure to shoot
-badly."
-
-
-DECLINE OF ARCHERY.
-
-Notwithstanding the great advantages of archery in ancient days,
-somehow or other it began to decline even at the time of its zenith;
-so that, from time to time, acts of parliament were made to compel
-the citizens of London, and other towns, to practise it. Some of our
-monarchs made sumptuous archery entertainments. In the reign of Queen
-Elizabeth, a grand shooting-match was held in London of all the archers
-in the surrounding districts; and these meeting at the appointed
-time, with their different companies, proceeded in a pompous march
-from Merchant Tailors' Hall, numbering 3,000 archers, sumptuously
-apparelled, every man having a long-bow and four arrows; 940 of them
-had gold chains about their necks. This splendid company was attended
-by 4,000 whifflers and bellmen. The queen met them in Smithfield,
-and presided at their sports. But still the art continued to decline,
-and, with the increase of other warlike weapons, became at last almost
-extinct. Within these few years, however, it has again become a somewhat
-favourite exercise, near London, and in various parts of the country.
-In Scotland, the "Royal Company of Archers"--the Queen's body-guard for
-Scotland--comprises many of the Scottish nobility, and King George IV.
-recognised it. It now comprises about 500 members, who meet weekly, and
-at certain seasons contend for several annual prizes.
-
-Convinced as we are that the practice of archery possesses, in point of
-health, all the advantages of field sports, without their cruelty to
-animals, and demoralizing oppression to our fellow-creatures, we
-strongly recommend it to our juvenile friends. It is an exercise adapted
-to every age and every degree of strength; and especially adapted to
-young ladies, whose sedentary occupations,--rendered still more
-injurious by the pestiferous Berlin wool,--disposes them to disease and
-consumption. I do not wish to sing the praises of the art to their full
-extent, but I wish to see it universally cultivated, and should hail
-with pleasure the time when it can be again said, as with Statius,
-"Pudor est nescere sagittas."
-
-
-MODERN ARCHERY.
-
-Proceeding now to the modern practice of the art, we must first begin
-with
-
-
-THE BOW.
-
-The Bow may be made of the yew-tree, laburnum, thorn, or acacia, and is
-generally formed of two pieces of wood joined together, the back piece
-being of a different wood to the front, and the grain reversed. It is of
-great importance to secure a good bow. We would not, therefore, advise
-the young archer to make one, but to buy one at a good archery shop,
-where they may be had at all prices. Upon making a purchase, he should
-examine the bow well, to observe whether it be well set in all its
-parts, of an elegant cut or shape, and free from flaws, knots, or
-cracks. He should look well at the ends, and to those points on which
-the bow-string is fixed, which ought to be tipped with horn. The proper
-length of a bow for a youth is about five feet. The flat or outward part
-of a bow is called its back, and the inward part its belly; and in
-stringing it the young archer should be particularly careful to keep the
-belly inwards, or the bow will break.
-
-
-THE STRING.
-
-The string of the bow should be made of hemp, and whipped with sewing
-silk at that part of it which receives the arrow, marked C in the
-annexed plan. The thickness of the string should depend upon the length
-of the bow, and should never be too thin for its powers, as the
-snapping of a string sometimes causes the snapping of the bow. The young
-archer should never use a string in the least out of order, and should
-avoid cat-gut strings especially. A bow five feet long, when bent,
-should have a string about five inches from the centre. This will be a
-guide in stringing the bow. The young archer should take great pride in
-the care of his bow, especially of the string, and look carefully, after
-every day's shooting, at the "whipping" of the string, and at the
-wearing points, repairing the least defect. He ought also to place his
-bow in an oil-skin case, lined with baize; and when put away for the
-season it should be well rubbed with oil, and polished. He should also
-have always two or three spare strings in readiness, in case the one in
-use may fly.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-STRINGING THE BOW.
-
-The young archer must be very careful in performing this feat, or he
-will fail in the attempt; to do so safely, he must take the bow in his
-right hand by the handle, the flat part towards him; then let his arm
-rest against his side, then put the lower end of the bow against the
-inside of the right foot, bring his left foot forward, and place the
-centre of the left wrist on the upper level of the bow below the loop of
-the string, the fore-finger knuckle on one edge of the bow, and the top
-of the thumb upon the other; then up with the bow and loop it. This
-feat, however, can be best learned by seeing another expert person
-perform it. In unstringing the bow, the short horn should be placed on
-the ground against the right foot, the middle of the bow grasped in the
-right hand, and the left wrist placed on the upper horn, so that the
-fore-finger may unloop the string when the bow is brought down, as in
-the manner of stringing it.
-
-
-THE ARROWS.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Arrows are generally made of some white wood, such as ash, deal, or the
-wood of the orbele poplar, and are sometimes varnished. They are both
-blunt and sharp. The sharp ones are for target shooting, the blunt ones
-principally for roving; they also vary as regards length, some being
-long, and some short. In purchasing them, the principal thing to be
-attended to is, that they are perfectly straight, well made, and that
-the plumes are securely fitted. There should be three on each arrow;
-one, which is of a darker colour than the rest, is called the cock
-plume, and in shooting should be placed uppermost. The length and weight
-of the arrows should be in proportion to the size of the bow. The nicks
-of arrows should be cased with horn, and they should fit the string
-exactly.
-
-
-THE QUIVER.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The quiver is used to contain the arrows, and is usually made of wood,
-or tin, or leather, those made of the latter material being the most
-serviceable and convenient to wear. It should be long enough to contain
-the arrows up to the feather, without bruising or crushing the plumes,
-which ought always to be kept perfectly straight and unruffled. The
-quiver in shooting is not carried, but the arrows are placed in a pouch
-attached to the belt.
-
-[Illustration: TASSEL.]
-
-[Illustration: BRACE.]
-
-
-THE TASSEL, BRACE, BELT AND POUCH.
-
-_The Tassel_ is usually made of green worsted, and is used by the archer
-for the purpose of cleansing the arrow from dirt after being taken from
-the ground. It is usually suspended on the left side of the archer.
-
-[Illustration: THE BELT.]
-
-_The Brace_ is of leather, and is buckled on the arm to save it from
-being hurt by the string upon the discharge of the arrow. It ought to
-be very smooth on its surface, so as to offer no impediment to the
-bow-string.
-
-_The Belt_ is made of leather, and is buckled round the waist. It has
-fastened to it a _pouch_, for the temporary reception of the arrows in
-shooting.
-
-
-SHOOTING GLOVE, AND GREASE POT.
-
-_The Shooting Glove_ is made of cow-hide, or horse ball leather. It has
-places or stalls for three fingers only, with a wrist strap to fasten it
-on. Its use is to protect the fingers from the action of the string, and
-in selecting it the young archer should be careful that the finger
-stalls are neither too long nor too short for the hand.
-
-[Illustration: THE GLOVE.]
-
-[Illustration: THE GREASE POT.]
-
-_The Grease Box_ hangs usually by the side of the tassel, and contains a
-small portion of grease composed of suet and bees-wax well compounded.
-This is used for rubbing on the fingers of the shooting glove, and is
-indispensable to the archer.
-
-
-THE TARGET.
-
-Targets are made with plaited straw bands, wound round a centre, and
-sewn together. Over this body is placed a facing of canvass, the ground
-of which is painted white; upon the white are painted four circles, and
-a gold centre called the bull's eye. The first circle close to the eye
-is red; the next white, called the inner white; the third black; and the
-fourth white, called the outer white; while the outside verge, called
-the petticoat of the target, is painted green.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-A certain value in shooting is given to each circle of the target, which
-is thus computed: Outer white 1; Black 3; Inner white 5; Red 7, and the
-Gold Eye 9.
-
-There are usually two targets in an archery field, placed at certain
-distances from each other, which shortens the labour of walking; for if
-one target only be used, a great deal of time is lost in going from the
-shooting mark to the target to fetch the arrows, and in returning to the
-spot again.
-
-The prizes usually shot for in archery matches are gold and silver
-medals, silver cups, silver arrows, silver gilt bugles, prize bows and
-arrows. There are generally two prizes given; the first for the shots
-nearest the gold centre, the second for the number of shots put into the
-target, according to their value.
-
-A person is usually appointed to register the shots at the targets, who
-has a card similar to the form given below, by which he takes an account
-of the hits as they are made.
-
- +=======+======+=====+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======++
- | NAMES | GOLD | RED | INNER | BLACK | OUTER | TOTAL | VALUE ||
- | | | | WHITE | | WHITE | | ||
- +-------+------+-----+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------++
- |_Smith_| 2 | 3 | 7 | 3 | 11 | 26 | 100 ||
- |_Jones_| 1 | 6 | 5 | 8 | 7 | 27 | 107 ||
- |_Brown_| 3 | 4 | 9 | 7 | 18 | 41 | 139 ||
- +-------+------+-----+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------++
-
-The markings are usually made by the marker with a pin, holes being less
-liable to obliteration than pencil marks.
-
-
-BUTTS.
-
-Are usually made of pieces of turf piled one upon another, and laid one
-upon the other in the following shape. They are usually about six feet
-high and four feet broad at the face, upon which a circular piece of
-thin white pasteboard, about six inches in diameter, is affixed with
-pegs. Butts are generally placed in the field in sets of four, so as not
-to stand in the way of each other. And when shot at, the arrows placed
-in the pasteboard mark are alone reckoned, and those who here place the
-greatest number of shots are the winners of the prize.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-HOW TO DRAW THE BOW.
-
-The ancient directions for drawing the bow, or rather the arrow, have
-been already given. The archer having placed himself opposite to the
-target, with his face a little inclined to the right, should swing
-himself slightly round, so that his eye and the target are in an exact
-line. He should stand quite upright, his left foot slightly in advance.
-Holding the bow horizontally in his left hand, he should draw an arrow
-from his pouch and carry it under the string and over the left side of
-the bow. The fore-finger of the left hand now holds the arrow secure on
-the wooden part of the bow at its centre, while the right hand fixes the
-nick of the arrow on the string, where it is held fast between the first
-and second fingers, the cock feather being uppermost. The fore-finger of
-the left hand may now be removed from the arrow, and the centre of the
-bow grasped tightly. The bow is now raised gradually by the left hand,
-at the same time that the string is pulled by the right; and when the
-arrow is drawn about two-thirds of its length, the neck of it should be
-brought close to the right ear and the aim should be taken. The aim
-should be taken quickly, and the string loosened freely from the fingers
-with a peculiar touch, which no books can teach, and which nothing but
-experience and skill can give. In long shots the right hand must be
-lowered, and the arrow sent so as to form a greater curve in its flight.
-The archer should look at his _mark_, not at his shaft, and when he has
-shot should retreat to the leftward, and take his position behind the
-person with whom he is shooting.
-
-[Illustration: POSITION IN SHOOTING.]
-
-
-FLIGHT SHOOTING.
-
-This is principally engaged in for the purpose of ascertaining the
-greatest distance to which the arrows can be sent by the respective
-shooters. It requires no skill in aiming, but much care in drawing the
-arrow, as nothing is more likely to fracture the bow than flight
-shooting. The archer who sends his arrows to the greatest distance is
-the winner.
-
-
-CLOUT SHOOTING.
-
-In clout shooting the target is only a small piece of white pasteboard
-attached to a stick about five feet from the ground, and placed at a
-distance of from 120 to 150 yards. In it seven makes the game, and all
-arrows that fall within two bows' length of the foot of the stick are
-marked in counting.
-
-
-ROVING.
-
-So called from the shooters roving from place to place, over field,
-heath, moor, common, finding their marks in trees, posts, bushes, &c.
-The distances constantly varying, give to young archers a great deal of
-practice; besides which, the variety of the scenery, and the various
-incidents that occur in a day's roving, are often highly interesting and
-exciting. By roving the eye gets a habit of measuring distances, and the
-hand and arm strength for the bow. Blunt-headed arrows are the best for
-roving, of which about a dozen ought to be carried by each archer. Sharp
-arrows would imbed themselves too deeply in trees to be easily
-extracted. In a roving party, arrows that reach within five bows' length
-of the mark tell, and those which are nearest cut the others out. Each
-archer measures with his own bow. The number of the game is often nine,
-but generally twelve.
-
-
-GENERAL HINTS FOR ARCHERS.
-
-1. In commencing archery never begin with a stiff bow, but select one
-adapted to your strength, and change this for a stronger from time to
-time.
-
-2. Never shoot with another person's bow.
-
-3. Never put an arrow in the string when any one stands between you and
-the target, or you may shoot out an eye.
-
-4. Never talk, jibe, or jest at the time of shooting.
-
-5. Always study to take a graceful attitude in shooting, or in moving
-about the field.
-
-6. Never draw a bow near another person; as, should it snap, the danger
-will be greater to him than yourself.
-
-7. Never let your bow-string get untwisted or ravelled by neglect.
-
-8. Never exhibit impatience at the tardy efforts of your compeers, or
-chagrin at your own failures.
-
-9. Never shoot alone if you can help it, as it leads to negligence and
-indifference.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-BOXING.
-
-We will first give briefly some of the reasons why we have determined to
-mention this branch of the manly exercises. Firstly, we do so because we
-have a great personal esteem for the art, though none can be more
-sternly opposed to its abuse. Secondly, because it affords one of the
-finest exercises in the world, employing every limb and every muscle in
-the body, giving at the same time readiness of hand and quickness of
-eye, while it tests and improves the patience and endurance. And,
-thirdly, because every one likes to know how to use the weapons which
-Nature has given him, and will contrive to acquire the desired knowledge
-whenever he can find an opportunity. All Englishmen, and therefore all
-English boys, are proud of their natural weapon, and compare it with the
-knife, the loaded stick, the knuckleduster, and the pistol of other
-nations. The principle of fair play and justice is strongly developed in
-an English breast, and in nothing is the principle so thoroughly carried
-out as in boxing. No unfair advantage is allowed to either side, no
-striking upon the vital parts of the body is permitted, and the use of
-the foot, tooth, or nail is forbidden under the severest penalties. Even
-in the very prize ring, where men are trained for the express purpose of
-hitting each other with the utmost force of which human arms are
-capable, there is little harm done, and in a few days both combatants
-look as if nothing had happened to them. It is not so even in a
-wrestling county, or in some few parts of our own land where men fight
-like brute beasts, and use their best endeavours to maim or blind their
-adversaries for life. A well-known American writer has expressed, in his
-own humorous language, the astonishment which he felt at witnessing a
-short "turn up" at an English cattle-fair. The grave propriety of the
-affair, and the admirable order in which it was conducted, struck him
-with profound admiration, as contrasted with the "inglorious and
-inevitable Yankee _clinches_, followed by a general _mêlée_," which in
-popular language is termed a "free fight," and in which every one
-attacks every one else with any weapons and in any manner.
-
-Before proceeding to our genuine English Boxing, we must just mention
-the French "_savate_," of which we have heard so much of late. We have
-seen it practised and taught in the _salles d'armes_, and for it, as a
-system for boxing, we have the profoundest contempt; as also for that
-execrable French custom of striking upwards with the knee when at close
-quarters--an atrocity for which we should like to see a man soundly
-horsewhipped on the spot.
-
-Now, the _savate_ simply consists in this. You make a feint, as if to
-strike in the usual manner, and then, instead of striking with the fist,
-you kick with the foot. Or, when your antagonist is pressing you
-sharply, you send the point of your toe into his chest, and stop him.
-Or, you retreat from him, suddenly turn round, and kick at him
-backwards--of course being quite unable to tell where the blow will
-alight, and possibly inflicting an injury the effects of which will be
-felt for life.
-
-Those who are practised in this man[oe]uvre will employ it with
-wonderful skill. They will hit you on the nose or on the forehead
-without the least apparent effort, and with the greatest certainty;
-they will fling you back from your advance with stunning force, and the
-effect of the lash-out is terrific. Indeed, if the object of boxing be
-to use all means of offence and defence, the _savate_ is indispensable.
-
-Having many opportunities of visiting several schools of arms, we
-carefully considered this system, which was then totally unknown to us;
-and after watching it well for some time, during our residence in Paris,
-we came to the conclusion that the _savate_ is useful enough in case you
-are attacked by ruffianly fellows, whom you must needs maim, lest they
-should maim you; and that by the combined use of the _savate_ and a
-stick, or even the fist, a man may knock over a couple of assailants
-simultaneously and effectually.
-
-And if a Frenchman who uses the _savate_ were opposed to an Englishman
-who never heard of it, the probability is that the former would win,
-because the latter would lay himself open to a mode of attack which he
-had always been taught to consider unfair and unmanly. But we do not
-believe that it would be of the slightest value against any one who knew
-that his antagonist would employ it, and think that the person
-attempting to use it would find himself hurled to the ground, and
-probably discover that his leg was violently sprained. So much for the
-_savate_.
-
-It is not easy to teach any branch of the science of arms in a book, and
-boxing is perhaps as difficult to be learned from books as fencing.
-Still, something can be done even through the medium of ink and paper;
-and the reader can, at all events, learn to avoid the errors to which a
-total novice is subject.
-
-The first and most important point is the position in which the boxer
-stands.
-
-This is not very dissimilar to that of a left-handed fencer, except that
-the right arm, instead of being raised, is brought across the body, so
-that it defends the pit of the stomach (technically called the "mark"),
-and only leaves a very small portion of the chest open to a blow. The
-left arm is rather higher than if it held a foil, and the elbow is kept
-well to the side. This latter point is most important, as it is
-impossible to hit straight from the shoulder if the elbow should project
-from the side.
-
-The weight of the body rests mostly on the right leg, so that the boxer
-can step backwards or forwards, while still keeping his side to the
-adversary. If you stand opposite a good sparrer in boxing attitude, you
-will be surprised to find how well guarded he is, and how difficult it
-is to hit him, even if he neither moves nor attempts to return the blow.
-His left hand keeps you well away from him, and his right is ready
-either to stop or throw off your blow.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-It will be seen from the foregoing description, as well as by reference
-to the illustration, that a right-handed boxer stands with his left side
-towards the opponent, uses his left hand for the chief part of the
-hitting, and reserves the right for stopping, parrying, or returning
-blows when at close quarters, or what is technically called a "rally."
-
-Practise this attitude before a glass. You will soon see if you lay
-yourself open, and will learn to stand in a correct position. Advance
-and retreat also before the glass, and so make sure that you do not
-expose some weak point while so doing. I met a French gentleman who had
-made himself really a creditable boxer, merely by practising before his
-mirror; and after a few days of practical work with the gloves he became
-quite a formidable antagonist.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Another important point is the making up of the fist--not such a simple
-matter as it seems. The fingers must be clenched tightly, and the thumb
-doubled down outside them, so that when presented towards your
-antagonist he can see no part of it projecting over the fingers. This
-can also be practised at the glass. If the hand be rightly held, it will
-be seen that the knuckles form a kind of arch, of which the middle
-knuckle is the keystone. It is with this knuckle that you strike; and be
-sure to clench the hand with all your power as you deliver the stroke;
-otherwise you will run a sad risk of dislocating either a finger or a
-thumb.
-
-The position of the head is of no small importance. On no account bear
-forwards, as is the way of muffs, but keep it lightly thrown back, and
-never take your eye off that of your opponent. Greenhorns always lower
-the head, and rush at their antagonist with their arms flying about like
-the sails of a windmill; and the natural consequence is, that their
-opponent quickly steps aside, lets them pass, and knocks them neatly
-over by a blow on the temple, which they cannot possibly see or guard.
-
-Having got our attitude and doubled our fist, we now learn to strike.
-Deliver your blow straight and from the shoulder, not merely with the
-arm. Put all your body into the stroke, and aid it with the spring of
-the right foot against the ground. Thus you add to the blow the force of
-a kick, and the stroke comes with such terrific force that I have seen a
-tall man lifted fairly off the ground and deposited on his back by a
-straight shoulder-hit, even though the two were merely sparring with the
-gloves.
-
-Never draw back your hand before you strike, as that tells your opponent
-what you are contemplating. Your stroke should flash out like the
-lightning, without warning and straight to the mark. You cannot strike
-too rapidly, and you cannot recover yourself too quickly. Practise this
-repeatedly before a glass, and note the length of your reach, for in a
-knowledge of distance lies half the art of boxing. As a general rule, if
-you can get your left toe on a level with your antagonist's heel, you
-have your proper distance. This rule, however, is necessarily variable,
-as in the case of the contest to which allusion has just been made,
-where one party could reach a full foot beyond the other, and had, in
-consequence, the advantage of twelve inches of space at his disposal.
-
-Now that we have practised the left hand and arm, let us turn to the
-right. Except when striking, you need not trouble yourself to close the
-fist very tightly, but may let the hand lie in an easy and unconstrained
-position across the chest, ready for use in any direction that may be
-required.
-
-The chief use of the right hand and arm are for parrying and stopping,
-which are thus achieved:--
-
-If your opponent delivers a blow at the face or upper part of the chest,
-and you find yourself in a good position, do not retreat from it, but
-fling your right arm sharply outwards and upwards, catching the
-opponent's arm by the wrist, and throwing it out of the direction in
-which it was aimed. The effect of the parry is very powerful, as it
-mostly lays open the antagonist's head, and gives opportunity for a
-smart return blow with the left hand; it is then near the opponent's
-head, and has only a short distance to traverse. This return blow is
-technically called the "counter," and is usually very effective, as it
-takes effect just at the moment when the antagonist is expecting his
-own blow to strike, and turns the tables on him after a rather
-discouraging fashion.
-
-Practise this also before the glass, parrying an imaginary blow from the
-opponent, and simultaneously shooting your own left hand against the
-spot where your antagonist's head ought to be. I have often found that a
-quick double blow when countering is very embarrassing, and gives an
-opportunity of stepping in and planting your right hand after your left
-with enormous effect.
-
-Stopping is performed in another manner, and must often be used where
-the parry is impracticable. For example, if your antagonist strikes at
-the body the parry cannot be accomplished, and you must either get away,
-stop, or take the blow in hopes of retaliation. In stopping you receive
-the blow on your arm, and thereby break its force, while, unless your
-opponent is possessed of herculean strength, the arm scarcely feels the
-stroke, yielding before the assault and acting like the cotton bales
-that have saved many a ship from the enemy's cannon.
-
-If you are fortunate enough to find a good boxer, get him to give you a
-few lessons in the practical department of the art, and in all cases be
-careful to keep your temper. I know that few things are more annoying
-than when you have made a telling plan of attack, and are just about to
-begin its execution, to be checked by a short dab on the nose, which
-makes your eyes water and the lids blink, and forces you to act on the
-defensive for the next few minutes, while the tears are streaming down
-your cheeks, and you cannot use a handkerchief by reason of the gloves.
-
-Remember that there are two golden rules for a boxer, namely, hit
-straight and keep your temper. Fail in either of these requisites, and
-you will probably come off second best; fail in both, and you will
-certainly do so. Listen to an account of a battle where strength and
-weight and anger were overmatched by skill and coolness:--"As the
-assailant rushed in he ran a prominent feature of his face against a
-fist which was travelling in another direction, and immediately after
-struck the knuckles of the young man's other fist a severe blow with the
-part of his person known as the epigastrium to one branch of science,
-and the bread-basket to another. This second round closed the battle."
-
-So we say again, keep your temper and hit straight. You see a circular
-blow takes more time to deliver than a straight one, and if your
-opponent swings his arm round at you, while you dart out your own fist
-at him, your blow will have taken effect long before his clumsy
-circumgyratory attempt has completed its journey.
-
-Let me here offer another piece of advice. Do not buy cheap gloves. You
-may get them at a saving of half-a-crown or so, but you will soon wish
-that you had expended the money in obtaining a better pair. Gloves
-require the best horsehair, arranged after a peculiar fashion, in order
-to give them the mixed softness and elasticity which they require.
-Inferior gloves soon become hard and knotty, the stuffing gets thin in
-some places, especially just in those very parts where it is most
-required. The consequence is, that the gloves become practically
-useless, and the blows are nearly as severe as if struck with the bare
-hand.
-
-Remember that, although we strongly approve of boxing, it is not to be
-understood that we want every one to be fighting. We very much approve
-of fencing and single-stick, but we certainly have no wish that every
-one who learns to use the foil or the single-stick in mimic combat
-should want to try his rapier or his broadsword in deadly fight.
-
-As a mere exercise it stands supreme; but it is even something beyond an
-exercise. It shows that superior strength and height and weight are
-powerless before superior skill, and that a small boy who knows how to
-box will certainly conquer a big one who is ignorant of the art. We say
-again, we do not recommend fighting; but still it is good to know how to
-stand up in one's own defence, and we heartily wish that when we went to
-school some kind friend had taught us the rudiments of the art.
-
-The brutal bully of a school never holds his own when he meets with an
-antagonist who is skilful in the use of his hands, and is forced to
-confess that his brute strength and cruel nature are useless in such a
-contest. We once saw a school bully get his deserts in a charming
-manner. He had fallen upon (of course) a much smaller boy, and was
-chasing him down a passage between a double row of forms. Suddenly his
-victim turned round, and delivered a right-and-left blow on the chin of
-his tormentor, astonishing him in no slight degree. The bully pressed
-on, thinking to annihilate his impertinent antagonist, but could not do
-so on account of the narrowness of the passage. As he pressed forward
-the bold little fellow retreated backwards, step by step, popping in his
-blows sharp and quick, and stepping back just as those of his persecutor
-were delivered. The bully never guarded a single blow or succeeded in
-hitting one, and by the time that they had made their way through the
-defile he was obliged to confess himself beaten, and was deposed for
-ever from the despotic throne which he had so long disgraced.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-CANOES AND CANOEING.
-
-Despite the assertion of even so great an authority as Mr. Macgregor,
-whose name has now become a household word, canoeing is an amusement
-that must necessarily involve a considerable amount of danger, and ought
-to be indulged in by no one who has not, according to the Eton phrase,
-passed in swimming. Whether or not it is a very comfortable means of
-locomotion is purely a matter of personal feeling; but in face of the
-fact that the Canoe Club now numbers upwards of a hundred members, and
-that the boat-builders have had extensive orders for canoes, it is only
-fair to suppose that those who venture enjoy the new mode of locomotion.
-There is one circumstance that will, no doubt, obtain for canoes great
-favour, especially with young people, and that is, their cheapness.
-Messrs. Searle at Lambeth, Simmons at Putney, or Wheeler at Richmond,
-will build a good stout travelling canoe, after the fashion of the _Rob
-Roy_, for 15_l._; which price includes mast, sails, apron, paddles, and
-all necessaries. Any respectable boatbuilder would no doubt do the same,
-when he is once provided with the necessary instructions, which, I need
-scarcely add, it is essential should be carried out to the letter, for
-the slightest deviation from the recognised standard might cause the
-most disagreeable results. The following points are the most important.
-
-In having a canoe built, it is a matter of considerable moment, that in
-certain portions of its framework it should be constructed for and
-peculiarly adapted to the particular person who is going to use it. The
-length of the foot decides the height the canoe should be from keel to
-deck; the length of the legs the space required for the "well;" while
-the weight, of course, decides the displacement that is to be accounted
-for, and must be taken into consideration at the same time as the amount
-of luggage that it is proposed to carry. Oak is the best wood that can
-be used, with the top streak of mahogany and the deck of fine cedar.
-These were the materials of the _Rob Roy_, and as her weight with all
-her fittings was only 71 lbs., it would be unreasonable to want one
-lighter; indeed, for anything like knocking about flimsy canoes are
-utterly and entirely useless, and only aggravate the labour of paddling.
-The length over all should be 14 feet; beam, 26 inches; depth, from top
-of deck to bottom of keel, 12 inches, though towards the gunwale this is
-reduced to 8-1/2 inches. The well should be 32 inches long and 20 broad,
-and protected by a combing of oak half an inch in height. If your canoe
-is intended for travelling purposes, the beam should be 6 inches abaft
-midships; so that when stores, provisions, sails, and so on, are stowed
-away forward, it brings the craft to very nearly an even keel.
-Otherwise, it should only be 1 foot abaft midships. The boards that
-compose the floor, and on which you have to sit, resting your back
-against the backboard, are about two feet long, and are fitted so that
-the knees just touch the combing, while the heels are against the
-footboard on the keel, thus obviating the discomfort that would follow
-on having to keep the legs stretched out straight at full length. As I
-take it for granted that no one would think of going to the expense of
-having a canoe built without securing the services of some one who could
-supply him with the many minor details that it would be impossible to
-give here, I shall not enter more minutely into any of the less
-important matters, but would add, that a comfortable backboard, after
-the following pattern, goes a long way to lightening the labour of
-paddling. It should be made of two strips of oak, 18 inches long, 2-1/2
-inches wide, arched by two crosspieces, one of which should be grooved,
-so as to rest on the combing, and work after the fashion of a hinge, it
-being fastened thereon by a stout cord. The result is that the muscles
-down the back are supported and rested while the spine is left free. The
-greatest possible care should be taken in selecting the apron, which is
-too often left to the last moment and chosen in a hurry. Being intended
-to prevent the water making its way over the deck into the well, and at
-the same time to avoid being fastened in any way likely to impede the
-canoeist in case of an upset, it may readily be understood that it
-requires nice discrimination and handiwork. It should fit close to
-him--in short, he should be measured for it as for a coat. Mr. Macgregor
-has invented a new apron, the receipt for which may be easily obtained,
-as well as any other particulars, at Messrs. Searle's at Lambeth.
-
-I should recommend the novice in canoeing to rest content with
-propelling himself by the aid of his paddle for a while--in fact, until
-he is thoroughly at home in his craft and the way to man[oe]uvre her.
-Spruce-fir is the best wood of which to have it made, as it combines
-lightness and durability, two qualities that can be readily appreciated
-after a day's locomotion. The action, though it need not be violent,
-except in currents and so on, is very fatiguing, owing to the motion the
-body takes from side to side. At the same time, practice will prove to
-the novice that he requires to move but very little from one side to the
-other. There can of course be no harm in having a mast fitted to your
-canoe, and as soon as you feel capable of the risk, set it up, hoist
-your sail, and be prepared to capsize. This latter alternative is only
-added by way of warning. With caution nothing of the sort need happen,
-for the stiffness of canoes under sail in a strong wind and heavy
-weather has been satisfactorily proved on more than one occasion.
-Messrs. Silver and Co. of Bishopsgate Street, make the sails according
-to a regulation pattern that has been supplied them, while the boom,
-yard, and woven cord can best be obtained at Mr. Farlow's, the
-fishing-tackle maker's, in the Strand. I have thought it advisable to
-give these names, as they are recommended by Mr. Macgregor himself, who
-speaks in their favour with that best of all good reasons for doing so,
-namely, that he has found their wares satisfactory. In conclusion, I am
-bound to add that I am under much obligation to him for the information
-he has afforded me concerning this pleasant and novel form of aquatic
-amusement.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-CRICKET.
-
- "Come on, lads! come on: come on, one and all:
- Now shoulder the bat, and spin up the ball.
- Take the field like young Trojans; your prowess essay:
- While the batsman cries, Ready, the bowler says, Play:
- Then run like wild deer pursued by the hounds,
- And ground your bat proudly just over the bounds."--CUNNINGHAM.
-
-The game of cricket is the noblest of English pastimes. It combines
-athletic power, grace, quickness of eye and of hand, nimbleness of leg,
-and scientific skill. It is played by high and low, rich and poor, man
-and boy; and there is no game, either native or foreign, can compete
-with it for manliness, fairness, and healthfulness. Every one should
-learn to play it, and all should begin early. How it originated, or who
-evolved its beautiful laws and regulations, it is now difficult to
-discover. We have nothing like it among the sports of the Greeks and
-Romans, and we can only trace it to an old English pastime in the reign
-of Edward III., called "club-ball." Strutt, in his "Pastimes of the
-People of England," gives the following engravings, representing two
-specimens of club-ball: the first from a MS. in the Bodleian Library,
-dated 1344,--and exhibits a female figure in the act of throwing a
-ball to a man, who elevates his bat to strike it. The next specimen
-of ball, taken from a drawing more ancient than the former, _i. e._ a
-genealogical roll of kings of England to the time of Henry III., in the
-Royal Library, presents two players only; and he who is possessed of the
-bat holds the ball also, which he either threw into the air, and struck
-with his bat as it descended, or cast forcibly upon the ground, and beat
-it away when it rebounded. But we should be rather inclined to trace the
-game of cricket to trap-ball, which was, no doubt, an improvement upon
-the early games played with the bat and ball. This may be traced as far
-back as the fourteenth century, and a curious specimen of the manner in
-which it was then played is given in a beautiful MS. in the possession
-of Francis Douce, Esq. Here are only two players; but the game then
-consisted of six or eight of a side, and the size of the bat indicates
-the holder to have possessed no great judgment in striking the ball.
-There was another game, called "stool-ball," from which some have
-supposed cricket to have been derived; but there is no evidence in
-favour of this position, and it seems rather more reasonable to look
-upon it as a modification of "trap-ball" than any other game.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE BAT.
-
-The regulation size of the bat, called by Felix the mighty sceptre of
-delight, is 38 inches in length, of which 25 inches are taken up by the
-pod, or, according to the more modern term, the blade, and 13 by the
-handle.
-
-No bats are made longer than this, although, of course, they are allowed
-to be of various smaller proportions, in order to suite the height of
-the player.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-We must strongly impress on all young players the great importance of
-using a bat in proportion to their strength. If they use a very heavy
-bat, they will not be able to move it quickly enough to play the ball
-properly, and are apt, in consequence, to get into a sluggish style of
-play, which is almost sure to stick to them all their lives. A very
-light bat is equally injurious: the batsman sees an easy ball approach,
-plays hard at it, when, instead of going right over the head of long-on,
-it drops an easy catch into mid-wicket's hands, in consequence of there
-not being enough driving power in the bat to send it further.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE BALL.
-
-The present style of ball, with the exception of some very slight
-modifications, seems to have been in use since cricket assumed anything
-like its present form. According to the rules of the present day, it
-must not be more than 9 inches in circumference, and must not weigh
-more than 5-3/4 or less than 5-1/4 ounces. Match balls are always
-treble-seamed, and are sold at the average price of 7_s._ 6_d._ But for
-ordinary practice, a double-seamed ball, at about 6_s._, will be found
-quite good enough, and will answer just as well as the more expensive
-article.
-
-
-THE STUMPS.
-
-The stumps have undergone more change during the last hundred and fifty
-years than any of the accessories to cricket.
-
-At first they were two in number and only 12 inches high. A third stump,
-2 feet in length, was laid across them, although, with the exception of
-being knocked down by the bowler, it was similar in no respect to the
-bails of the present day, as the wicket-keeper was obliged, in order to
-stump a person, to place the ball in a large hole dug between the two
-stumps.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-In the year 1780 the width between the two stumps was decreased to 6
-inches. It was also at this time that a bail was introduced, for it is
-almost impossible to dignify the transverse stump, 2 feet long, which
-was in use till this date, by that appellation. In 1781 a third stump
-was added, and the height of the wickets increased to 22 inches. The
-addition of a stump was mainly owing to the fact, that Lumpy, a
-celebrated bowler of that day, sent the ball almost three times running
-between the two stumps. This was thought so unfair for the bowler, that
-it was resolved to increase the number of stumps in order to give him a
-better chance.
-
-In 1814 we find that the wickets were increased in height to 26 inches,
-and in width to 8 inches, and in 1817 another inch was added to their
-length. This, with the exception of dividing the bail into two equal
-parts, is the last change that has taken place.
-
-
-PADS OR GUARDS.
-
-Since the introduction of round-hand bowling, pads or guards have come
-into vogue, and at the present time it is really a dangerous feat to
-play without them. The first notion of a leg-guard was two thin boards
-placed anglewise on the right shin. Since that time improvements have
-been effected in them at various times, until they have arrived at their
-present state of excellence.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The leg-guard itself is now so well-known as to render any description
-of it needless; but as there are two or three fastenings in use, it will
-perhaps be as well to state what they are, and also which is the best.
-The first consists of three sets of tape, one round the ancle and two
-round the knee. These naturally take a great deal of time to fasten
-properly, and if one breaks, the pad is rendered useless for some time.
-The next is three pieces of elastic, with a catch which fastens almost
-instantaneously; but in course of time it loses its elasticity, and the
-pad dangles on one leg in a loose and awkward manner. The third, and in
-our opinion the best fastening, is two sets of straps, with holes
-pierced at very slight intervals. The player can then have his pad as
-tight as he pleases, without the chance of the fastenings breaking or
-becoming loose, as in the case of the other two. There are several other
-guards, such as elbow and private-guards; but they are scarcely ever
-used.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-BATTING GLOVES.
-
-These are now made with the palm cut clear away, thus enabling the
-batsman to hold the bat in a much firmer manner than he could were the
-palm of his hand covered by the glove. As will be seen by referring to
-the accompanying cut, the india-rubber is placed differently on the two
-hands. This difference will be more particularly noticed on the two
-thumbs. The left one, as it is always behind the handle of the bat,
-requires no guard; but the back of the left hand being in front of the
-bowler, is covered with a semicircle of india-rubber, while the strips
-of the india-rubber on the fingers are much longer than those on the
-right hand. It may be urged by those who object to the use of batting
-gloves, that the ball is likely to fly off them and give a catch. This,
-although true, very rarely happens, and besides, if the ball came with
-enough force to fly into the air off the glove, is it not very probable
-that, without a glove to shield them, the fingers would be broken by the
-same collision?
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-WICKET-KEEPING GLOVES.
-
-These might be more appropriately termed gauntlets, for they are much
-longer than the ordinary gloves, and entirely cover the wrist. Thanks to
-the suggestions of the best wicket-keepers of the day, they have now
-been greatly improved, and have padding only in those parts where it can
-possibly be required. It is absurd to try to keep wicket well without
-wearing these gauntlets; therefore let no young cricketer be fool-hardy
-enough to attempt the feat. As the right and left hand gloves are
-precisely the same, the artist has drawn one glove in two positions, in
-order to show the front and back of it.
-
-
-THE LAWS OF CRICKET.
-
-The following are the laws which govern the game everywhere. They have
-been recently revised by the Marylebone Club, usually considered the
-highest authority in the game.
-
-1. _The Ball_ must weigh not less than 5-1/2 ounces, nor more than 5-3/4
-ounces. It must measure not less than 9 inches, nor more than 9-1/4
-inches, in circumference. At the beginning of each innings either party
-may call for a new ball.
-
- [It is, however, not customary to have a new ball at the beginning
- of each innings. One a match is usually considered sufficient.]
-
-2. _The Bat_ must not exceed 4-1/2 inches in the widest part; it must
-not be more than 38 inches in length.
-
-3. _The Stumps_ must be 3 in number, 27 inches out of the ground; the
-bails 8 inches in length; the stumps of equal and of sufficient
-thickness to prevent the ball from passing through.
-
-4. _The Bowling Crease_ must be in a line with the stumps; 6 feet 8
-inches in length; the stumps in the centre; with a return crease at each
-end towards the bowler, at right angles.
-
-5. _The Popping Crease_ must be 4 feet from the wicket, and parallel to
-it, unlimited in length, but not shorter than the bowling crease;
-unlimited in length, so that the batsman may keep out of the way of the
-ball when it is thrown in.
-
-6. The wickets must be pitched opposite to each other by the umpires, at
-the distance of 22 yards.
-
-7. It shall not be lawful for either party during a match, without the
-consent of the other, to alter the ground by rolling, watering,
-covering, mowing, or beating, except at the commencement of each
-innings, when the ground shall be swept and rolled, unless the side next
-going in object to it. This rule is not meant to prevent the striker
-from beating the ground with his bat near to the spot where he stands
-during the innings, nor to prevent the bowler from filling up holes with
-sawdust, &c. when the ground is wet.
-
-8. After rain the wickets may be changed with the consent of both
-parties.
-
-9. The _Bowler_ shall deliver the ball with one foot on the ground
-behind the bowling crease, and within the return crease, and shall bowl
-four balls before he change wickets, which he shall be permitted to do
-only once in the same innings.
-
- [In a one day's match six balls are usually allowed as an over.]
-
-10. The ball must be bowled; if thrown or jerked, the umpire shall call
-"no ball."
-
-11. He may require the striker at the wicket from which he is bowling to
-stand on that side of it which he may direct.
-
-12. If the bowler shall toss the ball over the striker's head, or bowl
-it so wide that in the opinion of the umpire it shall not be fairly
-within the reach of the batsman, he shall adjudge one run to the party
-receiving the innings without an appeal, which shall be put down to the
-score of wide balls; such balls shall not be reckoned as one of the four
-or six balls: but if the batsman shall by any means bring himself within
-reach of the ball, the run shall not be scored.
-
-13. If the bowler deliver a "no ball" or a "wide ball," the striker
-shall be allowed as many runs as he can get, and he shall not be put out
-except by running out. In the event of no run being obtained by any
-other means, then one run shall be added to the score of "no balls" or
-"wide balls," as the case may be. All runs obtained for "wide balls" to
-be scored to "wide balls." If the ball shall first touch any part of the
-striker's dress or person (except his hands), the umpire shall call "leg
-bye."
-
- [If, however, the batsman runs two byes from a wide or a no ball,
- they are scored as two wides only. Many young players are in the
- habit of running a single bye off a wide ball, without ever thinking
- that they endanger their wicket without the slightest possible
- chance of advantage to themselves.]
-
-14. At the beginning of each innings the umpire shall call "play;" from
-that time to the end of each innings no trial ball shall be allowed to
-any bowler.
-
- [This rule is very seldom enforced, as a new bowler is almost
- invariably allowed a trial ball, though not on the wicket.]
-
-15. _The Striker is Out_ if either of the bails be struck off, or if a
-stump be bowled out of the ground;
-
-16. Or, if the ball, from a stroke of the bat or hand, but not the
-wrist, be held before it touches the ground, although it be hugged to
-the body of the catcher;
-
-17. Or, if in striking, or at any other time while the ball shall be in
-play, both his feet shall be over the popping-crease, and his wicket put
-down, except his bat be grounded within it;
-
-18. Or, if in striking at the ball, he hit down his wicket;
-
-19. Or, if under pretence of running or otherwise, either of the
-strikers prevent a ball from being caught, the striker of the ball is
-out;
-
-20. Or, if the ball be struck, and he wilfully strike it again;
-
- [This does not prevent the batsman from hitting the ball off his
- wicket when it glides in from not being blocked with sufficient
- force.]
-
-21. Or, if in running the wicket be struck down by a throw, or by the
-hand or arm (with ball in hand), before his bat (in hand) or some part
-of his person be grounded over the popping-crease. But if both the bails
-be off, a stump must be struck out of the ground;
-
-22. Or, if any part of the striker's dress knock down the wicket;
-
-23. Or, if the striker touch or take up the ball while at play, unless
-at the request of the opposite party;
-
-24. Or, if with any part of his person he stop the ball, which in the
-opinion of the umpire at the bowler's wicket shall have been pitched in
-a straight line from it to the striker's wicket, and would have hit it.
-
- [On the 15th of April, 1863, the M. C. C. altered this rule as
- follows:--"Or, if the ball hit any part of his person which in the
- opinion of the umpire at the bowler's wicket shall have been placed
- in a straight line from it to the striker's wicket." But at their
- next meeting, discovering that their former proceedings were
- informal, they cancelled their new rule; so that the law remains as
- before.
-
- It is almost impossible for a round-arm bowler, unless he bowl over
- the wicket, to pitch the ball in a straight line.]
-
-25. If the players have crossed each other, he that runs for the wicket
-which is put down is out.
-
-26. A ball being caught, no runs shall be reckoned.
-
-27. A striker being run out, that run which he and his partner were
-attempting shall not be reckoned.
-
-28. If a lost ball be called, the striker shall be allowed six runs; but
-if more than six shall have been run before "lost ball" shall have been
-called, then the striker shall have all which have been run.
-
-29. After the ball shall have been finally settled in the
-wicket-keeper's or bowler's hand, it shall be considered dead; but when
-the bowler is about to deliver the ball, if the striker at his wicket go
-outside the popping-crease before such actual delivery, the said bowler
-may put him out, unless (with reference to the 21st law) his bat in
-hand, or some part of his person, be within the popping-crease.
-
-30. The striker shall not retire from his wicket and return to it to
-complete his innings after another has been in, without the consent of
-the opposite party.
-
-31. No substitute shall in any case be allowed to stand out, or run
-between wickets for another person, without the consent of the opposite
-party; and in case any person shall be allowed to run for another, the
-striker shall be out, if either he or his substitute be off the ground
-in manner mentioned in laws 17 and 21, while the ball is in play.
-
-32. In all cases where a substitute shall be allowed, the consent of the
-opposite party shall also be obtained as to the person to act as
-substitute, and the place in the field which he shall take.
-
-33. If any fieldsman stop the ball with his bat, the ball shall be
-considered dead, and the opposite party shall add five runs to their
-score; if any be run, they shall have five in all.
-
-34. The ball having been hit, the striker may guard his wicket with his
-bat, or with any part of his body except his hands; that the 23rd law
-may not be infringed.
-
-35. The wicket-keeper shall not take the ball for the purpose of
-stumping until it has passed the wicket; he shall not move until the
-ball be out of the bowler's hand; he shall not by any noise incommode
-the striker; and if any part of his person be over or before the wicket,
-although the ball hit it, the striker shall not be out.
-
-36. The umpires are the sole judges of fair or unfair play; and all
-disputes shall be determined by them, each at his own wicket; but in
-case of a catch, which the umpire at the wicket bowled from cannot see
-sufficiently to decide upon, he may apply to the other umpire, whose
-opinion shall be conclusive.
-
-37. The umpires in all matches shall pitch fair wickets; and the parties
-shall toss up for choice of innings. The umpires shall change wickets
-after each party has had one innings.
-
-38. They shall allow two minutes for each striker to come in, and ten
-minutes between each innings. When the umpire shall call "play," the
-party refusing to play shall lose the match.
-
-39. They are not to order a striker out unless appealed to by the
-adversaries;
-
-40. But if one of the bowler's feet be not on the ground behind the
-bowling-crease, and within the return-crease, when he shall deliver the
-ball, the umpire at his wicket, unasked, must call "no ball."
-
-41. If either the strikers run a short run, the umpire must call "one
-short."
-
- [The run is of course not scored.]
-
-42. No umpire shall be allowed to bet.
-
-43. No umpire is to be changed during a match, without the consent of
-both parties, except in case of violation of the 42nd law; then either
-party may dismiss the transgressor.
-
-44. After the delivery of four or six balls the umpire must call "over,"
-but not until the ball shall be finally settled in the wicket-keeper's
-or bowler's hand; the ball shall then be considered dead; nevertheless,
-if an idea be entertained that either of the strikers is out, a question
-may be put previously to, but not after, the delivery of the next ball.
-
-45. The umpire must take especial care to call "no ball" instantly upon
-delivery; "wide ball" as soon as it shall pass the striker.
-
-46. The players who go in second shall follow their innings, if they
-have obtained eighty runs less than their antagonists, except in all
-matches limited to only one day's play, when the number shall be limited
-to sixty instead of eighty.
-
-47. When one of the strikers shall have been put out, the use of the bat
-shall not be allowed to any person until the next striker shall come in.
-
- NOTE.--The Committee of the Marylebone Club think it desirable that,
- previously to the commencement of a match, one of each side should
- be declared the manager of it; and that the new laws with respect to
- substitutes may be carried out in a spirit of fairness and mutual
- concession, it is their wish that such substitutes be allowed in all
- reasonable cases, and that the umpire should inquire if it is done
- with the consent of the manager of the opposite side.
-
- Complaints having been made that it is the practice of some players
- when at the wicket to make holes in the ground for a footing, the
- Committee are of opinion that the umpires should be empowered to
- prevent it.
-
-
-THE LAWS OF SINGLE WICKET.
-
-1. When there shall be less than five players on a side, bounds shall be
-placed 22 yards each in a line from the off and leg-stump.
-
-2. The ball must be hit before the bounds to entitle the striker to a
-run, which run cannot be obtained unless he touch the bowling-stump or
-crease in a line with his bat, or some part of his person, or go beyond
-them, returning to the popping-crease, as at double wicket, according to
-the 21st law.
-
-3. When the striker shall hit the ball, one of his feet must be on the
-ground, and behind the popping-crease, otherwise the umpire shall call
-"no hit."
-
-4. When there shall be less than five players on a side, neither byes
-nor overthrows shall be allowed, nor shall the striker be caught out
-behind the wicket, nor stumped out.
-
-5. The fieldsman must return the ball so that it shall cross the play
-between the wicket and the bowling-stump, or between the bowling-stump
-and the bounds; the striker may run till the ball be so returned.
-
-6. After the striker shall have made one run, if he starts again he must
-touch the bowling-stump, and turn before the ball cross the play, to
-entitle him to another.
-
-7. The striker shall be entitled to three runs for lost ball, and the
-same number for ball stopped with bat, with reference to the 28th and
-33rd laws of double wicket.
-
-8. When there shall be more than four players on a side, there shall be
-no bounds. All hits, byes, and overthrows shall then be allowed.
-
-9. The bowler is subject to the same laws as at double wicket.
-
-10. Not more than one minute shall be allowed between each ball.
-
-
-THE BATSMAN.--HINTS TO YOUNG PLAYERS.
-
-The first point to be considered in batting is the sort of bat to be
-used. Many young cricketers cramp their play by using a bat much too
-heavy for them. Now, it stands to reason that one should be able to have
-a complete mastery over the weapon one wields. A bat weighing about two
-pounds will be found quite heavy enough for most schoolboys. It may,
-however, be urged that the heaviest bats drive the farthest, and that
-many of the old-fashioned players made some of their famous hits with
-them; but it must also be borne in mind that those were the days of
-underhand bowling, and that at the present time cutting and leg-hitting,
-in consequence of the swift round-arm bowling, are infinitely more
-prevalent than forward drives, and that in many cases the position of
-field-on is done away with altogether. Therefore let us beg young
-players to use a light bat, one that feels almost as a whip in their
-hands, and one with which they can play back as quickly as is
-necessitated by the speed of the bowling.
-
-And now a few words with regard to guard. Of course, in many instances,
-the distance from the wickets depends considerably upon the pace and
-pitch of the bowling, but as a rule the safest guard is about four
-inches from the popping-crease. This block not only gives you a better
-chance of stopping shooters, but also enables you to play forward
-better, since you can cover more ground than if your block were nearer
-the wicket. A leg hit can also be made sooner, and consequently squarer,
-and with a good long block there is less chance of hitting your wicket
-in playing back, and more chance of stopping a full-pitched ball before
-it touches the ground.
-
-The left foot should be at right angle to the wickets, and the other
-parallel with them. Free hitters keep their hands at the upper part of
-the handle of the bat, whilst some players, who have a reputation for
-steadiness, hold it with the hands three or four inches apart. The
-former position enables a player to hit much sooner, and also to have a
-much longer reach. The advantages of the position are readily discovered
-when there is a chance of a cut or a leg-hit.
-
-The batsman should stand quite erect, endeavouring to make the most of
-his height. Before the ball is delivered, the bat should be raised, with
-the full face presented to the bowler, and covering as much of the
-wicket as possible.
-
-The moment the bowler is about to deliver the ball, raise your bat
-slightly from the block, keeping it almost straight to him. If you hold
-it, as some players do, still on the block-hole until the ball
-approaches, you are almost sure to be too late for the ball; and
-although, if it be straight, you may keep it off your wicket, yet it is
-a hundred chances to one that you will miss all the leg balls, or those
-which come to the off-side.
-
-Play, too, as low as possible. It is much better to hit a ball well
-along the ground for two, than to send one high into the air, although
-you get four or five for it. Sooner or later you will lose your wicket,
-for the ball is sure at some time to be caught by long-on or long-off.
-
-Assuming that the player has taken up his position at the wicket, we
-must now fully impress upon him _the importance of not being in a hurry
-to score_. In fact, nothing is so injurious as making runs in the first
-over. The best maxim to be observed is, play steadily until you can
-understand the bowling. It is astonishing how much confidence you gain
-after you have played a dozen balls or so. Then, when you have, as it
-were, taken the measure of your opponent, lunge out, as soon as you get
-a chance, and show the field your favourite drive, and prepare to make a
-score.
-
-In writing the last sentence, we are reminded of the many mishaps and
-even serious accidents that have occurred on the cricket-field in
-consequence of the careless manner in which some players run. They rush
-between the wickets, watching the course of the ball rather than the
-wicket towards which they are going; occasionally they run too far and
-lose time, or else do not run far enough and lose runs; or, what is even
-worse, a collision takes place between the two batsmen, and one is run
-out, if not seriously injured by the bat or body of his comrade. The
-simplest plan, therefore, is always to run on the right side, _to keep
-the bat in the right hand, and to watch the wicket towards which you are
-running_.
-
-It has often been remarked that the most difficult balls to play are
-shooters, and those that are well pitched up and just take the bail off.
-Indeed, some shooters are almost sure to take a wicket; the moment,
-therefore, that a ball shoots, drop the bat back close to the stumps,
-and chop down upon the ball. Stopping a shooter is always a sign of good
-play, and often at Lord's produces more applause than a hit which scores
-two or three runs. Some players, like Parr and Carpenter, can stop
-shooters so well, that although they only chop down upon them, yet the
-force of the stroke often drives the ball far enough to obtain a run.
-
-How happens it that so many players miss the cut, although they attempt
-this stroke at almost every ball that rises to the off? As a rule, young
-players hit too soon, and if they touch the ball, in most cases they
-give either point or cover-point an easy catch; others hit in time, but
-play with a horizontal bat, the face of which is presented to the
-bowler. The ball then rises in many instances either to slip or
-long-slip, with the usual result. In cutting, the batsman should wait
-until the ball has almost passed the wicket, and then drop down upon it,
-with the face of the bat almost towards the ground. This keeps the ball
-down and drives it in the direction required. In cutting, the left foot
-acts as a pivot, and the right foot is drawn back. The advantage of
-taking a long block is here shown, as occasionally this leg knocks down
-the wicket; and if the block is near the stumps, they are easily struck
-by the bat itself.
-
-In leg-hitting, on the contrary, the right acts as a pivot, and the left
-is thrown forwards. The sooner the hit is made the squarer the ball
-goes, and, as a rule, the greater distance also. Since then, in swift
-bowling, long-on is generally done away with, a leg ball that is hit in
-front of long leg is safe to obtain more runs than if hit much behind
-the wicket.
-
-A very common habit among young players is to strike at wide balls. Many
-and many a time have we seen a batsman rush out to a wide off-ball, and
-send it into point's or cover's hands, thus depriving himself of his
-innings and his side of a run. Before we conclude this somewhat
-desultory chapter, we must urge upon everybody the importance of wearing
-both gloves and leg-guards when playing against swift bowling. The many
-dangerous accidents that have happened in consequence of the legs and
-hands having no protection, should induce every person to guard himself
-as much as possible. One can stand up to the wicket much better, and
-have far more confidence, when one knows that a blow from the ball upon
-the legs is likely to produce no ill effect. The absence of pads causes
-many players to run away from the ball, and if the ball turns, the
-off-stump in most cases will soon be prostrate.
-
-Be careful, too, in running, that you ground your bat on the
-popping-crease. Nothing is so tantalizing to a player as to lose a run
-through the carelessness of his companion, who in his excitement runs an
-inch or so short of the proper distance.
-
-The moment the ball has left the bowler at your wicket, walk a yard or
-two; you may by this means steal many a run that it would be impossible
-to obtain if you were at your own wicket when the ball was hit.
-
-Never, if you can possibly avoid it, hit a ball on the wrong side. How
-disgusting it is to see a big awkward player swipe a ball right round to
-the off-side which he should have drawn or played to mid-wicket on!
-
-[Illustration: THE LEG HIT.]
-
-Do not run away from the ball. If you do, you can never get a good leg
-hit; besides, you naturally expose your wicket, and if the ball turns in
-(as it often will do), you will find it almost impossible to be back in
-time to save your off-stump.
-
-As a rule, play forward whenever you can; but be sure you don't run out
-of your ground to hit unless you feel perfectly confident of your
-success.
-
-Waiting for the ball is always a dangerous experiment, and will often
-result in your playing back so far that you upset your own wickets when
-in the act of achieving a most scientific cut.
-
-Be careful to keep one foot steadily planted within the popping-crease;
-it is sometimes impossible to help being bowled or caught, but the worst
-player in the world can always prevent the wicket-keeper stumping him.
-
-Mind, too, that the bat ought to strike the ball, and not the ball the
-bat.
-
-Be always cautious of straight balls, however tempting they may appear.
-Remember that if you miss them, you are safe to lose your wicket;
-therefore always treat them with the respect that they deserve.
-
-Balls, too, that come about five inches above the bails should generally
-be allowed to pass, for unless you are well skilled in the art of
-hitting down, you are sure to give a catch.
-
-And now a word or two with regard to the three leg hits--the draw, the
-forward, and the backward leg hit.
-
-When a ball seems pitched at the leg stump, hold your bat straight, as
-it were, for a block; but the moment the bat meets the ball, turn the
-face of it a trifle round towards you, and the ball will then slip off
-between your legs and the stumps. This is called the draw.
-
-This play, however, requires a great deal of practice, and should very
-rarely be attempted by inexperienced players.
-
-The forward leg hit is made in the following manner:--When a ball is
-pitched rather wide on the near side, advance the left foot in front of
-the wicket, turn half round, and hit down upon the ball as hard as you
-can.
-
-When the ball is pitched inside the near stump, step back with the right
-foot, and with an upright bat play it off the wicket. The ball will fly
-rapidly along the ground, and usually between leg and long-stop.
-
-Recollect, the sooner you hit at a leg ball the squarer it goes.
-
-The cut is the most difficult of all, and can only be accomplished when
-the ball rises a little wide of the off-bail. Even then you are very
-likely to play either too soon or too late at it, and it is very rare
-indeed that a player makes a really good legitimate cut.
-
-When you see the ball about to rise a foot away from off-bail, draw the
-right leg backwards, and, with a horizontal bat, give the ball something
-between a pat and a push, between point and short-slip.
-
-This is very far from being a scientific definition of this delightful
-stroke; but I think, from the plain manner in which I have stated it,
-that it will be more likely to be understood.
-
-[Illustration: THE CUT.]
-
-The technical names for the various balls the batsman is likely to
-receive are--the full pitch, the tice, the hop, the half volley, the
-ground ball, and the shooter.
-
-Leg balls and balls to cut we have already explained.
-
-At first sight, a full pitch would seem one of the easiest balls to
-play; but in reality it is not; and many a good batsman, who could play
-any number of well-pitched balls, has lost his wicket by playing rashly
-or across a toss. Again, if hit carelessly, it is almost sure to be
-caught by one of the long-fields; and often, when the batsman tries to
-play it down, it hits the top of his bat, and goes into long-stop's
-hands. The best plan (if you are not very tall), when you think it is
-too high to take your wicket, is to leave it alone altogether; but when
-you feel persuaded that if you miss the ball it will take the stumps,
-either play it down, or else hit it where there is no field.
-
-The tice is almost a full pitch. If you have a long reach, go in and
-play it forward; if not, however, keep your bat down and block it.
-Running in is generally a bad habit, as it is sure to engender a loose
-style of play.
-
-The long hop, if straight, should be played very carefully, and with an
-upright bat. Those batsmen who have, as it is called, "got their eye
-in," can usually strike at one with impunity; but as the ball is liable
-to twist every time it reaches the ground, the young player should be
-very careful in striking at it.
-
-A half volley is a ball which rises well from the pitch. Catches are,
-however, often the result of hitting right at a half volley.
-
-A ground ball is perhaps better known among our young friends as a
-sneak. If played at with a high bat, the wicket is almost sure to fall.
-The best plan is to keep the bat well down, and play forward at it. If
-the bat is kept in a straight line with the ball, you cannot miss it,
-and often by playing it forward you can send it past the bowler.
-
-A shooter is the most difficult ball to play, and if not treated with
-proper respect, is sure to take the wicket. The moment the ball shoots,
-play back, dropping the bat down on it within an inch of the stumps. You
-are by this means very likely to keep it off your wicket, but do not try
-to hit it. Left-hand bowling generally turns in from the off; therefore
-play forward at it.
-
-
-FIELDING.
-
-Although not of so interesting a character as batting and bowling, yet
-fielding is in itself of too much importance to be overlooked, or even
-carelessly practised, by anybody who desires to become a cricketer. Many
-a match has been lost by loose fielding, and instances without number
-have occurred of a man who, after being missed before he has made a run,
-has sent his score up to fifty before receiving his dismissal. It is
-astonishing how many runs may be saved by careful fielding. Hits which
-at first seem good for four, only obtain one through good fielding, and
-that even a sharp run.
-
-Quick fielding should be practised by the tyro, before either of the
-other two departments of the game. As soon as a boy gets a ball in his
-hand, he tries to catch it, or to get a companion to throw it to him;
-and thus before he even knows how to handle a bat, many a boy has in him
-the elements of a good field. As, however, the fascination of batting
-grows upon him, he cares less for the other parts of the game; and thus
-it happens that although we have many gentlemen cricketers who bat just
-as well as professionals, yet the latter obtain the mastery through
-their superior bowling and fielding, which they are obliged to practise
-as often as batting, in order to obtain the reputation of good players.
-I have, however, heard it stated that no finer fielding can be seen than
-that shown in the University match. This is generally admitted; but it
-must be borne in mind that the University match is played by young men
-whose ages vary from twenty to five-and-twenty, whereas most of the
-players are over thirty, and some rapidly approaching to forty, an age
-at which the bones are not so lissom as those that have just arrived at
-man's estate.
-
-As a proof of this I may cite the Gentlemen and Players' match at
-Lord's, a contest (if such it can be called) which is only worth seeing
-on account of the excellent bowling and fielding of the professional
-players. It is satisfactory to know that it is the opinion of most
-judges of the game, that as long as the gentlemen persist in practising
-batting only, they will scarcely have a chance against the players.
-
-No advice, however, will produce the same good upon a young player in
-the matter of fielding as watching a match in which some of the best
-players take part. In this he should bear well in mind the manner in
-which the ball is stopped and thrown to the wicket-keeper.
-
-Supposing that our cricketer can stop and catch a ball pretty well, the
-next point for him to study is to throw it in carefully. How many men
-that should have been run out save their wickets through the bad
-throwing of a field, who, either through hurry or nervousness, pitches
-the ball over the wicket-keeper's head, or sends it in so much along the
-ground as to render the picking up of it sharply by the wicket-keeper a
-matter of impossibility! The best plan is to throw in a catch to the top
-of the bails. A long hop occasionally meets with success; but if the
-ground is bumpy, and the ball is thrown in from a distance, it is very
-possible that it will go over the man's head.
-
-One of the most prominent failings of a young eleven is the careless
-manner in which they back up. Overthrows in a professional eleven are
-almost a matter of impossibility, for if the ball passes one field there
-is almost sure to be another behind him to stay its progress; whereas,
-in some clubs, if there is one man to back up the wicket-keeper, the
-ball is considered safe, and as he generally stands within a few yards
-of the wicket, he usually misses the ball if it passes the amateur
-Lockyer. If, however, it is expedient to throw the ball to the bowler,
-and he does not wish to hurt his fingers, an overthrow is sure to
-follow, for long-on or long-off scarcely ever thinks it his duty to
-stand behind the bowler's wicket when the ball is thrown in. Overthrows
-in themselves are not only annoying, because they are obtained through
-no merit of the batsman, but because they always produce a merciless
-laugh from the spectators, and occasionally epithets of a not very
-complimentary character. It is therefore the captain's bounden duty to
-make his eleven back up well, and not to consider the ball safe unless
-two or three people are behind the wicket at which it is thrown.
-
-One naturally imagines that the wicket-keeper's hands get occasionally
-damaged from the sharp throwing to which he is subjected. Whatever he
-would do without his thick gauntlets, it is unpleasant to imagine. Care
-should on all occasions, therefore, be taken to save his hands, and when
-the batsmen are not running, there is no need to throw the ball as hard
-as possible at him. The long-stop, who returns the ball to the
-wicket-keeper oftener than any other field, should send it in gently
-when there is no run, and the wicket-keeper ought, in throwing it to the
-bowler, to toss it as quietly as he can, in order not to deaden the
-fingers of that important functionary.
-
-Whilst writing about bowler and wicket-keeper, we cannot allow the
-opportunity to pass of requesting all players to obey with the utmost
-fidelity any order given to them in the field. The wicket-keeper can, by
-raising his hand, change the positions of the field unknown to the
-batsman, who, hitting a ball to a place which he thinks is not covered,
-and finding it suddenly stopped, sees that he must play more carefully
-in future.
-
-Two of the most important positions in the field are the mid-wickets and
-cover-point, and no player, unless he is a safe catch, and can return
-the ball sharply, should ever be placed there. It has been computed that
-mid-wicket runs more out than any other field. Anybody who has seen R.
-Daft in this place will be surprised at the rapidity with which he picks
-up the ball and sends it in. The space that a good cover-point can
-command is really astonishing. Players seeing that the ball has passed
-point feel sure that it is safe for one, whereas, if cover runs in and
-sends it in well to the wicket-keeper, one of the batsmen will probably
-have "run out" to his name.
-
-Long-stop should on no account be too close to the wicket. If he takes a
-position where he feels sure he can stop one run, he will do much more
-service than nearer the stumps. Not only will he be able to stop some
-balls which might have gone over his head, but he may stay the progress
-of many leg-hits and slipped balls, besides standing a better chance of
-a catch.
-
-Catching comes so naturally that we need say little about it. The chief
-point to be remembered is to keep the hands well together. Occasionally
-one sees--in catching--the ball slip through a man's hands altogether.
-At other times the ball lodges in the hands for an instant, and then
-drops to the ground, because the arms were not drawn back with the ball,
-but held out to meet it. In catching, the arms should always be drawn
-back as the ball comes, as this lessens the force with which the ball
-strikes the hands. A good plan, but one which, however, requires much
-practice, is to pat the ball up as it comes, and then to catch it. It is
-evident that when the ball has thus been sent up, it descends much more
-slowly than when it comes direct from the bat.
-
-Even, however, if, in spite of advice and practice, one of the field is
-unfortunate enough to miss a catch, the captain should not allow any
-unfeeling remarks to be made. The anguish of the unfortunate player is
-quite deep enough without being aggravated by growls and sneers from
-comrades who may perhaps do the same thing in a few minutes.
-
-The captain should also do all he can to prevent talking in the field.
-It is time to do that when a wicket falls, but very unlike a true
-cricketer to endeavour to attract the field's attention just as the
-bowler is about to deliver the ball.
-
-
-BOWLING.
-
-We have read in a manual of Cricket that there are four styles of
-bowling, and Felix, we believe, in his excellent work on the Bat, states
-that there are five modes, all of which are in general use. For the
-present purpose, however, we think it will be sufficient if we confine
-our remarks to two styles,--
-
-1. Round-arm Bowling.
-
-2. Underhand Bowling.
-
-The former is an innovation upon the latter, and, like all improvements,
-met with a great deal of opposition at first, since it was more
-difficult to play, and made the innings shorter. Now, however, the
-batting seems to have obtained as much mastery over the round-arm
-bowling as before it had over the underhand, and it is even probable
-that in a few years a new style will be introduced, in order to decrease
-the inordinate length which innings assume now-a-days.
-
-The following hints apply to the round-arm bowling:--
-
-The ball should be held with the fingers across the seams, as this
-occasionally makes the ball twist, and renders the defence of the
-batsman a matter of more difficulty. Many bowlers, however, can never
-get what is technically called "a twist on," whereas others, after an
-hour's practice, can manage to make the ball twist in any direction they
-please.
-
-It is also important to take a run of a few yards, increasing the
-distance in proportion to the pace. This allows the bowler to get his
-arm into swing, and increases the impetus with which the ball is
-delivered.
-
-The bowler should always stand with his body well towards the other
-wicket. We have seen a man run almost round the wicket and deliver the
-ball without looking at the stumps he is supposed to aim at. Long
-practice had enabled him to bowl pretty well, but the absurdity of his
-position was so apparent that it provoked a laugh from all who saw it.
-
-It must not be imagined, however, that a bowler should always deliver
-the same style of ball. Many a wicket (paradoxical as it may seem) falls
-from a ball that is not straight. A batsman who has had a hit to leg for
-four, becomes at once anxious to get another. Very often, if a bowler
-pitches the ball in a different manner, the batsman endeavours to give
-another specimen of his favourite hit, and equally often loses his
-wicket. Practise, therefore, change of pace and pitch, as catches are
-almost sure at some time to be the result.
-
-Nyren, one of the earliest writers on Cricket, speaks of this plan in
-the following manner:--
-
-"When it is difficult to part two batsmen, and either of them has a
-favourite hit, I have often succeeded in getting him out by opening the
-field where his hit is placed, at the same time hinting to the bowler to
-give him a different style of ball. This, with the opening of the field,
-has tempted him to plant his favourite hit, and in his anxiety to do so
-he has not unfrequently committed an error fatal to him."
-
-In writing of round-arm bowling let us recommend young bowlers to
-practise bowling over the wicket in preference to what is usually termed
-round or outside it. The former plan is the only mode that necessitates
-straight bowling, since, from the position of the arm, the ball may be
-straight all the way, whereas, in the latter, the ball must come in from
-the leg side. Again, it will be recollected that in the late discussion
-about leg before wicket, many of the best judges gave it as their
-opinion that the batsman could not be given out l. b. w. unless the ball
-was delivered over the wicket. To these advantages may be added the fact
-that a much better view of the opponent's stumps can be obtained, and
-that the distance is also shorter than from the outside of the wicket.
-
-Among the most common faults of young players may be cited a habit of
-not pitching the ball far enough. This is mainly owing to a want of
-power in the arms, but still a little careful practice will considerably
-assist the player. Those nice specimens of bowling known as bailers,
-when the bail is knocked off, can only be obtained by a ball that is
-well pitched up. Shooters, also, are the result of balls that touch the
-ground near the wicket. We may also add that a ball that is pitched
-short is easy to play, since it can be seen well, and its coming in
-contact with the ground deadens its force and checks its speed.
-
-Another practice which is often condemned is a habit of bowling fast.
-Now, it is a great mistake to imagine that fast bowling is the most
-difficult to play, as may be ascertained by the fact that our fastest
-bowlers by no means take the most wickets, excepting Jackson, whose
-bowling, however, is not so successful now as it was at one time. Fast
-bowling does not so readily allow accuracy of pitch as a slower style;
-besides, a fast bowler soon gets tired, then bowls loosely, and then
-gets taken off. Those tips (for they are nothing else) to the slips for
-four or five, are more the result of the bowler than the batsman. Let
-us, therefore, earnestly recommend young bowlers to begin bowling
-slowly, and to increase their pace as they grow older and stronger. Many
-a promising bowler has been irretrievably spoilt by beginning to bowl
-too fast for his strength, and finding in a short time that he has no
-style at all, and that the fruit of his labour is principally found in
-the number of byes scored off him.
-
-Particular care must also be taken to avoid bowling over the shoulder.
-It is a pity that there is not some more stringent rule than at present
-exists with regard to law 10, although in such a case the most
-successful bowlers would find their occupation gone; besides, as the
-no-balling of a bowler by an umpire usually causes the greatest
-unpleasantness in a match, spoiling the amicable feeling which almost
-invariably exists in the cricket-field, it is much better to avoid the
-head and front of the offending, by practising the best means to prevent
-the arm getting over the shoulder. We recollect at school a big sturdy
-fellow, who, not content with bowling over his shoulder, delivered the
-ball always as fast as he could. His bowling, however, (as might be
-expected) was so loose that his services were never called into
-requisition at a match; but at practice he occasionally handled the
-ball, much to the dread of the batsman he opposed. One day he was
-bowling against the present writer in his usual headstrong style, and
-actually sent a ball over the wicket-keeper's head into long-stop's
-hands. This naturally frightened us, as we thought it just possible that
-the next might hit us on the chest. A narrow escape we had, for the very
-next was pitched so high, that, had we not quickly dropped on the
-ground, it would have hit us on the head with such force as probably to
-stop cricket with us for ever.
-
-Our remarks on underhand bowling, or slows, must necessarily be brief.
-That good slows are effective, particularly against county twenty-twos,
-is proved by the analysis of R. C. Tinley's bowling, and the destructive
-power of Mr. V. E. Walker's slows is well known to most of those who
-have played against him.
-
-It is often a good plan to begin with a fast bowler at one end and slows
-at the other. The change of pace and delivery is very puzzling to the
-batsman, who is compelled to play the two styles on a different plan.
-If, however, a slow bowler is hit about much, he should be changed at
-once, as the hits from slows generally add up quicker than those from
-round-arm.
-
-If change of pitch is advantageous in the swift bowling, it is the very
-soul of slows. Full pitches, leg balls, off balls, shooters, all styles
-and forms, should be allowed full play. The bowler, too, must dodge
-about, and make himself an extra field, going wherever he imagines the
-ball will be hit. In writing about slows we cannot pass unmentioned the
-great advantage derived from making a ball twist in from the leg. It is
-always understood that the leg stump is the hardest to defend, and
-consequently the best to attack.
-
-A slow ball is pitched a little wide of the leg, the batsman runs away
-from his guard, and, in his imagination, sees the ball hit to square leg
-for four. In reality, however, he finds his off-stump knocked down by
-this same leg ball at which, in his ignorance, he struck too soon, and
-therefore saw it hit his stump before he could be back to stop it.
-
-The positions of the field may be varied according to the opinion of the
-bowler.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE WICKET-KEEPER.
-
-The duties of the wicket-keeper are to stop the balls when missed by the
-striker, to stump him when off his ground, and to catch the ball, and
-knock the wickets down before the striker, when running, can ground his
-bat over the popping-crease. Since the introduction of fast bowling this
-position has become the most dangerous in the field, and a wicket-keeper
-seldom gets through a match without receiving some bruises. He should
-always wear pads and gloves. Some people recommend a guard for the
-abdomen, but this is scarcely ever used.
-
-The wicket-keeper should, if possible, be captain of his eleven. As he
-is behind the striker, he can by a motion of his hand move any of the
-field closer or further, unknown to the batsman. This naturally requires
-great tact, and is often the means of saving many a run, or of getting a
-wicket.
-
-He should stand in a somewhat stooping position, his left leg well
-forward and his hands close together, while his eyes should watch every
-movement of the ball. He should be very cautious about taking leg balls,
-as, if he gets too near, he is likely to receive a blow from the
-batsman.
-
-As soon as the ball is thrown to him from the long-stop, he ought to
-advance two or three yards (provided, in the meantime, the batsmen are
-not running), and send it gently into the bowler's hands.
-
-The moment a hit is made, he should stand on that side of the wicket
-farthest from the ball, and wait quietly till it is thrown in. The ball
-should be thrown in by one pitch, and not in long hops, as is often the
-case among bad players. Above all, he should knock the wicket down as
-seldom as possible, but content himself with striking a bail off when he
-thinks the batsman is out of his ground.
-
-
-LONG-STOP.
-
-Stands behind the wicket-keeper, in order to prevent byes.
-
-He must be careful not to be too far away from the wicket, or else
-clever players are apt to steal a bye before the ball has reached him.
-The moment he gets the ball, he should return it sharply into the
-wicket-keeper's hands, and scarcely ever throw it over to the bowler. He
-should assist in backing up short slip, and also endeavour to save runs
-on the leg side. When slows are put on in a match, the long-stop is
-usually changed to a position about twelve yards behind the bowler's
-head.
-
-
-POINT.
-
-Stands in a direct line with the popping-crease, at a distance of about
-twelve yards on the off-side, for fast bowling. The faster the bowling,
-the sharper he should stand. He should commence at first at the distance
-we have just mentioned, and approach when he sees the player about to
-strike. A sharp point may often stop a hard hit to cover-point. This
-position is, however, rather dangerous in fast bowling, and, at the same
-time, one of the most important. For slow bowling, he should come in to
-about five yards, and stand at a more acute angle than when the delivery
-is very swift.
-
-
-SHORT-SLIP.
-
-Stands a few yards behind the wicket on the off-side. As this position
-does not entail much running, it is usually allotted to the bowlers. The
-balls come in very sharply when the bowling is swift, and the person
-occupying this position has to watch the ball very attentively, or he
-stands a very good chance of receiving it in his face. It is also his
-duty to back up the wicket-keeper, and to take his place at the wicket
-when that functionary runs after the ball.
-
-
-COVER-POINT.
-
-Stands some distance behind point, to prevent a second run. The sharper
-the bowling is, the squarer he should stand. He must also be particular
-in backing up, as he can prevent many an overthrow.
-
-
-LONG-SLIP.
-
-Performs the same duties, and occupies the same position, with regard to
-slip as the last-mentioned field does to point. He should, when he can,
-back up long-stop and save a second run.
-
-
-LONG-ON.
-
-Stands deep on the on-side. When the bowling is very swift, he can take
-the place of mid-wicket on, as a ball in such a case is seldom hit fair,
-either on the on or off side. He must be a good catch, a good thrower,
-and very swift on his legs.
-
-
-LONG-OFF.
-
-Occupies the same position as long-on at the other side of the wicket.
-
-
-LEG.
-
-Stands about the same distance behind the wicket on the on-side as
-long-on does before it. He must possess a quick eye and great agility.
-Leg-hits, after touching the ground, usually turn off in quite a
-different direction from what one would expect. Leg should therefore try
-to get them before they pitch, or else be careful in running to meet
-them.
-
-
-MID-WICKET ON AND OFF.
-
-Stand halfway between the long-fields and the striker's wicket. As many
-catches come to these parts of the field, they should be very sharp and
-active, and try to prevent the ball going past them.
-
-
-THIRD MAN UP.
-
-In very swift bowling the long-on often takes this position. He stands
-between point and short-slip, in a direct line with the bowling-crease,
-at a distance of about twelve yards.
-
- * * * * *
-
-And now, having given the functions of the fieldsmen, we propose to
-show, by diagrams, their positions with regard to fast and slow
-bowling.
-
-
-DIAGRAM I.--FAST ROUND-ARM BOWLING.
-
-[Illustration: S. Striker; 1. The Bowler; 2. Wicket-Keeper; 3.
-Long-Stop; 4. Short-Slip; 5. Point; 6. Long-Slip; 7. Mid-Wicket on; 8.
-Long-off; 9. Cover-Point; 10. Third Man up; 11. Long-Leg; U. Umpire.]
-
-
-DIAGRAM II.--MEDIUM PACE ROUND-ARM BOWLING.
-
-[Illustration: S. Striker; 1. Bowler; 2. Wicket-Keeper; 3. Long-Stop; 4.
-Short-Slip; 5. Point; 6. Long-Slip; 7. Long-on; 8. Long-off; 9.
-Cover-Point; 10. Mid-Wicket on; 11. Leg; U. Umpire.]
-
-
-DIAGRAM III.--SLOW UNDERHAND BOWLING.
-
-[Illustration: 1. Bowler; 2. Wicket-Keeper; 3. Leg; 4. Short-Slip. 5.
-Point; 6. Extra Long-on; 7. Long-on; 8. Long-off; 9. Mid-Wicket off; 10.
-Mid-Wicket on; 11. Square-Leg; S. Striker. U. Umpire.]
-
- * * * * *
-
-As in very swift bowling the ball is often hit to the off, it will be
-seen that in Diagram I. we have placed no less than six out of the
-eleven on that side. Mid-wicket on and long-off should be a little
-nearer the bowler, and long-slip nearer the long-stop, than represented
-in the illustration.
-
-In Diagram II. third man up is made mid-wicket on, while cover-point
-comes in nearer than when the bowling was very fast.
-
-In Diagram III., as the bowling is slow, no long-stop is required; he is
-therefore sent as an additional field behind the bowler. Short-slip
-stands in very close to the wickets.
-
-
-CROQUET.
-
-
-MATERIALS OF THE GAME.
-
-
-THE MALLETS.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The mallet, of which in a Croquet set there are eight, varies in length
-from 32 to 39 inches. The handle is thin and round, and is fastened into
-the head somewhat in the manner of an ordinary mallet used for knocking
-in tent pegs. The head slightly resembles in shape a dice-box, inasmuch
-as it is narrower in the centre than at the ends. The mallet is the
-active agent in the game, just as the bat is at cricket; and as the
-mallet is always in the hands of the striker, care should be taken that
-it is well planed. Towards the top of the handle a few circular lines
-may be cut with advantage, as they give a firmer hold to the hand. At
-the bottom of the handle is usually painted a colour, or a number of
-lines, corresponding to the marks on one of the balls. Such an
-arrangement, although not absolutely necessary--since a player can use
-any mallet without interfering with the game--is of advantage in
-according to each player the same coloured mallet as his ball; and were
-the mallets uncoloured, disputes would probably arise about one which
-was a greater favourite than the others. Some people prefer to have the
-colour of all the balls painted on their mallets. This is a very good
-plan if one is in the habit of playing with inattentive people, who will
-not recollect when it is their turn to play. As the hard surface of the
-end of the mallet-head coming sharply in contact with a ball often
-cracks, chips, or breaks it in two pieces, it has been suggested that a
-piece of wash-leather should be let in at each end of the head, in order
-to deaden the force of the stroke. We do not, however, recommend the
-adoption of this plan, as it is very expensive, and the wash-leather is
-not only likely to be soon torn, but in the course of the game may come
-out altogether; besides, a Croquet-ball can always be replaced for a
-trifling sum, and, if played with carefully, ought to last twelve months
-at least.
-
-[Illustration: CROQUET.]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE BALLS.
-
-The balls are eight in number, and are generally painted different
-colours--blue, pink, black, yellow, brown, orange, red, green. The
-size varies from 3 inches to 3-5/8 inches in diameter. The balls of
-some of the better Croquet games are not entirely covered with paint,
-but adorned simply by a band of paint, about half an inch in width,
-or with lines of blue and red, varying from one to four in number, as
-in the illustration. Balls coloured thus are, however, not so easily
-distinguishable as those which are painted all over.
-
-
-THE HOOPS.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The hoops, ten in number, are made of iron. They are about 16 inches
-high, and 12 inches wide; although these dimensions are not of much
-importance. In some games the hoops are of bronze, or else are painted a
-golden colour. Usually, however, they are of a black, iron tint. The set
-with which we generally play is painted white. This plan is in many
-respects advantageous, for as the shades of evening close round the
-players the contrast between the grass and the hoops becomes less vivid,
-and consequently in the excitement of the game a player occasionally
-tumbles over a hoop, and probably hurts his legs; when, however, the
-hoops are painted white, the play can be continued to a late hour
-without the chance of such a casualty as the breaking of one's shins
-against the iron hoops.
-
-
-THE POSTS.
-
-The posts, two in number, should be from 24 to 36 inches high. One end
-must be sharpened into a point, in order to allow it to stick well in
-the ground. One is called the starting, the other the turning post. The
-top half is, in the cheaper sets, divided into eight divisions, each of
-which is painted according to the colours of the ball. Thus, beginning
-from the top, we trace the divisions into the following order:--
-
- 1. Blue.
- 2. Pink.
- 3. Black.
- 4. Yellow.
- 5. Brown.
- 6. Orange.
- 7. Green.
- 8. Red.
-
-The order of the colours acts as a guide to the players; and since those
-on each side play alternately, it follows that in a game of eight, the
-dark balls--blue, black, brown, and green--are matched against the light
-balls--pink, yellow, orange, and red. The advantage of this arrangement
-is plainly manifest, since, during the game, the players, without
-referring to the peg, will know that the light colours play alternately
-with the dark. We admit, however, that opinion may be divided about the
-lightness of red as a colour; and we therefore hope that the
-Croquet-makers will change it into white, which is not likely to be
-confounded with the yellow, for the latter, in consequence of being in
-more frequent use, is sure to become dark in much shorter time than the
-former. Some, however, as in the illustration, have red and blue
-divisions, marked from one to four, to correspond with the number of
-rings painted on the balls.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-CLIPS.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-A set of Croquet-clips--little pieces of tin, coloured according to the
-colours of the balls, in order to slip over the hoops, and thus show the
-hoop through which the player has next to pass--has been lately
-introduced. We do not, however, recommend the use of them, as they are
-liable to cause much confusion, and certainly give a great deal of
-trouble to those players who adopt them.
-
-
-MARKING BOARD.
-
-A gentleman has invented a marking-board, on which is placed the
-position of each player after his stroke is made; but as this requires
-an umpire to mark the positions of the balls, we do not think the plan
-worth adoption.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-TUNNEL.
-
-In some games a very narrow hoop--scarcely wide enough for the ball to
-pass through--has been introduced under the name of tunnel. It certainly
-adds to the complication of the game.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE CAGE
-
-Is another novelty, formed by placing two hoops across each other, and
-fastening a bell at the point of intersection, which has to be struck by
-the ball passing through.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-A CROQUET STAND
-
-Is one of the best of the recent inventions in Croquet, and is to be
-recommended as a great improvement over the unwieldy box, which contains
-usually a Croquet set, and which is generally so badly arranged that a
-quarter of an hour is occupied in taking out the Croquet implements, and
-about double that time in replacing them after the game is over.
-
-
-HOW THE GAME IS PLAYED.
-
-Sides are chosen in the usual manner, the captain of one side taking the
-first ball and the captain of the other the second; while the remaining
-balls are given to the other players in the order in which they are
-chosen. Eight persons can play at this game, but any smaller number will
-do equally well. If only six or four play, the same number of balls must
-be used; but if two play, the game is improved by each player taking two
-balls and playing them alternately as usual. If there be an odd number
-of players--either three, five, or seven--the players play against each
-other, or else one person takes two balls and plays for each side. It
-has been suggested that to amuse a large party two games should go on at
-once, through the same hoops, one side to begin at the starting-post and
-the other at the turning-post. The confusion, however, caused by the
-balls getting in each other's way would quite spoil all chance of good
-play.
-
-Assuming that each player has a ball and a mallet, that the hoops are
-arranged in either of the three positions given on pages 177, 178, 179,
-180, we now come to the mode of playing the game. The object is to drive
-the balls through all the hoops, in the direction indicated by the
-dotted lines on the diagrams, and to strike the two posts. The side all
-of whose members succeed in performing this feat first wins the game.
-
-Now, although this is the chief object of the game, yet the act from
-which it derives its title, to wit "Croquet," is of much greater
-importance than would at first be imagined. If a player hit with his
-ball any of the others, he is allowed to place his own against the ball
-he has struck, and setting his foot upon his own ball, he hits it with
-the mallet, and the force of the blow drives the opponent's ball a
-considerable distance in the direction towards which the mallet is
-directed. As the player is allowed to croquet either friend or foe, it
-is evident that he can do a great deal of damage or service, according
-to his inclination, since he is at liberty to drive the ball in any
-direction he pleases. (_See_ Rules of the Croquet, page 182.) It must,
-however, be borne in mind that no player can croquet or be croqued until
-he has been through the first hoop.
-
-The holder of the first ball, placing his ball a mallet's length in any
-direction from the starting-post, endeavours by striking it with the end
-of his mallet to drive it through the first hoop. If he succeeds, he
-continues his turn, and attempts to send the ball through the second
-hoop, and then through the third; for driving the ball through a hoop or
-croquing another ball imparts the privilege of an additional stroke.
-When he has finished, the second goes on, and the other players follow
-in the order in which the balls are marked upon the post. Till a player
-has gone through the first hoop he is not allowed to have an extra turn,
-if his ball hit that of another. In a short time is palpably shown the
-great advantage of the croquet. Often when a player has his ball in a
-good position in front of a hoop, another will hit it and drive it to
-the other end of the croquet-ground, compelling the croqued ball to take
-two or three turns before it can regain its former position.
-Occasionally two or three balls lie close to each other, and one is
-struck by a ball which was some distance off. The striker is now allowed
-to place his ball by the side of the one he has struck, and then, after
-croquing it, is almost sure of hitting the two others, since his last
-stroke has brought him very near to them.
-
-The player who reaches the turning-post first has great advantages for a
-time, for as soon as he touches it he commences his return journey, and
-meeting the other players on their road to the farthest point of their
-voyage, he is able to croquet them and considerably impede their
-progress. While writing about the turning-post, we cannot refrain from
-calling attention to a strange rule which appears in a recently-issued
-manual of Croquet. In this work it is stated that on touching the post
-the striker discontinues playing, and is not allowed for the act the
-same privilege that he obtains for passing through a hoop. This
-regulation is, we think, so unfair that we cannot allow this work to go
-to press without taking the opportunity of recording our protest against
-the adoption of the rule in question. It must be evident to anybody who
-knows anything about the game that it is a more difficult task to strike
-the post than to pass through a hoop. Now, touching the post is a point
-in the game, for it is one of the stations that everybody must pass on
-the journey; and as for each other point, such as passing a hoop or
-croquing, the player is allowed an additional turn, surely it stands to
-reason that the same advantage should be accorded to a player who
-performs the feat of striking the turning-post. Captain Mayne Reid and
-all the other writers on Croquet (with one exception) agree with us in
-the view we have taken on this subject, to which we have at some length
-drawn attention, in the hope that the author of the obnoxious rule will
-think fit to make the necessary alteration.
-
-When a player has passed through all the hoops, he becomes what is
-called in the technical language of Croquet a Rover, and is privileged
-to rove about over the ground croquing his friends and foes (_see_ page
-185). It is therefore obvious that a good player can prove, when thus
-situated, of immense advantage to his side, and should on no account hit
-the starting or winning post till all on his side have passed through
-the last hoop (_see_ page 191). Good players, however, generally content
-themselves with passing through all the hoops but two, as it often
-happens that if a Rover is tiresome his adversaries unite in their
-efforts to drive his ball against the starting-post, and thus kill him.
-This, of course, they cannot do until he has passed through all the
-hoops. The excitement towards the end of the game is almost
-inconceivable; each stroke is watched with the keenest interest.
-Gradually one by one the players hit the post, until perhaps only two
-remain, and now occurs an opportunity for skilful play. If the two
-opponents are good players, they afford a rare treat to the bystanders.
-The object of each is first to hit the post, and, failing in that, to
-keep as far off his adversary as he can. Both endeavour, at the same
-time drawing nearer to the great object in view, to keep the post
-between their own and the other ball. At length one plays at the post,
-misses it, and sends his ball near his adversary, who first hits it,
-next croquets it away, and then strikes the post, while all his side
-wave their mallets aloft, and loudly shout "Victory!"
-
-[Illustration: DIAGRAM NO. 1.--This position, which is the simplest of
-those we have drawn, is the one which we recommend all young players to
-adopt. The space between the hoops and between the hoops and the posts
-should be about six feet, although it can be varied in proportion to the
-capabilities of the different players. The course of the ball is
-indicated by the dotted lines, and the arrows show the direction in
-which at starting the ball should travel. Although it may appear rather
-a simple matter to go through the two first hoops by one straight
-stroke, yet the unfortunate player will soon find out his mistake by
-experience, and that, in attempting to pass through the hoops, "Slow and
-sure" is the best maxim to adopt.]
-
-[Illustration: DIAGRAM NO. 2.--In this, the second, diagram it will be
-seen that the two centre side hoops are done away with, and that one is
-placed in the centre of the game instead: but although in the play we
-now require one hoop less than in the former diagram, yet the player
-will have to pass through the same number of hoops as before, since he
-travels twice through the hoop in the centre--once on his way to the
-turning-post, and once on his return. This position is necessarily not
-so simple as the last one, for now all chance of going through the three
-side hoops in one turn is done away with, and few players will be able
-to make the passage in less than three turns.]
-
-[Illustration: DIAGRAM NO. 3.--In this the same number of hoops is used
-as in the first diagram, but the hoops numbered respectively 4 and 9,
-instead of being placed parallel to the others, are now at right-angles
-to them: thus, in playing from 3 to 4, one has to keep to the right of
-the second ring, and then to pass through it from the outside of the
-game--a much more difficult arrangement than either of the other
-positions we have described. As the player's knowledge of Croquet
-increases, many other positions will suggest themselves; but those we
-have printed are the simplest, and are the diagrams in general use at
-the present time.]
-
-[Illustration: DIAGRAM NO. 4.--In this diagram the cage is introduced;
-otherwise it is nearly the same as Diagram No. 2.]
-
-The reader is now requested to give his attention to the following
-Rules, which we believe will be found to meet all the requisites of the
-game.
-
-
-RULES.
-
-
-STRIKING.
-
-1. At the commencement of the game the ball is to be placed a mallet's
-length from the starting-post in any direction, and the player
-endeavours to drive it through the first hoop.
-
-[As the distance between the first post and the first hoop depends so
-much upon the size of the Croquet-ground, the first rule may be altered
-to suit the convenience of the players; but if the length is less than a
-mallet, the player will probably strike the post with his own mallet.]
-
-2. In striking the ball, the player must stand on one side of the ball,
-and not behind it.
-
-3. In striking, the mallet must be about an inch from the ground, and
-must not be pushed along it when the stroke is made, except when the
-distance between the ball and some other object is too small to admit
-the mallet lengthwise.
-
-[Some players wish only one hand to be used in striking. Most of the
-large sets, however, are too heavy to allow this rule to be generally
-carried out.]
-
-4. The ball must be struck with an end of the mallet, and not by the
-side.
-
-
-ORDER OF PLAYING.
-
-5. The balls are to be played in the order in which they are marked upon
-the post.
-
-6. If any player play out of his turn, he finishes the stroke; but for
-the violation of the last rule he is deprived of the next turn.
-
-[It may perhaps be suggested that a player, seeing a good opportunity
-for some effective stroke, would purposely play out of his turn. This we
-doubt; for not only would the deprivation of his next turn do him a
-great deal of damage, but the chances are that one of the other players
-would stop him before he had commenced the stroke.]
-
-7. If a player play with a wrong ball, he has to replace the ball and
-lose his next turn.
-
-[This penalty is not enforced against a player if the error be not
-discovered before the arrival of his second turn.]
-
-8. If a player by a stroke of his mallet drives his ball through the
-next hoop in the order of his course, he is allowed to continue his
-stroke.
-
-9. A player may in one stroke drive his ball through more than one hoop.
-
-10. If a ball, in going through a hoop, strike another ball, the player
-can either continue his stroke at the next hoop, or else croquet the
-ball that is struck; but he is not allowed two turns for passing through
-a hoop, and then hitting a ball.
-
-11. If a ball strike another ball, and then pass through a hoop, the
-player can either croquet or continue his stroke, and has not to pass
-through the same hoop again.
-
-[From this rule the reader may infer, that if a ball go through its hoop
-either by striking another ball or by hitting the sides of the hoop, it
-is considered to have passed the hoop.
-
-It has been suggested that a ball is dead directly it croquets another,
-and that therefore any stroke it makes after that is of no avail; but as
-this not only does away with Rule 11, but prevents any player croquing
-two balls in one stroke, we cannot adopt it.]
-
-12. If a ball, instead of playing at its hoop, play at a ball on the
-other side of the hoop, and consequently have to be moved by the hand
-through its own hoop in order to croquet, it is not considered to have
-gone through the hoop, but must return to the proper side of the hoop in
-the ordinary manner.
-
-13. A ball is not through a hoop if the handle of the mallet when laid
-across the two sides of the hoop from whence the ball came touches the
-ball without moving the hoop.
-
-14. If a player strike a ball which he cannot croquet, and by that
-stroke go through a hoop, the last stroke holds good, and he has another
-turn.
-
-15. If a ball, when croqued through its hoop in a wrong direction, roll
-back through the hoop, it has not to pass through the same hoop in the
-same direction again.
-
-
-THE CROQUET.
-
-[When the game of Croquet first came into fashion, there was only one
-mode of the croquet, which was that usually known as the tight croquet.
-Since then other forms, known as the loose and slipping croquet, have
-come into fashion, and have met with so much favour that it is
-impossible to deny their claims to our attention. In the tight croquet
-the player must keep his foot upon his own ball, and is not allowed to
-move it while he makes the stroke; but in the loose croquet he need not
-even put his foot on his own ball at all, and is able consequently to
-drive not only his adversary's ball, but also his own, in any direction
-he pleases. The adoption of this plan, even although it lengthens and
-complicates the game, affords so much pleasure to the players
-themselves, that it is becoming universally adopted. Some writers,
-however, insist that to rovers only should the privilege of the loose
-croquet be accorded; whilst others, on the other hand, would allow the
-privilege only to those who are not rovers. In fact, so much is to be
-said on each side, that the better plan is to allow the players to
-choose which of these courses they think fit to adopt. In some places,
-in addition to the loose croquet, a practice prevails which is usually
-known by the term "taking two off." Thus if a player croquet a ball, he
-is allowed to drive his own ball in any direction he pleases, without
-touching the croqued ball. After this he has another stroke, so that he
-is enabled to get close to any ball on the ground. This plan seems to us
-so highly objectionable, and so thoroughly subversive of all good play,
-that we must decline to recommend it. It should also be known that many
-of our correspondents object to loose croquet altogether, on the ground
-that it tends greatly to prolong the turns, and thus spoils the game, as
-people, grown tired of waiting, lose all interest in it, and forget when
-their turn comes to play. What expressions more common on the ground
-than "Whose turn is it now?"]
-
-16. A player is allowed the privilege of croquing whenever his ball
-strikes another, except when by doing so he makes the ball that is
-struck hit the winning-post, if it have passed through the hoops.
-
-17. In the tight croquet the player must keep his foot firmly upon his
-own ball, and if the stroke move it the ball must afterwards be brought
-back to the position it occupied before it was struck.
-
-[Some writers insist that if the croqueur's ball slip, he loses his
-turn. This arrangement is too absurd to be tolerated for an instant.]
-
-18. No ball can croquet, or be croqued, until it has passed through the
-first hoop.
-
-[It has been the custom to allow a player to take up his ball, and play,
-when his turn comes, from the starting-post again, if he misses the
-first hoop. This plan, however, has nothing to recommend it. It would
-enable a player who wished to play last to do so at ease by
-intentionally missing the hoop, and is obviously so unfair that we have
-no wish to adopt it.]
-
-19. No ball (except a rover) can croquet the same ball twice, until it
-(the croqueur) has passed through a hoop or touched the post since its
-first croquet.
-
-[If, however, the croqueur be a rover, he cannot croquet the same ball
-twice in one turn. In either case, however, he is at liberty to strike
-the same ball twice, but this act does not allow him the privilege of a
-fresh stroke.]
-
-20. A croquet need not necessarily be a distinct stroke. If the striking
-ball in its passage hit either a post or a hoop, and then cannon upon a
-ball, the privilege holds good; and if, also, one ball strike two or
-more others, each of these is croqued in the order in which they were
-struck; but the striker has only one additional stroke when he has
-croqued the lot, and not one for each ball he has struck.
-
-21. As the moving of the croquing ball in the tight croquet is of itself
-illegal, it stands to reason that if this ball during the stroke slip
-and touch another ball, the player has not the right to claim the
-privilege of the croquet.
-
-[In the loose croquet a player may by his croquing stroke drive his own
-ball through a hoop.]
-
-[Illustration: THE TIGHT CROQUET.]
-
-22. A player, after striking a ball, is not necessarily compelled to
-croquet it, but is allowed to play in any direction he pleases.
-
-[It must, however, be understood that he must play from the place where
-his ball is, and not, since he abnegates the privilege of it, as after a
-croquet, from a position touching the ball he has struck.]
-
-23. If a player hit a rover, and by the blow force the other ball
-against the winning-post, he cannot croquet the ball, as it is plainly
-dead; he however retains the privilege of another turn. As the ball is
-dead, it must be moved at once.
-
-24. If a player in the act of croquing do not move the croqued ball at
-least 6 inches, he is at liberty to take the stroke over again.
-
-[Of course the croqued ball must be placed in the position it occupied
-before it was struck.]
-
-25. If a ball go through a hoop and then croquet a ball, both strokes
-count.
-
-26. If a player croquet a ball illegally, both balls must be restored to
-their former positions.
-
-27. If a ball hit two or more balls by one stroke, and croquet one, it
-is forced to croquet all it has struck, and is not allowed to croquet
-one and leave the others alone.
-
-
-THE POSTS.
-
-Some writers give certain privileges for passing two hoops at a time,
-and for striking the posts--such as placing the ball a mallet's length
-in any direction from its original position. This plan, however, is very
-irregular, and affords too great an advantage to one player to be
-adopted.
-
-28. Striking the posts enables the player to have a fresh turn, and is
-in all respects equivalent to passing a hoop.
-
-29. A player who, having gone through all the hoops, strikes the
-winning-post, is dead; and being out of the game, is not allowed to have
-a fresh turn.
-
-30. If either of the posts be struck by a ball that is driven thither by
-a croquing or croqued ball, or in passing through the next hoop to it in
-the right direction, the stroke holds good.
-
-31. If a ball be moved by a player when it should not have been touched,
-it must be restored to its former position, even if the stroke have sent
-it against a post or through a hoop.
-
-32. If any ball (or balls) be struck by the ball moved, as in the last
-rule, it must be at once replaced in its former position.
-
-33. If a ball, in the tight croquet, slip from under the feet and strike
-the turning-post, the stroke does not count.
-
-[By the same rule, if a player in croquing strike the winning-post, the
-stroke does not count.]
-
-34. If a ball be hit off the ground on a gravel-walk or a flower-bed, it
-is to be placed at once 12 inches at right-angles from the limit of the
-boundary.
-
-
-THE ROVER.
-
-35. As a rover has passed through all the hoops, he is not allowed to
-croquet the same ball twice in one turn.
-
-36. A rover has only the right to play a second time when he croquets
-another ball.
-
-37. A ball is dead as soon as it has passed through all the hoops and
-struck the two posts.
-
-38. A rover who hits another ball, and then the post, is dead, and
-cannot take another turn.
-
-[A rover who croquets another ball against the post is according to Rule
-23 allowed another turn; but if a rover, in croquing a ball, lets his
-ball slip against the post, he is dead according to the principles of
-loose croquet.]
-
-39. The game is finished when all the players on one side have gone
-through all the hoops and struck the two posts.
-
-40. A match is the best of three games.
-
-41. A tournament is the best of three matches.
-
-
-HINTS TO YOUNG PLAYERS.
-
-It is almost impossible (as the reader will already have perceived) to
-overestimate the great importance that "the croquet" bears upon the
-game. A player who devotes all his efforts to pass through the hoops
-will find himself soon left behind by those who look upon that
-department of the game as merely subservient to the more fascinating
-task of driving away a foe, or of helping a friend; and this fact
-becomes more and more patent when the number of players is six or eight.
-True, when only two play, if one gets a good start, it is a somewhat
-difficult matter for the other player to stay his progress; and as this
-inevitably takes away half the interest of the game, we recommend a pair
-of players to use a couple of balls, since by so doing one can assist
-the other, and develop the croquet to great advantage; but then, again,
-it is not expedient to devote the whole of one's energies to produce a
-collision between two balls. The player's first rule should be to pass
-through a hoop; if, however, he sees an equal chance of passing through
-it after he has gone out of his route to drive an adverse player away,
-he should at all times make use of the croquet; for it must be
-remembered that keeping an enemy back is almost equivalent to making
-progress, and that the game cannot be lost as long as a foe's ball is
-behind one's own. The art of the tight croquet consists in placing the
-striking ball in juxtaposition to that ball which has been croqued, and
-then, setting the left foot upon his own ball, the striker hits it
-sharply with his mallet, and consequently the other ball is driven by
-the power of the stroke to a distance in proportion to the force with
-which the ball was struck. In the loose croquet, however, the player
-need not place his foot upon the ball at all, but by adopting the
-following stroke can drive the two balls forward in the same direction,
-or by hitting his own ball with a slanting mallet can drive the balls
-away at an angle to each other. The purpose of this feat is either to
-aid a friend or to do damage to an enemy. A friend can by croquing send
-a partner through the hoop he wishes to pass, or else drive an
-enemy--who has obtained a good position, and who feels certain of going
-through a hoop at his next turn--exactly in the opposite direction to
-that in which he wishes to travel. In order, however, to make this
-stroke very effective, great care must be taken with regard to the way
-in which the ball is driven. Many thoughtless players think nothing of
-driving a foe close to a friend, or, in the hopes of assisting their
-side, send a friend in the immediate neighbourhood of a foe--thus
-improving the position of the adverse side, and damaging that of their
-own. The difference that a few thoughtful players make to a side is
-wonderful. Whilst others hit their balls about without ever thinking
-that at his next turn a foe will probably croquet them, the careful
-players, anticipating the positions of the other bails, place themselves
-in a position from which, when their next turn comes, they can either go
-through a hoop, or croquet the ball of a more careless player. Thus, if
-foe B is behind a hoop through which A has to pass, but requires two
-turns for the passage, it would be very absurd if A were to place
-himself close to B, in the hope of passing through next time, since B
-would be sure to croquet him, and place him in even a worse position
-than he occupies in the illustration. A should content himself by
-playing to C, for B would not go so far out of his way to croquet him,
-and then A could go through the ring the next time he plays.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-If A is at the side of a hoop through which he cannot possibly pass in
-one turn, he should play behind the ring to the spot marked B, and not
-in a line marked A C, or else he would probably go either too far or not
-far enough, and be forced to accomplish in three turns what, if he had
-gone to B, he could probably have done in two.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Suppose B to be placed in front of the fourth hoop (_see_ Positions of
-Hoops, Diagram No. 2), and A, whose turn it is, to be behind No.
-2;--many players would just go through No. 2, and then quietly drop down
-to No. 3, in the hope of passing through at the next turn. A thoughtful
-player, however, would, by driving his ball sharply through hoop No. 2,
-obtain a position close to B, and next, taking a second turn for going
-through the hoop, would be able to croquet B, and drive him a long way
-off his hoop, and then return to a good position behind No. 3.
-
-The following position will show one of the advantages of the loose
-croquet. It is the turn of the ball C to play, and he has to go through
-the hoop _e_ in the direction _e_ A. In his present position it is
-impossible for him to go through the hoop at one turn. If, however, he
-croquets D, and then indulges in the loose croquet, he can drive his own
-ball to B, and send the other to A. He can then pass through the hoop,
-and can croquet D again at the spot A.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-We have mentioned this problem more as an example for young players than
-because it is a recognised rule. Many such plans, equally advantageous
-to follow, will readily present themselves to players in the course of
-the game, and in no more forcible manner can they show their good play
-than by disregarding the passage of a hoop in order to croquet a foe and
-thus spoil his position. It can be easily understood that a player who,
-by passing through all the hoops, obtains the title of "Rover," and may
-therefore rove wherever he pleases, has far more power than one whose
-flight is fettered by being compelled to pass through the little iron
-hoops that dot the Croquet-ground. He can either keep close to a laggard
-friend, and aid him by the croquet, or he can take up a position a
-little in advance of a forward foe, and delay his progress in a very
-unpleasant manner. Suppose that A has just passed through the last hoop
-but two, and that B, a rover, has taken up a position close to the hoop,
-in such a manner that a portion of it intervenes between him and A. If,
-then, the latter play near the hoop, B is sure to croquet him and drive
-him away. He is therefore compelled to keep some distance off the hoop
-until a friend comes to aid him, unless a change in his position allows
-him to croquet B, which, if the latter is a good player, is not likely
-to occur. Now, having shown how a rover can worry a foe, let us
-demonstrate how he can aid a friend. A is close to the hoop through
-which he has to pass, and B, a rover of his own side, is in a line with
-him. If B hit A, he will probably drive him off his hoop and spoil his
-turn; but if B play to C, a spot halfway between the two hoops, A can go
-through his hoop, croquet B at C, drive him to D, and then go through
-the next hoop, croquet B at D (for he has been through a hoop since he
-last croqued him), drive him to the other side of the next hoop, and so
-on. A rover playing with another ball can be of more help to him than
-hindrance to a foe; and as it is more important to get the balls of
-one's own side forward than to delay those of a foe, the former plan
-should, when feasible, be adopted. Thus it will be seen that a good
-rover is of the greatest service to the side, and that the sooner he is
-placed _hors de combat_ the better for the opposite side. The rovers on
-the other side should therefore do all they can to make the rover's ball
-hit the post by croquing it against it, if possible; for although if all
-on his side hit the post before those on the other side the game is won,
-yet when the best player, being dead, is able to render no further
-assistance, the game often goes against that side. This plan, however,
-must be adopted with the greatest precaution and care, and on no account
-whatever should a bad player be thus disposed of, since the mere fact of
-keeping him in the game is of the highest importance, as his services
-are of little avail to his own side, who cannot win as long as one of
-their party remains in the game. With these few desultory hints we
-conclude this article, which all beginners should study carefully, and
-(we hope) with advantage.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-DRIVING.
-
- "The rash boy Phaeton his proud chariot drove
- Till he was smitten by almighty Jove:
- Take heed, young driver, while you like him boast,
- You are not 'spilled' against an ugly post."--_Swift._
-
-
-INTRODUCTION.
-
-Our young friends ought to know, not only how to ride, but also how to
-drive. From the very earliest times, horse and chariot races were
-considered the noblest of sports, and Apollo is represented as driving
-the chariot of the sun. The four horses were typical of the four seasons
-of the year. Four horses driven abreast was common also to the Olympic
-games, and the Hippodrome was the scene of chariot races in which even a
-greater number was sometimes used.
-
-It was, indeed, an imposing sight to see the Hippodromic course at the
-time of one of these chariot festivals. The place set apart for the
-contest was about a mile in length. Over a bar that ran across the
-entrance of the lists was placed a brazen dolphin, and upon an altar in
-the middle of the barrier stood an eagle of the same metal. By means of
-a machine, put in motion by the president of the games, the eagle
-suddenly sprang up into the air with its wings extended, so as to be
-seen by all spectators; and at the same moment the dolphin sank to the
-ground, which was a signal for the cars to arrange themselves in order
-for the race. Besides the statue of Hippodamia, and the table on which
-were placed the crowns and palm-branches, there were several images and
-altars in the course, particularly that of the genius Taraxippus, who,
-as his name imports, was said to inspire the horses with a secret
-terror, which was increased by the shrill clangour of the trumpets
-placed near the boundary, and the deafening shouts and outcries of the
-multitude.
-
-While the chariots were ranged in line ready to start, the horses, whose
-ardour it was difficult to restrain, attracted all eyes by their beauty,
-as well as for the victories which some of them had already gained.
-Pindar speaks of no less than forty chariots engaged at one and the same
-time. If we recollect that they had to run twelve times the length of
-the Hippodrome, in going and returning, and to steer round a pillar or
-goal erected near each extremity, we may imagine what confusion must
-have ensued when, upon the signal trumpet being sounded, they started
-amid a cloud of dust, crossing and jostling each other, and rushing
-forward with such rapidity that the eye could scarcely follow them. At
-one of the boundaries a narrow pass was left only for the chariots,
-which often baffled the skill of the expertest driver; and there were
-upwards of twenty turnings to make round the two pillars; so that at
-almost every moment some accident happened, calculated to excite the
-pity or insulting laughter of the assembly. In such a number of chariots
-at full speed, pushing for precedence in turning round the columns, on
-which victory often depended, some were sure to be dashed to pieces,
-covering the course with their fragments, and adding to the dangers of
-the race. As it was, moreover, exceedingly difficult for the charioteer,
-in his unsteady two-wheeled car, to retain his standing attitude, many
-were thrown out, when the masterless horses plunged wildly about the
-Hippodrome, overturning others who had, perhaps, previously escaped
-every danger, and thought themselves sure of winning. To increase the
-confusion, and thereby afford better opportunities for the display of
-skill and courage, there was reason to believe that some artifice was
-employed for the express purpose of frightening the horses when they
-reached the statue of Taraxippus. So great sometimes was their
-consternation, that, no longer regarding the rein, the whip, or the
-voice of their master, they broke loose, or overturned the chariot, and
-wounded the driver.
-
-Such is the ancient description given by a Greek writer of the chariot
-races of the Hippodrome. We have no coach racing now-a-days, except
-omnibus racing in the streets: not a great deal of "coaching." Now and
-then, indeed, we see the "Brighton four-horse," and start with wonder at
-the sight. But still there are necessities for private driving, more
-important at the present than at any former period; and we hold driving
-to be not only a necessary, but an indispensable accomplishment to every
-young gentleman.
-
-
-THE HORSE IN HARNESS.
-
-A horse fully equipped in harness, attached to a dennet or stanhope, is
-one of the most beautiful things to look at in the world: few boys are
-trusted to drive a pair; nor have they physical power for the task. We
-will therefore confine our attention chiefly to single harness, adding
-only a short description of the various kinds of carriages in common
-use. If, however, the youthful charioteer can drive a single horse well,
-he will find no difficulty in controlling a pair, provided their mouths
-are sufficiently tender for his strength to manage. The horse is here
-represented harnessed to a light dennet-gig.
-
-
-THE HORSE
-
-May be either a full-sized harness horse, or a galloway, or a pony; the
-two last being the best fitted for juvenile driving.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE HARNESS,
-
-In every case, is composed of the same parts, which consist of three
-essential divisions: 1st, the driving, or guiding part; 2d, the drawing
-part; and 3d, that for holding up the shafts. The driving part comprises
-the bridle and reins. The bridle is made up of a front piece (1), a head
-piece (2), two cheek pieces and winkers (3), a nose band (4), and a
-throat lash (5). The cheek pieces are buckled to the bit (6) by means of
-leather loops, called billets, as also are the driving-reins (7), and
-the bearing-rein, which is attached to a separate bit called the bridoon
-(a plain snaffle), and then is hooked to the pad-hook. This is now very
-generally dispensed with, as shown in the cut at the head of this
-article; but for young drivers it is often desirable when they have not
-strength to check the fall of a horse. The drawing parts consist of a
-padded oval ring fitted to the shoulders, and called the collar (10),
-sometimes replaced by a padded strap across the chest called the
-breast-strap. On the collar are fastened two iron bars called hames
-(12), by means of a strap at the top and bottom (8-11), and these hames
-have a ring in the upper part for the reins to pass through, called the
-hame terret (9); and nearer the lower part, a strong arm of iron covered
-with a coating of brass, silver, or leather, which receives in its eye
-the tug of the trace (13.) The trace (17) is a long and strong strap of
-double leather, stitched, which runs from the collar to the drawing bar,
-and may be lengthened or shortened by a buckle. The part for holding the
-gig up consists of a pad or saddle, which is buckled on to the horse by
-the belly-band (16), and from which the shaft is suspended by the
-back-band and shaft-tug. It is prevented from slipping forward by the
-crupper, which is slipped over the tail. Besides these parts, some
-horses have in addition a breechen (18-19) which holds the shafts back
-in going down hill; and when they are addicted to kicking, a strap is
-buckled over their hips to the shaft which is called a kicking-strap.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE CARRIAGE.
-
-[Illustration: THE BRITZSCHKA.]
-
-The Dennet-gig, as represented in the last page, is the most common form
-for a two-wheeled carriage; but there are also the Stanhope, the
-Cabriolet, as here shown, the Tilbury, and the Dog-cart. The various
-open four-wheeled carriages are the Britzschka, Barouche, and Phaeton;
-and of closed four-wheeled carriages there are the Brougham and Clarence
-on elliptic springs, and the chariot and family coach with c springs.
-When these two last are made to open, they are called the Landaulet and
-Landau.
-
-[Illustration: NEW BROUGHAM.]
-
-[Illustration: THE FAMILY COACH.]
-
-
-PUTTING TO.
-
-Before driving, it is necessary that the horse or pony should be "put
-to," which is effected as follows: 1st, slip the shafts through the
-tugs, or, if there are hooks, drop them down into them; 2d, put the
-traces on to the drawing-bar, either hooking them on, or else slipping
-them on to the eyes, and being careful to place the leather stops in
-these, to prevent the trace coming off; 3d, buckle the belly-band
-sufficiently tight; and 4th, buckle the kicking-strap, or breechen, if
-either is used. After this, the reins are taken from the terrets, where
-they were previously placed, and the horse is ready.
-
-
-DIRECTIONS FOR DRIVING.
-
-In driving, the reins are held differently from the mode already
-described as used in riding, the fore-finger being first placed between
-them, and then both the reins are grasped by all the other fingers, and
-the near-side rein is also held firmly against the fore-finger by means
-of the thumb. In this way, on an emergency, the near or left rein may be
-pulled by itself, by holding it firmly with the thumb, and suffering the
-other, or off rein, to slip through the fingers, or _vice versâ_. The
-most usual way is to pull the left rein with the left hand, and the
-right with the right hand, by hooking one or two fingers over it while
-held firmly in the left. In this manner, with the whip also held in the
-right hand, the horse is guided or stopped. The young driver should take
-care and keep his feet well before him, with his knees as straight and
-firm as possible, so that in case of a fall of the horse he may not be
-thrown forwards out of the vehicle he is driving. He should also sit
-square to his work, with his elbow held easily to his side, and his left
-thumb pointing to his horse's head, by which, as in riding, his elbow is
-pretty sure to be properly placed. The bit should not be too firmly
-pulled against, but a light and "give and take" kind of handling is the
-best, by which the horse is allowed freedom of action, and yet is
-checked if he makes a mistake. In meeting other vehicles, the rule is to
-keep to your left, and in passing them, to leave them also on your left.
-This should be rigidly adhered to for fear of the accidents which would
-otherwise constantly happen.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-In reference to driving in America, nothing better can be given than the
-rules of the English school for driving. In America the rule governing
-the side to pass another rider on is the reverse of the English rule. In
-America the law is "drive to the right." In England it is to the left.
-The former appears to us to be the "right" one.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-FENCING.
-
-Fencing is the art of using the small-sword or rapier. The small-sword
-has a straight blade, about thirty-two inches in length, outside the
-guard, and is fashioned for _thrusting_ only. Although it is an art of
-the greatest antiquity, very great improvements have been made in it
-during the last half-century, chiefly by French masters, who excel those
-of all other countries. This has been attributed to various causes; by
-some to the agility and acknowledged power of rapid physical action
-possessed by this nation; by others, to their natural vivacity and
-mental quickness. In my opinion, however, a more direct and powerful
-cause may be traced in the great encouragement and universal patronage
-which it has ever received from every grade of a chivalrous and military
-people. Every regiment has its maître d'armes, and every barrack its
-fencing-school. Indeed, in so important a light was the proper teaching
-of this art held, that one of the French kings (Louis XIV.) granted
-letters-patent to twenty eminent masters, who alone were permitted to
-teach in Paris. When a vacancy occurred, no interest and no favour could
-enable a candidate to obtain this privilege: he had to fence in public
-with six of these chosen masters; and if by any of them he was beaten by
-two distinct hits, he was considered unqualified to teach in the
-capital. Independent of its value as the scientific use of the
-sword,--the gentleman's weapon of defence, _par excellence_,--fencing
-stands unrivalled as an _exercise_; and it is in this sense that it will
-now be treated. The most eminent physicians which this country have
-produced have all, in the most earnest manner, recommended it to the
-attention of the young. Thus, Dr. Clive says:--
-
-"Muscular exertion is essential in perfecting the form of the body, and
-those exercises which require the exercise of the greatest number of
-muscles are the most conducive to this end. Fencing causes more muscles
-to act at the same time than most other exercises. It promotes the
-expansion of the chest, and improves respiration, whereby the functions
-of the most important organs of the body are more perfectly performed."
-
-Sir Anthony Carlisle uses similar language:--
-
-"According to my judgment, the exercise of fencing tends to promote
-bodily health, and the development of athletic powers. It is likewise
-apparent, that the attitudes and exertions of fencing are conducive to
-the manly forms and muscular energies of the human figure."
-
-Again, Sir Everard Home, in still stronger terms:--
-
-"Of all the different modes in which the body can be exercised, there is
-none, in my judgment, that is capable of giving strength and velocity,
-as well as precision, to the action of all the voluntary muscles of the
-body in an equal degree as the practice of fencing, and none more
-conducive to bodily health."
-
-I shall give one more extract from another physician of equal eminence,
-Dr. Babbington:--
-
-"I am of opinion that, in addition to the amusement which this exercise
-(fencing) affords, it is particularly calculated to excite in young
-persons a greater degree of energy and circumspection than they might
-otherwise possess; and it is obvious that, in respect of health, that
-mode of exertion is _superior to all others_, which, while it gives
-motion and activity to every part of the body, produces at the same time
-corresponding interest in the mind."
-
-Sir John Sinclair, Dr. Pemberton, &c., speak in terms equally
-recommendatory.
-
-To avoid all danger in the lessons and practice, foils are substituted
-for real swords. Strong wire masks are worn on the face, a well-padded
-glove on the hand, and the upper part of the body, at which alone the
-thrusts are aimed, is protected by a strong jacket, the right side and
-collar of which should be of leather.
-
-The first movement a beginner has to learn is the manner of placing
-himself in the position called
-
-
-THE GUARD.
-
-It is from this position that all movements are made, whether offensive
-or defensive. Let the beginner be placed with his knees straight, his
-feet at right angles, heel to heel; the right foot, right side, and face
-directed to the master. The body must be held upright and firm, the arms
-hanging down by the side, but easily and without constraint; the left
-hand holding the foil a few inches beneath its guard. Next let him bring
-the right hand across the body, and seize the foil-handle; by a second
-movement, bring the foil above the head, the hands separating as they
-ascend, until both arms be nearly extended upwards and outwards. Here
-pause. This may be called the _first position_ of the Guard.
-
-These movements should be frequently practised, as they accustom the
-arms to move independently of the body, flatten the joints of the
-shoulders, and give prominence to the chest.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-To arrive at the _second position_ of the Guard, the right arm, with the
-foil, is brought down to the front, until the right elbow is a little
-above and in advance of the waist; the fore-arm and foil sloping
-upwards; the point of the foil being the height of the upper part of the
-face; then, by a second movement, the learner must sink down, separating
-the knees, and stepping forward with the right foot fourteen or sixteen
-inches; for, of course, the guard of a tall man will be wider than that
-of a short one. However, his own comfort in the position will direct him
-as to the distance; and the general rule is, that the knee of the left
-leg will jut over the toes of the left foot, and the right leg from
-ankle to knee be perpendicular. It is in this position that he will
-receive all attacks from an adversary, and from this position will all
-his own attacks be made. Also in this position will he
-
-
-ADVANCE
-
-upon an adversary, when beyond hitting distance. The step in the advance
-is usually about that of the width of the Guard, although of course
-this would vary with circumstances. The step is made by advancing the
-right foot the distance I have named; and on its reaching the ground,
-the left foot is brought up, and takes its place. To
-
-
-RETREAT,
-
-the reverse of the above movement is made. The left foot takes the lead,
-stepping to the rear about as far as the right had stepped to the front;
-the right occupying its place on its taking up its new position. The
-next movement,
-
-
-THE LONGE,
-
-is a very important movement, and is rather difficult to make properly,
-and fatiguing to practise. Indeed, the first movements in fencing are
-the most trying to the learner; and he must not be discouraged if he
-fails to do them correctly at first--practice only will give him this
-power. The Longe is that extension of body which accompanies every
-attack, and is thus made: The right arm is extended straight from the
-shoulder, the arm and blade being on the same level; by a second
-movement, the right foot is raised from the ground, and a step made
-forward, about eighteen inches in length, while the left remains firmly
-planted in its place. At the instant that this step is made, the left
-hand is allowed to fall within a few inches of the left thigh, and the
-left knee is stiffened back until the leg is perfectly straight.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The thigh of the right leg will now be in a position nearly horizontal;
-from the knee downwards, perpendicular. Having executed the Longe, the
-next movement to be made is
-
-
-THE RECOVER;
-
-that is, to return from the position of the Longe to that of the Guard,
-and is thus effected: The left arm is nimbly thrown up to its place, the
-right arm drawn in, and the left knee re-bent. These movements must be
-made at the same time, as it is their _united_ action that enables a
-person to recover from so extended a position as the Longe quick enough
-to avoid a thrust if his own attack has failed.
-
-These movements must be frequently practised before any others are
-attempted--the Guard, the Advance, the Retreat, the Longe, and the
-Recover; and when the learner has attained some proficiency in them, he
-may begin the more delicate movements of attack and defence. Of these I
-will now speak.
-
-
-THE ENGAGE.
-
-It is customary for adversaries, on coming to the Guard, to _Engage_, or
-to join blades, on what is called the _inside_, that is, the _right_
-side; although there are occasions on which it is advisable to engage on
-the _outside_, or on the left; otherwise called the _Quarte_ or _Tierce_
-sides.
-
-Two men thus opposed to each other will at once perceive that there are
-two lines of attack open to them, _i. e._ the line inside and the line
-outside the blade--these, and no more. But these may be, and in fencing
-are, subdivided into inside above the hand, and inside under the hand,
-and the same subdivision for outside. This gives four lines of
-attack--or, to speak more simply, gives four openings through which an
-adversary may be assailed. Now, to protect each of these assailable
-points, are four defensive movements, called
-
-
-PARADES.
-
-Each opening has its own parade or defence, and each parade will guard
-its own opening, and, strictly speaking, no other. The opening inside
-above the hand is defended by two parades.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-As its name imports, the first and most natural parade is that of
-_Prime_. The action of drawing the sword from its sheath is almost
-exactly the movement made use of in the parade of Prime.
-
-In this parade, the hand is raised as high as the forehead, so that the
-fencer can see his opponent's face under his wrist. The blade of the
-foil is almost horizontal, but the point is rather lowered towards the
-ground. As this parade will throw the right side of the body open to the
-adversary's sword, it is good play to disengage from left to right, and
-deliver a rapid thrust at the adversary, in order to anticipate him
-before he can bring his own sword round for another thrust. His point
-will be thrown far out of line, so that he is behind-hand in point of
-time.
-
-This is a very useful parade for fencers of short stature, as they can
-sometimes get in their blade under their adversary's arm, after they
-have parried his thrust.
-
-The other parade is that of
-
-
-QUARTE.
-
-It is thus formed. On the approach of the point of an adversary's blade
-(and how these approaches are made I will presently explain), the right
-hand is moved a few inches--three or four will be enough--across the
-body on the inside; the hand being neither depressed nor raised, and the
-foil being kept on the same slope as in the Guard. This guards the body
-on the inside above the hand, but (and here comes an important law in
-fencing) the very movement which has guarded the body on one side has
-exposed it on the other: this is the case with all the simple parades.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Suppose, now, that the exposed part _outside above_ the hand were
-assailed, then the defence for it is the parade of
-
-
-TIERCE.
-
-It is formed by turning the hand with the nails downwards, and crossing
-to the opposite side some six or eight inches; the hand and point at the
-same elevation as before: this will guard this opening. If, however, the
-attack had been made _under_ instead of over the hand, then the proper
-parade would have been _Seconde_.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-There is another method of parrying, called _Quarte_, over the arm,
-which is executed by making almost the same parade as in Tierce, with
-this exception--first, the hand is retained in its original position,
-with the nails upwards; and, secondly, the point is not raised above the
-eye of the adversary.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-It is rather more delicate than tierce, but wants its power and energy.
-The Ripostes, or reply thrusts, are made, as they would have been had
-the parade been that of Tierce.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-SECONDE
-
-is formed by turning the hand in the same position in which it was
-turned for Tierce, but the point of the foil slopes as much downwards as
-in Tierce it did upwards; the direction and distance for the hand to
-traverse being the same. Again, had the attack been delivered at none of
-these, but at the _inside under_ the hand, then the proper parade would
-have been
-
-
-DEMI-CERCLE,
-
-which, as its name expresses, is a half-circle, described by a sweep of
-the blade traversing the _under_ line. Next comes the parade of
-
-
-OCTAVE.
-
-In this parade the hand is held as in Quarte; the hilt of the foil is
-kept lower than that of the opponent; the blade is almost horizontal,
-the point being only slightly lower than the hilt, and directed towards
-the body of the adversary.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Octave is extremely useful when the fencer misses his parade of
-Demi-cercle, as there is but a short distance for the point to traverse,
-and it generally meets the blade of the adversary before the point can
-be properly fixed. Moreover, it brings the point so near the adversary's
-body, that he will not venture to make another thrust until he has
-removed the foil.
-
-Thus I have enumerated, and partly explained, the forms and uses of
-these four parades: they are called Simple Parades, to distinguish them
-from another set of defensive movements, called
-
-
-CONTRE-PARADES.
-
-I have said and shown that a man standing foil in hand, in the position
-of the guard, is exposed in four distinct places to thrusts from an
-adversary within longing distance. I have also shown that he has a
-defence for each of these exposed places; but if a man has but _one_
-defence for each assailable part, then his adversary, knowing beforehand
-what the defence must be, would be prepared beforehand to deceive him.
-But if he has a reserve--if he has a _second_ defence for each part,
-then the adversary cannot tell what the defence will be, until his
-attack, false or real, is begun.
-
-To meet this contingency, a second series of defences have been devised,
-which are of an entirely different nature from the _Simple_ Parades.
-
-Again, as each of the simple parades is framed to guard only one
-opening, it was found desirable that the contre-parades should be of a
-more comprehensive character. They are therefore devised so that each is
-capable of protecting the entire front. It is evident that this object
-could not be attained without the sacrifice of quickness, because a
-larger space must be traversed, and therefore more time is occupied with
-a contre than a simple parade.
-
-To know one contre-parade is virtually to know all, as they are all
-formed on the same plan. They are all full circles in the position of
-hand and direction of foil of the different simple parades; or more
-clearly speaking, each simple parade has a contre-parade; there are,
-therefore, four simple and four contre-parades, which may be thus
-arranged:--
-
- Quarte Contre de Quarte.
- Tierce Contre de Tierce.
- Seconde Contre de Seconde.
- Demi-cercle Contre de Cercle.
-
-I have said that a contre-parade is a full circle in the position of
-hand and direction of blade of its simple; thus, contre de quarte is
-made by retaining the hand in the position of quarte, while the foil
-describes a circle descending on the inside, and returning by the
-outside to the place of its departure. So with all the others, the foil
-_following the direction of the simple_ parade, of which it is the
-contre. These complete the entire system of defences.
-
-I now come to movements of an opposite nature, namely, the
-
-
-ATTACKS,
-
-and shall begin with the most simple of them. I will again suppose two
-adversaries standing, _en guard_, within longing distance of each other:
-now the most simple movement that the attacking party could make would
-be,
-
-
-THE STRAIGHT THRUST
-
-to the outside or inside, according to his line of engagement. I have,
-in describing the longe, in effect described the straight thrust; it is
-but a longe in a straight line, taking care, however, to feel firmly the
-adversary's blade, but taking care also not to press or lean on it
-during the delivering of the thrust.
-
-Next in character comes
-
-
-THE DISENGAGEMENT.
-
-This attack is made by dropping the point of the foil beneath the
-adversary's blade, and raising it on the opposite side, at the same
-time, rising with the arm fully extended; on the completion of the
-extension the longe is made and the thrust delivered.
-
-
-THE ONE-TWO
-
-is but a double disengagement, the first being but a feint or false
-attack, to induce the adversary to form a parade to cover the part
-threatened, for the covering of one part of the body exposes the
-opposite: the second disengagement is made to take advantage of this
-exposure. The arm is extended halfway on the first, and then wholly on
-the second, to be immediately followed by the longe.
-
-
-THE BEAT AND THRUST.
-
-This is another variety of attack. Supposing the adversary's blade to be
-firmly joined to yours, when you wished to deliver a _straight thrust_,
-there would then be danger of your falling upon his point. This danger
-is avoided by giving a slight beat on his blade the instant preceding
-your extension of arm, of course to be followed _en suite_ by the longe.
-
-The companion attack to this attack is
-
-
-THE BEAT AND DISENGAGEMENT.
-
-The _beat_ here takes the character of the first disengagement in
-_one-two_, _i. e._ becomes a _feint_, and is intended to induce the
-adversary to return to the place he occupied when the beat was made. You
-then immediately pass to the opposite side of his blade in the manner
-described in the _disengagement_.
-
-It will be seen that all these movements pass _under_ the adversary's
-blade. However, there are certain situations in the _assault_, as a
-fencing bout is called, when an adversary is more assailable _over the
-point_ than under the blade; for this purpose there is what the French
-call the _coupé sur point_, or
-
-
-CUT OVER THE POINT.
-
-It is thus made: By the action of the hand, and without drawing it back
-at all, the foil is raised and brought down on the opposite side of the
-adversary's blade, the arm being extended during its fall to the
-horizontal position, on attaining which the longe is delivered.
-
-
-CUT OVER AND DISENGAGEMENT
-
-is on the same principle as the _one-two_ and the _beat and
-disengagement_. On the adversary opposing the first movement (the cut)
-with a parade, the second movement (the disengagement) is made to the
-opposite side, to be followed of course by the longe; the extension of
-the arm being divided between the two movements.
-
-These attacks are called simple attacks, because they may be parried by
-one or more simple parades, according to the number of movements in the
-attack. In fact, every attack can be parried, and every parade can be
-deceived: it is the _additional_ movement last made which hits or
-guards.
-
-Thus, you threaten by a disengagement to the outside; your adversary
-bars your way effectually by the parade of _tierce_; you make a second
-disengagement to the inside, which is now exposed from the very fact of
-the outside being guarded (for both lines of attack cannot be guarded at
-the same time), thus converting your attack into _one-two_; but if your
-adversary parries quarte on your _second_ movement, your attack would be
-warded off. This can be carried much further, but the above will, I
-think, be sufficient to explain the nature of simple parades and
-attacks.
-
-To deceive a _contre_-parade, a separate movement, called a _doublé_, or
-
-
-DOUBLE,
-
-has been invented; it is very simple in principle, and admirably answers
-the purpose. For instance, if you were to threaten your adversary by a
-disengagement to the outside, and if, instead of tierce, he parried
-_contre de quarte_, the double is then made by your making a _second_
-disengagement _to the same side as the first_, for it will be found that
-his _contre de quarte_ has replaced the blades in the positions they
-occupied previous to your disengagement. You will then have an opening,
-and may finish the attack by the longe.
-
-As all the contre-parades are on the same plan and principle, so are all
-the doubles. Of course, it is understood that you will make all the
-movements of the double _en suite_, and without allowing your
-adversary's blade to overtake yours.
-
-
-ALL FEINTS.
-
-The foregoing movements having been well practised in the lesson, the
-next step is that of _all feints_ and _all parades_, and may be
-practised either with a master or fellow-pupil. The practice consists of
-one pupil standing on the defensive _entirely_, while another assumes
-the offensive, and attacks him with _all_ the _feints_ of which he is
-master, the other, of course, defending with all his parades. It is
-excellent practice, as it accustoms the pupil to think for himself
-gradually, he having thus but one set of movements to think about. He is
-therefore enabled to make them boldly, without having to encounter
-unknown movements from his adversary.
-
-It also enables him to see the extent of his resources, both for attack
-and defence. When he can both attack and defend with some presence of
-mind, he may then begin
-
-
-THE ASSAULT;
-
-that is, he may encounter an adversary, to attack or defend as occasion
-presents. He is then left to his own resources entirely. The following
-
-
-GENERAL ADVICE,
-
-given by a very eminent fencer and excellent teacher, cannot fail to be
-of use:--
-
-"Do not put yourself on the position of the guard within the reach of
-your adversary's thrust, especially at the time of drawing your sword.
-
-"If you are much inferior make no long assaults.
-
-"Do nothing that is useless; every movement should tend to your
-advantage.
-
-"Let your movements be made as much within the line of your adversary's
-body as possible.
-
-"Endeavour both to discover your adversary's designs, and to conceal
-your own.
-
-"Two skilful men, acting together, fight more with their heads than
-their hands.
-
-"The smaller you can make the movements with your foil, the quicker will
-your point arrive at your adversary's body.
-
-"Do not endeavour to give many thrusts on the longe, thus running the
-risk of receiving one in the interim.
-
-"If your adversary drops his foil by accident, or in consequence of a
-smart parade of yours, you should immediately pick it up, and present it
-to him politely.
-
-"Always join blades (if possible) previously to another attack, after a
-hit is given."
-
-
-BROADSWORD.
-
-The principal distinction between the broadsword and the rapier is, that
-the latter is formed only for thrusting, while the former is adapted for
-cutting also. Indeed, those who use the broadsword are, in my opinion,
-too apt to neglect the use of the point, and to give their attention
-almost exclusively to the cuts.
-
-The first lesson in the sword exercise is necessarily to know how to
-stand. The learner should be instructed to perform the different
-movements by word of command, remembering to consider the first parts of
-the word as a caution, and not to stir until the _last_ syllable is
-uttered. At the last syllable, the movement should be performed smartly.
-In giving the word, the instructor always makes a slight pause, in order
-to give his pupils time to remember what they must do. For example, the
-words Draw Swords, is given thus, Draw . . . . . Swords--the word swords
-being spoken smartly, in order that the movement may correspond.
-
-
-POSITIONS.
-
-_First Position._--Make the target[3] about fourteen inches in diameter,
-and place it on the wall, having its centre about four feet from the
-ground. Draw a perpendicular line from the spot at the bottom of the
-target to the ground, and continue it on the floor, in order to ensure
-the proper position of the heels. The learner stands perfectly upright
-opposite the target, with his right side towards it, his heels close
-together, his right toe pointing to the target, and his left foot at
-right angles with the left. His arms must be clasped behind his back,
-his right palm supporting the left elbow, and his left hand grasping the
-right arm just above the elbow. In this position, he must bend both
-knees and sink down as far as possible. This will not be very far at
-first, but he will soon sink down quite easily. See accompanying figure
-(1).
-
- [3] For target, see next page.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 2.]
-
-_Second Position._--This is accomplished by placing the right foot
-smartly in front, about sixteen or fourteen inches before the left. See
-(2). He must accustom himself to balance himself so perfectly on his
-left foot, that he can place the right either before or behind it,
-without losing his balance.
-
-_Third Position._--The third position must then be learned. This
-consists in stepping well forward with the right foot, until the left
-knee is quite straight, and the right knee exactly perpendicularly
-placed over the right foot. Great care must be taken to keep the heels
-exactly in the same line, and the body perfectly upright. See Figure
-(3).
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 3.]
-
-These preliminaries having been settled, the learner stands upright
-before the target, as in (1). A sword is then put into his hand, and the
-target is explained as follows:--
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-TARGET.
-
-The interior lines represent the cuts. Cut one being directed from No. 1
-diagonally through the target, coming out at 4. Cut two is the same,
-only from left to right. Three is made upwards diagonally, and four is
-the same, only in the opposite direction. Cut five is horizontally
-through the target, from right to left, and six from left to right. Cut
-seven is perpendicularly downwards. Care must be taken that the cuts are
-fairly given with the edge.
-
-The swords drawn on the target represent the guards. The seventh guard
-ought, however, not to be made directly across, but must have the point
-directly rather forwards and downwards, as a cut 7 glides off the blade,
-and can be instantly answered either by a thrust or by cut 1.
-
-The two dark circles represent the places where the thrusts take effect.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The learner begins by taking the sword in his right hand, having its
-edge toward the target and its back resting on his shoulder. His right
-arm is bent at right angles, and the elbow against his side. The left
-hand must rest upon the hip, the thumb being to the rear. At the word--
-
-
-CUTS AND GUARDS.
-
-
-CUTS.
-
-_Cut 1._--The young swordsman extends his right arm, and makes the cut
-clear through the target. When the point has cleared the target,
-continue the sweep of the sword, and by a turn of the wrist bring it
-with its back on the left shoulder, its edge towards the left. The arm
-is then ready for
-
-_Cut 2._--Bring the sword from 2 to 3, continue the movement of the
-sword, and turn the wrist so that the point is below the right hip and
-the edge towards the ground.
-
-_Cut 3._--Cut through the target diagonally, bringing the sword from No.
-3 to No. 2, and bring the sword onwards, so that it rests with the edge
-downwards, and point below the left hip. At
-
-_Cut 4._--Cut from 4 to 1, and bring the sword round until its point is
-over the right shoulder, and its edge well to the right.
-
-_Cut 5._--At the word Five, make a horizontal cut from 5 to 6, and sweep
-the sword round until it rests on the left shoulder, with its edge to
-the left, and its point well over the shoulder.
-
-_Cut 6._--Cut horizontally through the target, from 6 to 5, and bring
-the sword over the head, with its edge upwards, and its point hanging
-over the back. From this position,--
-
-_Cut 7._--Make a downward stroke until the sword reaches the centre of
-the target. Arrest it there, and remain with the arm extended, waiting
-for the word
-
-
-POINTS.
-
-_First Point._--Draw back the sword, until the right wrist is against
-the right temple, the edge of the sword being upwards. Make a slight
-pause, and then thrust smartly forward towards the centre of the target,
-raising the right wrist as high as No. 1, and pressing the left shoulder
-well back.
-
-[Illustration: FIRST POINT.]
-
-_Second Point._--Turn the wrist round to the left, so that the edge
-comes upwards, draw the hand back until it rests on the breast, and give
-the point forwards, to the centre of the target, raising the hand as
-before.
-
-[Illustration: SECOND POINT.]
-
-_Third Point._--Give the handle of the sword a slight twist in the hand
-to the right, so that the edge again comes uppermost, and the guard
-rests against the back of the hand. Draw back the hand until it rests
-against the right hip, and deliver it forwards towards the spot at the
-bottom of the target, raising the wrist as high as the spot in the
-centre. The object in raising the wrist is to deceive the eye of the
-opponent, who will be more likely to notice the position of your wrist
-than of your point. In all the thrusts, the left shoulder should be
-rather brought forward before the point is given, and pressed well back
-while it is being delivered.
-
-[Illustration: THIRD POINT.]
-
-
-GUARDS.
-
-Wait after the third point has been delivered for the word
-
-_Defend._--At this word draw up the hand smartly, and form the first
-guard. Make the other guards in succession as they are named, while the
-instructor proves their accuracy by giving the corresponding cuts. The
-guards must be learned from the target, by placing the sword in exactly
-the same position as those delineated. The guards are these:--
-
- A First guard.
- B Second.
- C Third.
- D Fourth.
- E Fifth.
- F Sixth.
- G Seventh.
-
-The two spots H and I mark the places towards which the points are made,
-H for the first and second point, I for the third.
-
-
-PARRY.
-
-The parry or parade of a thrust is executed with the back of the sword.
-The firmest way of parrying is to hold the sword perpendicular, with its
-edge to the right and its hilt about the height of and close to the
-right shoulder; then, by sweeping the sword round from left to right,
-any thrust within its sweep is thrown wide of the body.
-
-The parry is executed with the wrist and not with the arm, which must
-not move.
-
-
-HANGING GUARD.
-
-When the pupil is acquainted with both cuts and guards, he should learn
-the hanging guard, a most useful position, as it keeps the body well
-hidden under the sword, and at the same time leaves the sword in a good
-position to strike or thrust.
-
-It is accomplished in the following way. Step out to the second
-position, as in Figure 2, raise the arm until the hand is just over the
-right foot, and as high as the head. The edge of the sword is upwards,
-and the point is directed downwards and towards the left. The left
-shoulder is pressed rather forward, and the neck and chest drawn inward.
-
-In this position, the swordsman is in a position to receive or make an
-attack as he may think fit. It is rather fatiguing at first, owing to
-the unaccustomed position of the arm and head, but the fatigue is soon
-overcome, and then it will be found that there is no attitude which
-gives equal advantages.
-
-[Illustration: HANGING GUARD.]
-
-There are two other modes of standing on guard, each possessing their
-peculiar advantages. These are, the inside and outside guard. The inside
-guard is made as follows:--
-
-
-INSIDE GUARD.
-
-Stand in the second position, having the wrist of the right hand nearly
-as low as the waist, the hand being exactly over the right foot. The
-point of the sword is raised as high as the eyes, and the edge is turned
-inwards, as will be seen from the accompanying engraving.
-
-[Illustration: INSIDE GUARD.]
-
-
-OUTSIDE GUARD.
-
-The outside guard is formed in the same manner as the inside, with the
-exception that the edge of the sword is turned well outwards.
-
-[Illustration: OUTSIDE GUARD.]
-
-To get to the hanging guard, the words are given as follows:--inside
-guard--outside guard--guard.
-
-
-ATTACK AND DEFENCE.
-
-The swordsman having learned thus far, is taught to combine the three
-movements of striking, thrusting, and guarding, by the following
-exercise:--
-
- 1. Inside Guard.
- 2. Outside Guard.
- 3. Guard.
- 4. Cut One.
- 5. First Guard.
- 6. Cut Two.
- 7. Second Guard.
- 8. Cut Three.
- 9. Third Guard.
- 10. Cut Four.
- 11. Fourth Guard.
- 12. Cut Five.
- 13. Fifth Guard.
- 14. Cut Six.
- 15. Sixth Guard.
- 16. Cut Seven.
- 17. Seventh Guard.
- 18. First Point. [Prepare for the point in First Position.] Two.
- [Thrust in Third Position.]
- 19. Second Point. [Prepare for it in First Position.] Two. [Thrust in
- Third Position.]
- 20. Third Point. [Prepare.] Two. [Thrust.]
- 21. Parry. [Prepare to parry in First Position.] Two. [Parry.]
- 22. Guard.
-
-The young swordsman must remember that in this, as in all the exercises,
-the cuts and points must be given in the third position, as in the
-accompanying illustration, which shows the swordsman just as he has
-delivered the seventh cut, and is waiting for the next word before he
-resumes the first position.
-
-[Illustration: SEVENTH CUT.]
-
-The guards, on the contrary, are given in the first position, as is seen
-in the figure on p. 219, which illustrates the seventh guard.
-
-These exercises are always learned with the single-stick, or
-basket-hilted cudgel, in order to avoid the dangers which would be
-inevitable if the sword were used. But as the single-stick is only an
-imitation of the sword, I will give the method of getting the sword out
-of the sheath into any position required.
-
-
-DRAW SWORDS.
-
-The first word of command is _draw swords_. At the word _draw_, seize
-the sheath just below the hilt, with the left hand, and raise the hilt
-as high as the hip, at the same time grasping the hilt with the right
-hand, turning the edge of the sword to the rear, and drawing it
-partially from the sheath, to ensure its easy removal.
-
-[Illustration: SEVENTH GUARD.]
-
-At the word _swords_, draw the blade smartly out of the scabbard,
-throwing the point upwards, at the full extent of the arm, the edge
-being still to the rear.
-
-
-RECOVER SWORDS.
-
-The wrist is now smartly lowered until it is level with the chin, the
-blade upright, and the edge to the left. This is the position of recover
-swords. The elbow must be kept close to the body, as in the cut.
-
-[Illustration: RECOVER SWORDS.]
-
-
-CARRY SWORDS.
-
-The wrist is now sharply lowered until the arm hangs at its full length,
-the wrist being in the line with the hip, the edge of the sword to the
-front, and its back resting in the hollow of the shoulder, the fingers
-lightly holding the hilt. The left hand hangs at the side until the word
-_inside guard_, when it is placed on the left hip.
-
-
-SLOPE SWORDS.
-
-At the word _swords_, raise the right hand smartly, until it forms a
-right angle at the elbow.
-
-
-RETURN SWORDS.
-
-At the word, raise the blade until it is perpendicular, move the hilt to
-the hollow of the left shoulder, drop the point of the sword into the
-scabbard (which has been grasped by the left hand and slightly raised,)
-at the same time turning the edge to the rear. Pause an instant, and
-send the sword smartly into the sheath, removing both hands as the hilt
-strikes against the mouth of the scabbard: drop them to the side, with
-the palms outwards, and stand in the first position.
-
-
-PRACTICES.
-
-There are many exercises with the broadsword, called _Practices_. I have
-given one of them, which is to be practised alone; but when the pupil
-has attained some confidence in the use of his weapon, he must be placed
-opposite another pupil, and they must go through them, each taking the
-attack and defence in turn.
-
-The young swordsman must be provided with a very stout wire mask, which
-defends the face and part of the neck, and which should be worked in a
-kind of helmet above, to guard against the disastrous consequences of
-receiving the seventh guard. No practices, loose or otherwise, should be
-permitted without the masks, as neither party would be able to cut or
-thrust with proper confidence.
-
-
-SECOND PRACTICE.
-
-This is very useful in teaching the point and parry, as well as giving
-steadiness on the feet. Two boys are placed opposite each other, at just
-such a distance, that when perfectly erect they can touch the hilt of
-their adversary's sword with the point of their own.
-
-The one who gives the first point is called Front Rank, (there may be a
-dozen in each rank, each having tried the distance to his right by
-extending his sword,) and the one who gives first parry is called Rear
-Rank.
-
- WORD OF COMMAND. FRONT RANK. REAR RANK.
-
- Guard. Hanging Guard. Hanging Guard.
-
- Third Point. Prepare to give Third Point. Prepare to Parry.
-
- Point. {Give Third Point, and when } Parry Third Point,
- {parried spring back to First } and prepare to
- {Position, and prepare to parry.} give Third Point.
-
- Point. {Parry Third Point, and prepare } Give Third Point,
- {for Third Point. } and prepare to
- { } Parry.
-
- Point, &c. &c.
-
-This should be continued until both are weary. Both swordsmen should
-learn to do it more rapidly every time they practise. Next time of going
-through it, front rank and rear rank change places, as they must do in
-all the practices.
-
-
-THIRD PRACTICE.
-
- WORD OF COMMAND. FRONT RANK. REAR RANK.
- Guard. Hanging Guard. Hanging Guard.
- Leg. Cut Four. Cut Seven.
- Inside Guard. Inside Guard. Inside Guard.
- Leg. Cut Six [at Leg]. Cut Six [at Neck].
- Outside Guard. Outside Guard. Outside Guard.
- Leg. Cut Five [at Leg]. Cut Five [at Neck].
- Guard. Hanging Guard. Hanging Guard.
- Slope Swords. Slope Swords. Slope Swords.
-
-In this and the other practices, the cuts must be delivered in the
-third position, and the guards in the first. In the third and fourth
-practices, the cuts must be given lightly, as many of them are not
-intended to be guarded, but merely to show the powers of the sword in
-various positions.
-
-
-FOURTH PRACTICE.
-
- WORD OF COMMAND. FRONT RANK. REAR RANK.
- Guard. Hanging Guard. Hanging Guard.
- Head. Seventh Cut. Seventh Guard.
- Head. Seventh Guard. Cut Seven.
- Leg. Fourth Cut. Seventh Guard.
- Leg. Seventh Guard. Fourth Cut.
- Head. Seventh Cut. Seventh Guard.
- Head. Seventh Guard. Seventh Cut.
- Guard. Hanging Guard. Hanging Guard.
- Slope Swords. Slope Swords. Slope Swords.
-
-In this and the preceding exercise, the power of shifting the leg is
-shown. If two swordsmen attack each other, and No. 1 strikes at the leg
-of No. 2, it will be better for No. 2 not to oppose the cut by the third
-or fourth guard, but to draw back the leg smartly, and cut six or seven
-at the adversary's head or neck.
-
-In loose play, as it is called, _i. e._ when two parties engage with
-swords without following any word of command, but strike and guard as
-they can, both players stand in the second position, because they can
-either advance or retreat as they choose, and can longe out to the third
-position for a thrust or a cut, or spring up to the first position for a
-guard with equal ease.
-
-It is often a kind of trap, to put the right leg more forward than
-usual, in order to induce the adversary to make a cut at it. When he
-does so, the leg is drawn back, the stroke passes harmless, and the
-deceived striker gets the stick of his opponent on his head or
-shoulders.
-
-We now come to a very complicated exercise, called the
-
-
-FIFTH PRACTICE.
-
- WORD OF COMMAND. FRONT RANK. REAR RANK.
- Draw Swords. Draw Swords. Draw Swords.
- Inside Guard. Inside Guard. Inside Guard.
- Outside Guard. Outside Guard. Outside Guard.
- Guard. Hanging Guard. Hanging Guard.
- Head. Seventh Cut. Seventh Guard.
- Head. Seventh Guard. Seventh Cut.
- Arm. Second Cut [at Arm]. Second Guard.
- Head. Seventh Guard. Seventh Cut.
- Head. Seventh Cut. Seventh Guard.
- Arm. Second Guard. Second Cut [at Arm].
- Head. Seventh Cut. Seventh Guard.
- Head. Seventh Guard. Seventh Cut.
- Right Side. Sixth Cut. Sixth Guard.
- Head. Seventh Guard. Seventh Cut.
- Head. Seventh Cut. Seventh Guard.
- Right Side. Sixth Guard. Sixth Cut.
- Guard. Hanging Guard. Hanging Guard.
-
-This practice is capital exercise, and looks very imposing. All these
-practices ought to be so familiar, that the words of command are not
-needed, the only word required being First, Second, or Third Practices,
-as the case may be.
-
-I remember once, that two of my pupils had attained such a mastery of
-their weapons, that we used often to go through the practices with real
-swords. On one occasion, we were acting a charade, and my eldest pupil
-and myself were enacting the part of two distinguished foreigners
-(country unknown) who were to get up a fight. So we began by a little
-quarrel, and finally drew our swords and set hard to work at the fifth
-practice, which we could do with extreme rapidity, and without the use
-of words of command. The spectators were horrified, and the ladies
-greatly alarmed; for there seems to be no particular order in that
-practice, and an inexperienced eye would certainly fancy that the
-combatants were in earnest.
-
-
-FORT AND FEEBLE.
-
-The half of the sword blade next the hilt is called the "fort," because
-it is the strongest place on which the cut of an adversary can be
-received. Always parry and guard with the fort of your sword, as, if you
-try to guard a cut with the "feeble," which is the remaining half of the
-blade, your guard will be forced, and the cut take effect.
-
-
-DRAWING CUT.
-
-The drawing cut is made best with a curved sword, and is executed by
-placing the edge of the sword on the object, and drawing it over it
-until it is severed. A good large mangel worzel is capital practice.
-Place the root loose on a table, stand at arm's length from it, lay the
-edge of the sword lightly on it, and slice the root by repeatedly
-drawing the sword over it. This is very difficult, although it looks
-easy enough, and is sure to jar the arm from the wrist to the shoulder
-the first time or two, while the sword glides off as if the root were
-cased in polished steel. However, a little practice will soon overcome
-the difficulty. This cut is much in use among the Sikhs.
-
-
-GENERAL ADVICE.
-
-Never look at your own sword, but watch the eye and sword wrist of your
-opponent.
-
-Remember that the great point in this exercise, as in fencing, is to
-gain time. Endeavour, therefore, to advance your point nearer your
-adversary than his is to you.
-
-Begin the assault out of distance, so that neither party can complain of
-being taken by surprise.
-
-If the two parties exchange a cut or a thrust at the same moment, the
-one who gave his cut or thrust in the third position is victorious.
-
-When a cut or thrust is made, the one who receives it passes his sword,
-_i. e._ stick, into his left hand, and his opponent comes to inside
-guard.
-
-Always spring back to the second position after delivering a cut or
-thrust.
-
-Keep the line of direction carefully, or you will leave an open space
-for the adversary to get his sword into.
-
-Last and most important, Don't lose your temper.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-FIVES.
-
-It is impossible to play at this excellent game unless there be a high
-wall, free from abutments, and a smooth, dry, paved ground before it.
-When this can be procured, a line is drawn on the wall, about 38 inches
-from the ground; another line is drawn on the ground, about 10 feet from
-the wall, A; and two others are drawn on each side as boundaries, B C.
-The instruments used in the play are a ball of tightly-sewn leather and
-a fives-bat. It has a long handle, and an oval bowl of wood. The ball is
-hard, rebounding, small, and white. The game may be played by two or
-four people; in the last case, two on each side. The method of play is
-as follows:--The game may be played either single-handed or with
-partners. When it is played with partners, the players toss up for
-innings. The first player takes the ball, and strikes it against the
-wall with his bat _above the line on the wall_, and so that it may fall
-_without the line on the ground_. The other then strikes it, and the
-players continue to hit it against the wall, either before it comes to
-the ground or at the first bounce, until one of them missing it, or
-driving it out of bounds, or beneath the wall-line, loses or goes out.
-Of course the ball may fall anywhere within the side boundaries, after
-being once struck up by the player who is in. The game is usually
-fifteen, but is sometimes extended to twenty-five. The game above
-described is that known as bat-fives, and differs little from the game
-of rackets, except that it may be played in any open court, and that a
-differently-shaped bat and a larger ball are employed. Fives was
-originally played with the hand, instead of a racket, and in the
-fourteenth century was called Hand Tennis in England, and in France,
-Palm Play. It is said to have obtained the name of Fives, from ten of
-the Earl of Hertford's servants having played before Queen Elizabeth,
-five of a side; but more probably on account of the five fingers of the
-hand. This game of "hand-fives" is the one ordinarily played by boys,
-and known technically as "fives." The ball is hit against the wall
-entirely by the hand, and no bat of any description is used. The game
-may be played by two or more people, and is usually fifteen. Players
-with tender hands usually play with an ordinary kid or padded glove,
-either of which is quite admissible. There are variations of the game at
-different schools, owing to peculiarities in the shape of the courts. At
-Eton, for instance, a buttress of the chapel abuts into the court, and
-the Eton courts at Oxford are made on a similar plan. But the game as
-ordinarily played is that as described above.
-
-
-FOOT-BALL.
-
-Uncertain as to the date of its origin, there is no English game which
-is at once so popular and about which so much difference of opinion
-exists. All agree as to its manly character, its capabilities for
-endurance, activity, hardihood, and strategical skill, but there are
-very few who agree entirely as to the rules by which the game should be
-played.
-
-In ancient records there is no mention of the game before the reign of
-Edward III.; and at that period it seems to have been so popular that by
-royal edict it was put down, as being antagonistic to the royal
-amusement of archery. But that it flourished, and flourished
-considerably, beyond that date, there is no doubt. In many market-towns
-of England and Scotland, and notably in that of Kingston-on-Thames, all
-business is suspended on Shrove Tuesday, and a great game of foot-ball
-is played in the market-place. All is officially conducted, and the
-mayor is honoured with the privilege of "kick-off."
-
-It would seem a pity at first sight that there is no authority like that
-of the Marylebone Club to revise the laws of foot-ball and insist upon
-their being observed in all places where the game is played. Foot-ball
-as now constituted is not, and cannot be, a national game. There are
-hardly two schools in England that agree in its first principles, and
-that are not continually wrangling and disputing as to how the game
-should be played. To touch the ball with the hands is in some eyes a
-heresy, and in others an uncommon virtue. Some schools advocate running
-with the ball, while others consider such licence as antagonistic to the
-proper principles and well-being of the game. And, indeed, looking round
-at the various head-quarters of foot-ball in England, it really does
-seem a difficult matter to reconcile the games as now played so as to
-suit all tastes. Rugby and Eton foot-ball can hardly be looked upon as
-the same game.
-
-[Illustration: FOOTBALL.]
-
-We have one set of people advocating the employment of only eleven, or
-at most twenty, players on a side, and another maintaining that a
-hundred or so on a side matters little. We have one school playing the
-game against a brick wall, another using boundaries of canvas, another
-dashing the ball about in narrow cloisters, and another marshalling a
-little army of players, with regularly organized back and forward
-players, reserve forces, vanguard, scouts, runners, all of whom have
-their direct influence on the fate and fortunes of the game.
-
-The great essentials for foot-ball are pluck, endurance, and good
-temper. Half the disputes at foot-ball which are ascribed to "hacking"
-and "shinning" would not have occurred had good temper been observed. No
-one "hacks" or "shins" wilfully, except he loses his temper; and a
-player in foot-ball, as in other games, who cannot keep his temper is
-unfit in every way to enjoy the game. As a match at foot-ball is now
-made, two parties, containing any number of competitors, take the field,
-and, having tossed up for sides, stand between two goals, placed at a
-distance of some eighty yards apart. The party that loses the toss has
-the privilege of "kick-off." The goal is marked by two upright poles,
-driven into the ground about ten yards apart. The ball, which used
-formerly to be made of a blown bladder, is now made of an inflated
-vulcanized india-rubber case, inclosed again in a case of laced and
-well-sewn leather. The object of each party is to drive the ball through
-the goal of their antagonists. The skill of the players is best employed
-in attacking and defending the goals.
-
-In the game of football the fewer the rules, and the simpler those rules
-are, the better. The great "bone of contention" with lovers of the game
-is, as to whether players should be allowed to touch the ball with their
-hands or not. Eton and Westminster players will be arguing for ever that
-the game is foot-ball, and not _hand_-ball; while Rugbæans, on the other
-hand, will contend that without the use of the hands as well as the feet
-the game is robbed of one of its principal charms. In the following
-rules a medium course is advocated, as, while nothing looks so bad as to
-see a lazy or inactive player, who does not care to follow the ball,
-playing fives with it whenever it comes within his reach, it would be
-equally absurd to stop a player who catches the ball fairly either on
-the full or first bound from running a yard or so with it in his hands,
-in order to allow him to get up the necessary impetus for a strong
-drop-kick. With regard also to "off-side," it is essentially necessary
-that some clear and definite rules should be laid down. What can
-possibly look worse than to see a player, again one of those who are too
-indolent to "follow up" the ball, coolly stand in the middle of the
-course, or, worse still, at the very door of his neighbour's goal,
-waiting until the ball is kicked up to him, in order that he, fresh and
-full of wind as he is, may follow it in to the goal? It is hoped that
-the following rules may give general satisfaction, and prevent disputes
-and obstacles:--
-
-1. A goal may be obtained by a fair full kick or drop-kick off the hand,
-provided the ball goes over the bar which runs between the goal-posts;
-or a goal may be obtained by a fair foot-ball "bulley," which sends the
-ball through all obstacles anywhere between the posts.
-
-2. The foot-ball course must be marked by side boundaries. When the ball
-is kicked outside these boundaries, a player of either side may kick it
-into the course again in a straight line from where it went out.
-
-3. A player who shall not have been behind the last player on his own
-side who kicked the ball shall be considered "off his side."
-
-4. No player who shall be "off his side" shall be allowed to kick the
-ball until it shall have touched one of the opposite side, when he
-becomes on his side again, and may join in the game.
-
-5. A player who obtains a fair catch of the ball, either full or on the
-first bound, may take a short run, in order to obtain a "drop-kick," or
-may kick it at once full off his hands.
-
-6. Any player of the opposite side may use his best endeavours to
-prevent a drop or full kick after a fair catch.
-
-7. No "holding" must be allowed at any period of the game.
-
-8. No "shinning" or "hacking" is to be allowed.
-
-9. At the commencement of the game the captains of each side shall
-determine mutually how long the game is to last.
-
-10. At the end of the time, no matter in what position the game is, one
-of the captains shall cry "no game," and the game shall immediately
-cease.
-
-
-GOLFING.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Golfing is played with a club and ball. The club is from three to four
-feet long, according to the height and length of arm of the player. It
-is curved and massive towards the end, to give strength and weight. This
-knob is formed for strength from some very tough wood, as beech, and as
-it curves and proceeds upwards is planed off, so as to adapt itself to
-the handle, to which it is partly glued and tightly corded down. A want
-of due attention to these particulars in the making of it will render
-the head liable to split and fly off by either a very hard or indirect
-stroke. The face of the club is further secured by a piece of hard bone,
-and occasionally of ivory, at least half an inch thick. It is also
-loaded with from four to six ounces of lead, according to the will of
-the player. The handle is usually bound with cord, list, or velvet, at
-the pleasure of the owner. It is, however, to be remembered, that the
-form of the club, the materials of which it is made, and the numbers
-taken to the golfing ground, vary considerably, according to the
-circumstances and habits of the players, the attendant cad or caddie
-having usually many varieties, to suit every peculiarity under which the
-ball may be placed; for in many clubs it can never be touched by the
-hand until holed.
-
-The golf ball is about the size of an egg, and is made very hard. It is
-composed of stout leather, which, having been previously soaked in
-boiling water, allows of its being first very firmly sewed, and then
-turned inside out, leaving a small opening only, by which it is very
-forcibly stuffed with feathers. The leather being yet wet, it contracts
-into a ball of the dimensions stated, but never gets circular, as that
-used in the game of cricket. It is afterwards painted over with several
-coats of white paint; in doing which it is requisite that the lead used
-should be very pure and exceedingly well ground down, as well as that
-each coat laid on should be perfectly dry and hard before another is
-applied.
-
-The game is played by two or more persons, so that there be an equal
-number on each side; but only two balls are used, one belonging to each
-party, each party also striking in turn: but if the last striker does
-not drive his ball as far as that of his opponent, one of his party must
-then strike one, or perhaps two more, and the game is thus marked by
-calling out one, two, or three more, as the case may be. If more than
-two are playing, the same person does not strike twice in succession: a
-miss is considered one. The party who puts the ball into the hole in the
-fewest strokes wins the game.
-
-The grounds used for this sport vary in different parts of Scotland.
-Some are nearly square, in which case a hole is made in each corner; but
-if it be irregular in figure, it is not uncommon to place one at each
-angle, so that the party shall traverse the whole surface, and finish at
-the spot from whence he started; a quarter of a mile being usually
-allowed between each hole. Besides the stick, or club, already
-described, there are others, usually carried by an attendant for each
-party. These are called, by way of distinction, putters--of which,
-however, there are several sorts, one being short, stiff, and heavy,
-similar in figure, but longer on the head, for making a steady and
-direct stroke when near the hole. Another, formed of iron, instead of
-wood, is used for making a hit at a ball when very unfavourably placed,
-as in a rut, where the common club would be in danger of breaking. When
-a ball falls into a hole or rut, from which it is impossible to strike
-it out, the party is allowed, by a special agreement, in some clubs, to
-take it out with his hand, and throw it up in a line with the spot,
-which is accounted as one, and he then strikes from where it chances to
-rest; but, as already observed, this indulgence does not extend to every
-Golfing Society.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-GYMNASTICS.
-
-
-INTRODUCTION.
-
-The study of Gymnastics is of the utmost importance to young persons, as
-its object is to call into exercise, and to train to perfection, all the
-corporeal or bodily powers. It is the education of the limbs, joints,
-and muscles; and includes not only the systematic training of these, but
-also assists the sciences of riding, driving, wrestling, rowing,
-sailing, skating, swimming, &c.
-
-In the following gymnastic exercises we have determined to introduce
-only those more simple and useful feats which may be said to make up the
-"Alphabet of the Science," and all the individual and progressive
-exercises are susceptible of being everywhere introduced. They may be
-performed in very small spaces, and require no particular preparation,
-expense, or place. By attention to the directions any pupil between the
-ages of twelve and sixteen may train and exercise himself, and a number
-of other children younger than himself; and this excellent study may
-thus become a source of amusement and delight.
-
-[Illustration: GYMNASTICS.]
-
-
-HISTORICAL MEMORANDA.
-
-The first gymnasium is said to have been established at Sparta, and some
-years afterwards at Athens. In the former city the exercises partook of
-a rude military character; but among the Athenians, who were always
-disposed to mingle the elements of the beautiful in whatever they
-undertook, gymnastics were refined, and the Gymnasia became temples of
-the Graces. In each there was a place called Palæstra, in which
-wrestling, boxing, running, leaping, throwing the discus, and other
-exercises of the kind were taught. Gymnastics were afterwards divided
-into two principal branches--the _Palæstræ_, taking its name from the
-Palæstra, and the _Orchestræ_. The former embraced the whole class of
-athletic exercises; the latter dancing, and the art of gesticulation and
-declamation.
-
-The Gymnasia were spacious edifices, surrounded by gardens and a sacred
-grove. Their principal parts were: 1. The Portices, furnished with seats
-and side buildings, where the youths met to converse. 2. The Ephebeion,
-that part of the edifice where the youth alone exercised. 3. The
-Apodyterion, or undressing room to the Conisterium, or small court in
-which was kept the yellow kind of sand sprinkled by the wrestlers over
-their bodies after being anointed with the aroma, or oil tempered with
-wax. 5. The Palæstra properly was the place for wrestling. 6. The
-Sphæristerium, where the game of ball was played. 7. Aliterium, where
-the wrestlers anointed themselves with oil. 8. The Area or great court,
-where running, leaping, and pitching the quoit were performed. 9. The
-Xysta, open walks in which the youths exercised themselves in running.
-10. The Balanea, or baths. Behind the Xysta lay the Stadium, which, as
-its name imports, was the eighth of a mile in length; and in this were
-performed all sorts of exercises, in the presence of large numbers of
-persons and the chiefs of the state.
-
-To all these branches of gymnastics the Grecian youth applied themselves
-with peculiar eagerness, and on quitting the schools devoted to them a
-particular portion of their time, since they regarded them as a
-preparation for victory in the Olympic and other games, and as the best
-possible means for promoting health and ripening the physical powers;
-nor could anything be better adapted for those whose heroism was
-liberty, and whose first great aims were to be good citizens and the
-defenders of their country.
-
-The Romans never made gymnastics a national matter, but considered them
-merely as preparatory to the military service; and, though forming a
-part of the exhibitions at festivals, they were practised only by a
-particular class trained for brutal entertainments, at which large bets
-were laid by the spectators, as is still the custom on our own
-racecourse: but when all the acquisitions of the human intellect were
-lost in the utter corruption of the Roman empire and the irruptions of
-wandering nations, the gymnastic art perished.
-
-
-MODERN GYMNASTICS.
-
-The commencement of tournaments during the Dark Ages in some degree
-revived athletic exercises; but the invention of gunpowder, the use of
-the small sword, the rifle, and scientific tactics, by which battles
-were gained more by skill than force, kept down the training of the body
-for athletic feats. But in the last century, when men broke loose from
-the yoke of authority, and education began to be studied, it was found
-that physical education had been forgotten. Salzmann, a German
-clergyman, invented a system of physical exercises, principally confined
-to running, leaping, swimming, climbing, and balancing; and at the
-commencement of the present century a German of the name of Volker
-established the first gymnasium in London, while Captain Clias, a Swiss,
-established one in the Royal Military Asylum; and since then many of the
-best schools and colleges have a gymnasium attached to their
-establishments.
-
-It generally happens that the pupils of a gymnasium, after a time, lose
-their interest in the exercises. The reason of this appears to be that
-little or no difference is made in the exercises of different ages, and
-it is natural that an exercise repeated for years should become
-wearisome. Gymnastics, therefore, when they are taught, should be
-divided into two courses. In the first course we would include walking
-and pedestrian excursions, elementary exercises of various tests,
-running, leaping in height, in length, in depth, leaping with a pole (in
-length and height), vaulting, balancing, exercises on the single and
-parallel bars, climbing, throwing, dragging, pushing, lifting, carrying,
-wrestling, jumping (1. with the hoop; 2. with the rope), exercises with
-the dumb bells, various gymnastic feats or games; and, lastly, swimming,
-skating, fencing, riding on horseback, rowing, &c.
-
-Gymnastic exercises may be begun by a boy of about eight years of age,
-or may be commenced at any age; but in all cases he should begin gently,
-and proceed gradually, without any abrupt transitions. They should be
-commenced before breakfast in the morning, or before dinner or supper;
-but never immediately after meals: and the pupil should be very careful,
-after becoming heated by exercises, of draughts or cold, and especially
-refrain from lying on the damp ground, or from standing without his coat
-or other garments; and rigidly guard against the dangerous practice of
-drinking cold water, which, in many instances, has been known to produce
-immediate death.
-
-
-WALKING.
-
-In all gymnastic exercises walking, running, and jumping deserve the
-preference, because they are the most natural movements of man, and
-those which he has most frequent occasion to use. This exercise, within
-the reach of everybody, ought to be placed among the number of those
-which are direct conservators of health, and which have the most
-important beneficial effects upon our mental and moral economy. Walking
-provokes appetite, assists digestion, accelerates the circulation,
-brings the fluids to the skin, strengthens the memory, and gives
-cheerfulness to the mind, and in fatiguing the limbs gives repose to the
-senses and the brain.
-
-It might be supposed that every one knows how to walk: not so, however;
-some persons crawl, some hobble, some shuffle along. Few have the
-graceful noble movement that ought to belong to progression, or, however
-well formed, preserve a really erect position and an air of becoming
-confidence and dignity. To teach walking--that is to say, to teach young
-persons to walk properly--we should advise a class of them to unite,
-that they may be able to teach themselves, which they may readily do if
-they follow the instructions given below.
-
-A company of boys being formed, the eldest, or the one best adapted to
-the task, should act as captain, and at the word of command, "Fall in,"
-all the boys are to advance on the same line, preserving between each
-the distance of about an arm's length. At the word "Dress" each boy
-places his right hand on the left shoulder of the next, extending his
-arm at full length, and turning his head to the right. At the word
-"Attention" the arms fall down by the side, and the head returns to the
-first position. The captain should now place his little regiment in the
-following manner:--1. The head up. 2. The shoulders back. 3. The body
-erect. 4. The stomach in. 5. The knees straight, the heels on the same
-line. 6. The toes turned very slightly outwards. The captain now stands
-before his men, and advancing his left foot, his knee straight, and his
-toe inclined towards the ground, he counts one, two, placing his boot on
-the ground, the toe before the heel; he then directs his pupils to obey
-him, and to follow his motions, and says, "March," when each foot is
-advanced simultaneously, till he gives the word "Halt." He then makes
-them advance, wheel to the right and left, in slow time, quick time,
-always observing the position of the body, and requiring that they move
-all together.
-
-
-THE TIP-TOE MARCH.
-
-This movement is preparatory to running and jumping. The boys being in
-line, the word "On tip-toes" is given: each boy places his hands on his
-sides, and waits for the word, "Rise;" when they all gently raise
-themselves on their toes, joining their heels together, and keeping the
-knees straight, remain in this position till the word "Rest" is given,
-when they fall back slightly on their heels, their hands at the same
-time falling down by their sides. Proceeding in this manner through a
-few courses, with such changes as may present themselves, the pupils
-will soon acquire a habit of graceful walking, of the highest
-importance to every one who studies a gentlemanly bearing.
-
-
-RUNNING.
-
-Running is both useful and natural; it favours the development of the
-chest, dilates the lungs, and, when moderate, is a highly salutary
-exercise. To run fast and gracefully one should as it were graze the
-ground with the feet, by keeping the legs as straight as possible whilst
-moving them forward. During the course the upper part of the body is
-inclined a little forward, the arms are as it were glued to the sides,
-and turned in at the point of the hips, the hands shut, and the nails
-turned inwards. The faults in running are swinging the arms, raising the
-legs too high behind, taking too large strides, bending the knees too
-much, and in not properly managing their wind. In all running exercises
-the young should begin gradually, and never run themselves out of breath
-at any time. By careful practice a boy may soon acquire the power of
-running a mile in ten minutes; this is called moderate running: in what
-is called prompt running a thousand yards in two minutes is thought very
-good work, and in quick running 600 yards in a minute is considered
-good. The first distance that children, from eight to ten years of age,
-may be made to run is about 200 yards; the second, for those more
-advanced, 300 yards; and the third, for adults, 400 yards. It is however
-most essential, that in running boys should not over-tax their strength
-or "wind." We are not all constituted alike, and a boy who could last
-for 200 yards or so might injure himself considerably by racing for a
-mile.
-
-
-JUMPING.
-
-Of all the corporeal exercises jumping is one of the most useful; and
-during our lives very many instances occur of a good jump having done us
-essential service. To jump with grace and assurance one should always
-fall on the toes, taking care especially to bend the knees on the hips:
-the upper part of the body should be inclined forwards, and the arms
-extended towards the ground. The hands should serve to break the fall
-when jumping from a great height. In jumping we should hold the breath
-and never alight on the heels. Boys should exercise themselves in
-jumping, by jumping in length, and jumping from a height, with attention
-to the above cautions. They may make progressive exercises in _length_
-by varying the distance from time to time, and in height by jumping from
-a flight of stairs or steps, increasing a step at a time: they will soon
-be able to jump in length three yards, and from a height six feet,
-without injury.
-
-
-LEAPING.
-
-Leaping is somewhat different to what is called jumping, as the object
-is to pass over an obstacle; and, as in jumping, it is of great
-importance to draw in the breath, while the hands should be shut, the
-arms pendent, to operate after the manner of a fly-wheel or pendulum. It
-may be practised by a leaping stand, which can be easily made of two
-sticks or stakes sunk in the ground, in which little catches are made at
-various distances, on which an even piece may be laid, that may readily
-be knocked over, so as to offer no resistance to the jumper, and injure
-him by an ugly fall.
-
-The principal exercises in leaping are:--1. The high leap without a run.
-2. The high leap with a run. 3. The long leap without a run. 4. And the
-long leap with a run. In the first of these the legs and feet are
-closed, the knees are bent till the calves nearly touch the thighs, and
-the arms are thrown in the direction of the leap, which increases the
-impulse. This leap may be practised at the following progressive
-heights,--eighteen inches, twenty-four inches, thirty-two inches,
-forty-eight inches, which last is perhaps what few lads would attain.
-
-_The high leap with a run._--The run should never exceed twelve paces,
-the distance between the point of springing and the obstacle to leap
-over to be about three-fifths the height of the obstacle from the
-ground; and in making it the leaper should go fairly and straightly over
-without veering to the side, and descend on the ball of the foot just
-beyond the toes. The heights that may be cleared by the running leap
-vary from three to six feet. A good leaper of sixteen years old ought to
-leap four feet six inches, and an extraordinarily good leaper five feet.
-Adults well trained will leap six, and some have been known to leap
-seven feet.
-
-_The long leap without a run._--The long leap may be marked out from
-four to eight feet, according to the agility and strength of the leaper;
-and the object to be cleared, a small block of wood, which should in
-this kind of leap be never more than six inches high, placed midway. In
-leaping the body is bent forward, the feet are closed, the arms first
-sway forwards, then backwards, and then forwards at the moment of taking
-the leap. In this kind of leap ten or twelve feet is considered good
-work.
-
-_The long leap with a run._--The run should be on firm level ground. The
-body should be inclined forward, and the run consist of about twelve
-paces, a small block of wood, as before, being placed mid distance in
-the leap. The spring should be principally on the right foot, and the
-arms should be thrown forwards at the time of the leap. In descending,
-if the leap be a very long one, the leaper should descend principally
-upon his toes; if the leap be not very long, he may descend on the balls
-of the toes. The leap is considered good if fifteen feet be cleared, but
-twenty may be done by a good leaper, and one or two individuals have
-fairly reached twenty-three feet.
-
-_Vaulting._--Vaulting is performed by springing over some stationary
-body, such as a gate or bar, by the aid of the hands, which bear upon
-it. To perform it, the vaulter may approach the bar with a slight run,
-and placing his hands upon it, heave himself up and throw his legs
-obliquely over it. The legs should be kept close together: while the
-body is in suspension over the bar, the right hand supports and guides
-it, while the left is free. The vaulter may commence this exercise with
-a bar or a stile three feet high, and extend it gradually to six feet.
-
-_Leaping with a Pole._--A great variety of leaps may be practised with a
-pole, which should be of a sufficient length, and shod at one end with
-iron, so as to take hold of the ground. The leaper should grasp with his
-right hand that part of the pole a little below the level of his head,
-and with his left that part of it just below the level of his hips; he
-should then make a slight run, and, placing the pole on the ground, take
-a spring forward, and swing himself slightly round, so that when he
-alights the fall may be brought towards the place from which he rose.
-
-The pole is also employed in both long and deep leaps. In both of these
-the mode of holding the pole is similar; but in leaping from a height
-the pole should be grasped at the level of the knee, and then the
-leaper, with a slight circular swing, should descend on the balls of his
-toes.
-
-
-TO CLIMB UP A BOARD.
-
-This should be firmly fixed at an angle of thirty degrees. The climber
-should seize both sides with his hands, and place his feet in the middle
-on the soles. This will teach him to hold firm by his hands, and to
-cling with his feet. As the climber gets used to this exercise, the
-angle of the board may be increased. The young gymnast can ascend when
-the plank is perfectly perpendicular. A pole may be mounted in the same
-manner.
-
-
-CLIMBING THE POLE.
-
-The pole should be about nine inches in diameter, and firmly fixed in
-the ground in a perpendicular position. In mounting, the pole is to be
-grasped firmly with both hands, the right above the left. The legs are
-alternately to grasp the pole in the ascent by means of the great toe,
-which is turned towards the pole. In descending, the friction is to be
-thrown on the inner part of the thighs, and the hands are left
-comparatively free.
-
-Climbing the mast is similar to climbing the pole; but in this exercise
-the climber is unable to grasp it with his hands, but holds it in his
-arms: the position of the legs is the same as for the pole.
-
-
-CLIMBING THE ROPE.
-
-In climbing the rope, it is firmly grasped by the hands, which are
-placed one above the other, and so moved alternately. The heels are
-crossed over the rope, which is held fast by their pressure, the body
-being supported principally by them. In the sailor's method the rope
-passes from the hands round the inside of the thigh, under the
-knee-joint, over the outside of the leg, and across the instep. But the
-enterprising gymnast will not be satisfied until he can climb the rope
-by his hands only, allowing the rest of his body to hang freely
-suspended.
-
-
-CLIMBING TREES.
-
-In climbing trees the hands, and feet, and knees, are all to be used;
-but the climber should never forget that it is to the hands that he has
-to trust. He should carefully look upwards and select the branches for
-his hands, and the knobs and other excrescences of the trees for his
-feet. He should also mark the best openings for the advance of his body.
-He should also be particularly cautious in laying hold of withered
-branches, or those that have suffered decay at their junction with the
-body of the tree, in consequence of the growth of moss, or through the
-effects of wet. In descending, he should be more cautious than in
-ascending, and hold fast by his hands. He should rarely slide down by a
-branch to the ground, as distances are very ill-calculated from the
-branches of a tree.
-
-
-THE GIANT STRIDE, OR FLYING STEPS, AND ITS CAPABILITIES.
-
-The valuable and invigorating apparatus which is called the Giant Stride
-in some places, and the Flying Steps in others, is to be found in many
-schools where an inclosed open-air playground can be secured. Excepting
-on a few occasions, or when the charm of novelty induces the boys to
-exercise, it is seldom in much favour, and is usually seen idle, with
-the ironwork rusting, the beam rotting, and the ropes yielding to
-exposure.
-
-In fact, it really seems as if the masters and teachers were doing their
-best to weaken their apparatus, and to cause a severe accident whenever
-it breaks down, as such is always the case, sooner or later. The rusty
-iron gives way to a harder pull than usual, the ropes snap, or the
-upright post breaks off level with the ground, and falls with dreadful
-force. We knew of a boy being killed by such an accident, and in
-consequence the parents of the other pupils laid the blame on the Giant
-Stride itself, instead of on those who allowed it to get into such a
-state of decay.
-
-Boys, too, soon get tired of it; they take hold of the ropes, run round
-a few times, and then leave it, naturally, seeing no interest in such a
-proceeding. But in reality the Giant Stride is a most useful article in
-the muscular education, as it exercises at the same time the arms and
-legs, is capital for the lungs, and strengthens those invaluable muscles
-about the loins which we so sadly neglect, and by reason of whose
-weakness many dangerous injuries occur to young and old.
-
-There is something most fascinating in the exercises that can be
-achieved on this apparatus; the gymnast seems to be almost endowed with
-wings, and in his aërial course hardly touches the ground with his toes,
-flying, like feathered Mercury, through the air, and literally basking
-in the pure element. The common posture of holding the bars close to the
-breast, and then running round the post, is radically false, and
-deprives the Giant Stride of all its use, and the greater part of its
-pleasure. Being ourselves ardent advocates of this instrument as
-affording an amount of healthy exercise not to be obtained by any other
-means, we gladly take this opportunity of describing the manufacture and
-capabilities of the Giant Stride.
-
-Having fixed upon a suitable spot of level ground, well laid with
-gravel, and carefully drained, dig a hole at least seven feet in depth,
-and fill about eighteen inches with stones about the size of the fist,
-or, to use a homely but expressive simile, as if a sack of potatoes had
-been emptied into it. Pound and press the stones well down, and then
-pour rough gravel upon them until you have made the surface tolerably
-level. The object of these stones is to prevent the water from
-accumulating round the post and rotting it.
-
-Now for the post. This should be at least twenty feet long, so as to
-leave about fifteen feet projecting when set upright in the hole. The
-butt should be left very large, as is done with ordinary wooden
-gate-posts, and the whole affair ought to be made of thoroughly seasoned
-wood. Unless this is the case, it is sure to rot, and then down it comes
-some day, when least expected. Triangular steps should be nailed upon
-opposite sides, like those on railway signal-posts, as otherwise the
-daily task of removing and replacing the ropes will be very irksome.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Get a blacksmith to make a stout iron pin, such as is shown at _a_,
-having a projecting shoulder, to prevent it from entering too far into
-the wood. He should also make a strong iron collar to put over the top
-of the pole, as is seen at _b_, where the pin is also shown fixed. The
-last piece of blacksmith's work is an iron disc, having a cap or thimble
-in the middle, which is intended to receive the iron pin, and to enable
-the disc to spin round freely. Four holes are bored through the edge of
-the disc, as seen at _c_. Purchase four iron [S] hooks, and the same
-number of swivels, and good store of well-made half-inch rope, and the
-machine may then be set up.
-
-First char carefully the whole of the butt that is to enter the ground,
-and for about six inches above, in order to prevent the wood from being
-injured by wet. Place it upright in the hole, testing it by a plumb-line
-tied to the top, and fill in the hole with earth, pounding it down
-firmly with a heavy rammer. You cannot be too careful about this
-process, and the apparatus should not be used until the earth has had
-time to settle. While waiting for this operation, cut the rope into
-appropriate lengths, and fasten one end of each rope to a swivel, and
-the other to the centre of a stout bâton of elm or oak wood, about
-eighteen inches long. Unless you are very sure of your powers of
-splicing ropes and making "eyes," let the ropemaker do this for you, as
-it is a most important operation, and involves the security of the
-gymnast in no slight degree. It is necessary to have swivels, as the
-ropes would otherwise become so twisted as to lose their freedom of
-play, or even to weaken their structure. These preparations being
-completed, mount the post by the steps, taking the cap with you, grease
-the pin well with an end of tallow-candle, and slip the cap upon it,
-taking care to spin it well in order to assure yourself that all is
-right. Hang the swivels to the circular plate by means of the [S] hooks,
-one curve of which passes through the hole in the plate, and the other
-through the loop in the swivel.
-
-The ropes should be just so long that when they hang loosely along the
-pole the cross-bar should be two feet from the ground. As, however, new
-ropes stretch in a wonderful manner, it is needful to allow considerably
-for this property.
-
-One thing more is needed, and then the whole apparatus will be complete.
-
-Measure the greatest distance which can be reached by the feet of any
-one swinging round by the ropes, and about one yard beyond that line
-erect a slender pole nearly as high as the central post, having pegs
-driven at intervals of four inches. This is intended to aid the learner
-in leaping, and the mode by which this object is accomplished is seen in
-fig. 1.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
-
-Having now everything ready, we first look to all the fastenings, a
-precaution which must never be neglected; see that the pin and swivels
-are well greased, take the cross-bar of one rope in both hands, and
-retire from the post as far as the outstretched arms will permit. Of
-course, if there are four performers, each takes his stand exactly
-opposite his neighbour. It is better not to exercise alone, on account
-of the unequal strain on the post; and it is evident that the opposite
-players should be as nearly as possible of similar weights, so as to
-balance each other in their course. It may easily be imagined that the
-strain upon the base of the post is enormous, there being a leverage of
-fifteen feet, and that some precautions are necessary to prevent injury.
-
-Keeping our right sides to the post, and the rope tightly stretched, we
-begin to run, throwing as much weight as possible on the rope, and as
-little as possible on the feet. As the pace increases, the feet are
-taken off the ground, and touch it at longer intervals, until, when at
-full speed, they only come to the ground occasionally, just sufficient
-to maintain the impetus.
-
-Having kept up this speed as long as is agreeable, we slacken the pace
-gradually, and stop. Next time we take care to run the contrary way,
-keeping the left side towards the pole. This is done to exercise equally
-the muscular system on both sides of the body; and to save time and
-space, we will say, once for all, that when any feat is described, it
-must be accomplished in either direction with equal ease.
-
-We will now explain the method of leaping, one of the most exciting of
-all these exercises.
-
-Set the string to quite a low elevation,--say two feet from the
-ground,--stand with your back to it, the cross-bar in your hands, and
-run quickly round. When you come about one quarter of the distance, try
-to fling yourself into the air, not by jumping with the legs, but by
-letting the whole weight depend on the rope, so that the centrifugal
-force takes you off your feet. As you touch the ground, take about three
-long steps, and at the third step hurl yourself again off the ground,
-with the body straight, and the feet extended well behind, and the
-impetus will carry you over the string, and land you neatly on the other
-side. You will soon learn to increase the height of the jump, until you
-can pass over the string at an elevation of ten feet with perfect
-certainty.
-
-Another very pretty, though not so dashing, a feat is to spin round on
-your own axis as you run round the course. At first it is needful to
-manage this cautiously, as a slip of the foot is sure to disturb your
-balance, and send you ignominiously scraping your way over the gravel in
-a derogatory and rather painful position. When, however, you have
-mastered this art, you can go round revolving the whole time, keeping
-your legs straight, feet together, and toes pointed.
-
-There are many modifications of these exercises which I should right
-well like to describe; but as our space is limited, we must content
-ourselves with two more. At the same time I may say, that if any of the
-readers of this book succeed in achieving them, they will bid fair to
-attain no mean position in the gymnastic art.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
-
-In the first of these exercises the performer never moves hand or foot,
-but holds himself straight, stiff, and immovable as an Egyptian statue,
-and in the course of his progress round the central post his feet
-describe a series of circles, or rather spirals, while his hands merely
-move in a circle, and serve as the axis on which the body revolves. This
-feat is not very easily made intelligible, but with the help of two
-diagrams we hope that our readers will comprehend it. Fig. 2 shows the
-method of commencing it. The performer grasps the cross-bar in both
-hands at the full stretch of his arms, holds himself quite straight and
-stiff, points his toes, and then falls forward, as shown in the
-engraving. If he has the strength and nerve to hold himself quite stiff,
-though his face comes rather near the ground, the whole body swings off
-the ground, the hands being the pivot, and the feet take the course
-denoted by the dotted line, the hands retaining their position. It is
-possible, by dint of practice, to manage so as to make the entire
-circuit of the pole in four such revolutions, and the course of the
-performer is shown by the accompanying diagram (fig. 3), where the dark
-circle in the centre represents the pole, the dotted line is the course
-taken by the hands, and the continuous line the course of the feet.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
-
-This is a most elegant and graceful performance, and never fails to
-elicit the admiration and applause of the bystanders. There seem to be
-no means of propulsion, and the performer appears, to an uninitiated
-spectator, to be impelled by a simple act of volition.
-
-The last is the most daring and difficult of all the feats, being
-nothing less than passing over the string with the head downwards and
-the feet in the air. This need not be attempted by any but a tolerable
-gymnast, and is achieved by running at the string in the manner already
-described, and just as the body is rising in the swing drawing the hands
-smartly to the breast, throwing the feet into the air, and clasping the
-rope between them. It is a most dashing feat, and generally takes
-spectators entirely by surprise.
-
-We should well have liked a longer disquisition on a favourite subject,
-but must now take our leave, merely assuring the reader that the few
-exercises which we have described are the keys to the thorough mastery
-of the Giant Stride.
-
-As a last caution, let us recommend that the ropes should be taken down
-every evening and put in a dry spot, as they are liable to be much
-weakened if permitted to hang in the open air. In wet weather the same
-precaution should be taken.
-
-
-PARALLEL BARS.
-
-These are two pieces of wood, from six to eight feet in length, and
-about four inches square, the edges rounded. For lads, they are fixed at
-about eighteen inches apart, and supported by two round standards,
-firmly fixed in the ground, from three to four feet high, according to
-the stature of the boys.
-
-_Balancing._--Being placed between the bars and in the centre, put your
-hands right and left on the bars at the same time. After a little jump
-upwards, preserve your equilibrium on both wrists, the legs close; this
-is called the first position. Then communicate to your body a gentle
-movement of balancing from behind, forwards, and continue this for
-several times, the body moving as it were upon a pivot. This should be
-practised until the body swings freely backwards and forwards.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-_To bring both legs over._--From the first position, after a little
-movement of balancing, bring both legs, close and at once, over one of
-the bars forwards, without touching it or moving your hands from the
-place. The same ought to be made backwards, from right to left.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-_To jump out._--After having communicated to the body a movement of
-balance, the moment at which the legs are raised over the bars, jump
-backwards over the right without touching it with the feet or waist;
-then perform the same jump forwards. By the vaulting jump you may easily
-come between the bars, and also bring your body over both without
-touching them otherwise than with your hands.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-_To rise and sink down._--Being in equilibrium in the middle of the
-bars, place the legs backwards, the heels close to the upper part of the
-thigh. From this position, come gently down, till the elbows nearly meet
-behind the back, then rise up gently without any impulse or touching the
-ground with your feet.
-
-_To kiss the bar behind the hands._--In the same position as before,
-bring the body gently down between the bars without touching the ground
-with your knees; kiss the bar behind each hand alternately, and then
-rise up in the first position.
-
-_Jumping on the Bars._--Keep the knees straight and jump along the bars
-backward and forward. Afterwards, do the same with the fingers turned
-inside. These will be learned easier, if the young gymnast tries them
-first with bent knees.
-
-[Illustration: WALKING ON THE BARS.]
-
-_Walking on the Bars._--Walk on the hands to the end and back again. In
-walking backwards, take care to keep the elbows straight, or you will
-come down. When this is done with ease, do the same, only keep your
-fingers inside the bars.
-
-[Illustration: L.]
-
-L.--Sit on the ground between the bars; take hold of the bars with your
-hands and raise your body still in the sitting position, and stay there
-as long as you can. When that is learned, jump along the bars in the
-same attitude. Keep your knees straight, and don't mind if your limbs
-ache a little.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-_The Arm Swing._--Rest the fore arms on the bars, and swing. When tired
-of swinging, let the body hang straight, and then rise on the hands. Not
-easy at first, but soon done with practice.
-
-_The Roll._--Rest on the fore arms, swing backward, and turn completely
-over, catching the bars under the arms. It looks difficult, but is easy
-enough, only wanting a little nerve.
-
-_The Janus._--Sit astride the bars, having your hands rather behind. Now
-raise the feet, swing through the bars, and come up astride on the other
-side. Your arms will then be twisted, and your face will be looking in
-the opposite direction. Swing boldly, or the shins will be knocked
-against the bars.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-_The Sausage._--Kneel on the bars. Stretch the hands as far forward as
-possible, and hitch the toes over the bars behind, at the same time
-stretching them backwards as far as possible. Now let the body sink
-between the bars, being supported by the hands and insteps. Now rise
-again. Difficult, but soon learnt.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-_To stand on a bar._--Sit astride one of the bars. Place the heel of the
-right foot on the bar, hitching the left instep under it. Draw yourself
-up by means of the left instep. Take care of your balance. This is a
-very useful accomplishment, and may possibly stand the gymnast in good
-stead.
-
-_The Drop._--Stand on the bars with each foot over one of the posts.
-Spring slightly into the air, put the feet together, and come down
-stiff, catching yourself by your hands. This should be done over the
-posts, as the bars might be broken, were the weight of the faller to
-come in the middle.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-_The Spring._--Swing at one end, and with a sudden impulse leap to the
-other on your hands. Take care of the balance of the body, or you will
-come on your back between the bars.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-_The Barber's Curl._--Hang on one end of the bars as in the L. Keep the
-knees straight, and turn over slowly, not letting the feet come to the
-ground. Stay there while you count ten, and come back the same way.
-
-
-THE HORIZONTAL BAR.
-
-Let two strong upright posts be firmly fastened into the ground, about
-six feet apart, and let a wooden bar be strongly mortised into their
-tops. The bar should be made of white deal, about two inches and a half
-in diameter. The bar must have no knot in it, or it will break. It
-should be so high from the ground that a spring is required to reach it
-with the hands. The surface of the bar should be free from all
-roughnesses, but not polished.
-
-_The Grasp._--The fingers should be hooked over the pole, keeping the
-thumb on the same side as the fingers. Hang as long as possible, first
-with both hands, then with each hand by turns.--See p. 244.
-
-_The Walk._--Hang by the hands, and walk by them from one end of the
-pole to the other, backwards and forwards. Do not slip. Do it first with
-both hands on the same side of the pole, afterwards with a hand at each
-side.--See p. 244.
-
-[Illustration: THE GRASP.]
-
-[Illustration: THE WALK.]
-
-[Illustration: BREASTING THE BAR.]
-
-_Breasting the Bar._--Hang by the hands, and draw up the body slowly
-until the chest touches the bar. Practise this as often as
-possible--knees straight.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-_Kicking the Bar._--Hang by the hands and draw up the feet very slowly
-until the instep touches the pole. Do it several times. Difficult at
-first, but soon learned. Do not kick about, or jerk yourself upward, or
-you may strain yourself.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-_Swinging._--Hang by the hands and swing backwards and forwards.
-Practise this until your heels are considerably above your head each
-way. After a while, let go of the pole as you swing back, and catch it
-again as you come down. An inch or two at first is enough, but do not be
-satisfied until the hands can have a space of eight or ten inches
-between themselves and the bar.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-_To sit on the Bar._--Hang by the hands, and pass one of your feet
-through them, hitching your knee over the bar. Then give a good swing
-backwards, and come up sitting on the bar with one leg. Now draw the
-other leg over, and do not tumble off.
-
-_Circling the Bar._--Hang by the hands, and curl the body gently over
-the bar. If it is too difficult, stop for a minute or two, try something
-else, and after an interval try it again. It will be soon learned.
-
-_The true Lover's Knot._--Grasp the bar; pass the left knee through the
-right arm, so as to let the knee rest in the elbow; pass the right knee
-over the instep of the left foot; let go with the left hand, and with it
-grasp the right foot. You will now be suspended by the right hand, and
-will be packed up in a remarkably small space. Take care of the right
-wrist, or you will spin round and twist off.
-
-[Illustration: CIRCLING THE BAR.]
-
-[Illustration: TRUE LOVER'S KNOT.]
-
-[Illustration: PASSING THROUGH THE ARMS.]
-
-_Passing through the Arms._--Hang by the hands, and bring the feet
-between them, permitting them to pass through until they can nearly
-touch the ground; now return in the same way. This cannot be done
-properly without practising, as the muscles of the shoulder blades must
-be capable of great relaxation, together with great power.
-
-[Illustration: THE GRASSHOPPER.]
-
-[Illustration: HANGING BY THE LEGS.]
-
-_The Grasshopper._--Sit on the pole, grasping it with the fingers to the
-front. Slide gradually off, until the small of the back rests against
-the pole, while the arms are elevated at the elbows like a grasshopper's
-legs. Now draw yourself up again.
-
-_Hanging by the legs._--This is easy enough, and a capital preservative
-against determination of the blood to the brain. First practise it with
-both legs over the pole; then take off the left leg and hitch it over
-the right instep; then learn to hang by one leg only, while you try to
-carry a weight in your hands. When you are perfect and confident, sit on
-the pole, and drop off backwards, catching yourself by the legs. This
-must be done with a fall like a plummet, or the body will swing, and
-probably unhitch the legs from the pole.
-
-[Illustration: THE ARM-CHAIR.]
-
-_The Arm-chair._--Hang on the bar by the arms just below the elbows,
-keeping the elbows firmly pressed to the side. The hands should be lower
-than the bar, to counteract the swing of the body.
-
-[Illustration: HANGING BY THE FEET.]
-
-_Hanging by the feet._--Hang by the hands, and curl up the body, until
-the insteps are well hitched over the bar. Let go the hands cautiously,
-and permit the body to hang at full length. The best way to reach the
-bar again is to seize one of your legs, and pull yourself up by it.
-
-_To leave the Bar._--Never get on the bar or leave it in a clumsy
-manner; there should be art about everything. To leave the bar
-effectively is well worth practising. Here are six modes:--
-
-1. Sit on the bar; drop and hang by the legs, at the same time giving
-the body a swing forwards which will loosen the hold of the legs. Alight
-on the hands, and get gently on the feet. This is rather a brilliant
-finish, and not so difficult as it appears.
-
-2. Sit on the bar, place both hands on one side, and vault over.
-
-3. Sit astride, place both hands on the bar in front, bring up both
-feet, at the same time springing upright; run along the bar and jump off
-the end, or slide down the post if it is too high to jump.
-
-4. Hang by the hands, draw up the body until the chest touches the bar;
-spring off backwards by the force of the arms.
-
-5. Hang by the hands, and swing completely round once, letting the
-impetus hurl you forward. Take care to cross the feet and come down on
-the toes.
-
-6. If you are tired and cannot perform any of these things, merely hang
-by the hands, and come round through them, but never merely loose the
-pole.
-
-
-THE HORSE.
-
-There is not a more graceful or more interesting series of exercises
-than those performed on the Wooden Horse. They are very useful also, as
-they give exceeding pliancy to the limbs, and teach the gymnast how to
-take advantage of the weight of each member. They have also the
-advantage of requiring some daring, and a spirited lad will always
-surpass at these exercises.
-
-The horse is made of a great cylinder of wood mounted on four legs,
-which are firmly fastened into the ground--their ends should be charred
-as was directed for the Giant Stride.
-
-Nearer one end than the other a piece of stout rough leather is firmly
-nailed, to represent the saddle, and two curved pieces of wood bound the
-saddle and represent the pommels. The hind pommel should be nearly half
-an inch higher than the other. They may be covered with leather also.
-
-On the off side of the horse a pit about a foot deep and four feet
-square should be dug and filled with sawdust, while on the near side the
-paving should be either very fine gravel, or, if possible, sand.
-
-There should be several horses, adapted to the different sizes of boys
-who are to practise on them. When a boy can place his chin on a level
-with the saddle, he should change to a higher horse, as the top of the
-saddle ought to be on a level with the nose of the gymnast.
-
-_Mounting._--Stand by the horse, place one hand on each pommel, spring
-up, so that the body is supported by the hands, while the legs rest
-lightly against the horse. Keep the body upright and knees straight.
-Down and up again several times. Always come down on the toes.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Now do the same thing; but, in springing up, throw out the right leg
-until it is nearly at right angles with the body, then the left.
-Afterwards spread both legs as widely as possible.
-
-When this can be done with ease, spring up as before, rest a moment,
-then throw the right leg easily over the saddle, removing the right
-hand, and there you are.
-
-_Dismounting._--Put the left hand on the fore pommel, right hand on the
-saddle, spring off and come to the ground, keeping your right hand still
-on the saddle. Be sure in all these exercises to come down on the toes.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-_Sustaining the body._--1. Spring up as in mounting, and throw the body
-away from the horse, bringing it back again without coming to the
-ground.
-
-2. Mount, and putting both hands on the front pommel, raise the body as
-high as you can. Don't be afraid of going too high.
-
-3. Do the same, but swing the body backwards and forwards. Hard work,
-but capital exercise.
-
-4. Do the same, and slap the soles of your shoes together.
-
-_Knee practice._--1. Put your hands on the pommels, spring up, and lodge
-your right knee on the saddle. Down, and then the left knee. Then both
-knees. Practise these well.
-
-2. Hands on pommels, leap up and touch the saddle with both toes.
-
-[Illustration: KNEE PRACTICE.]
-
-[Illustration: TOUCH SADDLE.]
-
-[Illustration: JUMPING OFF.]
-
-3. Kneel on the saddle with both knees; now lean well forward and jump
-off. Very easy, but requires confidence.
-
-_Swinging practice._--1. Sit behind the saddle, put the left hand on the
-front pommel, and the right hand on the other. Raise the body and swing
-round the horse, seating yourself on his neck, _before_ the saddle.
-Change hands, and swing round until you regain your former position.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-2. Put both hands on the front pommel, raise the body, and suddenly
-swing boldly upwards, turning round and crossing the legs, so that you
-will sit on the saddle with your face to the tail. Keep the hands in
-their places, and swing back again in the same manner.
-
-_Miscellaneous Exercises._--Hands on pommels, spring up and put the
-right leg through the arms, letting the left hang straight. Withdraw the
-right leg, and spring up again, using the left leg, and letting the
-right hang down.
-
-Hands on pommels, spring up, and seat yourself like a lady behind the
-saddle; spring down to the ground, and seat yourself in a similar manner
-before the saddle.
-
-Hands on pommels, spring up, cross your feet, pass them through the
-hands, and come to the ground on the opposite side.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Take a short run, place the hands on the pommels, and vault completely
-over the horse, keeping the knees straight.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Sit behind the saddle, put both hands on the hind pommel, and throw
-yourself off over the horse's tail.
-
-Hands on pommels, spring up, make the body into an L, let the feet pass
-through the hands and rest suspended without touching the saddle. Knees
-quite straight.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-A good one for a finish.--Take a run, put both hands on the very top of
-the pommels, and throw yourself over in a regular somerset. That is not
-bad, but you can do better after the somerset has been well learned.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Throw the somerset as before, only do not let go the hands. You will now
-be standing with your back to the horse, the spine considerably bent,
-and your arms thrown over your head. Wait so for a few seconds, and then
-with a powerful effort throw yourself back again, so as to come on the
-ground on the same side of the horse from which you started. This is
-really difficult, as it requires practice, strength, and confidence, but
-it looks so well that it is worth learning. The writer of these few
-instructions has often astonished the natives with it, and has lately
-repeated it after two years' absence from any gymnasium.
-
-
-THE SWING.
-
-Let no one despise this exercise. It is worth learning, if only as a
-preservation against sea sickness. If any one can stand a twenty-feet
-swing for half-an-hour, the sea may toss its worst, for he will come off
-unscathed. Now, I do not mean to say that merely sitting on a board and
-getting swung by some one else is any great object: far from it. But
-there are some very graceful exercises to be managed on the swing. Here
-are some:--
-
-1. The way to get into the swing is as follows:--Take one rope in each
-hand, just above the seat; walk backwards until the ropes are freely
-stretched. Now run sharply forwards, letting the hands glide up the
-ropes as far as possible, and the instant that you feel a check, grasp
-the rope tightly, and spring into the seat standing. When there, work
-easily up by alternately bending and straightening the knees. (See 1.)
-
-[Illustration: _Fig. 1._]
-
-2. When in good swing, slip the feet off the seat (which should not be
-more than four inches wide); let the hands slide down the ropes, and
-come down sitting. To recover the standing position, reach upwards with
-the hands as high as possible, and draw yourself upwards as the swing is
-going forwards, when the seat will place itself exactly under your feet.
-
-3. Now for some feats.
-
-Let the swing go very gently. Place both hands at the level of the
-shoulders, and suddenly extend them, keeping the arms straight. Take
-care, as there will be a violent vibration, and you will be shot out of
-the swing before you know where you are. Practise it first while the
-swing is still, but do not be satisfied until you can do it while in
-strong swing, and without closing the hands, merely letting the palms
-rest against the ropes. (See 2.)
-
-[Illustration: _Fig. 2._]
-
-Swing still. Stand up on the seat, and grasp the rope with the hands as
-low as possible, without bending the body or the knees. Now lean
-forward, making your hands the pivot, and do not be astonished at
-finding your heels in the air, and your head downward. To recover
-yourself, the body must be bent a little. (See 3.)
-
-[Illustration: _Fig. 3._]
-
-Stand sideways on the seat, grasp one rope with both hands leaning your
-back against the other, taking care to have the rope well between the
-shoulder blades. Put the inner centre of the left foot against the
-opposite rope, and fix the right foot in the same manner against the
-left heel. Now let go both hands, and lean well backwards, when you will
-be exactly balanced. When you are secure with a quiet swing, practise it
-while the swing is moving, until you can lie securely against the rope
-while you are moving freely. The balance is entirely kept by the
-shoulder blades against the rope, and the arms must be folded in order
-to throw the shoulder blades well back. If the gymnast gets alarmed, and
-puts his hands out to save himself, the rope slips off his back, and out
-he goes. (See 4.)
-
-[Illustration: _Fig. 4._]
-
-While the swing is working, suddenly hang out at one side, supporting
-yourself by one hand on the rope, and one foot on the seat. Practise
-this on both sides. (See 5.)
-
-[Illustration: _Fig. 5._]
-
-Seize the left rope with both hands, press the feet firmly against the
-ropes where they join the seat, and fall out forwards. The ropes will
-now cross, and when the swing is in full operation, the curves described
-are most elegant. To recover the ordinary position, wait until the swing
-is going backwards, and a powerful twist of the body will uncross the
-ropes, when the right hand should take hold of the right rope and steady
-the swing. (See 6.)
-
-[Illustration: _Fig. 6._]
-
-When the swing is in motion, grasp the ropes as tight as possible, and
-raise the feet until they are high in air between the ropes. Take care
-of the balance in the back swing, as, if the body is suffered to bend
-backwards, the hands will hardly bear the strain. Now slide slowly and
-carefully down the ropes until the head rests on the footboard.
-
-To make a telling exit from the swing, two ways may be adopted. First
-way:--Get the swing into a firm, steady movement, sit down, and bring
-both hands inside the ropes; and just as the swing has passed its
-centre, strike the seat away with the hands and you will shoot forward
-several yards. Take care to come down on the toes, and to lean well
-backwards as you leave the swing, as the impetus will bring you upright
-as you touch the ground. (See 7.)
-
-[Illustration: _Fig. 7._]
-
-The second method is, to seat yourself in the same manner, and as the
-swing crosses its centre backwards, lean well forwards and strike away
-the seat. You will then be hurled backwards, and if your balance is
-good, will come to the ground in a very elegant attitude. Be sure to
-lean well forward, cross the feet, clasp the hands, and come down on the
-toes. (See 8.)
-
-[Illustration: _Fig. 8._]
-
-Great care must be taken to lean well backwards if you shoot out
-forwards, and well forwards as you shoot backwards, or in the one case
-you will come with your nose on the ground, and in the other you will
-find the back of your head rather damaged. So practise with gentle
-swings at first, and then increase. I have often done it with the swing
-at full speed, and in one instance in a public gymnasium, I shot so far
-forward that the spot was marked by a row of iron nails driven into the
-floor.
-
-In a volume of this nature, it is impossible to give more than a
-comparatively slight sketch of any subject. I am sure, however, that if
-the reader will master even these short instructions in gymnastic
-exercises, he will be able to realize that great blessing, the sound
-body, in which only a sound mind can reside. His trained eye will be
-accustomed to measure instinctively any obstacle in his way, and the
-training of his body will enable him to put forth the full power of his
-muscles to overcome the obstacle. Danger will lose half its perils to
-him who thus knows how to meet it. A strong rope will be as safe as a
-staircase to him; it will be perfectly indifferent to him whether his
-head or his heels be uppermost, and he will be enabled by the presence
-of mind which such studies engender to think out calmly modes of escape
-from danger which would instantly overwhelm those whose bodies are
-uninstructed.
-
-But even to pass by the question of utility, it is a duty of man to
-preserve his body in health, and to develop its powers. Every man would
-think himself wrong to neglect the mind; surely then, every man ought no
-less to think it wrong to neglect the body, which is made by the same
-mighty Hand that implanted the mind within it. Indeed, the neglected
-body is sure to injure the mind, and therefore those who improve their
-bodies are at the same time improving their minds.
-
-I know one young man, who owes all his health, and probably his life, to
-gymnastic exercise. From his earliest childhood he was always ailing,
-and through the whole of his childhood was never suffered to sleep
-unwatched. When he entered upon manhood, the childish illness changed
-into annual fevers, which held their sway until he had been for some
-time at one of the Universities.
-
-His medical attendant advised him to take regular exercise, and
-recommended the study of gymnastics. He rapidly improved in health and
-strength, his fever has not attacked him for eight or nine years, and he
-actually led the gymnasium for a whole year.
-
-Were I to have the charge of a school, I should consider the gymnasium
-as part of the regular school discipline, and take care that the boys
-were exercised as carefully in their bodily as their mental powers.
-
-
-THROWING THE JAVELIN.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-This play is very interesting, and gives strength to the arm, and
-exactness to the eye. In playing it, a square target must be procured,
-made of thick wood, about four feet in diameter, and on which should be
-marked concentral circles, the same as those of a target in archery.
-This should be well supported behind by two stout back pieces, resting
-in the ground, so as to prevent the target from being easily overturned.
-The circles may be several in number; the centre should be black, and
-about six inches in diameter, and count ten; the second circle should be
-red, and should count five; and the third should be light blue, and
-count three. The other parts of the target to count as may be agreed.
-The javelins should consist of poles of ash or fir, about an inch and
-half in diameter, and should be five feet six inches in length. They
-should have a spike in one end, which should be surrounded with a rim of
-iron; the spike should be about two inches long, thick, and strong, so
-as to enable it to become fixed in the target without splitting it. The
-game may be played by any number of boys, and is commenced as follows:--
-
-One player takes a javelin in his right hand, and walking to a distance
-from the target, previously agreed upon by the players, he poises his
-javelin, by holding it in the hollow of his hand, between the ball of
-the thumb and the fleshy part at the side, and his elbow is at the same
-time bent, and his arm elevated so that his hand is a little above his
-ear, the javelin being at the same time nicely balanced with the smaller
-fingers, touching it so as to direct its course; it is then launched
-forward at the target, and, if properly poised, directed and thrown,
-will go to it in a direct line. The point at which it strikes the target
-is then marked, and then the other players follow in the same way for
-twelve times in succession: the person who scores the most marks being
-the victor.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The javelin will fly better and straighter if a rotatory movement is
-communicated to it by a slight pull of the little finger as it leaves
-the hand. When some skill has been obtained in darting, blunt javelins
-with padded ends should be procured, and the players should accustom
-themselves to avoid, parry, or catch a javelin thrown at them. When they
-can do so with certainty, they may storm a fort. The best fort is a
-hedge with gaps. The players divide into two parties, one defending and
-the other attacking. Each player should be furnished with three javelins
-at least, well padded and nicely balanced. The art of catching and
-returning a javelin is exceedingly useful in this game. We well remember
-an occasion when, on storming a fort, one of our opponents, whose frame
-was larger than his soul, had prudently retired into the background
-until all our spears were exhausted, but, on seeing us weaponless, he
-with great courage ran up to the hedge and hurled his spear, as we were
-running forward to pick up a fallen lance. The moment he had thrown the
-javelin he ran away as fast as he could, but was overtaken by his own
-weapon, which took him in the rear, and toppled him over in beautiful
-style. We have only known one accident at this game, and that was caused
-by the impetuosity of one of the garrison, who on seeing an enemy
-crawling up through the gap, and finding himself without a spear,
-snatched up a _bow_ that was lying near, and made a thrust at him, which
-sent the sharp horn tip of the bow through his under lip.
-
-
-THE TRAPEZE: SINGLE AND DOUBLE.
-
-Should the intending gymnast possess a strongly-built barn or outhouse,
-which is large enough to permit the trapeze to have fair play, and
-strong enough to endure the stress of the swinging weight, the ropes can
-be suspended from a beam, either belonging to the building or inserted
-for the express purpose, and resting at each end on strong brackets. But
-as such buildings are very seldom to be obtained, we here give a sketch
-of a plan invented, we believe, by Messrs. Snoxell, the well-known
-furnishers of gymnasia. Although its structure may appear to be light
-and flimsy, it is in reality possessed of strength which renders a
-fracture impossible, and is indeed far more fitted to resist the
-enormous strain which is laid upon it, than if it were made of massive
-beams morticed.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-In the first place the upright poles (_a_) do not pass into the ground,
-but are supported upon stone slabs, so there is no fear of that terrible
-enemy of the gymnasium--rotting wood, which silently decays and suddenly
-snaps off level with the surface of the ground. The cross piece (_b_) is
-affixed to the uprights by a simple cap, bent at right angles, as is
-seen at _f_. The cross piece is permanently secured into the cap, but
-the uprights can be slipped in and out without difficulty. At _c_ may be
-seen four slender wire ropes, the upper ends of which are fastened to
-the uprights, and the lower ends are furnished with hooks. These hooks
-are intended to be slipped into the staples (_e_), which are firmly
-secured into the ground, just as the old bull-rings were fixed. At _d_
-are seen the tightening screws, which are simply turned by hand, and
-shorten the wire ropes just as the connecting screws of a railway train
-draw the carriages together.
-
-The apparatus is so perfectly simple that it can be set up or taken down
-by two boys in five minutes, or by one boy in rather a longer period.
-The process is as follows:--
-
-The uprights are slipped into the caps, and the hooks at the ends of the
-wire ropes or stays are hitched into the staples of one side, say at
-_e_. The uprights are then reared, and their bases set on the stones.
-The hooks of the opposite stays are then hitched into the staples at _e
-e_, and the screws at _d_ turned until the stays are quite tight and the
-uprights are perfectly perpendicular.
-
-It seems rather a complicated process to read about, but it is
-remarkably simple when reduced to action. We have mounted and dismounted
-one of these ingenious contrivances in a wonderfully short space of
-time, and without any assistance.
-
-For practising the feat of passing through the air from one trapeze to
-another a double set of apparatus is required; but for most useful
-purposes one set is sufficient. The ropes by which the bar is suspended
-must be thoroughly stretched before they are attached to the bar, or
-there will be no certainty in the swing. Few persons who have not had
-practical experience on this subject would imagine how greatly the
-length of a rope is increased by the process of stretching, and how
-absolutely necessary is this precaution.
-
-The ropes are passed at each end over an iron eye, the upper one of
-which is hitched over a hook on the cross bar, and the other receives
-the hook which suspends the bar. On looking at the illustration the
-reader will notice these hooks just above the bar. They are useful,
-because, when needed, a pair of rings can be substituted for the bar,
-and permit certain variations in the performances, Still, their presence
-or absence is quite optional, and the only remark that need be made is,
-that they should be furnished with springs like the fastening of a
-breguet chain, so as to guard against the possibility of slipping. The
-bar itself must be very heavy, or otherwise it will not have sufficient
-weight to keep the cords at full stretch, and in consequence will not
-swing truly. Those which were employed by Leotard were iron, with a mere
-shell of wood, so as to give a pleasant hold for the hands, and we have
-seen them made of iron, coated with leather. The last point that needs
-notice is the perch or stand from which the performer launches himself.
-This may be fixed at any convenient elevation, and its centre should
-exactly coincide with the centre of the bar. Having now the apparatus
-ready, let us commence the performance.
-
-Set the bar swinging boldly; ascend the perch quickly, and seize the bar
-in both hands. Wait for a moment, until the ropes are fully stretched,
-and then launch yourself for a swing. Now there are two ways of doing
-everything--a right and a wrong way; and the present instance affords no
-exception to the rule. The wrong way--and the usual way--is to fall
-forwards from the perch. Now this is quite wrong; and if you act in such
-a manner you will bungle your sway, and will not retain sufficient
-impetus to enable you to return to the perch.
-
-The right mode of starting is as follows: Stand as seen in the
-accompanying illustration--the spine well bent backwards, the body
-tolerably stiff, and leaning well against the heavy bar. Now draw
-yourself up gently by the arms, as if you were trying to lift your chin
-above the bar, and you will find yourself started without any trouble.
-Keep the back still bent, and as you descend allow the arms gradually to
-assume a perfectly straight position. You will then swing out fairly and
-boldly, and by the least possible sway at the end of the swing will
-retain sufficient impetus to enable you to resume your stand on the
-perch.
-
-Even in this there is an art. If you merely allow yourself to swing back
-as you swing forward, you will be disagreeably reminded of your error,
-by hitting the back of the leg smartly against the edge of the perch. In
-order to avoid this misfortune, draw up the legs sharply just before you
-reach the end of the return swing, and you will find them come down on
-the perch with perfect ease.
-
-If you are using the rings instead of the bar, you can vary this part
-of the performance by turning round in the air, and crossing the ropes
-so that you alight on the perch with your back towards the trapèze,
-though it is necessary to give a sharp twist as your foot touches the
-perch, and so to turn in the direction in which you started.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Take notice that the arms are always at full length during the swing,
-and that the illustrations which represent the performer swinging with
-bent arms are entirely erroneous. There is another fault into which the
-artists mostly fall. Thinking that they are obtaining pictorial effect,
-they represent the ropes which sustain the bar as forming an angle with
-the arms of the performer, whereas the arms, body, and ropes are, or
-ought to be, all in the same line.
-
-The real attitude in the trapèze is given in the accompanying
-illustration, wherein it will be seen that the ropes, the arms, and the
-body are all in the same line; and, indeed, a little reflection will
-prove that they must be so. Note the position and action, or rather the
-non-action of the body, and be careful to imitate it. During the swing,
-let the body and limbs hang at full length, and be sure to keep the feet
-nearly together, and the toes pointed. The illustrations are all wrong
-in this respect. They always _will_ show the performer in an attitude
-which the draughtsman is pleased to think a graceful one; but it is
-inexpressibly graceless and ridiculous in the eyes of a gymnast.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-When you have accomplished the swing and return satisfactorily, you may
-advance another step. Swing off as usual; and, when you have reached the
-extremity of the swing, you will find yourself balanced for a moment
-motionless, the attraction of gravitation being balanced by the impetus
-of the swing. Just at this important point, shift your hold on the bar,
-and change sides, as you would do if the bar were hanging quietly.
-
-You will then face the spot whence you started, and in landing on the
-perch you must be careful to give yourself a twist as you place your
-feet on the perch, and with a slight exertion of the arms you will draw
-yourself upright without difficulty, and without running the risk of
-falling off the perch again--a frequent and ignominious misfortune.
-
-It will now be time to practise the descent from the swinging trapèze to
-the ground. Begin by sitting on the bar, grasping it with the hands, and
-falling off backwards, taking care to come to the ground with pointed
-toes and crossed feet. The reason of this precaution is that, if the
-feet are crossed, the knees are separated, and that when the body
-yields--as it must do when it touches the earth--there is no danger of
-hitting the chin against the knee, and thereby receiving a momentary
-shock to the brain by the teeth striking together.
-
-When you can manage the "fall-back," as it is called, with tolerable
-ease and certainty, seize the bar with the hands, set it swinging,
-keeping your face to the perch, and when you are nearly at the full
-extent of the swing loosen your hold, and allow yourself to come to the
-ground. Be very careful to point the toes, as has already been
-described, and continue the practice until you can stand on the perch,
-launch yourself backwards, and fly off at the highest point of the
-swing.
-
-Always leave the bar while you are swinging _backwards_, because the
-attitude of the body is then such as to insure your coming to the ground
-in the correct position; whereas, if you do so while swinging forward,
-you are nearly certain to overbalance yourself, and either fall on your
-nose, or go staggering along in a very ignominious style.
-
-The next process is to start as usual, raise yourself in a sitting
-position on the bar, and ask some one to remove the perch. Fall back as
-before, only, instead of coming on the ground, hang by the legs, and
-accustom yourself to swing in this attitude. When you can accomplish
-that feat without difficulty, and feel no nervousness at your strange
-position, remove one leg from the bar and hang by the other. Practise
-this with both feet. It is not nearly so difficult as it looks, and is
-an important feat to perform, because it gives such perfect presence of
-mind.
-
-The next feat looks positively awful, but, as usual in gymnastic
-performances, is perfectly easy, requiring no skill at all and only a
-little courage. Sit on the bar when it is still, and do the "fall-back."
-But, instead of allowing the feet to pass between the ropes, spread the
-legs as far apart as possible, and bend up the feet rigidly. The
-consequence is, that the insteps hitch in the ropes, slide down them,
-and the body becomes suspended by the feet, which are firmly hitched
-between the ropes and the bar, as seen in the accompanying illustration.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-If you possess a second trapèze, you may now proceed to the beautiful
-series of performances which are achieved upon them.
-
-Let them at first be set moderately near each other, so that when the
-bar of the first trapèze is at full swing, it passes within a yard or
-four feet of the second. Start off as usual, and just as you are well on
-the rise, after passing through the upright, loose your hold of the bar,
-and you will pass through the air towards the second bar which you catch
-rapidly.
-
-If you perform the feat nicely, you will have so much impetus to spare
-that you will be carried along on the second bar, and may either attempt
-to return or quietly drop to the ground at the end of the swing. If you
-prefer the latter course, be sure to turn through your arms and come
-down on your toes.
-
-You will find that the return to the perch, simple as it looks, is by
-far the most difficult feat that has yet been mentioned. Make but the
-least mistake and failure is certain. If you do not catch the bar
-exactly at the right moment, you lose your impetus, and if you do not
-seize it exactly in the right place you do not swing truly between the
-uprights, and consequently cannot land on the spot at which you aim.
-
-The method of performing this feat is as follows: Swing off the perch,
-pass to the second bar, and while at the full extent of the swing,
-change sides, and give yourself a slight impulse with the feet. You will
-now meet the first bar swinging towards you, and if you can seize it
-just at the right moment, you will find yourself with sufficient impetus
-to reach the perch. If not, swing once more, give yourself a hearty
-impulse with the legs and try it again. Failure is certain at first, but
-after a little practice the feat becomes easy.
-
-Here we must protest against the totally erroneous ideas of artists
-respecting the attitude of the body while the performer passes from one
-bar to another. We think that without an exception they all represent
-him as shooting horizontally through the air, with his hands stretched
-out, and with one leg bent and the other straight. Now, if any one will
-watch a performer on the trapèze, he will see that the attitude is
-nearly perpendicular, and that any other position is really absurd and
-impracticable.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-In the accompanying illustration, we have given a sketch of the real
-attitude of the performer, wherein it will be seen that the body is
-nearly perpendicular, and that the arms are kept bent, with the hands
-close to the shoulders, ready to be darted out in a moment when the
-trapèze swings within distance.
-
-We are the more particular in giving these illustrations, because they
-are needed in order to correct the very false notions which are
-prevalent respecting this beautiful exercise. Parents especially are apt
-to form their judgments from the illustrations which are seen upon
-advertising bills and in illustrated journals, and thinking that the
-exercise must be attended with great danger, do not like to give their
-permission for their sons to learn it.
-
-Let our readers be assured that there is no more danger in this
-beautiful exercise than in jumping over a chair--perhaps not quite so
-much--while the manner in which it develops the muscular powers of the
-arms, shoulders, and loins, is unapproachable by any other system.
-
-One caution is, however, needful. Take care that every loop and splice
-be perfectly secure, look over the whole of the apparatus daily, and
-never venture upon the trapèze until you have ascertained that nothing
-is likely to give way. If you perceive the slightest feeling of
-insecurity, the whole enjoyment of the exercise is lost, and no benefit
-can be expected from it.
-
-
-TRICKS AND FEATS OF GYMNASTICS.
-
-_The book._--Fix a book between the toes of the feet, and, by a jerk,
-throw it over the head.
-
-_The chalk line._--Draw a line with chalk on the floor; against this
-place the toes of both feet; then kneel down, and rise up again without
-leaving the line, or using the hands.
-
-_Stepping through._--Take a small piece of cane about a foot long, and
-holding it between the hands, leap through it. Afterwards take a
-tobacco-pipe, and perform the same feat without breaking; after this,
-join the hands together, and leap through them, which is not very
-difficult of accomplishment.
-
-_Armless._--Lying upon the back with the arms across the chest, the
-attempt must be made to rise on the feet again.
-
-_Hop against the wall._--Stand with one toe close against the wall,
-about two feet from the ground, and turn the other over it, without
-removing the toe from the wall.
-
-_Stoop if you can._--One boy having placed his heels against the wall,
-another must place near his toes a shilling, and tell him he may have it
-if he can pick it up. This he will find to be impossible for him to do
-while his heels touch the wall, as there is no room for his back to
-balance the other parts of his body.
-
-_The spring from the wall._--Placing yourself at a proper distance from
-the wall with your face opposite to it, throw yourself forward until you
-support yourself by one hand. Then spring back into your former
-position. Begin this feat at a short distance from the wall, and
-increase the distance by degrees. The "athlete" will, in a short time,
-be able to stand at nearly the length of his body from the wall. This
-feat is sometimes called the palm spring, but the palm has really
-nothing to do with it. The thumb spring is similar, but dangerous, and
-many have sprained their thumbs in attempting it.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-_The long reach._--This is a somewhat difficult feat, and requires great
-caution in its performance. A line is chalked on the floor, at which the
-toes must be placed, and from which they are not to remove. The left
-hand is then to be thrown forward in a long reach until the body
-descends upon it, without any part touching the floor in its descent;
-the right hand is now to be stretched out as far forward as possible,
-and with a piece of chalk, a mark is made on the floor at its fullest
-extent, the body being sustained by the left hand during the operation.
-The boy should now recover the upright position on his legs, by
-springing back from the left hand without touching the floor in any way.
-The length reached, and the perfection with which the body recovers
-itself, distinguishes the winner of the game.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-_The stooping stretch._--In this feat a line is drawn on the floor, at
-which the outer edge of the left foot is placed, and behind this, at a
-short distance, the right heel. Taking a piece of chalk in the left
-hand, the youngster passes it between the legs, and under the bend of
-the left knee, chalking the floor with it as far forward as he can. He
-then recovers his position without moving his feet from the line at
-which they had been fixed.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-_The chair feat._--Place three chairs in the situation indicated in the
-cut (p. 264), and lay down upon them, the head resting on one, the heels
-upon another, and the lower part of the body on the third or middle
-chair, which should be much lighter than the others. Then, by stiffening
-the body and limbs, and throwing up the chest into a state of rigidity,
-it will not be difficult for a boy to remove the middle chair, and to
-pass it quite over on the other side of him.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-_The poker feat._--Take a common poker and hold it the lower end
-downwards, in the manner shown in the cut, _i. e._ by the fingers,
-thumb, and ball of the palm. Then, by the mere motion of the fingers and
-thumb, and the fulcrum of the palm, work the poker upwards till you
-raise it through the whole length to that part of it which goes into the
-fire. This trick depends mainly upon the strength of the muscles of the
-hand and fingers, combined with a certain knack to be acquired by
-practice.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-_The stick feat, or from hand to mouth._--Take a piece of stick of the
-length of the fore arm, measuring from the elbow to the end of the
-middle finger. Hold it in the hand horizontally before you, the knuckles
-being down and the nails upwards, and the elbow being on a line with the
-hand. Then raise the left end of the stick from the breast to the mouth,
-without any other movement of the hand than the arm at the wrist. This
-is a difficult feat, but may be easily acquired by practice.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-_Walking on stilts._--Among the Swiss, and in several districts in the
-South of France, walking on stilts is not only an amusing, but a useful
-practice, as by means of these crane-like legs men and women transform
-themselves into the order of "Waders," emulating the long-legged storks
-and herons, and can cross over marshes and flooded grounds without
-wetting their feet. Stilts are easily made, being nothing but a pair of
-poles, with a wooden step at the sides for the feet to stand on. The
-poles are kept in their proper place by the hands. A little practice
-will soon render a youth "easy on his stilts," and they may be made an
-amusing and healthy exercise.
-
-
-HOCKEY.
-
-In all the general principles, hockey bears a great resemblance to
-foot-ball, the game consisting in driving a ball through a goal. The
-ball, however, is of much smaller dimensions, even where a ball, and not
-a bung, is used; and it is impelled, not by the foot, but by certain
-sticks, or clubs, called hockeys, or hookeys, because the end with which
-the ball is struck is more or less hooked.
-
-The shape and dimensions of the hockey-stick are entirely arbitrary,
-being left to the peculiar taste of the owners. Some like their hockeys
-to be sharply hooked, while others prefer them merely bent over at the
-end. Some players like a very thick, heavy stick, which can be put down
-in front of the ball in order to neutralize the blows of the opposite
-side, while others can play best with a slight and springy weapon, that
-can be used with one hand, and is employed to tap the ball away just as
-an opponent is about to strike, and to coax it, as it were, towards the
-goal through the mass of adverse sticks.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The four sticks shown in the engraving are very good samples of the
-forms best adapted for use. Fig. 1 is much in favour with some players,
-and is therefore given; but for our own part we never could play to our
-satisfaction with it, the large and deep curve deceiving the eye and
-causing the player to let the ball pass through the hook, besides
-running the risk of entanglement in the opponent's stick.
-
-Fig. 2 is usually a favourite, but the angle of the head with the handle
-is arranged according to the fancy of the player. Some like the head to
-be made of horn, backed with lead like a golf-stick; but this formation
-is hardly necessary, costing a rather large sum, and not conveying
-correspondent advantages.
-
-Fig. 3 is a queer and eccentric form, which is not suitable to every
-player on account of its weight and generally large proportions. We
-have, however, seen it employed with extraordinary effect by a player
-who was accustomed to drive his opponents into a state of considerable
-excitement by his faculty of stopping the ball with this overgrown
-weapon, and then planting it so firmly that all the opposing sticks
-could not get at the ball in spite of their battering. In this way he
-would save many a game that had well-nigh been given up as hopeless, and
-by thus checking the ball on its way to the goal, would give time for
-his own side to come up and turn the tables. The great hooked end of
-this club was bound with very strong iron wire.
-
-The same player was equally successful with a stick the exact reverse of
-the preceding, and represented as fig. 4. This was a very slight ashen
-stick, with a small, but rather heavy head, so that when shaken it would
-bend and spring like whalebone. This little stick was used for darting
-among the struggles and clatter of contending weapons, and giving the
-ball just a wee pat now and then at critical moments, so as to edge it a
-little nearer the goal, and at the same time to knock it away just as
-the blow of the opponent descended.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The ball used for this game is sometimes an ordinary cask bung. As this
-would speedily be knocked to pieces, it is generally quilted with
-string, as shown in the illustration, for the better preserving its
-integrity. Sooner or later, however, it goes to pieces, for the string
-is sure to be cut or worn through, and the cork soon gives way. Balls,
-too, are apt to get their jackets knocked off, and if struck hard will
-sometimes fly in the face of a player, who cannot avoid it at so short a
-distance, and do no small damage. A hollow india-rubber ball is very
-good; but the best that we have yet seen, was a common globular
-india-rubber bottle, such as can be procured at any stationer's, with
-the neck cut off, and partly filled up by leaving a strip of the neck
-and securing it by the proper varnish.
-
-It made a capital ball. Nothing could hurt it, and it could hurt no one.
-We have had it driven into our face at two yards' distance, and felt
-little the worse for it five minutes afterwards. It would not roll very
-far by itself, but required to be edged carefully by the sticks; it
-never could get cut against flints, or spoiled by thorns or splinters;
-it was big enough to be easily seen if knocked into a ditch or over a
-hedge, and if struck into water it would not sink but come to the
-surface at once, bobbing about as if to draw attention to its presence.
-It remained in constant action for two years to our knowledge, had been
-employed for several seasons before we made its acquaintance, and for
-aught we know may be in use now. In fact, if it were only kept out of
-the way of a fire or an ostrich, we know nothing that would hurt the
-ball except burning or swallowing. Even in the latter case we fancy that
-the ostrich would be the sufferer rather than the ball.
-
-Having now described the instruments, we will proceed to the method of
-playing the game.
-
-As has already been mentioned, this game is in principle similar to
-foot-ball. Two goals are set up, at a convenient distance from and
-exactly opposite to each other, as in foot-ball. The same goals indeed
-will answer as for that game, only the cross pole should be lashed to
-the uprights at a much lower elevation, say three feet six inches or
-four feet from the ground, and the uprights should be within six feet of
-each other. Very good and simple goals can be made by taking long
-osiers, willow branches or brambles, pointing the two ends, bending them
-over and sticking the pointed extremities into the earth, so as to make
-an arch. A peg is driven exactly half-way between the goals, goal-lines
-are drawn as at foot-ball, and the ground is then laid out.
-
-The players, having previously chosen their sides, arrange themselves
-between the goals, facing each other, and always having their left sides
-towards the enemy's goal and their right towards their own. The ball is
-then thrown in the air, so as to fall on or near the wooden peg, and
-each party try with their sticks to drive it through the goal of the
-enemy.
-
-The rules of this fine game are few and simple.
-
-1. The game is won by the ball passing through the enemy's goal.
-
-2. The ball must be struck through the goal with the stick, not thrown
-or kicked.
-
-3. Each player shall strike from right to left, and any player
-infringing this rule is liable to the penalty of a blow on the shins
-from any of the opposite side.
-
-4. Each player shall remain on his own side, and if he crosses to that
-of the opponents is liable to the same penalty.
-
-5. No player shall raise the head of his stick higher than his shoulder,
-on pain of the same penalty.
-
-6. The ball may be stopped with the stick, or with any part of the
-person, provided that the intervening player is on his own side.
-
-7. If the ball be kicked or thrown through the goal, or if struck beyond
-the goal-lines, it is to be fetched by the junior player of the side who
-struck the last blow, and gently thrown towards the centre peg.
-
-8. Any player wilfully striking another, except when inflicting the
-penalty contained in rules 3, 4, and 5, is immediately to be excluded
-from the game.
-
-By means of these rules, the game of hockey is shorn of the danger
-consequent on the loose and unrestrained play that is sometimes seen,
-the sticks brandished in all directions, and the two sides so intermixed
-that it is hardly possible to discriminate between them. Many a person
-has been seriously damaged by such undisciplined play, and teeth have
-been struck out, or even eyes lost in the contest. By strict adherence,
-however, to the above rules, there is no fear of incurring any
-injuries, and this really fine game is rendered as safe as it is
-exciting.
-
-As a general rule, a good player seldom if ever strikes the ball with
-any violence, but keeps it well in hand, trundling it along rather than
-knocking it forcibly, and endeavouring, if he finds it likely to pass
-out of his control, to strike it gently towards another of his own side,
-who may keep it in its course towards the enemy's goal.
-
-A bad player, on the contrary, rushes about without any definite
-purpose, shouts continually at the top of his voice, brandishes his
-stick to the danger of other persons' eyes and the detriment of his own
-hands, which are sure to be painfully blistered in half an hour, and
-exhausts his strength and breath so early in the game, that he fails
-just at the critical moment, and sees the ball driven past him without
-being able to check it.
-
-As a parting word of advice, let us recommend to our readers to play
-this game as quietly as they can contrive to do, and as a golden rule,
-always to keep the head of the hockey-stick close to the ground.
-
-Above all, keep your temper intact, and don't lose it even if one of
-your own side should make some stupid mistake, and lose you a winning
-game. Take especial care to keep strictly to the rules, and if your
-opponent should break them and render himself liable to the penalty, be
-merciful to his shins, and inflict the punishment as a warning to deter
-from future transgression, and not as a spiteful opportunity for giving
-a blow which cannot be returned.
-
-
-RACKETS.
-
-This game is not easily played without what is called a racket ground,
-which consists of a large space of ground, a parallelogram, of not less
-than fifty yards long, by twenty-five broad. Where such an advantage
-presents itself, the game may be easily attempted. Sometimes the high
-dead wall of a garden may be made into a racket wall, by fixing up some
-boards and net-work along the top, supposing there is space enough
-below, when the game may be played in a small way. The wall should be
-painted black, and the ground be divided into four equal divisions,
-which should be distinctly marked either by chipping a groove in it by a
-spade, or by chalk. It is very essential, however, that the flooring of
-the court should be paved. These divisions are, two close to the wall,
-as A and B, and two in front of them, as C and D, which divisions are
-occupied by those who play the game. The wall should be marked by a
-broad line of white paint at forty-two inches from the ground, and above
-this line every ball must strike. The ball is, according to law, only to
-weigh one ounce, and is either white, or made so from time to time by
-dipping into a bag of chalk, that it may be the better seen against the
-black wall by the players. The ball is made of pure white and
-tightly-sewn leather. The bat used to propel the ball is of a legal
-make, and its lower end of a spoon form, over which is placed a strong
-net-work of silk-wire, or catgut. The bat is called a racket.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-_How the game is played._--Rackets is a very simple game, and may be
-played either by two or more players. When it is played by four persons,
-one stands in each of the compartments, A, B, C, D; those near the wall
-being called in-hand, and those furthest from it out-hand players. When
-two play, each player takes two of the divisions, and the one who takes
-the A first from the wall is called in-hand player, and the other
-out-hand player. Having determined by lot who is to begin the game, the
-in-hand player nearest the wall strikes his ball against it; if it
-strikes under the line, goes over the wall, does not rebound into the
-out-hand spaces, or goes beyond the racket ground, the striker is out,
-and the out-hand player takes his place; but if the player is more
-successful, and the ball rebounds into the out-hand spaces, and hopping
-from the ground is sent back to the wall again, to rebound into one of
-the in spaces, the game goes on. In a close-court game the "server" who
-serves the ball properly above the line but not accurately into his
-adversary's court is allowed three trials before his "hand" is out. The
-play of the game is, that the in-player should send the ball in such a
-manner against the wall that, on its rebound, the opposite party, or
-player, shall be able to pick it up or hit it. Whenever this happens, he
-who struck the ball counts one point, or an ace, and the play is
-continued until one player or party scores eleven, or, as is sometimes
-and now more frequently played, fifteen.
-
-This capital game, so conducive to health and affording such excellent
-exercise, may be played either in an open court--that is, a court with
-only one wall, against which the game is played--or in a closed court
-which is surrounded by four walls. Sometimes a compromise is made by the
-employment of the ordinary high front wall, and a smaller back wall,
-omitting the side walls altogether. The closed court game is the best
-and far the most scientific, but the great expense necessary for
-erecting a proper court compels many to content themselves with an
-ordinary old-fashioned open court game, for there seems little doubt
-that the open court game is the oldest and the one which in old days was
-held in highest favour.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-RIDING.
-
- "Fleet as the wind, he shoots along the plain,
- And knows no check, nor heeds the curbing rein;
- His fiery eyeballs, formidably bright,
- Dart a fierce glory, and a glowing light;
- Proud with excess of life he paws the ground,
- Tears up the turf, and spurns the sand around."--_Blacklock._
-
-A boy on horseback is a king on his throne; he feels more than "boy" the
-moment he gets astride of anything in the shape of a nag. Boys have an
-instinct for riding, an impulse they cannot resist, like the instinct
-for eating, breathing or moving. In his earliest days, in the very
-"boyhood of being," "Ride a-cock horse to Banbury Cross" is a ditty of
-infinite delight, and long before the days of corderoys the equestrian
-exercise of "Grandfather's Stick" affords him "joy ineffable." Then
-comes the noble game of Hippas, or the wooden "Bucephalus," on which he
-feels greater than Alexander; and last, though very little, yet still
-not _least_, the "pet Shetland," which adds to the bliss of being
-mounted, a positive progressive locomotion, and the "greater than
-Alexander" is made greater still. Considering, therefore, that all boys
-love riding, it is for us to tell them how they may "mount the fiery
-Pegasus," and ride with elegance and safety,
-
- "To witch the world with noble horsemanship."
-
-[Illustration: RIDING.]
-
-
-THE HORSE.
-
-The horse is one of the most beautiful and graceful animals in nature,
-and perhaps the most useful to man, though in this respect it would be
-difficult to say which of the four or five domesticated quadrupeds bears
-the palm. During life, the horse and the dog would each contest the
-point; while in relative value after death, the bullock, sheep, and
-swine, are fairly entitled to an equal share with them. But there is
-something very captivating in the appearance of the horse, whether used
-for the purposes of war, or for racing, or for hunting, or road-work;
-and in all these several capacities the readers of this book may
-possibly admire him, though it is chiefly as the riding-horse, or hack,
-that he usually attracts their notice.
-
-In the animal kingdom, the horse belongs to the division VERTEBRATA, and
-class MAMMALIA, he having a back-bone composed of vertebræ, and his
-young being suckled. His broad and undivided hoof places him among the
-_ungulata_; and lastly, his teeth are as follows, viz. six front teeth,
-above and below, called "nippers;" two canine in each jaw, called
-"tusks;" and the remainder, consisting of grinders, having flat surfaces
-opposed to each other, with rough ridges on them, by which the grass,
-hay, and corn are rubbed or ground down to a fine pulp, adapted to the
-stomach. These teeth are moved or rolled on each other by a peculiar
-action of the muscles of the jaw, so as to aid the process.
-
-
-THE MARKS OF AGE IN THE HORSE.
-
-By means of the gradual wearing down of the front teeth, or nippers, the
-age of the horse may be known. Each of the nippers has a hollow in its
-upper surface, which is very deep and black when the tooth first rises
-above the gum, and is gradually effaced by the friction caused by the
-cropping of the grass, or by biting at the manger, or other kinds of
-rubbing; but as these vary a good deal according to circumstances, so
-the precise degree of wearing away will also be liable to fluctuations;
-and the rules laid down only approximate to the truth, without positive
-accuracy as to a few months. There are also two sets of teeth; a milk
-set, which first rise, beginning at once after birth, and a permanent
-set, which replace the milk-teeth as they fall out. The milk-teeth come
-up two at a time, but all are up by the end of the first year. The
-permanent teeth, also, make their appearance by twos, the first pair
-showing themselves in the place of the two middle milk-teeth in the
-third year, and being generally level with the other milk-teeth by the
-end of the fourth year, by which time the next pair have fallen out, and
-the permanent teeth have shown themselves in their places. At five years
-of age the horse has lost all his nippers, and his corner permanent
-teeth have nearly completed their growth. The tusks are also above the
-gums. The centre nippers are now much worn, and the next are becoming
-slightly so. At six years old the "mark" in the centre nippers is quite
-gone; at seven years of age this disappears from the next pair, and at
-eight from the corner nippers; after which, none but a professed judge
-is likely to make out the age of the horse by an inspection of his
-mouth; and, indeed, at all times the tyro is liable to be deceived by
-the frauds of the low horse-dealer, who cuts off the top of the teeth,
-and then scoops out a hollow with a gouge; after which a hot iron gives
-the black surface which in the natural state is presented to the eye.
-This trick is called "bishoping."
-
-
-THE PACES OF THE HORSE.
-
-The natural paces of the horse are the walk, trot, and the gallop; to
-them are added by man the canter, and sometimes the amble and the run.
-In the walk, each leg is taken up and put down separately, one after the
-other, the print of the hind foot in good walkers generally extending a
-few inches beyond that of the fore foot. The order in which the feet
-touch the ground is as follows: 1st, the off fore foot; 2d, the near
-hind foot; 3d, the near fore foot; and 4th, the off hind foot.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The gallop consists of a succession of leaps, during a great part of
-which all the feet are off the ground. As the feet come to the ground
-they strike it in regular succession; but the exact order will depend
-upon the lead, which may be either with the off or near fore leg. When
-in action and the horse is leading with the off fore foot (which if
-well broken he would do), the off hind and near fore feet touch the
-ground simultaneously next the near hind foot, and lastly, the off fore
-foot which he leads with. In the trot, the two legs of opposite sides
-are moved exactly together, and touch the ground at the same moment;
-whilst in the amble the two legs of _each side_ move together, and the
-horse is supported for the instant upon the half of his usual and
-regular foundation. To counteract this deficiency in the centre of
-gravity, the body is balanced from side to side in a waddling manner.
-
-
-TERMS USED BY HORSEMEN.
-
-The left side is called the "near side," the right the "off." Four
-inches make "a hand." The upper part of the horse's neck is called his
-"crest;" the bony ridge in front of the saddle the "withers," the part
-between the saddle and the tail the "croup;" the bony points, one on
-each side the bosom, the "shoulder points;" and the line between these
-and the back of the withers, corresponding with the shoulder blade, is
-the "line of the shoulder." The body between the hip and shoulder line
-is called the "middle piece." In the fore legs, the two divisions are
-called the "arm" and "cannon;" above which is the "elbow-joint," and
-between them the "knee-joint." In the hind leg, the two parts are called
-the "thigh" and "cannon;" and the joints are the "stifle" and "hock."
-Below these, in both the hind and fore legs, are the upper and lower
-"pasterns," then the "coronet," or ring between the leg and foot, and
-lastly, "the hoof."
-
-
-FORM OF THE HORSE.
-
-It is a common observation of the horseman that the horse can go in all
-forms; and this is borne out by the fact, that he does occasionally do
-so; but nevertheless, it is well known, that among a large number it
-will be found that those whose form is most in accordance with the shape
-considered the best by good judges, will turn out the best movers. In
-technical language, the horse whose "points" are the best will be the
-best horse. These points are considered to be: a neat head well set on a
-lean wiry neck, the latter with a very gentle curve, whose convexity
-looks upwards (the opposite form to this makes the "ewe neck");
-moderately high withers; a sloping shoulder, wide in the blade, which
-should be well furnished with muscles; strong muscular loins; a croup
-not too straight nor too drooping, with the tail set on with an elegant
-sweep; ribs well rounded, and carried back near to the hips, so as to
-make the horse what is called "well ribbed;" circumference or girth of
-good dimensions, indicating plenty of "bellows' room;" thighs and arms
-muscular; hocks and knees bony and large, without being diseased; cannon
-bones large and flat, with the suspensory ligament and tendon large,
-strong, and clearly defined; fetlock joints strong, but not round and
-inflamed. The eye should be full, clear, and free from specks; and the
-ears should be moderately small and erect; the feet should be round, and
-not contracted at the heels, with a well-formed frog.
-
-
-VARIETIES OF THE HORSE SUITABLE FOR BOYS.
-
-Besides the several kinds of horses suitable for grown people, those for
-boys are the galloway, the cob, and the pony. The first of these may be
-considered either a small horse or a large pony, and is usually about
-fourteen hands high; and though strong and capable of carrying weight,
-yet of a moderately light and active make. He is so called from the
-district where he was originally bred in large numbers. The cob is a
-thick and very strong pony, or galloway, frequently made to look still
-more so by cutting his tail and mane short, called "hogging" them,
-thus--
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Correctly speaking, a pony is understood to be under thirteen hands in
-height, a galloway between thirteen and fourteen and a half, anything
-over that a horse.
-
-Many ponies are now bred almost of pure Arabian blood, and they are well
-suited for lads who have mastered the early difficulties connected with
-keeping the seat under all ordinary circumstances; but as they are
-generally very high-spirited, they are scarcely suited for the beginner,
-and he had better content himself with an animal of more plebeian
-pedigree and sluggish temperament.
-
-
-THE ACCOUTREMENTS AND AIDS
-
-Required by the young amateur, are either a pad or saddle, according to
-his age, together with a bridle and a whip or stick. Spurs are seldom
-desirable for any but the accomplished rider, as they are apt to
-irritate the pony if not used with discretion, and it is rather
-difficult to put an old head upon young shoulders. If the learner is
-very young, a pad which is made without any tree affords a better hold
-for the knees than a regular saddle, and will also enable him to ride
-without stirrups, which feat he will hardly manage on an ordinary smooth
-saddle. The stirrups are of the following form, but are often, for boys,
-made much lighter. They ought always to be used with strong stirrup
-leathers, and these should be attached to the saddle by spring-bars,
-which release the stirrups in case of the leg being entangled in them
-after a fall. The groom should always remove the leathers after the
-ride, and replace them on the opposite side of the saddle, by which
-means their tendency to hang as shown at (_a_), is rectified, and they
-assume the position indicated by the one marked (_b_), both representing
-the left, or near, side.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The bridle is either a single or a double-reined one, according to the
-mouth of the pony ridden. A single-reined bridle is usually a snaffle,
-it being very improper to allow any one to ride with a curb alone,
-unless he has very steady and light hands. The snaffle bit is merely a
-jointed bar of iron (5 5) in the accompanying sketch, but when used
-alone it has a light cross-bar as well as the ring there shown, in order
-to prevent the bit being pulled through the mouth. This, however, in the
-double-reined bridle is omitted, since it would interfere with the
-action of the curb. Snaffles are either smooth or twisted, and are made
-of all sizes, the smallest being only adapted for occasional use, and
-not for the hands of the learner, who should have a large smooth one.
-The curb-bit consists of three parts; the mouthpiece (1), which usually
-has a bend in it called the port, for the purpose of pressing against
-the roof of the mouth; secondly, of the cheek-piece (2), which has a
-ring (3) at the lower end for the attachment of the rein, and another at
-the upper end for the head-piece of the bridle; and thirdly, the
-curb-chain (4). This chain is pressed against the outside of the lower
-jaw, by the upper arm of the curb used as a lever, and it should be
-hooked up sufficiently tight to act upon it by pulling the rein, whilst
-at the same time it should be loose enough to prevent its fretting the
-jaw. This delicacy of adjustment requires some little practice, and the
-young rider should always ask his teacher to show him the proper mode of
-applying the curb-chain. Sometimes a martingale is needed, in order to
-keep the pony's head down, but generally the young rider is better
-without it, if he will keep his hands well down, and avoid all jerking
-of the mouth.
-
-
-MOUNTING.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The rider, even at the earliest age, should first examine the girths and
-the bridle, and see if they are properly adjusted; for though when
-leaving home he may be able to depend upon a steady and experienced
-groom, yet, after putting up at strange stables, he is liable to be led
-into an accident by careless servants, and therefore it is better to get
-into the habit of always inspecting these essentials to safety and
-comfort. If there is an attendant groom, he should hold the rein with
-his right hand, standing by the off shoulder of the horse, so as with
-his left hand to hold the stirrup iron for the rider's right foot as he
-throws it over the horse's back. The next thing to be done is for the
-rider to stand at the shoulder of the pony with his left side towards
-that part. He then lays hold of the reins with his left hand, drawing
-them up so short as to feel the mouth, and at the same time twisting a
-lock of the mane in his fingers so as to steady the hand. Next, the left
-foot is placed in the stirrup when the accompanying attitude is
-presented, exactly as here shown. At this moment a spring is given from
-the right foot, the right hand reaches the cantle of the saddle, and the
-body is raised till the right leg is brought up to the level of the
-left, when the slightest imaginable pause is made, and then the right
-leg is thrown over the back of the pony, keeping the toe down and heel
-elevated, or with the spur on mischief may happen, while the right hand
-leaves its hold, and the body falls into its position in the centre of
-the saddle; after which, the right foot has only to be placed in the
-stirrup to complete the act of mounting.
-
-
-DISMOUNTING
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Is exactly the reverse of the last process, and requires, first, the
-reins to be shortened and held in the left hand with a lock of the mane;
-secondly, the right leg is taken out of the stirrup, and is thrown over
-the back of the horse until it is brought down to the level of the other
-leg. After this, if the pony is of a small size, suitable to that of the
-rider, the body is gently lowered to the ground, and the left leg is
-liberated from the stirrup; but if the horse is too high for this, the
-foot is taken out of the stirrup by raising the body by means of the
-hands on the pommel and cantle of the saddle, and then the body is
-lowered to the ground by their assistance.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE MANAGEMENT OF THE REINS
-
-Is of great importance to the comfort of the rider, and also to his
-appearance, for unless they are held properly, the body is sure to be
-awkwardly balanced. When the single rein is used, the best position is
-to place the middle, ring, and little fingers between the two reins, and
-then to turn both over the fore-finger, where they are tightly held by
-the thumb. In all cases the thumb ought to point towards the horse's
-ears, by which the elbow is sure to be kept in its place close to the
-side, and a good command of the reins is insured. If a double-reined
-bridle is employed, the middle finger separates the two snaffle reins,
-and the little one those attached to the curb, all being turned over the
-fore-finger, and firmly held by the thumb. In both cases the ends of the
-reins are turned over the left, or near, side of the pony's shoulder.
-When it is intended to turn the horse to the left, it is only necessary
-to raise the thumb towards the chest of the rider; and on the contrary,
-when the desire is to turn him to the right, the little finger is turned
-downwards and backwards towards the fork. In many well-broken ponies the
-mere moving of the whole hand to the right or left is sufficient, which,
-by pressing the reins against the neck, indicates the wish of the rider,
-and is promptly responded to by the handy pony. This action, however, is
-objected to by some good horsemen, though, in my opinion, most
-erroneously, as it is capable of being made highly effective in
-practice.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE SEAT
-
-Should always be square to the front, without either shoulder being in
-advance; the loins moderately arched inwards without stiffness; the
-elbows close to the side, but held easily; the knees placed upon the
-padded part of the flat _in front_ of the stirrup-leathers; toes turned
-very slightly outwards, and the foot resting on the stirrup, the inside
-of which should be opposite the ball of the great toe, and the outside
-corresponding with the little toe. In hunting, however, it may be placed
-"home," that is, with the stirrup close to the instep. The heel should
-be well lowered as far as possible beneath the level of the toe, which
-gives a firm seat. But the great point is to obtain a good grasp of the
-saddle by the knees, which should be always ready to lay hold like a
-vice, without however constantly tiring the muscles by such an effort.
-The left hand is now to be held very slightly above the pommel of the
-saddle, and the right easily by the side of it, with the whip held in a
-slanting position, as at page 273, in which however both hands are much
-too high above the withers. In order to show the effect of an incorrect
-mode of holding the reins, the rider has only to place his hands with
-the knuckles in a horizontal position, and the elbow is sure to be
-turned out in a most awkward manner.
-
-
-THE CONTROL OF THE HORSE
-
-Is effected by the reins, heels, voice, and whip, variously used
-according to his disposition and temper. Some require only the most
-gentle usage, which in fact is almost always the most efficacious,
-especially by young people, for whom the horse and dog seem to have an
-especial affection, and to be always more ready to obey them than might
-be expected, when their want of strength to enforce their wishes is
-considered. The young rider will therefore generally find it to his own
-interest, as well as that of the noble animal he bestrides, to use his
-whip and heel as little as possible, and to effect his object solely by
-his voice and the gentlest pressure of the bit. In this way the most
-high-couraged horses are kept in order by young lads in the racing
-stables, and the amateur will do well to follow their example. It is
-astonishing how fond horses and dogs are of being talked to by their
-juvenile masters, and it is right to gratify their love of society by so
-doing on all occasions. The reins serve, as already explained, to turn
-to the right or left, or by drawing tight to stop the horse, and on the
-contrary, by relaxing them to cause him to proceed, aided if necessary
-by the voice, heel, or whip. When it is desired that the right leg
-should lead in the canter or gallop, the left rein is pulled and the
-left leg pressed against the flank, by which means the body of the pony
-is made to present the right side obliquely forwards, and by consequence
-the right leg leads off. On the other hand, if it is wished to lead with
-the left leg, or to change from the right, the right rein is pulled, the
-right leg pressed to the side, and then the left shoulder looks forwards
-and the left leg leads off.
-
-
-MANAGEMENT OF THE WALK.
-
-When it is wished to make the pony walk, he must be quieted down by
-soothing him with the voice if he has been excited by the gallop or
-trot; and then, by sitting very quietly in the saddle, and loosing the
-reins as much as will allow the head to nod in unison with the action of
-the body and legs, the walk is generally at once fallen into, and there
-is no farther difficulty except to prevent a stumble. A tight rein is
-not desirable in this pace, since it prevents that liberty of action
-which is required, and leads to a short walk, or very often a jog-trot;
-and yet there should be such a gentle hold, or preparation for a hold
-rather, as will suffice to check the mouth in case of a mistake. This is
-a very difficult art to acquire, and is only learnt by long practice;
-but as few ponies fall at this pace, great liberty may generally be
-allowed to their mouths. Besides this, little is necessary, more than to
-sit steadily, _but not stiffly_, in the saddle, and not to sway about
-more than is sufficient to avoid the appearance of having swallowed a
-poker.
-
-
-THE TROT AND CANTER
-
-Are effected by rather different methods, but both require a very steady
-hand, and a quiet treatment. In order to cause the pony to trot, the
-reins are taken rather short in the hand, and the mouth is held somewhat
-firmly, but taking great care not to jerk it. The animal is then
-slightly stimulated by the voice, and the body, if necessary, rises from
-the saddle, as in the trot, so as to indicate what is wanted. This
-seldom fails to effect the purpose, and the horse at once breaks into a
-trot; or, if very irritable, he may be compelled to do so by laying hold
-of an ear and twisting it, to avoid which he drops his head, and trots
-as a natural consequence. The canter is also an acquired pace, and for
-its due performance a curb-bridle is required. In order to make the pony
-begin this pace, the left rein is pulled, and the rider's left leg
-pressed against the side, by which the horse's right leg is made to lead
-off, this being the most usual, and certainly the most comfortable
-"lead" for the rider. The hands must make a very gentle and steady pull
-on the curb-rein, and the body generally must be very quiet in the
-saddle, whilst, at the same time, a very gentle stimulus is given by
-the voice, which must be repeated at short intervals, or the canter will
-be changed to a trot, or walk, both of which are preferred to it by most
-ponies and horses. Young riders should avoid cantering long upon one
-leg, as it leads to inflammation of the joints, and they should either
-change the lead or alter the pace to a trot or walk.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE MANAGEMENT OF THE GALLOP
-
-Requires little instruction, practice being the main agent in effecting
-a good seat during this pace. The seat is either close to the saddle,
-with the body inclining backwards (p. 275), or standing in the stirrups,
-in which position the knees and calves only touch the saddle, and the
-body is bent forwards over the withers (p. 273). It should be the
-endeavour of the rider, while he bends his shoulders forwards, to throw
-his loins well back, so as to avoid straining the horse's fore-quarters,
-by bearing too much weight upon them. This is done by the hold of the
-knees on the saddle, and by keeping the feet back, also by rounding the
-loins backwards, and thus throwing the centre of gravity as far as
-possible behind the stirrup leathers. The object of standing in the
-stirrups is to save the horse when at his full gallop, as in racing, or
-in hunting, when he is going over ploughed ground or up hill. In either
-of these cases, this attitude allows the horse to exert himself without
-feeling the weight of the rider impede his movements more than can be
-avoided.
-
-
-LEAPING
-
-Is only an extra exertion added to the ordinary spring of the gallop,
-the attitude being exactly the same. It is best learnt by beginning with
-small ditches, which the rider is soon able to clear without difficulty.
-He may next try sheep-hurdles, or very low stiles; but the latter being
-strong and firmly fixed, are dangerous to the rider, unless the pony is
-very sure of clearing them. A leaping-bar, if procurable, should always
-be adopted in preference to either, as a fall over it is not attended
-with any bad consequences. The groom should place it at the lowest
-notch, and the pony then may be suffered to clear it at a moderate
-gallop; after which, if the young rider is able to sit pretty closely,
-he may be indulged with a higher notch, and gradually it may be raised
-until the limits of the pony's powers are reached. In riding at a bar,
-the learner should lay hold of a snaffle-rein in each hand, taking care
-to keep them close together, by the right rein being held also in the
-left hand. The pony is then to be urged to a smart canter or hand
-gallop, and held straight to the bar in this way, so that he is obliged
-to leap; or if disliking the act, being urged by the whip down the
-shoulder, or the spur, or the groom's voice and whip behind. Young
-riders, however, should never be put upon a bad or reluctant leaper, but
-should be taught upon one which is fond of the amusement. At the moment
-of rising into the air for the leap the reins are relaxed, but should
-not be left quite loose; while the pony is in the air the body becomes
-upright, and as he descends it leans well back, until, after a high
-leap, it almost touches the croup. During this period the reins should
-be suffered to remain nearly loose, the hand barely feeling the mouth;
-but as the pony reaches the ground a stronger hold is taken, in order to
-guard against a mistake, which might require the aid of the rider to
-prevent a fall. It is not that he can keep the animal up, but that he
-checks him, and makes him exert himself in a double degree. There are
-various kinds of leaping; as the flying leap, the standing leap, the
-leap in hand, &c. The flying leap is merely one taken at a fast pace,
-and when the rider can maintain a good seat in the gallop, it is the
-easiest of all to sit. The standing leap is effected from a state of
-quiescence, and is much more difficult to sit, because the horse rises
-and falls more suddenly and abruptly. Between the two is the slow or
-steady leap, which is only effected safely by the clever hunter or
-well-broken pony; but when perfect it is almost as smooth as a
-rocking-horse. This is the mode in which the young rider should be
-taught to leap. Leaping in hand is necessary for most ponies in the
-hunting field, which would otherwise never be able to compete with
-full-sized hunters in the way they do. The young hunter, when he meets
-with a gate or other strong fence, which he knows is too much for the
-powers of his pony, at once gets off and leads him over by the rein; and
-when well taught, these little creatures will often tilt themselves over
-high timber, &c. in a marvellously clever manner, so that I have known
-them in this way obtain a good place in long and severe runs. If,
-therefore, my readers are allowed to partake in this exciting sport
-during their Christmas holidays, they should teach their ponies to leap
-in hand, or they will be sure to be thrown out.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-TREATMENT OF VICES.
-
-The chief vices which are met with among ponies are--1st, Obstinate
-Stopping; 2d, Stumbling from Carelessness; 3d, Rearing; 4th, Kicking;
-5th, Shying; and 6th, Running Away.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-_Obstinate Stopping_, which in its worst forms is called "jibbing," is a
-very troublesome vice, and even in the saddle is sometimes attended with
-danger, whilst in driving it is so to a dreadful degree.
-
-The rider should never attempt to force his pony forward with the whip
-or spur, which only aggravates the bad-tempered brute; but should
-patiently sit quiet in the saddle, and keep his temper, until the pony
-chooses to move forward again. In this way sometimes very vicious
-animals are cured when they find that their stable is not the sooner
-reached by their device; on the other hand, if the whip is used, the
-pony, especially if of Welsh breed, is very apt to lie down and roll his
-rider in the dirt, or even sometimes to bolt into a river, or pond, and
-leave him in danger of his life. My young friends will therefore
-remember my advice when being mounted upon an obstinate pony, and having
-lost their tempers, they have proceeded to use their whips, and are
-bemired or half drowned in consequence.
-
-_Stumbling_ is more a defect of conformation than a vice; but
-nevertheless, it greatly depends upon a want of spirit to keep up a
-steady action of the fore legs. It often happens that a pony trots along
-for a mile or two safely enough; but after going that distance he
-becomes lazy and careless, and trips with one foot and then with the
-other, a sure prelude to such a fall as the following, which would be a
-very bad one, and sufficient to cut both knees to the bone, and to cause
-serious damage to the rider. The only way to avoid such accidents is to
-keep the pony at a steady pace, fast enough to keep him alive, but not
-enough so to tire him. Loose stones and broken ground should be avoided,
-and a careful hold should be kept upon the mouth, without being so tight
-as to gag it. When a stumble actually takes place, the body should be
-well thrown back and the mouth forcibly jerked, so as to make the pony
-exert himself to keep his legs. An unsafe animal of this kind is,
-however, wholly unfit for young riders, and they should never be allowed
-to ride one.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-_Rearing_ is a very dangerous vice, and not very common among ponies
-after they are once broken in. If the rider should, however, be placed
-upon a rearer, he should be careful to avoid hanging upon the bit when
-he rises in the air, but on the contrary should loose the reins
-entirely, and clasp the neck, if the pony should rise very high in the
-air. The accompanying sketch shows this vice in a very trifling degree,
-and in such a case the seat thus represented is sufficiently forward to
-prevent accidents.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The rider will, however, observe that the reins are quite loose. It
-often happens that this vice is produced by too tight and severe a curb
-in a tender mouth, and that upon changing the bit, or letting out the
-curb chain, the tendency to rise is entirely gone. Whenever, therefore,
-the young rider finds his pony inclined to rear, let him look well to
-his bit, and at once drop the curb rein if he has one. If, however, he
-has only a snaffle, he may rest assured that it is a regular habit, and
-at once make up his mind either to battle with it or to change his pony.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-_Kicking_ is much more common among ponies than rearing, and very many
-of these little animals are given to practise it. It is perhaps partly
-owing to the teasing of their young masters that it is so common; but
-whatever the cause, there can be no doubt that it is too prevalent among
-them. Sometimes it exists as a regular attempt to unhorse the rider,
-which is a very troublesome habit, and one very difficult to break,
-because it so often succeeds that the pony is tempted to try again. When
-this vice is met with, the rider should do all in his power to keep his
-pony's head up, by jerking the bit, and at the same time he should sit
-well back, with his feet well forwards, with heels down, and trust to
-his knees in holding on. When kicking is only the result of high spirits
-and "freshness," the best remedy is a smart gallop, which soon stops all
-these pranks, and makes the most riotous animal quiet.
-
-_Shying_ is also very common among ponies, and in them is often the
-result of cunning, which leads them to pretend a greater degree of
-shyness than they really possess. The best mode of treatment is to take
-as little notice as possible of the shying, but carefully to make the
-pony pass the object at which he is looking, without regarding how this
-is effected. The whip should seldom be used at all, and never _after_
-the object is passed.
-
-_Bolting, or Running Away_, is often the result of want of exercise, but
-sometimes it is a systematic vice. A powerful bit and a steady seat,
-with good hands, are the best means of grappling with this habit, which
-is sometimes a very dangerous one. If the pony really runs away, the
-rider should not pull dead at his mouth, but should relax his hold for a
-short time, and then take a sharp pull, which is often effectual. A good
-gallop until he is tired will often cure a runaway for the rest of his
-life. There are a variety of bits intended expressly to counteract this
-vice, such as the Hanoverian Pelham, the curb with a high port, &c.; but
-nothing is perfectly effectual where there is a determination to run
-away. A nose-band has lately been invented for the purpose, which
-answers better than anything hitherto brought out; it consists of a long
-nose-band which crosses behind the jaw and then hooks on to the bit in
-the same way as the ordinary curb-chain. When the rein is pulled hard,
-this nose-band is drawn tight round the jaw, by which the mouth is
-closed, and the port is pressed strongly against the roof of the mouth,
-causing a great degree of pain, sufficient to stop most horses. This
-powerful remedy, which has been named the Bucephalus nose-band, should
-not lightly be used; but in the case of a runaway horse, or pony, it is
-the only really efficacious one.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-ROWING.
-
- "A boat, a boat, is the toy for me,
- To rollic about in on river and sea;
- To be a child of the breeze and the gale,
- And like a wild bird on the deep to sail,
- This is the life for me!"--_Procter._
-
-
-HISTORICAL MEMORANDA.
-
-The sea service is the glory of Old England, notwithstanding all the
-glorious land service of ancient and modern days. A country having
-nearly ten thousand miles of sea-coast, with numerous ports, harbours,
-estuaries, river mouths, and capacious bays, must ever be a maritime
-nation, and look for its supremacy to the sea--to her sons being
-amphibious; and nothing is better calculated to develop the inherent
-instinct for sea duties than the amusements of boating, of rowing, of
-sailing, and other aquatic sports. Every young gentleman in England
-should know how to manage a boat, and to sail a cutter; and it will be
-our duty to initiate him into the methods of doing so.
-
-The origin of ships must be traced to the ark of Noah; but this was
-not a sailing or a rowing vessel, but simply a large floating house or
-receptacle for Noah and his family, and the various types of animated
-nature. The first navigators were the Ph[oe]nicians, who sailed in
-various seas. They were succeeded by the ships of Carthage, Egypt,
-Venice, Genoa, Holland, and Portugal. The Saxons under Alfred, and the
-Danes under Canute, had formidable navies. Alfred, who ascended the
-throne in 872, commenced the first English fleet in person, and is said
-to have suggested a variety of improvements in the structure, as well as
-greatly to have increased the size of the vessels, some of the largest
-of which carried sixty oars. After the death of Alfred, the naval power
-of England seems to have lain dormant; and this, no doubt, tempted the
-Norman invasion in 1066, under William the Bastard, who sailed for the
-coast of England with a fleet of 900 vessels; and so sensible was he of
-the importance of the naval service, that he gave certain privileges to
-certain towns on the sea-coast, which were from their number called the
-Cinque Ports. Richard I. fitted out large fleets; and his successor,
-John, asserted the exclusive right of the English nation to the dominion
-of the seas. The reign of Edward I. was also distinguished for successes
-at sea. Henry VII., on gaining the throne, in 1485, put the navy into
-a respectable condition; and a large ship, called the "Great Harry,"
-which may properly be termed the first _ship_ of the British navy, was
-built at a cost of 14,000_l._ The discovery of America, about the period
-of the accession of Henry VIII., gave a new stimulus to our navy, and
-many ships were then built of large tonnage, some of a thousand tons.
-But Queen Elizabeth, deeply impressed with the maxim, that "whosoever
-commands the sea, commands the trade of the world," and that "whosoever
-commands the trade, commands the riches of the world," and consequently
-the world itself, so encouraged and restored the marine, that she may
-be called the "Restorer of the naval power of England;" and, in a few
-years after, the invasion of the Spanish Armada put our naval power
-to the proof. Charles I., the great and courageous Cromwell, and even
-the pleasure-loving Charles II., were all impressed with the great
-advantages of a formidable navy; and in the reign of Anne, fifty-two
-French ships, containing more than 3,000 guns, were captured. And during
-the reign of George III. the naval superiority was placed by a series
-of glorious successes beyond all dispute; and it is to be hoped that
-the reign of our beloved Queen Victoria, who is herself a sailor, and
-full of every generous aspiration that belongs to a British Tar, will,
-notwithstanding the "mistakes of the Admiralty," prove that England
-still retains the sovereignty of the ocean, and on that element she will
-defy the world.
-
-
-CONSTRUCTION OF ANCIENT SHIPS AND GALLEYS.
-
-The Egyptian vessels are the earliest of which any well-authenticated
-graphic illustration has been preserved. We here give a view of one of
-their earliest sailing vessels. The celebrated Egyptian vessel called
-the "Isis" is said to have been in length 180 feet, in breadth 45 feet,
-and in height, from the upper edge of the deck to the bottom of the
-well, 43 feet. The well-known ship of Hiero, king of Syracuse, was
-nearly 400 tons burden.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-ROMAN GALLEYS, SHIPS, ETC.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-They were in length about 125 feet, and in breadth 10 feet. Their first
-requisite was swiftness, and no part of the side was left vacant where
-an oar could be put out; hence they had often three banks of oars, one
-above the other. In most ancient ships, there was placed at the prow an
-image called "the sign." The part of the vessel that cut the water was
-called the "goose." At the stern, which generally resembled a shield,
-was set or some way delineated a representation of the deity to whose
-tutelary favour the ship was committed, and to which daily prayer and
-sacrifice were offered. War ships were chiefly rowed with oars, that
-they might be able to tack about. The first long ships were rowed with
-fifty oars, but afterwards a larger number was used. In the more perfect
-condition of ancient navigation, there were some ships that had as many
-as five tiers of oars, and three hundred rowers. Two large holes at the
-prow of the vessel, occasionally used for oars, were called the ship's
-"eyes;" and a wooden projection at the prow, covered with brass, was
-called a "beak;" and pieces of wood placed on each side of the prow of a
-vessel, to ward off the force of the enemy's beak, were called the
-ship's "ears." Over these vessels were certain raised platforms, and on
-their forecastles were towers on which the soldiers stood, whose shields
-were usually hung upon the railings which begirt the ship. The sides of
-the prow were called "cheeks." The anchors at first used were often
-large stones, or even bags of sand; afterwards, however, the ancient
-ships carried anchors with one, two, and four flukes. The larger anchor
-was called the "sacred anchor," and reserved for the most trying
-occasions. Among the ancients, ships were usually termed "horses," which
-explains many ancient fables. The elder Pliny, for instance, tells us of
-a boy who was carried by water some miles every day on the back of a
-dolphin to school; the vessel, in all probability, having a dolphin at
-the prow. Arion, the famous musician of Lesbos, having made great wealth
-in foreign parts by his profession, was returning home by ship, when the
-sailors resolved to kill him, and seize upon his riches. Playing once
-again, at his last request, a favourite tune, he leaped into the sea. A
-dolphin, attracted by his melody, received him safely on its back, and
-carried him again to the coast where Periander lived. Arion, doubtless,
-escaped by a boat, the fore-part of which consisted of a dolphin.
-
-Having thus given the young reader a notion of ancient boats and ships,
-we shall now proceed to make him acquainted with the modern practices of
-rowing, boating, sailing, &c.
-
-
-OF BOATS.
-
-A _Boat_ is properly a vessel propelled by oars. In a more extensive
-sense the word is applied to other small vessels, which differ in
-construction and name, according to the services in which they are
-employed. Thus they are light or strong, sharp or flat-bottomed, open or
-decked, according as they are intended for swiftness or burden, deep or
-shallow water, &c.
-
-The _Barge_ is a long, light, narrow boat, employed in harbours, and
-unfit for sea. The _Long Boat_ is the largest boat belonging to a ship,
-generally furnished with two sails, and is employed for cruising short
-distances, bringing the cargo and bales on board, &c.
-
-The _Launch_ is more flat-bottomed than the long boat, which it has
-generally superseded. The _Pinnace_ resembles the barge, but is smaller.
-The _Cutters_ of a ship are broader and deeper than the barge or
-pinnace, and are employed in carrying light articles, single passengers,
-&c. on board.
-
-_Yawls_ are used for similar purposes to the barge and pinnace. A _Gig_
-is a long, narrow boat, used for expedition, and rowed with six or eight
-oars. The _Jolly Boat_ is smaller than a yawl, and is used for going on
-shore. A merchant ship seldom has more than two boats,--a long boat and
-a yawl.
-
-A _Wherry_ is a light, sharp boat, used in a river or harbour for
-transporting passengers. A _Punt_ is a flat-bottomed boat, chiefly used
-for fishing on a fresh water river. A _Skiff_ is a small sharp-nosed
-boat, used in rivers. A _Dingy_ is a very small stiff boat used by
-yachts. A _Yacht_ is a pleasure sailing-boat. A _Lugger_ is a boat
-which is furnished with sails of a peculiar cut. A _Funny_ is a small
-light boat used in river rowing, and made with her bow and stern nearly
-alike.
-
-
-THE COMPONENT PARTS OF BOATS.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Rowing boats consist of the bows (1); the stem, or entrance (2); the
-stern (8), where are the rudder and the lines for steering; the rowlocks
-(3), for giving purchase to the oars; and the thwarts, or seats (4). At
-the bottom are the foot-boards (5), which are easily removed, in order
-to bail out any water which may leak into the boat. Besides these parts
-there is a board placed across the boat for the feet of the rower,
-called a stretcher. The whole boat is composed of one or more planks,
-called streaks, nailed upon a light oak framework, called the timbers,
-or ribs; and the upper streak, upon which the rowlocks are placed, is
-called the wale-streak. Boats with two rowlocks opposite each other are
-called sculling boats, and are propelled by a pair of light oars called
-sculls, the art being called "sculling." When a boat is fitted with a
-pair of rowlocks not opposite each other, it is called a pair-oared
-boat. If with two in the middle opposite each other, and two others, one
-before and the other behind, but not opposite each other, it is called a
-_randan_. When a boat has four rowlocks, none of which are opposite one
-another, it is called a four-oared boat, and so on up to ten oars, which
-is the utmost limit in common use for any kind of boat but the pleasure
-barge, which sometimes has twenty-four oars, as in the City barges of
-London. The rowlock nearest the bow is called the bow rowlock, or No. 1;
-the next No. 2, and so on; and the oars used in them receive the same
-number, the one nearest the stern being called the "stroke oar." The
-rowlocks in river and sea boats are somewhat different in shape though
-identical in principle, both consisting of a square space of about the
-breadth of a man's hand, and both lying on the wale-streak; but in river
-boats being generally bounded before and behind by a flat piece of oak
-or ash called, respectively, the thowl-pin and stopper; whilst in sea
-boats they are merely common round wooden pins dropped into holes made
-in the wale-streak, but still receiving the same names. The thowl-pin is
-for the purpose of pulling the oar against, whilst the stopper prevents
-the oar from slipping forwards when the rower is pushing it in that
-direction after the stroke.
-
-
-THE OARS AND SCULLS.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-A scull is a small oar used with one hand, and requiring a pair, as in
-the case of oars, one being placed in the rowlock on each side the boat,
-and the pair being used by one person with his right and left hands.
-Oars are used by both hands, and a pair-oared boat consequently requires
-two oarsmen; a four-oared boat four, and so on. Both sculls and oars
-consist of the same parts, except that the handle of the _oar_ is made
-long enough for both hands, as at (_b_). In every case there is a
-rounded handle (_a b_), a loom, square in form, and extending from the
-handle to the button, or about one-third of the length of the oar; and
-beyond the button is the blade, which is first nearly round, and then
-gradually widens, until it assumes the form best adapted for laying hold
-of the water, which is now found to be broad rather than long, as was
-formerly thought to be desirable. The button is a piece of leather
-nailed on to prevent the oar from slipping through the rowlock, but only
-used in river rowing, as it is not adapted for the rough work which is
-often met with in sea rowing.
-
-
-SEA ROWING.
-
-This is necessarily less elegant than river rowing, because of the rough
-nature of the element on which the exercise is pursued. The oar must be
-held firmly in the hands, the inside hand being placed at (_b_), and the
-outside at (_a_), and both hands grasping the oar between the thumbs and
-fingers. The whole art consists in the crew moving backwards and
-forwards together, called "swinging," and laying hold of the water as
-well as they can, taking care to avoid pulling in the air with great
-force when there is a trough or interval between two waves, and on the
-other hand equally avoiding a heavy wave, which has a tendency to dash
-the oar out of the hand. All this requires practice in the rowers, and
-also in the steersman, called the coxswain, who should watch for the
-high waves, and warn his men when a heavy one is coming. He should also
-take care to cross the roll of the sea as much as possible, so as to
-avoid being struck on the side of the boat called "the counter," which
-would either swamp her, or else knock the oars out of the rowlocks. In
-this kind of rowing, the "feathering" of the oar, to be presently
-described, is not attempted, on account of the roughness of the water,
-but it merely is pulled steadily, but strongly, backwards, and is then
-pushed forwards in the rowlocks.
-
-
-RIVER ROWING.
-
-The art of river rowing is capable of a high degree of elegance, and few
-sights are more pleasing to a lover of graceful forms than that of a
-crew of fine lads, or young men, rowing well together and in good style.
-To do this requires great practice, and attention to a few essential
-points, which I will here endeavour to describe.
-
-
-MANAGEMENT OF THE OAR.
-
-The rower should, as far as possible, take some good oarsman for his
-model, and endeavour to imitate him in every respect, which is the only
-mode of acquiring a good style. Description is useful in putting the
-learner in the way of acquiring what is to be taught, but it is not
-all-sufficient for the purpose. In the first place, the learner should
-place himself square on the seat, with his feet straight before him, and
-the toes slightly turned out. The knees may either be kept together, in
-the Newcastle or Clasper style, or separated considerably, as practised
-generally in England, the latter being in my opinion the better mode, as
-it allows the body to come more forward over the knees. The feet are to
-be placed firmly against the stretcher, which is to be let out or
-shortened, to suit the length of the individual; and one foot may be
-placed in the strap which is generally attached to the stretcher in
-modern boats. The oar is then taken in hand, raising it by the handle,
-and then either at once placing it in the rowlock, or else first
-dropping it flat on the water, and then raising the handle it may gently
-be lowered to its place. The outside hand is placed upon the handle at
-(_a_), with the thumb as well as the fingers above it, while the other
-hand firmly grasps it lower down at (_b_), keeping the nut towards the
-person. The arms are now quickly thrust forward till they are quite
-straight at the elbows, _after which_ the back follows them by bending
-forward at the hips, carefully avoiding any roundness of the shoulders.
-When the hands have reached their full stretch they are raised, and the
-blade quietly and neatly dropped into the water; immediately after
-which, and with the water just covering the blade, the body is brought
-back with a graceful yet powerful action, till it reaches a part a
-little behind the perpendicular of the back of the seat, when the hands
-are brought back to the ribs, the elbows gliding close by the hips; and
-at the last moment, as the hand touches the rib, the wrist of the inside
-hand is depressed, the knuckles being at the same time brought against
-the chest, and the oar is made to rotate in the rowlock, which is called
-"feathering" it, and by which it is brought cleanly out of the water.
-The next action is to push the oar rapidly forward again, first however
-restoring it to its original position in the rowlock, which is effected
-by raising the wrist, and then darting the arms forward till the elbows
-are quite straight, which brings the rower to where we started from in
-the description. In "backing water" the reverse of these actions takes
-place. The oar is first reversed in the rowlock, and then it is _pushed_
-through the water with as much power as is needed, and _pulled_ through
-the air. When the oars on one side are pulled, and those on the other
-are backed, the boat is made to turn on its own water. "Holding water"
-is effected by the oars being held in the position of backing without
-moving them.
-
-
-THE ESSENTIAL POINTS IN ROWING.
-
-1st. To straighten the arms before bending the body forward; 2d, to drop
-the oar cleanly into the water; 3d, to draw it straight through at the
-same depth; 4th, to feather neatly, and without bringing the oar out
-before doing so; 5th, to use the back and shoulders freely, keeping the
-arms as straight as possible; and 6th, to keep the eyes fixed upon the
-rower before them, avoiding looking out of the boat, by which means the
-body is almost sure to swing backwards and forwards in a straight line.
-
-
-MANAGEMENT OF THE BOAT.
-
-Every boat without a rudder is man[oe]uvred in the water, either by
-pulling both sides alike, in which case it progresses in a straight
-line, or by reversing the action of the oars, equally on both sides,
-pushing them through the water instead of pulling them, and called
-backing water, when the boat recedes; or by pulling one side only, on
-which the boat describes a segment of a circle, which is made smaller by
-pulling one oar, and backing the other. By means of a rudder the boat
-is made to take a certain course, independent of the rowers, called
-"steering," the chief art in which consists in keeping the rudder as
-still as possible, by holding the lines "taut," and avoiding pulling
-them from one side to the other more than is absolutely necessary.
-Some steersmen think it necessary to swing backwards and forwards with
-a great effort, but this is quite useless, and the more still they
-keep the better. Every coxswain should know the course of the stream
-or tide; and when meeting other boats he should, if he is going down
-stream, give them the side nearest the shore, so as to allow them the
-advantage of the slack water, which is quite prejudicial to him. When
-a crew are steered by a competent coxswain, they ought to be perfectly
-obedient to his commands, rowing exactly as he tells them. His orders
-are communicated by the following words, viz. when desiring his crew
-to row he says, "Pull all;" or if wishing any one oar to be pulled, he
-says "Pull bow," or "Pull, No. 3," or 4, &c. as the case may be. If
-they are to stop rowing, he says "Easy all," or for any one oar, "Easy
-bow," or No. 2. The same kind of order is conveyed when "backing" or
-"holding water" is desired; the only variation, as before, being between
-confining his order to any one or more oars, or extending it to all. In
-this way all the evolutions practicable on the water are managed, and
-the coxswain has complete control over the boat, being able to cause her
-to be rowed slowly or quickly, or to be stopped, backed, or turned on
-her own centre.
-
-
-ROWING TOGETHER
-
-Is of the utmost importance to the success of a boat when she is manned
-by a crew; and they should all endeavour to attain the same style as the
-"stroke-oar," who should be the best in the boat, and as free from
-faults as possible. In a four or eight-oared boat, every one of the crew
-would do well to imitate his stroke by rowing with him occasionally in a
-pair-oared boat, or else, if this is not practicable, by pulling behind
-a waterman who rows in the same style as the stroke-oar. In this way an
-uniform kind of rowing is attained, and the boat is propelled equally by
-all at the same time. The great object is for all to lay hold of the
-water at the same moment, and pull their oars through it and out with
-the same power and at the same time; this is called "keeping stroke."
-"Keeping time" means, all "feathering" the oar together, by which the
-peculiar click of the oars in the rowlocks is made exactly at the same
-instant. When this is not done precisely together, the "time" is
-defective, and the ear at once detects the error; but even when the
-"time" is ever so good, the want of keeping stroke is fatal to the speed
-of any boat, however good the individuals may be.
-
-
-CAUTIONS TO YOUNG ROWERS.
-
-Do not be over anxious to avoid "catching crabs," which is an event
-likely to occur in early practice; and should it happen, throw the oar
-quickly upwards out of the rowlock, and no mischief will ensue. The
-young rower should be at once shown how to free his oar in this way, and
-then he may pull with that freedom from restraint which is necessary to
-produce a good style. Do not stand on the seats, or lean out of the
-boat, and never attempt any practical jokes on the water, as it is a
-dangerous element to trifle with.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-SAILING.
-
- "The tar's a jolly tar, that can hand, reef and steer,
- That can nimbly cast-off and belay;
- Who in darkest of nights finds each halliard and gear,
- And dead reckoning knows well, and leeway:
- But the tar to please me must more jolly be,
- He must laugh at the waves as they roar."--_Dibdin._
-
-It would be very difficult to trace to its origin the art of sailing.
-Perhaps the curled leaf passing over the water, with one end erect,
-might have given to observant man the first notion of a sail. It has
-been supposed that the _Nautila_, _Argonaut_, or sailor-fish, was
-suggestive of the first sailing-vessel; but long before the Argonaut had
-been noticed, sails of some kind or other had no doubt been common. A
-man could not stand in the simplest boat without perceiving that the
-wind exerted a power upon him and his boat; and therefore the idea of a
-sail must have been identical with the first launching of the rudest
-boat. The _science_ of sailing, however, has grown up gradually through
-a succession of ages, and has now reached a perfection of which the
-ancients had no idea.
-
-We will first speak of the various kinds of vessels, which are
-distinguished principally by the number of masts, and the number and
-shape of their sails.
-
-A _Sloop_ is properly a vessel with one mast, having her sails, with the
-exception of her topsails, set in the plane of her length, which is
-technically called "set fore and aft." Her topsail is a square sail,
-rigged at right angles to the plane of her length. The bowsprit is
-generally elevated from the bows, inclining slightly to the deck. The
-term "sloop" is now usually applied to a man-of-war, ship-rigged, and
-carrying less than 18 guns.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-A _Cutter_ differs from a sloop in being without a square sail, and in
-having her bowsprit horizontal; her mast at the same time "raking" aft.
-Her topsail is fore and aft, and triangular in shape.
-
-A _Brig_ is a square-rigged vessel, with two masts.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-A _Schooner_ is a two-masted vessel, with fore and aft topsails, which
-are called gaff-topsails. Sometimes she has a square fore-topsail and
-top-gallantsail.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-A _Brigantine_ is something between a schooner and a brig, and is worked
-either with oars (called sweeps) or sails.
-
-[Illustration: DUTCH GALLEOT.]
-
-A _Dutch Galleot_ is rigged like a schooner, but of a broader and more
-Chinese build, her bottom being nearly flat.
-
-A _Billy-boy_ is rigged sometimes like a sloop, and sometimes like a
-schooner; but her bottom is nearly flat, and she draws but little water.
-
-A _Smack_ is a small vessel with one mast like a cutter, used
-principally for fishing.
-
-A _Canoe_ is a boat used by savages, usually made of a trunk of a tree,
-hollowed.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-A _Felucca_ has two triangular sails, is used in the Mediterranean, and
-is particularly swift. It can also use oars in calm weather.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-A _Junk_ is a Chinese vessel, used either for war or merchandise, is
-built very heavily.
-
-A _Proa_ is used by the natives of the Ladrone Islands, and is
-remarkable for its swiftness and sailing close to the wind. The lee-side
-is quite straight, and the weather-side is convex, like a common boat.
-Both head and stern are equally sharp; and in working her there is no
-necessity to tack or turn at any time. Besides this peculiarity of
-construction, the proa has on her lee-side what is called an
-"out-rigger," which is made of two poles, extending about 10 feet from
-her side, having at their extremity a piece of solid wood. This prevents
-her from having any lee-way. She will sail with a good wind twenty miles
-an hour.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The natives of the Society Islands use a canoe, averaging in length from
-ten to forty feet. It is made of a trunk of a tree, hollowed out; and is
-just wide enough for a person to sit down. It will carry from one to as
-many as thirty persons. It also has an outrigger, like a proa. When a
-native leaves one island to go to another, he joins two large canoes
-together, and builds on them a small hut, which will hold all his
-family. This is the most convenient way to travel in a canoe, for it is
-difficult to see anything but one's knees when sitting down in the
-ordinary manner. These canoes carry a square sail in the fore-part.
-
-We will now speak of the vessels we have most to do with--viz. yachts.
-
-
-CHARACTERS OF A YACHT.
-
-Speed, safety, and accommodation are the three first qualities of a
-yacht. She ought to be pleasing to the eye when afloat, of such a
-breadth as to carry her canvass with ease, and at the same time so
-sharp in her bow and well-shapen astern as to displace her weight of
-water smoothly and gradually, while she leaves it in the same way.
-
-
-VARIOUS KINDS OF YACHTS.
-
-Yachts are of various kinds, according to their size. If more than
-eighty tons burden, the schooner is most suitable; for, as the spars are
-more numerous, they are proportionally lighter. The schooner, as has
-been before observed, has two masts--the foremast and mainmast; the one
-bearing the sail called the boom-foresail, and the other a mainsail. She
-has two or more headsails, called staysail, fore-staysail, and jib. Her
-topsails are either square or fore and aft.
-
-The _Cutter_ has one mast and four sails--viz. mainsail, maintopsail,
-foresail, and jib. Some smaller craft have larger jibs, and no foresail.
-
-The _Dandy-rigged Yacht_ differs from a cutter, in having no boom for
-her mainsail, which can consequently be brailed up by a rope passing
-round it. She has a mizen-mast standing in the stern, which sets a sail
-called a mizen, and which is stretched on a horizontal spar, projecting
-over the stern. This style of rig is more safe for a yacht, as the boom
-in ordinary cutters is liable to sweep persons overboard; and the sail
-can be taken in quicker by brailing it up than by lowering it down.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The _Hatteener_ has only two sails, a fore and a main sail, of a
-triangular shape. Each has a spar standing from the deck to the peak of
-the sail, and a boom at the bottom, like a cutter. This rig, from
-setting more canvass abaft, is well adapted for narrow waters.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-One of the most handy rigs for a young sailor is a triangular mainsail
-and foresail rig, on a good-sized open boat. She should be at least
-twenty feet long, and five feet on her beam. The foresail is carried
-over the stem for about a foot, by means of an iron bowsprit, which
-ships and unships on the nose of the boat. Her mainsail has a spar
-reaching from the lower part of the mast to the upper corner of the
-sail; a rope is fastened in the middle of this spar, and passes through
-a block on the mast, by which the sail is hoisted. The advantages of
-this rig are, that it can be easily managed, while under it the boat is
-much safer than under most other kinds of rig; for, should a squall
-arise, the yachtsman has only to let fly his foresheet and put his helm
-alee, and the boat will right immediately. With this rig, a boat stands
-very well to windward, and may be easily brought about.
-
-
-DESCRIPTION OF THE CUTTER YACHT.
-
-But the vessel with which we have most to do in our directions for
-sailing is the Cutter Yacht, which stands closer to the wind than any
-other kind of European boat; and of which we propose, in the first
-instance, to give a general description.
-
-
-CONSTRUCTION OF THE HULL.
-
-The first step in the construction of the hull is laying down the keel
-or backbone of the vessel; which is done by fixing a strong piece of
-wood, generally oak, upon blocks, that the rest of the timber may be
-securely added; the stem is then joined to the fore-post, nearly at
-right angles, slanting a little forward as it ascends; and the
-stern-post to its after or hinder part, sloping upwards and backwards.
-The timbers and ribs are next cut out of solid wood, and placed
-transversely on the keel, their width varying according to the lines of
-a plan previously drawn out,--being, of course, farthest apart at the
-beam; these, as well as the planks of larger craft, are made to bend
-into the required shape by being steamed and bolted in while hot. The
-skeleton being completed, her planks are then secured by copper or iron
-nails to the timbers, and riveted. The deck is made of narrow planks,
-running fore and aft. From the level of the deck, her sides are raised
-by upright timbers, called "stancheons," cased over by the bulwarks, and
-surmounted by a rail called the "gunwale." Some yachts are only
-half-decked, the after-part being left open and fitted with seats; but,
-in order to prevent the water from getting in, a portion of deck, called
-water-ways, is left at each side; which opposes a further barrier by its
-terminating on the inner edge in a high crest or combing. The stepping
-the mast requires great care, since the good or bad sailing of the boat
-depends very greatly upon it. If we divide the length of a good yacht
-into three parts, the point at which the foremost part joins the middle
-part will be the widest part, and there will be nearly the place for the
-cutter's mast. But the American builders have departed from this rule in
-the construction of their celebrated yacht, "The America," whose model,
-after all the study and ingenuity that have been applied to
-yacht-building, seems to resemble the simple yet beautiful model which
-nature has given us in the duck. The bow of this vessel rises very
-gradually for some distance along the keel, like the breast of the duck;
-and, further imitating the same model, her beam or widest part is abaft,
-or further back than the centre. This superior vessel will sail nearly
-four points off the wind, and will probably work an entire change in
-the present style of yacht-building. We have now glanced at all the
-principal parts of the hull, except that all-important part, the rudder;
-which swings by a hinge from the stern-post, and is moved by a handle
-fixed to its upper part, bearing the name of "a tiller," and which is
-used to steer the boat. Before proceeding with our instructions for
-sailing a yacht, it will be necessary to describe the action of the
-rudder; as the art of steering is the nicest and most important branch
-of seamanship.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The rudder is a flat board, with a pole rising up on the side, which is
-fastened to the vessel; on the top of which is fixed the tiller. In
-large vessels, there are two ropes fastened to the tiller, which are
-carried through blocks on each side of the vessel; then brought back
-through blocks fastened on the mizenmast, and passed round a wheel, by
-which means a greater command is obtained over the rudder. When the
-tiller is moved to the right (starboard), the rudder, of course, is
-forced in the water to the left (port). As the vessel moves on, the
-water presses against the rudder on the port side, and thus forces her
-stern to the starboard side, and her bow to the port. When the tiller is
-moved to the left, it of course produces a contrary effect. If the ship
-is moving backwards, then, by moving the tiller to the right, the bow is
-also turned to the right; for the water presses against the rudder
-behind it on the left side, and thus pushes the stern to the left. In
-steering, care must be taken not to steer too much,--that is, not to
-move the rudder too violently or more than is necessary,--as this
-materially stops her way.
-
-[Illustration: CUTTER AT ANCHOR.]
-
-We here present the young yachtsman with a cutter at anchor, with her
-ropes and spars numbered; and which ought to be thoroughly known, as
-well as the uses to which they are applied in sailing a yacht:--
-
- 1. Stem.
- 2. Stern.
- 3. Tiller.
- 4. Anchor.
- 5. Cable.
- 6. Bowsprit.
- 7. Bobstay.
- 8. Mast.
- 9. Topmast.
- 10. Truck.
- 11. Vane and Spindle.
- 12. Cross-trees.
- 13. Trussle-trees.
- 14. Gaff.
- 15. Boom.
- 16. Topmast-shroud.
- 17. Topmast-backstay.
- 18. Topmast-stay.
- 19. Runner and Tackle.
- 20. Traveller for Jib.
- 21. Forestay.
- 22. Topping Lift.
- 23. Lift Blocks.
- 24. Mainsheet.
- 25. Peak Halliards.
- 28. Foresheet.
- 29. Signal Halliards.
- 30. Companion.
- 31. Forecastle.
- 32. Rudder.
-
-
-SOMETHING ABOUT THE MASTS, SPARS, ROPES, ETC.
-
-The _Mast_ (8) is a spar set nearly upright, inclining a little aft, to
-support yards and sails. In a yacht, it is kept in its place by two
-shrouds on each side, made of strong rope, and fastened to the sides of
-the vessel.
-
-The _Bowsprit_ (6) is a spar carried out from the forepart of a yacht,
-secured at its inner end between two strong posts piercing the deck,
-called "the bitts." It is kept in its place by the bobstay (7), which is
-fastened to the stem, and by a shroud on each side secured to the bow.
-
-The _Boom_ (15) is that spar which sets out the mainsail below, and is
-attached at one end to the mast by a swivel cable, called the
-"goose-neck," and is eased off or hauled in at the other by the
-mainsheet (24), which is a rope passing from the end of the boom through
-a block on the side of the vessel.
-
-The _Gaff_ (14) sets out the mainsail above, and slides up and down the
-mast by means of a crescent end, which embraces it. The sides of this
-curve are called "horns."
-
-The _Topmast_ (9) stands above the mast, and is made to slide up and
-down. On it a topsail (_i. e._ a gaff-topsail) is set in light winds;
-but both sail and mast are generally lowered in squally weather. It is
-kept steady by a backstay (17) on each side of the foretopmast-stay. The
-latter is brought down to the bowsprit.
-
-[Illustration: CUTTER BEFORE THE WIND.]
-
-_Ropes._--There are various ropes to hoist and lower sails, called
-haulyards (pronounced halliards). There are also other ropes of great
-importance, especially those called the sheets, which are to haul in the
-sails, and make them stand to the wind. In a yacht, the mainsail has
-sometimes a sheet each side; and sometimes only one sheet reeved through
-double blocks, which travel on an iron rod, called "a horse," from side
-to side. The jib has two sheets, the starboard and port (right and
-left). The foresail has the same, except in some instances, when it has
-but one sheet working on a traveller, like the mainsail. The topsail has
-only one, which is rove through a sheave at the end of the gaff and a
-block at the throat of the gaff, and then down to a cleat or fastening
-place on the deck. Signal haulyards are for hauling up the colours, and
-pass through a small sheave, in the truck (10), at the end of the
-topmast. The ensign haulyards are reeved through a small block at the
-peak end, and lead down to the boom. The other ropes on board a yacht
-are for the support of the spars, and are called "standing rigging,"
-while those used for the sails are called "running rigging."
-
-[Illustration: TOPMAST AND FORETOPMAST STAY.]
-
-
-SAILING A YACHT.
-
-If the reader has paid attention to our instructions, he ought now to be
-pretty well conversant with build, rigging, spars, and sails of a yacht;
-the next thing, therefore, is to explain the actual practical sailing of
-a yacht. The number of hands must depend on the tonnage of the boat and
-the number of sails. It is best to have a steersman, and one hand for
-each sail. Our yacht is now lying at anchor, or moorings, which consists
-of a chain and buoy, fastened to a heavy anchor sunk in the bed of the
-river. Having got on board, by means of the little boat called a
-"dingy," we first unloose the fore and mainsail, and forestaysail; haul
-out the jib on the bowsprit, ready for hoisting; hoist the colours, with
-the name of the yacht or club to which she belongs, to the gaff-end; and
-stand by to hoist the canvass. We will suppose it just past high water,
-the yacht swinging ebb, and the wind up stream; we shall, therefore,
-have tide with us, and the wind against us. We now hoist the throat and
-peak halliards, till the former is well up block to block; then, by
-hauling at the peak-halliards till the after part of the sail is taut
-(tight), the mainsail is set, and she swings head to wind. The next
-thing is to hoist the forestaysail and the jib, which must be well
-purchased up, and the sheet well hauled in, before we can get her on the
-wind, _i. e._ sail close up to the wind. The ropes must now be coiled
-up, and hung on the cleat belonging to each. Our canvass being now up,
-we may cast off, slack out the mainsail, haul in jibsheet on the
-contrary tack to which we intend to sail, and we are under weigh.
-
-We have already told the reader that "starboard" means right, and "port"
-means left. Formerly, the word "larboard" was used for left; but, owing
-to the similarity between the two words starboard and larboard, the word
-port was substituted for the latter. A boat is said to be on the
-starboard tack, when the wind is blowing from the starboard side; the
-port side is then called the lee side, and the starboard the weather
-side. She is on the port tack when the wind blows from the port side,
-which is then called the weather side, and the starboard the lee side.
-When in steering she is brought nearer the wind, she is said to "luff;"
-and when further from it, to "bear away." When the helm is put so as to
-cause the boat to luff, the helm is "put up;" when it causes the boat to
-bear away, it is "put down," or a-lee.
-
-Proceeding to our cruise, we must haul the jib-sheet well in, put the
-helm up, and sail close to the wind; as, the wind being against us, we
-shall have to "beat up," that is, sail in a zigzag direction. In
-sailing close to the wind, we must always take care _not to sail too
-close, but always keep the canvass quite full_. Upon the skill of the
-steersman, mainly depend the motions of the boat; he must endeavour to
-attain the happy medium of keeping the boat close to the wind, and yet
-not allowing the canvass to shake. The practised yachtsman feels with
-his helm every variation of the wind, and meets it with a turn to port
-or starboard; but the young sailor would do well to watch the colour at
-the masthead, and, by keeping it in a line with the gaff, he will not
-steer very wildly. We are now getting near the opposite bank from whence
-we started, and must therefore tack. If the boat is quick in stays (_i.
-e._ will go round quickly), and the bottom is not muddy, and is deep
-enough for the boat, we may go pretty close to the bank before we tack;
-but if she is a slow tub, we must begin in good time. First, we must see
-that all the canvass is quite full; then the mainsail must be hauled to
-the middle of the boat, or amidships, and the helm put gradually down.
-When she is head to wind, let fly the jibsheet; if she is on the
-starboard tack, haul in the port foresheet taut, which is called backing
-the foresail; the wind, by blowing on the foresail, assists the boat
-round. When she begins to fill on the other tack, cast off the port (now
-the weather) foresheet, and haul in the leesheet and also the jibsheet,
-and trim the mainsail (_i. e._ let go, or haul in, the mainsheet),
-according to the direction of the wind. If when the boat is in stays, or
-head to wind, she moves neither way, put the helm amidships; if she
-moves back, put the helm the contrary way to what you had it before,
-resuming its former position when she moves on again. When the wind gets
-more on our beam (_i. e._ blows directly across us), we may slack out
-the canvass a little; the more aft it blows, so much more we must square
-our sails. There is a heavy cloud in the wind's eye, that admonishes us
-that a squall is brewing, and the dark ripple of the water to windward
-tells us that it will soon be here. Keep her well full, that as the
-squall strikes her she may have good way on; and luff into the wind as
-soon as the squall begins: and if she does not right at once, let go jib
-and foresheets; if that fails, cast off the mainsheet, and send a hand
-to stand by the fore and jib halliards, which must be let go when the
-squall becomes violent. We must now reef the mainsail; to effect
-this, allow plenty of room for driving to leeward; set taut the
-"topping-lift," a rope which hoists up the end of the boom; lower the
-halliards; hook at the end of the boom an earring which is higher up in
-the sail, and tie up the reef-points; then, having set up our mainsail,
-hoisted a smaller jib, and drawn in the foresheet, we are under sail
-again.
-
-We must take care always to observe the rules of sailing, when meeting
-with another yacht. Whichever boat is running free must make way for one
-close hauled; for a boat when close hauled cannot conveniently alter her
-course, but when she is running free she is always able to move to which
-side she pleases. As we get into wider water, we shall find more swell,
-that impedes the boat to windward; but, if the waves be long enough,
-there is a way of easing her over them, by putting down the helm
-slightly, just before the highest of them strikes her bow; thus, by
-stopping the boat's way, she strikes the sea with less violence.
-
-
-BRINGING UP.
-
-Our destination outward bound being in sight, we must prepare to bring
-up. The anchor must be got on deck; the cable passed through the
-hawsehole, and shackled or fastened to the anchor, with its stock made
-ready and secured; then suspended over the bowsprit shrouds, and made
-ready to let go. Lower the head-sails, put down the helm till she is
-head to wind, and when she is fairly stopped we may drop the anchor.
-
-
-MAKING SNUG.
-
-The mainsail may now be triced up, with the peak lowered, and with the
-helm to one quarter or the other, according as the tide sets; we may
-then hope to lie securely as long as we choose.
-
-
-GOING BACK.
-
-In getting under weigh once more, first haul the cable short; get all
-the canvass ready to set up; weigh anchor, and, as the wind is fair, set
-the head sails first and the mainsail afterwards; the peak should not be
-too high in running, nor the back of the mainsail fast, but raised
-slightly to let the wind into the head sails. The tide is now against
-us; we must, therefore, keep out of the strength of it as much as
-possible.
-
-
-JIBING.
-
-In rounding the next point we shall jib, or jibe, one of the most
-difficult man[oe]uvres in sailing; for in doing so there is danger of
-broaching-to, so as to run on shore; of being swept overboard by the
-boom as it passes from side to side; and of carrying away or snapping
-the boom itself. To avoid these mischances, give the shore a wide berth;
-take in the mainsheet, keeping its coils clear for running out; trice up
-the tack of the mainsail, and if the breeze is strong, lower the peak;
-you may then put your helm to the opposite side to which the boom
-swings, and, on the instant the mainsail has traversed to the other
-side, change your helm to the reverse and meet her;--this prevents the
-broaching-to which would otherwise occur.
-
-
-BRINGING UP AT MOORINGS.
-
-We are still against the tide, and our moorings are in sight. To bring
-her up handsomely calls for more skill than even handling her well. Our
-object now must be to lay her still at the moorings from whence we
-started, and at the same time to have enough way to reach them. In our
-present case it will be best to round her to about an hundred yards
-short of the moorings, and, when head to wind, lower the mainsail,
-leaving the head sails standing--this with putting up the helm will
-bring her head round again--then take in the jib, and, if she has way
-enough, the foresail also; and with the opposing tide we may steer our
-craft so steadily to the buoy as to take it on board with ease.
-
-Having informed the young sailor of what is necessary to be done on
-board, we will now impress on his mind a few useful nautical terms and
-maxims, which may lead to the preservation of life and limb.
-
-
-OF THE MARINERS' COMPASS, AND VARIOUS NAUTICAL TERMS.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The ancients, whose only guides over the trackless waters were the
-heavenly bodies, so often obscured by clouds, could not venture far from
-shore. It is the compass which has enabled us to steer boldly across the
-deep. The directive power of the loadstone has been long known to the
-Chinese, and it was brought over to Europe about the year 1260. The
-communication of the magnetic power to steel and suspending it on a
-pivot, is undoubtedly an European invention. The compass is composed of
-a magnetic needle suspended freely on a pivot, and supporting a card
-marked with the thirty-two points of direction into which the horizon is
-divided, and which are thence called the points of the compass. The
-needle always points nearly north, and the direction of the boat may be
-easily seen by looking at the card. The whole apparatus on board a ship
-is enclosed in a box with a glass cover, to allow the card to be seen
-without being disturbed by the wind. This box is also sometimes
-suspended, to prevent the needle being affected by the motion of the
-vessel. The whole is then placed at the binnacle, in sight of the
-helmsman. In the inside of that part of the compass-box which is
-directly in a line with the bow, is a clear black stroke, called the
-lubber line, which the helmsman uses to keep his course; that is, he
-must always keep the point of the card which indicates her course
-pointing at the lubber line. Every young yachtsman must learn to box the
-compass; that is, to repeat all its points in order.
-
-
-CAUTIONS AND DIRECTIONS.
-
-1. Never leave anything in the gangway, and keep the decks clear.
-
-2. Coil up all ropes; and have a place for everything, and everything in
-its place.
-
-3. Take care that in tacking or jibing the boom does not knock you
-overboard.
-
-4. Stand clear of ropes' ends and blocks flying about, when you are
-tacking, and the sails shaking.
-
-5. Keep a good look out ahead, and also for squalls, which may generally
-be observed to windward.
-
-6. Always obey the orders of the steersman promptly.
-
-7. Keep all your standing rigging taut.
-
-8. When the boat is on the wind, sit on the weather side.
-
-9. Should the boat capsize, keep yourself clear of the rigging, and swim
-ashore.
-
-The young yachtsman should on no account attempt to take command of a
-boat till he is thoroughly experienced, and should never go in one
-without having at least one experienced hand on board; he should also
-always have his eyes open to what is going on, and be ever ready to lend
-assistance with the greatest promptitude. Quickness and agility are the
-characteristics of a sailor; without these, numerous would be the losses
-at sea. The casting off or belaying a rope quickly, is often attended
-with the most important consequences, in which the losing or saving of
-life may be concerned; and we would therefore advise all who are emulous
-of being sailors, to be attentive to their duties, quick in their
-evolutions, and steady in all their doings.
-
-
-NAUTICAL TERMS.
-
-_Aback_, the situation of the sails when the wind presses their surfaces
-against the mast.
-
-_Abaft_, towards the stern; _e.g._, abaft the mainmast, behind the
-mainmast.
-
-_About_, on the other tack; going about, tacking.
-
-_Abreast_, alongside of.
-
-_Adrift_, broken from moorings.
-
-_Afloat_, on the surface of the water.
-
-_Ahead_, in the direction of the vessel's head.
-
-_Amidships_, in the middle of the vessel.
-
-_Apeak_, when the cable is hove taut, so as to bring the vessel nearly
-over the anchor.
-
-_Astern_, in the direction of her stern.
-
-_Avast_, an order to stop.
-
-_Athwart_, across--as "thwart hawse."
-
-_Backstays_, ropes running from topmast and top-gallantmast to her
-sides.
-
-_Ballast_, heavy materials placed in the bottom of the boat, to bring
-her low in the water.
-
-_Beacon_, a post or buoy placed over a shallow bank, to warn vessels.
-
-_Bearings_, the widest part of the vessel below the upper deck. The
-bearings of an object is its direction according to the points of the
-compass.
-
-_Belay, to_; to make a rope fast.
-
-_Bend, to_; is to make a sail fast to the yard, or a cable to the
-anchor.
-
-_Berth_, the place where the vessel lies; a man's sleeping place on
-board.
-
-_Bulwarks_, the woodworks of a vessel above deck; also the wooden
-partition between cabins.
-
-_Bunting_, the woollen stuff of which ships' colours are made.
-
-_Buoy_, a floating cask or piece of wood.
-
-_Cabin_, the after part of the vessel in which the officers live.
-
-_Capstan_, a machine placed perpendicularly on deck, round which the
-cable is passed, in order to hoist the anchor. It is moved round with
-bars of wood stuck into it, which are called handspikes or capstanbars.
-
-_Cathead_, large pieces of wood over the bow, having sheaves within
-them, by which the anchor is hoisted or lowered.
-
-_Cleat_, pieces of wood on which ropes are belayed.
-
-_Combings_, raised woodwork round the hatches, to prevent the water
-going down to the hold.
-
-_Companion_, ladder leading down to the state cabins.
-
-_Davits_, rods of timber or iron, with sheaves or blocks at their ends,
-projecting over a vessel's side or stern, to hoist boats up to.
-
-_Draught_, the depth of water which a vessel requires to float her.
-
-_Feather, to_; to lift the blade of the oar horizontally as it comes out
-of the water.
-
-_Fenders_, pieces of wood or rope hanging over the side of a boat, to
-keep it from chafing.
-
-_Fathom_, six feet.
-
-_Flat_, a sheet is said to be hauled flat, when it is hauled down close.
-
-_Fore and Aft_, lengthwise with the vessel.
-
-_Forecastle_, the part of the vessel before the foremast.
-
-_Foul Anchor_, when the cable has a turn round the anchor.
-
-_Gaff_, a spar to which the head of a fore and aft sail is bent.
-
-_Gage_, depth of water in a vessel--this water is called "bilge water."
-
-_Gangway_, that part of a vessel's side through which people pass in and
-out of the vessel.
-
-_Gaskets_, pieces of rope or plaited stuff, used to fasten the sail to
-the yard when it is furled.
-
-_Give way, to_; to row more forcibly.
-
-_Grapnel_, a small anchor with several claws, generally four, used to
-secure boats.
-
-_Gunwale_, (pron. _Gun'el_,) the upper rail of a boat or vessel.
-
-_Gybe_, or _Jibe, to_; to shift over the boom of a fore-and-aft sail.
-
-_Halliards_, ropes used for hoisting or lowering yards and sails.
-
-_Hatchway_, an opening of the deck.
-
-_Hatches_, the coverings of hatchways.
-
-_Hawser_, a large rope.
-
-_Helm_, the steering apparatus.
-
-_Hold water, to_; to stop the progress of a boat, by keeping the oars in
-the water.
-
-_Jib_, a triangular headsail.
-
-_Jib-boom_, a spar rigged out beyond the bowsprit.
-
-_Jurymast_, a temporary mast rigged in the place of a lost one.
-
-_Lee Board_, a board fitted to the lee side of flat-bottomed boats, to
-prevent their drifting to leeward.
-
-_Log_, a journal of the proceedings of a vessel; also a line with a
-triangular piece of board, called the log ship, which is cast overboard
-to ascertain the ship's rate of sailing.
-
-_Luff, to_; to steer the boat nearer the wind.
-
-_Lurch_, the sudden rolling of a vessel to one side.
-
-_Marling-spike_, an iron pin sharpened at one end, to separate the
-strands of a rope.
-
-_Martingale_, or _Dolphin-striker_, a short perpendicular spar under the
-bowsprit's end.
-
-_Miss stays_, to fail going about.
-
-_Oakum_, pieces of yarn picked to pieces, used for caulking.
-
-_Overhaul, to_; when a rope is passed through two blocks, in order to
-make a tackle, the rope which is hauled on is called the fall; if one of
-the blocks gets loose, the act of hauling on the rope between the
-blocks, in order to separate them, is called overhauling.
-
-_Painter_, a rope attached to the bow of a boat.
-
-_Pendant_, a long narrow flag at the mast-head.
-
-_Quarter_, that part of the vessel between the stern and the main
-chains.
-
-_Ratlines_ (pron. _Rat'lin's_,) ropes fastened across the shrouds, like
-the steps of a ladder.
-
-_Scud, to_; to drive along before a gale with no sail, or only enough to
-keep her ahead of the sea. Also, low thin clouds flying swiftly before
-the wind.
-
-_Spanker_, or _Driver_, the after sail of a ship or bark. It is fore and
-aft sail set with a boom and gaff.
-
-_Splice, to_; to join two ropes together by entwining their strands; a
-rope is generally formed of three strands twisted together.
-
-_Spring, to_; to split a mast.
-
-_Stays_, large ropes leading from the masthead forward.
-
-_Staysail_, a sail hoisted on a stay.
-
-_Steerage_, the part of the between decks just before the after cabin.
-
-_Stretcher_, pieces of wood placed across a boat's bottom for the rowers
-to put their feet against.
-
-_Surge_, large swelling waves breaking over rocks.
-
-_Taut_, tight.
-
-_Throat_, the inner edge of the gaff which embraces the mast.
-
-_Unbend, to_; to untie.
-
-_Unmoor, to_; to heave up one anchor, or to unfasten the ship from her
-moorings.
-
-_Vane_, a piece of bunting flying at the masthead to show the direction
-of the wind.
-
-_Waist_, the part of the upper deck between the quarterdeck and
-forecastle.
-
-_Wake_, the path that a ship leaves behind her in the water.
-
-_Wear, to_; to come round on the other side of the wind without backing.
-
-[Illustration: Let A B be the vessel, G the direction of the wind; A B
-is sailing in the direction B C, and wants to change her course to A D;
-if she tacks, she traverses the direction C H D; if she wears, she goes
-off from the wind in the direction C E D.]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-SKATING.
-
-Skating is one of the finest gymnastic exercises, by which man, as
-Klopstock says, "like the Homeric gods, strides with winged feet over
-the sea transmuted into solid ground." It is one of the healthiest
-exercises, bringing the body into action by a great variety of motions.
-The art is mentioned in the Edda, written eight hundred years ago, in
-which the god Uller is represented as distinguished by beauty, arrows,
-and _skates_.
-
-[Illustration: SKATING.]
-
-It is not known at what period skating was introduced into England, but
-there are indications of it in the thirteenth century, for Fitz Stephen,
-in his History of London, says, that it was in that time customary, when
-the ice was sufficiently strong, for the young citizens of London to
-fasten the leg-bones of animals under the soles of the feet by tying
-them round the ancles, and then taking a pole shod with iron into their
-hands, they pushed themselves forward by striking it against the ice,
-and moved with a celerity equal to a bird flying through the air or an
-arrow from a cross-bow.
-
-Fitz Stephen describes another kind of diversion on the ice in these
-words, which may be acceptable to the young reader. He says: "Others
-make a seat of ice as large as a millstone, and having placed one of
-their companions on it, they draw him along, when it sometimes happens
-that moving in slippery places they all fall down together, which is
-rare sport, provided no harm be engendered." Ibral mentions, that in his
-time it was customary to use sledges, which being extended from the
-centre by means of a strong rope, those who are seated on them are moved
-round with great rapidity.
-
-The use of the modern skate is supposed to have been brought from
-Holland, and for many years skating has been exercised with much
-elegance in England and in Scotland. Somehow or other, we do not of late
-years have those severe frosts which enable the skater to practise his
-art with vigour; but there is now a skating club in London who
-anticipate trips to Holland during the winter months, where the art may
-be practised in all its perfection.
-
-In early days we were "prodigiously," as Dominie Sampson would say, fond
-of the sport. Our first attempts were made during the great frost in
-1813-14, which lasted eleven weeks, and during which time there was a
-fair on the Thames, and skating was practised in a most delightful
-manner. One of the finest and most beautiful skaters of that period was
-Robert Fergusson, a Scotchman, who had been a "gentleman of means," in
-the early part of his life, but having shot, horsed, tandem'd, dog'd,
-and skated away his substance, was so reduced as to become a teacher of
-his favourite art, and near the water works of old London Bridge, on the
-west side, he pitched his tent during the frost, inviting "gentlemen,"
-who could afford a "crown" to become his pupils in the art of "Land
-flying," as he termed it. He boasted of having taught the Prince of
-Wales, and he sported the three ostrich feathers and "Ich dien" over his
-canvas. To him in youthful ardour we repaired, and the substance of his
-teachings we subjoin for the special benefit of our young friends.
-
-The first maxim of Fergusson to his pupils was, "Throw fear to the
-dogs;" the next, "Put on your skates securely;" and the third, "Keep
-your balance:" and premising this as a "start," I shall now describe the
-various kinds of skates, and the methods of using them.
-
-
-THE SKATE.
-
-There are various kinds of skates. Some, such as the Dutch skates, are
-very large and somewhat cumbersome, but very safe for those who skate
-with heavy loads on their shoulders, as they do in Holland, Denmark, and
-Russia. In these the iron often projects above six inches from the wood,
-and curls up towards the shin-bone above a foot, that the skater may
-glide the more easily over the hillocks of snow common to large expanses
-of ice.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Some skates are what are called fluted, that is, they have a groove
-running along the centre of the iron, which are the best for beginners,
-as they take a better hold of the ice. The plain skates have no such
-groove, and are better adapted for those who have partially acquired the
-art, as with them the utmost velocity and elegance of movement may be
-performed.[4]
-
- [4] Fluted skates, however, are dangerous for any but those of light
- weight, as the cut ice is apt to "ball" in the groove, and so to
- throw the wearer, if he leans on one side.
-
-The iron of the skate, which lies under the foot, is called its _blade_;
-this varies in different kinds of skates, and the practised professor of
-skating will choose a high or a low bladed skate, according to the
-nature of the ice; but the beginner should never use a skate whose blade
-is more than three quarters of an inch in depth and a quarter of an inch
-in breadth, for when the blades are deeper than this, the balance of the
-body is not so easily preserved, and the ancles are liable to be
-sprained or twisted.
-
-
-PUTTING ON THE SKATES.
-
-In putting on the skate, the "youngster" should kneel on one knee and
-fasten the skate on the foot of the other leg. If he should have a high
-laced boot, called in the eastern counties a "high-low," he will find
-such an excellent support to the whole machinery. Or if he can provide
-himself with a "skate boot," in which the skate and shoe are all of a
-piece, he will do better. Such skates were invented in the great frost
-about seven years ago, but just as they were coming in the frost went
-out; but they can still be procured. At all events, the skater should
-bear in mind that the skate must be fastened securely and firmly to the
-foot, by being well fastened to the heel and sole of the boot by means
-of the screw and points, and well, but not clumsily, strapped round the
-ancle, exactly so tight as to confine the foot without hurting it or
-impeding the motions of the ancle joints. There is a new skate now in
-use by the London Skating Club, called the elastic skate, or spring
-skate, in which a spring is introduced at the bottom of the foot, which
-keeps it fast in every part. Skates are also now made of gutta percha,
-and these are well worthy the notice of the young skater.
-
-
-HOW TO START UPON THE INSIDE EDGE.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Having risen to the perpendicular, the learner should first ascertain,
-by moving his feet about on the ice, whether the skates are firmly and
-comfortably fixed on his feet. He should then walk a little on them,
-supporting himself by a light pole about six feet in length, having an
-iron spike at its end. Having in this manner got a little used to the
-feel of the skate on his foot, he should then endeavour to throw away
-all fear and strike out slowly with the right foot, leaning on the
-inside edge of the skate, and making the pressure greatest at that part
-of the skate opposite the ball of the great toe, at the same time
-bending slightly forward. When the skate has moved about a yard forward
-in this manner, the left foot should be brought to the ice in precisely
-similar manner. The figure represents the skater starting and proceeding
-on the inside edge.
-
-
-MOVEMENT ON THE OUTSIDE EDGE.
-
-Having practised on the inside edge for some days, to get used to the
-skates, the learner may afterwards attempt the "outside edge," which is
-nothing more than throwing themselves upon the outer edge of the skate,
-and making the balance of the body bend to that side which will
-necessarily enable them to form a semicircle. In this much assistance
-will be derived by placing a bag of lead shot in the pocket next to the
-foot employed in making the outside stroke, which will produce an
-artificial poise of the body at first very useful. At the commencement
-of the outside stroke the knee of the employed leg should be a little
-bent, and gradually brought to a rectilineal position when the stroke is
-completed. The best method of getting to the "outside edge" is to form
-the circle inwards--say with the right foot and with considerable force;
-in the course of this, place the left foot down in front of the right,
-and lean powerfully on the outside of the left heel. A little practice
-and confidence in his balance will enable the student to lift his right
-foot, and hang it behind while he proceeds to cut outside with his
-_left_ foot. Let him then stop, and begin the inward circle with the
-left foot, and slip down the outer edge of the right heel in the same
-way.
-
-The young skater has now learned to balance himself, and can venture to
-strike out at once to the right, on the heel of the right foot, keeping
-the left suspended behind, with its toe closely pointed to the heel of
-the right. As he advances, the left must be brought past the inside of
-the right with a slight jerk; this slight jerk produces an opposing
-balancing motion of the body; the right foot then quickly poises, first
-on the outside of the heel, and then on the inside of its toe, and by
-placing the left foot down before it, and striking outside to the left,
-giving at the same time a slight push with the inside of the right toe,
-he passes from right to left. Having learned this much, the skater will
-proceed to change from left to right, and then from right to left again,
-without any trouble. To skate "outside edge" properly, the toe of the
-suspended foot must be pointed close to the ice behind the other, and
-kept there until the foot be regained, when it must be brought sharply
-round to the change. The skater must keep himself erect, leaning most on
-the heel.
-
-This mode of skating having been acquired, an endless variety of
-figures, devices, and modes of movement may be practised; such as "the
-roll," the figure of 3, of 6, or of 8, "the spread-eagle," "the
-mercury," "the backward outside edge," "the circle," "the waltz," "the
-minuet," "the pirouette," "the quadrille," &c.
-
-The first step towards figure skating is the
-
-
-FORWARD ROLL,
-
-which is performed in the manner already prescribed in the directions on
-the "outside edge." To perform it gracefully, the skater should bring
-his left shoulder forward, throw his right arm back, look over that
-shoulder, and boldly incline his body to that side, proceeding
-alternately, with ease, grace, and deliberation. When he wishes to stop,
-he should bring both his feet together, and stop gradually; or he may
-stop suddenly, by pressing on the heels of his skates, taking care not
-to throw his toes up too much, or he will cut "all-fours."
-
-
-THE DUTCH ROLL
-
-is so called from the motion being used in Holland by the travelling and
-trading classes in their common avocation. The figures it presents on
-the ice are small segments of very large circles; which enables the
-skater to diverge but very slightly from the right line of his course,
-and consequently accelerates his progress.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE FIGURE OF EIGHT.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-This is composed by merely finishing the great circles, of which the
-above segments form a part. To produce it, when the skater comes to the
-finish of the stroke on the right foot, he should throw the left quite
-across it, which will make him bear hard on the outside of the right
-skate, from which he must immediately strike. By completing the circle
-in this manner on each leg, the figure subjoined is performed.
-
-
-THE FIGURE OF THREE.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-This is performed principally on the inside edge backwards. The head of
-the 3 is formed of half a small circle on the heel of the outside edge;
-but when the circle is nearly completed, the skater leans suddenly
-forward, and rests on the same toe inside, and a backward motion is
-produced, which develops the tail of the 3. The right legged figure is
-that of the 3 in its natural position, and the figure made by the left
-leg is the same figure reversed; as per example. In these evolutions,
-the motion is not, strictly speaking, backwards, but rather sideways, as
-his face and body are always in the direction of his motions.
-
-
-THE BACK ROLL.
-
-By the "back roll," as it is termed, the skater moves from one foot to
-the other alternately. His face is turned towards the left shoulder. The
-inside of the left skate bears on the ice, and the skater immediately
-strikes from it to the outside back of the other, by pressing it into
-the ice as forcibly as he can at the toe. The "back cross roll" is
-performed in a similar manner, the stroke being from the outside,
-instead of the inside of the skate.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The above motions combine the elements of skating, and having acquired
-these, the learner may perform an infinite variety of movements, such as
-"the cornua ammonis," "the Dutch maze," "the fish," "the kite," "the
-true lovers' knot," &c.; with any other devices his imagination may
-suggest. He may also engage in the quadrille or waltz, and exhibit his
-person in every variety of graceful form, at the same time that he
-exercises every muscle of the body.
-
-
-GENERAL DIRECTIONS TO BE FOLLOWED BY PERSONS LEARNING TO SKATE.
-
-1. Let your dress fit closely, but at the same time be of sufficient
-ease to ensure freedom of motion. Neither skirts to coats nor full
-trowsers should be worn.
-
-2. Let flannel be worn next the skin by the delicate, and an extra
-under-garment by the robust. Let the chest be well defended against the
-cold. A piece of brown paper laid between the waistcoat and shirt is one
-of the best chest protectors.
-
-3. Be careful in venturing upon the ice, unless it be sufficiently
-strong to bear the weight of the number that flock to it; and watch for
-the increase of numbers, that you may retire before danger ensues.
-
-4. Avoid rough and very smooth ice, and look carefully out for
-obstructions thereon; such as small twigs of trees, stones, or
-"hobbles;" as well as for rotten ice, cracks where the ice has risen
-higher on one side than the other, or holes. Should you suddenly come
-upon rotten ice, do not stop, but pass over it as rapidly as possible.
-Should you fall down upon it, roll lengthwise towards the firmer part,
-without attempting to stand or walk upon it.
-
-5. Should the skater fall into a hole, he should extend his pole or
-stick across it, and hold on to it till assistance arrives: should he
-have no stick, he may extend his arms horizontally across the edges of
-the ice, till a rope can be thrown to him.
-
-6. After an unlucky immersion in the water, the unfortunate skater
-should immediately take off his skates, and, if able, run home as
-quickly as he can. He should then pull off all his wet clothes, take a
-tablespoonful of brandy in a glass of hot water, rub himself thoroughly
-with dry towels, and go to bed.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-SLIDING.
-
-What can be jollier or more enjoyable than sliding for an hour upon a
-crisp wintry morning, when the snow is lying three inches deep on the
-ground? You may say what you please about the pleasures of skating, but
-if you talk for an hour you'll never convince us that there's more fun
-in it than in sliding. We confess we gaze with admiration at a man
-twisting about on the ice like a teetotum on a ricketty tea-tray, and
-that when, like a crab, he goes backwards or waltzes round on one foot,
-while the other is gracefully poised in the air, we feel a pleasure in
-looking at him; but then, after watching a party of skaters for a short
-time, we begin to wonder how it is that they all look so solemn, as if
-each man were engaged on such an important task that he could not speak
-a word to his neighbour, and then we come to the conclusion that there
-is more display than real jolly pleasure in skating, and that the
-highly-trained skater goes through his evolutions rather in the hope of
-affording satisfaction to the spectators than of deriving enjoyment
-himself, for we defy any jolly-tempered fellow to feel jovial on a
-winter morning in company without laughing and shouting with glee at any
-person he comes across.
-
-Therefore, when on turning from the mystic movements of a troup of
-skaters to a party of sliders, we hear them laugh and shout at each
-other, "now, then, keep the pot boiling," and other choice sentences,
-and when we see a broad grin of pleasure plainly depicted on their rosy
-faces, we cannot but think that the enjoyment of sliding shows itself in
-a far more demonstrative manner than skating, and that more pleasure is
-derived from looking at a crowd of merry urchins going gaily down a
-slide than in seeing quadrilles danced, or names cut on the ice, by a
-band of skilled _pâtineurs_.
-
-We also like sliding on account of its simplicity. All that its devotees
-require is a good sharp frost. What care they for ice? The hobnails in
-London boys' boots soon produce a shiny slippery surface, and in a short
-time a respectable slide is made out of the drippings from a water-can,
-which a servant may have filled at the pump the day before.
-
-There are, we are sure, few English lads who do not know how to slide.
-It seems to come as a matter of course to most boys; but still, lest
-there be some benighted youth to whom the pleasures of the slide are
-still unknown, we must insert a few hints on the subject.
-
-Take a sharp run of about ten yards, and as soon as you feel that you
-are upon the slide, push the sole of the left foot as far along as you
-can, making the weight of the body rest almost upon it. You will then
-slide away, the right foot following without any effort on your part. We
-say advisedly do not push your foot until you feel well upon the slide,
-for if you are not very careful about this point you will endeavour to
-slide on that part of the earth which is not slippery, and although the
-momentum may impel you as far as the slippery portion, yet your progress
-will not be very great, as the force which was required to carry you
-along the whole length of the slide is partly wasted by the resistance
-which, at the start-off, the hard earth offers to your foot. Then, we
-have seen many boys in their first attempts to slide, place the heel
-upon the slide before the toe. The consequence is that they either fall
-over, or else only slip along a few yards, for a moment's reflection
-will show that much greater force can be exerted by pushing the sole
-along than is exerted when the heel takes its place, and in the latter
-case, instead of the weight of the body assisting one's progress, it
-probably causes the youthful tyro to fall backwards upon Mother Earth,
-and to wonder how it happens that he does not get on so well at first as
-other boys.
-
-And now surmising that the slider is proficient in the first rudiments
-of the art, let us enumerate a few of the feats which a slider may
-perform while on the glassy track.
-
-Foremost amongst these stands the postman's knock, in which a boy slides
-upon one foot only, while with the other he gives double taps quickly
-upon the ice, in imitation of the noise made by the red-coated messenger
-at our street doors. This, however, should not be attempted until the
-performer is well on the slide, or the result will probably be that
-he'll measure his length upon the ground. This is also known as
-"knocking at the cobbler's door."
-
-Then comes the "carambole," which consists in the slider sinking down
-two or three times during his journey, and rising as he reaches its
-termination; unless, however, he is very careful the weight of his body
-will drag him down altogether, and he will continue his journey on
-another portion of his frame, rather than on his feet. But the best
-accomplishment to be performed on a slide is the game known as
-"turnpikes." Two stones or bricks are placed on the slide, with
-sufficient distance between them for a boy's foot to pass through. The
-turnpike, thus roughly made, is to be kept by one of the party. Off
-start the sliders, taking care to pass through the pike, without
-displacing or even touching its walls. Woe betide the unlucky wight
-whose foot infringes this rule! He is instantly turned off the slide,
-and has to wait until some other incautious player commits a like
-offence, and is thus compelled to take his place.
-
-Such are a few of the feats performed by adepts in this graceful art.
-Most lads, however, will be able to invent many more for themselves, and
-numerous are the sports that can be indulged in.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-SWIMMING
-
-Swimming is the most useful of all athletic accomplishments, as by it
-human life is frequently saved which might have been sacrificed. It is
-also useful in the development of muscular strength, as well as highly
-beneficial to the nervous system, and repairs the vital functions when
-falling into decline. In places near the sea or rivers, to know how to
-swim is an indispensable accomplishment. The ancients, particularly the
-Greeks, held the art in such high estimation as to bestow rewards upon
-the most perfect swimmers.
-
-From the little familiarity with immersion in water which the
-inhabitants of our over-grown towns and cities possess, a very great
-proportion of the English population are but little acquainted with the
-art of swimming, and with the mode in which they should conduct
-themselves when risk of drowning presents itself. The English, above all
-other persons, should be good swimmers, exposed as they are by their
-insular situation, and commercial pursuits, and disposition to visit
-other lands, so frequently to perils by sea; yet, while most towns on
-the Continent abound in baths and swimming-schools, in British towns
-they are still few in number.
-
-Most animals have a natural aptitude for swimming, not found in man; for
-they will at once swim when even first thrown into the water; but it
-must be noticed that the motions they then employ much more resemble
-their ordinary movements of progression than those made use of by men
-under similar circumstances.
-
-The children of many uncivilized nations, especially in warm climates,
-frequent the water from an early age, and seem almost to swim by
-instinct. The remarkable powers of endurance, agility, and strength
-manifested while in the water by many individuals of savage tribes are
-well known,--powers which often enable them to come off victorious in
-struggles with some of the fiercest inhabitants of those rivers and
-coasts.
-
-The art of swimming is by no means difficult of attainment, and several
-authors have supplied directions to facilitate its acquisition. Above
-all things, self-confidence (not rashness leading into danger) is
-required; and, when this is possessed, all difficulty soon ceases. Dr.
-Franklin, himself an expert swimmer, recommends that at first a
-familiarity with the buoyant power of water should be gained; and to
-acquire this, he directs the learner, after advancing into the water
-breast high, to turn round, so as to bring his face to the shore: he is
-then to let an egg fall in the water, which, being white, will be seen
-at the bottom. His object must now be, by diving down with his eyes
-open, to reach and bring up the egg. He will easily perceive that there
-is no danger in this experiment, as the water gets shallower, of course,
-towards the shore, and because whenever he likes, by depressing his
-feet, he can raise his head again above water.
-
-The thing that will most strike beginners will be the great difficulty
-they experience in forcing themselves through the water to reach the
-egg, in consequence of the great resistance the water itself offers to
-their progress: and this is indeed the practical lesson derivable from
-the experiment; for the learner becomes aware of the very great
-sustaining or supporting power of water, and hence has confidence. This
-sustaining power of water is shown under many circumstances: thus, a
-stone which on land requires two men to remove it, might in water be
-easily carried by one. A man might walk without harm on broken glass in
-deep water, because his weight is supported by the water. This knowledge
-of fluid support constitutes the groundwork of all efforts in swimming,
-or in self-preservation from drowning.
-
-Should a person accidentally fall into the water, provided he retained
-his presence of mind, a knowledge of the above facts would save him
-probably from a "watery grave." The body being but very slightly heavier
-than the volume of water it displaces, will, with a very slight motion
-of the hands under water, float. When the chest is thoroughly inflated
-with air, it is lighter than water, and floats naturally, having half
-the head above water; so that the person exposed to danger has only to
-turn upon his back, in order that that half, consisting of his face,
-with the mouth and nostrils, be above the water line.
-
-But to float thus upon the water, the greatest care must be taken not
-to elevate the arms or other parts above its surface; and it is in
-remembering this caution, that presence of mind in the time of dangers
-confers so much benefit; for, in the moment of terror, a person thrown
-into the water almost instinctively stretches out his hands aloft to
-grasp at some object, thereby depriving himself of a means of proceeding
-which would frequently keep him afloat until succour arrived. By
-elevating any part of the body in this way, we remove it from the
-support afforded by the water, and thus render sinking inevitable.
-
-Dr. Arnot, in allusion to this subject, says that many persons are
-drowned who might be saved, for the following reasons:--
-
-1. From their believing that their constant exertions are necessary to
-preserve the body from sinking, and their hence assuming the position of
-a swimmer, with the face downwards, in which the whole head must be kept
-out of the water, in order to enable them to breathe; whereas, when
-lying on the back, only the face need be above the water.
-
-2. From the groundless fear that water entering by the ears may drown as
-if it entered by the mouth or nose, and their employing exertions to
-prevent this.
-
-3. The keeping of the hands above water, already alluded to.
-
-4. Neglecting to take the opportunity of the intervals of the waves
-passing over the head, to renew the air in their chest by an
-inspiration.
-
-5. Their not knowing the importance of keeping the chest as full of air
-as possible, which has nearly the same effect as tying a bladder full of
-air around the neck would have.
-
-But although floating in water is sufficient to preserve from immediate
-danger, this will not alone enable us to swim. To swim, does not mean
-simply to float, but to progress; and progression by this means depends,
-like the flight of birds, upon the law in Mechanics of every action
-being followed by a corresponding reaction, but in an opposite
-direction; and thus, as the reaction of the air compressed by the
-downward action of the bird's wing, causes it to mount aloft in
-proportion to the force it communicates by that motion; so the backward
-stroke communicated by the simultaneous movement of the hands and feet
-of the swimmer, causes his forward progress in the water. When once
-familiarised with the support derived from the water itself, he soon
-learns to make the stroke correctly, especially if aided and supported
-by some more experienced friend,--a far better assistant than corks and
-bladders.
-
-
-PLACES AND TIMES FOR BATHING AND SWIMMING.
-
-It is presumed that most young lads who go to bathe will take the
-opportunity of learning to swim. In crowded cities there are but few
-places in which the youngster can learn the art; but in the country
-there are many rivers, ponds, canals, or lakes, where both bathing and
-swimming may be indulged in without annoyance. The best kind of place
-for bathing is on a shelving gravelly shore, on which the water
-gradually deepens, and where no awkward sweep of current may take the
-bather off his legs. The spot should also be free from holes, weeds, and
-hard stones; and a muddy bottom is to be avoided by all means. Should
-the banks of such a spot be shaded by a few trees, and should there be
-close by an open space for a run on the grass after the bathe, so much
-the better; and the young learner will then have the chief inducement to
-venture the sudden dip or head-long plunge.
-
-The best time of the day for bathing or swimming is either before
-breakfast, between the hours of six and eight in the summer-time, or
-between eleven and twelve o'clock in the forenoon. Delicate persons
-should not bathe early in the morning; and it would be always well to
-munch a biscuit before early bathing at all times. No one should ever
-think of entering the water on a full stomach, or immediately after
-dinner, and never when over-heated and exhausted by fatigue. He should
-also avoid entering it when cold, or with a headache. Before bathing, it
-is best to take a moderate walk of about a mile, and, while the system
-is in a glow, to undress quickly and plunge in. It is bad to walk till
-you get hot, then to sit down and cool, and afterwards to enter the
-water; many have lost their lives by this. It is also very wrong to
-enter the water during rain, as the clothes are often wetted or damp,
-which gives the bather cold.
-
-
-ENTERING THE WATER.
-
-Having stripped the body, the bather should select the best place on the
-bank for going down to the stream; and then, proceeding cautiously but
-quickly, wade up to his breasts, turn his head to the shore, and dip. He
-then technically, as the boys say, gets his pinch over. Should he not be
-man enough to proceed in this way, he should, as soon as he gets his
-feet wet, splash some water over his head, and go into the water more
-gradually, and try the rapid rush and dip when he gets bolder. He must
-not attempt to swim or strike out till he can master the feat of going
-into the water up to his arm-pits, and till he feels himself confident
-and void of timidity.
-
-
-AIDS TO SWIMMING.
-
-Many aids have been used for the benefit of young swimmers: corks and
-bladders fastened under the arms are the common ones; but they offer
-dangerous temptations for bathers to go out of their depth, and then
-should cramp, cold, or any other accident occur, the event may be fatal.
-Besides, these aids often slip about from one place to the other. We
-remember, in our younger days, of the "corks" slipping to the hips, and
-of seeing a young friend, now an old man, suspended in the water with
-his head downwards; while collapsing of bladders and of air-jackets is
-by no means uncommon. The best aid to a young swimmer is a judicious
-friend, himself a good swimmer, who will hold up his head, when he
-strikes off, by the "tip of the finger to the tip of the chin," and who
-at the same time will show him how to strike off, and how to manage his
-hands and feet. It is not a bad plan to put out a spar from a boat, to
-which a rope is attached, which the young learner may make use of by
-affixing it to a belt round his body under his arms, which will afford
-him support while he learns to strike his legs in the water. The rope
-may also be held in the hand of a friend, by the side of the boat, and
-the learner may strike off hands and feet as the boat proceeds. The
-plank is a dangerous aid, from its tendency to slip about, and to take
-the swimmer out of his depth; and, although it has many advantages, is
-very unsafe. The safest plan of all is, as we have before stated, for
-the learner to advance gradually up to his arm-pits in the water, and
-then, turning about, to strike slowly out towards the shore, taking care
-to keep his legs well up from the bottom. Rigid perseverance in this
-course will in a very short time enable the youngster to feel himself
-afloat, and moving at "all fours,"--a delight equal to that experienced
-by the child who first feels that he can walk from chair to chair.
-
-
-STRIKING OFF AND SWIMMING.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-In striking off, the learner, having turned himself to the shore, as
-before recommended, should fall towards the water gently, keeping his
-head and neck perfectly upright, his breast advancing forward, his chest
-inflated; then, withdrawing the legs from the bottom, and stretching
-them out, strike the arms forward in unison with the legs. The back can
-scarcely be too much hollowed, or the head too much thrown back, as
-those who do otherwise will swim with their feet too near the surface,
-instead of allowing them to be about a foot-and-half deep in the water.
-The hands should be placed just in front of the breast, the fingers
-pointing forward and kept close together, with the thumbs to the edge
-of the fore-fingers: the hands must be made rather concave on the
-inside, though not so much as to diminish the size. In the stroke of the
-hands, they should be carried forward to the utmost extent, taking care
-that they do not touch the surface of the water; they should next be
-swept to the side, at a distance from, but as low as, the hips; and
-should then be drawn up again, by bringing the arms towards the side,
-bending the elbows upwards and the wrists downwards, so as to let the
-hands hang down while the arms are raising them to the first attitude.
-
-
-HOW TO MANAGE THE LEGS.
-
-The legs, which should be moved alternately with the hands, must be
-drawn up with the knees inwards, and the soles of the feet inclined
-outwards; and they should then be thrown backwards, as widely apart from
-each other as possible. These motions of the hands and legs may be
-practised out of the water; and whilst exercising the legs, which can
-only be done one at a time, the learner may rest one hand on the back of
-a chair to steady himself, while he moves the opposite leg. When in the
-water, the learner must take care to draw in his breath at the instant
-that his hands, descending to his hips, cause his head to rise above the
-surface of the water; and he should exhale his breath at the moment his
-body is propelled forward through the action of the legs. If he does not
-attend precisely to these rules, he must invariably have a downward
-motion, and, as the boys say, swim furthest where it is deepest.
-
-
-PLUNGING AND DIVING.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-There are two kinds of plunging; that belonging to shallow, and that
-belonging to deep water. In shallow-water plunging, the learner should
-fling himself as far forward as possible into the stream at a very
-oblique angle; and when he touches the water, he should raise his head,
-keep his back hollow, and stretch his hands forward. In the deep-water
-plunge, his body is to descend at a greater angle; his arms are to be
-stretched out, his hands closed and pointed, and his body bent, so that
-his nose almost touches his toes.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Diving is one of the greatest amusements connected with swimming. There
-are many kinds; the two most common and easiest and necessary modes of
-going below the surface, are--
-
- 1. The feet-foremost jump.
- 2. The head-foremost jump.
-
-In the first, the legs, arms, and head are to be kept perfectly rigid
-and stiff. The pupil must not allow fear, or the strange sensation felt
-in the bowels in leaping from considerable heights, to induce him to
-spread the arms or legs, or to bend his body.
-
-In the second mode, or head-foremost plunge,--which is the safest mode
-for persons who are heavily built about the chest and shoulders, if they
-have to enter the water from heights,--the head is drawn down upon the
-chest, the arms stretched forward, and hands closed to a point; and as
-soon as the swimmer feels that he has left the bank, his knees, which
-till then were bent, are to be stiffened. The diver must avoid striking
-on the belly--the general consequence of fear; and turning over so as to
-come down on his back or side--the consequence of pushing with the feet.
-When he has gone as deep as he wishes, the arms are to be raised and
-pressed downwards.
-
-
-SWIMMING UNDER WATER.
-
-When under the water, the swimmer may either move in the usual way, or
-keep his hands stretched before him, which will enable him to cut the
-water more easily, and greatly relieve his chest. If he observes that he
-approaches too near the surface of the water, he must press the palms of
-his hands upwards. If he wishes to dive to the bottom, he must turn the
-palms of his hands upwards, striking with them repeatedly and rapidly
-whilst the feet are reposing; and when he has obtained a perpendicular
-position, he should stretch out his hands like feelers, and make the
-usual movement with his feet, then he will descend with great rapidity
-to the bottom. It is well to accustom the eyes to open themselves under
-the water, at least in those beds of water that admit the light, as it
-will enable the swimmer to ascertain the depth of water he is in.
-
-
-SWIMMING ON THE SIDE.
-
-In this, the body is turned either on the left or right side, while the
-feet perform their usual motions. The _arm from under_ the shoulder
-stretches itself out quickly, at the same time that the feet are
-striking. The other arm strikes at the same time with the impelling of
-the feet. The hand of the latter arm begins its stroke on a level with
-the head. While the hand is again brought forward in a flat position,
-and the feet are contracted, the stretched-out hand is, while working,
-drawn back towards the breast, but not so much impelling as sustaining.
-As swimming on the side presents to the water a smaller surface than on
-the waist, when rapidity is required, the former is often preferable to
-the latter.
-
-
-SWIMMING ON THE BACK WITHOUT EMPLOYING THE FEET.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-This is twofold: 1. _In the direction of the feet._ The body is placed
-in a horizontal position, the feet are stretched out stiffly, and the
-heels and toes are kept in contact; then the body is to be somewhat
-curved at the seat, the hands are to be stretched flatly forward over
-the body, and, slowly striking in small circles, the loins are somewhat
-drawn up at each stroke. 2. _In the direction of the head._ The body is
-placed horizontally, but somewhat curved in the seat, the head in its
-natural position, the arms are kept close to the body, with the elbows
-inclined inwards, and the hands describe small circles from the back to
-the front, at about a foot-and-half from the hips. These modes serve to
-exercise and strengthen the arms in an extraordinary degree without in
-the least fatiguing the breast.
-
-
-FLOATING.
-
-The body is laid horizontally on the back, the head is bent backwards as
-much as possible, the arms are stretched out over the head in the
-direction of the body, the feet are left to their natural position; if
-they sink, the loins must be kept as low as possible. In this position,
-the person, who is specifically lighter than water, remains, and may
-float at pleasure. The lungs should be kept inflated, that the breast
-may be distended and the circumference of the body augmented. In order
-not to sink while in the act of taking breath, which the greater
-specific weight of the body would effect, the breath must be quickly
-expelled, and as quickly drawn in again, and then retained as long as
-possible; for, as the back is in a flat position, the sinking, on
-account of the resistance of the water, does not take place so rapidly
-but the quick respiration will restore the equilibrium before the water
-reaches the nose.
-
-
-TREADING WATER.
-
-This is a perpendicular position of the swimmer, and is of great use to
-enable him to save a person from drowning. It is in general thought to
-be extremely difficult, but it is very easy. There are two ways of
-performing the action: in the first the hands are compressed against the
-hips, and the feet describe their usual circle; the other mode consists
-in not contracting both legs at the same time, but one after the other,
-so that while the one remains contracted the other describes a circle.
-In this mode, however, the legs must not be stretched out, but the
-thighs are placed in a distended position, and curved as if in a
-half-sitting posture.
-
-
-THE FLING.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The swimmer lays himself flat upon his waist, draws his feet as close as
-possible under the body, stretches his hands forwards, and, with both
-feet and hands beating the water violently at the same time, raises
-himself out of the water. In this manner one may succeed in throwing
-oneself out of the water as high as the hips. This exercise is very
-useful, for saving oneself by catching a rope or any other object that
-hangs from above the surface of the water, or from any perpendicular
-height.
-
-
-SWIMMING ON THE BACK.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-In this the swimmer turns upon his back in the water by the combined
-motion of the arm and leg, and extending his body, his head being in a
-line with it, so that the back and upper part of the head may be
-immersed, while the face and breast are out of the water. The hands
-should be placed on the thighs straight down, and the legs moved as in
-forward swimming, taking care that the knees do not rise above the
-surface in striking them out. Sometimes the hands are used after the
-motion of a wing or fan, by which a slight progression is also made at
-the same time that the surface of the body is well lifted out of the
-water.
-
-
-THRUSTING.
-
-In the thrust the swimmer lies horizontally upon his waist, and makes
-the common motions in swimming. He then simply stretches one arm
-forwards, as in swimming on the side, but remains lying upon the waist,
-and, in a widely described circle, he carries the other hand, which is
-working under the breast, towards the hip. As soon as the arm has
-completed this motion, it is lifted from the water in a stretched
-position, and thrown forward in the greatest horizontal level, and is
-then sunk with the hand flat into the water; while the swimmer thus
-stretches forth the arm, he, with the other hand stretched as wide as
-possible, describes a small circle in order to sustain the body; after
-this he brings his hand in a largely described circle rapidly to the
-hip, lifts the arm out of the water, and _thrusts_ it forward. During
-the describing of the larger circle the feet make their movements. To
-make the thrust beautifully, a considerable degree of practice is
-required. This mode of swimming is useful where a great degree of
-rapidity is required for a short distance.
-
-
-THE DOUBLE THRUST.
-
-In the performance of this the arm is thrust forwards, backwards, and
-again forwards without dipping into the water; in the meantime the
-stretched-forth arm describes two circles before it begins the larger
-one.
-
-
-TO SWIM LIKE A DOG.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-In this motion each hand and foot is used alternately as a dog uses them
-when swimming, as the term implies. The hands are alternately drawn
-towards the chin in a compressed form, and then expanded and slightly
-hollowed, with fingers close, and as they strike the water the feet are
-likewise drawn towards the belly, and struck backwards with a kind of
-kick. This mode of swimming is of use to relieve the swimmer from time
-to time when going a distance.
-
-
-THE MILL.
-
-The swimmer lays himself on his back and contracts himself so that the
-knees are brought almost to the chin, and while one of the hands keeps
-the equilibrium by describing circles, the other continues working. Thus
-the body is kept turning round more or less rapidly.
-
-
-THE WHEEL BACKWARDS AND FORWARDS.
-
-In the _forward wheel_ the hands are put as far backwards as possible,
-and so pressed against the water that the head is impelled under the
-surface, and the feet, by a pressure of the hands in a contrary
-direction, are rapidly flung above the head, which in this manner is
-rapidly brought again to the surface.
-
-In the _backward wheel_ the swimmer lies upon his back, he contracts
-himself, the hands, stretched forward as far as possible, describe
-rapidly small circles, the feet rise, and as the point of equilibrium
-has been brought as near as possible to the feet, the head sinks and the
-feet are thrown over.
-
-
-TO SWIM WITH ONE HAND.
-
-The learner to do this swims on one side, keeps his feet somewhat deeply
-_sunk_, while the arm which in the meantime ought to work is kept
-quiet--and might even be taken out of the water. It is a good practice
-of strength to carry, first under and then over the water, a weight of
-four or eight pounds.
-
-
-HAND OVER HAND SWIMMING.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-In this process, the right hand is lifted out of the water from behind,
-swung forwards through the air with a kind of circular sweep to the
-extent of its reach forward, then dropped into the water edgeways, and
-immediately turned, with the palm a little hollowed, downwards, the body
-being at the same time thrown a little on one side, and the right leg
-struck out backwards to its full extent. The hand descends towards the
-thigh, and then passes upwards through the water in a kind of curve
-towards the surface. The left hand and leg perform a similar movement
-alternately with the right, and the measure of progression attained by
-these combined similar movements is very considerable.
-
-
-BALANCING.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-When the swimmer has obtained ease and confidence in the water, he will
-find many things easy which before he deemed impossible. Balancing is
-one of these. To perform it he has only, when out of his depth, to fall
-gently back with his chin elevated to a line passing exactly through
-the centre of his body from the chin to the toes, then, folding his arms
-and remaining perfectly motionless, he may suspend himself
-perpendicularly: but if he should extend his arms backwards, and pass
-them gradually beyond his head, his toes, tips of his knees, abdomen,
-and part of his chest, with the whole of his face will appear, and he
-will be balanced and float horizontally without the slightest motion.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE CRAMP.
-
-The cramp generally proceeds from acidity of the bowels, arising from a
-bad state of the stomach, or from the effects of the cold water on the
-muscular system. Some persons are very subject to it on slight
-occasions, and such persons will do well never to go out of their depth.
-But should a tolerable swimmer be seized with the cramp, he should not
-be frightened, but the moment the cramp is felt in the foot or leg,
-strike out that foot or leg with the heel elongated, and the toes drawn
-upwards towards the shin-bone, never minding any little pain it may
-occasion, as he need not fear breaking a bone, muscle, or tendon. Should
-this not succeed, he should throw himself on his back, and float
-quietly, and paddle himself gently to the shore. He may also swim with
-his hands like a dog, and practise any of the motions of the upper part
-of the body for keeping his head above water till assistance arrives.
-
-
-SAVING FROM DANGER.
-
-Above all things the good swimmer should be anxious to save life, and to
-rescue those who are in danger, _without himself becoming the victim, as
-it often happens_. The following rules are highly important to be
-observed. The swimmer must avoid approaching the drowning person in
-front, in order that he may not be grasped by him; for whatever a
-drowning person seizes, he holds with convulsive force, and it is no
-easy matter to get disentangled from his grasp; therefore he should
-seize him from behind, and let go of him immediately if the other turns
-towards him. His best way is to impel him before him to the shore, or to
-draw him behind; if the space to be passed be too great, he should seize
-him by the foot and drag him, turning him on his back. If the drowning
-person should seize him, there is no alternative for the swimmer than to
-drop him at once to the bottom of the water, and there to wrestle with
-his antagonist; the drowning man, by a kind of instinct to regain the
-surface, when drawn down to the bottom, usually quits his prey,
-particularly if the diver attacks him there with all his power.
-
-For two swimmers the labour is easier, because they can mutually relieve
-each other. If the drowning person has still some presence of mind
-remaining, they will then seize him one under _one arm, and the other
-under the other_, and without any great effort in treading water, bring
-him along with his head above water, while they enjoin him to keep
-himself stretched out and as much as possible without motion.
-
-
-SPORTS AND FEATS IN SWIMMING.
-
-1. _The Float._--In this sport one swimmer lays himself horizontally on
-the back, with the feet stretched out, the hands pressed close to the
-body, and the head raised forward. The other swimmer takes hold of him
-by the extremity of the feet, and, swimming with one hand, impels him
-forward. The first remains motionless.
-
-2. _The Plank._--One swimmer lays himself horizontally as before,
-another lays hold of him with both his hands, immediately above the
-ancle, and pulls him obliquely into the water, while he extends himself
-and impels himself forward; thus both the swimmers drop rapidly the one
-over the other.
-
-3. _The Pickaback Spring._--One swimmer treads the water, the other
-swims near him behind, places his hands upon the shoulders of the first,
-and presses him down. He then leaves his hold, and puts his feet upon
-his shoulders, and, flinging himself out of the water, pushes the first
-towards the bottom. Now he treads water, and the first performs the part
-of the second, and so on.
-
-4. _The Shove._--Two swimmers place themselves horizontally on their
-backs, the legs are strongly extended, and the soles of the feet bear
-against each other; each impels forward with all his power, and he who
-succeeds in pushing back the other is the conqueror.
-
-5. _The Wrestle._--Two swimmers place themselves opposite to each other,
-tread water and hold their right hands in the air; the question is, who
-shall first force his opponent under the water by pressure. Only the
-head of the adversary is to be touched, and that only by pressure.
-
-
-BERNARDI'S SYSTEM OF UPRIGHT SWIMMING.
-
-This system has been introduced into many of the naval and military
-colleges on the Continent, and has for its distinguishing characteristic
-the swimming in an upright position. The first object is to teach the
-pupil how to float in an upright posture. He is taught the use of his
-legs and arms for balancing the body in water, and then to imitate as
-much as possible the movement of the limbs upon land. He then pays great
-attention to the movements of the head, the smallest inclination of
-which on either side instantly operates on the whole body. He next
-learns the method of using his arms and legs; and for this purpose is
-directed to stretch his arms laterally on each side, and then, by
-placing one foot forward and the other backward, he is enabled to float
-easily and progress slowly. The same circular sweep of the hands and the
-action of the legs are next practised, and the feet should be struck
-downwards and a little forwards, when the movement of the arms is the
-reverse of the old methods of swimming. The young swimmer who has gone
-through the various courses laid down by us, will easily comprehend the
-principle of Bernardi's system, and as easily carry it out if he will
-take the trouble. It is much less fatiguing than the old plan, and can
-be carried on for a longer period, and is of invaluable service to
-troops who may have to cross rivers or dykes, and to all who may be
-exposed to the various accidents of flood and field.
-
-
-THE PRUSSIAN SYSTEM OF PFUEL.
-
-The best of all methods for teaching swimming is that originally
-introduced by General Pfuel into the Prussian swimming-schools. By this
-method a person may be made a very good swimmer in a very short time.
-The apparatus for teaching consists of a hempen girdle five inches in
-width, of a rope from five to six fathoms in length, of a pole eight
-feet long, and a horizontal rail fixed about three-and-a-half feet above
-the platform, on which the teacher stands, to rest the pole on.
-
-The depth of the water in the place chosen for swimming should, if
-possible, be not less than eight feet, and the clearest and calmest
-water should be selected. The pupil wears drawers, fastened by a band
-above the hips and covering about half the thighs. He is now placed near
-the horizontal rail, his hands resting upon it, while the teacher shows
-him the motion which he will have to make with his legs in the water.
-This he does by guiding the motion of one leg while the pupil rests, on
-the other. This motion we shall explain presently.
-
-The swimming girdle, about five inches wide, is now placed round the
-pupil's breast, so that its upper edge rests on the chest, without
-getting tight. The teacher takes the rope, which is fastened to the ring
-of the girdle, in his hand, and directs the pupil to leap into the
-water, keeping the legs straight and close together, and the arms close
-to the body, and, what is very important, to breathe out through the
-nose as soon as his head rises above the water, instead of breathing in
-first, as every man naturally does after a suspension of breath. The
-object of this is to prevent the water from getting into the throat,
-which produces an unpleasant feeling of choking and headache. This
-expiration soon becomes perfectly natural to the swimmers.
-
-The pupil is next invited to leap. He is drawn up immediately by the
-rope, pulled to the ladder, and allowed to gain confidence gradually.
-The rope is now fastened by a noose to the end of the pole, the other
-end of it being kept in the hand of the teacher; the pole is rested on
-the horizontal rail, and the pupil stretches himself horizontally on the
-water, where he remains, supported by the pole. Next the arms are
-extended stiffly forward, the hands clasped, the chin touches the water;
-the legs are also stiffly stretched out, the heels being together, the
-feet turned out, and the toes drawn up. This horizontal position is
-important, and must be executed correctly. No limb is permitted to be
-relaxed.
-
-The movement of the limbs is now taught; that of the legs is taught
-first. The teacher first says, loudly and slowly, "One;" when the legs
-are slowly drawn under the body; at the same time the knees are
-separated to the greatest possible distance, the spine is bent
-downwards, and the toe kept outwards. The teacher then says briskly,
-"Two;" upon which the legs are stiffly stretched out with a moderate
-degree of quickness, while the heels are separated, and the legs
-describe the widest possible angle, the toes being contracted and kept
-outwards. The teacher then says quickly, "Three;" upon which the legs,
-with the knees held stiffly, are quickly brought together, and thus the
-original position is again obtained.
-
-The point at which the motions "two" and "three" join are the most
-important, because it is the object to receive as large and compact a
-wedge of water between the legs as possible; so that when the legs are
-brought together their action upon this wedge may urge the body forward.
-In ordinary cases of swimming, the hands are not used to propel, but
-merely to assist in keeping on the surface. By degrees, therefore, "two"
-and "three" are counted in quick succession, and the pupil is taught to
-extend the legs as widely as possible. After some time, what was done
-under the heads "two" and "three" is done when "two" is called out. When
-the teacher sees that the pupil is able to propel himself with ease,
-which he frequently acquires the power of doing in the first lesson, and
-that he performs the motions already mentioned with regularity, he
-teaches the motions of the hands, which must not be allowed to sink, as
-they are much disposed to do while the motion of the legs is practised.
-
-The motion of the hands consists of two parts. When the teacher says
-"One," the hands, which were held with the palms together, are opened,
-laid horizontally an inch or two under water, and the arms are extended
-till they form an angle of 90°; then the elbow is bent, and the hands
-are brought up to the chin, having described an arch downward and
-upward; the lower part of the thumb touches the chin, the palms being
-together. When the teacher says "Two," the arms are quickly stretched
-forward, and thus the original horizontal position is regained. The
-legs remain stiffly extended during the motion of the hands. If the
-motion of the hands is carefully and correctly performed, the legs and
-arms are moved together; so that while the teacher says "One," the pupil
-performs the first motion of the hands and legs; when he says "Two," the
-second and third motions of the feet, and the second of the hands.
-
-As soon as the teacher perceives that the pupil begins to support
-himself, he slackens the rope a little, and instantly straightens it if
-the pupil is about to sink. When the pupil can swim about ten strokes in
-succession, he is released from the pole, but not from the rope. When he
-can swim about fifty strokes, he is released from the rope too; but the
-teacher remains near him with a long pole until he can swim 150 strokes
-in succession, so that, should he sink, the pole is immediately held out
-to him. After this he may swim in the area of the school, under the
-superintendence of the teacher, until he proves that he can swim
-half-an-hour in succession, so that, should he sink, the pole is
-immediately held out to him; he is then considered fit to be left to
-himself.
-
-Such are the outlines of the German plan of swimming; and, much as we
-dislike the German educational quackery, we are still obliged to confess
-that schools for swimming might be, and ought to be, established in this
-country in unison with the above system. No well-conducted
-boarding-school ought to be without a swimming-school; and the hints
-above given will be exceedingly useful to the swimmer who has to teach
-himself, as well as to the gymnastic tutor who has to teach others the
-art; and we conclude by earnestly recommending the accomplishment of
-swimming to our young readers.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-TRAINING.
-
-It is impossible that any one can indulge to any extent either in
-pedestrianism or rowing without going into some sort of training,
-however slight it may be. Before either can be thoroughly enjoyed, it is
-essential that the body should be brought into condition, and the
-constitution prepared for the severe tests to which it is sure to be
-put. Until this has been satisfactorily accomplished (and it cannot be
-done without much perseverance and self-denial) success at regattas or
-in athletic sports is quite out of the question, and the most serious
-results will attend any attempt to take part in such proceedings.
-Courage and determination to win a race, whether on land or water, are
-qualities very much to be admired, yet they are entirely after
-considerations; the first and chief endeavour must be to reduce the
-superfluous fat without weakening the system, to secure soundness in
-wind and limb--in short, thoroughly to prepare the body, so that it may
-be equal to the emergencies that may hereafter present themselves.
-
-Training should not, however, be begun hastily. Before it is commenced,
-care should be taken to get the stomach into condition for the dieting
-it will have to undergo. These preliminary proceedings will be more or
-less prolonged, according to the habits of life of the patient. If a boy
-has been given to drinking large quantities of beer, eating indigestible
-things, or smoking, he does not commence under such favourable
-circumstances as those who have not so indulged themselves. Probably he
-has injured his digestion and interfered, however slightly, with his
-liver; a state of things that he can readily appreciate by the
-restlessness of his night's rest, and a furred tongue, and unpleasant
-taste in his mouth in the morning. The first thing he must do is
-gradually to lessen his quantity of beer daily, till he can leave it off
-altogether if necessary, to eschew the pastry-cook's and fruiterer's,
-and consign his pipe to the dust-hole. When once he has made up his mind
-to go in for a system of training, he should commence by taking a mild
-aperient dose, such as some salts and senna, or a rhubarb pill, the
-latter followed in the morning, if necessary, by a black dose. He must
-avoid going to the extreme, and purging himself too violently--the
-medicine is solely intended to clear the stomach preparatory to its new
-treatment--and having gone thus far he may, without any fear, put
-himself upon the diet which shall presently be set out. He who has been
-wise enough to satisfy himself with very little beer, and still less of
-raspberry puff or unripe greengages, and has refrained altogether from
-tobacco, which to young people is simply poison, may, unless of weak or
-sickly constitution, begin to train without any preliminary
-preparations. If his heart and soul are really in the contest for which
-he desires to get himself into condition, and he possesses a small
-amount of strength of mind, he will soon become accustomed to the daily
-routine of food and exercise. It is no use beginning, and then yielding
-to the temptation for this or that nice thing; when once the ordeal has
-been commenced, it must be carried out strictly and accurately, or it
-may as well be abandoned altogether. For the desired state of body can
-only be arrived at by one means, namely, a large amount of self-denial
-and close adherence to the prescribed diet.
-
-There is of course some slight difference in the systems of training to
-be pursued for rowing and pedestrianism; at the same time, in the chief
-and important points precisely the same course has to be taken. If a boy
-has a walking or running race in view, he must remember this, that he
-has to suit his daily exercise according to the distance of the
-competition in which he is going to take part. For short races he need
-do little more than keep his digestion and wind in good order, taking
-care to have say a couple of hours' good exercise in the course of the
-day. We would here venture to correct a grave mistake made very often by
-young runners, who think that by continual practising and "spurting"
-they learn to improve their pace. They can adopt no better means for
-defeating their own end than this, as it will tend far more to diminish
-their pace than to improve it. On the other hand, if they have a long
-course of several miles to get over, speed is not so much a matter of
-importance as endurance, and this latter quality can only be obtained by
-accustoming the body to long and severe exercise. For young persons,
-however, it is extremely injudicious to attempt too great distances, and
-we would advise that two miles, and no more, be made the outside limit.
-Longer spins than this are seldom, if ever, tried in ordinary amateur
-races.
-
-Accordingly as the match that is to be contested is in running or
-walking, so must the day's exercise be regulated. Avoid, if for the
-former, taking too much running practice, and that never for a greater
-distance than that of the race in which you are to take part. Good
-sharp, brisk walking is more serviceable than anything else in getting
-the body into order. And now, presuming that a boy is in sound health,
-with good lungs and no unpleasant thumpings about his heart, let us see
-how he should regulate his training. Six o'clock to get out of bed and
-commence the day. No one who intends to train himself really seriously
-will wish to lie longer. Then a cold tub with a big sponge and lots of
-water, followed by a severe rubbing with a rough Turkish towel, that
-leaves you all a-glow. Dress as quickly as you can, and go out for half
-an hour's walk, or run, as you feel inclined. Be sure, however, not to
-fatigue yourself, and see that you come in to breakfast, say at
-half-past seven, with a good appetite. Those who can eat porridge will
-find it a capital thing to commence breakfast with, followed by the lean
-portion of a broiled chop or steak, with bread at least two days old.
-Tea we believe to be undesirable, and a pint of really sound bitter beer
-will be found to agree much better.
-
-There is no need to bind yourself down to a stipulated quantity of food;
-eat what you feel to require, and no more. After breakfast get as much
-rest as you can, say for a couple of hours; then take yourself off for a
-couple of hours' walking or running, getting back to dinner by about two
-o'clock. The programme for this meal is simple enough: a joint of roast
-meat, either mutton or beef, a potato, and sometimes a little
-cauliflower, or brocoli, just to make a change, bread as before, and
-another pint of bitter beer. The liquids are the things in which the
-strictest care must be taken, and the daily quantity regulated. Poultry
-is sometimes introduced, but we hardly think it good--in fact, as far as
-you can, stick to the good plain joint, or chop, or steak, with bread
-and beer, and you will be astonished how you will find your condition
-improved. After dinner rest again for two or three hours, and then about
-six o'clock take yourself off for another hour's exercise, on your
-return from which you will no doubt be fully prepared with an appetite
-for supper. This meal should always be a light one, as it is bad at all
-times, and especially in training, to go to bed on a full stomach.
-Unless you feel you absolutely require it, do not take any meat;
-otherwise, a chop is the least objectionable, and a half-pint of beer.
-Never, under any circumstances, exceed three pints of beer a day.
-Butter, spices, peppers, and sauces should on no account be taken, and,
-as we said before, so we again repeat, smoking must be abjured. If the
-directions given are followed out, defeat will not be occasioned through
-any error in the system of preparation.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-
-
-PART III.
-
-Scientific Pursuits:
-
-INCLUDING
-
-
- ACOUSTICS.
- AERONAUTICS.
- CHEMISTRY.
- ELECTRICITY.
- GALVANISM.
- HEAT.
- HYDRAULICS.
- MAGNETISM.
- MECHANICS.
- MICROSCOPE.
- OPTICS AND OPTICAL ILLUSIONS.
- PHOTOGRAPHY.
- PNEUMATICS.
- SPECTRUM.
-
-
-ACOUSTICS.
-
-Acoustics is the science relating to sound and hearing. Sound is heard
-when any shock or impulse is given to the air, or to any other body
-which is in contact directly or indirectly with the ear.
-
-
-DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOUND AND NOISE.
-
-Noises are made by the cracks of whips, the beating of hammers, the
-creak of a file or saw, or the hubbub of a multitude. But when a bell is
-struck, the bow of a violin drawn across the strings, or the wetted
-finger turned round a musical glass, we have what are properly called
-sounds.
-
-
-SOUNDS, HOW PROPAGATED.
-
-Sounds are propagated on all bodies much after the manner that waves are
-in water, with a velocity of 1,142 feet in a second. Sounds in liquids
-and in solids are more rapid than in air. Two stones rubbed together may
-be heard in water at half a mile; solid bodies convey sounds to great
-distances, and pipes may be made to convey the voice over every part of
-the house.
-
-
-TO SHOW HOW SOUND TRAVELS THROUGH A SOLID.
-
-Take a long piece of wood, such as the handle of a hair broom, and
-placing a watch at one end, apply your ear to the other, and the
-tickings will be distinctly heard.
-
-
-TO SHOW THAT SOUND DEPENDS ON VIBRATION.
-
-Touch a bell when it is sounding, and the noise ceases; the same may be
-done to a musical string with the same results. Hold a musical
-pitch-fork to the lips, when it is made to sound, and a quivering motion
-will be felt from its vibrations. These experiments show that sound is
-produced by the quick motions and vibrations of different bodies.
-
-
-MUSICAL FIGURES RESULTING FROM SOUND.
-
-Cover the mouth of a wine glass, having a foot-stalk, with a thin sheet
-of membrane, over which scatter a layer of fine sand. The vibrations
-excited in the air by the sound of a musical instrument, held within a
-few inches of the membrane, will cause the sand on its surface to form
-regular lines and figures with astonishing celerity, which vary with the
-sound produced.
-
-
-TO MAKE AN ÆOLIAN HARP.
-
-This instrument consists of a long narrow box of very thin deal, about
-six inches deep, with a circle in the middle of the upper side of an
-inch and a half in diameter, in which are to be drilled small holes. On
-this side seven, ten, or more strings of very fine catgut are stretched
-over bridges at each end like the bridges of a fiddle, and screwed up or
-relaxed with screw pins. The strings must all be tuned to one and the
-same note,[5] and the instrument should be placed in a window partly
-open, in which the width is exactly equal to the length of the harp,
-with the sash just raised to give the air admission. When the air blows
-upon these strings with different degrees of force, it will excite
-different tones of sound. Sometimes the blast brings out all the tones
-in full concert, and sometimes it sinks them to the softest murmurs.
-
- [5] D is a good note for it. The upper string may be tuned to the
- upper D, and the two lower to the lower D and D D. The "harmonics"
- are the sounds produced.
-
-A colossal imitation of the instrument just described was invented at
-Milan in 1786, by the Abbate Gattoni. He stretched seven strong iron
-wires, tuned to the notes of the gamut, from the top of a tower sixty
-feet high, to the house of a Signor Moscate, who was interested in the
-success of the experiment; and this apparatus, called the "giant's
-harp," in blowing weather yielded lengthened peals of harmonious music.
-In a storm this music was heard at a greater distance.
-
-
-THE INVISIBLE GIRL.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The facility with which the voice circulates through tubes was known to
-the ancients, and no doubt has afforded the priests of all religions
-means of deception to the ignorant and credulous. But of late days the
-light of science dispels all such wicked deceptions. A very clever
-machine was produced at Paris several years ago, and afterwards
-exhibited in London under the name of the "Invisible Girl," since the
-apparatus was so constructed that the voice of a female at a distance
-was heard as if it originated from a hollow globe, not more than a foot
-in diameter. It consisted of a wooden frame something like a tent
-bedstead, formed by four pillars _a a a a_, connected by upper cross
-rails _b b_, and similar rails below, while it terminated above in four
-bent wires _c c_, proceeding at right angles of the frame, and meeting
-in a central point. The hollow copper ball _d_, with four trumpets _t
-t_, crossing from it at right angles, hung in the centre of the frame,
-being connected with the wires alone by four narrow ribbons _r r_. The
-questions were proposed close to the open mouth of one of these
-trumpets, and the reply was returned from the same orifice. The means
-used in the deception were as follow: a pipe or tube was attached to one
-of the hollow pillars, and carried into another apartment, in which a
-female was placed; and this tube having been carried up the leg or
-pillar of the instrument to the cross-rails, had an aperture exactly
-opposite two of the trumpet mouths; so that what was spoken was
-immediately answered through a very simple mode of communication.
-
-
-VENTRILOQUISM.
-
-This is an art by no means very difficult of acquirement, if the young
-reader will take the pains. It is produced by a reflection of sound
-within the mouth, the voice being brought to the lowest possible place
-in the larynx. When the art is acquired by practice, the voice may be
-made to appear as if coming from any part of a room, from up a chimney,
-or from the depths of a cellar. The celebrated Dr. Wolcott, better known
-as Peter Pindar, used to amuse his friends in a remarkable manner with
-this art. He would represent his landlady as demanding payment of her
-rent, and hold a colloquy with her, which would at last rise to terms of
-reproach and fury, and end by a noise as if the landlady had been kicked
-down stairs. The marvellous powers of Matthews, Le Lagg, Alexander, and,
-lastly, Mr. Love, are familiar to most persons. To learn the art, the
-young practitioner must have the power of enunciating well, and that
-without motion of the lips,--of disguising the voice, so as to imitate
-other sounds,--and of adapting the degree to the apparent source of the
-sound. By practice this art is attainable by any person whose organs of
-speech are completely and fully developed.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-AERONAUTICS.
-
-
-BALLOONS.
-
-The art of sailing or navigating a body through the air is called
-aëronautics. In remote ages, Icarus is said to have risen so high in the
-air that the sun melted his wings, and he fell into the Ægean sea, and
-was drowned; and there is reason to believe, from some figures that have
-recently been discovered on Egyptian and Assyrian monuments, that the
-ancients possessed means of rising in the air with which we are not now
-acquainted.
-
-The air-balloon, as now constructed, is a bag of silk of large
-dimensions, usually cut in gores, and is, when expanded by gas, of a
-pear-shape. It ascends in the atmosphere because its whole bulk is much
-lighter than the air would be in the space it occupies. It is, in fact,
-a vessel filled with a fluid which will float on another fluid lighter
-than itself.
-
-
-HOW TO MAKE AN AIR-BALLOON.
-
-The best shape for an air-balloon, or rather a gas-balloon, is that of a
-pegtop. And in preparing the gores proceed as follows: Get some close
-texture silk, and cut it into a form resembling a narrow pear with a
-very thin stalk. Fourteen of these pieces will be found to be the best
-number; and, of course, the breadths of each piece must be measured
-accordingly. When sewing them together, it will be of advantage to coat
-the parts that overlap with a layer of varnish, as this will save much
-trouble afterwards, and hold the silk firmer in its place during the
-stitching. The threads must be placed very regularly, or the balloon
-will be drawn out of shape, and it will be found useful if the gores are
-covered with an interior coating of varnish before they are finally sewn
-together. Take care not to have the varnish too thick. To the upper part
-of the balloon there should be a valve opening inwards, to which a
-string should be fastened, passing through a hole made in a small piece
-of wood fixed in the lower part of the balloon, so that the aeronaut may
-open the valve when he wishes to descend; and this should be imitated on
-a small scale, so that the young aëronaut may be perfectly familiar with
-the construction of a balloon. The gores are to be covered with a
-varnish of India-rubber dissolved in a mixture of turpentine and
-naphtha. Over the whole of the upper part should be a net-work, which
-should come down to the middle with various cords, proceeding from it to
-the circumference of a circle about two feet below the balloon. The
-circle may be made of wood, or of several pieces of slender cane bound
-together. The meshes should be small at top, against which part of the
-balloon the inflammable air exerts the greatest force, and increase in
-size as they recede from the top.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The car is made of wicker-work; it is usually covered with leather, and
-is well varnished or painted. It is suspended by ropes proceeding from
-the net which goes over the balloon. Balloons of this kind cannot be
-made smaller than six feet in diameter, of oiled silk, as the weight of
-the material is too great for the air to buoy it up. They may be made
-smaller of thin slips of bladder, or other membrane glued together, or
-of thin gutta-percha cloth, which is now extensively used for this
-purpose; with this they may be made a foot in diameter, and will rise
-beautifully.
-
-
-HOW TO FILL A BALLOON.
-
-Procure a large stone bottle which will hold a gallon of water, into
-this put a pound of iron filings, or granulated zinc, with two quarts of
-water, and add to this by degrees one pint of sulphuric acid. Then take
-a tube, either of glass or metal, and introduce one end of it through a
-cork, which place in the bottle, then put the other end into the neck of
-the balloon, and the gas will rise into the body of it. When quite full
-withdraw the tube, and tie the neck of the balloon with strong cord very
-tightly. If freed it will now rise in the air.
-
-
-TO MAKE FIRE-BALLOONS.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Cut the gores, according to the forms already given, from well-woven
-tissue paper, paste the gores nicely together, and look well over the
-surface of the paper for any small hole or slit, over which paste a
-piece of paper, and let it dry. Pass a wire round the neck of the
-balloon, and have two cross pieces at its diameter a little bent, so
-that a piece of soft cotton dipped in spirits of wine may be laid on
-them. When all is prepared let some one hold the balloon from its top by
-means of a stick, while you dip the cotton in spirits of wine till it is
-thoroughly saturated, place it under the balloon and set fire to it, but
-be very careful you do not set fire to the balloon. When the air is
-sufficiently heated within, the balloon will indicate a desire to rise,
-and when it pulls very hard, let it go, and it will ascend to a great
-height in the air, and at night present a very beautiful appearance.
-
-
-PARACHUTES.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-These are easily made by cutting a piece of paper in a circular form,
-and placing threads round the edges, which may be made to converge to a
-point, at which a cork may be placed as a balance. They ascend by the
-air getting under them, and are frequently blown to a great distance.
-
-[Illustration: SCIENTIFIC PURSUITS.]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-CHEMISTRY.
-
-In the eleventh century, and during the reign of King Henry the First,
-surnamed Beauclerk, or the fine scholar, there appeared for the first
-time in certain books, professing to teach the art making of gold, the
-words chemistry, chemist, derived from the Greek [Greek: chêmeia]. Seven
-hundred years and more have passed away, and that which was only the
-pursuit of a shadow called alchemy, has resulted in the acquisition of a
-great and noble science, now and again called chemistry. When we go to
-the French Exposition, we shall doubtless pass by much that is worthy of
-notice, and bring away with us only a general impression of the wonders
-it contains. So it is with the great edifice Chemistry; we may, in
-these brief pages, peep in at the open door, but should we desire to go
-beyond the threshold, there are numerous guides, such as Roscoe, Wilson,
-and Fownes, who will conduct us through the mazes of the interior, and
-explain in elementary language the beautiful processes which have become
-so useful to mankind.
-
-Chemistry is one of the most comprehensive of all the sciences, and at
-the same time one which comes home to us in the most ordinary of our
-daily avocations. Most of the arts of life are indebted to it for their
-very existence, and nearly all have been, from time to time, improved by
-the application of its principles.
-
-Chemistry is, in fact, the science which treats of the composition of
-all material bodies, and of the means of forming them into new
-combinations, and reducing them to their _ultimate elements_, as they
-are termed, that is, bodies which we are unable to split up, as it were,
-or separate into other bodies. To take a common substance as an
-illustration; water, by a great number of processes, can be separated
-into two other substances, called oxygen and hydrogen, in the proportion
-by weight of 8 parts of the first to 1 of the second; but no power that
-we at present possess can separate the oxygen and hydrogen into any
-other bodies; they are therefore called ultimate elements, or
-undecomposable bodies.
-
-Again, sulphate of magnesia (common Epsom salts) can be very easily
-separated into two other substances,--sulphuric acid and magnesia; and
-in this instance, both these substances can again be sub-divided--the
-acid into sulphur and oxygen, and the magnesia into a metallic body
-called magnesium and oxygen; but sulphur, oxygen, and magnesium are
-incapable of further division, and are therefore called _ultimate
-elements_.
-
-These ultimate elements amount to 64 in number, according to the present
-state of our knowledge, and may be arranged in various ways; the
-simplest plan, perhaps, is dividing them into Non-metallic and Metallic
-elements.
-
-The Non-metallic elements are:--1. Oxygen. 2. Hydrogen. 3. Nitrogen. 4.
-Chlorine. 5. Iodine. 6. Bromine. 7. Fluorine. 8. Carbon. 9. Sulphur. 10.
-Selenium. 11. Tellurium. 12. Silicon. 13. Boron. 14. Phosphorus. The
-last-named element is the connecting link with the metals through
-arsenic, which phosphorus closely resembles in its chemical properties.
-
-The Metallic elements may be sub-divided into the metals of the
-alkalies, the metals of the alkaline earths, the metals of the earths,
-and the other metals sometimes called metals proper.
-
-1st. The metallic bases of the alkalies:--potassium, sodium, lithium,
-ammonium, cæsium, rubidium.
-
-2d. The metallic bases of the alkaline earths:--calcium, strontium,
-barium.
-
-3d. The metallic bases of the earths:--aluminium, glucinum, zirconium,
-thorium, yttrium, erbium, cerium, lanthanum, didymium.
-
-4th. The metals proper, the most important of which are:--platinum,
-gold, silver, mercury, copper, iron, tin, lead, nickel, zinc, bismuth,
-antimony, manganese, cobalt, arsenic.
-
-Now, from these elementary bodies, united together in various
-proportions, is formed the infinite variety of substances around us,
-whether animal, vegetable, or mineral; in fact, a few only are generally
-employed;--in the case of animals and vegetables, oxygen, hydrogen,
-carbon, nitrogen, with occasionally some sulphur, calcium, phosphorus,
-and silicon, suffice for building up the beautiful forms of animated
-nature; while the fabric of our globe itself consists for the most part
-of the earths; silex, _i. e._ flint or crystal; lime, in the shape of
-chalk, marble, or limestone, such as our flagstones are composed of;
-slate and granite, which are compounds of aluminium, silica, and small
-quantities of oxide of iron, and sometimes a little potash, &c.; and
-through their masses are projected irregular streams--veins as they are
-termed--of the metals, either in a pure state, as is the case sometimes
-with gold, silver, platinum, mercury, and perhaps one or two others; or
-combined with one of the non-metallic elements, or with one another.
-
-Late calculations have determined the composition of the earth's solid
-crust in 100 parts by weight to be
-
- Oxygen 44·0 to 48·7
- Silicon 22·8 " 36·2
- Aluminium 9·9 " 6·1
- Iron 9·9 " 2·4
- Calcium 6·6 " 0·9
- Magnesium 2·7 " 0·1
- Sodium 2·4 " 2·5
- Potassium 1·7 " 3·1
- ----- -----
- 100· 100·
- ===== =====
-
-All these combinations are effected by certain powers, termed _forces_;
-those which cause the union of the elements are called the forces of
-attraction; those causing their separation, the forces of repulsion.
-
-The force of attraction when exerted between masses of matter, is termed
-gravitation; when it unites particles of matter of a similar kind and
-produces masses, it is called the attraction of cohesion; when the
-particles united are of a dissimilar character, it is then termed
-chemical or elective affinity. For example, the crystals of Epsom salts
-are formed from minute particles of the salt, united into a larger or
-smaller mass by the attraction of cohesion, while the _elements_ of
-which each particle consists, namely, the sulphur, oxygen, and
-magnesium, are united by the attraction of chemical affinity.
-
-Cohesion thus unites particles of a similar kind; chemical affinity, of
-a dissimilar nature. It is to cohesion that the existence of _masses_ of
-matter is owing, and its power increases as the squares of the distances
-diminish, in an inverse ratio to the squares of the distances of the
-particles on which it acts.
-
-The power exerted by cohesion may be exhibited in various ways. This is
-one: Procure two discs of glass about three inches in diameter, their
-surfaces being ground extremely smooth; fix each into a square piece of
-wood, taking care that they are placed accurately in the centre; then
-put them together, by sliding their edges very carefully over each
-other, so as to avoid any air getting between them, and you will find a
-great force necessary to separate them. A hook should be fixed into the
-centre of each piece of wood, so that they may be suspended, and a
-weight hung to the lower one. It is almost impossible for any one to
-separate them by merely pulling them with both hands; a weight of many
-pounds is required for that purpose. In like manner two freshly-cut
-surfaces of caoutchouc will, on being squeezed together, cohere so
-perfectly, that it is difficult to tear them asunder, and it is in this
-way that tubes of caoutchouc may be rapidly prepared for experiments,
-where little or no pressure is exerted.
-
-Chemical affinity is sometimes called _elective_, or the effect of
-_choice_, as if one substance exerted a kind of _preference_ for
-another, and chose to be united to it rather than to that with which it
-was previously combined; thus, if you pour some vinegar, which is a weak
-acetic acid, upon some pearlash (a combination of potash and carbonic
-acid), or some carbonate of soda (a combination of the same acid with
-soda), a violent effervescence will take place, occasioned by the escape
-of the carbonic acid, displaced in consequence of the potash or soda
-preferring the acetic acid, and forming a compound called an acetate.
-Then, if some sulphuric acid be poured on this new compound, the acetic
-acid will in its turn be displaced by the greater attachment of either
-of the bases, as they are termed, for the sulphuric acid. Again, if into
-a solution of blue vitriol (a combination of sulphuric acid with oxide
-of copper) the bright blade of a knife be introduced, the knife will
-speedily be covered with a coat of copper, deposited in consequence of
-the acid _preferring_ the iron, of which the knife is made, a quantity
-of it being dissolved in exact proportion to the quantity of copper
-deposited.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-It is on the same principle that a very beautiful preparation, called a
-silver-tree, or a lead-tree, may be formed thus:--Fill a wide bottle,
-capable of holding from half a pint to a pint, with a tolerably strong
-solution of nitrate of silver (lunar caustic), or acetate of lead, in
-pure distilled water; then attach a small piece of zinc by a string to
-the cork or stopper of the bottle, so that the zinc shall hang about the
-middle of the bottle, and set it by where it may be quite undisturbed;
-in a short time, brilliant plates of silver or lead, as the case may be,
-will be seen to collect around the piece of zinc, assuming more or less
-of the crystalline form. This at first is a case of elective affinity;
-the acid with which the silver or lead was united _prefers_ the zinc to
-either of those metals and in consequence discards them in order to
-attach the zinc to itself, subsequently a voltaic current is set up
-between the two metals, and the process will continue until almost the
-whole of the zinc is taken up, or nearly the whole of the silver or lead
-deposited.
-
-Again, many animal and vegetable substances consist for the most part of
-carbon or charcoal, united with oxygen and hydrogen in the proportion
-which forms water. Now oil of vitriol (strong sulphuric acid) has so
-powerful an affinity, or so great a _thirst_ for water, that it will
-abstract it from almost any body in which it exists; if you then pour
-some of this acid on a lump of sugar, or place a chip of wood in it, the
-sugar or wood will speedily become quite black, or be _charred_, as it
-is called, in consequence of the oxygen and hydrogen being removed by
-the sulphuric acid, and only the carbon, or charcoal, left.
-
-When Cleopatra dissolved pearls of wondrous value in vinegar, she was
-exhibiting unwittingly an instance of chemical elective affinity; the
-pearl being simply carbonate of lime, which was decomposed by the
-greater affinity or fondness of lime for its new acquaintance (the
-acetic acid of the vinegar) than for the carbonic acid, with which it
-had been united all its life,--an example of inconstancy in strong
-contrast with the conduct of its owner, who chose death rather than
-become the mistress of her lover's conqueror.
-
-
-GASES.
-
-The three permanent gaseous elements are oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen.
-
-The compound gases are very numerous, some being combustible, and others
-supporters of combustion.
-
-Gases are for the most part transparent and colourless, with a few
-exceptions, and of course, like the air of the atmosphere, invisible.
-They are little affected by the attraction of cohesion, but rather, on
-the contrary, the particles composing them have a constant tendency to
-separate from each other, so that their force of expansion is only
-limited by the pressure under which they may be kept, and the
-temperature they may be exposed to. They have a tendency to _penetrate_
-each other, as it were; for instance, if you take a jar of heavy gas,
-such as carbonic gas, set it with its mouth upwards, then invert over it
-another jar containing hydrogen, a gas nearly twenty-two times lighter;
-in a very short time the two gases will have become thoroughly mixed,
-the heavy carbonic acid having risen, and the light hydrogen fallen,
-until the gases are thoroughly mixed, each jar containing an equal
-quantity of each gas.
-
-
-OXYGEN GAS.
-
-This gas, so named from two Greek words signifying the maker of acid,
-was discovered by Dr. Priestly in 1774. He obtained it by heating the
-red oxide of mercury in a glass retort, when the gas escaped in
-considerable quantities. In the ensuing year Scheele obtained it by a
-variety of methods, and a few years afterwards Lavoisier discovered that
-it was contained in atmospheric air, where it exists in the proportion
-of about one-fifth, the remaining four-fifths being almost entirely
-nitrogen.
-
-Oxygen gas may be obtained for the purpose of experiment, by heating to
-redness the black oxide of manganese in an iron bottle, to the mouth of
-which a flexible tube is attached to convey away the gas as fast as it
-is liberated from the manganese. The first portions should be allowed to
-escape, being mixed with the air in the tubes and bottle, and the
-remainder may be collected in a gasometer, or in glass jars inverted
-over water.
-
-Another method to obtain the gas, and one to be used only in the absence
-of other ingredients, is to mix in a retort some of this same oxide of
-manganese with about half its weight of strong sulphuric acid, and apply
-heat to the retort, when the gas will come over in considerable
-quantities; the first portions must be allowed to escape as before.[6]
-If the gas is required _very_ pure, a small quantity of the salt called
-chlorate of potassa may be heated in a retort, and oxygen gas will be
-evolved, and may be collected as before. If you have an iron bottle, the
-first mode is by far the cheapest, as the heat of a bright fire is
-sufficient for the operation, and a large quantity of gas is obtained in
-a short time from a very inexpensive material. The most rapid and
-convenient process of all is to heat a mixture of two parts chlorate of
-potash, and one of powdered black oxide of manganese, in a common clean
-oil flask, to which a cork and bent tube has been adapted. Care must be
-taken not to mistake sulphide of antimony for black oxide of manganese,
-as very serious accidents have arisen from this cause.
-
- [6] Some _boiling_ water should be added to the mass left in the
- retort directly the gas has ceased to come away, or it will adhere
- to the glass so firmly, that the retort will certainly be spoilt.
-
-Oxygen is largely distributed over our globe, both in its uncombined
-state, and in union with other substances. Besides forming one-fifth of
-the atmosphere, it forms eight-ninths by weight of all the water in the
-ocean, rivers, and springs on the face of the whole earth. It also, in
-combination with various metals, forms the various earths and minerals
-of which the crust of the earth consists, so that it is the most
-abundant and widely distributed substance in nature, and in combination
-with other elements, forms nearly half the weight of the solid earth.
-
-In its uncombined state it is a colourless gas, somewhat heavier than
-atmospheric air, without taste or smell. It is a powerful supporter of
-combustion, and is absolutely necessary for the support of animal life,
-which cannot exist for any time without a free supply of this gas, which
-is constantly consumed in the act of breathing, and is replaced by an
-equivalent portion of carbonic acid gas. The want of oxygen is partly
-the cause of the oppression felt in crowded rooms, where the air cannot
-be renewed so fast as is required for the number of persons who are
-constantly consuming the oxygen; and if an animal be confined under a
-glass jar inverted over water, it will presently die, just for the same
-reason that burning tapers are extinguished under similar circumstances.
-
-If a jet of this gas be thrown upon a piece of charcoal, sulphur, or
-almost any combustible body in a state of ignition, it will make it burn
-with great vividness and rapidity. For a complete series of experiments
-with oxygen see "The Boy's Play-book of Science."
-
-
-EXPERIMENT.
-
-But by far the most intense heat, and most brilliant light, may be
-produced by introducing a piece of phosphorus into a jar of oxygen. The
-phosphorus may be placed in a small copper cup, with a long handle of
-thick wire passing through a hole in a cork that fits the jar. The
-phosphorus must first be ignited; and, as soon as it is introduced into
-the oxygen, it gives out a light so brilliant that no eye can bear it,
-and the whole jar appears filled with an intensely luminous atmosphere.
-It is well to dilute the oxygen with about one-fourth part of common air
-to moderate the intense heat which is nearly certain to break the jar if
-pure oxygen is used.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-EXPERIMENT.
-
-If a piece of charcoal, which is pure carbon or nearly so, be ignited,
-and introduced into a jar containing oxygen or common atmospheric air,
-the product will be carbonic gas only, of which we shall speak
-presently. As most combustible bodies contain both carbon and hydrogen,
-the result of their combination is carbonic acid and water. This is the
-case with the gas used for illumination; and in order to prevent the
-water so produced from spoiling goods in shops, various plans have been
-devised for carrying off the water when in the state of steam. This is
-generally accomplished by suspending over the burners glass bells,
-communicating with tubes opening into the chimney, or passing outside
-the house.
-
-To show that oxygen, or some equivalent, is necessary for the support
-of combustion, fix two or three pieces of wax-taper on flat pieces of
-cork, and set them floating on water in a soup-plate, light them, and
-invert over them a glass jar; as they burn, the heat produced may
-perhaps at first expand the air so as to force a small quantity out of
-the jar, but the water will soon rise in the jar, and continue to do so
-until the tapers expire, when you will find that a considerable portion
-of the air has disappeared, and what remains will no longer support
-flame; that is, the oxygen has been converted partly into water, and
-partly into carbonic acid gas, by uniting with the carbon and hydrogen,
-of which the taper consists, and the remaining air is principally
-nitrogen, with some carbonic acid; the presence of the latter may be
-proved by decanting some of the remaining air into a bottle, and then
-shaking some lime-water with it, which will absorb the carbonic acid and
-form chalk, rendering the water quite turbid.
-
-
-NITROGEN.
-
-This gas is, as its name implies, the producer of nitre, or at least
-forms a portion of the nitric acid contained in nitre. It is rather
-lighter than atmospheric air, colourless, transparent, incapable of
-supporting animal life, on which account it is sometimes called
-azote--an objectionable name, as it is not a poison like many other
-gases, but destroys life only in the absence of oxygen. This gas
-extinguishes all burning bodies plunged into it, and does not itself
-burn. It exists largely in nature, for four-fifths of the atmosphere
-consists of nitrogen gas. It is also an important constituent of animal
-bodies, and is found in the vegetable world.
-
-Nitrogen may be most easily obtained for experiment by setting fire to
-some phosphorus contained in a porcelain or metallic cup, placed under a
-gas jar full of air, and resting on the shelf of the pneumatic trough,
-or in a soup-plate filled with water.
-
-Nitrogen combines in five different proportions with oxygen, producing
-five distinct chemical compounds, named respectively nitrous oxide,
-nitric oxide, nitric tri-oxide, nitric tetr-oxide, nitric pent-oxide,
-which last, united with water, forms nitric acid, now called hydric
-nitrate, as nitrous acid is termed hydric nitrite.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Nitrous oxide gas is generally known by the name of "laughing gas," from
-the jolly sensations experienced on inhaling it. It may be procured by
-distilling in a glass retort a salt called nitrate of ammonia, which
-yields the gas in considerable quantities, and it should be kept
-standing in jars over water for some hours before it is used. It should
-be transferred into a silk air-tight bag, furnished with a stopcock and
-mouthpiece, from which the gas may be breathed; a little practice is
-required to do this easily, and more resolution to desist when the gas
-begins to produce its effects, as it appears to fascinate the
-experimenter, and actual force is often necessary to remove the bag from
-the mouth. The effects produced vary according to the temperament of the
-person inhaling it; they are, however, always of a highly pleasurable
-nature, muscular action being generally greatly exalted, compelling the
-individual to race round the apartment and execute leaps and pirouettes
-perfectly astounding. Some persons shout and sing, and I have seen one
-expend his superfluous animation in twisting his features into such
-ludicrous grimaces as would be the envy of the candidates at a grinning
-match, and beat them all out of the field. Sir H. Davy was the
-discoverer of this gas, and of its peculiar effects on the nervous
-system, and a full account of it may be found in his "Researches on
-Nitrous Oxide Gas."
-
-This gas is heavier than air, and supports combustion nearly as
-energetically as oxygen, as may be shown by introducing a piece of
-ignited phosphorus into a jar of this gas. It will not, however, support
-the life of small animals, such as mice, which introduced into it die
-very quickly.
-
-[Illustration: PLAN OF PNEUMATIC TROUGH.]
-
-[Illustration: SECTION OF PNEUMATIC TROUGH.]
-
-The next compound of nitrogen with oxygen, when one proportion of
-nitrogen unites with two of oxygen, is termed nit_ric_ oxide gas. It may
-be easily procured by heating in a retort some copper turnings in dilute
-nitric acid. It is colourless and transparent, and has the property of
-combining with oxygen to form other compounds.
-
-
-EXPERIMENT.
-
-Into a jar of this gas standing over water pass some oxygen gas. The jar
-will be filled with red fumes, which will be rapidly absorbed by the
-water. If atmospheric air be used instead of oxygen, there will remain
-in the jar the nitrogen of the air, amounting to four-fifths of the air
-employed.
-
-This gas is destructive to animal life, in consequence of its property
-of uniting with the oxygen in the lungs, and producing the highly
-corrosive nitrous acid gas. It will, however, support the combustion of
-a few substances, phosphorus for instance, provided it is sufficiently
-heated before being plunged into the gas.
-
-We pass over the third and fourth compounds of nitrogen with oxygen, as
-they are not calculated for amusing experiments. Nitric acid is easily
-prepared on the small scale, by gradually heating equal parts by weight
-of nitric and sulphuric acid in a retort to which a receiver has been
-adapted. The receiver, which may be a clean oil flask, should be kept
-cool with wetted blotting paper.
-
-Nitrogen combines with chlorine and iodine, forming detonating
-compounds, the former being so extremely dangerous that it will be
-better to pass it by.
-
-The compound with iodine, called iodide of nitrogen, may very easily be
-made by pouring strong solution of ammonia (a compound of nitrogen and
-hydrogen) upon some iodine in a phial, shaking them well together, and
-after letting them stand for a few hours, pouring off the fluid; the
-black powder remaining in the phial is the explosive compound, the
-iodide of nitrogen. When dry, it is very apt to detonate spontaneously;
-it should therefore be shaken out of the phial while _wet_, and spread
-in very small quantities on separate pieces of blotting paper, which
-should be kept apart from each other. When thoroughly dry, the slightest
-touch with the point of a feather, shaking the paper on which it rests,
-or even opening too rapidly the door of a closet where it has been put
-to dry, will cause it to explode, producing a quantity of
-violet-coloured fumes. The explosion is somewhat violent, producing a
-sharp cracking noise; and the greatest care should be taken in
-experimenting with it.
-
-
-ATMOSPHERIC AIR.
-
-As has been already mentioned, nitrogen is the principal constituent of
-the air of the atmosphere which surrounds our globe, extending to a
-height of about forty-five miles above it, and playing a most important
-part in the economy of nature, inorganic as well as organic.
-
-This atmospheric air consists by volume of nearly four-fifths of
-nitrogen, and rather more than one-fifth of oxygen, viz. seventy-nine of
-the former to twenty-one of the latter, or twenty-three parts by weight
-of oxygen and seventy-seven of nitrogen; it generally contains also a
-variable proportion of the vapour of water, and a very small quantity of
-carbonic acid gas, being only about four volumes to 10,000 of air. Its
-constituent parts are easily separated, as it is a mechanical mixture
-and not a chemical compound, though the mixture by diffusion is so
-complete that chemists have not been able to ascertain any difference in
-the composition of air taken from all parts of the world, and from
-different heights, up to the highest point which has to this time been
-attained.
-
-The atmosphere presses on the surface of the globe, and every being on
-it, with a force of about fifteen pounds to every square inch of
-surface, but as it presses equally in all directions, upwards as well as
-downwards, its weight cannot be perceived unless the pressure be removed
-from one surface by some artificial means.
-
-Atmospheric air contains, besides the oxygen and nitrogen, its principal
-constituents, a small proportion of carbonic acid gas, as has been
-mentioned, and this may be shown by filling a tube about half full of
-lime-water, and shaking it with the air contained in the other half,
-when it will become slightly turbid from the insoluble carbonate of lime
-formed.
-
-When we consider that every living animal is constantly consuming
-oxygen, and replacing it by carbonic acid gas, and that all burning
-bodies, fires in our dwellings, furnaces, artificial lights of all
-kinds, act in the same way in abstracting the oxygen from the air, and
-replacing it by immense quantities of carbonic acid gas, which is a
-poison to all animals who breathe, or attempt to breathe it, we must
-wonder what becomes of this irrespirable gas, as it is found to exist in
-the air in quantities so minute, and by what means the oxygen is
-restored, and the air again made fit for respiration. This is effected
-by one of those laws which the wisdom of the Creator has impressed upon
-matter, by which one part of creation as it were balances another, and
-all proceeds in an endless circle of change. This carbonic acid, which
-is so poisonous to animal life, is the food of the vegetable world,
-plants having the power of taking up the carbonic acid into their pores;
-converting the carbon into their own substance, and rejecting the
-oxygen, which is again respired by animals, &c. In the same way, all
-animal refuse is the food of vegetables, and is used under the name of
-manures.
-
-The atmosphere contains also a variable quantity of vapour of water,
-invisible as long as it is in the state of vapour, but it may be
-rendered obvious by bringing any very cold body into warm air, when the
-vapour will condense on the cold body in the form of small drops of
-water. A tumbler of fresh-pumped water brought into a crowded room, is
-almost immediately covered with moisture, and it may also be seen on
-bottles of wine which have been put into ice before coming to table.
-Fogs are occasioned by the condensation of vapour produced by mixing a
-current of warm air with a colder air. The banks of Newfoundland are
-notorious for dense fogs, occasioned by the warm air brought from the
-south by the great Gulf stream, mixing with the cold air from the Arctic
-regions, and thus precipitating the vapour in a visible form, rendering
-everything but itself invisible. The famous London fogs depend upon the
-same precipitation of the vapour of water, with the addition of the
-smoke from the numerous sea-coal fires, which give it that interesting
-yellow tinge for which it is so remarkable.
-
-Aqueous vapour appears to impart a transparency to air, and permits
-objects to be seen more distinctly in proportion to its quantity; hence,
-when distant hills appear nearer, and objects upon them more distinct
-than usual, rain may be expected, the air being fully charged with
-vapour ready to be deposited on the slightest cause.
-
-
-HYDROGEN.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Hydrogen gas is the lightest substance known, being fifteen times
-lighter than atmospheric air. It is colourless and transparent,
-incapable of supporting combustion or respiration, but is itself
-combustible. Hydrogen, as its name implies (being derived from two Greek
-words, signifying the generator of water), is a constituent of water in
-the proportion of one-ninth by weight, and is always obtained by
-decomposing that fluid, by presenting to it some body to take up its
-other ingredient, oxygen, and so set the hydrogen at liberty. If the
-steam of water be passed through a red-hot gun barrel, containing iron
-filings, the water is decomposed, the iron taking the oxygen, and the
-hydrogen comes over in torrents; but as every one has not a gun barrel
-and furnace to heat it, the usual mode is to employ dilute sulphuric
-acid, and iron filings, or zinc, in small pieces, and it may be
-collected over water by means of a bent tube issuing from the bottle in
-which it is formed. It is so light that it was used to fill balloons
-before coal gas was to be had, and if you procure a light air-tight bag
-of silk, or thin membrane such as a turkey's crop, and fill it with the
-gas, it will ascend rapidly, and dance about the ceiling of a room.
-
-
-EXPERIMENTS.
-
-1. Attach a tobacco-pipe to a bladder filled with this gas, and blow
-some soap-bubbles with it; they will rise very rapidly, and if a lighted
-taper be applied to them they burn.
-
-If you mix in a soda water bottle one-third of oxygen with two-thirds of
-hydrogen, and apply flame, the mixture will explode with a sharp report.
-Great care must be taken in all experiments with the mixed gases. To
-avoid danger the gases are placed in separate india-rubber bags, and are
-only brought together at the jet. This is an expensive apparatus, and
-should only be used by experienced persons.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-2. If a jar of this gas be held with its mouth _downwards_, and a
-lighted taper passed up well into the jar, the taper will be
-extinguished, and the gas take fire, and burn quietly at the mouth of
-the jar; if mixed with oxygen or atmospheric air, it will explode.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Hold over the jet of hydrogen issuing from a small tube, hollow
-cylinders of glass or earthenware, Florence flasks, or hollow glass
-balls, and musical sounds will be produced, which were supposed to
-depend on some peculiar property of hydrogen gas, until Mr. Faraday
-tried flame from coal gas, olefiant gas, and even the vapour of ether,
-when the sounds were still produced, and he attributed them to a
-continuous explosion, or series of explosions, produced by the union of
-oxygen with the hydrogen of the flames.
-
-
-WATER.
-
-With oxygen, hydrogen unites to form the important compound water, which
-exists not only in the obvious form of oceans, rivers, lakes, rains,
-dews, &c. &c. but is found intimately combined with many substances,
-giving them some of their peculiar properties. Many crystals have a
-definite proportion of water combined with them, and on losing this
-water they lose their crystalline form. Many acids also cannot exist as
-acids without water. The slaking of lime depends upon the union of water
-with the lime, the dry powder resulting from the process being a
-_hydrate_ of lime, the water having become _solidified_, and in passing
-from the fluid to the solid state gives out its latent caloric,
-producing the heat observed during the process. When a large quantity
-of lime, a barge-load for instance, has got wetted by accident, the heat
-evolved has been sufficient to set fire to the barge.
-
-At the temperature of 32° of Fahrenheit's thermometer, water loses its
-fluid form, and becomes ice. As it solidifies, it starts into beautiful
-crystals, which unite and cross each other at determinate angles. Ice is
-lighter than the water on which it floats, forming a protection to the
-water beneath, and preventing it from being frozen so rapidly; else, if
-the ice were _heavier_ than water, and consequently sank as soon as
-formed, each portion of water would be frozen in its turn, until rivers
-became solid throughout, and every living creature in them must be
-destroyed. Now, the temperature of the water under the ice is seldom
-much below 40°, and if care be taken to break holes at intervals to
-allow access to the air, the fish and other aquatic animals seldom
-suffer even in our coldest winters.
-
-Although it is impossible to raise ice even one degree above 32° without
-thawing, it is not difficult to reduce water many degrees below that
-point without freezing it.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-In order to obtain both the constituents of water in a separate state,
-it must be decomposed by galvanism, each pole of a battery terminating
-in a separate tube containing water, when the result will be that at the
-positive pole oxygen gas will be evolved, and hydrogen at the negative,
-the latter being double the quantity of the former. Now, if you mix the
-gases thus obtained, introduce them into a vessel called a "Eudiometer,"
-and pass an electric spark through them from a Leyden phial, a sudden
-flash will be seen, and the gases will entirely disappear, being again
-converted into water. If you have a mercurial trough, and perform this
-experiment over mercury, the inside of the eudiometer will exhibit
-minute drops of water. Thus you have proved both by _analysis_ and
-_synthesis_, that water consists of oxygen and hydrogen, in the
-proportion of one volume of the former to two of the latter.
-
-
-EXPERIMENT.
-
-Take some perfectly pure distilled water, filter it, surround it with a
-mixture of light snow, or powdered ice, and salt, taking care to keep it
-perfectly still, a thermometer having been previously placed in it. The
-mercury will gradually sink many degrees below the freezing point 32°
-(it has been reduced as low as 4°), the water still remaining fluid;
-when all at once, either from shaking the table, or simply because the
-reduction can be carried no further, it suddenly starts into ice, and
-the thermometer jumps up at once to 32°, where it remains until the
-whole is frozen, when the temperature gradually sinks to that of the
-surrounding medium.
-
-Now if you remove the glass of ice from the freezing mixture into the
-apartment, and watch the thermometer, you will find it gradually rise to
-32°, and there remain until all the ice is melted, when it will
-gradually acquire the temperature of the room. The reason of this is,
-that the water in passing from the solid to the fluid form absorbs, and
-in passing from the fluid to the solid form gives out caloric, so
-maintaining the temperature at 32°, the point at which the change of
-form takes place, until it is completed.
-
-Between the temperature of 32° and 212°, water exists in a fluid form,
-under ordinary circumstances; but at the latter point it assumes the
-form of vapour or steam, and acquires many of the properties of gases,
-being indefinitely expansible by heat, the force increasing as the
-temperature is raised, provided the steam be confined, until it becomes
-irresistible,--witness the frequent explosions of steam-engines even in
-this country; and in America, where the engines are worked at a high
-pressure, accidents are of daily occurrence.
-
-The temperature at which water boils is modified by the pressure applied
-to it. Thus, as you ascend a mountain, and so pass through a portion of
-the atmosphere, water boils at a lower temperature, until at great
-heights it boils at so low a heat, that good tea cannot be made because
-it is impossible to heat the water sufficiently. Under the exhausted
-receiver of an air-pump, water boils at about 140°.
-
-
-CHLORINE.
-
-Another gaseous element, sometimes called a supporter of combustion, is
-named chlorine, from a Greek word signifying yellowish green.
-
-This gas was formerly called "oxymuriatic acid," being supposed to be a
-compound of oxygen and muriatic acid gases, until Sir H. Davy, in a
-series of masterly experiments carried on during the years 1808-9-10 and
-11, proved that it contained no oxygen or muriatic acid, and that it was
-in fact a simple or undecompounded substance, and changed its name to
-chlorine, which name was, after some discussion, accepted by the
-scientific world, and is still in use.
-
-This gas may be obtained for experiment, by gently heating in a retort a
-mixture of muriatic or hydrochloric acid, hydrochloride, as it is now
-called, with some black oxide of manganese: the muriatic acid, a
-compound of chlorine and hydrogen, is decomposed, and so is the oxide of
-manganese, giving out some of its oxygen, which takes the hydrogen from
-the muriatic acid to form water, while the chlorine gas, with which the
-hydrogen had been united, is set at liberty, and may be collected in
-jars over water.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Chlorine gas is transparent, of a greenish yellow colour, has a peculiar
-disagreeable taste and smell, and if breathed even in small quantities,
-occasions a sensation of suffocation, of tightness in the chest, and
-violent coughing, attended with great prostration. I have been compelled
-to retire to bed from having upset a bottle containing some of this gas.
-It destroys most vegetable colours when moist, and is in fact the agent
-now universally employed for bleaching purposes.
-
-It has also the power of combining with and destroying all noxious
-smells, and is invaluable as a purifier of foul rooms, and destroyer of
-infection. For these latter purposes it is used in combination with
-lime, either in substance or solution, under the name of "Chloride of
-Lime."
-
-Sir W. Burnett has lately discovered that the chloride of zinc answers
-the same purposes as the chloride of lime, and has the advantage of
-being itself destitute of smell, and his fluid is frequently substituted
-for the other.
-
-Chlorine gas is a powerful supporter of combustion, many of the metals
-taking fire spontaneously when introduced in a fine state of division
-into the gas.
-
-
-EXPERIMENTS.
-
-1. Into a jar of chlorine gas introduce a few sheets of copper leaf,
-sold under the name of Dutch foil, when it will burn with a dull red
-light.
-
-2. If some metallic antimony in a state of powder be poured into a jar
-of this gas, it will take fire as it falls, and burn with a bright white
-light.
-
-3. A small piece of the metal potassium may be introduced, and will also
-take fire.
-
-4. A piece of phosphorus will also generally take fire spontaneously
-when introduced into this gas. In all these cases direct compounds of
-the substances with chlorine are produced, called chlorides.
-
-5. If a lighted taper be plunged quickly into the gas, it will continue
-to burn with a dull light, giving off a very large quantity of smoke,
-being in fact the carbon of the wax taper, with which the chlorine does
-not unite; while the other constituent of the taper, the hydrogen, forms
-muriatic acid by union with the chlorine.
-
-6. This substance has the property of destroying most vegetable colours,
-and is used in large quantities for bleaching calico, linen, and the
-rags of which paper is made. It is a curious fact that it shows this
-property only when water is present, for if a piece of coloured cloth is
-introduced dry into a jar of the gas, also dry, no effect will be
-produced--wet the cloth, and reintroduce it, and in a very short time
-its colour will be discharged.
-
-7. Introduce a quantity of the infusion of the common red cabbage, which
-is of a beautiful blue colour, into a jar of this gas, and it will
-instantly become nearly as pale as water, retaining a slight tinge of
-yellow. A solution of sulphate of indigo can always be obtained, and
-answers well for this experiment.
-
-
-MURIATIC ACID GAS, OR HYDRIC CHLORIDE.
-
-With chlorine, hydrogen forms a compound called muriatic, or
-hydrochloric acid gas. It cannot easily be formed by the direct union of
-its elements, but is procured from some compound in which it exists
-ready formed. Common salt (chloride of sodium) is generally employed;
-and when acted on by strong sulphuric acid (or oil of vitriol), the gas
-is disengaged in abundance. It must be collected over mercury, for water
-absorbs it, forming the liquid muriatic, or hydrochloric acid.
-
-A lighted taper plunged into this gas is instantly extinguished. It is
-very dangerous to animal life if respired. It has the property of
-destroying animal effluvia, and was once employed to purify the
-cathedral of Dijon, which was so filled with putrid emanations from the
-bodies buried in it, that it had been closed for some time. It perfectly
-succeeded, but it is so destructive to all metallic substances that it
-is not used now, for the chlorides of lime and zinc have since been
-discovered to act more effectually than the muriatic acid gas, without
-its inconvenience.
-
-The compounds of hydrogen with iodine are passed over.
-
-With nitrogen, hydrogen unites and forms one of the most extraordinary
-compounds in the whole range of chemistry,--the gas called ammonia. This
-is the only gas possessing what are called alkaline properties; _i. e._
-it changes the blue colour of certain vegetables to green, yellow to
-deep brown, and unites with the acids to form neutral compounds, just as
-the other alkalies, potash and soda, which are oxides of metals. It may
-be procured in abundance by heating the hydrochlorate of ammonia, or sal
-ammoniac, as it is usually called, with quick-lime, which takes the
-hydrochloric acid, and sets free this remarkable gas. It must be
-received over mercury, as it is absorbed to almost any extent by water,
-forming the fluid sold as "spirits of hartshorn" in the shops.
-
-This gas is colourless and transparent, lighter than atmospheric air,
-and will not support combustion; it has a very pungent but not
-disagreeable smell. Under certain circumstances it is combustible.
-
-
-EXPERIMENTS.
-
-1. Take a bottle containing chlorine gas, and invert over its mouth
-another filled with ammoniacal gas; then if the bottles be held in the
-hand (guarded by a pair of gloves), and suddenly turned, so that the
-chlorine be uppermost, the two gases will unite so rapidly that a white
-flame fills the bottles for an instant.
-
-2. Substitute for the chlorine of the last experiment a bottle of
-carbonic or hydrochloric acid gas; in either case the gases disappear,
-and a light white powder settles on the sides of the bottles, being the
-carbonate or hydrochlorate of ammonia, according to the acid used.
-
-Carbonate of ammonia is the substance sold for "smelling salts;" and the
-hydrochlorate, or muriate of ammonia, is the salt called "sal ammoniac,"
-whence the alkaline gas was first obtained, and from which it got its
-name of ammonia. The salt itself was so called, because it was formerly
-brought from the deserts near the ruins of the temple of Jupiter Ammon.
-
-This salt is, as has been shown, a compound of muriatic acid gas and
-ammoniacal gas, containing therefore only _three_ simple
-elements--hydrogen, chlorine, and nitrogen, all gases, and known only in
-the gaseous state, its symbol being NH_{4}Cl; yet they by union form a
-solid body, resembling in all essential qualities the salts of potash
-and soda, which are oxides of known metals. Moreover, if some mercury be
-placed in a solution of this salt, and subjected to the action of
-galvanism, the _negative_ pole being applied to the mercury, and the
-positive to the sal ammoniac, the mercury presently loses its fluidity,
-increases greatly in size, and in fact presents the same appearance as
-when it is mixed with some metal, forming what is called an "amalgam."
-When the battery ceases to act, a succession of white films forms on the
-surface of the amalgam, and the mercury soon returns to its original
-state. How is this to be explained? Some chemists have supposed that
-there must be a _base_ united to the mercury, and have named this
-hypothetical substance "ammonium," to correspond to potassium and
-sodium, the bases of potash and soda, which resemble ammonia in so many
-properties. But what is this ammonium? and how is it formed? for
-hydrogen and nitrogen are simple elementary bodies. Are _all_ metals
-compounds of gases? and are there but a few elements instead of the 64
-now enumerated? This, however, is a difficult question, not fitted for
-discussion here.
-
-Carbonate of ammonia may be obtained by mixing together powdered chalk
-(which is a carbonate of lime) and muriate of ammonia, and heating the
-mixture in close vessels, when the salt in question will rise in fumes,
-and be condensed in a mass in the upper part of the vessel. It is,
-however, so largely produced in other manufactures, particularly in
-gas-works, that there is no necessity to resort to the more expensive
-and direct method. It is the well-known "smelling salts."
-
-The only other salt of ammonia worth our notice here is the nitrate,
-from the destructive distillation of which is obtained the nitrous
-oxide, or laughing gas, already mentioned.
-
-
-IODINE.
-
-On the coasts of certain islands belonging to the Duke of Argyll, vast
-quantities of sea-weed are occasionally torn up from their ocean beds
-and deposited on the shores. This weed, after being partially dried by
-exposure to the sun and air, is burnt in a shallow pit; the ashes are
-then collected, and form the commercial raw material called kelp, from
-which iodine is procured by a gradual series of processes.
-
-
-EXPERIMENTS.
-
-Iodine has a beautiful metallic lustre, with a bluish black colour, and
-should be kept in a well-stoppered bottle. A small quantity placed in a
-clear flask and heated, affords a magnificent violet vapour, which may
-be poured from the flask into another glass vessel, when it condenses
-again into crystalline plates. The colour of the vapour originates
-the name of this element, so called from the Greek [Greek: iôdês],
-violet-coloured. If a little iodine be placed in contact with a thin
-slice of phosphorus, the latter takes fire almost immediately.
-
-
-BROMINE.
-
-So called from the Greek [Greek: bromos], a bad odour, is most
-intimately allied with chlorine and iodine; like these elements it
-belongs to the sea, and is a constituent of sea-water. Bromine is a very
-heavy fluid, and should be preserved by keeping it covered with water in
-a stoppered-bottle.
-
-Experiments with liquid bromine are not recommended, as all the most
-interesting ones can be performed with the vapour, which is easily
-procured by letting fall a few drops of bromine into a warm dry bottle.
-
-
-EXPERIMENTS.
-
-Pounded antimony sprinkled into the vapour takes fire immediately.
-
-A thin slice of phosphorus placed in a deflagrating ladle and placed
-into the vapour of bromine ignites very quickly.
-
-A solution of sulphate of indigo, or an infusion of red cabbage, are
-easily bleached by being shaken violently with the vapour of bromine.
-
-
-FLUORINE.
-
-In many parts of England, especially in Devonshire, Cornwall, and above
-all in Derbyshire, is found a very beautiful mineral, known by the name
-of Fluor Spar, Derbyshire Spar, and called by the miners Blue John, to
-distinguish it from another mineral found, in the same locality, called
-_Black Jack_. It occurs in very regular and frequently large crystals in
-the form of cubes, and occasionally in octoëdra. It is a compound of
-calcium with fluorine, and is very abundant in certain fossil bones.
-This element, in combination with hydrogen and called hydrofluoric acid,
-acts so energetically upon all substances containing silica, that it
-cannot be preserved in vessels of glass or porcelain--very few of the
-metals are capable of resisting its action, lead being nearly the only
-common metal possessed of this power. Gutta percha may also be employed
-for vessels to hold it.
-
-This property of dissolving silica, has caused this acid to be used for
-engraving on glass.
-
-
-EXPERIMENT.
-
-Mix one part of powdered fluor-spar, quite pure, with two parts of oil
-of vitriol, in a saucer, and apply a gentle heat, when the acid will be
-disengaged in the form of vapour. Prepare a piece of glass after the
-manner of engraving on copper, by coating it with a thin covering of
-wax, placing a paper over the wax, and then drawing any design with a
-sharp-pointed instrument, when, on removing the paper, the wax-coating
-will be found to be removed wherever the instrument has passed over it.
-Now invert, this glass over the fumes of the acid for half an hour or
-so, and then heat the glass so as to soften the coating, and wipe it
-off; the design will then appear "bitten in" as the term is, that is,
-the acid will have dissolved the glass wherever it was not protected by
-the wax, and will exhibit the design indelibly fixed on the glass.
-
-This acid requires the greatest care in handling, for it is extremely
-corrosive, producing very troublesome ulcers if it comes in contact with
-the skin; even the fumes will produce smarting if the skin is long
-exposed to them.
-
-
-CARBON.
-
-The next substance in our list of elementary bodies is named carbon.
-
-The purest form of carbon is the precious stone called diamond, which
-consists entirely of carbon in a crystallized form. The French chemist
-Lavoisier was the first who proved the combustibility of the diamond;
-and Sir H. Davy found that when once set on fire it would continue to
-burn in oxygen gas air, and that the product of the combustion was
-carbonic acid gas, exactly equal in quantity to the gas produced by
-burning an equal weight of pure charcoal, the most common form of
-carbon.
-
-Plumbago, or "black-lead," as it is very improperly called, is also
-nearly pure carbon, a very small quantity of iron being united with it.
-
-By far the greater part of all vegetable, and a very large portion of
-animal bodies consists of carbon; and in the state of carbonic acid in
-combination with lime and some other earths, it forms nearly the half of
-all the chalk, marble, and limestone of our hills; so that it is, in one
-shape or other, one of the most widely diffused bodies in nature.
-
-Carbon forms two gaseous compounds with oxygen; the first, called
-carbonic oxide, is easily obtained by boiling oxalic acid with its own
-bulk of sulphuric acid, in a flask to which a cork and bent tube is
-attached. The gas comes over in large quantities, and must be collected
-in a gas jar, or the pneumatic trough. It is inflammable, and burns with
-a lambent blue flame.
-
-The other compound, carbonic acid, is transparent, colourless, much
-heavier than atmospheric air, has an agreeable taste, has the power of
-irritating the mucous membrane of the nose, (as any one can tell who has
-drunk soda-water), without possessing any particular odour, is absorbed
-by water, does not support respiration, and extinguishes flame.
-
-Carbonic acid gas may be obtained with the greatest facility by pouring
-some muriatic or sulphuric acid, diluted with about six parts of water,
-upon some pieces of marble or limestone in a bottle with a tube
-attached, when the gas comes over in torrents. It may be collected over
-water.
-
-
-EXPERIMENTS.
-
-[Illustration: STOPPERED BOTTLE FOR HOLDING GAS.]
-
-1. To show the great comparative weight of this gas, place a lighted
-taper at the bottom of a tall glass jar, then take a jar full of
-carbonic acid gas, and pour it as you would pour water into the jar
-containing the lighted taper; you will soon find the taper will be
-extinguished as effectually as if you had poured water on it, and the
-smoke of the taper will float on the surface of the gas in very
-beautiful wavy forms.
-
-2. Heat a piece of the metal potassium in a metal spoon (platinum is
-best), and if introduced in a state of ignition into the gas, it will
-continue burning brilliantly, producing a quantity of dense smoke, which
-is the carbon from the carbonic acid, the potassium having seized the
-oxygen and being converted by it into potash.
-
-3. If a mouse, bird, or other small animal, be placed in a jar of this
-gas, it becomes insensible almost immediately, but if speedily removed
-it will occasionally recover.
-
-4. Shake up some water with some of this gas in a bottle; the greater
-part of the gas will be absorbed by the water, which acquires a
-sparkling appearance and a pleasant sharp taste; with the addition of a
-little soda this becomes the well-known beverage called soda-water, so
-famous for removing the morning headaches caused by "_that salmon_"
-having disagreed at yesterday's dinner.
-
-It is the presence of this gas which renders it so dangerous to descend
-into deep wells, for by its great weight it collects at the bottom, and
-instantly suffocates any unfortunate person who incautiously subjects
-himself to it. Hence it is prudent always to let down a lighted candle
-before any one descends into a well, or other deep excavation, and if
-the candle is extinguished, it is necessary to throw down several pails
-of water, lime-water if possible, and again to try the candle, which
-must burn freely before it is safe for any one to descend.
-
-It is this same gas under the name of "choke-damp," which proves so
-dangerous to miners, particularly after an explosion of "fire-damp," for
-it is the principal product of the explosion, and it is by no means an
-easy matter to dislodge it.
-
-Carbonic acid gas has been condensed into the fluid form by causing it
-to be disengaged under great pressure; the fluid acid has the appearance
-of water. When the pressure is removed, as by allowing some of the fluid
-acid to escape from the vessel in which it has been condensed, it
-instantly reassumes the gaseous form, and in so doing absorbs so much
-latent caloric that a portion of the acid is actually solidified, and
-appears in the shape of _snow_, which may be collected and preserved for
-a short time. After a lecture by Mr. Addams before the Ashmolean Society
-of Oxford, I carried a kind of _snowball_ of carbonic acid for a
-distance of 500 or 600 yards, and placed it in a saucer in a room. It
-evaporated very rapidly, and left no residue, not even a mark where it
-had lain. It was too _cold_ to be touched by the naked hand without
-pain.
-
-Carbonic acid and lime are mutually tests for each other. If a jar
-containing a little lime-water be put into a jar of this gas, it
-speedily becomes turbid, the gas uniting with the lime, and producing
-chalk (the carbonate of lime), which is insoluble in water.
-
-This gas is produced in large quantities by the respiration of animals,
-as may be proved by respiring through a tube immersed in lime-water,
-when the water will be instantly rendered turbid from the formation of
-chalk.
-
-
-CARBON AND HYDROGEN.
-
-To the combination of these elements in various proportions, and with
-the occasional addition of other substances, we are indebted for all, or
-nearly all, our means of obtaining light and heat. Coal, wood, spirit,
-oil, and all the varieties of fats, are composed principally of carbon
-and hydrogen, and may easily be converted into the gas with which our
-houses and streets are lighted, which is nearly pure carburetted
-hydrogen.
-
-The two chief definite gaseous compounds of these two elements are the
-light carburetted hydrogen, and the heavy carburetted hydrogen, or
-olefiant gas. The first is easily procured by stirring the bottom of
-stagnant water on a hot summer's day, and collecting the bubbles in a
-bottle filled with water and inverted over the place where the bubbles
-rise. This gas burns with a yellowish flame, and when mixed with a
-certain proportion of air, or oxygen gas, explodes with great violence
-on the application of a flame. It is the much dreaded fire-damp
-generated so profusely in some coal-mines, and causing such fearful
-destruction to life and property when accidentally inflamed.
-
-The other compound, the heavy carburetted hydrogen, forms part of the
-gas used for illumination; and, in fact, whatever substance is employed
-for artificial light, whether oil, tallow, wax, &c. &c. it is converted
-into this gas by heat, and then furnishes the light by its own
-combustion.
-
-This gas has some very curious properties, and may be obtained nearly
-pure by mixing in a retort, _very carefully_, one part of spirits of
-wine and four of sulphuric acid. A lamp must be placed under the retort,
-when the gas will be speedily disengaged, and come over in great
-abundance; it may be collected over water.
-
-This gas is transparent, colourless, will not support combustion, but is
-itself inflammable, burning with a brilliant white light, and being
-converted into carbonic acid and water. If mixed with three or four
-times its bulk of oxygen, or with common atmospheric air in much larger
-proportions, it explodes with great violence.
-
-This gas is sometimes called "olefiant gas," from the property it has of
-forming an oily substance when mixed with chlorine.
-
-[Illustration: JAR FOR COLLECTING GASES.]
-
-
-EXPERIMENT.
-
-Into a jar standing over water half full of this gas, pass an equal
-quantity of chlorine gas. The gases will speedily unite and form an
-oily-looking liquid, which may be collected from the sides of the jar as
-it trickles down. By continually supplying the jar with the two gases as
-they combine, a considerable quantity of this substance may be
-collected. Care should be taken that the olefiant gas is rather in
-excess.
-
-The substance produced is insoluble in water, with which it should be
-washed by shaking them together in a tube, and has a pleasant sweetish
-taste and aromatic smell, somewhat resembling ether.
-
-
-COAL GAS.
-
-The gas so universally employed for the purposes of illumination is a
-mixture of the carburetted and the bi-carburetted hydrogen, with minute
-portions of other gases scarcely worth mentioning. It is procured by
-submitting coals to a red heat in iron retorts, having a tube passing
-from one end, along which passes all the fluid and gaseous matter
-separated from the coal, namely, gas tar, ammoniacal liquor, and various
-gases, carburetted hydrogen, carbonic acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, &c.
-&c. The tar and ammoniacal liquor remain in the vessel in which the
-tubes from the retorts terminate, and the gaseous productions are
-conveyed through water and lime to separate the impurities; the
-remaining gas, now fit for use, passes into large iron vessels, called
-gasometers, inverted over water (like the jars in a pneumatic trough),
-whence it is sent through pipes and distributed where required. What
-remains in the retorts is called coke. It consists principally of
-charcoal, mixed with the earthy and metallic particles contained in the
-coal.
-
-
-EXPERIMENT.
-
-If you possess an iron bottle, fill it with powdered coal, and attach a
-flexible tube to it, and put it in the fire: as soon as it becomes red
-hot, large quantities of smoke will escape from the end of the tube,
-being the gas mixed with all its impurities. By passing it through water
-(if mixed with lime it will be better), the gas may be collected in jars
-standing over water, and submitted to experiment. If you do not possess
-a bottle, take a tobacco-pipe with a large bowl, (a "churchwarden" for
-example); fill the bowl with small coal, cover it with clay or putty,
-and when dry put it into the fire, and the gas will soon appear at the
-other end of the pipe, when it may be lighted, or the gas may be
-collected over water, as in the former experiment.
-
-The light carburetted hydrogen contained in this gas is given off
-spontaneously in some coal-mines, and as it forms explosive mixtures
-with atmospheric air, the mines where it abounds could not be worked
-except at the greatest risk until about the beginning of the present
-century, when Sir H. Davy, while prosecuting some researches on the
-nature of flame, found that flame would not pass through metallic tubes,
-and he gradually reduced the length of the tubes, until he found fine
-iron wire gauze formed an effectual barrier against the passage of
-flame. He then thought that if the light in a lantern were surrounded
-with this gauze, it might safely be used in an inflammable atmosphere,
-where a naked light would instantly cause an explosion. Upon submitting
-the lamp to experiment, he found that by passing coal gas by degrees
-into a vessel in which one of his lamps was suspended, the flame first
-became much larger, and then was extinguished, the cylinder of gauze
-being filled with a pale flame, and though the gauze sometimes became
-red-hot, it did not ignite the gas outside. As the supply of coal gas
-was diminished, the wick of the lamp was rekindled, and all went on as
-at first. A coil of platinum wire was afterwards suspended in the lamps,
-which becomes intensely heated by the burning gas, and gives out
-sufficient light to enable the miner to see to work. As long as the
-gauze is perfect it is almost impossible for the external air to be
-kindled by the wick of the lamp, but the miners are so careless that
-they will often remove the gauze to get a better light, to look for a
-tool, or some cause equally trivial, and many lives have been lost in
-consequence of such carelessness.
-
-The effect of fine wire gauze in preventing the passage of flame may be
-shown by bringing a piece of the gauze gradually over the flame of a
-spirit-lamp, until it nearly touches the wick, when the flame will be
-nearly extinguished, but the vapour of the spirit passes through, and
-may be lighted on the upper side of the gauze, which will thus have a
-flame on either side, though totally unconnected with each other. The
-flame from a gas-burner will answer as well as the spirit-lamp.
-
-Nearly all the fluids, and solids also, used for procuring artificial
-light, such as naphtha, various oils, tallow, wax, spermaceti, spirits
-of wine, ether, &c. &c. are compounds of carbon and hydrogen in
-different proportions, with the occasional addition of some other
-elements, especially oxygen and hydrogen, in the proportions to form
-water; as a general rule, those bodies containing the greatest
-proportion of carbon give the most light, though not necessarily the
-most heat.
-
-
-PHOSPHORUS.
-
-The next body we have to notice is phosphorus, a most remarkable
-substance, procured from the earthy part of bones by a process not worth
-detailing here. It should be _always_ kept under water, and the naked
-fingers should not be allowed even to touch it, for the smallest piece
-getting under the nail will inflame the first time the hand comes near
-the fire, and produce a sore very painful and difficult to heal. It
-should be cut under water by a knife or scissors, and removed with a
-pair of forceps. Its combustible properties have been frequently
-mentioned. It has also the property of shining in the dark, so that if
-you write on a wall with a solution of phosphorus in oil, the letters
-will appear luminous in the dark--there is no danger, excepting from the
-greasiness of the oil.
-
-Of the compounds of phosphorus with oxygen we have nothing to do here,
-but it forms with hydrogen a very curious gaseous compound, which takes
-fire spontaneously on the contact of air, or almost any gas containing
-oxygen.
-
-
-EXPERIMENTS.
-
-It may be procured in either of two ways, according to the purpose for
-which it is wanted. The simplest way is to put a lump or two of
-phosphuret of lime into a saucer, about two inches in depth, containing
-some very diluted hydrochloric acid; bubbles of gas will speedily arise,
-and bursting on the surface of the fluid will burn with a slight
-explosion, and a circular wreath of smoke will rise into the atmosphere,
-enlarging as it rises, and wreathing itself round and round in the most
-elegant forms. Care must be taken that the phosphuret is _fresh_, and
-has been kept in a well-closed bottle, or the experiment will fail. The
-apartment must be free from draughts. If you desire to collect the gas,
-another method must be employed.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Fill a small retort _quite full_, neck and all, of a solution of caustic
-potash, drop five or six pieces of phosphorus into it, place the finger
-on the end of the retort, and immerse it in a basin also containing a
-_hot_ solution of potash, remove the finger, and on applying the heat of
-a lamp to the retort, the gas will soon be disengaged rapidly, and drive
-out the fluid in the retort; it then escapes into the air, when it
-inflames with the same appearances as before described. Or it may be
-collected in gas jars filled with the potash solution, and held over the
-mouth of the retort. The object in using _hot_ solution of potash in the
-basin is, that when the gas ceases to be given off, and the heat of the
-lamp is withdrawn, the hot fluid may gradually fill the vacuum which
-will form in the retort, and so prevent its being broken.
-
-This gas is transparent and invisible, like most other gases. It is very
-poisonous if inhaled. If kept for any time, it loses its property of
-spontaneous inflammation, and must therefore be made at the time it is
-required.
-
-
-SULPHUR.
-
-Sulphur, or brimstone, as it is frequently called, is sold in the form
-of sticks, or _roll_ brimstone, or in fine powder called flowers of
-brimstone.
-
-It is capable of showing electric phenomena when rubbed, giving out
-slight sparks, and first attracting and then repelling light bodies,
-such as small pieces of paper, &c. It is so bad a conductor of heat,
-that if grasped suddenly in a hot hand, it will crack and split into
-pieces just as glass does when suddenly heated or cooled--of course I am
-speaking of the roll brimstone. Water has no effect on it, as may be
-seen in the pans placed for pet dogs to drink out of, where the same
-piece of brimstone lies for years entirely unaltered, though it is
-supposed to prevent the dogs from having the mange!
-
-Sulphur is largely used in the arts, principally in the manufacture of
-gunpowder, and fireworks of various kinds.
-
-It combines with hydrogen, and forms a gaseous compound called
-sulphuretted hydrogen, which is almost the most poisonous of all the
-gases. It fortunately has so abominable smell, that due notice is given
-of its presence. Rotten eggs, a dirty gun-barrel, cabbage water, putrid
-animal and vegetable matter, &c. are indebted to this gas for their
-inviting odour; and it is found in certain mineral springs, as at
-Harrogate, where the water contains a considerable quantity of this gas,
-and is found useful in many diseases of the skin. It is also given off
-in a gaseous form by some volcanoes.
-
-This gas may be obtained by pouring dilute hydrochloric acid upon a
-metallic sulphuret, such as that called crude antimony, being a native
-sulphuret of that metal. The gas may be kept for a short time over
-water. It is colourless and transparent, inflammable, but quite
-irrespirable, a small bird dying instantly when placed in air containing
-only 1/1500th of this gas. Its most remarkable property perhaps is the
-effect it has on certain metallic oxides, and other metallic salts,
-blackening them instantly. White paint is easily stained by this gas,
-and it will darken the colour of a metal in a solution, especially of
-lead, even when diluted with 20,000 times its weight of water. By way of
-experiment, slips of riband, silk, or even paper, may be wetted with
-various metallic solutions, such as silver, mercury, lead, &c. or words
-may be written with the solutions, and on holding them over a stream of
-this gas they will be instantly darkened.
-
-If this gas be collected in the pneumatic trough, which is usually
-painted _white_, you will have the pleasure of seeing the colour changed
-to a very dark brown, when your experiments are finished. With this very
-limited description of some of the non-metallic elements and their
-combinations, we must, for want of space, take leave of this division of
-chemistry; "the beginning of which is pleasure, its progress knowledge,
-its objects truth and utility."--(_Davy._)
-
-
-METALS.
-
-We have a few words to say about a class of bodies called metals, which
-are of the utmost importance to mankind, and indeed without some of
-them, especially iron, few of the arts of civilized life could exist.
-
-Fifty substances are now included in the list of metals; some of them,
-however, are only _supposed_ to exist, such as _ammonium_, the supposed
-base of ammonia; and very many are to be viewed rather in the light of
-chemical curiosities, as from their great rarity they are too expensive
-for use, even if possessed of valuable properties of which others might
-be destitute.
-
-Several metals have been known from the earliest period of which we have
-any record; such were iron, gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, mercury,
-and probably zinc, or at least its ores; for brass, which is an alloy of
-copper and zinc, is frequently mentioned in the early part of the Old
-Testament. In the sixteenth century others were discovered, such as
-antimony and bismuth. In the last century, cobalt, arsenic, platinum,
-nickel, manganese, and chromium, together with several unimportant
-metals, were discovered by various philosophers; while in the present
-century, Dr. Wollaston discovered rhodium, the hardest and nearly the
-most indestructible of all the metals; and a few years later, Sir
-Humphry Davy found that the alkalies, potash, and soda, with many of the
-earths as they were called, had each a metal for its base, to which he
-gave the Latin name of the alkali or earth, with the termination _um_,
-as potassi_um_, the base of potassa, sodi_um_ of soda, calci_um_ of calx
-(lime), &c.
-
-Until Sir H. Davy's discovery of the metals of the alkalies, great
-specific gravity was regarded as one of the most striking
-characteristics of a metal, the lightest of them being much heavier than
-the heaviest earth; but potassium is very much lighter than water, and
-not much heavier than spirits of wine. The other metals vary from a
-specific gravity of nearly twenty-one--or twenty-one times heavier than
-an equal bulk of water--that of platinum, to somewhat less than seven,
-which is the specific gravity of antimony.
-
-When pure, they all have a lustre, differing indeed among themselves,
-but so peculiar that it is called the metallic lustre, for instance,
-gold and copper are yellow and red--nearly all the others white, but of
-a different shade; still there is no mistaking their metallic character,
-no other substances at all equalling them in this respect. They are also
-opaque, although some, like gold, when reduced to thin films, allow
-light to pass through them. They are all good conductors of heat and
-electricity, though some possess that property to a greater extent than
-others.
-
-Many of them are what is called malleable, that is, may be extended or
-spread out by rolling, or beating them with a hammer; and ductile, or
-have the property of being drawn out into wire. Gold, silver, copper,
-and iron, are the most remarkable in this respect.
-
-All the metals are fusible, but some require very different degrees of
-heat to render them fluid,--platinum requiring the heat of the
-oxy-hydrogen blowpipe, while tin melts in the flame of a candle, and
-mercury is fluid at all temperatures in this climate, but becomes solid
-at 40° Fahr. below 0,--a temperature occasionally experienced in the
-Arctic regions, where the mercurial thermometer is useless, the mercury
-becoming solid.
-
-They are all excellent conductors of heat and electricity, and have the
-property of reflecting light and forming mirrors; for looking-glasses
-owe their power of reflecting objects principally to what is called the
-"silvering;" that is, a mixture of mercury and tin spread over the back
-of the glass, which being transparent, allows the image reflected from
-the metal to pass through it.
-
-The following classification is most instructive, because it suggests to
-the young student that there must be identical properties in the metals
-thus placed together:--
-
-_Class 1._ Ammonium, cæsium, lithium, potassium, sodium.
-
-_Class 2._ Calcium, barium, strontium.
-
-_Class 3._ Aluminium, cerium, didymium, erbium, glucinium, lanthanum,
-thorium, yttrium, zirconium.
-
-_Class 4._ Zinc class: cadmium, magnesium, zinc.
-
-_Class 5._ Iron class: cobalt, chromium, indium, iron, manganese,
-nickel, uranium.
-
-_Class 6._ Tin class: niobium, tantalum, tin, titanium.
-
-_Class 7._ Tungsten class: molybdenum, tungsten, vanadium.
-
-_Class 8._ Arsenic class: antimony, arsenic, bismuth.
-
-_Class 9._ Lead class: lead, thallium.
-
-_Class 10._ Silver class: copper, mercury, silver.
-
-_Class 11._ Gold class: gold, iridium, osmium, palladium, platinum,
-rhodium, ruthenium.
-
-
-POTASSIUM.
-
-Potassium was discovered by Sir H. Davy in the beginning of the present
-century, while acting upon potash with the enormous galvanic battery of
-the Royal Institution, consisting of 2,000 pairs of 4-inch plates. It is
-a brilliant white metal, so soft as to be easily cut with a penknife,
-and so light as to swim upon water, on which it acts with great energy,
-uniting with the oxygen, and liberating the hydrogen, which takes fire
-as it escapes.
-
-
-EXPERIMENT.
-
-Trace some continuous lines on paper with a camel's-hair brush dipped in
-water, and place a piece of potassium about the size of a pea on one of
-the lines, and it will follow the course of the pencil, taking fire as
-it runs, and burning with a purplish light. The paper will be found
-covered with a solution of ordinary potash. If turmeric paper be used,
-the course of the potassium will be marked with a deep brown
-colour.--_Corollary._ Hence, if you touch potassium with _wet_ fingers
-you will burn them!
-
-If a small piece of the metal be placed on a piece of ice, it will
-instantly take fire, and form a deep hole, which will be found to
-contain a solution of potash.
-
-In consequence of its great affinity for oxygen, potassium must be kept
-in some fluid destitute of that element, such as naphtha.
-
-_Caution!_--As the globules of potassium after conversion into potash,
-when thrown on ice or water burst, strewing small particles of caustic
-hot potash in every direction, the greatest care should be taken to
-keep at a sufficient distance whilst performing the above experiment.
-
-Saltpetre, or nitre, is a compound of this metal (or rather its oxide)
-with nitric acid. It is one of the ingredients of gunpowder, and has the
-property of quickening the combustion of all combustible bodies.
-
-Mix some chlorate of potash with lump sugar, both being powdered, and
-drop on the mixture a little strong sulphuric acid, and it will
-instantly burst into flame. This experiment also requires caution.
-
-Want of space precludes us from considering the individual metals and
-their compounds in detail; it must suffice to describe some experiments
-showing some of their properties.
-
-The different affinities of the metals for oxygen may be exhibited in
-various ways. The silver or zinc tree has already been described, page
-357.
-
-
-EXPERIMENTS.
-
-1. Into a solution of nitrate of silver in distilled water immerse a
-clean plate or slip of copper. The solution, which was colourless, will
-soon begin to assume a greenish tint, and the piece of copper will be
-covered with a coating of a light grey colour, which is the silver
-formerly united to the nitric acid, which has been displaced by the
-greater affinity or _liking_ of the oxygen and acid for the copper.
-
-2. When the copper is no longer coated, but remains clean and bright
-when immersed in the fluid, all the silver has been deposited, and the
-glass now contains a solution of _copper_.
-
-Place a piece of clean iron in the solution, and it will almost
-instantly be coated with a film of _copper_, and this will continue
-until the whole of that metal is removed, and its place filled by an
-equivalent quantity of _iron_, so that nitrate of _iron_ is found in the
-liquid. The oxygen and nitric acid remain unaltered in quantity or
-quality during these changes, being merely transferred from one metal to
-another.
-
-A piece of zinc will displace the iron in like manner, leaving a
-solution of nitrate of zinc.
-
-Nearly all the colours used in the arts are produced by metals and their
-combinations; indeed, one is named _chromium_, from a Greek word
-signifying colour, on account of the beautiful tints obtained from its
-various combinations with oxygen and the other metals. All the various
-tints of green, orange, yellow, and red, are obtained from this metal.
-
-Solutions of most of the metallic salts give precipitates with solutions
-of alkalies and their salts, as well as with many other substances, such
-as what are usually called prussiate of potash, hydro-sulphuret of
-ammonia, &c.; and the colours differ according to the metal employed,
-and so small a quantity is required to produce the colour that the
-solutions before mixing may be nearly colourless.
-
-
-EXPERIMENTS.
-
-1. To a solution of sulphate of iron add a drop or two of a solution of
-prussiate of potash, and a blue colour will be produced.
-
-2. Substitute sulphate of copper for iron, and the colour will be a rich
-brown.
-
-3. Another blue, of quite a different tint, may be produced by letting a
-few drops of a solution of ammonia fall into one of sulphate of
-copper--a precipitate of a light blue falls down, which is dissolved by
-an additional quantity of the ammonia, and forms a transparent solution
-of the most splendid rich blue colour.
-
-4. Into a solution of sulphate of iron let fall a few drops of a strong
-infusion of galls, and the colour will become a bluish-black--in fact,
-_ink_. A little _tea_ will answer as well as the infusion of galls. This
-is the reason why certain stuffs formerly in general use for dressing
-gowns for gentlemen were so objectionable; for as they were indebted to
-a salt of iron for their colour, buff as it was called, a drop of tea
-accidentally spilt produced all the effect of a drop of ink.
-
-5. Put into a largish test tube two or three small pieces of granulated
-zinc, fill it about one-third full of water, put in a few grains of
-iodine and boil the water, which will at first acquire a dark purple
-colour, gradually fading as the iodine combines with the zinc. Add a
-little more iodine from time to time, until the zinc is nearly all
-dissolved. If a few drops of this solution be added to an equally
-colourless solution of corrosive sublimate (a salt of mercury) a
-precipitate will take place of a splendid scarlet colour, brighter if
-possible than vermilion, which is also a preparation of mercury.
-
-
-CRYSTALLIZATION OF METALS.
-
-Some of the metals assume certain definite forms in returning from the
-fluid to the solid state. Bismuth shows this property more readily than
-most others.
-
-
-EXPERIMENT.
-
-Melt a pound or two of bismuth in an iron ladle over the fire; remove it
-as soon as the whole is fluid; and when the surface has become solid
-break a hole in it, and pour out the still fluid metal from the
-interior; what remains will exhibit beautifully formed crystals of a
-cubic shape.
-
-Sulphur may be crystallized in the same manner, but its fumes when
-heated are so very unpleasant that few would wish to encounter them.
-
-One of the most remarkable facts in chemistry, a science abounding in
-wonders, is the circumstance, that the mere contact of hydrogen, the
-_lightest_ body known, with the metal platinum, the heaviest, when in a
-state of minute division, called spongy platinum, produces an intense
-heat, sufficient to inflame the hydrogen: of course this experiment
-must be made in the presence of atmospheric air or oxygen.
-
-Time and space (or rather the want of them) compel us to conclude with a
-few experiments of a miscellaneous character.
-
-
-TO FORM A SOLID FROM TWO LIQUIDS.[7]
-
-Prepare separately, saturated solutions of sulphate of magnesia (Epsom
-salts) and carbonate of potash. On mixing them the result will be nearly
-solid.
-
- [7] Saturated solutions are made by adding the salt to _boiling_ water
- until it will take up no more, letting it stand till cold and then
- pouring off the liquid.
-
-Solutions of muriate of lime and carbonate of potash will answer as
-well.
-
-
-TO FORM A LIQUID FROM TWO SOLIDS.
-
-Rub together in a Wedgewood mortar a small quantity of sulphate of soda
-and acetate of lead, and as they mix they will become liquid.
-
-Carbonate of ammonia and sulphate of copper, previously reduced to
-powder separately, will also, when mixed, become liquid, and acquire a
-most splendid blue colour.
-
-The greater number of salts have a tendency to assume regular forms, or
-become _crystallised_, when passing from the fluid to the solid state;
-and the size and regularity of the crystals depends in a great measure
-on the slow or rapid escape of the fluid in which they were dissolved.
-Sugar is a capital example of this property; the ordinary loaf-sugar
-being rapidly boiled down, as it is called: while to make sugar-candy,
-which is nothing but sugar in a crystallized form, the solution is
-allowed to evaporate slowly, and as it cools it forms into those
-beautiful crystals termed sugar-candy. The threads found in the centre
-of some of the crystals are merely placed for the purpose of hastening
-the formation of the crystals.
-
-
-EXPERIMENTS.
-
-1. Make a strong solution of alum, or of sulphate of copper, or blue
-vitriol, and place in them rough and irregular pieces of clinker from
-stoves, or wire-baskets, and set them by in a cool place, where they
-will be free from dust, and in a few days crystals of the several salts
-will deposit themselves on the baskets, &c.; they should then be taken
-out of the solutions, and dried, when they form very pretty ornaments
-for a room.
-
-2. Fill a Florence flask up to the neck with a strong solution of
-sulphate of soda, or Glauber's salt, boil it, and tie the mouth over
-with a piece of moistened bladder while boiling, and set it by in a
-place where it cannot be disturbed. After twenty-four hours it will
-probably still remain fluid. Pierce the bladder covering with a
-penknife, and the entrance of the air will cause the whole mass
-instantly to crystallize, and the flask will become quite warm from the
-latent caloric, of which we have spoken before, given out by the salt in
-passing from the fluid to the solid state. It is better to prepare two
-or three flasks at the same time, to provide against accidents, for the
-least shake will often cause crystallization to take place before the
-proper time.
-
-
-CHANGES OF COLOUR PRODUCED BY COLOURLESS LIQUIDS.
-
-Make a strong infusion of the leaves of the red cabbage, which will be
-of a beautiful _blue_ colour; drop into it a few drops of dilute
-sulphuric acid, and the colour will change to a bright red; add some
-solution of carbonate of potash, or soda, and the red colour will
-gradually give way to the original blue; continue adding the alkaline
-solution, and the fluid will assume a bright _green_ colour. Now resume
-the acid, and as it is dropped in, the colour will again change from
-green to blue, and from blue to red. Now this simple experiment
-illustrates three points: first, that acids change the colour of most
-vegetable blues and greens to red; second, that alkalies change most
-blues and reds to green; and third, that when the acid and alkali are
-united together, they both lose their property of changing colour, and
-become what is called a _neutral_ salt, _i. e._ a compound possessing
-the properties of _neither_ of its constituents.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-ELECTRICITY.
-
-No branch of science is more capable of affording amusement, combined
-with instruction, than electricity, and there are few sciences in which
-the experiments are more easily performed. We would therefore especially
-recommend it to our young friends.
-
-The term electricity is derived from the Greek word _electron_,
-signifying amber, because electrical attraction was first discovered
-from its being noticed that when amber was rubbed into a certain degree
-of warmth, it had the power of attracting small bodies to itself.
-
-Electricity therefore primarily treats of the phenomena and effects
-produced by the friction or rubbing together of certain bodies called
-electrics. These consist of glass, amber, resinous matters, silks, hair,
-wool, feathers, various vegetable substances, and atmospheric air, and
-the electricity so obtained is usually called Frictional Electricity, to
-distinguish it from that produced by chemical action, and called Voltaic
-Electricity.
-
-
-SIMPLE MEANS OF PRODUCING ELECTRICITY.
-
-To show the nature of electrical action, rub a piece of sealing-wax or
-amber upon the coat-sleeve, and it will attract light bodies, such as
-straws or small pieces of paper. If a clean glass tube be rubbed several
-times through a silken or leather cloth, and presented to any small
-substances, it will immediately attract and then repel them; and if a
-poker suspended by a dry silk string be presented to its upper end, then
-the lower end of the poker will exhibit the same phenomena as the tube
-itself, which shows that the opposite electrical condition may be
-induced upon other bodies by the mere neighbourhood and approach of
-another electrified body, and the effect so produced is called induced
-electricity.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-When an electrified conductor is supported by non-conductors, so that
-the electric fluid cannot pass from the conductor to the earth, it is
-said to be insulated: thus the human body is a conductor of
-electricity--but if a person standing on a glass stool (as represented
-in the drawing) be charged with electricity, the electric fluid cannot
-pass from him to the earth, and he is said to be _insulated_; and if he
-be touched by another person standing on the ground, sparks will be
-exhibited at the point of contact, where also the person touching will
-feel a pricking sensation.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-ATTRACTION AND REPULSION EXHIBITED.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-In order to illustrate certain remarkable facts in this science of an
-amusing character, attention must be directed to the figure A B, which
-is a metal stand; C is a small piece of cork or pith, which is suspended
-from the hook by a dry silken thread. Having rubbed an electric, as a
-dry rod of glass, and presented it to C, the ball will be
-instantaneously attracted to the glass and will adhere to it. After they
-remain in contact for a few seconds, if the glass be withdrawn without
-being touched by the fingers, and again presented to the ball, the
-latter will be _repelled_ instead of attracted, as in the first
-instance. By being touched with the finger, the ball can be deprived of
-its electricity, and if after this has been done we present a piece of
-sealing-wax in the place of the glass formerly employed, the very same
-phenomena will take place. On the first application the ball will be
-_attracted_, and on the second _repelled_.[8]
-
- [8] For a more complete account of this interesting science we would
- refer the young reader to "The Boy's Playbook on Science," or, if
- more advanced, to "Noad's Manual of Electricity."
-
-Before the young reader can perform any very important experiments with
-electricity, he must become possessed of an ELECTRICAL MACHINE, which is
-an instrument contrived for the purpose of rubbing together the surfaces
-of glass and leather. They generally consist of a cylinder, or plate of
-glass, and a piece of silk or leather for it to rub against, covered
-with an amalgam, the method of preparing which we shall hereafter
-describe.
-
-
-HOW TO MAKE AN ELECTRICAL MACHINE.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-It is very easy to make a glass machine of the cylindrical form, if the
-maker cannot afford to buy one. First procure a common wine bottle of
-good dimensions, and thickish glass. Drill a hole through its bottom,
-with a file moistened with dilute sulphuric acid. A blacksmith, if
-supplied with the acid, would undertake to do this part of the work.
-Through this hole and the mouth pass a spindle, as represented in the
-cut. The end of B should be squared to fix a handle on, and the spindle
-should be fixed firmly in the bottle. The bottle is then to be fixed in
-a frame in the following manner: the end of the spindle C passes through
-a hole at B; and the other end at C has the handle for turning the
-machine.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Next make a cushion of wash-leather stuffed with wool, and fastened to
-the top of a frame of the following figure. This frame is to be of such
-a height that the cushion shall press against the sides of the bottle,
-and a piece of black silk is sewn on to the top of the cushion, and
-hangs over the bottle D. The cushion should be smeared with an amalgam,
-formed by melting together in the bowl of a tobacco-pipe one part of tin
-with two of zinc; to which, while fluid, should be added six parts of
-mercury. These should be stirred about till quite cold, and then reduced
-to a fine powder in a mortar, and mixed with a sufficient quantity of
-lard to form a thickish paste. When all is done, the machine is
-complete.
-
-[Illustration: CUSHION.]
-
-
-THE CONDUCTOR.
-
-The electricity being generated by the friction produced between the
-rubber and the bottle from the motion imparted by the handle, it is
-necessary to draw it off for use. This is performed by what is called a
-conductor. This is made by covering a cylinder of turned wood six inches
-long and two and a half inches in diameter, and nicely rounded at the
-ends, with tinfoil, which is then mounted on a stand on a glass rod.
-When used, it is to be placed in the direction of the length. In it some
-pins are inserted, with the points outside, in a line even with, and
-about half an inch from, the bottle, and it should be of such a height
-as to come just below the silk apron. When it is wished to charge a
-Leyden jar, it is to be placed at the round end of the conductor. By
-these simple means a great variety of pleasing experiments may be
-performed; but to show the various phenomena connected with this
-interesting study, we shall now describe an electrical machine of the
-newest construction, and perform our experiments with it.
-
-
-THE PLATE ELECTRICAL MACHINE.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Formerly the electrical machine was made in the form of a cylinder, but
-now it consists of a plate A, as seen in the engraving. The plate is
-turned by the handle F through the rubber B B, which diffuses the
-excitement over the glass. The points or balls at each side of the plate
-carry off a constant stream of positive electricity to the prime
-conductor C. Negative electricity is generated by insulating the
-conductor to which the cushion is attached, and continuing the prime
-conductor with the ground, so as to carry off the fluid collected from
-the plate.
-
-
-HOW TO DRAW SPARKS FROM THE TIP OF THE NOSE.
-
-If the person who works the machine be supported on a stool having glass
-legs, and connected with the conductor by means of a glass rod, the
-electricity will pass from the conductor to him, and as it cannot get
-away, owing to the glass on which he stands being a non-conductor, any
-person on touching him can draw the electricity from him, which will
-exhibit itself in small sparks as it passes to the person who touches
-him. If touched on the nose, sparks of fire will issue from it.
-
-
-HOW TO CHARGE A LEYDEN JAR.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-A most useful piece of electrical apparatus is called the Leyden jar,
-here represented. It is employed for the purpose of obtaining a quantity
-of electricity, which may be applied to any substance. It consists of a
-glass jar, coated both inside and without, four-fifths of the way up,
-with tinfoil. A knob rises through a wooden top communicating with the
-inside of the jar. When it is wished to charge the jar, this knob is
-applied to the prime conductor of the electrical machine when in action,
-and a quantity of electricity being given off, the jar will remain
-charged with it till a connexion is made, by some good conductor of
-electricity, between the knob and the outside tinfoil. A piece of brass
-chain must hang from the stem that carries the knob, and connect it with
-the interior of the jar.
-
-
-THE ELECTRICAL BATTERY.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-If several of these jars be united, a large quantity of electricity can
-be collected; but, in arranging them, all the interior coatings must be
-made to communicate by metallic rods, and a similar union must be
-effected among the exterior coatings. When thus arranged, the whole
-series may be charged as if they formed but one jar.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-For the purpose of making a direct communication between the inner or
-outer coatings of a jar or battery, by which a discharge is effected, an
-instrument called a discharging rod is employed. It consists of two bent
-metallic rods, terminating at one end by brass balls, and connected at
-another by a joint which is fixed to the end of a glass handle, and
-which, acting like a pair of compasses, allows of the balls being
-separated at certain distances. When opened to the proper degree, one of
-the balls is made to touch the exterior coating, and the other ball is
-then brought into contact with the knob of the jar, when a discharge is
-effected; while the glass handle secures the person holding it from the
-effects of the shock.
-
-
-DANCING BALLS AND DOLLS.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Get two round pieces of wood, A B, and coat them with tinfoil; or two
-pieces of metal plate; attach one of them to the prime conductor by a
-chain, and let it hang about two or three inches from the knob. Place
-some pith-balls upon the bottom piece of wood B, and bring it under the
-other. Immediately this is done, and the upper piece is charged with
-electricity from the machine, the pith-balls will jump up and down, and
-from one to the other with great rapidity. If some of the pith be formed
-into little figures, they will also dance and leap about in the most
-grotesque manner. The same may be made to dance by merely holding the
-inside of a dry glass tumbler to the prime conductor for a few minutes,
-while the machine is in action, and then if this be placed over them
-they will jump about, to the astonishment of the spectators, as the
-cause of their motions is not quite so apparent.
-
-
-THE ELECTRICAL KISS.
-
-This amusing experiment is performed by means of the electrical stool.
-Let any lady challenge a gentleman not acquainted with the experiment to
-favour her with a salute. The lady thereupon mounts the glass stool, and
-takes hold of a chain connected with the prime conductor. The machine
-being then put in motion the gentleman approaches the lady, and
-immediately he attempts to imprint the seal of soft affection upon her
-coral lips, a spark will fly in his face, which generally deters him
-from his rash and wicked intention.
-
-
-RINGING BELLS.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Bells may be made to ring by electricity in the following manner. Let
-three small bells be suspended from a brass wire, D D, and supported by
-a glass pillar A, passing through bell B to the bell E. The electrical
-apparatus being attached to the knob F, the electricity passes down the
-wires D D to the bells, which are then positively electrified and
-attract the clappers C C, that are negatively so, in consequence of
-being insulated by the silken strings, which are not conductors. The
-bells therefore attract the clappers till they are charged, when they
-strike against the centre bell to discharge themselves, and thus a peal
-is rung on the bells until the electricity is driven off.
-
-
-WORKING POWER OF ELECTRICITY.
-
-This may be shown in a variety of ways. The subjoined machine will
-exhibit the principle upon which many ingenious toys may be made by the
-young philosopher. In the figure A is a wooden board or stand, B B B B,
-four pillars of glass, gutta-percha, or sealing-wax, having fine wires,
-C C, stretched above. On these rest the rotatory wire or wheel F, having
-its points turned the reverse ways. By means of a chain attached to the
-conductor, and to the instrument at B, the electricity passes over the
-pillar B, up the wire C into the wheel, and off at the points, which
-causes it to be turned round on an inclined plane till it reaches the
-top.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE ELECTRIFIED WIG.
-
-While a person is on the electrical stool, if he be charged with much
-electricity,
-
- "Each hair will stand on end,
- Like quills upon the fretful porcupine."
-
-[Illustration]
-
-A wooden head--not your own, but a real wooden head--with a wig of
-streaming hair, and a handsome face to correspond, may be made in the
-following form, with a wire in the neck to support it by, and fixed in
-the conductor of an electrical machine. When this is put in motion the
-hair will rise up, as in the figure, in a manner to astonish even the
-"big-wigs."
-
-
-IMITATION THUNDERCLOUDS.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-To show the manner in which thunderclouds perform their operations in
-the air, A A is a wooden stand, on which are erected two uprights, B B;
-C C are two small pulleys, over which a silken cord can pull easily; E
-is another silken line stretched across from one upright to another; on
-these silken cords two pieces of thin cardboard covered with tinfoil,
-and cut so as to represent clouds, are to be fixed horizontally, and
-made to communicate, by means of thin wires F and G, one with the
-_inside_, and the other with the _outside_, of a charged jar, D. Now, by
-pulling the loop of the silk line, the clouds will be brought near the
-cloud 2; continue this slowly, until the clouds (which are furnished
-with two small brass balls) are within an inch of each other, when a
-beautiful flash, strongly resembling lightning in miniature, will pass
-from one cloud to the other, restoring electrical equilibrium.
-
-
-THE LIGHTNING STROKE IMITATED.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-If the jar D be put behind the stand, and the cloud 2 removed, a vessel
-communicating by means of a wire with the outside of the jar may be swum
-in water under the remaining cloud; the mast being made of two pieces,
-and but slightly joined together, with a hollow space in one half of the
-mast, into which the ends of the conductor pass, but do not touch,
-leaving an interval of about a quarter of an inch between them. The
-hollow is then filled with gun-cotton, and closed with cork. When the
-cloud is passed over the vessel, the mast will be struck and shattered
-to pieces. A strip of tinfoil, arranged with pins over the hollow part
-of the mast, will show how a continuous conductor will convey the
-discharge safely away.
-
-
-THE SPORTSMAN.
-
-This apparatus is capable of affording much amusement. A is a stand of
-wood, B is a common Leyden jar, out of which proceed the wires H H--one
-terminating in ball F, the other in the ball D--to which are attached a
-number of pith birds by silken strings; E is a shelf for the birds to
-rest upon; C is the sportsman; G his gun.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-To put this operation in motion the Leyden jar is to be charged with
-electricity by affixing a chain to the bottom part of it, and connecting
-it with an electrical machine in the usual manner, or by applying it to
-a prime conductor, when the birds will fly off the knob to which they
-are fixed in consequence of their being repelled. If the sportsman and
-gun be then turned, so that the end of his gun shall touch the knob F,
-an electric spark will pass from one to the other, a report will be
-heard, and the birds will fall down as if shot, in consequence of the
-electricity having been taken from the Leyden jar. There should be a
-communication between the sportsman and the jar formed of tinfoil, or
-some metal, as shown by the dotted line on the stand.
-
-Such are a few of many numerous experiments which may be made by the
-young experimenter, who is fond of science and has any ingenuity; but
-should he like to amuse himself with an electrifying machine of little
-cost, he may warm a sheet of brown paper, and then rub it briskly on a
-teatray with india-rubber; on raising the paper in a dark room, he will
-see many pretty electrical sparks.
-
-The back of a black tom cat is sometimes recommended as a cheap
-electrical machine; but as the wishes of the animal have to be
-consulted, perhaps it is wiser to leave the cat alone.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-GALVANISM, OR VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY.
-
- "To play with fire
- They say is dangerous; what is it then
- To shake hands with the lightning, and to sport
- With thunder?"--TYLER.
-
-Galvanism, or electricity of quantity, in contradistinction to
-frictional electricity, called electricity of intensity, owes its name
-to the experiments on animal irritability made in 1790 by M. Galvani, a
-professor of anatomy at Bologna. These experiments were suggested by the
-following circumstances.
-
-
-ORIGIN OF GALVANISM.
-
-It happened that the wife of Galvani, who was consumptive, was advised
-to take as an article of food some soup made of the flesh of frogs.
-Several of these creatures were killed and skinned, and were lying on
-the table in the laboratory close to an electrical machine, with which a
-pupil of the professor was making experiments. While the machine was in
-action, he chanced to touch the bare nerve of the leg of one of the
-frogs with the blade of the knife that he had in his hand, when suddenly
-the whole limb was thrown into violent convulsions. Galvani was not
-present when this occurred; but being informed of it, he immediately set
-himself to investigate the cause. He found that it was only when a spark
-was drawn from the prime conductor, and when the knife or any other good
-conductor was in contact with the nerve, that the contracting took
-place; and after a time he discovered that the effect was independent of
-the electrical machine, and might be equally well produced by making a
-metallic communication between the outside muscle and the crural nerve.
-
-
-SIMPLE EXPERIMENT TO EXCITE GALVANIC ACTION.
-
-If the young experimenter will obtain a piece of zinc of the size of
-half a crown and place it on the top of his tongue, and place a
-half-crown underneath it, and bring the edges of the half-crown and zinc
-in contact in front of his tongue, he will notice a peculiar sensation
-in the nerves of this organ, and some taste will be imparted to his
-mouth at the moment of contact.
-
-
-WITH METAL PLATES IN WATER.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-If we take two plates of different kinds of metal, platinum (or copper)
-and zinc, for example, and immerse them in pure water, having wires
-attached to them above, then if the wire of each is brought into contact
-in another vessel of water, a galvanic circle will be formed, the water
-will be slowly decomposed, its oxygen will be fixed on the zinc wire,
-and at the same time a current of electricity will be transmitted
-through the liquid to the platina or copper wire, on the end of which
-the other element of water, namely, the hydrogen, will make its
-appearance in the form of minute gas bubbles. The electrical current
-passes back again into the zinc at the points of its contact with the
-platina, and thus a continued current is kept up, and hence it is called
-a galvanic circle. The moment the circuit is broken by separating the
-wires the current ceases, but is again renewed by making them touch
-either in or out of the water. If a small quantity of sulphuric acid be
-added to the water, the phenomenon will be more apparent. The end of the
-wire attached to the piece of platinum or copper is called the positive
-pole of the battery, and that of the wire attached to the zinc the
-negative pole.
-
-The current of electricity here generated will be extremely feeble; but
-this can be easily increased by multiplying the glasses and the number
-of the pieces of metal. If we take six such glasses instead of one,
-partially fill them with dilute sulphuric acid, and put a piece of zinc
-and copper into each, connecting them by means of copper wire from glass
-to glass through the whole series, a stronger current of electricity
-will be the result. The experimenter must be careful not to let the wire
-and zinc touch each other at the bottom of the tumblers, and must also
-remember that the copper of glass 1 is connected with the zinc of glass
-2, and so on.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-TO MAKE A MAGNET BY THE VOLTAIC CURRENT.
-
-To effect this, make a connexion between the poles of the above or any
-excited battery with the two ends of a wire formed into a spiral coil,
-by bending common bonnet-wire closely round a cylinder, or tube, of
-about an inch in diameter; into this coil introduce a needle or piece of
-steel wire, laying it lengthways down the circles of the coil. In a few
-minutes after the electric fluid has passed through the spiral wire, and
-consequently round the needle or wire, the latter will be found to be
-strongly magnetized, and to possess all the properties of a magnet.
-
-
-EFFECTS OF GALVANISM ON A MAGNET.
-
-If a galvanic current, or any electric current, be made to pass along a
-wire under which, and in a line with it, a compass is placed, it will be
-found that the needle will no longer point north and south, but will
-take a direction nearly across the current, and point almost east and
-west.
-
-
-CHANGE OF COLOUR BY GALVANISM.
-
-Put a teaspoonful of sulphate of soda into a cup, and dissolve it in hot
-water; pour a little cabbage blue into the solution, and put a portion
-into two glasses, connecting them by a piece of linen or cotton cloth
-previously moistened in the same solution. On putting one of the wires
-of the galvanic pole into each glass, the acid accumulates in the one,
-turning the blue to a red, and the alkali in the other, rendering it
-green. If the wires be now reversed, the acid accumulates eventually in
-the glass where the alkali appeared, while the alkali passes to the
-glass where the acid was.
-
-
-THE GALVANIC SHOCK.
-
-If the ends of the wires of a small galvanic battery are connected with
-a proper electro-magnetic coil, which may now be purchased at a very
-cheap rate, and the wires from the coil be placed in separate basins of
-water, then, on dipping the fingers of each hand in the basin, a smart
-shock will be felt, with a particular aching accompanied with trembling.
-With a strong battery and larger coil this effect is felt as high as the
-shoulders. The shock will also be felt by simply holding the wires of a
-powerful galvanic battery, one in each hand, provided the hands be
-moistened with salt and water. Several persons may receive the shock
-from the battery and coil together by joining hands.
-
-
-THE ELECTROTYPE.
-
-The electro-galvanic current has in no case been more interestingly
-employed than in the process of electrotyping. It consists of a mode of
-obtaining the copy of coins, medals, engraved plates, and other objects,
-which may be easily illustrated.
-
-
-HOW TO MAKE AN ELECTROTYPE APPARATUS.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Take an earthen jar and a porous tube; fill the tube with ten parts of
-water and one of sulphuric acid; put it into the jar, into which pour as
-much of a solution of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) as will fill
-three parts of it; place in the tube a piece of zinc, to which a copper
-wire is soldered and bent round, so that one end be immersed in the
-sulphate of copper; and a deposit of the copper will be immediately
-formed upon the wire. If there be plenty of acid and water, so as to
-allow of the action enduring for a long time, this process will go on
-till it has deposited all the copper. This is the principle upon which
-electrotyping proceeds,--a principle referable to electro-chemical
-decomposition.
-
-The diagram represents an outer vessel of wood, glass, or earthenware,
-capable of holding a pint of liquid, within which there is suspended a
-short lamp-glass A, the one end being open, and the other, B, closed
-with a diaphragm of plaster of Paris; C is a small bag of crystals of
-sulphate of copper, to keep up the strength of the solution; Z is the
-zinc, and M the metal.
-
-
-TO OBTAIN THE COPY OF A COIN OR MEDAL.
-
-Never place the original medal in the apparatus, or the deposited copper
-may adhere so tightly to it that the removal destroys the beauty of the
-medal. Having taken an impression in sealing-wax, cover the latter with
-black-lead, and attach a wire so that it is in contact with the
-black-lead. To the wire and cast thus arranged a piece of sheet or cast
-zinc, amalgamated with mercury, must be attached, and we are at once
-furnished with the materials for the battery, as the object to be copied
-supplies the place of the copper. The medal must always be placed
-horizontally. Now let the apparatus be charged with the solution, by
-pouring into the outer vessel a portion of the coppery solution, so that
-it will stand about an inch above the medal; then pour in the glass the
-dilute acid to the same height as the former; now introduce the zinc
-into the acid, and the object to be copied into the solution of copper,
-which will immediately be deposited on the medal, and when of a
-sufficient thickness may be taken off.
-
-
-HEAT.
-
-
-HEAT, OR CALORIC.
-
-The chief agent in causing the repulsion or separation of the particles
-of bodies from each other is heat, or more correctly _caloric_, by which
-is understood the unknown _cause_ of the effect called heat.
-Philosophers are not agreed upon the nature of this wonderful agent. It
-pervades all nature, is the cause of nearly all the changes that take
-place both in organic and inorganic matter, and has great influence in
-the meteorological phenomena which we observe in the atmosphere that
-surrounds our planet. It appears to be intimately connected with light,
-electricity, and magnetism,--subjects which the genius of Faraday and
-others have investigated, and by their discoveries brought us nearer to
-the knowledge of the real nature of these most wonderful forces.
-
-Caloric, then, exists in all bodies, and has a constant tendency to
-equalize itself, as far at least as its outward manifestation, called
-temperature, is concerned; for if a _hot_ body be brought near colder
-ones, it will give up heat to them, until by its loss and their gain
-they all become of the same temperature; and this proceeds more or less
-rapidly, according as the original difference of temperature was greater
-or less. Some other circumstances also influence this equalization. The
-converse will take place on introducing a cold body among warmer ones,
-when heat will be abstracted from all the bodies within reach of its
-influence, until it has absorbed sufficient caloric to bring its own
-temperature to an equality with theirs. This is the true explanation of
-the apparent production of _cold_. When, for instance, an iceberg comes
-across a ship's course, it appears to _give out_ cold, whereas, it has
-abstracted the heat from the air and sea in its neighbourhood, and they
-in turn act upon the ship and everything in it, until one common
-temperature is produced in all the neighbouring bodies.
-
-It does not follow that the bodies thus equalized in temperature contain
-equal quantities of caloric; far from it. Each body requires a
-particular quantity of caloric to raise its temperature through a
-certain number of degrees; and such quantity is called its _specific_
-caloric. A pound of water, for instance, will take just twice as much
-caloric as a pound of olive oil, to raise its temperature through the
-same number of degrees; the _specific_ caloric of water is therefore
-double that of oil. Mix any quantity of oil at 60° of temperature with
-an equal weight of water at 90°, and you will find the temperature of
-the mixture to be nearly 80°, instead of only 74° or 75°, showing that
-while the water has lost only 10° of caloric, the mixture has risen 20°.
-If the oil be at 90°, and the water at 60°, the resulting temperature
-will be only 70°, or thereabouts, instead of 75°, the mean; thus, here
-the hot oil has lost 20°, while the mixture has risen only 10°; the
-water, then, contains at the same temperature _twice_ as much caloric as
-the oil; its specific caloric is _double_ that of the oil. This mean
-temperature does result when equal weights of the _same_ body at
-different temperatures are mixed together.
-
-The sensations called heat and cold are by no means accurate measures of
-the real temperature of any substances, for many causes influence these
-sensations, some belonging to the substances themselves, others to the
-state of our organs at the time. Every one has remarked that metals in a
-warm room feel warmer, and in a cold room colder than wooden articles,
-and these again than woollen or cotton articles of dress or furniture;
-this arises from metals being what is termed better _conductors_ of heat
-than wood, and this better than wool, &c., that is, they give out or
-absorb caloric more rapidly than these last. Some philosophers, wishing
-to ascertain how much heat the human body could endure, had a room
-heated with stoves, every crevice being carefully stopped, until the
-temperature rose so high that a beefsteak placed on the table was
-sufficiently cooked to be eaten. They were dressed in flannel, and could
-with impunity touch the carpets, curtains, &c., in the room; but the
-iron handles, fire-irons, and all metallic substances, burnt their
-fingers; and one who wore silver spectacles was obliged to remove them
-to save his nose. The fallacy of our sensations may be easily shown by
-taking two basins, placing in one some water at 100°, in another some
-water at as low a temperature as can easily be procured--hold the right
-hand in one, the left in the other, for a few minutes, and then mix
-them, and place both hands in the mixture; it will feel quite _cold_ to
-the hand that had been in the hotter water, and _hot_ to the other.
-
-In order to arrive at a correct estimate of the temperature of bodies,
-instruments are made use of called thermometers, or measurers of heat,
-which show increase or diminution of temperature by the rising or
-falling of a column of some fluid in a tube of glass, one end of which
-is expanded into a bulb, and the other hermetically sealed. This effect
-is produced by the expansion or swelling of the fluid as caloric is
-added to, and its contraction when caloric is abstracted from it.
-Coloured spirits of wine, or quicksilver, are the most usual
-thermometric fluids, and the tube containing them is fixed to a wooden
-or metallic frame, on which certain divisions are marked, called
-degrees.
-
-That in general use in England is called Fahrenheit's, from the name of
-the person who first introduced that particular scale. In this
-thermometer, the point at which the mercury in the tube stands when
-plunged into melting ice, is marked 32°, and the distance between that
-point, and the point to which the mercury rises in boiling water, is
-divided into 180 equal parts, called degrees; so that water is said to
-boil at 212° = 180° + 32°. There are two other scales of temperature
-used in different parts of the world, but it is not worth while to
-notice them here.
-
-Not only do different bodies at the same degree of temperature contain
-very different quantities of caloric, but this also is the case with the
-same body in different forms. Ice, water, and steam, are three forms of
-the same body, but ice at 32° contains much less caloric than water at
-the same temperature, and water at 212° contains much less caloric than
-steam (or water in a state of vapour) at that temperature.
-
-Place in a jar any given quantity of snow, or small pieces of ice, at
-32°, and in another the same weight of water at 32°, pour on each an
-equal weight of water at 172°, and you will find that in the first case
-the ice will be melted, but the temperature will remain at 32° or
-thereabouts, while the temperature of the water in the other vessel will
-have risen to 100° or thereabouts, being as near as possible the half of
-the excess of the temperature of the hot water, 140° over that of the
-cold, namely 70° added to 32°, the original temperature. Now, what has
-become of the heat which was added to the ice, and is apparently
-lost?--it is _absorbed_ by the ice in its passage to the fluid state; so
-that water may be said to be a compound of ice and caloric.
-
-Again, take 10 ounces of water at about 50°, and add 1 oz. of water at
-212°, and the temperature of the mixture will be about 66°; then
-condense some steam at 212°, into another 10 oz. of water until it has
-become 11 oz., and you will find the temperature will be nearly 212°.
-Why does the ounce of steam at 212° raise the temperature of the water
-so much higher than the ounce of water at the same temperature?
-Obviously because it contains hidden in its substance a vast quantity of
-caloric, not to be detected by the thermometer; in fact, that steam is a
-compound of _water_ and caloric, as water is a compound of _ice_ and
-caloric; and this caloric which exists, more or less, in all bodies
-without producing any obvious effect, is called _latent_ caloric, from
-the Latin verb _lateo_, to lie hid. The quantity of caloric thus
-absorbed as it were by various bodies, differs for each body, and for
-the same body in different forms, as mentioned above.
-
-
-EXPANSION.
-
-As a general rule, all bodies, whether solid, liquid, or gaseous, are
-expanded by caloric. This may be shown by experiments in each form of
-matter.
-
-Have a small iron rod made, which when cold just passes through a hole
-in a plate of metal; heat it, and it will no longer pass; after a time
-the rod will return to its former temperature, and then will go through
-the hole as before. The rod increases in length as well as width; if you
-have a gauge divided into 1/100 of an inch, and place the rod in it when
-cold, noting its position, on heating it will extend to a greater length
-in the gauge, returning to its former place when cool.
-
-The effect of caloric in causing fluids to expand is actually employed
-as a measure of quantity in the thermometer, the rise of the fluid in
-the tube when heated depending on the increased bulk of the fluid
-occasioned by the addition of caloric. The same fact is to be noticed
-every day when the cook fills the kettle, and places it on the fire. As
-the water becomes warmer it expands, that is, takes up more room than it
-did before, and the water escapes by slow degrees, increasing as the
-heat increases, up to the point of boiling, when a sudden commotion
-takes place from the condensation of a portion of the water into steam.
-
-But it is in the form of vapour or gas, (which by the bye is not the
-same thing,[9]) that the expansive force of caloric is most obvious. The
-gigantic powers of the steam-engine depend entirely on the tendency of
-vapour to expand on the addition of caloric; and this force of
-expansion appears to have no limit; boilers made of iron plates an inch
-or even more in thickness, and the buildings or ships containing them,
-having been torn to pieces and scattered in all directions by the
-expansive power of steam. Take a bladder, and fill it about half full of
-air, and tie the neck securely; upon holding it to the fire it will
-swell out, and become quite tense from the expansion of the contained
-air.
-
- [9] It may be well to state here, that by _vapour_ is generally
- understood the aërial form of a substance usually existing in a
- solid or fluid form at ordinary temperatures; as the vapour of
- iodine, a solid; of mercury, water, spirits, and other fluids:
- while the term _gas_ is applied to those bodies usually known in
- the aërial state; thus oxygen, nitrogen, carbonic acid, hydrogen,
- &c. &c., are called gases. It is, however, but an arbitrary
- distinction; for many of these gases have, by the combined
- influence of cold and powerful pressure, been converted into
- fluids, and even solids--carbonic acid gas for instance!
-
-The principal source of caloric is the sun, whose beams, diffused
-through all nature by the refractive property of the atmosphere, are the
-source of vitality both to vegetables and animals, and when concentrated
-by a large convex lens, produce the most intense heat, sufficient to
-light a piece of diamond, and melt platinum. Caloric is also produced or
-evolved by combustion, by friction, percussion, chemical combination,
-electricity, and galvanism.
-
-The evolution of heat by friction may be witnessed daily in a thousand
-instances. Lucifer matches are lighted by rubbing the highly inflammable
-substances with which they are tipped against a piece of sand-paper.
-Nearly all savage people procure fire by rubbing a piece of hard wood
-violently against a softer piece. The axle-trees of steam-engines, and
-even of carriages, have been known to be so heated by friction as to
-endanger burning the carriage; and it is very usual to be obliged to
-pour a quantity of cold water on the iron axle of the carriages of an
-express train after an hour of constant and rapid work. If you merely
-rub the blade of a knife rapidly on a piece of wood, it will become hot
-enough to burn your hand.
-
-Percussion is merely a more energetic kind of friction, and is often
-resorted to by the blacksmith to light his furnace. He places a nail or
-other piece of soft iron on his anvil, and beats it rapidly with the
-hammer, when it becomes actually red hot. The production of sparks by
-striking flint against steel, or two pieces of flint one against the
-other, are familiar instances of heat produced by percussion.
-
-One of the most powerful means of producing heat is the process of
-combustion.
-
-Combustion, as the word imports, is the _burning together_ of two or
-more substances, a chemical union of oxygen generally with carbon and
-hydrogen in some shape or other. In our ordinary fires we burn coal, a
-hydro-carbon as it is called; and the gas which is now so universally
-used for the purpose of illumination, is a compound of the same
-bodies--so wax, tallow, oil of various kinds, both of animal and
-vegetable origin, are all hydro-carbons.
-
-On the application of a sufficient heat, and a free access of
-atmospheric air, or of some other gas containing oxygen in a certain
-state of combination, these bodies take fire, and continue to burn
-either with flame, or a red or even white heat without flame, until they
-are consumed; that is, until they have entered into new combinations
-with the oxygen, and are converted into carbonic acid and water, the
-carbon forming the first product, the hydrogen the other.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The following experiment shows the production of heat by chemical action
-alone. Bruise some fresh prepared crystals of nitrate of copper, spread
-them over a piece of tin-foil, sprinkle them with a little water; then
-fold up the foil tightly as rapidly as possible, and in a minute or two
-it will become red-hot, the tin apparently burning away. This heat is
-produced by the energetic action of the tin on the nitrate of copper,
-taking away its oxygen in order to unite with the nitric acid, for
-which, as well as for the oxygen, the tin has a much greater affinity
-than the copper has.
-
-Combustion without flame may be shown in a very elegant and agreeable
-manner, by making a coil of platinum wire by twisting it round the stem
-of a tobacco-pipe, or any cylindrical body, for a dozen times or so,
-leaving about an inch straight, which should be inserted into the wick
-of a spirit-lamp; light the lamp, and after it has burnt for a minute or
-two extinguish the flame quickly; the wire will soon become red hot,
-and, if kept from draughts of air, will continue to burn until all the
-spirit is consumed. Spongy platinum, as it is called, answers rather
-better than wire, and has been employed in the formation of fumigators
-for the drawing-room, in which, instead of pure spirit, some perfume,
-such as lavender water, is used; by its combustion an agreeable odour is
-diffused through the apartment. These little lamps were much in vogue a
-few years ago, but are now nearly out of fashion.
-
-Experiments on combustion might be multiplied almost to any amount, but
-the above will be sufficient for the present. When we come to treat of
-the properties of the gases and some other substances, we shall have
-occasion to recur to this subject.
-
-The production of caloric by chemical combination may be exhibited by
-mixing carefully one part of oil of vitriol with two of water, when
-sufficient heat will be produced to boil some water in a thin and narrow
-tube, which may be used as a rod to stir the mixture.
-
-The production of heat by electric and galvanic agency belongs to
-another subject. I will content myself with saying here, that these
-forces afford the most powerful aid in decomposing and uniting various
-bodies, and that it was by the immense power of a battery of 2,000 pairs
-of plates, belonging to the Royal Institution in London, that Sir H.
-Davy discovered the metallic bases of the alkalies and earths.
-
-
-HYDRAULICS.
-
-The science of Hydraulics comprehends the laws which regulate
-non-elastic fluids in motion, and especially water, &c.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Water can only be set in motion by two causes--the pressure of the
-atmosphere, or its own gravity. The principal law concerning fluids is,
-that they always preserve their own level. Hence water can be
-distributed over a town from any reservoir that is higher than the
-houses to be supplied; and the same principle will enable us to form
-fountains in a garden, or other place. Should any of our young friends
-wish to form a fountain, or jet d'eau, they may, by bringing a pipe from
-T, a water-tank, which should be at the upper part of the house, convey
-the water down to the garden. Then by leading it through the earth,
-underneath the path or grass-plot, and turning it to a perpendicular
-position, the water will spring out, and rise nearly as high as the
-level of that in the tank. The part of the pipe at B should have a
-turnkey, so that the water may be let on or shut off at pleasure.
-
-
-THE SYPHON.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The syphon B is a bent tube, having one leg shorter than the other. It
-acts by the pressure of the atmosphere. In order to make a syphon act,
-it is necessary first to fill both legs quite full of the fluid; and
-then the shorter leg must be placed in the vessel to be emptied.
-Immediately upon withdrawing the finger from the longer leg, the liquor
-will flow. Any young person may form a syphon by a small piece of leaden
-pipe, bent into the form above.
-
-
-THE PUMP.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The action of the common pump is as follows: When the handle A is
-raised, the piston-rod B descends, and brings the piston-valve, called
-the sucker, or bucket, to another valve, C, which is fixed, and opens
-inwards towards the piston. When the handle is drawn down, the piston is
-raised, and, as it is air-tight, a vacuum is produced between the two
-valves; the air in the barrel of the pump, betwixt the lower valve and
-the water, then forces open the lower valve, and rushes through to fill
-up this vacuum; and the air in the pump being less dense than the
-external atmosphere, the water is forced a short way up the barrel. When
-the piston again descends to the lower valve, the air between them is
-again forced out by forcing open the upper valve; and when the piston is
-raised, a vacuum is again produced, and the air below the lower valve
-rushes up, and the water in consequence is again raised a little
-further. This operation continues until the water rises above the lower
-valve; at every stroke afterwards, the water passes through the valve of
-the descending piston, and is raised by it, on its ascent, until it
-issues out of the spout.
-
-
-THE HYDRAULIC DANCER.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Make a little figure of cork, in the shape of a dancing mountebank,
-sailor, &c. In this figure place a small hollow cone, made of thin leaf
-brass. When this figure is placed upon any jet d'eau, such as that of
-the fountain recommended to be constructed, it will be suspended on the
-top of the water, and perform a great variety of amusing motions. If a
-hollow ball of very thin copper, of an inch in diameter, be placed on a
-similar jet, it will remain suspended, turning round and spreading the
-water all about it.
-
-
-THE WATER SNAIL, OR ARCHIMEDEAN SCREW,
-
-[Illustration]
-
-may easily be constructed. Purchase a yard of small leaden pipe, and
-twist it round a pole, as in the following figure, A; place a handle at
-its upper end, B, and let its lower end rest in the water. Between the
-last turn of the pipe and the orifice place a paddle-wheel, C. Now,
-should the water be that of a running stream, the force of the stream
-will turn the pipe, and the water will rise in it till it empties itself
-into the trough at D. Should the water have no motion, the turning of
-the handle at B will elevate the water from the lower to the higher
-level.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-MAGNETISM.
-
-The attractive power of the loadstone has been known from a very
-remote period. The natural magnet appears native in a grey iron ore in
-octahedral crystals, composed of 168 parts of iron, and 64 parts of
-oxygen, Fe_{3}O_{4}. Its properties seem to have been studied in Europe
-during the dark ages, and a directive power is alluded to by Cardinal
-James de Vitri, who flourished about the year 1200, who observed, that
-it was indispensable to those who travel much by sea.
-
-In modern times, the history as well as the nature of the magnet has
-engaged remarkable attention; and it has been determined beyond all
-dispute that the magnet was used by the Chinese under the name of the
-_tche-chy_ (directing-stone) about 2604 years before Christ. It passed
-from them to the Arabs, and was first used in Europe after the Crusades;
-and Ludi Vestomanus asserts, that about the year 1500 he saw a pilot in
-the East Indies direct his course by a magnetic needle like those now in
-use.
-
-
-RELATION OF MAGNETISM TO ELECTRICITY.
-
-The most remarkable theories have been invented to account for the
-phenomena of magnetism. Halley imagined magnetic globes to be moving to
-and fro in the interior of the earth. Barlow's theory, which refers the
-whole to electrical currents, is the most rational. Dr. Faraday, for
-whose kindness to us in early days we always feel grateful, in a series
-of very curious experiments, has succeeded in identifying magnetism with
-galvanism, by directing galvanic currents at right angles to the
-direction of powerful magnets. And its connexion with this and the
-common species of electricity has deprived it of all its conjuring
-powers, and reduced it to the well-defined action of electrical bodies.
-
-It is not for us to write either a history of this interesting subject,
-or to treat it as a science to be acquired; but as it embodies a great
-number of most instructive and amusing experiments, we think it proper
-to introduce it here.
-
-
-TO MAKE ARTIFICIAL MAGNETS.
-
-This may be done by stroking a piece of hard steel with a natural or
-artificial magnet. Take a common sewing-needle and pass the north pole
-of a magnet from the eye to the point, pressing it gently in so doing.
-After reaching the end of the needle the magnet must not be passed back
-again towards the eye, but must be lifted up and applied again to that
-end, the friction being always in the same direction. After repeating
-this for a few times the needle will become magnetised, and attract iron
-filings, &c.
-
-
-HOW TO MAGNETISE A POKER.
-
-Hold it in the left hand in a position slightly inclined from the
-perpendicular, the lower end pointing to the north, and then strike it
-smartly several times with a large iron hammer, and it will be found to
-possess the powers of a magnet, although but slightly.
-
-
-TO SHOW MAGNETIC REPULSION AND ATTRACTION.
-
-Suspend two short pieces of iron wire, N S, N S, so that they will hang
-in contact in a vertical position. If the north pole of a magnet N be
-now brought to a moderate distance between the wires, they will recede
-from each other, as in figure 1.
-
-[Illustration: _Fig. 2_ _Fig 1._]
-
-The ends S S being made south poles by induction from the north pole N,
-will repel each other, and so will the north poles N N. This separation
-of the wires will increase as the magnet approaches them, but there will
-be a particular distance at which the attractive force of N overcomes
-the repulsive force of the poles S S, and causes the wires to converge,
-as in figure 2; the north poles N N still exhibiting their mutual
-repulsion.
-
-
-NORTH AND SOUTH POLES OF THE MAGNET.
-
-Each magnet has its poles, north and south--the north or south poles of
-one magnet, repel the north and south pole of another. If a magnet, as
-in the following figure, be dipped in some iron filings, they will be
-immediately attracted to one end. Supposing this to be the north pole,
-each of the ends of the filings, not in contact with the magnet, will
-become north poles, while the ends in contact will by induction become
-south poles. Both will have a tendency to repel each other, and the
-filings will stand on the magnet as in the figure.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-POLARITY OF THE MAGNET.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The best method of proving this is to take a magnet or a piece of steel
-rendered magnetic, and to place it on a piece of cork by laying it in a
-groove cut to receive it. If the cork be placed in the centre of a basin
-of water, and allowed to swim freely on its surface, so that it is not
-attracted by the sides of the basin, it will be found to turn its north
-pole to the north, and its south pole to the south, the same as the
-mariner's compass. If you fix two magnets in two pieces of cork, and
-place them also in a basin of water, and they are in a parallel position
-with the same poles together, that is, north to north, and south to
-south, they will mutually repel each other; but if the contrary poles
-point to one another, as north to south, they will be attracted.
-
-
-THE MAGNETIC FISH.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Fish are to be purchased at the toy-shops, by which the young
-"magnétique" may perform this experiment; they are made hollow, and will
-float on the water. In the mouth of each should be inserted a piece of
-magnetic wire. The angling rod is like any other rod, and has a silken
-thread for a line, and an iron hook also strongly magnetised. To catch
-the fish it is only necessary to put the hook in contact with the noses
-of the fish, and they will be taken without any of the baits mentioned
-in the former part of this work.
-
-
-THE MAGNETIC SWAN.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The figure of a swan should be cut in cork, and within its beak a small
-strongly magnetised piece of steel should be placed. The swan should
-then be covered with a coating of white wax, and fashioned further into
-the shape of a swan, and glass beads may be placed in its head for eyes.
-This should be placed in a small tub or large basin of water, and to
-make it swim about, you should place in a white stick about nine inches
-long a magnetic bar, on which the north and south poles are marked. If
-you wish to bring the swan towards you, present to him the north pole of
-the wand, if you wish it to retire, present the south pole, and thus you
-may direct the swan to any part you desire.
-
-
-TO SUSPEND A NEEDLE IN THE AIR BY MAGNETISM.
-
-Place a magnet on a stand to raise it a little above the table; then
-bring a small sewing-needle containing a thread, within a little of the
-magnet, keeping hold of the thread to prevent the needle from attaching
-itself to the magnet. The needle in endeavouring to fly to the magnet,
-and being prevented by the thread, will remain curiously suspended in
-the air, reminding us of the fable of Mahomed's coffin.
-
-
-TO MAKE ARTIFICIAL MAGNETS WITHOUT THE AID EITHER OF NATURAL LOADSTONES
-OR ARTIFICIAL MAGNETS.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Take an iron poker and tongs, or two bars of iron, the larger and the
-older the better, and fixing the poker upright, hold to it with the left
-hand near the top P by a silk thread, a bar of soft steel about three
-inches long, one fourth of an inch broad, and one twentieth thick; mark
-one end, and let this end be downwards. Then grasping the tongs T with
-the right hand a little below the middle, and keeping them nearly in a
-vertical line, let the bar B be rubbed with the lower end L of the
-tongs, from the marked end of the bar to its upper end about ten times
-of each side of it. By this means the bar B will receive as much
-magnetism as will enable it to lift a small key at the marked end; and
-this end of the bar being suspended by its middle, or made to rest on a
-joint, will turn to the north, and is called its north pole, the
-unmarked end being the south pole. This is the method recommended by Mr.
-Caxton, in his process, which he regarded superior to those in former
-use, and of which a more detailed account will be found in his
-interesting volume.
-
-
-HORSE-SHOE MAGNETS.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The form of a horse-shoe is generally given to magnetised bars, when
-both poles are wanted to act together, which frequently happens in
-various experiments, such as for lifting weights by the force of
-magnetic attraction, and for magnetising steel bars by the process of
-double touch, for which they are exceedingly convenient. The following
-is the method of making a powerful magnetic battery of the horse-shoe
-form. Twelve bars or plates of steel are to be taken, and having been
-previously bent to the required form, that is, the horse-shoe shape,
-they are then bound together by means of rivets at their ends; before
-being finally fastened they are each separately magnetised, and
-afterwards finally united.
-
-Horse-shoe magnets should have a short bar of soft iron adapted to
-connect the two poles, and should never be laid by without such a piece
-of iron adhering to them. Bar magnets should be kept in pairs with their
-poles turned in contrary directions, and they should be kept from rust.
-Both kinds of magnets have their power not only preserved but increased,
-by keeping them surrounded with a mass of dry filings of soft iron, each
-particle of which will re-act by its induced magnetism upon the point of
-the magnet to which it adheres, and maintain in that point its primitive
-magnetic state.
-
-
-EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT SOFT IRON POSSESSES MAGNETIC PROPERTIES WHILE IT
-REMAINS IN THE VICINITY OF A MAGNET.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Let M be a magnet and K a key, held horizontally near one of its poles,
-or near its lower edge. Then if another piece of iron, such as a small
-nail, be applied to the other end of the key, the nail will hang from
-the key, and will continue to do so while the magnet is slowly
-withdrawn; but when it has been removed beyond a certain distance, the
-nail will drop from the key, because the magnetism induced in the key
-becomes at that distance too weak to support the weight of the nail.
-That this is the real cause of its falling off may be proved by taking a
-still lighter fragment of iron, such as a piece of very slender wire,
-and applying it to the key. The magnetism of the key will still be
-sufficiently strong to support the wire, though it cannot the nail, and
-it will continue to support it even when the magnet is yet further
-removed; at length, however, it drops off.
-
-
-ELECTRO-MAGNETISM.
-
-The identity of magnetism with electricity alluded to in a former
-paragraph, has led to the formation of a new science under the above
-name, and to some of the interesting experiments connected with it, we
-shall briefly allude for the amusement of the young reader.
-
-
-POWER OF THE ELECTRO-MAGNET.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The same influence which affects the magnetic needle already described,
-will also communicate magnetism to soft iron. If a bar of that metal
-bent, as in the drawing, be surrounded with a common bonnet wire, or a
-copper wire prevented from touching the iron by a winding of cotton or
-thread, and then if a current of voltaic electricity be sent through the
-wire, the bar becomes a powerful magnet, and will continue so as long as
-the connexion with the battery is preserved. On breaking the contact,
-the magnetism disappears. This experiment may be easily made by the
-young reader with a horse-shoe magnet, surrounded by several coils of
-wire. P is the positive, and N the negative pole.
-
-
-THE MARINER'S COMPASS AND EXPERIMENTS WITH A POCKET COMPASS.
-
-The mariner's compass is an artificial magnet fitted in a proper box,
-and consists of three parts--1, the box; 2, the card or fly; and 3, the
-needle. The box is suspended in a square wooden case, by means of two
-concentric brass circles called gimbals, so fixed by brazen axes to the
-two boxes, that the inner one, or compass-box, retains a horizontal
-position in all motions of the ship. The card is a circular piece of
-paper which is fastened upon the needle, and moves with it. The outer
-edge of the card is divided into thirty-two points, as shown in the
-engraving, called points of the compass. The needle is a slender bar of
-hardened steel, having a hollow agate cup in the centre, which moves
-upon the point of a pivot made of brass.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-VARIATION OF THE NEEDLE.
-
-The magnetic needle does not point exactly north and south, but the
-north pole of the needle takes a direction to the west of the true
-north. It is constantly changing, and varies at different parts of the
-earth, and at different times of the day.
-
-
-DIP OF THE NEEDLE.
-
-Another remarkable and evident manifestation of the influence of the
-magnetism of the earth upon the needle is the inclination or dip of the
-latter, which is a deviation from its horizontal place in a downward
-direction in northern regions of its north, and in southern regions of
-its south pole. In balancing the needle on the card, on account of this
-dipping, a small weight or moveable piece of brass is placed on one end
-of the needle, by the shifting of which either nearer to or further from
-the centre, the needle will always be balanced.
-
-
-USEFUL AMUSEMENT WITH THE POCKET COMPASS.
-
-Pocket compasses are to be bought for five or six shillings, and may be
-used in many ways. In travelling over mountains or a wide extended moor,
-they are indispensably necessary; and no one should go a tour into
-Wales, Scotland, or the lakes without such a companion, and it will be a
-very useful and amusing exercise for any young person to take the
-bearings of his own or some particular locality, and make out what may
-be called a bearing card. This he may easily do in the following manner.
-Supposing he wishes, for instance, to take the bearings of his own
-house, he has nothing to do but to set his pocket compass upon a map of
-the district,--a county map will do very well, unless his house stands
-on the verge of a county, then two county maps will be necessary. He
-must make the north of the map exactly coincide with the north, as
-indicated by his compass, and having fixed his map in this situation, he
-should take a ruler and piece of paper, and dot down the exact bearings
-of each important town, or place, or village, around him. Let him
-suppose himself, for instance, in the town of Cambridge, and laying down
-his map as indicated by the compass, north to north and south to south,
-he will find the following places due north, Wilberton, Wentworth;
-Little Wilbraham, Teversham, due east; Duxford and Chesterfield, south;
-Coton and St. Neots in Huntingdonshire, west. The other points of the
-compass may be filled up in the same manner. Should therefore our young
-friend be upon any elevated situation near his own dwelling, or upon any
-other elevated spot from which the bearings have been taken, he will be
-able to inform his young friends that such and such a place lies in such
-a direction, that this place lies due north, the other north-west, a
-third south-east, the fourth south-west, &c. &c.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-INTERESTING PARTICULARS CONCERNING THE MAGNET.
-
-Fire-irons which have rested in an upright position in a room during the
-summer months are often highly magnetic.
-
-Iron bars standing erect, such as the gratings of a prison cell, or the
-iron railings before houses, are often magnetic.
-
-The great iron-clad ships, which have now replaced the wooden walls of
-Old England, are powerfully magnetic, and therefore affect the compass
-by which the vessel is steered; ingenious arrangements are therefore
-made to correct the effect of the local attraction, so that the
-man-of-war may be steered correctly.
-
-Magnetism may be made to pass through a deal board; to exhibit which,
-lay a needle on the smooth part above, and run a magnet along the under
-side, and the needle will be found to follow the course of the magnet. A
-magnet dipped into boiling water loses part of its magnetism, which
-however returns upon its cooling.
-
-A sudden blow given to a magnet often destroys its magnetic power.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-MECHANICS.
-
-"These are machinations comical."--FORD.
-
-There is no subject of such importance as Mechanics, as its principles
-are founded upon the properties of matter and the laws of motion; and in
-knowing something of these, the tyro will lay the foundation of all
-substantial knowledge.
-
-The properties of matter are the following: Solidity (or
-Impenetrability), Divisibility, Mobility, Elasticity, Brittleness,
-Malleability, Ductility, and Tenacity.
-
-The laws of motion are as follow:--
-
-1. Every body continues in a state of rest or of uniform rectilineal
-motion, unless affected by some extraneous force.
-
-2. The change of motion is always proportionate to the impelling force.
-
-3. Action and reaction are always equal and contrary.
-
-
-EXPERIMENT OF THE LAW OF MOTION.
-
-In shooting at "taw," if the marble be struck "plump," as it is called,
-it moves forward exactly in the same line of direction; but if struck
-sideways, it will move in an oblique direction, and its course will be
-in a line situated between the direction of its former motion and that
-of the force impressed. This is called the resolution of forces.
-
-
-BALANCING.
-
-The centre of gravity in a body is that part about which all the other
-parts equally balance each other. In balancing a stick upon the finger,
-or upon the chin, it is necessary only to keep the chin or finger
-exactly under the point which is called the centre of gravity.
-
-
-THE PRANCING HORSE.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Cut out the figure of a horse, and having fixed a curved iron wire to
-the under part of its body, place a small ball of lead upon it. Place
-the hind legs of the horse on the table, and it will rock to and fro. If
-the ball be removed, the horse would immediately tumble, because
-unsupported, the centre of gravity being in the front of the prop; but
-upon the ball being replaced, the centre of gravity immediately changes
-its position, and is brought under the prop, and the horse is again in
-equilibrio.
-
-
-TO CONSTRUCT A FIGURE, WHICH, BEING PLACED UPON A CURVED SURFACE, AND
-INCLINED IN ANY POSITION, SHALL, WHEN LEFT TO ITSELF, RETURN TO ITS
-FORMER POSITION.
-
-The feet of the figure rest on a curved pivot, which is sustained by two
-loaded balls below; for the weight of these balls being much greater
-than that of the figure, their effect is to bring the centre of gravity
-of the whole beneath the point on which it rests; consequently the
-equilibrium will resist any slight force to disturb it.
-
-
-TO MAKE A CARRIAGE RUN IN AN INVERTED POSITION WITHOUT FALLING.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-It is pretty well known to most boys, that if a tumbler of water be
-placed within a broad wooden hoop, the whole may be whirled round
-without falling, owing to the centrifugal force. On the same principle,
-if a small carriage be placed on an iron band or rail, it will ascend
-the curve, become inverted, and descend again, without falling.
-
-
-TO CAUSE A CYLINDER TO ROLL BY ITS OWN WEIGHT UP-HILL.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Procure a coffee-canister, and loading it at F with a piece of lead,
-which may be fixed in with solder, the position of the centre of gravity
-is thus altered. If a cylinder so constructed be placed on an inclined
-plane, and the loaded part above, it will roll up-hill without
-assistance.
-
-
-THE BALANCED STICK.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Procure a piece of wood, about nine inches in length and about half an
-inch in thickness, and thrust into its upper end the blades of two
-penknives, on either side one. Place the other end upon the tip of the
-fore-finger, and it will keep its place without falling.
-
-
-THE CHINESE MANDARIN.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Construct out of the pith of the elder a little mandarin; then provide a
-base for it to sit in, like a kettle-drum. Into this put some heavy
-substance, such as half a leaden bullet; fasten the figure to this, and
-in whatever position it may be placed, it will, when left to itself,
-immediately return to its upright position.
-
-
-TO MAKE A SHILLING TURN ON ITS EDGE ON THE POINT OF A NEEDLE.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Take a bottle, with a cork in its neck, and place in it, in a
-perpendicular position, a middle-sized needle. Fix a shilling into
-another cork, by cutting a nick in it; and stick into the same cork two
-small table-forks, opposite each other, with the handles inclining
-outwards and downwards. If the rim of the shilling be now poised on the
-point of the needle, it may easily be made to spin round without
-falling, as the centre of gravity is below the centre of suspension.
-
-
-THE DANCING PEA.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-If you stick through a pea, or small ball of pith, two pins at right
-angles, and defend the points with pieces of sealingwax, it may be kept
-in equilibrio at a short distance from the end of a straight tube, by
-means of a current of breath from the mouth, which imparts a rotatory
-motion to the pea.[10]
-
- [10] The pins are only used to hold the pea steady before it is blown
- from the pipe, as the pea alone will dance quite as well.
-
-
-OBLIQUITY OF MOTION.
-
-Cut a piece of pasteboard into the following shape, and describe on it
-a spiral line; cut this out with a penknife, and then suspend it on a
-large skewer or pin, as seen in the engraving. If the whole be now
-placed on a warm stove, or over the flame of a candle or lamp, it will
-revolve with considerable velocity. The card, after being cut into the
-spiral, may be made to represent a snake or dragon, and when in motion
-will produce a very pleasing effect.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE BRIDGE OF KNIVES.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Place three glasses, A A A, in the form of a triangle, and arrange three
-knives upon them, as shown in the figure,--the blade of No. 1 over that
-of No. 2, and that over No. 3, which rests on No. 1. The bridge so made
-will be self-supported.
-
-
-THE TOPER'S TRIPOD.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Place three tobacco-pipes in the position shown in the engraving, the
-mouth of the bowls downwards, and the lower end of the stems upon the
-stem just by the bowls. This tripod, if carefully put together, will
-support considerably more than a pot of "Lockwood's home-brewed,"
-equally celebrated with the trick.
-
-
-THE MICROSCOPE.
-
-At any time of the year or hour of the day there are few pursuits more
-interesting, and at the same time instructive, than the study of Nature
-by means of the microscope.
-
-This instrument has revolutionized science, solved many problems that
-had wearied the souls of older naturalists, and even in its simplest
-form is beyond all value to those who love Nature and the objects which
-they see around them. The microscope opens a new world to us. When the
-first telescope was directed to the heavens, and unlocked the mysteries
-of the skies, when it crumbled into dust all the theories of the past
-centuries, and told mankind that the planets were not merely instruments
-of fortune-telling, whose voices were intelligible to a chosen few, but
-orbs far vaster than our own; even then the new world of thought into
-which man entered was no wider than that which is displayed by the
-poorest lens that possesses the power of magnifying.
-
-All of us must admire the more than awful grandeur of that universe
-whereof we form so infinitesimal a part, wherein the stars are scattered
-as the sand on the sea-shore, and every star a sun, the centre of a
-system of orbs too distant for the eye of man to perceive. Looking at
-our nearest planet, and observing on her face vast mountain-chains,
-ravines into which the light of the sun can never penetrate, and
-volcanoes whose craters are so wide that they would take in the whole of
-London, the whole of Birmingham, and all the country between them, we
-can judge by analogy of the unseen wonders which must exist in the world
-beyond our ken.
-
-But to him who can read Nature rightly, the microscope is a teacher as
-grand as its sister instrument, and the awful magnificence of Nature is
-as evident in a midge's wing as in the more patent glories of the sun,
-moon, and stars. In the following pages we hope to put the readers of
-this book in the way to read their microscope rightly--possibly to make
-it--and to show that much can be done with small means when "there's a
-will," and to indicate to them that objects of no small interest can be
-found without stirring from the room in which we sit, or even from the
-table on which our microscope is placed.
-
-Some of our readers may say, when they read the heading of this paper,
-that they should like a microscope very much, but that they have no
-money to buy it, and that their parents cannot afford one.
-
-This is just the feeling which we used to have when a boy, for in those
-days microscopes were microscopes indeed, and you had your choice
-between a little instrument, with a series of brass cups, having glasses
-in them, which magnified slightly but defined clearly, or a great
-composition of brass and iron, looking like a rocket-tube, with an
-eye-piece at one end and a glass shot at the other. In was very costly,
-very imposing, and magnified very highly; but it strained the eyes
-painfully, had no defining capacities, and made all the objects look as
-if they were seen through a thick fog. Practically, therefore, the
-former was the only instrument that was available.
-
-A still more useful instrument, however, was that which can always be
-obtained for a few shillings, and which is now made wonderfully cheap
-and wonderfully good; we mean the double or treble pocket-lens. So we
-say, if you cannot afford a really good microscope, do not waste your
-money upon inferior and pretentious instruments, but get a sound
-pocket-lens.
-
-It has a thousand advantages. It is portable, and is even more useful in
-the fields than in the house. It defines very clearly, and needs little
-trouble in manipulation. We need not say how difficult is the task of
-getting a complicated instrument to define properly, how impossible with
-a bad one. The object and the glass can be held in any light,--a matter
-of no small consideration when examining anything new, and trying to
-make out its structure. It is not easily put out of order, and if
-treated with the most ordinary care, will last for a lifetime.
-
-You can push it under water, and it will magnify as well as in the air;
-and if you are wandering on the river-side, you can lie down on the
-bank, dip the upper part of your head into the water, together with the
-glass, and watch carefully the subaquatic objects without removing them.
-The water will not hurt the eye in the least, though a non-swimmer may
-perhaps find a little difficulty in his first attempt. It makes a good
-burning-glass, should fire be needed, and no other means of procuring a
-spark be at hand. It can be used so as to show the principle of a camera
-obscura, and to illustrate the manner in which photographic portraits
-are taken. It can be made into an admirable dissecting microscope, and
-needs scarcely any practice in the manipulation. These are some of its
-advantages, and there are many others which need not be mentioned.
-
-Even if you should be able to procure a good microscope, get a
-pocket-lens as well, for you will want them both, and we may say that
-the most practised microscopists, and those who are possessors of the
-most elaborate instruments, are the very men who are most certain
-to have a pocket-lens about them, and to use it most frequently.
-Practise well with the pocket-lens before you meddle with the compound
-microscope. You will waste no time, but will rather gain by it; for
-you will be learning the rudiments of a new science, and laying a
-solid foundation on which to build. Whenever we see a lad take out
-his pocket-lens in a business-like way, use it skilfully, and put
-it back with a mechanical facility that tells of constant practice,
-we know that there is a lad who has learned the chief lesson of a
-naturalist,--namely, the art of observing. We speak highly of the
-pocket-lens, because we think highly of it and owe much to it.
-
-One or two practical remarks on the proper handling of the pocket-lens
-may be of use. Do not always employ the same eye in looking through the
-lens, but use the eyes alternately. There is always a temptation to
-employ the same eye, which thus receives a kind of training in vision;
-but it is a temptation always to be resisted. With some persons the
-right eye is most in favour, and with others the left; and when the
-favourite eye gets all the work, it too frequently suffers. Whether you
-look with the right or the left eye, _keep both eyes open_.
-
-It is a pitiful sight to see a human face all screwed up into a corner,
-the lids of the unused eye convulsively squeezed together, and the mouth
-slanting upwards, as if in sympathy with the eye. Not only does the
-human face become repulsively mean and portentously ugly by such action,
-but the sight of the eye is seriously strained, and sometimes impaired
-for life. At first the beginner will find a little difficulty in
-restricting his vision to one eye while the other remains open, just as
-a beginner on the pianoforte feels himself puzzled when he tries to make
-his right hand go one way and his left hand another; but in either case
-a little practice and plenty of perseverance are sure to overcome all
-obstacles, and in a wonderfully short time the difficulty will not only
-be overcome, but forgotten.
-
-We speak here with some feeling, because, while engaged on a work on the
-microscope, we were necessarily obliged to work much at night, and
-inadvertently employed the left eye more than the right; the consequence
-of which imprudence was that we have been obliged ever since that time
-to give the left eye perfect rest, as far as artificial vision goes,
-and, except when looking through a binocular instrument, we have not
-ventured to use it either to a microscope or telescope. The vision
-accommodates itself to circumstances with wonderful ease, and the
-observer learns the curious art of cutting off all communication between
-the unused eye and the brain; so that, although the objects around may
-imprint themselves upon the retina, the mind is as totally unconscious
-of them as if they had no existence.
-
-If possible, always examine an object _without removing it_, as thereby
-you see it as it is, without altering any of the conditions with which
-it is surrounded. Should this not be practicable, take the object to be
-viewed in the left hand and the lens in the right. Place the wrists of
-the two hands together, and then you will find that one supports the
-other, and that the lens can be held in the proper focus without the
-least difficulty. After you have used the lens for some little time, you
-will learn to hit upon the right focus almost to a hair's breadth,--so
-as to lose no time, a matter of some importance when a living creature
-is to be examined, especially if it be in motion.
-
-As to the selection of objects, none is necessary. Look at everything;
-and the uglier and more unpromising it is, let it be the closer
-examined. We do not merely use our aids to vision for the sake of seeing
-beautiful things, though the microscopist sees more beauty in a day than
-others will see in a year. We want to see how the world and its
-constituent parts are made; and though admiration will not be wanting,
-yet it does not, or ought not, to hold the first place. Always have a
-motive for looking at every object, and if you have none, try to make
-one. One of our friends, known by name at least to most of my readers,
-struck out, some years ago, a most curious train of thought while
-looking at an object which is seen daily by thousands of human beings,
-and will probably soon give the public the benefit of it. We have seen
-the object hundreds of times, but the ideas which it suggested did not
-happen to occur to us.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-We are now about to suggest a very simple piece of mechanism, by which
-the pocket-lens can be converted into a microscope that will serve for
-dissection and many other purposes. The accompanying sketch is taken
-from an instrument of our own manufacture. It is of very rough make, and
-by an old Indian officer would be contemptuously termed "cutcha."
-Measured, however, by its performance, it is quite as satisfactory as
-those instruments which are made by professed opticians, and which the
-same old Indian would class under the honoured title of "pucka."
-
-Melt three or four pounds of lead in an iron ladle, and make a mould,
-consisting of a hollow hemisphere of paper or cardboard, through the
-centre of which an iron rod has been passed. The hollow of the paper
-should resemble an ordinary saucer. Pour the lead into the saucer, and
-let it cool. The paper mould will be scorched by the heat and rendered
-useless, but an outer coating of lead will be cool and hard before the
-paper is quite destroyed. The rod and leaden stand will now appear as in
-the illustration. Next take a piece of stout brass wire and a wine-cork;
-twist the wire round the cork several times; cut off one end close to
-the cork; sharpen the other, and turn it up as seen in the engraving.
-
-Bore a hole through the cork, just large enough to allow the upright rod
-to slip through it, and there is the "stand" of your microscope. Now
-take your pocket-lens, and get an optician to bore a hole through one
-end of it, just large enough to receive the upturned end of the wire;
-slip the lens on the wire, and the microscope is complete.
-
-The cork, though grasping the upright stem with tolerable firmness, can
-be slid up and down so as to insure the correct focus, and can be pushed
-aside whenever the object has to be viewed with the naked eye and must
-not be removed from its place. This instrument is a capital one for
-dissecting purposes, and will answer quite as well as those expensive
-affairs that are to be purchased in the shops. If, however, our readers
-would like to possess a real and well-made instrument, he cannot do
-better than get one of Ross's Dissecting Microscopes, which are very
-steady, and, as may be seen, can be adjusted to almost any position. A
-rack-and-pinion movement for elevating or lowering the sliding pillar
-would be useful.
-
-[Illustration: ROSS'S DISSECTING MICROSCOPE.]
-
-If the object be transparent, and requires to be seen by transmitted
-light, the following plan will answer:--Take a thin piece of wood, cut
-or punch a round hole out of the middle, and support it on four legs.
-Wires or wooden pegs fixed in corks will answer the purpose well, and if
-the corks be glued to the corners of the board, the legs can be inserted
-or removed at pleasure. The wood of which cigar-boxes are made will
-answer the purpose very well. Its dimensions should be about three
-inches in length by two in width. Now buy one of the doll's
-looking-glasses that are sold for a penny, and put it under the stand.
-Lay a flat piece of glass over the hole, place the object upon it, and
-direct the light through it by means of the mirror below. If such a
-mirror cannot be obtained, it is easy enough to make one, by mounting a
-piece of looking-glass in a cork frame, and making it swing on pivots,
-like the glasses of our dressing-rooms.
-
-The young microscopist must remember that when he is examining any
-object by transmitted light, he must arrange it as flatly as possible on
-the glass. In many cases, a still neater manipulation is required,--as,
-for example, when the petals of flowers are under examination. Thin
-glass is to be purchased at any optician's, and if cut in squares,
-instead of circles, is very much cheaper, and quite as useful for all
-practical purposes. Lay the petal on the glass plate, place a piece of
-the thin glass upon it, and press it gently while examining it. If it
-still remains thick and dull, put a drop of pure water on the petal, and
-replace the thin glass, when the structure will almost invariably be
-detected.
-
-Everything depends on the proper management of the object and the
-arrangement of the light. Some opaque objects can be seen best by direct
-light, and others by transmitted light. If a leaf be examined,
-particularly if it be a thick and heavy one, like that of the ivy, the
-upper and lower membranes must be stripped apart,--a task which is
-easily performed by tearing a small slit, and then ripping it smartly
-across. A pair of forceps will be required for this and other delicate
-work, and may be obtained at a cheap rate. Care must be taken to keep
-the points exactly even, and if at any time one of them appears to be
-shorter than the other, they should be rubbed on a hone until they are
-brought perfectly level.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-These should be made of steel; but the young microscopist will find that
-a second pair made of brass, and much rougher in finish, are invaluable
-aids as he takes his walks into the country. By their aid he can pick up
-minute objects, draw insects out of crevices without damaging them, and
-pluck the tiniest flowers without harming their petals. They can be
-carried in the waistcoat pocket, and the cost is sixpence. Any lad who
-knows how to handle solder can make a pair for himself in a few minutes.
-
-A penknife with one blade kept scrupulously sharp is essential, and we
-have found an old lancet of the greatest service. Lancets have gone so
-much out of fashion, that the second-hand instrument shops abound with
-them. We did not allow our own lancet to be shut up, but removed the
-blade from the tortoise-shell handle, and fixed it upon a wooden handle,
-about four inches in length, so that it looked very clumsy, but was
-extremely useful.
-
-Two pairs of scissors are needful,--one very fine, and the other
-moderately strong. Both pairs, however, must have very short blades and
-very long handles, and the scissors such as ladies use are of very
-little use, the short handles causing the fingers of the right hand to
-shade the object. As to the fine pair, it is hardly possible to have
-the handles too long or the blades too short; for if the points can be
-separated a quarter of an inch, nothing more is needed. If a pair of
-bent scissors can also be obtained, they are extremely pleasant to work
-with, and save much trouble.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-For arranging the objects under the microscope, there are no instruments
-equal to those which are here engraved. They are nothing more than
-ordinary needles stuck into the handles of camel's-hair brushes. The
-uppermost is made of the largest-sized darning-needle, and is useful for
-making little holes, and similar purposes. The two next instruments are
-the most generally useful, and several of each should be always at hand.
-Nos. 4 and 5 are for special purposes; the former for holding tissues
-aside, and the latter for lifting them up. The needles must not be
-longer than those in the illustration, as they would otherwise be too
-springy, and apt to tear the object instead of pulling or pushing it.
-
-The bending is readily done in the flame of a spirit-lamp, or even of a
-common candle; but in the latter case the needle is always covered with
-soot, which must be wiped off before its shape can be seen. The
-elasticity of the needles is lost by the operation, but is easily
-restored by heating them red-hot, and plunging them immediately into
-cold water. The end of the handle should be wrapped with thread, in
-order to prevent it from splitting.
-
-Pill-boxes of various sizes are of very great service to the
-microscopist. We always have them arranged in "nests," _i. e._ six or
-seven inside each other, so that space is greatly economized, as long as
-they are not in absolute use. All delicate objects should be placed in
-separate boxes, and the predaceous insects must be treated in the same
-manner, or they will certainly destroy one another, or, at all events,
-inflict such injuries as will make them useless for microscopic
-purposes.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-When the insects are to be killed on the spot, we employ another and a
-very simple plan.
-
-We take one of the old-fashioned wooden lucifer-match boxes, bore a hole
-in the lid, and push through the hole a swan-quill or the barrel of one
-of the swan-quill steel pens. A glass tube is still better, but is too
-fragile. Beeswax is tightly worked into the junction of the tube with
-the wood, so as to make it as nearly air-tight as possible. A cork
-stopper is then cut to fit the tube. The accompanying illustration will
-show the box completed. When this is finished, we take the
-smallest-sized pill-box, bore a number of holes in it with a red-hot
-needle, place a little piece of solid ammonia within it, and inclose it
-in the lucifer-box. Its effects are almost instantaneous; for scarcely
-has the insect touched the bottom of the box before it is helpless, and
-in a very few moments it is quite dead, so powerful is ammonia towards
-insects. The reader will of course understand that the pill-boxes must
-never have been used for pills, and that the match-box must be carefully
-cleaned before employing it in the microscopic service. Moreover, any
-boxes that have been used for lepidopterous insects become useless,
-inasmuch as the scales always fall from the wings, and cling to the
-sides of the box, so as to mix with succeeding objects, and very much
-puzzle the observer.
-
-Aquatic and marine objects require bottles, and, as a general rule,
-these bottles ought always to have wide mouths. Indeed, if there be no
-shoulder at all, their purpose will be better served, as a small object
-is very apt to be caught under the shoulder, and to give much trouble
-before it can be removed without injury. Wide and short test-tubes
-answer admirably for collecting; and it will always be advisable to have
-a few small test-tubes ready fitted with corks, for the purpose of
-isolating those specimens which might receive or cause injury by being
-mixed with others.
-
-To remove minute objects from one vessel into another is a very easy
-process. Take a glass tube, mark off a portion about eight inches in
-length, cut a little notch with a file, and bend it smartly, when it
-will break neatly across, without leaving points or having the
-regularity of its ends injured by gaps. Turn each end round and round in
-the flame of the spirit-lamp, and you have an ordinary "pipette." The
-object of placing the ends of the tube in the flame is to render the
-edges quite smooth and rounded.
-
-Now mark off the same length of tube, and place the marked portion in
-the flame, taking care to warm it well first, lest the sudden heat
-should crack the glass. Keep it continually turning between the fingers,
-and when it is quite soft, and of a fine red heat, draw the hands
-smartly apart, and you will produce a couple of tubes tapering to very
-fine points. Break off the tapering portions at any convenient point,
-round the edges as before, and you will then have pipettes suitable for
-small objects. As there are many specimens, especially the smaller
-animalculæ, which have a habit of retiring into the remotest corner, it
-is necessary to bend another pipette, so as to follow them. For our own
-part, we prefer the pipette to be bent nearly to a right angle.
-
-The mode of using these simple instruments is as follows:--Place the
-forefinger or thumb firmly on the large end, and push the point under
-water. When the opening is close to the sought-for object, lift the
-finger suddenly, and admit the air into the tube. The water will
-immediately rush in at the lower end, and if the orifice has been
-properly directed, will carry the object into the tube. The finger is
-again applied to the mouth of the tube, and the object can be then
-carried off.
-
-As with the pocket-lens almost every object is to be viewed by means of
-direct light, the young observer will find himself much aided by a
-suitable background. Any small object, such as a minute insect, a seed,
-or a hair, becomes very indistinct if held up against the light, or even
-when viewed against a broken background of trees, houses, or herbage.
-The simplest plan of securing a proper background is to take a disc of
-ivory, bone, or even of white cardboard, and to blacken one side of it.
-The black paint which is used for this purpose must be without gloss,
-and have what is called a "dead" surface. Ink answers very well for the
-purpose, and so does ivory-black; but Indian ink is too glossy to be
-serviceable.
-
-To procure specimens from the water is a matter of some difficulty if
-managed badly, but easy enough when the collector knows his business. It
-is of course needful to attach the collecting vessel to the end of a
-rod, and to plunge it into the spots which look most favourable. Now
-even so simple a matter as this requires some little care, if the young
-microscopist really wishes to obtain the best specimens. A common
-walking-stick will answer most purposes; but the most efficient rod for
-the purpose is one of the common walking-stick fishing-rods without the
-top joint, as it can be carried without attracting attention, and can be
-lengthened at will by adding the different joints.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Many methods have been proposed by which the vessel is to be attached to
-the rod; but that which I am about to describe is certainly the simplest
-and most effective that I have tried. Get a piece of gutta-percha
-tubing, just large enough to be slipped on the end of the rod or stick;
-mark off an inch or so, and cut the tube nearly through, as at _a_ in
-Fig. 1. Now cut it away longitudinally, so that a long tongue of
-gutta-percha is left, as at _b_, and the instrument is completed.
-
-Its application is as simple as its structure. Bend the tongue over, so
-as to form a loop, and push the end through the short tube. Slip the
-neck of the bottle into the loop, and draw the tongue until it is
-tolerably tight. Push the end of the stick into the tube, taking care to
-hold the tongue firmly in its place, and the vessel will then be
-fastened at right angles to the stick.
-
-The whole arrangement can be seen in Fig. 2, where _a_ represents the
-gutta-percha tube, _b_ the tongue, _c_ the stick, and _d_ the vessel.
-
-The method of collecting by means of this instrument is as
-follows:--Immerse the vessel in the water, with the mouth downwards, so
-that no water may enter. Push it gently towards the spot which is to be
-investigated, move it about a little, so as to cause a disturbance, and
-then turn the vessel with its mouth upwards. Water will instantly rush
-in, carrying with it the objects which are to be examined. The contents
-of the vessel may then be transferred to the large bottle, and another
-dip made. Confervoid growths, especially those which accumulate in a
-kind of scum on the surface, should be obtained very quietly, without
-previous disturbance of the water.
-
-After the pond or stream or ditch has been well searched, the bottle
-should be roughly examined, by means of a pocket-lens, and the contents
-sorted into the smaller tubes, as has already been mentioned. This
-precaution is especially needful when any of the minute crustacea called
-Entomostraca are captured, as they are most voracious beings, and will
-make sad havoc among other specimens, unless they are placed in separate
-bottles. They are mostly large enough to be detected with the naked eye,
-and look something like little fleas, as they move along.
-
-As the Entomostraca cast their shells repeatedly during their lives,
-some species performing this operation every two days, a beautiful
-series of objects can be obtained by gathering the cast shells, and
-preparing them for the microscope, according to the directions that will
-be found in the following pages. These shells are peculiarly valuable,
-as they retain the chief external characteristics of the creature to
-which they belonged, the limbs, plumes, and even the delicate bristles
-being preserved entire. It is in the power of the microscopist to retard
-or hasten the change of shell, heat and light aiding development, and
-cold and darkness retarding it. The remarkable "ephippium," or saddle,
-which is found on the backs of the Daphnia, the Moina, and other
-Entomostraca, and which is used as a receptacle for eggs, should be
-searched for and preserved.
-
-A very thin and very flat bottle is a most useful assistance in
-detecting the character of any unknown object, especially if it be
-living. Such a bottle may easily be made by heating one of the small
-test-tubes in the spirit-lamp until it is of a glowing red heat, and
-then pressing the sides together. Some little neatness is required in
-this process, as an unskilful operator is apt to press the sides
-unequally, and to leave a bulging projection at the end.
-
-Should a higher power be required than is furnished by the pocket-lens,
-a "Coddington" lens is the very best that can be obtained. In general
-shape it resembles the well-known "Stanhope" lens; but the latter is so
-very inferior an article, that it ought never to be purchased. The two
-glasses can easily be distinguished by the shape of the ends; those of
-the Coddington being alike, while in the Stanhope one is much more
-convex than the other.
-
-At first the young observer generally finds some difficulty in arranging
-this lens, so as to hit off the focus exactly; but if he adopts the
-following plan, he will soon handle a Coddington as easily as an
-ordinary pocket-lens. The object should be held in the left hand and the
-glass in the right. Let the wrists be placed firmly against each other,
-and the lens brought as close as possible to the object, without quite
-touching it. Now bring the eye to the lens, taking care not to disturb
-the arrangement, and then gradually draw the object away from the lens.
-The moment that the proper focus is obtained the object will be seen
-with beautiful clearness, and by drawing the object from the lens,
-instead of approaching the lens to the object, there is no danger of
-injuring the one or the other by contact.
-
-The great advantages of the Coddington are the exceeding clearness with
-which it shows the object, the perfect definition of every line, its
-achromatic character, and its freedom from colours, and the flatness of
-the "field;" so that the circumference is defined as perfectly as the
-centre. It can now be obtained very cheaply at any of our microscopical
-opticians, and should always be mounted on a tolerably long handle.
-
-
-THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE.
-
-We have already described the simpler forms of magnifying instruments,
-together with the best method of using them. We now purpose to describe
-the more complicated instrument called the compound microscope, and
-hints will be given as to the best method of making preparations for it.
-
-The great distinction between the simple and compound microscope is,
-that whereas the former instrument magnifies the object, the latter
-magnifies the magnified image of the object. In the least elaborate form
-of this instrument there are two glasses, one at each end of a tube, the
-small glass magnifying the object, and being therefore called the
-"object glass," while the other, which magnifies the image of the
-object, is placed next to the eye, and is therefore termed the
-"eye-glass." In practice, however, this arrangement is found to be so
-extremely defective, that the instrument was quite useless, except as an
-experimental toy; for the two enemies of the optician, chromatic and
-spherical aberration, prevailed so exceedingly, that every object
-appeared as if surrounded with prismatic colours, and every line was
-blurred and indistinct.
-
-In this uncertain state the compound microscope remained for many years,
-its superb capabilities being scarcely recognised. The chief fault was
-thought to be in the material of which the object-glass was made, and
-for a long series of years all experiments were conducted with a view to
-an improvement in this respect. When, however, the diamond had been
-employed as an object-glass, and had failed equally with those of less
-costly material, attention was directed to the right point--namely, the
-arrangement of the different glasses,--and at length opticians succeeded
-in obtaining a pitch of excellence which can be almost termed
-perfection. It would be impossible to describe the method which is
-employed for this purpose, and it must suffice to say that the principle
-is that of playing off one defect against another, and so making them
-mutually correct their errors.
-
-The magnifying powers of the compound microscope can be very great, and
-it is therefore necessary that extreme care should be taken in its
-manipulation. It will be possible for a clumsy person to do more damage
-to a good instrument in three minutes than can be repaired in as many
-weeks.
-
-Before proceeding to the management of the microscope and the
-construction of the "slides," we will briefly describe one or two chief
-forms of the compound microscope.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The accompanying illustration represents the simplest form of the
-compound microscope as at present made. It consists of a stand and a
-sliding tube, in which are set the glasses which magnify the object and
-its image. At the top is the tube, which is capable of being slid up and
-down in the shoulder of the stand, so as to obtain the proper focus.
-Above is seen the eye-glass; and the object-glass is shown at the bottom
-of the tube. Below the object-glass is the "stage" on which the object
-to be magnified is laid; and lowest of all is a mirror, which serves to
-reflect the light upwards through the object, and which can be turned by
-means of the knobs at the sides. The object-glass is composed of two
-pieces, which can readily be separated. If both are used, sufficient
-magnifying power is gained to show the scales on a butterfly's wing and
-similar minute objects; while, if one is removed, the object is not
-magnified to so great an extent, but a larger portion can be seen, and
-the definition is clearer. The cost of this instrument, together with a
-few accessories, is half-a-guinea.
-
-There is another microscope constructed on the same principle, which is
-a very superior instrument, though it does not at first sight present
-any remarkable difference. It possesses, however, four times the
-magnifying power of that which has just been mentioned. Instead of two
-magnifiers, there are four, and several subsidiary articles are sent
-with it,--such as a condenser, a live box, an aquatic box, and half a
-dozen slides ready prepared. This instrument costs one sovereign.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-But if the reader can by any possibility afford it, let us advise him in
-the strongest terms to devote three guineas to the purpose, and get a
-really good instrument. For this small sum a microscope may now be
-obtained which could not have been purchased for twenty times three
-guineas only a few years ago. One of these beautiful instruments is seen
-in the accompanying illustration; in which may be seen the tube, with
-its eye-piece and object-glass, and the stand, containing the stage and
-the mirror. The arrangement, however, is very different; for the focus
-is not obtained by sliding the tube up and down, but by turning the
-large milled heads which we see on a level with the stage, and which
-raise or depress the tube by means of a rack and pinion. As an extremely
-high power can be used with this instrument, a still finer adjustment is
-required, so as to obtain a very accurate focus. This is seen on the
-front of the tube. The reader will notice that the microscope can be
-inclined backwards, for it is so made that it can be set to any angle
-which may best suit the observer. The value of this arrangement is very
-great, as it permits the observer to sit at his ease in a chair, without
-being forced to crane his neck over the microscope, and look
-perpendicularly down. Another advantage attending this arrangement is
-that the secretions which lubricate the eye do not interrupt the vision,
-as is apt to be the case when looking directly downwards.
-
-The mirror, too, can be turned in any direction, and its distance from
-the stage lessened or increased by means of a draw-tube. Three different
-powers are supplied with this microscope, together with a live-box,
-dissecting and stage forceps, &c.; and the whole is made so as to admit
-of additional apparatus. The microscope fits into a neat square box, in
-which is plenty of room for various articles which will presently be
-described. These three microscopes can be obtained from Messrs. Baker,
-244, High Holborn; and we mention them, not because we wish to make any
-invidious distinctions between the many excellent opticians who now make
-microscopes, but because we happen to have used Messrs. Baker's
-instruments for some years, and can bear practical testimony to their
-performance.
-
-Another three-guinea microscope ought, however, to be mentioned. It is
-the Society of Arts microscope, which is made by Messrs. Field,
-opticians, of Birmingham. In form it closely resembles the instrument
-which has just been mentioned, but differs in some of the details, as it
-possesses a "diaphragm-plate" under the stage for regulating the
-admission of light, and, instead of three object-glasses and one
-eye-piece, has two object-glasses and two eye-pieces. Dr. Carpenter
-mentions that, up to 1861, no less than eighteen hundred of these
-microscopes had been sold. To this instrument the medal of the Society
-of Arts was awarded.
-
-Either of these microscopes affords all that an ordinary observer is
-likely to need; and if he adds a few articles of supplementary
-apparatus, he will find himself possessed of a microscope that will
-serve all purposes except scientific controversy.
-
-Presuming that the reader has supplied himself with one or other of the
-compound microscopes, we will proceed to show the method of using them.
-
-The manipulation of a compound microscope is not so easy as it looks.
-The possessor of a really good instrument may fail hopelessly in his
-attempts to see a single object. Now, there are three essential points
-which a microscopist must attend to,--namely, the correct focus, the
-proper light, and the preparation of the object. Of these the focus is
-of course the most important, and can be best obtained as follows:--
-
-Lay the object on the stage of the microscope, so as to get its centre
-exactly under the centre of the object-glass, and illuminate it as you
-best can. Put on the _lowest_ power, and, without looking through the
-tube, lower the object-glass until it nearly touches the object. Now
-look through the tube, and raise the object-glass gradually from the
-object, until the right focus is obtained. The reason for taking these
-precautions is, that if you look through the tube and lower it upon the
-object, you will in all probability push the glass against the object,
-and damage either the one or the other. When you have thus learned the
-focus of the lowest power, add another, and repeat the process; and so
-on until you have made out the focus of each object-glass. If you have
-more than one eye-piece, try them both with each object-glass.
-
-The proper light is our next point, and upon it rests the chief beauty
-of the effect. The light which will suit one object will not suit
-another, and even the same object should be examined under every variety
-of light. Some objects are best shown when the light is thrown _upon_
-them from above, and others when it is thrown _through_ them from below.
-Again, the direction of the light is of vast importance; for it will
-easily be seen that an oblique light will exhibit minute projections by
-throwing a shadow on one side and brilliancy on the other, while a
-vertical illumination would fail to show them. On the same principle,
-one object will be shown better with the light in front, and another
-when it is on one side.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-One of the most effective means of attaining this object is by using the
-"bull's-eye condenser," which is sometimes fixed to the stage, but is
-usually detached, as represented in the illustration. As the upright
-stem is telescopic, the glass can be raised to a considerable height,
-while the joint and sliding-rod permit the lens to be applied at any
-angle which promises the most brilliant light.
-
-As for the kind of light that is employed, there is nothing which equals
-that of a white cloud; but as such clouds are rare, and are at the best
-extremely transient, and can only be seen by day, various artificial
-methods of illumination have been invented. Novices generally think that
-when the sky is bright and blue they will be very successful in their
-illumination, and feel grievously disappointed at finding that they
-obtained much more light from the clouds, whose disappearance they had
-anxiously been watching. Finding that the blue sky gives scarcely any
-light at all, they rush to the other extreme, turn the mirror towards
-the sun, and pour such a blaze of light upon the object, that the eye is
-blinded by the scintillating refulgence, and the object is often
-injured, because the mirror is capable of reflecting heat as well as
-light.
-
-In the daytime there is nothing better than the "white-cloud
-illuminator," which is made easily enough by means of plaster of Paris.
-A sheet of thin white paper fastened against a window-pane is also
-useful; and the simple plan of dabbing the glass with putty will have a
-beneficial effect in softening the light, when the window has a southern
-aspect. In default of these conveniences, it will be often sufficient to
-fix a piece of white letter-paper over the mirror, or even to dull its
-surface with wax. At all events, he who aspires to be a true
-microscopist must be ready with expedients, and if he finds himself in a
-difficulty, he must summarily invent a method of obviating it.
-
-At night a lamp is necessary; candles are useless, because they have two
-faults--they flicker, and they become lower as they burn. The latter
-defect can be cured by using a candle-lamp, but no arrangement will cure
-the flame of flickering; it is peculiarly trying to the eyes, and
-destructive of accurate definition. An ordinary moderator lamp answers
-pretty well, and a small one is even better for the microscopist than
-one of large dimensions. The chief drawback to the moderator lamp is,
-that the flame cannot be elevated or lowered, so that the only way to
-procure a light at a higher elevation, is to stand the lamp on a block
-of wood or a book. Small lamps are, however, made expressly for the
-microscope, and, if possible, should be procured, and used for no other
-purpose, and intrusted to no other hands.
-
-If you want a really brilliant, clear, white light, you must trim the
-lamp yourself. A small piece of pale blue or neutral-tint glass,
-interposed between the lamp and the microscope, has a wonderful effect
-in diminishing the yellow hue which belongs more or less to all
-artificial lights which are produced by the combustion of oil or fat. We
-have no doubt but that in a few years we shall be rid of the clumsy and
-dirty machines that we call lamps, and have substituted for them the
-pure brilliancy of the electric light.
-
-Whatever lamp you use, a shade is absolutely necessary, in order to
-defend the eyes. Let me here warn my young readers, that they cannot be
-too careful of their eyes. In the exuberance of youthful strength and
-health we are too apt to treat our eyes as unceremoniously as our
-digestion, and in later years we awake to unavailing repentance.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Many shades can be purchased; but it is far better to make your own
-after the shape here exhibited. They are not pretty to look at, but
-they save the eyes better than any other form, and whether for reading,
-writing, or microscopic work, you should use no other. The peculiar
-merit of them consists in the fact that the light is thrown on the spot
-where it is wanted, and is cut off from everything except that spot.
-
-Another point which calls for extreme attention is the perfect
-cleanliness of the glasses. It is astonishing how a tiny dust-mote, or
-the least condensation of damp, will diminish the powers of the
-microscope, and how often the instrument is blamed for indistinctness,
-when the real fault lies in the carelessness of the operator. Even when
-the greatest care is taken, dust is sure to settle on the glasses,
-especially on the eye-piece, and before using the microscope the glasses
-ought to be carefully examined. Never wipe them with an ordinary
-handkerchief, but get a piece of new wash-leather; beat it well until no
-dust issues from it, and then put it into a box, with a tightly-fitting
-cover. Use this, and nothing else, for cleaning the glasses, and you
-will avoid those horrid scratches with which the eye-glass and
-object-glass of careless operators are always disfigured.
-
-Moisture is very apt to condense on the glasses and to ruin their
-clearness. If the microscope be brought from a cold into a warm room,
-the glasses will be instantly covered with moisture, just as the outside
-of a tumbler of cold water is always covered with fine dew when brought
-into a warm room. The microscope should therefore be kept at least an
-hour in the room wherein it is to be used, so that the instrument and
-the atmosphere may be of the same temperature. You should make the
-microscope a trifle warmer than the surrounding atmosphere, and so avoid
-all danger of condensation. When changing the object-glass or eye-piece,
-always keep the hand as far away from the glass as possible, and
-manipulate with the tip of the forefinger and thumb. The human skin
-always gives out so much exhalation, that even when the hand is cold the
-glasses will be dimmed; and it is a peculiarity of such moisture, that
-it adheres to the glasses with great pertinacity, and does not evaporate
-like the dew which is condensed from the atmosphere.
-
-In order to insure perfect success in this important particular, the
-young microscopist will do well to get the optician from whom he
-purchased his instrument to explain its construction, and to give him a
-lesson or two in the art of taking it to pieces and putting it together
-again; for unless each glass can be separately cleaned, no one can be
-quite sure that the instrument will perform as it ought to do. The best
-method of ascertaining whether it is quite clean is to throw the light
-upwards by means of the mirror, and then to turn the eye-piece slowly
-round. If any dust or moisture has collected either upon the eye-glass
-or the "field-glass," which forms the second lens of the eye-piece, it
-will be immediately detected. Turning the object-glass will in a similar
-manner detect impurities upon its surface.
-
-We will now proceed to the manner in which objects are examined.
-Suppose, for example, that we take a buttercup-leaf, because it can be
-found at almost any time of the year. Place a piece of glass on the
-stage, lay the leaf on it, put on the lowest power, set the focus, and
-then look at the leaf. You will probably be disappointed, and see
-nothing but a confused mass of undulating dark green, like a green
-carpet thrown carelessly on the ground, and seen in the dim twilight.
-
-Two points are now needed; the first being to get the leaf flat, so as
-to avoid the undulation, and the second being to throw a proper light
-upon it.
-
-Take out the leaf, and, instead of laying it entire under the
-microscope, select the flattest part, and cut it out with scissors. A
-piece the size of a silver penny will be amply large enough. Lay this
-piece on the glass, get the focus afresh, and then look through the
-microscope. The leaf will now appear much more regular, and will be seen
-as a rough surface, mottled with white and traversed by pink and green
-ridges, which are the large and small nervures. By means of a mirror or
-the condenser throw a brighter light upon it, and it will be seen to be
-covered with a slight roughness, the nature of which cannot be clearly
-ascertained; then add the next highest power, and try if the structure
-of that roughness can be made out. Curiously enough, although the
-magnifying power has been more than doubled, the roughness has much the
-same appearance as before; so that we must try another plan, and look at
-the leaf edgeways.
-
-Take the piece of leaf in the stage-forceps, but _do not touch it with
-your hand_; fix the forceps on the stage and turn the leaf so that it
-presents its edge to the object glass. Get your focus, and you will now
-see the cut edge of the leaf, and will at once distinguish its
-structure. On either side may be seen the upper and lower cuticle, and
-in the centre the soft green substance, or "parenchyma," as it is
-called. From the cuticle project a number of short hairs, and when the
-focus is accurately obtained, the cause of the roughness will be seen in
-a vast number of minute projections, which are, in fact, identical in
-structure with the hairs, though not so well developed. The
-under-cuticle of the leaf is much more interesting than the upper.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Now change the illumination, and, instead of throwing the light upon the
-object from above, turn the mirror so as to direct it through the object
-from below. No apparent result will follow, because the leaf is so thick
-and opaque that the light cannot pass through it. Hold the leaf
-horizontally, and, by means of the stage-forceps, rip it smartly across,
-and if you do this rightly, you will find that the two cuticles are
-partly separated, so as to allow either to be examined separately. At
-first the leaf will most probably be torn along one of the large
-nervures, so that the cuticles are not perfectly separated. Never mind
-failure, but try again; and you are sure, after a few efforts, to hit
-upon the right method of tearing the leaf.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-One of the most useful capabilities of the "live-box" is now shown. As
-may be seen by the figure and section, it consists of an inner tube with
-a thick glass, and an outer tube with a thin glass. The outer tube can
-be taken off, water or any other substance laid on the thick glass, and
-then the outer tube or cover is slid down upon it until the object is
-pressed flatly between the two glasses. When you have succeeded in
-getting a convenient slip of the leaf, lay it on the thick glass of the
-inner tube, and put a drop of water on it. Put on the cover, and push it
-down until the piece of leaf is pressed flat, without being squeezed.
-Now look through the microscope, and you will see a beautiful sight,
-showing how much there is in a despised leaf, which we daily tread under
-foot.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The cells of which the cuticle is chiefly composed are seen in many a
-waving outline, while at their points of junction are placed the
-remarkable contrivances called "stomata," or mouths, which are the
-apertures through which the atmosphere is enabled to penetrate into the
-interior of the leaf. The two semilunar cells at the sides of the
-opening may be considered as lips, which open and close according as the
-plant needs the air or not. The numerous dots which are seen upon the
-leaf are of a vivid green colour, and it is to their presence that the
-leaf owes its hue.
-
-We have given these details because they are applicable to the
-examination of all leaves and petals, and show the young observer the
-method which is to be adopted when looking for the first time at a
-strange object.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-If the microscopist should follow up his work properly, and make
-sketches of every object which he places under the microscope, he cannot
-do better than use the camera-lucida, a neat little instrument, which is
-fitted into the eye-piece of the microscope. Dr. Beale's neutral glass
-is as efficacious in careful hands, and only costs a fourth of the sum.
-This instrument cannot be applied to the ten and twenty shilling
-microscopes, as it requires that the tube should be perfectly
-horizontal. The method of using it is simple enough.
-
-After fixing the object and getting the right focus, set the instrument
-horizontally, and arrange the light so that the object is well
-illuminated, and its lines quite clear and well defined. Now remove the
-cap of the eye-piece, and fix the camera-lucida in its stead. Lay a
-drawing-pad on the table under the camera-lucida, look through the
-square opening (or, if you use Mr. Beale's glass, look through the
-neutral glass), and you will see the object apparently projected on the
-paper. We say apparently, because in reality the image is not thrown on
-the paper at all, but on the camera, and the eye refers it to the paper,
-as being the nearest object. In fact, the principle on which this
-camera-lucida is arranged is exactly that of the Polytechnic ghost,
-which appears to be in one place, whereas it is in another.
-
-Now take a pencil, cut it to a very fine point, and trace the outline of
-the object on the paper. At first you will think this to be an
-impracticable task, for the point of the pencil will totally vanish.
-Soon, however, the eye will so adjust itself as to see the pencil and
-the object perfectly well, and by a little practice the observer will be
-able to sketch every object as rapidly and firmly as if he were copying
-a drawing, by means of tracing-paper. The neutral glass is perhaps to be
-preferred to the camera-lucida, as it is learned more easily, and gives
-less trouble than that instrument. Its cost is five shillings.
-
-After you have practised yourself well in the handling of the
-microscope, your ambition will take another step, and lead you to the
-preparation of permanent objects. In order to set yourself up with the
-needful apparatus, you will have to disburse about five shillings. A
-small spirit-lamp will cost eighteenpence, and a small bottle of Canada
-balsam, another of asphalte varnish, and another of Dean's gelatine,
-will make about eighteenpence or two shillings more. A few pence will
-purchase a sheet or two of ornamental paper, and a few more a flat plate
-of brass or copper, about five inches by three. The rest of the five
-shillings may be expended in "slides" and thin glass, cut square.
-
-Slides are merely slips of glass, three inches in length by one in
-width, and the thin glass is used for laying upon the objects and
-defending them from dust. We advise the square glass, because it
-scarcely costs one quarter as much as the round glass, and is equally
-effective when properly managed. There are several methods of "putting
-up" preparations--namely, dry, in Canada balsam, in gelatine, and in
-cells. We will take them in their order.
-
-The simplest plan is, of course, the "dry" mode. Suppose that you want
-to preserve a tiny piece of down, or the scales from a butterfly's wing.
-First wash all the slides and glasses well, by dipping them into a
-strong solution of soda, and then into hot water, in order to get rid of
-grease, taking care never to touch them with the hand, but to take them
-out of the water with the forceps. This can be done at any time, and the
-glasses carefully wrapped up and placed in a box ready for use.
-
-You now select one of the slides, and lay the object exactly in its
-centre. If very minute objects are used, they must be examined in order
-to see whether they are properly disposed. The next process is, to take
-one of the thin glasses with the microscope, and lay it very carefully
-over the object. Then cut a piece of ornamental paper, about two inches
-long and seven-eighths of an inch in width; cut or punch a circular
-piece out of its centre, damp it well, and cover the wrong side
-slightly, but completely, with paste. Lay it on the slide, so that the
-centre of the hole shall coincide with that of the object, work it down
-neatly with the fingers, and it will hold the square piece of thin
-glass, which is technically called the "cover," in its place. Watch it
-occasionally as it dries, and be ready to press down any part of the
-paper that may start up. Write, with ink, the name of the object on the
-end of the slide.
-
-When you have made a dozen or two of these preparations, it will be
-time to letter and index them. On each slide paste a slip of white
-paper, and on the paper write a brief notice of the object, thus--
-
- +---------------+
- | SCALES. |
- | |
- | D. HEAD MOTH. |
- +---------------+
-
-Then scratch with a bit of flint, or with a writing-diamond, if you have
-one, a number on the end of the slide, and have a note-book with a
-corresponding number opposite to which you enter the description at a
-fuller length, thus:--
-
- 18--Scales of Death's Head Moth (_Acherontia Atropos_), from centre
- of under-surface of right fore wing. Dry. June 4, 1864. +
-
-The cross signifies that you prepared the object yourself, and the
-reason for adding the date is, that in after years you will have a
-valuable guide as to the durability of your preparations. If the
-specimen has been purchased or presented, always add the name of the
-seller or donor, as well as the date. These precautions may seem to be
-needlessly minute, but we have so often seen whole sets of valuable
-preparations rendered useless for want of ticketing, that we cannot too
-strongly impress on our readers the necessity for the note-book as well
-as the label, the one acting as a check upon the other. When the label
-has been affixed, and the details transferred to the note-book, the ink
-may be washed off the end of the slide.
-
-There is another convenient method of putting up the elytra of beetles,
-parts of various insects, mosses, minute shells, and similar objects.
-Take a common pill-box of the smallest size, and cut a little cylinder
-of cork, that will nearly, but not quite, equal the height of the box,
-and fasten one end to the bottom of the box with glue. Now blacken the
-interior of the box and the cork cylinder. Put a little drop of Canada
-balsam, Arabian cement, or gum Arabic on the top of the cylinder; put
-the object on it, press it into its place, and, when the cement is hard,
-the preparation is complete. The cover of the box serves to keep the
-object from dust.
-
-Now we come to the Canada balsam, a substance which produces beautiful
-effects when rightly handled, but is most aggravating to the learner,
-causing alternate irascibility and depression of spirits. Many objects,
-such as the antennæ and feet of insects, will not show their full beauty
-unless they are mounted in Canada balsam. The method of doing so is as
-follows:--A week or two beforehand put the objects into ether or spirits
-of turpentine, and allow them to remain there until wanted. Pile up some
-old books, or take a couple of convenient wooden blocks; lay your brass
-plate upon them; light the spirit-lamp, and put it under the plate so as
-to heat it. Lay two or three slides on the plate, and all then can be
-heated at the same time.
-
-Warm the bottle of Canada balsam, and with a glass rod take out a very
-little drop, and put it exactly in the middle of the slide. In order to
-insure this point, I always put a dot of ink on the wrong side of the
-slide. Stir it about with one of the needles mentioned on page 428, and
-if any bubbles rise, break them. When the balsam is quite soft and
-liquid, take one of the objects out of the bottle and put it into the
-balsam, exactly over the black dot. Now add a little more balsam, so as
-to cover it, and let it lie for a few moments. Take one of the glass
-covers, put a very little balsam on its centre, and lay it neatly over
-the object, pressing it down gradually and equally. Unless this be done,
-the object will not remain in the centre, but will shoot out on one
-side, and the whole operation must be begun _de novo_. Remove it from
-the hot plate and lay it on a cool surface, still continuing the
-pressure until the balsam has begun to harden. Lay a little leaden
-weight--a pistol-bullet partly flattened is excellent for the
-purpose--and on the cover write the name of the object, as already
-mentioned, and then proceed to prepare another slide.
-
-Twenty such slides may be prepared in the course of a morning, and when
-they are finished they should be laid carefully in a cold place, where
-they will be free from dust. In a week or so the balsam will be quite
-hard, and then the slide may be completed. Take an old knife, which
-should be kept for this special purpose; heat the blade in the
-spirit-lamp, and then run it along the edges of the slide, so as to take
-off the superfluous balsam which has escaped from beneath the cover.
-This must be done very quickly, or the balsam inside the cover will be
-heated by the knife, and the preparation spoiled. When this is done, cut
-the ornamental paper, as already described, number and label the slide,
-wash off the ink, and then the preparation is complete. Some objects are
-very troublesome to prepare, and require to be soaked in turpentine and
-boiled repeatedly in the balsam before they are completely penetrated
-with it.
-
-Objects which are put up in Deane's gelatine are managed after a similar
-fashion, save that the gelatine is to be heated by placing the bottle in
-hot water, and that the turpentine is not needed. Vegetable structures
-show beautifully when thus prepared. To remove the superfluous gelatine
-use a _wet_ and not a hot knife.
-
-Cells are very difficult to manage, and the novice had better not
-attempt to make them, but is hereby advised to purchase them ready made.
-Suppose that the young microscopist has dissected the digestive organs
-of a bee, and wishes to preserve it in spirit; his best plan will be to
-use a cell for the purpose. Let him buy a cell of sufficient depth,
-float the preparation into it, fill it up with spirit, put the cover
-loosely on, and leave it for a week, occasionally raising the cover and
-stirring the preparation with a needle, in order to get rid of any
-air-bubbles that may have been entangled in the tissues.
-
-Then let him wipe the edges of the cell very dry, put on a slight layer
-of gold-size or asphalte varnish--the former is preferable--fill up the
-cell a "bumper," and lay the cover very gently upon it, beginning at one
-end and gently lowering it. With blotting-paper the liquid that escapes
-must be removed, the edges dried afresh, a flattened bullet placed on
-the cover, and with a very small camel's-hair brush the slightest
-possible coating of size painted round the edge of the cell. When it has
-hardened another may be given, and so on, until a thick hard wall of
-size has been built up round the edges and made the cover completely
-air-tight.
-
-We presume that the reader does not intend to use his microscope merely
-as a toy, but that he desires to gain some insight into the works of
-Nature, and is therefore willing to set to work in a systematic manner.
-
-It is now known that both animal and vegetable structures are built up
-by means of certain minute particles, technically called CELLS, and that
-in every part of a plant or of an animal can be recognised the
-constituents of which it is formed. We will, therefore, begin with the
-vegetables.
-
-[Illustration: CELL, STRAWBERRY.]
-
-Some of the lowest plants, such as the minute algæ that inhabit the
-water, afford excellent examples of the simple vegetable cell; but as
-these plants are not readily procured by a beginner, we will select some
-familiar object wherein the cells may be found. If any soft and pulpy
-fruit be taken when it is quite ripe, and submitted to the microscope,
-the vegetable cell will be seen in a tolerably perfect form. The three
-rounded objects shown in the accompanying illustration are cells from
-the strawberry, specimens of which can easily be seen, if a very thin
-slice be cut with a razor or lancet, the latter being the preferable
-instrument. Be careful to dip the blade in water before cutting the
-fruit, and to float the slice from the blade to the glass slide by
-placing them both under water. Unless this precaution be taken, the
-section will not be flat, but will be crumpled up, and the cells will
-not be properly seen.
-
-Within each of these cells may be seen a small rounded object, which is
-technically called the "nucleus;" and in some cases a smaller nucleus,
-called the "nucleolus," may be observed within the nucleus itself. The
-increase of cells mostly takes place by a process of division. A line
-passes across the nucleus, which presently separates into two distinct
-parts, each of which recedes from the other, causing the cell to enlarge
-and alter its shape. Presently a line is seen across the cell itself,
-and in due time the cell is also divided into two parts, each having its
-own nucleus.
-
-In the present instance the cell is totally spherical, because the fruit
-from which it was taken was soft, and allowed the constituent cells to
-expand. When, however, the vegetable substance becomes hard, the cells
-are pressed closely together, and their shapes are very much altered.
-Sometimes, when the cells are of nearly the same size, and the pressure
-is equal on every side, the cells form regular twelve-sided figures,
-called "dodecahedra," which, when that occurs, show a six-sided outline.
-A very thin slice of raw potato will show the twelve-sided cells
-beautifully, and has the further advantage of exhibiting the starch
-globules with which the cells are filled. Here is a figure of a potato
-cell, which presents a six-sided outline, just like that of a bee's
-waxen dwelling, and which is crowded with the beautiful globules of
-starch. If the reader likes to make a few dozen balls of clay, and to
-squeeze them together in a mass, he will find that the central balls
-will have lost their globular shape, and assumed a more or less regular
-twelve-sided form, very much like that of the potato cells.
-
-[Illustration: CELL, POTATO.]
-
-[Illustration: STELLATE TISSUE.]
-
-Sometimes the cells run out longitudinally into cylinders, and attain
-the really enormous length of three inches; sometimes they become
-flattened, as the skin or epidermis of many plants; and oftentimes they
-push out their sides into arms or rays, like stars, and form the tissue
-which is technically called "stellate." Here is a specimen of stellate
-tissue taken from the pith of the common rush, wherein the rays are seen
-to be very regular: generally, however, the rays are extremely
-irregular, and require some little practice to detect them. Stellate
-tissue may be seen in the white portion of orange-peel, in the thick
-fleshy substance of many aquatic plants, in certain leaf-stalks, and in
-many similar objects.
-
-We will now see how the soft cells which form the pulpy fruit of the
-strawberry can be changed into the hard timber of the oak or iron-wood
-tree.
-
-[Illustration: RINGED STRUCTURE.]
-
-Wherever a cell is destined to form part of a _permanent_ tissue, it is
-strengthened by receiving certain additions to its walls. These
-additions are technically known as "secondary deposit," and are made in
-various ways. Sometimes they extend in a thin layer over the whole
-cell-wall, leaving a number of little holes, which are called "pits,"
-and earning the name of "pitted structures." Very frequently the
-secondary deposit is arranged in a series of rings, an example of which
-is given in the accompanying illustration. This object is taken from the
-mistletoe. Good examples of the ringed structures may be seen in the
-anthers of many plants, and in the leaf-stem of the common rhubarb, an
-example of which is shown in the next illustration. Another very common
-form of secondary deposit is the spiral, which is generally used where
-strength and elasticity are united. Two examples of the spiral form are
-given in the illustration; the first taken from the lily, and the second
-from the "rhizome," or subterranean stem of the water-lily.
-
-[Illustration: RINGED AND SPIRAL STRUCTURES.]
-
-Another beautiful form of secondary deposit is seen in the fern root. If
-the root be cut longitudinally, and the dark hard fibre dissolved
-carefully out with nitric acid, the deposit will seem to have assumed
-the shape of a winding staircase, and is then called "scalariform," or
-ladder-shaped. Similar structures may be found in asparagus.
-
-[Illustration: WOOD-CELLS.]
-
-The reader will see that the hardness of the structure depends entirely
-on the amount of secondary deposit, and we accordingly find that when
-the wood is hard and fit to be worked with tools the cells are almost
-wholly filled with the secondary deposit. In this state they are called
-"wood-cells." Examples of these cells may be seen in the accompanying
-illustration. In the first example, which is taken from the elder-tree,
-four cells are shown in order to display the manner in which their
-pointed ends are arranged. (The reader must remember that in all
-wood-cells the ends are pointed.) In the next example, which is taken
-from the chrysanthemum, the pitted structure is still retained; but in
-the last figure, which is drawn from the lime-tree, the entire cell is
-filled with secondary structure. The reader must understand that we can
-only give the veriest outline of the subject, and profess to do nothing
-more than indicate the method of observation, leaving the pupil to work
-out the details by himself.
-
-[Illustration: HAIR OF LAVENDER.]
-
-Another curious development of the plant-cells is the formation of
-HAIRS. These objects alone afford an inexhaustible field for the
-microscopist, and any one who chooses to work out the subject will find
-himself repaid if he makes a good series of preparations. In their
-primary forms the hairs are seen merely as little projections on the
-epidermis, whether of the stem, leaf, or petal, and by degrees assume
-their varied and beautiful forms. In order to show the singular forms
-which hairs sometimes assume, an illustration is here given of the hairs
-of the lavender leaf. This is one of the hairs that give the leaf its
-silvery gloss. It consists of an upright stem, from the top of which a
-number of forked branches shoot out horizontally, much like an open
-umbrella held upright. The object of this remarkable form is, that the
-delicate vessels in which the perfume is held should escape injury. If
-the reader will refer to the second figure, which represents a much
-magnified view of the edge of the leaf, he will see the globular
-perfume-gland standing under the shelter of the branching hairs.
-
-The following plants afford valuable examples of hair:--Arabis, marvel
-of Peru, sowthistle, tobacco, southernwood, hollyhock, snapdragon, pansy
-(in throat of flower), deutzia (under-side of leaf), verbena, alyssum,
-tradescantia, borage, cowhage, and many others. The beautiful effect
-produced by the petals of flowers is caused by the imperfect hairs with
-which their surfaces are studded.
-
-The POLLEN of plants is always worth observing, and some specimens are
-of remarkably beautiful shapes. Take that of althæa, crocus, cactus,
-heath, violet, daisy, lily, snowdrop, wallflower, willow-herb (a very
-beautiful form), hollyhock, periwinkle, primrose, &c. Put some up in
-Deane's gelatine, and dry some, besides examining them all when fresh.
-
-The microscopist ought to examine the structures of WOOD by making
-sections in the directions transverse and longitudinal. A razor will
-answer very well for the purpose, and the wood should always be soaked
-inside, and the razor wetted before the section is made. It is often
-useful to make diagonal sections of several woods, especially those of
-the pine and juniper. All the forest trees should be examined, and their
-roots and bark should not be omitted. Cut sections of coconut-shell,
-vegetable ivory, sugar-cane (a most beautiful object when mounted
-opaque), bamboo, butcher's broom, &c.
-
-MOSSES are beautiful objects, and can always be found. Examine
-particularly the fruit or seed-vessel, and note the structure of its
-different parts. Put these on a slide, and breathe on them, noting at
-the same time any change which may take place.
-
-The SPORE CASES of ferns are extremely beautiful, and should be
-carefully examined. The little brown dots or streaks that are seen on
-the under surface of the fronds are called "sori," and contain a large
-but variable number of the sporanges. These consist of stalked sacs or
-cases, and differ much in shape, according to the species of fern. If
-the fern be fresh from which the sorus is taken, the sporanges may be
-seen writhing and twisting like so many serpents, and sometimes it
-happens that one of the sporanges bursts, and suddenly covers the field
-of the microscope with minute black dots. These dots are the spores or
-seeds of the fern, and when magnified with a very high power, they are
-seen to be variously shaped. One of the most remarkable spores is that
-of the equisetum, or mare's tail of the water. This spore looks like a
-ball with something coiled round it. As soon as the spore is discharged
-from its case, four threads are seen to uncoil themselves from around
-it, and by their elasticity to cause the spore to jump about as if
-alive. These fibres are technically named elasters, and are
-prolongations of the outer coat of the spore.
-
-FUNGI of all kinds should be examined. There is never any difficulty in
-finding fungi, though the autumn is the best time of year for this
-purpose. "Mould," as it is popularly called, is a form assumed by many
-species of fungus, which, though objectionable to the careful housewife,
-are full of interest to the microscopist. The well-known mushroom and
-toadstools are the highest of the fungi. The black spots on leaves are
-fungi, mostly belonging to the genus puccinia, and the best specimens
-are generally found on the wild rose or bramble. The black "smut" of
-wheat is another fungus, very pretty under the microscope, but very
-obnoxious to the farmer; and the "bunt" also belongs to the same vast
-tribe of plants, four thousand species of which are now known to exist.
-
-The young observer should also look for the beautiful crystals which
-exist in many vegetable cells. The RAPHIDES, as these crystals are
-called, are of various forms, mostly shaped like curved needles, but
-often assuming very pretty and regular outlines. Raphides are
-plentifully found in the bulb of the onion, in the rhubarb, the lily,
-the iris, &c. They are best mounted as opaque objects and, if the reader
-can procure a binocular microscope, he will see the form of the
-raphides better than with the single-tube instrument.
-
-SEEDS of different plants should be carefully examined, especially those
-of small dimensions, which often exhibit some wonderful beauties of
-structure. The winged seed of various plants, such as the thistle, the
-dandelion, the valerian, and the willow-herb, are extremely interesting
-objects; while those of the yellow snapdragon, the mullein, the Robin
-Hood, and the bur-seed, are remarkably beautiful in form, though they
-have no parachute, as the feathery appendage is called.
-
-Leaving dry land, we will devote a short time to the water. Let the
-reader take with him the simple collecting apparatus mentioned on page
-430, and secure specimens of the water from different ponds, ditches,
-and streams. For collecting the larger objects a little net, which can
-be purchased cheap, is of very great use. It is easily made by any
-tinman, and if the young microscopist knows the use of solder, as all
-experimental philosophers ought to do, he can put it together in a few
-minutes. It is formed of a strip of zinc bent into the requisite form,
-and with a socket, to which a handle can be attached. A piece of coarse
-muslin, or, rather, fine "net," is then stretched over the bottom, and
-the apparatus is complete.
-
-In the water is sure to be found one of the lowest forms of vegetable
-life--namely, the "confervoid algæ." Look for these in bright, clear
-pools, placing the collecting bottle near any greenish film collected
-around the stems of plants, or spread over the stones on the bed of the
-pool. If this film be very carefully taken up, it will produce many
-interesting forms of vegetable life. One of the most remarkable of these
-vegetables is that which is called "volvox globator," a figure of which
-is here given.
-
-[Illustration: VOLVOX.]
-
-This wonderful object is about as large as the head of a very small pin,
-so that it is visible to the naked eye, and looks like a tiny globule
-passing through the water. When it is placed under a lens of moderate
-power, say of an inch focus, it exhibits some very strange
-peculiarities. It continually revolves, and by its revolution is able to
-enjoy a moderate degree of locomotion, though without any apparent
-object. Small dark spots are also seen upon it.
-
-If a half-inch lens be now used, the structure of the volvox begins to
-be exhibited. The whole surface is covered with a network of very fine
-fibres, having a spot at the intersection of each mesh. On applying a
-still higher power, say the four-tenths of an inch, the structure is
-further elucidated, and the dots on the surface are seen to consist of
-greenish bodies, each furnished with a pair of delicate fibres,
-technically named cilia, which are constantly vibrating, and cause the
-revolution of the general mass. The dark spots are now seen to be the
-young plants in different stages of progress. From six to ten of these
-are inclosed within the parent, and when the latter has reached its full
-age, the membrane bursts asunder, and the little volvoces are liberated.
-
-[Illustration: CLOSTERIUM.]
-
-Another interesting form is the closterium, a genus which is sure to
-produce several good examples. We may mention that the ponds in
-Blackheath are very rich in these curious vegetables, and a very
-considerable series of confervoids may be obtained from them. The
-closteria are easily recognised by their resemblance to the Australian
-"boomerang."
-
-As our space is rapidly waning, we must leave the vegetable, and proceed
-to the animal kingdom.
-
-As is the case with vegetables, the animal structure is composed of
-cells, though they cannot be so easily traced as in the examples which
-we have already noticed. The young observer may readily perceive the
-animal cell, in its largest and simplest form, by placing a little of
-the yolk of egg under the microscope. CARTILAGE, or gristle, is easily
-seen to be composed of cells. The nails of the fingers afford good
-objects for the microscopist in search of animal cells. If a thin
-section be placed under the microscope, none but an experienced observer
-will be able to make out the presence of cells at all; but if the
-section be soaked in "liquor potassæ," the cells immediately swell up,
-and their shape is at once made plain. Take the BONE of a young chicken
-or rabbit, and make a thin section that embraces both the bone and
-cartilage, and there will then be a beautiful object for the
-microscopist, showing how the cartilage is changed by degrees into bone.
-
-[Illustration: BONE, TRANSVERSE.]
-
-Sections of bone should also be made, both transverse and longitudinal.
-
-The BLOOD is another object which must be carefully examined. The
-"corpuscles" which give the colouring matter to the blood are cells of
-different size, according to the creature from which they are taken. The
-dimensions of the animal exercise no apparent influence on the
-corpuscles, for those of "proteus anguinus," a little creature not
-larger than a lamprey, are many times larger than those of the ox. In
-the accompanying illustration is shown a series of specimens, in order
-to show the great difference in their shape and size, all being drawn to
-scale and magnified by the same lens. The circular corpuscles in the
-left-hand upper corner are those of man; immediately below is a single
-corpuscle from the pigeon. The great central corpuscle is taken from the
-proteus; the two in the lower right-hand corner are from the frog, one
-of these being viewed edgeways; and of the remaining two, that on the
-left hand belongs to the tortoise, and that on the right to a fish.
-
-[Illustration: BLOOD CORPUSCLES.]
-
-The insect tribes are an inexhaustible source of objects for the
-microscopist, who may find that even a single fly will give him
-employment for many months. The scales from the butterfly's wing, the
-wonderful compound eyes with which insects are gifted, the structure of
-their feet, and their entire anatomy, are always at the service of any
-microscopist who really cares for his work. It would, of course, be
-impossible to give even a list of the interesting portions of the
-different insects; so one or two examples must suffice us.
-
-[Illustration: ANTENNÆ OF FLY.]
-
-Take the ANTENNÆ of the insect tribes, and see how beautifully they are
-formed, how graceful is the shape, and how elaborate the structure. A
-low power will be useful for exhibiting their general shape and outline,
-but it is not until we know how to use the higher powers that the real
-beauty of these curious organs is seen. In the accompanying illustration
-is given part of an antenna of the common blue-bottle fly, in order to
-show the remarkable cavities which exist within the antennæ, and which
-are thought by some anatomists to be organs of hearing, and by others to
-be organs of smell.
-
-[Illustration: WINGS OF BEE.]
-
-The WINGS of insects are also most remarkable, and possess many
-peculiarities of structure which cannot be detected without the aid of a
-microscope. Take, for example, the wings of any hymenopterous insect,
-say those of a humble-bee, and see how beautiful is the structure which
-causes the four wings to be united into two when the insect is about to
-fly. In the illustration may be seen a pair of these wings, together
-with the row of hooks which bind them together. A still more magnified
-representation of the hooks is placed near the wings.
-
-It is now ascertained that the wings of insects are connected with the
-breathing apparatus, and that the respiration of the insect extends even
-to the very tips of these singular organs, which are not modifications
-of existing limbs, as in the birds, but additional structures. The
-circulation of insects may often be seen by placing a portion of a
-transparent wing under a moderately high power. We have often seen it in
-the wing of the great water-beetle. A series of very beautiful
-preparations may be made in order to show the distinction between the
-wings of different insects; and as the orders of insects are founded
-upon their wings, there ought to be at least one example of each order.
-The proboscis of insects is always worthy of careful examination.
-
-As to the breathing apparatus itself, the best mode of examining it is
-to open a caterpillar, remove a part of the large breathing tube which
-runs along each side, and place it under the microscope. It should
-always be taken so as to include one of the spiracles, or
-breathing-holes. An example of a breathing-tube, taken from a silk-worm,
-is given in the illustration.
-
-[Illustration: BREATHING-TUBE, SILKWORM.]
-
-HAIRS of animals are very curious and interesting objects. They should
-be mounted in three modes--namely, dry transparent, dry opaque, and in
-Canada balsam, transparent. Be sure to procure some hair of the bat, the
-sheep, the mouse, the deer, the mole, and any of the weasel tribe. Many
-insects have very beautiful hair, but the most lovely hair in the animal
-kingdom is that which is obtained from the sea-mouse. Fish scales should
-also be procured, and specimens should be taken from the lateral line.
-
-MOLLUSCS of all kinds afford many beautiful objects, and the observer
-should be very careful to examine the wonderful tongue-ribbon of the
-snail, the slug, the periwinkle, the whelk, and other similar molluscs.
-If meant to be examined by polarized light, the tongue-ribbon should be
-mounted in Canada balsam.
-
-CRYSTALS should always form part of a collection. Take those of common
-salt, nitre, sugar, chlorate of potash, salicine, &c.; indeed, anything
-that will crystallize should be prepared and mounted, as such objects
-will often be most useful when examining unknown substances.
-
-[Illustration: BIRD'S-HEAD PROCESS.]
-
-[Illustration: NOCTILUCA.]
-
-[Illustration: PEDICILLARIÆ.]
-
-ZOOPHYTES must of course find a place in the cabinet, and the young
-microscopist ought to put up a few specimens of the "bird's-head"
-processes which are found in the bugularia and other inhabitants of the
-sea. The pretty noctiluca, to which is mostly owing the phosphorescence
-of the sea, should be preserved, and the extraordinary appendages to the
-skin of certain star-fish and sea urchins should be examined. These are
-called pedicillariæ, and a sketch of them is given in the illustration.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-OPTICS AND OPTICAL AMUSEMENTS.
-
- "'Seeing is believing,' so the sages say,
- To prove this false, hear me, my friends, I pray,
- And very soon you all will be agreeing,
- That nought is so deceptive as our _seeing_."--MARTIN.
-
-Optics is the science of _light_ and _vision_. Concerning the nature of
-light, two theories are at present very ably maintained by their
-respective advocates. One is termed the Newtonian theory, and the other
-the Huygenean. The Newtonian theory considers light to consist of
-inconceivably small bodies emanating from the sun, or any other luminous
-body. The Huygenean conceives it to consist in the undulations of a
-highly elastic and subtle fluid, propagated round luminous centres in
-spherical waves, like those arising in a placid lake when a stone is
-dropped into the water.
-
-
-LIGHT AS AN EFFECT.
-
-Light follows the same laws as gravity, and its intensity or degree
-decreases as the square of the distance from the luminous body
-increases. Thus, at the distance of two yards from a candle we shall
-have four times less light than we should have, were it only one yard
-from it, and so on in the same proportion.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-REFRACTION.
-
-Bodies which suffer the rays of light to pass through them, such as air,
-water, or glass, are called refracting media. When rays of light enter
-these, they do not proceed in straight lines, but are said to be
-refracted, or bent out of their course, as seen in the drawing. The ray
-of light proceeding from B through the glass L G is bent from the point
-C, instead of passing in the direction of the dotted line. But if the
-ray F C falls perpendicularly on the glass, there is no refraction, and
-it proceeds in a direct line to K; hence refraction only takes place
-when rays fall obliquely or aslant on the media.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE INVISIBLE COIN MADE VISIBLE.
-
-If a coin be placed in a basin, so that on standing at a certain
-distance it be just hid from the eye of an observer by the rim or edge
-of the basin, and then water be poured in by a second person, the first
-keeping his position; as the water rises the coin will become visible,
-and will appear to have moved from the side to the middle of the basin.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE MULTIPLYING GLASS.
-
-The multiplying glass is a semicircular piece of glass cut into facets
-or distinct surfaces; and in looking through it we have an illustration
-of the laws of refraction, for if a small object, such as a fly, be
-placed at D, an eye at E will see as many flies as there are surfaces or
-facets on the glass.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-TRANSPARENT BODIES.
-
-Transparent bodies, such as glass, may be made of such form as to cause
-all the rays which pass through them from any given point to meet in any
-other given point beyond them, or which will disperse them from the
-given point. These are called lenses, and have different names according
-to their form. 1. Is called the plano-convex lens. 2. Plano-concave. 3.
-Double convex. 4. Double concave. 5. A meniscus, so called from its
-resembling the crescent moon.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE PRISM.
-
-The prism is a triangular solid of glass, and by it the young optician
-may decompose a ray of light into its primitive and supplementary
-colours, for a ray of light is of a compound nature. By the prism the
-ray A is divided into its three primitive colours, blue, red, and
-yellow; and their four supplementary ones, violet, indigo, green, and
-orange. The best way to perform this experiment is to cut a small slit
-in a window-shutter, on which the sun shines at some period of the day,
-and directly opposite the hole place a prism P; a beam of light in
-passing through it will then be decomposed, and if let fall upon a sheet
-of white paper, or against a white wall, the seven colours of the
-rainbow will be observed.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-COMPOSITION OF LIGHT.
-
-The beam of light passing through the prism is decomposed, and the
-spaces occupied by the colours are in the following proportions:--red,
-6; orange, 4; yellow, 7; green, 8; blue, 8; indigo, 6; violet, 11. Now,
-if you paste a sheet of white paper on a circular piece of board about
-six inches in diameter, and divide it with a pencil into fifty parts,
-and paint colours in them in the proportions given above, painting them
-dark in the centre parts, and gradually fainter at the edges, till they
-blend with the one adjoining. If the board be then fixed to an axle, and
-made to revolve quickly, the colours will no longer appear separate and
-distinct, but becoming gradually less visible they will ultimately
-appear _white_, giving this appearance to the whole surface of the
-paper.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-A NATURAL CAMERA OBSCURA.
-
-The human eye is a camera obscura, for on the back of it on the retina
-every object in a landscape is beautifully depicted in miniature. This
-may be proved by the
-
-
-BULLOCK'S EYE EXPERIMENT.
-
-Procure a fresh bullock's eye from the butcher, and carefully thin the
-outer coat of it behind: take care not to cut it, for if this should be
-done the vitreous humour will escape, and the experiment cannot be
-performed. Having so prepared the eye, if the pupil of it be directed to
-any bright objects, they will appear distinctly delineated on the back
-part precisely as objects appear in the instrument we are about to
-describe. The effect will be heightened if the eye is viewed in a dark
-room with a small hole in the shutter, but in every case the appearance
-will be very striking.
-
-
-THE CAMERA OBSCURA.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-This is a very pleasing and instructive optical apparatus, and may be
-purchased for four or five shillings. But it may be easily made by the
-young optician. Procure an oblong box, about two feet long, twelve
-inches wide, and eight high. In one end of this a tube must be fitted
-containing a lens, and be made to slide backwards and forwards so as to
-suit the focus. Within the box should be a plain mirror reclining
-backwards from the tube at an angle of forty-five degrees. At the top of
-the box is a square of unpolished glass, upon which from beneath the
-picture will be thrown, and may be seen by raising the lid A. To use the
-camera place the tube with the lens on it opposite to the object, and
-having adjusted the focus, the image will be thrown upon the
-ground-glass as above stated, where it may be easily copied by a pencil
-or in colours.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The form of a camera obscura used in a public exhibition is as
-follows:--D D is a large wooden box stained black in the inside, and
-capable of containing from one to eight persons. A B is a sliding piece,
-having a sloping mirror C, and a double convex lens F, which may with
-the mirror C be slid up or down so as to accommodate the lens to near
-and distant objects. When the rays proceeding from an object without
-fall upon the mirror, they are reflected upon the lens F, and brought to
-fall on the bottom of the box, or upon a table placed horizontally to
-receive them, which may be seen by the spectator whose eye is at E.
-
-
-THE CAMERA LUCIDA.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-This instrument consists of a glass prism, C, D, D, E, having four sides
-covered. The sides C, D, being exposed to the object to be delineated,
-rays pass through the glass and fall on the sloping side D, E; from this
-they are reflected to the top, and finally pass out of the prism to the
-eye;[11] now from the direction at which the rays enter the eye, it
-receives them as if coming from an image at A, B, and if a sheet of
-paper be placed below the instrument, a perfect delineation of the
-object may be traced with a pencil. This is a very useful instrument to
-young draughtsmen.
-
- [11] The eye is to be applied to the little circular hole seen on the
- upper surface.
-
-
-THE MAGIC LANTERN.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-This is one of the most pleasing of all optical instruments, and it is
-used to produce enlarged pictures of objects, which being painted on a
-glass in various colours are thrown upon a screen or white sheet placed
-against the wall of a large room. It consists of a sort of tin-box,
-within which is a lamp, the light of which (strongly reflected by the
-reflector T,) passes through a great plano-convex lens E fixed in the
-front. This strongly illuminates the objects which are painted on the
-slides or slips of glass, and placed before the lens in an inverted
-position, and the rays passing through them and the lens F, fall on a
-sheet, or other white surface, placed to receive the image. The glasses
-on which the figures are drawn are inverted, in order that the images of
-them may be erect.
-
-
-PAINTING THE SLIDES.
-
-The slides containing the objects usually shown in a magic lantern, are
-to be bought at opticians with the lantern, and can be procured cheaper
-and better in this way than by any attempt at manufacturing them.
-Should, however, the young optician wish to make a few slides of objects
-of particular interest to himself, he may proceed as follows:--
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Draw first on paper the figures you wish to paint, lay it on the table,
-and cover it over with a piece of glass of the above shape; now draw the
-outlines with a fine camel's hair pencil in black paint mixed with
-varnish, and when this is dry, fill up the other parts with the proper
-colours, shading with bistre also mixed with varnish. The transparent
-colours are alone to be used in this kind of painting.
-
-
-TO EXHIBIT THE MAGIC LANTERN.
-
-The room for the exhibition ought to be large, and of an oblong shape.
-At one end of it suspend a large sheet so as to cover the whole of the
-wall. The company being all seated, darken the room, and placing the
-lantern with its tube in the direction of the sheet, introduce one of
-the slides into the slit, taking care to invert the figures; then adjust
-the focus of the glasses in the tube by drawing it in or out as
-required, and a perfect representation of the object will appear.
-
-
-EFFECTS OF THE MAGIC LANTERN.
-
-Most extraordinary effects may be produced by means of the magic
-lantern; one of the most effective of which is a
-
-
-TEMPEST AT SEA.
-
-This is effected by having two slides painted, one with the tempest as
-approaching on one side, and continuing in intensity till it reaches the
-other. Another slide has ships painted on it, and while the lantern is
-in use, that containing the ships is dexterously drawn before the other,
-and represents _ships in the storm_.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The effects of sunrise, moonlight, starlight, &c., may be imitated, also
-by means of double slides, and figures may be introduced sometimes of
-_fearful_ proportions.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Heads may be made to nod, faces to laugh; eyes may be made to roll,
-teeth to gnash; crocodiles may be made to swallow tigers; combats may be
-represented; but one of the most instructive uses of the slides is to
-make them illustrative of astronomy, and to show the rotation of the
-seasons, the cause of eclipses, the mountains in the moon, spots on the
-sun, and the various motions of the planetary bodies, and their
-satellites.
-
-
-THE PHANTASMAGORIA.
-
-Between the phantasmagoria and the magic lantern there is this
-difference: in common magic lanterns the figures are painted on
-transparent glass, consequently the image on the screen is a circle of
-light having figures upon it; but in the phantasmagoria all the glass is
-made opaque, except the figures, which, being painted in transparent
-colours, the light shines through them, and no light can come upon the
-screen except that which passes through the figure, as is here
-represented.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-There is no sheet to receive the picture, but the representation is
-thrown on a thin screen of silk or muslin placed between _the spectators
-and the lantern_. The images are made to appear approaching and receding
-by removing it further from the screen, or bringing it nearer to it.
-This is a great advantage over the ordinary arrangements of the magic
-lantern, and by it the most astonishing effects are often produced.
-
-
-DISSOLVING VIEWS.
-
-The dissolving views, by which one landscape or scene appears to pass
-into the other while the scene is changing, are produced by using two
-magic lanterns placed side by side, and that can be a little inclined
-towards each other when necessary, so as to mix together the rays of
-light proceeding from the lenses of each, which produces that confusion
-of images, in which one view melts as it were into the other, which
-gradually becomes clear and distinct; the principle being the gradual
-extinction of one picture, and the production of another.
-
-
-HOW TO RAISE A GHOST.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The magic lantern, or phantasmagoria, may be used in a number of
-marvellous ways, but in none more striking than in raising an apparent
-spectre. Let an open box, A B, about three feet long, a foot and a half
-broad, and two feet high, be prepared. At one end of this place a small
-swing dressing-glass, and at the other let a magic lantern be fixed with
-its lenses in a direction towards the glass. A glass should now be made
-to slide up and down in the groove C D, to which a cord and pulley
-should be attached, the end of the cord coming to the part of the box
-marked A. On this glass the most hideous spectre that can be imagined
-may be painted, but in a squat or contracted position, and when all is
-done, the lid of the box must be prepared by raising a kind of gable at
-the end of the box B, and in its lower part at E an oval hole should be
-cut sufficiently large to suffer the rays of light reflected from the
-glass to pass through them. On the top of the box at F place a
-chafing-dish, upon which put some burning charcoal. Now light the lamp G
-in the lantern, sprinkle some powdered camphor or white incense on the
-charcoal, adjust the slide on which the spectre is painted, and the
-image will be thrown upon the smoke. In performing this feat the room
-must be darkened, and the box should be placed on a high table, that the
-hole through which the light comes may not be noticed.
-
-
-THE THAUMATROPE.
-
-This word is derived from two Greek words, one of which signifies
-_wonder_, and the other _to turn_. It is a very pretty philosophical
-toy, and is founded upon the principle in optics, that an impression
-made upon the retina of the eye lasts for a short interval after the
-object which produced it has been withdrawn. The impression which the
-mind receives lasts for about the eighth part of a second, as may be
-easily shown by whirling round a lighted stick, which if made to
-complete the circle within that period, will exhibit not a fiery point,
-but a fiery circle in the air.
-
-
-THE BIRD IN THE CAGE.
-
-Cut a piece of cardboard of the size of a penny piece, and paint on one
-side a bird, and on the other a cage; fasten two pieces of thread one on
-each side at opposite points of the card, so that the card can be made
-to revolve by twirling the threads with the finger and thumb: while the
-toy is in its revolution, the bird will be seen within the cage. A bat
-may in the same manner be painted on one side of the card, and a
-cricketer upon the other, which will exhibit the same phenomenon,
-arising from the same principle.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-CONSTRUCTION OF THE PHANTASMASCOPE.
-
-The above-named figure is a Thaumatrope, as much as the one we are about
-to describe, although the term Phantasmascope is generally applied to
-the latter instrument; which consists of a disc of darkened tin-plate,
-with a slit or narrow opening in it, about two inches in length. It is
-fixed upon a stand, and the slit placed upwards, so that it may easily
-be looked through. Another disc of pasteboard, about a foot in diameter,
-is now prepared and fixed on a similar stand, but with this difference,
-that it is made to revolve round an axis in the centre. On this
-pasteboard disc, paint in colours a number of frogs in relative and
-progressive positions of leaping; make between each figure a slit of
-about a quarter of an inch deep: and when this second disc is made to
-revolve at a foot distance behind the first, and the eye is placed near
-the slit, the whole of the figures, instead of appearing to revolve with
-the disc, will all appear in the attitudes of leaping up and down,
-increasing in agility as the velocity of the motion is increased. It is
-necessary, when trying the effect of this instrument, to stand before a
-looking-glass, and to present the painted face of the machine towards
-the glass.
-
-A very great number of figures may be prepared to produce similar
-effects--horses with riders in various attitudes of leaping, toads
-crawling, snakes twisting and writhing, faces laughing and crying, men
-dancing, jugglers throwing up balls, &c.; all of which, by the peculiar
-arrangement above detailed, will seem to be in motion. A little
-ingenuity displayed in the construction and painting of the figures upon
-the pasteboard disc will afford a great fund of amusement.
-
-
-CURIOUS OPTICAL ILLUSIONS.
-
-One of the most curious facts relating to the science of vision is the
-absolute insensibility of a certain portion of the retina to the
-impression of light, so that the image of any object falling on that
-point would be invisible. When we look with the right eye, this point
-will be about fifteen degrees to the right of the object observed, or to
-the right of the axis of the eye, or the point of most distinct vision.
-When looking with the left eye, the point will be as far to the left.
-The point in question is the basis of the optic nerve, and its
-insensibility to light was first observed by the French philosopher,
-Mariotte. This remarkable phenomenon may be experimentally proved in the
-following manner:--
-
-Place on a sheet of writing-paper, at the distance of about three inches
-apart, two coloured wafers; then, on looking at the left-hand wafer with
-the right eye, at the distance of about a foot, keeping the eye straight
-above the wafer, and both eyes parallel with the line which forms the
-wafers, the left eye being closed, the right-hand wafer will become
-invisible; and a similar effect will take place if we close the right
-eye, and look with the left.
-
-
-ANOTHER.
-
-Cut a circular piece of white paper, about two inches in diameter, and
-affix it to a dark wall. At the distance of two feet on each side, but a
-little lower, make two marks; then place yourself directly opposite the
-paper, and hold the end of your finger before your face, so that when
-the right eye is open it shall conceal the mark on your left, and when
-the left eye is open the mark on your right. If you then look with both
-eyes at the end of your finger, the paper disc will be invisible.
-
-
-ANOTHER.
-
-Fix a similar disc of paper, two inches in diameter, at the height of
-your eye on a dark wall; a little lower than this, at the distance of
-two feet on the right hand, fix another of about three inches in
-diameter; now place yourself opposite the first sheet of paper, and,
-shutting the left eye, keep the right eye still fixed on the first
-object, and when at the distance of about ten feet, the second piece of
-paper will be invisible.
-
-
-THE PICTURE IN THE AIR.
-
-One of the numerous optical illusions which have from time to time been
-evolved by scientific minds, is that of making an image or picture
-appear in the air. This is produced by means of a mirror, and an object
-in relief, upon which a strong light is thrown,--the mirror being set at
-such an angle as to throw up the reflection of the image to a certain
-point in the view of the spectator. This illusion is produced as
-follows: Let a screen be constructed in which is an arched aperture, the
-centre of which may be five feet from the floor: behind the screen is
-placed a large mirror of an elliptical form. An object is now placed
-behind the screen, upon which the light of a strong lamp is thrown from
-a point above the mirror, and is received by the mirror and reflected to
-the centre of the arched cavity in the screen, where it will appear to
-the spectator. Care should be taken to place the image in an inverted
-position, and the light, which must be very powerful, should be so
-placed that none of it may reach the opening.
-
-
-BREATHING LIGHT AND DARKNESS.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The following experiment, if performed with care, is exceedingly
-striking. Let S be a candle, whose light falls at an angle of 56° 45'
-upon two plate glasses, A B, placed close to each other; and let the
-reflected rays, A C, B D, fall at the same angle upon two similar
-plates, C D, but so placed that the plane of reflection from the latter
-is at right angles to the plane of reflection from the former. An eye
-placed at E, and looking at the same time on the two plates, C and D,
-will see very faint images of the candle, S; which by a slight
-adjustment of the plates, may be made to disappear almost wholly,
-allowing the plate C to remain where it is. Change the position of D,
-till its inclination to the ray, B D, is diminished about 3°, or made
-nearly 53° 11'. The distance may be easily found by a little practice.
-When this is done, the image that had disappeared on looking into D will
-be restored, so that the spectator at E, upon looking into the two
-mirrors, C D, will see no light in C, because the candle has nearly
-disappeared, while the candle is distinctly seen in D. If, while, the
-spectator is looking into these two mirrors, either he or another person
-breathes upon them gently and quickly, the breath will revive the
-extinguished image in C, and will extinguish the visible image in D.[12]
-
- [12] Explanation.--The light A, C, B, D is polarized by reflection
- from the plates A B, because it is incident at the polarizing
- angle 56° 45' for glass. When we breathe upon the plates C D, we
- form upon their surface a thin film of water, whose polarizing
- angle is 53° 11', so that if the polarized rays A, C, B, D fall
- upon the plates C, D, at an angle of 53° 11', the candle from
- which they proceeded would not be visible, or they would not
- suffer reflection from the plates C D. At all the other angles
- the light would be reflected, and the candle visible. Now the
- plate D is placed at an angle of 53° 11', and C at an angle of
- 56° 45', so that when a film of water is breathed upon them, the
- light will be reflected from the latter, and none from the
- former; that is, the act of breathing upon the glass plates will
- restore the invisible, and extinguish the visible image.
-
-
-TO SHOW THAT RAYS OF LIGHT DO NOT OBSTRUCT EACH OTHER.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Make a small hole in a sheet of pasteboard, A, and placing it upright
-before three candles, B, placed closely together, it will be found that
-the images of all the candle flames will be formed separately on a piece
-of paper, C, laid on the table to receive them. This proves that the
-rays of light do not obstruct each other in their progress, although all
-cross in passing through the hole.
-
-
-OPTICS OF A SOAP-BUBBLE.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-If a soap-bubble be blown up, and set under a glass, so that the motion
-of air may not affect it, as the water glides down the sides and the top
-grows thinner, several colours will successively appear at the top, and
-spread themselves from thence down the sides of the bubble, till they
-vanish in the same order in which they appeared. At length, a black spot
-appears at the top, and spreads till the bubble bursts.[13]
-
- [13] The thinnest substance ever observed is the aqueous film of the
- soap-bubble previous to bursting; yet it is capable of reflecting
- a faint image of a candle, or the sun. Hence its thickness must
- correspond with what Sir Isaac Newton calls the beginning of
- black, which appears in water at the thickness of the seven
- hundred and fifty thousandth part of an inch.
-
-
-THE KALEIDOSCOPE.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-If any object be placed between two plane mirrors, inclined towards each
-other at an angle of thirty degrees, three several images will be
-perceived in the circumference of a circle. On this principle is formed
-the kaleidoscope, invented by Sir David Brewster, and by means of which
-the reflected images viewed from a particular point exhibit symmetrical
-figures, under an infinite arrangement of beautiful forms and colours.
-The kaleidoscope may be bought at any toy-shop, but it is requisite that
-every young person should be able to construct one for himself. He must,
-therefore, procure a tube of tin or paper, of about ten inches in
-length, and two and a half or three inches in diameter. One end of this
-should be stopped up with tin or paper, securely fastened, in which is
-to be made a hole, about the size of a small pea, for the eye to look
-through. Two pieces of well-silvered looking-glass, B B, are now to be
-procured; they must be not quite so long as the tube, and they should be
-placed in it lengthways, at an angle of 60 degrees, meeting together in
-a point at A, and separating to the points C C, the polished surfaces
-looking inwards. A circular piece of the glass is now to be laid on the
-top of the edges of the reflectors, B B; which, by their not being quite
-so long as the tube, will allow room for its falling in, and it will be
-supported by the edges of the tube, which may be slightly bent over, to
-prevent the glass from falling out. This having been done, now proceed
-to make the "cap" of the instrument. A rim of tin or pasteboard must be
-cut, so as to fit over the glass end of the tube; and in this, on the
-outer side, a piece of ground glass must be fastened, so that the whole
-may fit on the tube like the lid of a pill-box. Then, before putting it
-on, obtain some small pieces of broken glass of various colours, beads,
-little strips of wire, or any other object, and place them in the cap;
-and by passing it over the end, so that the broken glass, &c. has free
-motion, the instrument is complete. To use it, apply the eye to the
-small hole, and, on turning it, the most beautiful forms will appear, in
-the most wonderful combinations.
-
-The following curious calculation has been made of the number of changes
-this instrument will admit of. Supposing it to contain 20 small pieces
-of glass, and that you make 10 changes in a minute, it will take an
-inconceivable space of time, _i. e._ 462,880,899,576 years, and 360
-days, to go through the immense number of changes of which it is
-capable.
-
-
-SIMPLE SOLAR MICROSCOPE.
-
-Having made a circular hole in a window-shutter, about three inches in
-diameter, place in it a glass lens of about twelve inches focal
-distance. To the inside of the hole adapt a tube, having at a small
-distance from the lens a slit, capable of receiving one or two very thin
-plates of glass, to which the object to be viewed must be affixed by
-means of a little gum-water exceedingly transparent. Into this tube fit
-another, furnished at its extremity with a lens half-an-inch focal
-distance. Place a mirror before the hole of the window-shutter on the
-outside, in such a manner as to throw the light of the sun into the
-tube, and you will have a solar magic lanthorn.
-
-The method of employing this arrangement of lenses for microscopic
-purposes is as follows:--Having darkened the room, and by means of the
-mirror reflected the sun's rays on the glasses in a direction parallel
-to the axis, place some small object between the two moveable plates of
-glass, or affix it to one of them with very transparent gum-water, and
-bring it exactly into the axis of the tube; if the moveable tube be then
-pushed out or drawn in, till the object be a little beyond the focus, it
-will be seen painted very distinctly on a card, or piece of white paper,
-held at a proper distance, and will appear to be greatly magnified. A
-small insect will appear as a large animal, a hair as big as a
-walking-stick, and the almost invisible eels in paste or vinegar as
-large as common eels.
-
-
-ANAMORPHOSES.
-
-This is a very curious optical effect, producing a distorted and
-grotesque figure from a regular one. The term is derived from two Greek
-words, signifying a distortion of figure, and by its means many optical
-puzzles may be produced geometrically.
-
-Take any subject, such as the portrait of a head; divide it vertically
-and horizontally with parallel lines, of which the outer sides shall
-form the boundary, A, B, C, D, and the whole shall be equidistant. Then,
-on a separate piece of paper, or cardboard, prepare a drawing similar to
-Fig. 2 by the following means:--
-
-1. Draw a horizontal line, _a b_, equal to A B, and divide it into as
-many equal parts as the latter is divided.
-
-2. Let fall a perpendicular line, _e v_, from the middle of _a b_, and
-then draw _s v_ parallel to _a b_.
-
-3. Both _e v_ and _s v_ may be any length at pleasure, but the longer
-the first is, and the shorter the other, so will the anamorphoses be
-more and more deformed. The proportions in our figures are sufficiently
-different.
-
-4. After having drawn from the point _v_ right lines, _v 1_, _v 2_, _v
-3_, _v 4_, to the divisions of _a b_, draw the line _s b_, and through
-each point where _s b_ intersects the divergent lines draw other
-horizontal lines parallel to _a b_. We now have a _trapezium_, _a b c d_
-divided into as many cells as the square in Fig. 1.
-
-[Illustration: _Fig. 1._]
-
-[Illustration: _Fig. 2._]
-
-The next step is to fill up all the cells of Fig. 2 with portions of the
-device, proportionate to their position in Fig. 1. For instance, in Fig.
-1 the nose is in the second vertical division from the left, and in the
-third and fourth horizontal divisions from the top, and that portion of
-the face must accordingly be placed in a corresponding part of Fig. 2.
-
-By these means we procure the anamorphosis seen in Fig. 2, which when
-viewed from a particular position, will lose all its distortion, and
-assume an appearance resembling that in Fig. 1. This position lies
-immediately over the point _v_, and at a height above it equal to the
-length of the line _s v_; and the means of determining it are as
-follows.
-
-Place the drawing horizontally before a window; take a slip of card, and
-rest its lower edge on the line _s v_, the card being accurately
-vertical; pierce a small hole in the card vertically over the point _v_,
-and at a height from it equal to the length of the line _s v_, then with
-the eye placed immediately behind the card, look through the orifice at
-the anamorphosis, and it will be found that as soon as it has become
-accustomed to the novelty of the experiment, the anamorphosis will lose
-its distortion, and appear almost exactly like the symmetrical figure.
-
-It would be very difficult, and would require geometrical reasoning of a
-lengthened kind, to show why this particular form of construction should
-lead to such results.
-
-
-THE COSMORAMA.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The principle upon which the cosmorama is formed is so simple, that any
-person may easily fit up one in a small summer house, &c. Nothing more
-is necessary than to fix in a hole a double convex lens of about three
-feet focus, A, and at rather less than this distance a picture, B, is to
-be hung. To absorb all the rays of light but those necessary for seeing
-the picture, a squared frame of wood blackened on the inside is placed
-between the lens and the picture. The picture may be hung in a large box
-having a light coming in upon it from above, or in a small closet
-illuminated in the same manner. Should it be wished to show it by
-candle-light, a lamp, _c_, may be placed on the top of the wooden frame,
-and if the light of this be converged by a lens to a moderate radius, it
-will be more effective.
-
-
-DISTORTED LANDSCAPES.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Landscapes or other matters may be drawn so as to produce curious
-optical illusions by the following method. Take a piece of smooth white
-pasteboard and sketch the design upon it. Prick the outlines in every
-part with a fine pin or needle, then place the pricked drawing in a
-perpendicular position, and put a lighted candle behind it. Place before
-it another piece of pasteboard, and follow with a pencil the lines given
-by the light, and you have produced a distorted landscape. Now take away
-the candle and the pricked drawing, and place your eye where the light
-was, and the drawing will assume the regular form. To get your eye in
-the proper position, it will be advisable to cut out a piece of card
-according to the accompanying pattern, and raising it on its base, B,
-look through the hole at A, when the object will appear in its proper
-proportions.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-PHOTOGRAPHY.
-
- "Come like shadows, but not so depart."--SHAKSPEARE.
-
-Associated with the use of iodine and bromine is an art which every
-intelligent boy may practise, if he will attend to the following precise
-details kindly furnished by Mr. Richard Thomas, of 10, Pall Mall, who
-has devoted many years to the careful study of all the processes
-connected with it, and from whom all the best apparatus and purest
-chemicals required may be obtained.
-
-
-HOW TO MAKE THE NEGATIVE ON GLASS, USING COLLODION BROMO-IODIZED FOR
-IRON DEVELOPMENT.
-
-1. The edges of the glass should be ground all round, also slightly on
-the surface of the edges. This prevents contraction of the film,
-enabling it to resist the action of a heavy stream of water. Mark one
-side in the corner with a diamond, and upon this side bestow the
-greatest care.
-
-2. _To clean the glass, if new._--Make a mixture of spirits of wine and
-solution of ammonia, equal parts; render it as thick as cream with
-tripoli; with a piece of cotton-wool kept for this purpose rub a small
-quantity over that side marked as described, wash well under a tap of
-water, and wipe dry with a piece of old linen, washed without soap, and
-kept scrupulously clean for this purpose. Plates should not, however, be
-cleaned in the operating room with the above mixture; the vapour of
-ammonia might prove injurious to the chemicals.
-
-3. Now polish with an old white silk handkerchief. If this latter
-precaution be not taken, small particles of linen will be left upon the
-plate: these are perhaps only seen when draining off the collodion; they
-form nuclei and eddies, checking the collodion in its course. Some of
-these minute fibres are washed off, and contaminate the next picture. To
-all lovers of clean pictures our advice therefore is, having well dried
-the plate with old linen, lay it, clean side upwards, upon a few sheets
-of common glazed demy paper (not blotting), and rub it hard with the
-silk until sensibly warm: this has the double advantage of dispersing
-fibres and moisture, for all glass plates are slightly in a hygrometric
-condition. Double the silk rubber up to form a pad, and with this the
-glass must be firmly dusted down just before pouring on the collodion,
-which will then run most evenly: if the coated plate is now viewed by
-transmitted light, not a speck or blemish will be seen upon it. When a
-plate cleaned as above described is breathed upon, the moisture does not
-evaporate slowly, but _flies off_. Do not be afraid of putting the glass
-into an electrical condition with the silk rubber: on this account
-objections have been raised to the use of silk: practically, however, I
-find it a most valuable auxiliary in this starting-point of the process,
-the perfect manipulation of which makes an important difference in the
-value of the finished picture. What can be more inartistic and annoying
-to an educated eye than spots, patches, stars, and sky rockets, the
-forms and shapes of which rival, in numberless variety, a display of
-fireworks? Let us not, therefore, be contented with pictures, however
-good in other respects, presenting these deformities--so many blots on
-the photographic escutcheon.
-
-_To clean a glass after having used it, when not varnished._--Wash off
-the collodion film with water, then clean the marked side with plain
-tripoli and water, and dry as above.
-
-_To coat the plate._--First remove all the particles of dried collodion
-from the mouth of the bottle. Now pour upon the centre of the cleaned
-glass as much collodion as it will hold. Do not perform this operation
-hurriedly, take time, and systematically incline the plate in such a
-manner that the collodion may run into each corner in succession; when
-perfectly covered, pour off gently the excess into the bottle at one of
-the corners nearest to you: with observation and practice dexterity is
-easily acquired. There are many ways of coating the plate; each person
-will adopt that which practice teaches him is best. The pneumatic
-plate-holder is a convenient little instrument to use for holding the
-plate whilst pouring on the collodion: it may be used for both small and
-large plates.
-
-Keep the corner of the glass plate in contact with the neck of the
-bottle whilst pouring off the collodion; otherwise the film will be wavy
-in places.
-
-4. As soon as the collodion ceases to run, plunge the prepared glass
-gently, without stopping, into the nitrate of silver bath, which is
-prepared as follows. Into a 20-oz. stoppered bottle put nitrate of
-silver, 1-1/4 ozs.; distilled water, 4 ozs.: dissolve. To this solution
-add iodide of potassium, 4 grs., dissolved in 1 drachm of distilled
-water. Mix these two solutions: the precipitate (iodide of silver) thus
-formed is by shaking entirely dissolved. Add 16 ozs. of distilled water,
-when the excess of iodide of silver is again thrown down, but in such a
-finely divided state as to render the saturation of the bath with iodide
-of silver perfect. Now drop in sufficient of the oxide of silver to turn
-the turbid yellow solution a dirty brown colour; so long as this effect
-is produced the quantity of oxide of silver, however much in excess,
-is of no consequence; shake the bottle well for ten minutes or so at
-intervals; then add alcohol, 30 minims, and filter; to the filtered
-solution add dilute nitric acid of the strength stated, 5 minims. The
-bath is now ready for use, and should be quite neutral.
-
-5. Allow the prepared glass to remain in this bath from five to ten
-minutes, according to the temperature. Move it up and down three or four
-times whilst in the bath, in order to get rid of the greasy appearance
-on the surface: drain it, but not too closely. When in the frame, place
-upon the back a piece of common blotting-paper, to absorb moisture, and
-the two lower silver wires should also be covered with slips of
-blotting-paper; after which the sooner it is placed in the camera the
-better.
-
-6. The time of exposure can only be ascertained by practice--no rules
-can be laid down; and I am unacquainted with any royal road, but that of
-experience, leading to constant success in this most important point.
-
-7. The plate having been taken from the camera, and placed upon a
-levelled stand, or held in the hand, develop immediately the latent
-image with the following solution:--
-
-_Iron developing solution._--Protosulphate of iron, 1/4 oz.; glacial
-acetic acid, 1/4 oz.; spirits of wine, 1/2 oz.; distilled water, 8 ozs.:
-mix. Pour on of this solution only enough to cover the plate easily,
-commencing at that edge of the negative which stood uppermost in the
-camera; move the solution to and fro until it has become intimately
-mixed with the silver on the plate; then pour off into the developing
-glass, and _at once_ return it on to the plate. When as much intensity
-has been obtained as possible with the iron developer, it should be
-thoroughly removed by washing with water. Any intensity may be obtained
-afterwards by using either of the following solutions:--
-
-8. _Intensifying solution._--Pyrogallic acid, 6 grs.; glacial acetic
-acid, 1/4 oz.; distilled water, 6 ozs.: mix. A few drops of a 30-gr.
-solution of nitrate of silver, the quantity to be regulated according to
-the intensity required, to be added, at the moment of using, to as much
-of the pyrogallic solution as may be necessary.
-
-_Intensifying solution_ (another form).--1. Pyrogallic acid, 8 grs.;
-citric acid, 20 grs.; distilled water, 2 ozs. 2. Nitrate of silver, 8
-grs.; distilled water, 2 ozs. Mix small quantities of the solutions 1
-and 2, in equal portions, the moment before using.
-
-The pyrogallic solution, made with good acetic acid, may be kept for a
-month or more in a cool place. Nevertheless, if the conditions of light
-and situation are unfavourable, I should prefer this solution just made.
-The iron solutions act best when freshly prepared.
-
-It is supposed by some that a prolonged action of the iron developer
-produces fogginess. This may be the case when impure or improperly
-prepared collodion is used, but certainly not when the preparation is
-pure and of the proper quality.
-
-When the image is sufficiently intense, wash freely with common filtered
-water; then pour on a saturated solution of hyposulphate of soda, which
-should immediately remove the iodide of silver: wash again well with
-water; allow as much as the plate will hold to soak in for at least a
-quarter of an hour, changing the water occasionally, to remove all
-traces of hyposulphate; lastly, wash the plate with a little distilled
-water, stand up to dry, and, if required, varnish either with spirit or
-amber varnish.
-
-The following solution is also very commonly used for fixing the
-negative:--Cyanide of potassium, 1/4 oz.; water, 12 ozs.
-
-Attention to the following rules and cautions will assist the operator
-in the production of perfect pictures:--
-
-1. Do not disturb the deposit which will occasionally be found at the
-bottom of the bottle containing the collodion.
-
-2. Remove all particles of dried film from the neck of the bottle before
-pouring the collodion on the plate.
-
-3. Never use damp cloths, leathers, or buffs, for giving the final
-polish to the plate. Negatives with an indistinct and muddy surface are
-frequently produced from this cause.
-
-4. Let the film set properly before immersion in the nitrate of silver
-bath: its condition can be ascertained by gently touching the lower part
-of the coated plate with the end of the finger.
-
-5. Never omit to pass a broad camel-hair brush over the plate just
-before pouring on the collodion.
-
-6. Bear in mind that, as light is the producing agent, so will it prove
-a destructive one: not less than four folds of yellow calico should be
-used to obstruct white light; and in that case the aperture covered
-should be no larger than is necessary to admit sufficient light for
-working by. Examine occasionally the yellow calico: when this material
-is used to exclude white light, it becomes bleached by constant
-exposure. Do not trust alone to any coloured glass; no glass yet made is
-anti-actinic under all aspects of light and conditions of exposure.
-
-7. When the negative requires intensifying, carefully wash off all
-traces of the first developing solution before proceeding to intensify.
-This operation may be performed either before or after the iodide is
-removed by fixing.
-
-8. Glass baths are preferable to porcelain, ebonite, or gutta-percha
-baths for solution of nitrate of silver.
-
-9. In using either spirit or amber varnish, before pouring it off, keep
-the plate horizontal a few seconds. This gives time for soaking in, and
-prevents the formation of a dull surface arising from too thin a
-coating.
-
-10. Rub the lenses occasionally with a soft and clean wash-leather; the
-rapidity of action is much influenced by the brightness of the lenses:
-their surfaces are constantly affected by moisture in the atmosphere,
-which condensing, destroys the brilliancy of the image.
-
-11. The white blotting-paper used for some photographic purposes is not
-suitable for filtering solutions; that only should be employed which is
-made for this purpose, and is sold under the name of filtering-paper.
-
-12. _Hyposulphate of soda._--A great deal of rubbish is sold under
-the name of this salt. As a test of its quality, 1-1/2 drachms should
-entirely dissolve in 1 drachm of water, and this solution should
-dissolve rather more than 4-1/2 grains of iodide of silver.
-
-13. _Chemicals._--The purity of photographic chemicals cannot be too
-strongly urged; the cheapest are not always the most economical. The
-commercial preparations are generally not to be depended upon, as these,
-though perhaps unadulterated, are, strictly speaking, not chemically
-pure. It is best to procure them from well-known chemists, who
-understand the purpose for which they are intended, and make the
-preparation of these substances peculiarly a branch of their business.
-
-14. Never leave chemical solutions exposed in dishes: when done with,
-pour them back into glass-stoppered bottles, and decant for use from any
-deposit, or filter if necessary.
-
-15. In all photographic processes it is absolutely necessary to be
-chemically clean; and this sometimes is not easy. As a rule, never be
-satisfied with cleanly appearances only, but take such measures as shall
-insure the absence of all extraneous matter in preparing the solutions,
-cleaning the glasses, dishes, &c.
-
-16. All stains on the hands, linen, &c. may be removed by means of
-cyanogen soap or cyanide of potassium, which should be applied without
-water at first, then thoroughly washed off. To assist the operation, the
-hands may be now gently rubbed with a fine piece of pumice-stone, when
-the stains quickly disappear.
-
-For more perfect and complete directions the reader is referred to a
-most excellent work, "The Modern Practice of Photography," by R. W.
-Thomas, F.C.S.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-PNEUMATICS.
-
- "There is a tricksy spirit in the air
- That plays sad gambols."--BEN JONSON.
-
-The branch of the physical sciences which relates to the air and its
-various phenomena is called Pneumatics. By it we learn many curious
-particulars. By it we find that the air has weight and pressure, colour,
-density, elasticity, compressibility, and some other properties with
-which we shall endeavour to make the young reader acquainted by many
-pleasing experiments, earnestly impressing upon him to lose no
-opportunity of making physical science his study.
-
-The common leather sucker by which boys raise stones will show the
-pressure of the atmosphere. It consists of a piece of soft but firm
-leather, having a piece of string drawn through its centre. The leather
-is made quite wet and pliable, and then its under part is placed on the
-stone and stamped down by the foot. This pressing excludes the air from
-between the leather and the stone, and by pulling the string a vacuum is
-left underneath its centre; consequently the leather is firmly attached
-to the stone, which enables you to lift it.
-
-
-WEIGHT OF THE AIR PROVED BY A PAIR OF BELLOWS.
-
-Shut the nozzle and valve-hole of a pair of bellows, and after having
-squeezed the air out of them, if they are perfectly air-tight, we shall
-find that a very great force, even some hundreds of pounds, is necessary
-for separating the boards. They are kept together by the weight of the
-air which surrounds them in the same manner as if they were surrounded
-by water.
-
-
-THE PRESSURE OF THE AIR SHOWN BY A WINE-GLASS.
-
-Place a card on a wine-glass filled with water, then invert the glass:
-the water will not escape, the pressure of the atmosphere on the outside
-of the card being sufficient to support the water.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-ANOTHER.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Invert a tall glass jar in a dish of water, and place a lighted taper
-under it; as the taper consumes the air in the jar, the water, from the
-pressure without, _rises up_ to supply the place of the oxygen removed
-by the combustion. In the operation of cupping the operator holds the
-flame of a lamp under a bell-shaped glass. The air within this being
-rarefied and expanded, a considerable portion is given off. In this
-state the glass is placed upon the flesh, and as the air within it cools
-it contracts, and the glass adheres to the flesh by the difference of
-the pressure of the internal and external air.
-
-
-ELASTICITY OF THE AIR.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-This can be shown by a beautiful philosophical toy, which may easily be
-constructed. Procure a glass jar such as is here represented, and put
-water into it. Then mould three or four little figures in wax, and make
-them hollow within, and having each a minute opening at the heel, by
-which water may pass in and out. Place them in the jar, as seen in the
-figure, and adjust them by the quantity of water admitted to them, so
-that in specific gravity they differ a little from each other. The mouth
-of the jar should now be covered with a piece of skin or india-rubber,
-and then, if the hand be pressed upon the top or mouth of the jar, the
-figures will be seen to rise or descend as the pressure is gentle or
-heavy; rising and falling, or standing still, according to the pressure
-made.
-
-
-REASON FOR THIS.
-
-The reason of this is, that the pressure on the top of the jar condenses
-the air between the cover and the water surface; this condensation then
-presses on the water below, and influences it through its whole extent,
-compressing also the air in the figures, forcing as much more water into
-them as to render them heavier than water, and therefore heavy enough to
-sink.
-
-
-THE AIR-PUMP.
-
-The time was, and that not very long ago, when the air-pump was only
-obtainable by the philosophical professor or by persons of enlarged
-means. But now, owing to our "cheap way of doing things," a small
-air-pump may be obtained for about a guinea, and we would strongly
-advise our young friends to procure one, as it will be a source of
-endless amusement to them; and, supposing that they take our advice, we
-suggest the following experiments.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The air-pump consists of a bell glass, called the receiver, A, and a
-stand, upon which is a perforated plate, B. The hole in this plate is
-connected with two pistons, the rods of which are moved by a wheel
-handle backwards and forwards, and thus pump the air out of the
-receiver. When the air is thus taken out, a stop-cock is turned, and
-then the experiments may be performed.
-
-Under the receiver of an air-pump, when the air has been thoroughly
-exhausted, light and heavy bodies fall with the same swiftness. Animals
-quickly die for want of air, combustion ceases, a bell sounds faint, and
-water and other fluids change to vapour.
-
-
-TO PROVE THAT AIR HAS WEIGHT.
-
-Take a florence flask, fitted up with a screw and fine oiled silk valve.
-Screw the flask on the plate of the air-pump, exhaust the air, take it
-off the plate, and weigh it. Then let in the air, and again weigh the
-whole, and it will be found to have increased by several grains.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-TO PROVE AIR ELASTIC.
-
-Place a bladder out of which all the air has apparently been squeezed
-under the receiver, upon it lay a weight, exhaust the air, and it will
-be seen that the small quantity of air left within the bladder will so
-expand itself as to lift the weight. Put a corked bottle into the
-receiver, exhaust the air, and the cork will fly out.
-
-
-SOVEREIGN AND FEATHER.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Place a nicely-adjusted pair of forceps at the top of the receiver,
-communicating with the top of the outside through a hole, so that they
-may be opened by the fingers. Then place on each of the little plates a
-_sovereign_ and a _feather_. Exhaust the air from the receiver; and
-having done so, detach the objects, so that they may fall. In the open
-air the sovereign will fall long before the feather, but in vacuo, as in
-the receiver now exhausted of its air, they will fall both together, and
-reach the bottom of the glass at the same instant.
-
-
-AIR IN THE EGG.
-
-Take a fresh egg, and cut off a little of the shell and film from its
-smaller end; then put the egg under a receiver, and pump out the air;
-upon which all the contents of the egg will be forced out by the
-expansion of the small bubble of air contained in the great end between
-the shell and the film.
-
-
-THE DESCENDING SMOKE.
-
-Set a lighted candle on the plate, and cover it with a tall receiver.
-The candle will continue to burn while the air remains, but when
-exhausted will go out, and the smoke from the wick, instead of rising,
-will descend in dense clouds towards the bottom of the glass, because
-the air which would have supported it has been withdrawn.
-
-[Illustration: AIR IN THE EGG.]
-
-[Illustration: DESCENDING SMOKE.]
-
-
-THE SOUNDLESS BELL.
-
-Set a bell on the pump-plate, having a contrivance so as to ring it at
-pleasure, and cover it with a receiver; then make the clapper sound
-against the bell, and it will be heard to sound very well; now exhaust
-the receiver of air, and then when the clapper strikes against the sides
-of the bell the sound can be scarcely heard.
-
-[Illustration: SOUNDLESS BELL.]
-
-[Illustration: FLOATING FISH.]
-
-
-THE FLOATING FISH.
-
-If a glass vessel containing water, in which a couple of fish are put,
-be placed under the receiver, upon exhausting the air the fish will be
-unable to keep at the bottom of the glass, owing to the expansion of
-the air within their bodies, contained in the air bladder. They will
-consequently rise and float, belly upwards, upon the surface of the
-water.
-
-
-THE DIVING BELL.
-
-The diving bell is a pneumatic engine, by means of which persons can
-descend to great depths in the sea, and recover from it valuable
-portions of wrecks and other things. Its principle may be well
-illustrated by the following experiment. Take a glass tumbler, and
-plunge it into the water with the mouth downwards, and it will be found
-that the water will not rise much more than half way in the tumbler.
-This may be made very evident if a piece of cork be suffered to float
-inside the glass on the surface of the water. The air within the tumbler
-does not entirely exclude the water, because air is elastic, and
-consequently compressible, and hence the air in the tumbler is what is
-called condensed. The diving bell is formed upon the above principle;
-but instead of being of glass, it is a wooden or metal vessel, of very
-large dimensions, so as to hold three or four persons, who are supplied
-with air from above by means of powerful pumps, whilst the excess of air
-escapes at the bottom of the bell, as may be seen any day at the Royal
-Polytechnic Institution.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-EXPERIMENTS.
-
-1. Place a cylinder of strong glass, open at both ends, on the plate of
-the air-pump, and put your hand on the other end, and you will of course
-be able to remove it at pleasure. Now exhaust the air from the interior
-of the cylinder, and at each stroke of the pump you will feel your hand
-pressed tighter and tighter on the cylinder, until you will not be able
-to remove it: as soon as the air is again admitted to the interior of
-the cylinder, the pressure within will be restored, and the hand again
-be at liberty.
-
-2. Tie a piece of moistened bladder very firmly over one end of a
-similar glass cylinder, and place the open end on the plate of the pump.
-As soon as you begin to exhaust the air from the interior, the bladder,
-which was previously quite horizontal, will begin to bulge inwards, the
-concavity increasing as the exhaustion proceeds, until the bladder, no
-longer able to bear the weight of the superincumbent air, breaks with a
-loud report.
-
-3. The elasticity of air, or indeed of any gaseous body, may be shown by
-introducing under the air-pump receiver a bladder containing a very
-small quantity of air, its mouth being closely tied. As you exhaust the
-air from the receiver, that portion contained in the bladder being no
-longer pressed upon by the atmosphere, will gradually expand, distending
-the bladder until it appears nearly full: on readmitting the air into
-the receiver, the bladder will at once shrink to its former dimensions.
-
-A shrivelled apple placed under the same conditions will appear plump
-when the air is removed from the receiver, and resume its former
-appearance on the readmission of the air.
-
-4. There is a very pretty apparatus made for the purpose of showing the
-pressure of the atmosphere, consisting of a hollow globe of brass, about
-three inches in diameter, divided into two equal parts, which fit very
-accurately together. It is furnished with two handles; one of them
-screwed into a hollow stem, communicating with the interior of the
-globe, and fitting on to the air-pump: the other is attached to a short
-stem on the opposite side of the globe. In the natural state the globe
-may easily be separated into its two hemispheres by one person pulling
-the handles, but after the air has been exhausted from the interior it
-requires two very strong men to separate the parts, and they will often
-fail to do so. By turning the stopcock, and readmitting the air into the
-interior of the globe, it will come asunder as easily as at first.
-
-We are indebted to the weight of the atmosphere for the power we possess
-of raising water by the common pump; for the piston of the pump
-withdrawing the air from the interior of the pipe, which terminates in
-water, the pressure of the atmosphere forces the water up the pipe to
-supply the place of the air withdrawn. It was soon found, however, that
-when the column of water in the pipe was more than thirty feet high, the
-pump became useless, for the water refused to rise higher. Why? It was
-found that a column of water about thirty feet high exerted a pressure
-equal to the weight of the atmosphere, thus establishing an equilibrium
-between the water in the pipe and the atmospheric pressure.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-This is the principle on which the barometer, or _measurer of weight_,
-as its name imports, is constructed. The metal Mercury is about thirteen
-and a half times heavier than water; consequently, if a column of water
-thirty _feet_ high balances the pressure of the atmosphere, a column of
-mercury thirty _inches_ high ought to do so also--and this is in fact
-the case. If you take a glass tube nearly three feet long, and closed at
-one end, and fill it with mercury; then, placing your finger on the open
-end, invert the tube into a basin or saucer containing some of the same
-metal; upon removing your finger (which must be done carefully, while
-the mouth of the tube is completely covered by the mercury,) it will be
-seen that the fluid will fall a few inches, leaving the upper part of
-the tube empty. Such a tube with a graduated scale attached is in truth
-a barometer, and as the weight of the atmosphere increases or decreases,
-so the mercury rises or falls in the tube. This instrument is of the
-greatest value to the seaman, for a sudden fall of the barometer will
-often give notice of an impending storm when all is fine and calm, and
-thus enable the mariner to make the preparations necessary to meet the
-danger.
-
-It was discovered by an Italian philosopher named Torricelli, and from
-him the vacuum formed in the upper end of the tube above the surface of
-the mercury has been called the Torricellian vacuum. It is by far the
-most perfect vacuum that can be obtained, containing necessarily nothing
-but a minute quantity of the vapour of mercury.
-
-
-EXPERIMENT.
-
-Pass a little ether through the mercury in the tube, and as soon as it
-reaches the empty space it will boil violently, depressing the mercury,
-until the pressure of its own vapour is sufficient to prevent its
-ebullition. If you now cool the upper part of the tube, so as to
-condense the vapour, the pressure being thus removed, the ether will
-again begin to boil, and so alternately, as often as you please, in
-order to show this fact with effect, the bore of the tube should not be
-less than half an inch in diameter.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-EXPERIMENT.
-
-To show that the heat abstracted by the boiling of one liquid will
-freeze another, fill a tall narrow glass about half full of cold water
-(the colder the better), and place in it a thin glass tube containing
-some ether. Put them under the receiver of an air-pump. As you exhaust
-the air, the ether will begin to boil, until at length, by continuing
-the exhaustion, the water immediately surrounding the tube of ether
-will freeze, and a tolerably large piece of ice may thus be obtained.
-
-Ether evaporates so rapidly even under the pressure of the atmosphere,
-that a small animal, such as a mouse, may be actually frozen to death by
-constantly dropping ether upon it. If poured on the hand, it produces a
-degree of cold that soon becomes, to say the least, unpleasant.
-
-
-EXPERIMENT.
-
-Place a flat saucer containing about a pound of oil of vitriol under the
-receiver of the air-pump, and set in it a watch glass containing a
-little water, supported on a stand with _glass_ legs. Exhaust the
-receiver, when the water will evaporate, but without boiling; and the
-vapour being absorbed as it forms by the oil of vitriol, the vacuum is
-preserved, and the evaporation continues, until the vapour has
-abstracted so much caloric from the remainder of the water that it is
-all at once converted into ice.
-
-In most elementary works on chemistry may be found a long table of
-freezing mixtures, as they are called, some with and others without ice
-or snow. We have selected a few from each division.
-
-WITH ICE OR SNOW.
-
- { Snow or powdered ice 2 parts.
- { Powdered common salt 1 "
-
- { Snow 5 "
- { Powdered common salt 2 "
- { Powdered sal ammoniac 1 "
-
- { Snow 3 "
- { Dilute sulphuric acid 2 "
-
- { Snow 2 "
- { Crystallized muriate of lime 3 "
-
-WITHOUT SNOW OR ICE.
-
- { Sulphate of soda 3 parts.
- { Dilute nitric acid 2 "
-
- { Nitrate of ammonia 1 "
- { Water 1 "
-
- { Phosphate of soda 2 "
- { Dilute nitric acid 1 "
-
- { Sulphate of soda 2 "
- { Muriatic acid 1 "
-
-The effects of most of these mixtures may be considerably increased by
-previously cooling the ingredients _separately_ in other freezing
-mixtures.
-
-In connexion with this branch of science, and especially with chemistry,
-the youthful philosopher should practise the art of decanting air from
-one jar to another standing over water, beginning by passing it from a
-small to a larger jar, then with two of equal size; and when he can
-accomplish the transfer without permitting even one bubble to escape, he
-may essay the much more difficult task of transferring the air from a
-large to a smaller jar.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-He should also practise using the blowpipe until he can keep up a steady
-and uninterrupted flame for ten minutes or a quarter of an hour, without
-stopping for breath. It is quite possible to replenish _wind_ in the
-mouth, which alone ought to be used, without interrupting the breathing
-for an instant, but it requires some practice.
-
-[Illustration: (1) Box blowpipe, A, the stem; B, the mouthpiece; C, the
-box, in which is placed a piece of sponge to absorb the moisture of the
-breath; D, the extremity (this is moveable, and each blowpipe has
-several, with different apertures); E, the hollow pivot, in which the
-extremity and its arm turn. The box is opened by the milled ring seen at
-the bottom.]
-
-
-SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.
-
-If the youthful student wishes to occupy his leisure in a most amusing
-and instructive manner, and at the same time to acquire a ready method
-of testing for the presence of the various metals, he cannot do better
-than purchase from Mr. John Browning, of 111, Minories, the Amateur's
-Spectroscope, price two guineas; or, if sufficiently ingenious, a prism
-and lenses may be purchased for sixteen shillings, and fitted up in
-paper tubes. Indeed, it is always better to buy some complete set or
-portion of a set of apparatus, instead of the trashy so-called "Boys'
-Cabinets," which contain very much that is useless and very little for
-instructive experiments. The instrument enables the observer to
-examine the properties of metallic salts when in the state of a glowing
-or incandescent gas. Common light affords a continuous spectrum or band
-of colours, red at one end and violet at the other, the intermediate
-colours being orange, yellow, green, blue, and indigo. The spectra of
-the metals in the state of luminous vapour are not continuous, but are
-represented by distinct bands or lines of light.
-
-[Illustration: Solar Spectrum, and Spectra of the Alkanes and Alkaline
-Earths. Copied from the Original Drawings of G. KIRCHHOFF and R.
-BUNSEN.]
-
-Every element, metallic or otherwise, when converted into a luminous
-gas, produces lines which are always found in the same part of the
-spectrum, and are therefore unalterable in position. The instrument
-(Fig. 1) is called the Spectroscope.
-
-[Illustration: _Fig. 1._--THE AMATEUR'S SPECTROSCOPE.
-
-A, Tube with knife edges; B, the prism; C, the telescope; D, the lamp,
-supplied with gas by pipe E; F, stand carrying the platinum wire. The
-wire may be held in the hand, but is more convenient when attached to a
-stand.]
-
-The instrument (Fig. 2) will exhibit the dark fixed lines in the solar
-spectrum, and also the bright lines in the spectra of incandescent
-metals.
-
-[Illustration: _Fig. 2._--THE HERSCHEL-BROWNING DIRECT VISION
-SPECTROSCOPE.]
-
-[Illustration: _Fig. 3._
-
-A, another form of gas lamp; B, the flame; C, adjusting stand to carry
-the platinum wire and the lamp.]
-
-
-HOW TO USE THE SPECTROSCOPE.
-
-Screw the tube carrying the knife edges at the small end into the prism
-bore, and the telescope into its proper ring. Now place any common
-bright light exactly in front of the knife edges, and while looking
-through the telescope arrange the knife edges until a bright and
-continuous spectrum is visible.
-
-
-TO OBTAIN THE BRIGHT LINES IN THE SPECTRUM GIVEN BY ANY SUBSTANCE.
-
-Remove the bright flame from the front of the knife edges, and
-substitute in its place the flame of a common spirit lamp or, still
-better, a gas-jet known as a Bunsen's Burner. Take a piece of platinum
-wire about the substance of a fine sewing needle; bend the end into a
-small loop about the eighth of an inch in diameter; fuse a small bead of
-the substance, or salt, to be experimented on into the loop of the
-platinum wire, and attaching it to any sort of light stand or support,
-bring the bead into the front edge of the flame, a little below the
-level of the knife edges. If the flame be opposite the knife edges, on
-looking through the eye-piece of the telescope the fixed lines due to
-the substance will be plainly visible. When minute quantities have to be
-examined, the substance should be dissolved, and a drop of the solution,
-instead of a solid bead, be used on the platinum wire.
-
-The delicacy of this method of analysis is very great. Swan found, in
-1857 (Ed. Phil. Trans., vol. xxi. p. 411), that the lines of sodium are
-visible when a quantity of solution is employed which does not contain
-more than 1/2,500,000 of a grain of sodium.
-
-To view Fraunhofer's lines on the solar spectrum it is only necessary to
-turn the knife edges towards a white cloud, and make the slit formed by
-the knife edges very narrow by turning the screw at the side of them. In
-every instance the focus of the telescope must be adjusted in the
-ordinary way, by sliding the draw tube until it suits the observer's
-sight, and distinct vision is obtained.
-
-It should be noted that lines at various parts of the spectrum require a
-different adjustment in focussing the telescope.
-
-The small prism turning on a joint in front of the knife edges is for
-the purpose of showing two spectra in the field of view at the same
-time. To do this it must be brought close to the front of the knife
-edges. Then one flame must be placed in the position in which the flame
-of the candle is shown in the small figure, and the other directly in
-front of the slit. On looking through the telescope, as before
-described, the spectra due to the two substances will be seen one above
-the other.
-
-When the slit is turned towards a bright cloud, and a light is used in
-the position of the candle flame, the spectrum of any substance may be
-seen compared with the solar spectrum. In this manner Kirchhoff
-determined in the solar spectrum the presence of the lines of the
-greater number of the elements which are believed to exist in the sun.
-
-
-PROFESSOR STOKES' ABSORPTION BANDS.
-
-This instrument is expressly adapted to the prismatic analysis of
-organic bodies, according to the method recommended by Professor Stokes
-in his lecture at the Chemical Society, printed in the _Chemical News_.
-
-To observe these bands it is only necessary to place a very dilute
-solution of the substance in a test-tube, then fix the test-tube in the
-small clip attached to a ring which slips on in front of the knife
-edges. Upon bringing any bright light in front of the tube, on looking
-through the telescope, if the instrument has been properly adjusted, a
-bright spectrum will be seen, interrupted by the dark bands due to the
-substance in solution.
-
-One of the simplest and most interesting experiments of this kind can be
-made by preparing dilute solutions of madder, port wine, and blood.
-
-In these very dilute solutions no difference can be detected by the
-unassisted eye, but on submitting them in the manner already described
-to the test of spectrum analysis, very different appearances will be
-presented.
-
-The absorption bands may, however, be most conveniently examined and
-accurately investigated by means of Sorby and Browning's new
-Micro-Spectroscope.
-
-
-TO MAP OUT ANY SPECTRUM.
-
-Place the eye-piece with cross wires in the telescope, with the cross in
-the shape of an [X]. Then move the telescope so that the point where the
-wires cross comes successively in contact with the various lines, noting
-the readings of the nonius on the arc. From these readings, by the help
-of any mechanical scale of equal parts, a map may be easily constructed.
-
-By the assistance of spectrum analysis four new metals have been
-discovered, viz. Cæsium, Rubidium, Thallium, Norium. It is often a cause
-of grumbling with young beginners in chemistry that there is so much
-washing of glasses and slopping required to obtain proper results from
-tests; but here is a most refined mode of testing, which may be carried
-on in the drawing-room, and so delicate that a portion of sodium salt
-even less than 1/180,000,000th part of a grain can be easily detected.
-
-Formerly the metal Lithium was considered to be a very rare one, but
-since the use of the spectroscope, quantities less than the
-1/6,000,000th of a grain have been detected; it now appears that lithium
-is a very common metal, and exists in the human body, the sea, and may
-be obtained from many other common sources. Lithium has been found in
-the ashes of marine plants, the ashes of tobacco--in milk, coffee, tea,
-human blood, and in muscular tissue; it has also been found in meteoric
-stones.
-
-The coloured plate is a faithful copy of Kirchhoff's Diagram, and shows
-the solar spectrum, also the spectra of potassium, sodium, lithium,
-strontium, calcium, barium, rubidium.
-
-
-
-
-PART IV.
-
-Domestic Pets.
-
-
- BEES.
- CANARIES.
- DOGS.
- GOLD FISH.
- GUINEA PIGS.
- HEDGEHOGS.
- JACKDAWS.
- JAYS.
- MAGPIES.
- OWLS.
- PARROTS.
- PIGEONS.
- POULTRY.
- RABBITS.
- RAVENS.
- SILKWORMS.
- SQUIRRELS.
- WHITE MICE.
-
-[Illustration: OUR DOMESTIC PETS.]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-BEES AND BEE-KEEPING.
-
-In treating of that useful insect the honey-bee, we will first explain
-briefly the domestic economy of the hive, and the distinction between
-the different individuals composing the entire colony, and then pass on
-to the more practical details of bee-keeping.
-
-A beehive contains three kinds of individuals--a queen, drones, and
-workers. The queen is a female, and is the mother of the community. The
-drones are males, and the working bees neuters, being neither males nor
-females. During the warmer part of the year the queen seems to be
-incessantly employed in laying eggs. She is slow and majestic in her
-motions, and differs from the workers in having a larger and longer
-body, shorter wings, and a curved sting.
-
-The drones are males; though much more bulky, they are not so long as
-the queen, but much larger than the working bees. They live on honey,
-but bring none home. When the season for swarming has passed, the
-workers expel them from the hive, and none make their appearance till
-the following spring.
-
-The working bees are the smallest in the hive and by far the most
-numerous; and they do the entire work of the community--they build the
-cells, guard the hive and the queen, collect and store the honey,
-elaborate the wax, feed the young, and expel the drones. The average
-number of these three kinds of bees in a hive is one queen, two thousand
-drones, and ten to twenty thousand workers, the numbers varying with the
-strength of the hive and the season.
-
-For the greater part of the year the queen lays only workers' eggs; but
-during the spring she also lays those which produce drones. As soon as
-this takes place, the workers begin to construct royal cells, in which,
-without discontinuing to lay the drone eggs, the queen deposits eggs
-which are destined to produce queens.
-
-[Illustration: QUEEN BEE.]
-
-[Illustration: THE DRONE.]
-
-[Illustration: WORKING BEE.]
-
-The workers' eggs hatch in a few days, and produce little white maggots,
-which immediately open their mouths to be fed; these the workers attend
-to with the greatest care. In six days each maggot fills up its cell; it
-is then roofed in by the workers, spins a silken cocoon and becomes a
-chrysalis, and on the twenty-first day it comes forth a perfect bee. The
-drones emerge on the twenty-fifth day, and the queens on the sixteenth.
-
-The combs of a beehive comprise a number of hexagonal cells, built by
-the bees as receptacles for honey and for the nurseries of their young.
-Each comb in a hive is composed of two ranges of cells, backed against
-each other. There is a continued series of these double cells in every
-well-filled hive, the spaces between them being just sufficient to allow
-two bees, one on the surface of each comb, to pass without touching.
-Each cell is six-sided, the six sides being perfectly equal. This is one
-of the geometrical figures that ensures the greatest economy of material
-and the largest space. The construction of several combs is usually
-going on at the same time, until the hive is filled. The cells of the
-drones are larger than those designed for the workers; and those
-designed for the hatching of the young queens pear-shaped, with the
-small end downwards. The finest honey is stored in new cells constructed
-for the purpose of receiving it.
-
-The usual modes of establishing an apiary are, either by the purchase of
-stock or of swarms. When intending to purchase a stock, do not buy upon
-recommendation, but learn to judge for yourself. If you observe the
-bees crowding in and out of the hive during the middle of the day, a
-considerable number of them having little yellow pellets or balls on
-their hinder legs, a very favourable opinion may be formed of the health
-and condition of the interior, and especially of the prolific state of
-the queen. If the bees appear savage, and bold in their attacks, it is a
-good sign.
-
-In the purchase of swarms the young bee-keeper must beware of
-imposition; for it very often happens that, instead of having the _first
-swarm_, he is cheated by having a second thrust upon him. This is seldom
-so large; but it has the advantage of a young queen, as the old queen
-always goes off with the first swarm. A good swarm generally numbers
-about twenty thousand bees, and may in country places be obtained for
-from half-a-guinea to a guinea.
-
-There are several distinct systems of bee-keeping, each of which
-requires a short notice. First, the old-fashioned plan of keeping the
-bees in a common bell-shaped straw hive, or skep. When this method is
-followed, the hives are usually allowed to stand for two summers; at the
-end of the second season the bees are destroyed by the fumes of burning
-sulphur, and the honey taken. The plan is a very bad one, as the honey
-obtained is mixed with bee bread, is rank in flavour, and dark in
-colour, and is never worth more than about sixpence per pound.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-A great improvement is to have the hives made with flat tops, like the
-straw hive shown at the right hand of the engraving. When the bees are
-first hived, this is closed by a straw mat. In the spring of next year,
-when the bees become numerous and cluster round the entrance, this mat
-is removed, and a small hive, termed a "super," or a box or glass,
-neatly furnished with a piece or two of clear empty comb, is put over;
-the bees ascend into this, build combs, which they store with pure
-virgin honey, without brood or bee bread; and this, when full, is
-removed, leaving the stock below undisturbed for the next season. In our
-engraving the artist has drawn this hive too small; it should have been
-as large as the common skeps which are shown on the left-hand side.
-
-Flat-topped hives, that are able to be supered, may be made of wood,
-like a common box. One of these is shown on the ground, and two, placed
-one over the other, are shown behind the flat-topped straw hive. In
-Ayrshire, where they are very skilled in bee-management, they use
-eight-sided boxes, with narrow slides to close the openings in the top.
-These boxes are placed one over the other, and large tops of pure virgin
-honey, twenty to thirty pounds in weight, are not unfrequently taken
-off. The back hive in our group is one with side boxes, or, as it is
-sometimes called, a collateral hive. These are the most expensive in
-first cost, and the least productive of all the varieties. The cottage
-hives, with three little glasses, instead of one large one, are only
-playthings, and not at all productive.
-
-Frame hives, in which each comb is placed in a separate frame, so that
-it can be taken out and examined, are very useful for making
-observations on the natural history of the bees, but are not so well
-suited for profitable purposes as the hives that we have described that
-are arranged in storey or with large supers.
-
-In removing a super of honey, it should be first loosened from the hive
-by drawing a thin string between the two; and then, when the bees have
-become quiet, taken quietly away, and covered over, until those
-remaining in it have discovered that they are away from the queen, when
-they will rapidly fly back to the hive, on being uncovered. But the
-honey must not be left exposed, or it would attract all the bees in the
-neighbourhood, and would rapidly be stored up in the hives.
-
-In taking off the supers, it is best to be protected from the stings of
-the bees. This is readily done by making a bag of leno, open at top and
-bottom; in use, the top is tied round the hat, the bag encircles the
-head and face, and the bottom is tucked under the collar of the coat,
-which is buttoned closely round the neck. In this manner the face is
-perfectly protected from stings; but with the knowledge, quietness, and
-confidence acquired by practice, almost anything can be done to bees by
-a skilled bee-master, even without a veil.
-
-
-THE CANARY.
-
-The canary is a justly favoured pet among boys, for it is a hardy bird
-that requires a very small amount of trouble. It is a pleasant,
-fascinating little being, full of quaint ways and sprightly attitudes,
-and, better than all, the cage is its native element.
-
-Though an ardent admirer of all birds, and indeed of everything which
-draws the breath of life, we can never pass the cage wherein is confined
-a lark, a nightingale, a bullfinch, or any other of our indigenous
-birds, without a feeling of sadness and regret.
-
-They are not cage birds, and never ought to be confined within the
-narrow limits of wood and wire. Their attitudes show their uneasiness.
-The mellow, exultant tone of the skylark sounds as joyously when the
-bird is imprisoned within a cage as when it soars high in air, its wings
-quivering in the breeze, its frame rejoicing in the glory of the
-sunbeams, and its ken surveying the wide panorama which lies spread
-beneath its gaze. But the gestures of the bird are full of eloquent
-misery, and speak volumes to him who will stop and look with his eyes as
-well as listen with his ears.
-
-See how the bird flings itself upwards from the little patch of turf,
-which is but a shallow mockery of the green sward to which the skylark
-is accustomed--how it dashes itself against the roof of green baize,
-which represents so feebly the expanse of azure sky--and how it learns
-at last the lessons of experience, and stands helplessly in the bay
-window of the cage, its wings shivering restlessly, and its feet
-trampling impatiently, in lieu of the the upward leap and soaring flight
-which it longs to undertake, but which it will never more be permitted
-to experience. No more will it roam through the wide expanse of air, no
-more will it seek for its mate, and know all the joys of nest and
-children. Henceforth it is but a prisoner in solitary confinement,
-without hope of escape, and its very individuality destroyed by
-surrounding circumstances.
-
-So with the generality of our cage birds. The man who would imprison the
-nightingale, who would limit to one spot the bird that loves to wander,
-and who would condemn to solitary confinement the creature which is
-peculiarly destined for conjugal affection, which finds expression in
-liquid melody, ought to be imprisoned for a month or two, just to see
-how _he_ likes it. "I can't get out," is the lament uttered in silent
-gesture by all birds that ought to roam in wild freedom, and have been
-imprisoned in a cage. We always wish to open the cage door, and set free
-the prisoner; at all events, to remove it to some spot where it might be
-liberated without danger to itself.
-
-But with the canary the case is different. The pretty little bird never
-has known wider freedom than that of the cage, and a humane bird-keeper
-will endow it with increased freedom by enlarging the size of its
-dwelling. The free use of wings has never been known to the bird, nor
-even to its parents; and the perch is to the canary more familiar than
-the bough. Release an imprisoned lark, and after the first few moments
-of surprise it will speed away exulting in its freedom. Release a
-nightingale or a thrush, and it will dart swiftly to the well-known
-shelter of the woods. But release a canary, and you have committed an
-act of positive cruelty. The poor bird knows not where to go or how to
-procure its food. Throughout all its little life it has been accustomed
-to reside within the narrow limits of its cage, and to find its food and
-water prepared without any expenditure of labour. Consequently, it has
-no idea of searching for food, but sits bewildered on a branch of some
-tree, and would perish with hunger simply because it does not know how
-to procure food.
-
-Ignorance is ever the parent of fear, and a canary-bird has been known
-to perish of hunger when removed to a large from a small cage, simply
-because it dared not fly down from the comparatively lofty perch on
-which it had settled when first introduced, and to which it clung with
-the tenacity of fear. Even the genuine British soldier can hardly be
-more helpless when deprived of ordinary military routine than is a
-canary-bird when set free and forced to fly alone into the world.
-
-The very colour of the bird prevents it from obtaining food like others
-of the same tribe. All the small birds are absurdly jealous of novelty,
-and will mob and worry any feathered being to which they are not
-accustomed. You may assemble a crowd of them at any time by fixing a
-comb of scarlet cloth on the head of a sparrow, and glueing a few
-scarlet hackles into its tail. The little birds will always gather round
-an owl that has made its appearance in the daytime, and will scold the
-intruder until one would think that their throats would be hoarse. Their
-anger towards the owl is, however, mitigated by a wholesome dread of its
-beak and talons, and it may therefore be imagined that when they find a
-little yellow bird sitting all alone on a branch, and looking bewildered
-at the position in which it finds itself, they are not very likely to
-lose so excellent an opportunity of bullying a foreigner without danger
-to themselves. Successive generations of captivity have rendered the
-canary unfit for freedom, and therefore the young naturalist need not
-think himself cruel because he keeps the bird in a cage.
-
-As to cages, the simple form which has already been described in vol. i.
-p. 21 of "Every Boy's Magazine" will be found amply sufficient for all
-purposes. The wires, however, should be closer together than is required
-for squirrels, so that the cat may not be able to dart her lithe paw
-between them and hook out the inmates. The size of the cage is of little
-consequence, except that you can never make it too large. If a whole
-room can be given up to the birds, the better they will be pleased and
-the brighter they will look; and, if possible, it should be lighted from
-above.
-
-Wherever the birds may be placed, ventilation is of the greatest
-consequence. We remember being once summoned to give our opinion upon
-the continued illness of some canaries of which every care was taken.
-They had fresh water daily, were plentifully supplied with sand, and
-were fed with the proper seeds, and cresses, groundsel, and other green
-meat, and yet they drooped and moped, and never seemed well. No fault
-could be found with the arrangements, and therefore we looked for the
-cause of illness in another direction. The air of the room seemed very
-close when I entered it, and on examination we found that there was no
-outlet whatever, the chimney having been blocked up and the windows
-carefully shut, in order to prevent the birds from escaping. We at once
-recommended that a pane of glass should be removed at the top of the
-window, and a piece of perforated zinc inserted instead; and when this
-was done the birds recovered themselves, and resumed their normal
-aspect.
-
-The two secrets--if secrets they can be called--in bird-keeping are a
-good supply of fresh food and water and perfect cleanliness. The former
-necessaries can be easily insured in a very simple manner, and should be
-made after the pattern of the accompanying figures. Both are founded on
-the same principle--namely, that of self-feeding from a reservoir.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 1.]
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 2.]
-
-The seed-box is thus constructed. Get an old cigar-box, from which the
-aroma of tobacco has been removed by long airing, and take off the lid
-and the whole of one side; cut off two-thirds of the lid-piece, bore
-three holes in it, and fix it where the lid was, as at _a_; cut the rest
-of the lid in two, and fix the pieces in the box, so as to separate it
-into three compartments, fixing them with glue and a few very tiny
-brads. You should use pieces of slender brass wire for the purpose. If
-you left the box in this condition all the seed would run out at the
-round holes, and you must therefore correct that error.
-
-How this is done will be seen in fig. 2, which gives a section of the
-seed-box.
-
-Cut a squared piece of wood, which will just slide into the partition,
-so as to make a flat flooring to it. But, instead of laying it flat,
-place it in a sloping direction, as seen at _d_, so that a small space
-is left between the end of the floor and the back of the box. The
-reader will see that when the seed is poured into the partition it will
-drop through the open space at the back, and fall into the bottom of the
-box. The birds put their heads through the holes to eat the seeds, and
-as fast as they peck them away below, more fall from above and supply
-the deficiency.
-
-In the front, and above the holes, fix a piece of glass, which is
-represented by _b_ in fig. 2, and which is seen in its place in fig. 1.
-The object of the glass is to permit the bird-keeper to see when there
-is a sufficiency of seed. The sloping top is also of glass, which is
-fixed by a strip of American leather, acting as a hinge. It is made of
-glass, and set at a sharp angle, in order to prevent the birds from
-perching on it, which they are certain to do if they can find the least
-foothold. It will be found that the best cement wherewith to fix the
-glass is gold-size, and that a coat or two of black sealing-wax varnish
-makes a nice finish to the job.
-
-The holes through which the birds feed should not be much larger than
-the size of their heads. The reason of this arrangement is that the
-canaries are apt to shell the seeds while their heads are over the
-vessel in which the food is contained, so that the husks fall among the
-seed, and it is not easy to discover when the supply is exhausted. But
-no diurnal bird will feed in the dark, and as the canary effectually
-darkens each hole by introducing its head, it will not crack and eat the
-seed until it has withdrawn its head and restored itself to light.
-
-The object of the partitions is that the birds can be supplied with
-different kinds of seed, each of which can be restricted to its own
-division. The receptacles should be of different sizes--the largest for
-canary-seed, the next in size for rape, and the least for millet, among
-which a little hemp may be shaken. In front of the holes, and about
-three-quarters of an inch from them, should be fixed a perch, upon which
-the birds can sit while they feed.
-
-At the back of the seed-box are fastened a couple of stout hooks--those
-which milliners call "stay-hooks" answer admirably--so that the box may
-be hung on the wires at any convenient height. It should not be placed
-on the ground, because in that case the canaries will stuff all the
-refuse stems of the green-meat into the feeding-holes, and will probably
-mix sand and husks with the seeds. They are as mischievous as monkeys,
-and quite as ready at discovering and taking advantage of the slightest
-opportunities of doing something which they know is forbidden.
-
-The "fountain" from which they drink is made on a similar principle.
-Fountains can be purchased at any bird-dealer's; but as it is preferable
-that boys should use their hands rather than drain their pockets, we
-offer simple directions for making a fountain as efficacious, though not
-quite so elegant, as those which are purchased in the shops.
-
-The materials required for the purpose are very simple, and consist of
-some wire, both stout and fine, of an empty Florence-oil flask, a
-saucer, and some wood. The mode of employing them is shown by the
-illustration (fig. 3).
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 3]
-
-Make three rings of stout wire, each diminishing in diameter, and
-arrange them as seen at _b_, the smallest being uppermost. Four pieces
-of stout wire are then firmly attached, so as to make a kind of conical
-stand. Were not the birds so mischievous, this would be sufficient for
-all purposes; but as they are sure to go and bathe in the water, they
-must be kept out by intermediate wires, so as to make a kind of cage,
-through which the birds can put their heads, but which will not permit
-the passage of their bodies.
-
-Then take your oil-flask, strip off all the rushen covering, and wash
-the interior with strong soda until every trace of the oil is removed.
-Place it in the wire frame, as shown at _c_, and try whether it stands
-upright. If the wire ring should be too large, and allow of its slipping
-through too far, cut a round hole of the proper size in a piece of
-pasteboard or very thin wood, lay it on the ring, and then introduce the
-flask.
-
-Make a round stool or table, such as is seen in the illustration, and
-fix the turned-up ends of the wires to it with small staples. If the
-fountain were on the ground, the birds would fill the saucer with sand
-and husks; and if it were not firmly fastened, it would be knocked over
-by the fluttering wings of a passing bird. The stool must be wide and
-strong, or the whole affair will be upset.
-
-The mode of preparing the fountain is very simple. Fill the flask with
-water, and stop up the mouth with a shallow cork. Place a saucer (like
-_a_) under the wire frame, insert the flask, hold its mouth in the
-saucer with one hand, and remove the cork with the other. The water will
-immediately rush into the saucer, and will half fill it, but owing to
-the pressure of the atmosphere no more water will descend. When,
-however, the birds have drunk enough to bring the level of the water
-below the mouth of the flask, air immediately rushes up in great
-bubbles, down comes a corresponding amount of water, and a fresh supply
-is thus afforded.
-
-In canary-keeping much depends upon the kind of bird. We presume that a
-good singer will be required, as well as a strong and healthy bird. If
-you are not learned in canary lore, try to induce an experienced friend
-to choose a bird for you; but if you are not fortunate enough to possess
-such assistance, the following concise directions may aid you. Look at
-the birds for sale, and note those that stand straightest on their
-perches, and that hop quickly and smartly about the little apologies for
-cages in which they are mostly confined. Next hear them sing before
-deciding on your purchase, and select the one that possesses the
-sweetest and fullest tone. The dealer can always make the bird sing when
-he likes, and if any bird refuses to sing, do not buy it, however
-handsome it may look. If possible, procure one that possesses the
-nightingale's song; you will have to pay rather heavily for it, but any
-one who can afford such a bird will be amply repaid by the very great
-superiority of the song, which is divested of that ear-piercing
-shrillness so unpleasant in most canaries.
-
-When you are satisfied with the song, look the bird well over to see
-that it has no defects; and if you prefer the variegated breed, take
-care of three principal points--namely, the top of the head, technically
-called the "cap;" the markings on the back, called "spangles;" and the
-number of quill feathers in the wings and tail. The cap must be uniform
-and rich in colour, the spangles bold and well defined, and the quill
-feathers not less than eighteen in each wing and twelve in the tail.
-Imperfect or damaged feathers can easily be replaced by pulling them
-out, for their places will soon be filled with new and perfect feathers.
-
-Some persons prefer the yellow varieties, and many are fond of the
-crested canaries.
-
-We intentionally omit all mention of "fancy" canaries, for the fashion
-changes with them as fast as it does with tulips or dress. The fashion
-in canaries seldom outlives a year, and the prize bird of one year will
-possibly be despised in the next season. Do not, therefore, be persuaded
-to attempt the purchase of costly fancy canaries. They may certainly be
-of great value when you happen to buy them, but in a few years no one
-will think anything of them. Choose strong, sweet-voiced, and healthy
-birds, with colours that please your eye, and leave the fancy canaries
-to professional breeders.
-
-As to the general management of the canary, it may be summed up by
-saying that it chiefly consists in judiciously letting alone. Don't
-meddle with the birds more than is absolutely needed, and do not worry
-them with medicines whenever they seem to be unwell. As, however, all
-canaries are liable to certain ailments, in which a knowledge of the
-proper treatment is highly useful, we will just give a few plain
-directions.
-
-One pest is vigorous throughout the year, and always ready to seize on
-the birds, and that is the "red-mite," a parasite known to all
-bird-keepers.
-
-If you find your birds restless, especially at night, and see them
-continually pecking among the roots of the feathers, and especially if
-they lose appetite, and become fretful and ill-tempered to their
-companions, look out for the red-mite. You can always detect the tiny
-but formidable foe by placing the bird in a dark room, and, after a few
-hours, holding a bright lamp close by the cage. If there are any mites
-about, you will soon see them crawling upon the perches, the wires, and
-even showing themselves among the feathers. They are not larger than the
-dot over the letter i, but their numbers are often very considerable,
-and the injury they inflict is great.
-
-Let not one escape, for it may be the parent of hundreds more. When the
-red-mites have once obtained possession of a cage, their extirpation is
-a task of very great difficulty to those who do not understand the
-constitution of the creatures. So difficult, indeed, is the business,
-that many fanciers will not even attempt it, but burn the cage and buy
-another. The metal cages, which are now so common, are preferable to
-those made of wood and wire, inasmuch as they present very few spots
-wherein the red-mite can find a hiding-place, and for that reason metal
-is to be preferred to wood. Even if they have gained admission to an
-ordinary cage, they can be extirpated without very much trouble. We have
-succeeded in doing so in several instances, and think that in a
-fortnight any cage can be freed of its troublesome parasites.
-
-First place the cage in the sun for a short time, so as to induce the
-light-hating mites to leave the bird and hide themselves in the crevices
-of the cage. Remove the bird, and transfer it to another cage, or even a
-box, and let it wait. Take the cage and examine it well, introducing a
-heated needle or thin blade of iron into every crevice. Next take some
-insect-destroying powder, force it into a hollow paper cylinder, light
-the paper, put it into the cage, and envelop the whole in a newspaper.
-Leave it there for an hour, and when you remove it you will see dozens
-of the red-mites, of all sizes, lying dead on the floor, or clinging
-half-stupefied by the fumes of the powder. Scrape them all into boiling
-water, and dust the whole of the cage with the powder.
-
-By this time every mite will be dead; but there is a goodly store of
-eggs which will be hatched in due time, and infest the cage anew. These
-are destroyed by means of oil. Take a camel's hair brush and some
-salad-oil, and with the brush apply the oil to every crevice. If there
-should be the tiniest scratch on the wood, touch it with the oil. Let
-oil be applied to every spot where the wires enter the wood, where they
-cross each other, and where the hinges of the door are fixed. Every egg
-will thus be destroyed, and the cage freed.
-
-About half an hour before you restore the bird to the cage hold it in
-the left hand, and dust it well with the powder, blowing up the
-feathers, so as to get it well to the roots. Scatter some of the powder
-upon a piece of soft rag, and roll the bird in it, carefully binding
-down its legs and wings, under each of which a pinch of powder must be
-sprinkled. You can now attend to the head, which requires rather neat
-handling, as the powder is very apt to settle upon the eyes and to worry
-the bird. Let your feathered pet lie for half an hour in this beneficial
-bondage, and then replace it in the cage, scattering some powder upon
-the floor. The bird will shake its plumage sharply, and send a cloud of
-dust flying, and in a minute or two will begin to peck among the
-feathers and settle the plumage. The different aspect of the bird is
-then quite remarkable, for it exchanges the fussy, anxious, fretful
-moments for quiet ease, and even when it does peck among the feathers,
-it does so gently and deliberately, and seems quite another bird.
-
-Moulting is a disorder to which the canary is annually subject, and
-which requires some little attention. Some time in the autumn all the
-canaries exchange the feathers which have endured the wear and tear of a
-twelvemonth for a completely new suit. Feathers are subject to damage in
-many ways, and just before the moult takes place the bird is quite
-ragged and disreputable in dress. Meanwhile the germs of new feathers
-have been growing in the sockets which held the old suit, and in the
-course of a few weeks all the feathers are shed and replaced by others.
-It may easily be imagined that such an operation is not achieved
-without much physical disturbance, and it is accordingly found that all
-birds are more or less indisposed during the time of the moult.
-
-Scarcely any two birds are affected in precisely the same manner, and
-the "moulting sickness" tells with especial severity upon the young.
-Quiet and nourishing food are the best remedies for the curious mixture
-of languor and fever which is always visible among the birds; and the
-most accomplished canary-breeders are in the habit of giving the yolk of
-hard-boiled eggs, and even a little raw meat, scraped and cut very fine.
-Sometimes, in their desire for animal food, the birds pluck the
-newly-formed feathers from the bodies of their companions, and nibble
-the still vascular and bleeding ends. Wine is recommended by some
-fanciers, but we cannot agree with them. The moult is a natural ailment,
-and the remedies which are best calculated to modify its effects upon
-the health are those to which the natural instincts of the birds would
-lead them.
-
-Frequently the claws and bill of the canary become overgrown, and
-produce very unpleasant results; the latter causing much difficulty in
-taking food, and the former entangling the foot in the wires of the
-cage. The remedy in either case is the same. Take the bird in the left
-hand, and hold it against the light; the overgrown portions of the claws
-will then be easily distinguished, inasmuch as a delicate scarlet line
-runs along the centre of each claw and nearly reaches its extremity.
-Taking this line as your guide, you carefully cut off the overgrown
-parts with a sharp pair of scissors, and cause thereby immediate relief
-to your feathered patient. The bill must be cut in the same way, but
-requires a little more care and some neatness in trimming. No pain is
-given to the bird when the operation is rightly conducted, for neither
-bill nor claw possesses sensation.
-
-Dysentery and diarrh[oe]a are very common among cage birds, and should
-be treated, the former with a drop or two of castor-oil, and the latter
-with a lump of chalk to peck at, and a rusty nail in the water.
-
-Sometimes the bird loses the feathers of the head and neck, and presents
-a most ungainly appearance. In such cases rub the head with almond-oil,
-and feed the bird for a few days on a mixture of lettuce, scalded bread,
-olive-oil, and a sprinkling of maw seed. Health will soon return, and at
-the next moult the bird will recover its lost plumage.
-
-Broken legs are of frequent occurrence, and mostly happen by the bird
-entangling itself in the wires and then struggling to free itself.
-Overgrown claws are a fertile cause of this misfortune. Do not try to
-bandage or in any way to meddle with the leg; but put the bird in a
-separate cage, take away the perches, place the food and water within
-reach, so that the patient may partake of them without needing to
-stand, and wait until the limb is healed. The bones unite very rapidly,
-and in a week or ten days the limb will be nearly as strong as before
-the accident, and will betray no sign of the recent misfortune.
-
-
-DOGS.
-
-It is to be supposed that each reader of these pages is either the
-possessor of a dog, or desires to obtain that privilege, and that he
-will wish to learn in a few lines the best way of managing and training
-his favourite.
-
-There are many works which treat of the Dog; but all those which are
-trustworthy are of very large dimensions, necessarily costly, and
-contain a vast amount of information which is very valuable to the owner
-of hounds, to the sportsman, or to the game-keeper, but is not required
-by the generality of those to whom these words are addressed. We have,
-therefore, endeavoured to condense into the few pages which can be
-allotted to a single subject all the information which is absolutely
-needed by those who keep dogs merely for amusement and the love of their
-society.
-
-Firstly, we may answer here a question that is often asked--namely,
-which is the best breed of dogs for ordinary purposes? We of course
-exclude all the strictly sporting dogs, such as the foxhound and
-harrier, the greyhound, and perhaps the bull-dog, though there is
-something to be said in favour of the last-mentioned, and somewhat
-maligned, animal.
-
-The tasks that we wish to impose on the dog are light and simple. We
-want him to be watchful at night, to alarm the house at the sound of a
-strange step on the premises; if possible, we want him to be courageous
-enough to attack an intruder. We want him to be a pleasant companion in
-our daily walks, to hunt after anything at which we may set him, to swim
-after any object that we may point out, and to retrieve anything for
-which we may send him. At the same time, we want him to be completely
-under command, and to be obedient at the least word or sign.
-
-Lastly, we want him to be cleanly and comfortable in the house, to know
-how to keep out of the way when he is not wanted, and to be sufficiently
-clever to learn all kinds of amusing performances.
-
-Where, then, shall we find an animal that is capable of fulfilling all
-these conditions?
-
-There are several varieties of dogs which are well suited for general
-purposes. There is the spaniel for example, faithful, affectionate,
-clever, and docile. There is the poodle, perhaps the best "trick" dog
-in the world, with his funny curly coat and his soft brown eye, full of
-intelligence almost human. There is the Newfoundland dog, who is perhaps
-almost too big to be a dweller within the house. There is the terrier,
-an amusing, bright-eyed, agile-limbed, fussy animal. There is the
-Italian greyhound, one of the most beautiful animals in the world, but
-too delicate to please the taste of a boy. There is the Scotch terrier,
-that odd, wiry-haired, clever creature, which has so often been
-immortalised by affectionate owners.
-
-[Illustration: THE SPANIEL.]
-
-[Illustration: THE TERRIER.]
-
-All these varieties are delightful animals, and we like them all. But
-had we the choice of a dog, we should take neither of them, preferring a
-mixture between the terrier and the bull-dog, provided, of course, that
-each were of good breed. Many people fancy that a bull-terrier is a
-dangerous dog to have about the house, and imagine that it is given to
-biting without due cause, and is too savage to be turned into a pet.
-
-But much of this misapprehension may be traced to the long-established
-and popular error regarding the bull-dog. It is seldom that a favourable
-account of this animal is given, and it is thought to be brutal, stupid,
-vindictive, and irreclaimably ferocious. It is impossible to deny that
-too many bull-dogs agree with this description; but it is equally
-impossible to deny that whenever they possess such bad characters the
-fault lies almost entirely with their master. "Like master, like dog,"
-is an old and true saying, which has been based on the experience of
-many years.
-
-If the bull-dog is properly treated, if the owner makes the animal his
-companion, and if he carefully studies its character, as every pet owner
-ought to do, encouraging the good qualities, and gently reproving the
-bad, it will be as gentle and much more quiet than a King Charles or a
-toy terrier. Looks are certainly against the animal. There is, perhaps,
-no creature with a more fell aspect than a thorough-bred bull-dog. Its
-underhung jaw, its glittering teeth, its sunken eyes, its tremendous
-chest, and lowering countenance are calculated to inspire terror rather
-than interest.
-
-Yet, when a bull-dog is managed with a due appreciation of canine
-nature, its aspect thoroughly belies its true nature. We know a
-thorough-bred bull-dog belonging to a friend, one of the fiercest and
-most sullen-looking beasts imaginable. Every one gives the animal a very
-wide berth; and we confess that when we first saw it we thought that its
-owner was not acting very wisely in permitting it to walk about
-unmuzzled. Yet this creature is playful and harmless as a kitten. Its
-great jaws look positively awful as it opens its mouth, and until its
-real qualities are known, it requires some little presence of mind to
-withstand its playful rush.
-
-For a pet, however, the bull-dog is scarcely suited, not being
-sufficiently active or lively. The purely-bred English terrier, on the
-other hand, is as mercurial a beast as one can wish to see; but it has
-little steadiness of purpose, is apt to run riot, and is a rank coward,
-not daring to face a rat, and having serious doubts before it can make
-up its mind to attack a mouse; therefore the skilful dog-fancier
-contrives a judicious mixture of the two breeds, and engrafts the
-tenacity, endurance, and dauntless courage of the bull-dog upon the more
-agile and frivolous terrier. Thus he obtains a dog that can do almost
-anything, and though perhaps it may not surpass, it certainly rivals,
-almost every other variety of the canine species in its accomplishments.
-In the capacity for learning tricks it scarcely yields, if it does
-yield at all, to the poodle. It can retrieve as well as the dog which is
-especially bred for that purpose. It can hunt the fox with the regular
-hounds. It can swim and dive as well as the Newfoundland dog. In the
-house it is one of the wariest and most intelligent of dogs, permitting
-no unaccustomed footstep to enter the domain without giving warning. It
-will chase rabbits, weasels, rats, or, indeed, any game, with
-unextinguishable ardour, and will fight any foe at which its master may
-set it.
-
-[Illustration: THE BULL DOG.]
-
-One fault indeed it has. It is just a trifle too quarrelsome with other
-dogs, and when it meets a strange individual of its own species, and has
-gone through all the preliminaries of back-arching, bristle-setting,
-_sotto voce_ growling, and the various performances with which two
-strange dogs greet each other, it is a little too apt to cut matters
-short by challenging the other to instant combat. Even this fault,
-however, is easily overcome by a kind but firm master, who can impress
-upon his pupil that it is not to fight anything at which he has not set
-it.
-
-And here let us make a few remarks upon the management of dogs.
-
-Severity is not at all needed, but firmness of purpose is indispensable.
-Patience and good temper are also two requisites, without which no one
-should attempt to manage a dog. The animal must be made to feel that
-when an order is given it has to obey at once, and not even the very
-slightest act of disobedience should be passed unnoticed. He will soon
-learn that lesson, and the rest is easy.
-
-If you can procure a dog in his early puppyhood, it is certainly the
-very best method, and you will not require a whip; but should the animal
-have attained maturity, you may employ this instrument, but must use it
-with the greatest discretion. If the dog is worthy of the name, you can
-punish him in a far more effectual way by appealing to his sense of
-shame than by flogging him; but if you once lose your temper, and begin
-to inflict a beating on the animal, half your influence will vanish.
-
-If the dog wilfully disobeys you, as will often be the case when he is
-full-grown and is trying your mettle, take him by the neck, tell him how
-wicked he has been, and give him one very sharp blow; not more than
-one,--because if you do so he gets so frightened that he forgets all
-about the scolding. Then let him have another chance, repeat the order,
-and if he disobeys again, inflict another stroke. He is not likely to
-offend a third time; and when he obeys the order, speak kindly to him,
-praise him, and make much of him,--for you can do more with a dog by
-praise than by rating.
-
-With a dog which you have possessed from puppyhood there is seldom the
-least necessity for severity. The creature is so accustomed to do what
-his master desires, that he hardly conceives the possibility of
-disobedience. Gentle firmness is all that is necessary in such a case;
-indeed, we are always opposed to the infliction of pain, except in rare
-instances, where it is the only means by which the animal can be taught
-the necessity for obedience.
-
-We cannot bear to see a dog look up to its master with the
-half-frightened, half-shrinking expression which is observable in one
-that has been accustomed to the whip. The animal ought to consider its
-master as its best friend, and to run to him when it is in distress,
-rather than to fear his presence and tremble at his voice.
-
-The Rev. J. G. Wood, writing on this subject, says:--
-
-"My dear old Rory used to be most abjectly miserable when he had
-offended me. His frisky tail and pretentious ears would droop on such
-occasions, his easy assured carriage would sink into a listless,
-spiritless gait, he would hide his head like a naughty child, he would
-not leave or enter the room openly, but would make the transit of the
-apartment by slinking under the chairs and tables, so as to keep
-himself out of sight as much as possible. He would crawl under my chair,
-and after waiting some time in hopes that I should notice him, would
-just push his nose against my heel, and then retreat again to his
-hiding-place. He would not eat, nor drink, nor sleep, nor be comforted
-by any one until I had spoken the desired words of forgiveness.
-
-"And then, when the first words of reconciliation were spoken, how he
-would advance with hope beaming in his countenance, still mixed with
-diffidence, lest he should have mistaken the tone of voice. And when he
-was quite certain that he was pardoned, when he felt my hand upon his
-head, how wild he was with delight! How he would jump about, and run
-from one person to another on his hind legs, and roll over on his back,
-and pretend to bite every one in turn, and knock the cat over, and bark
-until he had to be turned out of the room for the sake of preserving the
-drums of our ears.
-
-"Then how he would get out of the house, dash down the street at full
-speed, come pelting back again, jump on the window sill, bang with his
-tail for admission, and then walk quite soberly to his usual place, and
-lie on the hearthrug just as if nothing had happened.
-
-"There certainly are dogs whose feelings are quite beyond the reach of
-human sympathies; but it is more than probable that their callousness is
-attributable to the bad treatment of their owner, and not to any
-inherent defect in the animal's nature. In my little book, 'Glimpses
-into Petland,' the reader may see an account of a ridiculous dog who
-fairly got the better of me by simple vacuity and selfishness. I never
-saw such a dog in my life, and I really do not want to see such another.
-
-"Nothing could be made of him. He did not care for kindness; he could
-not be influenced by the whip; he never thought of obeying orders; he
-got into every scrape in which a dog could by any possibility fall; and
-was altogether a hopeless subject. Had I been a novice in the management
-of animals, I should have thought myself in fault; but being tolerably
-experienced in such matters, I was at no loss to set the failure down to
-its right source.
-
-"Just before commencing this account, I received a letter from a
-correspondent who had read the account of 'Roughie,' and wrote a
-vindication of the Skye terrier, to which variety the dog belonged. My
-correspondent stated that if the Skye terrier were obtained when young,
-and well treated, it was one of the most affectionate and faithful
-animals that could be found; but that if it were bandied about from one
-master to another, it lost all its loving qualities, and became a
-reckless, selfish beast. Such had evidently been the case with
-'Roughie,' and thus his peculiar disposition was accounted for."
-
-We will now just run through the list of the dogs which are best suited
-for pets. Of the bull-dog we have already spoken, as also of the
-terrier, which, as we have said, should be, if possible, a mixture of
-the two varieties. If you can secure a good healthy puppy from well-bred
-parents, think yourself fortunate, and make much of the dog.
-
-Do not crop his ears. If you have any sporting friends, they will advise
-you to do so, tell you that it spoils the dog, and give you all kinds of
-advice about it. Now, in the first place, it is reasonable to think that
-the dog's Maker knows best the kind of ear that is most suitable for the
-dog, and frames it accordingly. If the short, cropped form had really
-been the best, it would have been made after that pattern, and not left
-to the scissors of the dog-doctor to complete the work.
-
-So we say to our readers, defy the ridiculous prevailing fashion, and
-oppose common sense to it. In a few more years this cropping process
-will be pronounced obsolete and unnatural; so be amongst those who lead
-opinion, and save your dogs the pain of that cruel and unnecessary
-process. Not long ago worming was all the fashion. No dog was considered
-safe unless it had been wormed; that is, unless the under side of the
-tongue had been cut open, and the central tendon pulled out. Of course,
-when a tendon is drawn from the living body and laid in the cold air, it
-contracts and twists about. Therefore it was held to be a worm, and
-everywhere believed to be the cause of hydrophobia.
-
-Horses, again, were cropped in a most atrocious manner. Their ears were
-clipped close to their head, and their tails were cut quite short,
-leaving only a few inches of hair on the stump; so that the French
-satirist was quite justified in his sneer against the English as a
-people, who, he said, cut off the tails of their horses and the heads of
-their kings. The French did both afterwards, with the addition of a
-queen and a few princes. Nor was this all. The under side of the tail
-was cut across in several places--nicking, the operation was called--and
-then the tail was forcibly bent upwards, and tied in that position until
-the wounds healed, and the member left immovable. Fancy the torture the
-poor animals must have undergone, the fresh wounds being torn open and
-exposed to the air!
-
-Mr. Waterton, the venerable naturalist, remarks that in former days he
-tried to aid the cause of humanity by his example, and rode a horse with
-a proper allowance of tail and with uncropped ears. The experiment
-failed. The "_arbitrium popularis auræ_" was pleased to declare itself
-against ears and tails. There was such a commotion whenever the humane
-rider ventured to show himself abroad on a horse which possessed the
-abominations of ears and a tail--he was so mobbed, and his horse was so
-reft of his tail by the urchins who wanted fishing-lines--that, for the
-sake of the beast as well as himself, Mr. Waterton was obliged to
-conform to the popular verdict, and dock the tail of his horse as a
-compromise for his ears.
-
-Now, however, the verdict of popular opinion has undergone a change, and
-horses are permitted to wear their ears and tails; and the time will
-come before very long when a dog will be thought as much disfigured by
-having cropped ears as he is now thought to be when he is allowed to
-wear those members in their natural proportions.
-
-The only rational excuse that can be put forward for adopting such a
-practice is that which is employed by the owners of game-cocks, when
-they clip the combs of their feathered _protégés_. It is, that the
-length of the ear affords a hold for an antagonist. But as it is not to
-be supposed that any of my readers are likely to belong to that brutal
-class of human beings who keep dogs for the purpose of making them fight
-each other, we may pronounce that not one single valid reason can be
-urged for depriving a dog of his ears.
-
-There is the poodle, a delightful dog for a pet. They are docile in no
-ordinary degree, and can learn all kinds of tricks without seeming to
-take much trouble. Performing dogs mostly belong to this variety, and
-very amusing are the tricks which they will learn. They will dance a
-polka with easy skill. They will imitate a ball-room company with such
-ludicrous burlesque that no one can resist the temptation of laughing.
-They will walk about on their hind legs, on their fore legs, and have
-even been seen to walk with the two legs of one side, the other legs
-being held up in the air.
-
-It was difficult to imagine how they could have been taught such a feat;
-but it had been done by setting a board on edge, hitching the two legs
-of the left side over the board, and making the dog walk along in this
-attitude. After passing along the board three or four times, the dogs
-found that they could lighten the labour by holding their upper legs
-clear of the board, and so they soon learned to dispense with its
-presence.
-
-If you do have a poodle, you must wash him often and carefully, because
-these long, curly-headed dogs are apt to give out a disagreeable odour
-unless they are kept very clean. But do not on any account clip his hair
-in the stupid and ugly fashion that is so often adopted, and which was
-first imported from France.
-
-In that country they shave all kinds of dogs in the same manner, leaving
-only a ruff round the neck, a tuft on each leg, and a tuft on the end of
-the tail. There are men and women who make the clipping of dogs a
-profession. They have carts with pictures of dogs undergoing the
-process, and they perambulate the streets in search of patients, just as
-knife-grinders do in search of work.
-
-When they have collected a goodly assemblage of dogs, they set off to
-the river side, and take up their station under one of the bridges. The
-poor dogs, which have been trailing behind the cart at the end of cords,
-are now bound and muzzled, and miserable objects they look as they lie
-on their sides awaiting the shears of the operator. The hair that is
-removed is put into sacks, and sold, it is said, for manure; and the
-dogs are returned to their owners, metamorphosed out of all knowledge,
-and shivering at the slightest breeze.
-
-[Illustration: THE POODLE.]
-
-If your dog should be ever troubled with ticks and fleas, you may free
-him from his foes in ten minutes. First tie up his mouth with a piece of
-broad tape, to prevent him from licking off the substance which is to be
-applied; and if he is not very well under command, tie his legs also.
-Then lay him on a cloth, sprinkle him over with the insect-powder, which
-may be procured in small quantities at No. 33, Newgate Street, and rub
-the powder well into his fur from his nose to the tip of his tail. When
-you have done this, roll the cloth round him, and pin it well together,
-so as to envelop him entirely in its folds.
-
-You may let him lie as long as you like, but ten minutes will mostly be
-sufficient; then with a hard brush go all over him, and brush out all
-the powder into the cloth. You will be surprised at the multitude of
-parasites which will be lying dead and dying in the cloth. The powder,
-insects, and all should be carefully shot into the fire, and your doggie
-will be grateful to you for the relief which you have afforded him.
-
-Perhaps next to the bull-terrier ought to come the Scotch terrier, a dog
-that will hunt anything, and is always a quaint, independent beast, with
-something of the lawless Highlander about him, but a capital companion
-for any one who values dogs and knows how to treat them. Spaniels are
-all beautiful creatures, very affectionate, and often very clever; but
-their long, silky hair gets sadly bedabbled with mud and wet, and they
-cannot be admitted into the house until they have undergone a careful
-purification.
-
-Whatever dog you may have, do not tie him up in a kennel, or, at all
-events, allow the animal to enjoy human society for some hours daily.
-Dogs are _made_ savage by this too frequent procedure, especially those
-whose blood is purest and whose spirits are highest. A dog that is
-chained to one spot is sure to be irritable and captious, just as would
-be the case with a man who is tied to one spot. Even the kingly spirit
-of Napoleon lost its grandeur and became peevish and fretful when that
-restless and ambitious nature was confined within the narrow limits of a
-rocky island; and we cannot expect that the mind of a dog should be
-superior to that of an autocrat.
-
-As to the food of the dog, there is one simple rule,--do not overfeed
-him; and, above all, never let him have scraps at meal times. It is a
-very tempting practice, for the dog is so insinuating in the manner of
-his request, and his thanks are expressed so warmly, that some little
-strength of mind is required to refuse his demands. Still it is one of
-the occasions on which the dog's owner must show his firmness, for there
-are few more miserable beings than a fat, over-fed dog. His life is a
-positive burden to him, and the only remedy is to starve him down to his
-proper dimensions. Give the animal but little meat and plenty of
-biscuit, feed it once only _per diem_, and you will be repaid by the
-healthy and active condition of your pet.
-
-Lastly, as it is likely that the dog may fall into one of those canine
-ailments which are to dogs what measles and chicken-pox and
-whooping-cough are to children, we will just give a brief piece of
-advice.
-
-Distemper is the most common and most annoying of those ailments; and if
-the services of a professional dog-doctor can be had, let the animal be
-placed under his care. If no such assistance can be obtained, the best
-plan is to give the dog no solid food, but to administer gruel or weak
-broth, to prohibit _every kind of exercise_, and see that the
-ventilation and cleanliness of his house are as perfect as possible.
-Leave the rest to nature; and when the patient is recovering, let it be
-led about to exercise, so as to avoid over-fatigue, which would, as a
-matter of course, throw him back again.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-GOLD AND SILVER FISH.
-
-These are of the carp family, and have been known in this country from
-the year 1691. They abound in the fresh-water ponds, lakes, and rivers
-of China; nor are they, indeed, at the present time quite uncommon in
-our own climate, being now naturalised in ponds, and breeding freely in
-pure waters. At Hampton Court are to be seen some of the finest
-specimens of the family, originally placed there by Mr. Jesse, to whom
-the frequenters of that place of public resort are so much indebted.
-They have increased to several hundreds, and many of them are of
-prodigious size and very fat, being to fish what royal porters are to
-men.
-
-The colours of gold-fish are liable to the greatest variation: some are
-nearly all gold, mingled with red; some are marked with a fine blue,
-brown, or bright silver hue; but the usually predominant colour is that
-of a brilliant gold. As an article of food, they are not used; and are
-only valued for their beauty and gentleness. It is a curious fact in the
-history of the gold-fish, that it will bear without injury the extremes
-of heat and cold; as it will live equally well in a tank, in a glass
-vase, and in a pond in the open air. Instances have been known of
-gold-fish having been frozen hard and stiff in the water, but yet, upon
-being gradually thawed, becoming perfectly healthy and well.
-
-Although many preserves of gold and silver fish exist in this country,
-the supply was principally from Portugal, where they abound. They are
-brought over in large numbers about spring time; and then numerous
-perambulatory gentlemen, having purchased a few small glasses of the
-most inferior description, and fish at twopence each, very moderately
-ask, and often receive, for a couple of fish, glass, and water the sum
-of five shillings; but our young friends must beware of such persons,
-for the fish they sell usually die in a few days or weeks.
-
-The silver-fish differs from the gold-fish only in colour, which is
-similar to silver tissue: it generally has scarlet fins, and is
-curiously marked in different parts of the body. Both varieties are also
-subject to variations in the fins, which are occasionally double; and
-specimens have been seen with triple tails.
-
-
-GLASSES.
-
-The glasses, or globes, should be moderately large, with wide mouths,
-and three-fourths filled with water. For two fish the globe should be at
-least a foot in diameter; and for three or four fish, sixteen inches.
-They should be kept in a cool place--never exposed to a burning sun, or
-the heat of a fire. Too many should never be crowded into one glass. A
-few branches of box should be kept in the globe, for them to rub
-against, which should be changed once a week.
-
-
-FEEDING.
-
-Some persons fancy that gold and silver fish need no food. It is true
-that they will subsist for a long time with nothing but water, when it
-is pure and frequently changed. They are best pleased with such _jejune_
-diet as bread or biscuit; but these should be given sparingly, lest,
-turning sour, they corrupt the water. They will also feed on the aquatic
-plant called lemna, or duck's-weed, and also on small fry. Hawkins, the
-editor of Walton, says that fine gravel should be strewed at the bottom
-of the vessel that contains the fish; and he directs them to be fed on
-bread and gentles, and to have their water frequently changed.
-
-
-DISEASES.
-
-You can easily tell when a fish is falling off in his health by
-observing him frequently coming up to the surface of the water for air.
-This shows he has not sufficient power in his gills to extract the air
-from the water. He also looks dull, and his motions are languid; a hazy
-or cobwebby appearance likewise seems to envelop his body, and perhaps
-some of the scales will drop off. When a fish gets into this unhealthy
-state, he should be immediately removed from the others, who should have
-fresh water given them several days in succession. The best remedy for
-diseased fish is to put them into a pond for a few weeks; and it is
-especially necessary for female fish, which, if not so treated,
-frequently die for want of spawning. A fish is sometimes saved by being
-placed in a little artificial dam, made from some running stream in a
-garden, for two or three days; but their diseases are at all times very
-difficult to remedy. The best way is to prevent them by the
-precautionary measures--plenty of room and pure water.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE GUINEA-PIG.
-
-The guinea-pig, or restless cavy, is a prettily-marked, stupid, little
-animal, which came originally from South America, and has long been a
-favourite with most little boys, for when a boy becomes a youth he
-aspires to keeping something more interesting than these senseless
-little squeakers. Still it is a pretty sight to see the old ones
-followed by two or three litters, and to watch their antics when
-pleased, which consist of a squeak and a peculiar sharp turn, as if
-they tried to jump out of their skins, but could not, for they are
-fitted in too tightly for that. As for the use they are, why, they eat
-and sleep--
-
- "Just do nothing all the day,
- And soundly sleep the night away."
-
-It is, however, a pretty, harmless, little animal; but as a pet is far
-inferior to others that are more commonly kept. Though gentle and
-inoffensive in its manners, it seems incapable of feeling the slightest
-attachment for those who feed and caress it--even for its own offspring
-it evinces little or no affection: it will not only suffer them to be
-destroyed before its face, without making the smallest efforts to defend
-them, but will even at times devour them itself. For all useful purposes
-guinea-pigs are utterly valueless, though their flesh is used as an
-article of food in their native country; and their skins,
-notwithstanding the beautiful sleekness of their appearance, have as yet
-been turned to no account by the furrier. Their only recommendations,
-therefore, are the gentleness of their disposition, the cleanliness of
-their habits, and the beautiful colouring of their coats. In this latter
-respect they are very varied; black, white, bright reddish brown, and a
-mixture of the three, called tortoiseshell, being the principal
-varieties. The latter are the most prized, particularly where the dark
-colours predominate.
-
-In their native country they are generally of a pure white, with pink
-eyes, and it is nothing unusual to have one out of a litter white with
-pink eyes in this country.
-
-Rats are supposed by many people to have a great antipathy to
-guinea-pigs, carefully avoiding the place where they are confined. Under
-this impression--which, however, is an erroneous one--they are
-frequently kept by fanciers in their rabbit-houses and pigeon-lofts, as
-a means of protecting their stock against the depredations of those
-rapacious vermin. They are allowed to run almost anywhere, and to shift
-for themselves: no attention whatever need be paid to the feeding of
-them, the mere refuse scattered about the floor being sufficient for
-their subsistence.
-
-When, however, they are kept for amusement, their cages are generally
-made precisely similar to the rabbit's hutch, only of rather smaller
-dimensions: their treatment, too, in most respects, is much the same as
-that pursued with regard to that animal. Their ordinary food should be
-oats given twice a day, and not too many at a time. They are also very
-fond of bran, which is a cheap diet; and they will fatten upon it, and
-keep healthy, if allowed plenty of exercise. Green meat should also form
-a portion of their usual diet, particularly the wild sorts, such as
-dandelions, sowthistle, plantain, &c.; tea-leaves they are remarkably
-fond of, but these should only be given them now and then by way of a
-treat; bread, also, they are very partial to, dipped in milk or water.
-
-They are sold by all bird-fanciers; the prices varying from sixpence to
-half-a-crown, according to their age, colour, &c.: as before remarked,
-the dark rich-coloured tortoiseshell ones are considered the most
-valuable.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE HEDGEHOG.
-
-This, though a rough and prickly customer to handle, is a clean little
-animal, and a great pet with country boys. If you have ever seen
-one--and they are commonly sold at the shops kept by men who call
-themselves bird-fanciers, or even hawked about the streets of London by
-countrymen--if you have seen one, you are aware that, saving the belly,
-they are covered with sharp spikes, and that when alarmed, or whenever
-they please, they have the power of rolling themselves up into a tight
-round ball, which shows nothing but spikes, and may be rolled along,
-like a cricket-ball, without causing the little animal to uncoil itself,
-while every spike is firm and erect as a needle, and almost as sharp.
-While in this shape very few dogs can worry the hedgehog; and as for the
-fox, who is rather partial to him, true to his wily nature, he rolls the
-poor hedgehog along with his paws until he comes to a pool of water,
-when the hedgehog unrolls himself, exclaiming, no doubt, "Hey! why,
-what's this? I can't breathe!" and trying to peep about and see what's
-the matter, the fox, on the look-out, seizes him by the belly, and eats
-him all up, saving the spines. Were you to thrust a dozen pins with
-large heads through a piece of parchment, you would have an exact
-representation of the spines of the hedgehog, every one of which is
-retained inside the skin by the large pin-like head.
-
-Some say that it sucks the cows, and draws off their milk; but this is
-absurd, as its mouth is not adapted for sucking. Its favourite food are
-insects and snails: it also feeds on frogs and mice, and will even kill
-a snake, and eat it all up, beginning at the tail. The way it kills a
-snake is very curious. It gives the snake a bite on the back, then
-rolls itself up like a ball, remaining still as a stone for some time,
-while the snake lashes and writhes about in agony; as soon as the snake
-is a little quiet the hedgehog gives him another sharp bite on the
-spine, and so continues until the snake is killed; then he begins at the
-tail, as the Rev. J. G. Wood tells us in his "Illustrated Natural
-History," and eats him up "as one would a radish." In a natural state it
-sleeps all the winter, rolled up in a hole which it has filled with
-grass, moss, or leaves; and when domesticated, it will hide itself in
-some dark corner for weeks, and never once make its appearance, unless
-it chances to awake and feel hungry; then some day you will see it come
-creeping towards the fire, and be very glad to see it too. Hedgehogs are
-great destroyers of beetles, eating them up as quickly as you would a
-handful of raisins, and seeming fond of them. They need no looking after
-at all, but will take care of themselves, though it is as well to have a
-little hutch to put them into now and then. Their feeding-time is in the
-night; and if there are black-beetles in the kitchen, the best plan is
-to leave the hedgehog there, and let him devour all he can catch. They
-have four or five young ones at a litter, which are born blind. It is no
-uncommon sight to see a countryman with both old and young ones to sell.
-You can buy a young hedgehog for sixpence, and an old one for a
-shilling, or less than that even. We know of no animal that is less
-trouble to keep, and in time it becomes so tame as to come out of its
-hiding-place when called.
-
-
-THE JACKDAW.
-
-To procure a raven, an order to a dealer is almost necessary; but every
-boy should be ashamed if he cannot catch a young jackdaw for himself.
-These quaint birds make their nests in all kinds of places, especially
-affecting old buildings, such as church towers, ruins, or colleges.
-There is hardly an ancient church throughout the kingdom where a
-basketful of young jackdaws could not be obtained within half an hour,
-and old ruins positively swarm with them. It is curious to see how birds
-of such different habits as jackdaws, owls, pigeons, and starlings will
-roost amicably in the same locality, not appearing to have the least
-distrust of each other, or making half the fuss about their
-dwelling-places that is created nightly by the sparrows when settling to
-rest.
-
-Failing ruins and towers, he will take possession of deserted
-rook-nests; and in cases of great distress, when the country is wide,
-where men will not build towers, where rooks and crows will not build
-nests, he is forced to fly for succour to the sea-shore and the warren,
-and make his home with the gannets and the rabbits.
-
-Many a person has been surprised, on looking into a deserted rabbit
-burrow, to find it choked up with a strange mass of sticks and twigs,
-and still more surprised when he has brought to view a couple of
-jackdaw's eggs, or hears the hungry cries of the young birds. This
-seeming alliance of the rabbit and the jackdaw is not unique, for it is
-observed in the Coquimbo owl, or burrowing owl, as it is sometimes
-called, and the prairie dog of North America, both of which reside
-within the same warren, and seem perfectly satisfied with each other's
-company.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The sea-birds, too, receive the jackdaw into alliance, and whole
-colonies of these grey-hooded birds may be seen hovering about the lofty
-cliffs that bound our coasts, crying "Jack! Jack!" in inharmonious
-chorus with the sea-birds' wail.
-
-Sometimes a young and too artless bird leaves its nest before it is
-rightly able to use its wings, and is unable to ascend to the summit of
-the cliffs, flapping idly about the shore, driven nearer and nearer to
-the rocks by the advancing tide. The whole colony is roused by the
-misfortune. They wheel about in the air over the unfortunate bird with
-cries of distress; they do their best to encourage it to ascend; but
-their endeavours are all in vain. Time after time it aims at gaining the
-summit of the cliff, but strikes against the rock, and falls again to
-the sands.
-
-In some spots it contrives to gain an elevated perch, and then waits the
-ebb of the tide; but in those places where the rocks afford no
-resting-place within a moderate distance of the water's edge the fate of
-the poor bird is sealed.
-
-Jackdaws are very easily tamed, and become very talkative, after their
-fashion. Their vocabulary is, however, limited, and is mostly
-restricted to the word "Jack," which is uttered on every imaginable
-occasion. If the bird sees its master coming, it calls "Jack!" in order
-to express its joy; if it does not see him, it calls "Jack!" in order to
-induce him to come. If it hears a strange noise, it uses the same remark
-by way of giving notice; and if it hears its own name, it thinks itself
-bound to repeat the word as a polite recognition.
-
-It is a very vigilant bird, and is quite as useful as a watch-dog to
-those who wish to gain early intelligence of strange visitors. It is not
-nearly so mischievous as many of its compeers, but sits for the greater
-part of the day on some chosen perch, and thence surveys the objects
-around. A passing bee or beetle, however, immediately arouses its
-energies: it pounces on them with unfailing certainty, batters them to a
-shapeless pulp against a stone, and swallows them leisurely. It will
-also catch mice, kill them by severe blows of the beak upon the head,
-pull them to pieces, and eat them systematically, rejecting the skin as
-indigestible and unsavoury.
-
-As a general rule, it should be left out of the way of water; for it is
-a positive slave to the bath, and would bathe so frequently that it
-would not even give itself time to become dry. It may be fed on bread
-and milk, oats, mice, small birds, insects, meat, or, indeed, upon
-almost anything that can be eaten by the rapacious or frugivorous birds.
-It is of an affectionate nature, and will attach itself firmly to those
-who extend their sympathy towards it.
-
-
-THE JAY.
-
-The jay is a truly handsome bird, and will bear comparison with any of
-the exotic species of the same genus. Although it does not possess the
-exuberance of plumage nor the vivid brilliancy of colour that
-distinguish many of the jays which inhabit the hotter parts of the
-world, there is great beauty in the softly-toned hues of the general
-plumage and the boldly-contrasted bars of azure and black upon the
-wings. The moveable crest upon the head imparts a wonderful intelligence
-to the expression, and when the bird ruffles up and displays these
-ornamental plumes, a fresh charm is added to its appearance.
-
-The jay is not nearly so common a pet as the magpie or jackdaw, probably
-because it is a rare bird, and seems yearly to be diminishing in
-numbers. It is not so impatient of captivity as the magpie, and will
-bear confinement in a large cage with tolerable hardiness.
-
-In its native state the jay seems to be rather more of a vegetarian than
-the previously mentioned examples of the corvine birds. Still it will
-eat meat, small birds, mice, insects, worms, &c., and has been known to
-attack and devastate the nests of the thrush and other birds, and devour
-the half-fledged young. But if any proprietor of a jay is desirous of
-giving his pet an especial treat, he should supply him with a fresh egg.
-Any egg will answer the purpose, but if the jay seems to have a
-preference, the gaily-coloured egg of the thrush, perhaps, is most
-attractive.
-
-Like the magpie, he will soon learn to talk, and displays powers of
-imitation scarcely, if at all, inferior to those enjoyed by that lively
-bird. Even such sounds as the lowing of cattle, the grunting of pigs,
-the bleating of sheep, or the neighing of horses, are reproduced with
-marvellous fidelity by the jay, although its ordinary note is a soft and
-rather pleasing cry.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE MAGPIE.
-
-But what are we to say of the magpie, the very Mercury of the feathered
-tribes,--light, active, eloquent, and the most accomplished thief in the
-world? He wears all his bad qualities in the face, is not the least of a
-hypocrite, and carries off his delinquencies with so impudent an air
-that no one can help admiring him, however they may object to his
-principles.
-
-Not being so plentiful in England as the jackdaw, and building his nest
-on the summits of lofty trees, he is not so readily procured as that
-bird. He is, however, so extremely amusing in his manners, that most
-persons would rather expend a little more money in procuring a healthy
-magpie than give a much less sum for the more phlegmatic jackdaw. His
-mischievous propensities are proverbial, and anybody who keeps one of
-these birds must be prepared for the commission of every imaginable
-delinquency. Nor must he blame the bird if it should happen to steal his
-watch-chain, peck a hole through his best boots, fill his bed with
-sticks and pebbles, upset his ink-bottle, tear his papers, put his kid
-gloves into the dirtiest procurable puddle, or play practical jokes of a
-similar kind; he has only himself to thank for his carelessness in
-allowing it access to his domains.
-
-But if he makes up his mind that under such provoking circumstances the
-blame rests with himself, and that he will not be angry with the bird
-for following the dictates of its instinct, he will find his magpie a
-most entertaining companion, as full of odd tricks as a monkey, and as
-playful as a kitten. It requires very little attention, and provided
-that he be regularly fed, and furnished with a shelter in case of
-inclement weather, he will live to a venerable old age.
-
-The fertility of invention that characterises a magpie's mind is
-perfectly astonishing, and the anecdotes that are related by every one
-who has watched his habits are as varied as they are wonderful. There is
-an amount of self-reliance in the creature which betrays itself in every
-gesture, as well as in the knowing twist of the head; and the triumphant
-"carrack" that accompanies a successful piece of mischief and the
-impudent flirt of the tail afford unmistakeable evidence of the bird's
-true character.
-
-None of the corvine birds should be kept in cages. The jackdaw perhaps
-suffers least from such captivity, and the magpie perhaps the most. It
-has such a restless nature, that it is ever on the move, and if
-confined, in a cage, may be seen hopping from perch to floor, and from
-floor to perch, in miserable monotony of movement. Moreover, his
-beautiful tail always suffers severely from contact with the bars of the
-cage; and even if it is not rubbed down to a mere stump, as is
-frequently the case, it is always rendered ragged and disreputable at
-the tip.
-
-As a general fact, the ordinary wicker cages are of small use. A lively,
-active magpie, with all its senses developed, will make little of such a
-cage. Sometimes he will direct his attention to the door, and never rest
-until he has pulled it off the hinges. Sometimes he will set
-deliberately to work, and peck so fiercely and continuously at the bars,
-that he will break them away in splinters, and make his way out.
-However, the best plan is to avoid cages; or if the bird really must be
-placed in confinement, let the cage be roomy, and made of wire.
-
-Perhaps the chief charm of the magpie is his great capability for
-learning to talk, and his exceeding readiness to display that
-accomplishment. Some individuals are more eloquent than others, have a
-clearer articulation and a better memory,--just as is the case among
-human beings. But though all magpies may not be peculiarly excellent in
-their powers of conversation, they can all be taught to talk after a
-fashion, and are seldom chary of exhibiting their powers.
-
-A magpie has been known to imitate the human voice so perfectly that he
-has induced his dupe to answer his queries, believing them to have been
-made by the lad whose peculiar voice was so well simulated. Very little
-trouble is needful to teach a magpie to talk, for his imitative
-instincts are very largely developed, and he is sure to reproduce with
-marvellous fidelity the various sounds which he may hear. He can bark
-like a dog, mew like a cat, cry like a child, scream like a
-costermonger, and occasionally swear like a trooper. But he means no
-harm, and may be pardoned for the unrefined language he is sometimes in
-the habit of using.
-
-Magpies require plenty of water--not so much for drinking, although they
-are always thirsty birds, but for washing. They are extremely fond of
-bathing, and a plentiful supply of water is needful to keep their
-beautiful plumage in proper condition. The food of the magpie is the
-same as that of the jackdaw.
-
-
-OWLS.
-
-There are worse pets to be found than owls. They are not so immediately
-engaging as many creatures that have already been mentioned, but by
-proper management they can be made into very companionable birds,
-quaint, grotesque, and affectionate withal.
-
-The chief drawback to the owl as a pet is its nocturnal habits, which
-cause the bird to sleep during the day and to be awake during the night.
-To a certain degree this custom may be corrected. The chief reason why
-the owl wakes at night is, that it preys upon mice and other nocturnal
-creatures, whether mammals or insects, and must in consequence be able
-to pounce upon them as they rove abroad.
-
-Now, although at first to wake the owl will be found rather a tedious
-business, and to keep it awake still more difficult, a present of a
-mouse, or a small bird, or a large beetle, will generally rouse it, and
-cause it to remain awake for some little time.
-
-To change the creature into a wholly diurnal bird is impossible,
-inasmuch as the entire bodily structure, as well as the temperament, is
-that of a nocturnal being. The eyes, for example, are formed for vision
-in a very dim light, being of very great size, and with pupils so large
-that the ordinary light of day is painful to the bird, and dazzles it so
-much that it cannot see sufficiently to direct its flight. Exceptional
-cases have occurred, in which owls have been seen abroad in the daytime,
-and been observed in the act of catching mice at mid-day; but such an
-event occurs very seldom.
-
-Even when the bird is placed in a comparatively dark room, where the
-rays of the sun cannot beat upon it, the eyes are continually blinking
-as long as they are open, and the large nictitating membrane is ever and
-anon drawn over them. It may here be mentioned that the nictitating
-membrane is a kind of inner eyelid, made of very elastic membrane, which
-is gathered up in one corner of the socket, can be drawn over the eye by
-means of special muscles, and returns by its own elasticity when the
-tension is removed. It is peculiarly strong in birds of prey, and the
-best examples of this curious structure are to be found in the owls.
-
-[Illustration: WHITE, OR BARN, OWL]
-
-In general, the owl sits, or rather stands, during the daytime, fast
-asleep, having a very quaint aspect, the eyes being reduced to a mere
-pair of lines, sloping towards the bill, and surrounded by the round
-discs of stiff feathers which form a "splayed" window in the dense
-plumage, and allow the bird a wider scope of vision than it would enjoy
-if the aperture in the feathers were no larger than the eye itself.
-Altogether the bird looks wonderfully like a Chinese mandarin of very
-high rank, and consequently of great obesity; the sloping linear eyelids
-being just as oblique as those of the Chinamen, and the two feather
-discs representing the huge round spectacles with which the Chinese are
-accustomed to aid their vision.
-
-The position of the owl when at rest is rather curious. Instead of
-sitting with its head reposing on the shoulder, its legs bent, and its
-claws firmly grasping the perch, the bird stands stiffly upright, with
-its legs perfectly straight and its head upright. Here we ought to
-mention the popular error that birds sleep with their heads under their
-wings. Not only is this mistake impressed upon the young, and fostered
-by such familiar nursery-rhymes as that of "The north wind doth blow,"
-but it is in force even among educated persons, who have learned to
-observe as well as to think. In a recent controversy about fresh air and
-human lungs some of the advocates for stuffiness and closed windows
-employed as an argument the imagined fact that, when birds go to sleep,
-they exclude fresh air by tucking their heads under their wings. The
-force of their arguments and the accuracy of their facts were about on a
-par. Many birds compose themselves to sleep, but no one ever yet saw a
-bird put its head under its wing when going to roost. The real process
-is simple enough, as any one can prove who will take the trouble to
-watch a parrot or canary. The bird first settles itself in a comfortable
-attitude, which varies according to the species, and then turns its head
-round, and puts its beak among the loose feathers of the shoulder, the
-wings being kept closed and held firmly against the body.
-
-Owls may be procured in various methods. If the reader should happen to
-possess proper premises, he will find that to attract owls will be as
-easy as to buy them, and will give him better opportunities of studying
-their habits. All that is required is the command of a retired spot,
-where the birds will not be annoyed. A little ingenuity and the
-expenditure of a few shillings will do the rest.
-
-It is impossible to have a better or more complete plan of attracting
-the owls than that which is employed by Mr. Waterton at Walton Hall. He
-can, and does, attract all kinds of birds to his domain by the simple
-plan of affording them a secure shelter and the prospect of food. In the
-case of the owls the first precaution is the only one that is needful,
-the birds being perfectly capable of finding food for themselves.
-Possibly a few mice thrown on the ground might assist in attracting the
-birds; but as they will come when no such precaution is taken, such bait
-may be omitted.
-
-There is a popular idea that neither the lion, the eagle, or the owl
-will eat game which they have not killed. Nothing can be more opposed to
-fact than such a notion: for the lion is generally killed by laying in
-his haunts a dead animal, which he is sure to eat; the eagle is only too
-glad to pick up a dead lamb; and the owl will carry off almost any
-number of dead mice that are placed in its way.
-
-If the reader wishes to attract owls to his premises, he must prepare
-habitations for them. Knowing that the common barn owl, or white owl, as
-it is sometimes called, is fond of resting in buildings, Mr. Waterton
-has taken great pains to erect certain domiciles of which the owls are
-likely to approve. A large hole made in an old ruin is sure to attract
-the barn owl, especially if it be well sheltered with ivy, and a stout
-perch across the cavity may be useful. There are owl-houses in different
-parts of the domain, all tenanted by some bird, and most of them by the
-inhabitant for whose use they were made.
-
-The jackdaw is the most pertinacious usurper that can be imagined. Any
-house that will suit an owl will suit a jackdaw, and the daw is so keen
-at discovery and so quick at utilizing his faculties, that he takes
-possession, and fills the hole with sticks, before the owls have a
-chance of securing their home.
-
-If the brown owl is wanted, there are few places like a hollow tree, an
-article which can often be purchased very cheaply, set up in the
-grounds, and its interior arranged for the reception of the birds.
-
-A writer in the _Field_ newspaper has mentioned that he has been very
-successful in attracting the brown owl by means of an empty
-eighteen-gallon cask, made very clean, and fastened in a tree. A perch
-was placed inside, a convenient entrance-hole cut, and a quantity of
-very dry touchwood placed within. On this touchwood much of the success
-seemed to depend, for wherever it was omitted the owls declined to take
-possession of the cask. In order to fit it for its purpose, it was
-carefully dried in an oven. The exterior of the cask was painted so as
-to harmonize with the colours of the tree.
-
-Should the reader be unable to fit up such a residence, he may always
-purchase young owls at a cheap rate, and can train them after his own
-fashion. In order to show how much amusement may be given by so despised
-a bird as the owl, the following extract from a private letter is
-interesting:--
-
-"I saw a curious sight yesterday, which I think quite worth
-communicating to you. Some folks about us have got a young owl just
-fledged, and one of the boys had given him for his supper a dead swift,
-rather high and gamey. While he was enjoying this dainty, a young tabby
-kitten, æt. about eight weeks, came on the scene, and walking up to the
-owl, deliberately invited herself to a share in the repast. Mr. Owl did
-not express any objection, save by expanding his wings over his food,
-_more suo_, whereupon pussy crept under the outstretched wing, and went
-in for her share. It was droll enough to see the two going halves,
-especially as every now and then the owl got pussy's ear by mistake, and
-she in like manner began gnawing at his claw.
-
-"But the scene reached its climax by the appearance of five young
-ducklings hatched on Thursday last" (the date of the letter shows that
-it was written on Friday, and consequently that the ducklings in
-question were just eight days old), "who surrounded the group, and did
-what they could to help. The smell of the dead bird attracted, as I
-suppose, many small flies, which hovered about and settled, now on the
-owl, now on the cat, and now on the unfortunate swift. They had better
-have stayed away, however, for the ducklings snapped them up as fast as
-they alighted, while both the owl and the cat seemed quite to disregard
-the pokes and pecks which their bodies received from the sturdy bills of
-the ducklings."
-
-If the reader should keep owls in confinement, where they cannot procure
-food for themselves, he must remember that they are hungry beings, and
-give them plenty of food. They will eat almost any kind of meat, but are
-very fond of mice and small birds, the latter of which they will mostly
-contrive to swallow entire. There is no doubt that all the British owls
-feed upon small birds when they can procure them. They have been
-observed in the act of robbing the nests, in spite of the screams and
-attacks of the angry parents, and the skulls, feathers, and bones of the
-murdered birds have been seen in the pellets which all owls disgorge.
-
-[Illustration: BROWN OWL.]
-
-In common with most raptorial birds, the owls disgorge the indigestible
-parts of their food, such as the bones, the feathers, and the skin; and
-as the owl eats its prey entire, the amount of such substances is
-remarkable. They are formed into egg-shaped masses, and may be found in
-plenty in the nest or on the ground near the nest. In some parts of the
-country these castings are called "quids." When they are first ejected,
-they are wet and rather tenacious; but they rapidly become dry, and can
-then be crumbled down into a soft flock-like substance, which forms the
-bed on which the eggs repose.
-
-These eggs can easily be recognised by their peculiar shape and texture.
-In form they are very globular, their shells are very thin, and the
-surface is rough and chalk-like, as if some one had ground a piece of
-chalk into coarse powder, mixed it with gum, and painted the egg with
-the mixture. Any one who is experienced in such matters knows an owl's
-egg as soon as he handles it, even though he cannot see the object which
-he touches.
-
-Their method of eating mice is very curious, and that the owl should
-derive any gratification from the process seems to be rather remarkable.
-The owl catches the mouse with its foot--a member that is wonderfully
-fitted for the purpose--and then shifts the mouse to its beak; in this
-respect differing from the hawks, which hold the prey with the foot, and
-only use the beak for the purpose of tearing it to pieces. At the
-Zoological Gardens the falcons may be seen at feeding-time with the meat
-in their claws, never taking it in the beak when they move, but hobbling
-about with a lump of raw meat hanging to one foot, and presenting a very
-absurd spectacle.
-
-When the owl has settled itself into a comfortable position, it gives a
-kind of snap and a gulp, and in a moment the head of the mouse is in its
-throat. Another gulp and a shake of the head, and the mouse has
-disappeared, with the exception of the tail, which hangs on one side of
-the beak. This part of the process seems to afford the owl the greatest
-satisfaction, for the bird remains for some time in this attitude,
-standing perfectly still, but giving the tail an occasional roll in the
-beak. Suddenly the head goes back with a jerk, the eyes close, there is
-a mighty gulp, and the tail has followed the mouse into the bird's
-stomach. The whole process of swallowing the prey is very much like that
-which may be observed in the toad, the gulping effort to swallow
-appearing to be equally great in either case.
-
-All owls can be treated in a similar manner, so that there is no need of
-mentioning them individually. If, however, either of the eared owls can
-be obtained, the young naturalist should not fail to do so. Owls kept in
-captivity should not be placed in cages, provided that other
-accommodation can be furnished, but should have a dark recess in which
-they can sit during the day, and where they can always be found. They
-are not easily seen by inexperienced eyes, as they have a habit of
-choosing perches in spots where their colour harmonizes with that of the
-locality. When properly treated, the owl can be made quite tame; but
-unless it be taken when young, it is rather uncertain in temper, biting
-very sharply. If any one approaches the owl, and hears a quick, snapping
-sound, as if an elastic piece of wood were "flicked" against a table, he
-may take it as a warning that the bird does not approve of him, and that
-he had better not trust his hands too near the owl.
-
-Any one can see how cat-like are the owls in their general physiognomy,
-as well as in their nocturnal and mouse-loving habits; and they even
-carry their feline propensities into peculiarities of diet. No animals
-are less aquatic than the cat, and yet none are more fond of fish. Even
-the best bred and most carefully-trained cat finds a difficulty in
-resisting her appetite when she sees fish on the table, and she can
-hardly have a greater treat than an occasional sprat, herring, or
-plaice. Angler-cats are not uncommon: several that were accustomed to
-haunt the water side have been known to catch the fish in shallow water,
-and would even plunge into deep water for their prey. In like manner the
-owl is a great fish-lover, and has been seen in the act of dropping into
-the water, and rising again in the air with a fish in its claws. Now it
-is an invariable rule with animals of all kinds, that these little
-aberrations, if we may so term them, are conducive to health: a very
-familiar instance is the occasional grass-eating propensities of the dog
-and cat. The young naturalist will therefore consult the health of his
-owl pets by giving them a fish now and then, as well as a few large
-insects, in addition to their ordinary diet.
-
-
-THE PARROT.
-
-Among the vast multitude of birds which inhabit all parts of the earth,
-or even among the many species which are found in our own country, it is
-no easy matter to make a first choice. We will, however, commence with
-the parrot; and before proceeding to describe the several species which
-are generally in vogue among English fanciers, we may remark that the
-parrots, paroquets, macaws, and cockatoos are found in almost every warm
-portion of the globe. Many of the largest and most magnificent species
-inhabit South America, while Australia is remarkable for possessing
-several examples of this beautiful group of bird that are most
-interesting to the young naturalist on account of their form, colour,
-and habits.
-
-One species, the Long-billed Parrot, or Nestor, scientifically called
-_Nestor productus_, is now, as is feared, totally extinct, the last
-known specimen having been shot some years ago. This curious bird was
-notable for a wonderfully long upper mandible, very like a pickaxe in
-shape, and employed in much the same service, being used for digging out
-of the ground the roots and other vegetable substances on which the bird
-was accustomed to feed. It is rather remarkable that, although this
-strange land is very rich in the parrot tribe, none of them except the
-cockatoo can be taught to speak, being apparently incapable of any
-imitation of the human voice, and rarely uttering any sound except a
-scream or a chuckle. Asia also possesses some very elegant species.
-
-All the birds belonging to this tribe are furnished with rather big
-heads, very large and curved beaks, with the upper mandible hooked well
-over the lower, which is short and stout; and their toes are so formed
-that they are divided into two opposable sets, so as to permit the bird
-to grasp an object in its claws almost as if they were hands. In
-climbing, an exercise of which the parrots are very fond, the young
-naturalist will probably observe that the bird makes nearly as much use
-of its beak as of its feet; and even when tame and accustomed to perch
-on the hand of its owner, it aids itself in its movements by taking hold
-of the fingers with its beak, although too gently to cause any injury.
-
-The species which is most celebrated for talking is the Grey Parrot, a
-well-known bird, living, when wild, in Western Africa, and being at once
-identified by its grey plumage and short red tail. There are several
-modes of obtaining this bird, such as requesting a naval friend to bring
-one home on his return, or going and fetching one for yourself. But as
-there are few who are so happy as to have an accommodating nautical
-friend or relative, and still fewer who are able to undergo the perils
-and hardships of a sea voyage, the best way is to go to a respectable
-dealer, and give him an order for a young healthy bird. We say a young
-bird, because the purchaser will then be able to teach it every word
-that it speaks, and will find his feathered pet become far more familiar
-than if it entered his possession when aged and with fixed habits.
-Moreover, an older bird is very apt to pick up all kinds of phrases
-employed by the sailors on board the ship in which it made its voyage;
-and although such a vocabulary excites no particular surprise at sea, it
-is rather too forcible and idiomatic for society.
-
-The worst of the matter is, that the parrot is possessed of an iron
-memory, and never seems to forget anything it has once learned, however
-its acquirements may have been overlaid with fresh teachings. It has
-often happened that a parrot which has behaved for a long time in the
-most exemplary manner, and employed none but the most refined language,
-has suddenly met with a sound which recalled all its old associations,
-and induced the bird to pour forth a copious volley of language too loud
-to be disregarded, and too plain to be misunderstood.
-
-[Illustration: THE GREY PARROT.]
-
-And parrots are just like children in their propensities for saying the
-most dreadful things exactly at the most inconvenient times and to the
-most fastidious persons, always choosing a dead silence for making some
-deeply reprehensible remark, and invariably addressing their
-observations to some lady or some staid ecclesiastical dignitary.
-
-Parrots are marvellously nervous birds, and while young will often throw
-themselves into such paroxysms of fear at the mere sight of a stranger,
-that they will even endanger their lives. They have an odd and
-unpleasant habit of scolding on such occasions, uttering loud, rough,
-grating cries, as piercing to the ear as the sound of a file or a saw,
-and stretching out their necks with ruffled feathers and agitated
-gestures. Some birds retain this extreme timidity for a very long time,
-in spite of all attempts to conciliate them.
-
-As the management of the different species is nearly, if not quite,
-identical, it is unnecessary to trouble the reader with a detailed
-description of each kind of parrot and the mode of treating it; it will
-be sufficient to tell him how to manage these birds generally, and give
-a brief account of the country, form, and colour of those species which
-are most commonly brought to this country. There are, indeed, so many,
-that it is impossible to mention more than five or six sorts; but if the
-reader desires to learn more about the parrot tribe, let him refer to
-the Rev. J. G. Wood's "Illustrated Natural History," vol. ii., where he
-will find the subject treated at length, and with large figures of all
-the most remarkable species.
-
-The Amazon, or Green Parrot, is so called from its colour, which is
-mostly bright green, with some yellow and purple tints here and there.
-This species is brought to England under the title of the Green Parrot,
-the second species being more properly called the Festive Parrot. It is
-much larger than the common species, being about fifteen or sixteen
-inches in length, and having the feathers of the lower part of the back
-of a deep vermilion.
-
-Teaching this bird to talk is by no means a difficult task,--not nearly
-so difficult, indeed, as hindering it from learning accomplishments
-which it is not desired to possess, or inducing it to refrain from
-producing objectionable sounds, whether articulate or otherwise.
-
-In order to teach the parrot to imitate sounds, the best and simplest
-mode is to take the bird into a perfectly quiet room, where it can hear
-and see no one but the instructor, and will not have its attention
-distracted by surrounding objects.
-
-Then, after taking every care to render the feathered pet familiar,
-speak the words, or produce the sounds, which the bird is required to
-imitate, and be careful to avoid varying them even by the fraction of a
-tone. You will soon see the pupil taking notice of the oft-repeated
-sound, and it will presently hold its head aside, as if to catch the
-tones more clearly. After a while it will try to imitate them, and as
-soon as it makes an attempt, however imperfect, make much of the bird,
-and give it a small morsel of some special dainty.
-
-[Illustration: THE GREEN PARROT.]
-
-Parrots are largely gifted with the faculty called by phrenologists
-"love of praise," and are in no slight degree incited by self-esteem; so
-that it is possible to induce the bird to perform the oddest feats by
-carefully working on these two propensities. They have an almost morbid
-love of being noticed, and crave for words of praise with as much
-appreciation as if they could understand their import. You can throw one
-parrot into a very passion of jealousy by pretending not to hear it, and
-talking to another bird.
-
-One difficulty in the management of these birds is, that when you have
-taught them to exercise their powers of imitation, they are apt to pick
-up a kind of chance-medley of every sound they hear, instead of adhering
-to one lesson and learning it thoroughly before they begin another.
-Breaking them of the habit is a difficult task, but can be achieved with
-ordinary care.
-
-The simplest plan is to pounce at once on the obnoxious sound, and, by
-never letting it pass unnoticed, give Polly an idea that it is not to be
-uttered. If she persist in her delinquency, the best way is to scold
-her, and put her at once into a dark closet, or throw a thick shawl over
-the cage, so as to exclude the light. Parrots detest being left in the
-dark, and it is surprising how soon the bird finds that her utterance of
-the forbidden sound is sure to be followed by condign punishment, and
-therefore ceases to be guilty of the offence.
-
-Wherein shall our parrot live? This is a natural and a needful question,
-and requires a few lines in reply.
-
-Assuming that, in any case, the bird is to have plenty of room, as is
-needful for a creature so restless and active, a cage is to be
-recommended, unless the parrot is very tame, and there is no fear of
-strange cats; we say strange cats, because Polly will generally contract
-an alliance with the cat and dog of the household, and be on the most
-friendly terms with them.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-A good form of cage is here given. As the reader will observe, it is
-much wider across the top than is usually the case. This is to give the
-bird room to traverse the cage, or luxuriate in its swing, without the
-danger of rubbing its tail into a shabby and ragged condition. There is
-a metal hoop suspended by a chain, and it is found that parrots are very
-fond of getting into this hoop, and swinging about. The cage should be
-made of galvanized iron wire, very strong, and at least five feet high.
-We desire to dissuade our readers, in the strongest terms, from
-purchasing cages made of brass wire for their parrot, or indeed for any
-other bird. Brass is terribly apt to produce verdigris, especially in
-London or in any other large town, and where gas is much used; and as
-birds, and parrots especially, are fond of nibbling the wires, they may
-be poisoned, and die a painful death.
-
-Should, however, the bird be trustworthy, we would recommend one of the
-common crutch perches, to which the bird is secured by a chain, having
-one end fastened to a ring on its foot, and the other end affixed to the
-crutch. If the room in which the bird is kept will permit the
-arrangement, by far the best plan is to add a strong twisted wire to the
-crutch, and carry it to the ceiling, as is done in the Crystal Palace.
-The chain, instead of being fastened to the crutch, terminates in a
-ring, which slides upon the upright wire, and permits the bird to mount
-or descend at will.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Polly will be charmed with this addition to her range of locomotion, and
-the sight of his pet bird enjoying herself cannot fail to repay the
-owner for the slight extra trouble he has taken.
-
-Parrots are very fond of exercising their strong beaks, and are apt to
-gnaw their perches so incessantly, that they cut them in two, despite
-the hardness of the material. Prevention, they say, is better than cure;
-and if the young parrot-owner will take care to give his bird now and
-then a stout piece of elm wood, with the bark not removed, he will find
-that Polly will prefer to tear and rasp away at the elm board to biting
-her hard perch, where there is no bark to be stripped off.
-
-[Illustration: THE COCKATOO.]
-
-The pretty Cockatoos are always great favourites, their form being very
-elegant, their colour delicate, and their talkative powers very great.
-These birds are natives of Australia and the Indian Islands, and derive
-their name from the peculiar cry of some members of their kind, which
-exactly resembles the word cockatoo.
-
-The two species generally found in captivity are the great Wide-crested
-Cockatoo, known by the crest of broad and slightly-hollowed feathers
-which decorate the head, and which can be raised and even thrown forward
-when the bird is excited with pleasure or anger. The colour of this bird
-is white, and the under surface of the crest is tinged with red. It
-comes from the Moluccas, and is deservedly in favour as a pet, being
-docile, affectionate, and very quaint in its habits.
-
-The other species is the Lesser, or Sulphur-crested, Cockatoo, also from
-the Moluccas and Indian Islands. It is easily known by the pointed
-sulphur-yellow crest, which is continually being raised and thrown
-forward. Both kinds can learn to talk to some extent, though they are
-not such admirable linguists as their kinsmen the parrots.
-
-The pretty Ring Paroquet is a native of the East Indies, and is a very
-familiar inhabitant of our aviaries and cages. It is a gentle creature,
-and most affectionate to a kind owner. It is mightily fond of walnuts,
-and the bird can be kept in a state of great good-humour for an hour or
-more by giving it half a one, and telling it to pick out the contents
-with its hooked bill. The bird seems perfectly happy, holding the nut in
-one claw, shifting it with great dexterity, so as to get it into the
-best position for extracting the kernel, and uttering the while a
-little, low chuckle of gratification. The colloquial powers of this bird
-are moderate; but it does not learn so readily, nor repeat so
-accurately, as the grey or green parrot.
-
-The Macaws are notable for their very long tails, very big beaks, and
-very brilliant colouring. The two species usually seen in England are
-the Scarlet and the Blue-and-Yellow Macaw. They come from Southern
-America, and have a most magnificent appearance while flying from tree
-to tree, with the sunbeams flashing from their gorgeous plumage.
-
-As a pet, the macaw is rather too noisy, and has a horribly loud and
-dissonant yell by way of a cry. It is, however, a magnificent bird,
-often measuring more than a yard in length. The colour of the plumage is
-almost entirely of a rich glowing scarlet, relieved here and there by a
-little blue, yellow, and green.
-
-The Blue-and-Yellow Macaw is another native of tropical America, and
-though not so gorgeously resplendent a bird as its scarlet relation, is
-yet a remarkably handsome creature. As may be surmised from its popular
-appellation, the colour is chiefly of the two tints blue and yellow,
-mixing occasionally so as to produce green.
-
-Without going too deeply into minute details, it will suffice to say
-that the upper part of the back, the wings, and the tail are azure blue,
-and the under part king's yellow. On the forehead is a patch of green,
-the chin is black, and the cheeks are white and naked, with the
-exception of three narrow bands of very tiny feathers drawn successively
-beneath the eyes.
-
-The parrot tribe may be fed upon various vegetable substances, such as
-grain of different kinds, seeds, nuts, Indian corn, and biscuits. The
-stones of peaches are great favourites with these birds, who derive much
-amusement from picking with their scoop-like tongues the soft fruit from
-the interstices of the rough stone.
-
-They ought not to have any kind of animal food, not even milk, which is
-frequently recommended for their use, as their systems are apt to become
-heated, and then they pull away their feathers in their attempts to
-alleviate the irritation. Sometimes a parrot will pluck itself bare in
-every part where its bill can reach, and so injure itself materially. A
-capsicum pod now and then is, however, a treat, and may be given
-sparingly. Be careful to use glass or earthenware pans for their food,
-and see every morning that the cage and pans are quite clean and bright.
-
-
-PIGEONS.
-
-The practice of rearing pigeons for fancy or amusement has been for a
-long time prevalent in England. In ancient times the "dove-cote" was a
-general appendix to the family hall or farmer's homestead; and at the
-present time it may still occasionally be observed peering above the
-trees in country districts; while in London the pigeon-loft, with its
-"dormers," "area," "traps," and other appliances, may be frequently seen
-on the house-tops, more especially in the districts inhabited by the
-working classes.
-
-Pigeons live together in pairs; and when a cock and hen once form an
-attachment, the union generally lasts during their lives. The pigeon in
-a wild state breeds only twice or thrice in the season, but the domestic
-birds will breed every six weeks, or during the greater part of the
-year.
-
-Whatever number of broods a pair of pigeons may bring up in a year, the
-hen never lays but two eggs before she sits. She incubates for eighteen
-days after the laying of the second egg. Both the cock and hen assist in
-the hatching: the hen usually sits from the afternoon till about eleven
-o'clock on the following morning; the cock then takes her place, and
-sits while she goes out to feed and exercise herself, and generally
-keeps on the nest until two or three o'clock in the afternoon.
-
-When first hatched, the young are fed for about eight days with a milky
-secretion prepared in the crop of the parents, and regurgitated into the
-mouth of the young, and afterwards with grain and seeds the old ones
-have picked up in the fields and treasured in their crops. In this mode
-of supplying the young with food from the crop birds of the pigeon kind
-differ from those of any other family.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Formerly it was common to erect buildings as dove-cotes in the
-neighbourhood of great country mansions: many of these were of
-considerable size and elevation, as shown in the engraving. The custom,
-however, has fallen into disuse, and pigeon-houses of more moderate
-sizes are now generally employed.
-
-A small one is very often formed from a wine-cask, which has holes cut
-in its sides, and a small platform made before each, to form a
-resting-place in front for the birds to alight upon. The interior is
-divided into chambers by the carpenter, or any boy of common
-carpentering ingenuity may readily do it himself. The cask is then
-elevated on a stout thick scaffolding pole or the trunk of a straight
-tree, and made perfectly secure. In arranging the internal chambers for
-the birds care should be taken that they are large enough for them to
-turn round in with ease. The cote should be fixed in a warmish spot, and
-not exposed to cold easterly and northerly winds. The top of the cask
-should be thatched or boarded, and this protection should come well over
-the holes and sides of the cote, so as to protect it from the heat of
-the sun in summer and the drifting of the rain in unseasonable weather.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The young fancier may employ one after the fashion shown on the
-following page: this, with its compartments, may be fixed up against the
-south or south-west side of a stable, barn, or out-house. The outside
-should be well painted, and the alighting places slightly slanted, so
-that the water or rain may not lodge on them, but run off to the ground
-outside. The whole should be so placed that it can be approached by a
-ladder, which ought not to be permanently attached to the cote, or it
-may be a means for the intrusion of cats and vermin.
-
-It sometimes happens that a spare loft or room presents itself to the
-young pigeon-fancier, which may be made use of for a pigeon-house. When
-this is the case, it can easily be filled up with pigeon-boxes, which
-may be arranged round the sides, while holes are made on the outside of
-the building for the pigeons to fly in and out at. Broad flat perches
-may also be placed across the room, upon which the birds may rest. The
-boxes for the nests should be at least a foot square.
-
-It is far more advantageous and profitable to keep pigeons in a spare
-room than to employ the dove-cotes on a pole, or those fixed against the
-side of a house, as double the number of young birds may be reared, the
-nests being sheltered from the inclemency of the weather.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-As to the compartments, or nests, every one should be furnished with an
-earthenware nest-pan, of a size adapted to the pigeons for which they
-are intended. Sand or gravel should be sprinkled over the shelves and on
-the floor, as the small stones with which it abounds are useful to the
-birds in helping them to digest their food, and a little old
-mortar-rubbish or pounded burnt oyster-shells should be given, to supply
-the lime necessary for the shells of the eggs. Everything about them
-should be kept very clean, and the whole apparatus, of whatever kind it
-may be, should undergo a frequent and thorough purification, while the
-nest-pans or boxes should be well cleaned after every hatching.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-There is a contrivance of great use which is employed for letting into
-the loft those birds who may not happen to come home before the areas
-are closed for the night. The object of this door, which is called the
-"bolting wire," is to let the birds in without letting those in the loft
-pass out. It is made by placing before a square aperture cut in the
-pigeon-house a couple of wires about three inches apart from each other
-(as seen in the drawing): these swing loosely upon a piece of wood,
-which turns on a wire, and their lower ends come over the lower ledge on
-the inside. By this arrangement, when a bird outside presses against the
-bars and tries to get in, the whole opens inwards, and he easily enters;
-but if one from within tries to get out, the wires press against the
-ledge at the bottom, and effectually prevent his egress.
-
-Within the pigeon-house should be placed boxes for the grain, pulse, and
-beans that the birds feed upon.
-
-Pigeons are great devourers of food, and will eat any kind of grain,
-such as wheat, barley, oats, peas, beans, vetches, Indian corn, tares,
-&c. Small beans, called pigeon's beans, are the best general food for
-all pigeons. If possible, the peas, beans, or tares given to the birds
-should be old, as new pulse is apt to disagree, and purge them. Hempseed
-is very stimulating, and although pigeons are very fond of it, it should
-be sparingly given.
-
-Pigeons are very fond of lime and salt, and to supply themselves peck
-out the mortar from between the tiles. To prevent this, it is best to
-make them what is called a "cat," which will be exceedingly grateful to
-them, as it will tend to keep them in good health. This is done in the
-following manner:--
-
-Mix some sifted gravel or earth with old mortar-rubbish, or pounded
-burnt shells, if this cannot be obtained; add a few handfuls of salt;
-and make the whole into a mass with water. Portions of this may be put
-into flower-pots, and placed in situations where the birds can get at
-them easily.
-
-[Illustration: MATING CAGE.]
-
-Pigeons are often sadly annoyed by vermin. To prevent the increase of
-these intruders, the most scrupulous attention should be paid to
-cleanliness in every part of the houses, nests, and places of resort,
-and the birds should be provided with shallow pans of water to wash in.
-
-Sometimes there is a little trouble attending the mating of pigeons, and
-it is of great importance that they should be properly matched, or the
-young will not be purely bred. The mating coops should have a thin
-lattice-work partition between them, so that the birds may make
-acquaintance with each other, and match together, when they may be
-placed in one pen. When they are properly mated, they may be left at
-liberty to arrange and build their nests, which they will do very
-readily. The illustration on the preceding page shows the construction
-of the mating cage.
-
-
-VARIETIES OF PIGEONS.
-
-The Columbidæ, or family of pigeons, are one of the most numerous and
-most widely distributed families of birds. They are all vegetable
-feeders; and many congregate in flocks. But notwithstanding their
-numbers, general distribution, and beauty, only two, out of a great
-number of species, have been brought into subjection by man: these are
-the common pigeon, or house pigeon, known as the Rock pigeon when in the
-wild state, and abundant in several parts of the cliffy and caverned
-shores of the British Islands, and the Collared, or Cream-coloured dove,
-with a narrow black collar round the neck. This latter is frequently
-kept in confinement: it breeds freely if in very large cages, and it may
-be reared in the open air in this country if protected during severe
-winters.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-BLUE ROCK DOVE.
-
-The Blue Rock dove is the undoubted origin of all the different
-varieties of domestic pigeons. It is a most beautiful bird; its general
-colour is blue, with two black bars across the wings. In some few of the
-large dove-cotes blue rocks still exist; but the pure race,
-uncontaminated by intermixture with any of the numerous varieties of
-domestic pigeons, is scarcely to be obtained except in the distant
-islands of the Hebrides, or in remote districts unfrequented by man. It
-is a swift flyer, a good forager, and a prolific bird; but its
-comparative wildness renders it ill adapted for a domestic pet.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE ANTWERP, OR SMERLE.
-
-Smerles are the Flying Pigeons of Belgium. These extraordinary birds,
-that perform races of 500 miles, returning home to Brussels and the
-adjacent towns from the south of France, and even from Spain, closely
-resemble the blue rock in general form; but, as shown in the engraving,
-the feathers of the wings are rather broader, and the head and beak
-thicker and shorter. They are of various colours, as blue, checquered,
-red, mealy, &c. Their desire to return home is so great that it is
-useless to attempt to establish a stud of them, by liberating old birds,
-however long they may be shut up; the only plan is to rear young from
-them whilst confined in a room or loft, or to obtain young birds that
-have never flown at the place of their birth. These, from the peculiar
-noise they make, are termed "squeakers."
-
-We do not know any more delightful fancy for boys than Antwerps, as they
-are strong, hardy, fertile, and require no special trouble; good water
-and a little care in cleaning is all they ask; and they reward their
-owners by being always ready to convey to their home messages from any
-distance which they may have been trained to fly. The training is thus
-accomplished: the young birds, when they can fly round with the others,
-and dash about in the air in that vigorous style that characterises the
-breed, are taken a short distance from home and set free. They rise, and
-circling round and round, descry their home, and make straight for it.
-
-Their next journey is longer, and so on; the distances are gradually
-increased, until the birds will return even for several hundred miles.
-When these birds are used to convey messages, the paper must be so
-attached as not to impede their flight. The proper mode of doing this is
-to write upon a strip of thin soft paper, about half an inch broad by
-three or four inches long: this is rolled round the leg, and secured by
-a thread. An ordinary letter, tied to the bird in the manner that is
-often represented in engravings, would entirely prevent its flight.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE POUTER.
-
-The breeds of pigeons that are most valued by fanciers are those that
-differ in the greatest degree from the blue rock doves and the common
-mongrel dove-house pigeons. Of these the Pouters, Carriers, and Tumblers
-are the most esteemed. The pouter is a remarkable bird, distinguished by
-the extraordinary power it possesses of inflating or blowing out the
-neck: it is also characterised by the extreme length of its legs, which
-should be feathered to the toes, and the length of the feathers of the
-wings and tail. Pouters are of various colours: some are purely white,
-but in general they are blue, or black, marked or pied with white upon
-the crop, and with white flight feathers in the wings; there are also
-red and yellow pied birds.
-
-The properties for which a pouter is valued are usually stated as being
-five in number; viz. length of leg, length of feathers, slenderness of
-body, size of crop, and colour. Pouters possessing all these properties
-of the breed in a very perfect degree are rare, and consequently very
-valuable. Ten, or even twenty, pounds is no uncommon price for a pair of
-birds sufficiently good to win prizes in the competitions at the
-exhibitions of poultry and pigeons; but very fair specimens may be
-bought at the dealer's for a few shillings per pair.
-
-Pouters are not such good nurses as many other pigeons, often neglecting
-their young before they can feed themselves, when they die, unless fed
-by being crammed with beans at least twice a day. For this reason we
-would not recommend the young fancier to begin with this breed.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE CARRIER.
-
-The Carrier of the present day is not, as its name might seem to imply,
-ever used to carry messages, but is a high-class fancy variety, valued
-in proportion to the perfection of its properties. In a good carrier the
-beak is long, thick, and straight; the beak-wattle, or membrane at its
-base, well developed, and standing well up from the head. The
-eye-wattle, or membrane round the eye, should be large, flat, and
-circular; the skull narrow and long; the neck very slender and long; the
-plumage firm and glossy, the tail and flight feathers being long. The
-colour most valued in carriers is a brilliant jet black: many first-rate
-birds are what are called duns, a variety of brown. There are also white
-and blue carriers, and occasionally pied birds are seen. The blacks and
-duns are, however, the most perfect in properties; and they may be mated
-together without risk, as they will always produce either black or dun
-young birds, and not, as might be expected, a mixture of these colours,
-or a bird intermediate in colour between the two.
-
-Carriers are very fair sitters and nurses, but they are subject to
-diseases of the eyes, and are not as well suited to young fanciers as
-some of the other breeds.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE DRAGON.
-
-For grace, style, and beauty there are no pigeons superior to Dragons.
-They are almost everything a young fancier could desire--good homing
-birds, able to do 50 or 100 miles with ease; active on the wing, close
-sitters, good nurses, fertile breeders, requiring no special care;
-full-sized birds, good in a pie, and not expensive in first cost. Their
-general form is somewhat like that of the carrier, but they are much
-more active, and far quicker in flight. Some of the best dragons are
-blue; others are white, red, yellow, and black. They differ from the
-carrier in the size of the eye and beak-wattle, and in the beak.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE TUMBLER.
-
-The Tumblers are the very opposite of the breeds last described. Small
-birds, with rounded heads, short beaks, and pretty little red prancing
-feet, they are the very pets of the pigeon fancy. In colour the tumblers
-vary very much. There are blues, blacks, and other self colours; then
-some have white heads--these are termed bald heads; others have a white
-mark below the under bill--so they are termed beards; but the variety
-most valued is that termed the almond tumbler. In this breed every
-feather of the plumage is variegated with black, yellow, and white, the
-yellow forming the ground colour. These almond birds are reared by
-experienced fanciers with beaks so short that they are hardly able to
-bring up their own young, and others have to be employed for the
-purpose. Birds of this extreme character are not suited to young
-fanciers; but the ordinary flying tumblers, which can be bought at any
-dealer's for a few shillings per pair, are most pleasant pets--good
-breeders, active and joyous on the wing, constantly turning somersaults
-in the air, good in a pie, and able to fly home, if trained, some thirty
-or forty miles with ease.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE BARB.
-
-The Barb, or, as it used formerly to be called, the Barbary pigeon, from
-the country from where it was originally obtained, is regarded with
-great esteem by fanciers, and very good specimens cannot be obtained
-except at high prices. In size the barb is rather a small bird. The
-colours are usually black, dun, red, yellow, or white; blue barbs,
-strange to say, are not known. The eye of the barb is surrounded by a
-naked skin or wattle of a red colour; this should be circular in form,
-and the larger it is the more the bird is valued: the skull should be
-broad, and the beak short and stout. Barbs are good sitters, and bring
-up their young ones very well. They are also striking in appearance, the
-red eye-wattle contrasting well with the colours of the plumage.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE OWL.
-
-Like the barbs, the best Owl pigeons also come from the north of Africa.
-Formerly there was very common in this country an elegant, short-beaked
-bird of a beautiful blue or silvery colour, known as the owl: this was
-of medium size, and possessed rapid powers of flight. Beautiful as the
-breed was, it has almost entirely been superseded at the pigeon shows by
-a very _petite_, delicate, white breed, the first specimens of which
-were brought to this country from Tunis about a dozen years since. A
-very good specimen of this charming little variety is represented in our
-engraving. Since that true blue and black owls of the small size have
-also been introduced. The great drawback to this fairy-like little breed
-is its delicacy. The young fancier would do well to choose for his first
-favourites a hardier variety.
-
-
-THE TURBIT.
-
-The Turbit is a pigeon somewhat resembling the owl, but its head is
-flatter, and it has a turned crown of feathers at the back of the neck.
-In colour it is peculiar. The wings, with the exception of the larger
-flight-feathers, are coloured, and the remainder of the body should be
-white. There are turbits of all varieties of colour, or, as they are
-termed, blue, black, red, yellow, and silver turbits.
-
-
-THE FANTAIL.
-
-There are a number of pigeons which are strikingly distinguished by
-remarkable peculiarities in the form of the plumage; such are the
-Fantail, the Trumpeter, and the Jacobin. The fantail is perhaps the best
-known of these. The number of feathers in the tail of an ordinary pigeon
-is fourteen, but in this breed it is greatly increased; in some
-specimens even to three times that number, and thirty feathers are not
-uncommon in good birds.
-
-The carriage of the tail is also greatly changed; instead of being borne
-behind, like that of an ordinary pigeon, it is held aloft, like the
-expanded tail of a peacock.
-
-[Illustration: THE FANTAIL.]
-
-The engraving represents one of the best white fantails, the tail full,
-carried well over the back, and the long swan-like neck thrown back so
-as to touch the tail. Fantails are good hardy birds, and as they can be
-bought at all prices, very well suit the young fancier. Moreover, they
-soon become very tame, and may be reared almost everywhere.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE TRUMPETER.
-
-The Trumpeter is not as common a variety as the fan-tail, but is fully
-as remarkable. It derives its name from its peculiar voice, which is
-quite unlike the ordinary coo, coo, of a common pigeon; and it is also
-distinguished by the singular arrangement of the feathers on its head
-and feet: the latter are feathered to so great an extent that the bird
-appears to have four wings. Many of the larger quills on the feet of a
-good trumpeter will exceed four inches in length if unbroken. Trumpeters
-have a tuft over the beak and a turn of feathers at the back of the
-head. They require to be kept most scrupulously clean; otherwise the
-elegant appendages on the feet become clogged with dirt, and the birds
-lose all their attractiveness and beauty.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE JACOBIN.
-
-No variety of pigeon excels the little Jacobin in its quaint prettiness.
-The tiny little head is half concealed in a recurved cowl of feathers
-which runs down at the sides of the neck, and nearly meets in front.
-
-The head, the flight feathers of the jacobin, and those of the tail,
-should be purely white, those of the rest of the plumage coloured. The
-most common colours are red or yellow; but there are also black jacks,
-as they are sometimes called for shortness, and also blues, and some
-that are entirely white. Jacks breed very freely, and we cannot
-recommend a prettier pigeon, or one better adapted to the juvenile
-fancier.
-
- * * * * *
-
-The foregoing breeds include all the best known varieties. It is true
-there are many others described in the works on pigeons, but none better
-fitted for the young and inexperienced fancier.
-
-The breed known as Runts are characterised by their enormous size,
-sometimes weighing even as much as four pounds or even four and a half
-pounds a pair. But they do not fly well, and are more suited for pigeon
-pies than for a fancier's loft.
-
-There are also the breeds known as Nuns, Spots, and Helmets, which are
-white with more or less colour on the head, &c.; but for beauty of
-marking none surpass those blue breeds that possess the arrangement of
-colours in the plumage that characterises the original wild rock dove.
-
-
-POULTRY.
-
-
-FOWLS.
-
-There are few occupations more attractive than the care and charge of
-domestic poultry. It is most interesting to behold a hen with her
-family, and to mark her care and tenderness for them; while to see the
-little chicks themselves, picking and scratching about, basking in the
-sun, or running hither and thither after the hen, or nestling under her
-wings, is a very pleasant sight.
-
-Like the pigeons, fowls are all descended from a single species of wild
-bird, the common wild jungle fowl of India. This has been domesticated
-from a very early period, and carried to all habitable parts of the
-globe. A large number of different varieties exist in a domestic state,
-none of which are known in the wild condition. The chief breeds known in
-England at the present time are the Dorkings, Game, Spanish, Hamburghs,
-Polish, Cochins, Brahmas, Malays, Bantams, Silky fowls, and the common
-barn-door fowl, which is a very mongrel breed. The best known French
-varieties are very valuable for economical purposes: they are Houdans,
-Crève C[oe]urs, and the La Flèche breeds.
-
-Fowls require both animal and vegetable food. When allowed to range at
-large their great search is for worms and insects, which they obtain for
-themselves. They must be supplied with grain, such as barley, oats, tail
-wheat, &c.; and they should also be well furnished with raw vegetables,
-grass, cabbage or lettuce leaves, unless they have a free range over the
-fields. Boiled potatoes and other vegetables are also very serviceable
-to them. The staple food should, however, be grain, and this may be
-mixed with boiled potatoes. The quantity of barley for each fowl is
-about a quart a week, if they are entirely fed by hand; but in barn or
-stable yards they require much less. They should also always have a
-plentiful supply of pure and clean water.
-
-All fowls dependent upon man for food should be fed regularly twice or
-thrice a day in the same place. The food should be given to them at
-nearly the same hour--eight o'clock in the morning and four in the
-afternoon, as in the spring and autumn birds retire early to roost, and
-it is very bad management to call them from their perches for feeding.
-Young chickens should be fed much more frequently if it is wished that
-they should grow into fine, handsome birds.
-
-
-FATTENING.
-
-When fowls are to be fattened for the table, they must be fed oftener,
-and with different descriptions of food, than when they are simply kept
-for rearing stock or laying eggs. They then require ground barley or
-oatmeal, which fattens them much quicker if mixed with milk. Indian corn
-is also a capital fattener, and, as it is now cheap, may be used. Gross
-food, made up of impure fat, grease, and flesh-food is very bad for
-fowls. When fattening for the table, they should have their food three
-times a day, at morning, noon, and evening; and they should be kept warm
-and comfortable during the night.
-
-Fowl houses should be warm and dry, and have compact earthen floors,
-well raised, and littered down with gravel, from which the large stones
-have been taken and the small ones left.
-
-
-LAYING.
-
-Nests (baskets or boxes) must be made for the hen, in which a chalk egg
-or two should be put. The nests may be made of short straw. Some hens
-will lay one egg every day, and others one every other day.
-
-The eggs ought to be taken from the nest every afternoon, when no more
-may be expected to be laid; for if left in the nest the heat of the
-hens, when laying the next day, will render them less fit for domestic
-use.
-
-
-HATCHING.
-
-When the hen has laid her number of eggs, nature has provided for their
-being hatched by giving the bird an instinct to sit or incubate. This
-instinct is made known by a particular sort of cluck, and by the hen
-sitting steadily on the nest in which she has been in the habit of
-laying.
-
-In selecting the eggs to be sat upon by the hen, choose such as have
-been recently laid, and not those of angular shape or extra size: the
-latter are often double yolked, and rarely produce chickens.
-
-The number of eggs to be hatched by the hen must in some degree depend
-upon her size. A moderate-sized hen will very nicely cover eight or nine
-eggs in the cold spring months, and twelve or thirteen in April or May.
-An odd number is often chosen; but there is no advantage in so doing.
-The hen having received her eggs may be then left to herself; she should
-have water placed at a convenient distance, and her food may be given to
-her near the place of sitting.
-
-The hen sits on her eggs twenty-one days, during which period she seems
-in a dozy state, and seems to require but little food or exercise. Some
-hens will feed every day; but others will go for several days without
-leaving the nest, or taking nourishment: these should be lifted off the
-nest, and fed daily.
-
-When chickens are hatching, which usually takes place twenty-one days
-after the eggs are placed under the hen, it is best to leave them
-entirely to themselves.
-
-As soon as the hen becomes a mother, a great change is seen in her
-character--all her former habits give way to maternal solicitude. A good
-hen attends to her brood with the most persevering fondness; she will
-attack the fiercest animal who dares to molest her progeny.
-
-
-REARING OF CHICKENS.
-
-When the chickens are hatched, they require no food till the following
-day, when they may be fed with crumbs of bread slightly moistened with
-milk, and egg beaten up with an equal quantity of milk, and then heated
-so as to form a soft custard: this is the best food that can be given
-them. They should also have a few grits, and after a few days some small
-wheat.
-
-If the weather is dry and warm, it is best not to coop the hens, as by
-scratching they obtain a supply of insect food and worms for the chicks,
-which is better than anything else that can be given them; but they
-should not be let out in damp weather in long grass before the dew has
-dried up. If cooped, the coop and hen should be placed in some nice dry
-and sunny spot in the lawn or garden, within sight of the
-dwelling-house, and where no cats are likely to prowl about. There
-should be a little pan of water set within reach of the hen, near the
-bars of the coop, and stones should be placed in it to prevent the young
-brood from drowning themselves, and this water should be frequently
-changed.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The changes of weather should be watched, and when it sets in wet or
-cold the young brood should be carefully protected by the removal of the
-coop into some warm sheltered place, such as a stable, coach-house, or
-outhouse; and so with care continue to be nursed, guarded, watched, and
-attended to, till they are about seven weeks old, when they will of
-themselves separate from their parent hen, take to the roost, and act
-independently.
-
-There is a great choice of breeds in the different varieties, and we
-will state the advantages of each.
-
-Dorkings are large heavy fowls, first-rate for the table, good sitters
-and mothers: but rather delicate, require a good grass range, and do not
-do well on damp soils.
-
-Spanish are handsome fowls, lay numerous large eggs, do not sit; are not
-so good for the table as the Dorkings, being longer in the limbs, and
-not so fleshy.
-
-Cochins and Brahmas are large domesticated fowls, very hardy; can be
-kept in by a low fence; they are good layers, good sitters, good
-mothers, and useful family fowls on the table.
-
-Hamburghs are pretty, light, active, roaming fowls; they are called
-everlasting layers, as they never wish to sit, but lay on incessantly,
-except at moulting-time. They do not bear close confinement well, and
-are difficult to keep in enclosed places, as they fly like pheasants,
-and know not bounds.
-
-The crested Polish, black, white, and spangled, are also non-sitters and
-good layers; but they are not so hardy as the spangled Hamburghs.
-
-Game are hardy, very fair layers, good sitters, the best of mothers;
-plump on the table, though not very large; well able to take care both
-of themselves and their chickens.
-
-Bantams are pretty little pets, that may be suffered to roam about a
-garden without doing any injury.
-
-The French breeds--Houdans, Crève C[oe]urs, and La Flèche--are
-remarkable for their good qualities as table fowls.
-
-The White Silky fowls are a very singular breed, with divided feathers,
-like wool or silk, black skins, and black bones. They have their good
-points, however: they are admirable sitters and nurses, and bring up
-young partridges and pheasants better than any other fowls. They are
-also very good to eat, though their black skin renders them rather
-unsightly on the table.
-
-These varieties offer sufficient choice even to the most particular
-amateur, who should make his selection in accordance with his wants and
-his locality--according as he requires egg-producers or chickens for the
-table, and whether he can afford his fowls the advantages of a free
-range over green fields, or has to keep them in a confined space, near a
-suburban residence.
-
-
-THE PINTADO, OR GUINEA FOWL.
-
-Guinea fowls associate readily with the common fowls in a poultry-yard;
-but they have this peculiarity, that the cocks and hens are so nearly
-alike that it is difficult to distinguish them, except by the voice, the
-hens only uttering the constantly-reiterated cry of "Go back! Go back!"
-The head is covered with a kind of casque, with wattles under the bill,
-and the whole plumage is either black or dark grey sprinkled with
-regular and uniform white spots. The pintado is a native of Africa.
-
-These birds lay plenty of eggs, rather smaller than those of the common
-hen, and speckled. They may be reared by placing the eggs under a hen;
-but the chicks are extremely tender, and very often a sudden change of
-the wind in March will sweep off a whole brood in a few hours. The young
-should be fed with custard, &c., as ordered for fowls.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-DUCKS.
-
-The common wild duck, or mallard, is the original stock of the
-domesticated duck, and appears to have been reclaimed at a very early
-period. The mallards come from the north of Europe, at the end of
-autumn, and, migrating southward, arrive at the beginning of winter, in
-large flocks, and spread themselves over all the loughs and marshy
-waters in the British Isles.
-
-The tame duck is a larger bird, and varies greatly in colour. Tame ducks
-are easily reared: the best way to get them is to place duck's eggs
-under a hen, for the tame duck is often a careless mother; the hen, on
-the contrary, generally hatches a duckling from every egg with which she
-is entrusted. She does not conduct her young to the water, and generally
-exhibits much anxiety when the young brood take to it; but she watches
-over them, and is ever ready to defend them from danger. "The village
-schoolboy," as old Bewick says, "witnesses with delight the antic
-movements of the little brood under the charge of a foster-mother, who
-with anxious fears paddles upon the brink and utters her unavailing
-cries or calls, while the ducklings, regardless of her warnings, and
-rejoicing in the element so well adapted to their nature, are splashing
-over each other beneath the pendant foliage, and diving their heads
-beneath the water."
-
-[Illustration]
-
-There are many varieties of the tame duck. One of those most in request
-is the dark-coloured Rouen, which is very prolific in eggs. The
-Aylesbury, or white variety, is large and profitable. The Muscovy duck
-is a distinct species, and not a mere variety, much larger than the
-common duck, and distinguished by a membrane of a red colour, covering
-the cheeks and extending behind the eyes. There are also several other
-foreign species, as the Mandarin and Carolina ducks, which are kept
-rather for ornament than use.
-
-Ducks sit for thirty days. They begin to lay in February, and when not
-watched will lay abroad and conceal their eggs. They generally lay at
-night, or very early in the morning. While sitting, the duck requires a
-secluded and soft place. On hatching, she should be taken, with her
-brood, and put under a coop; a shallow pan of water should be placed
-near her for her drink and for that of the young ones, but it should be
-very shallow. In a few days she may be let loose, when, with her brood,
-she will immediately take to the water.
-
-Young ducks should be fed upon oatmeal or barleymeal, and kept in a warm
-place at night time, and not let out early in the morning. They should
-at first be kept from water to swim in, as it always does them harm.
-When the ducks grow large, they may be fed upon oats thrown into a pan
-of water.
-
-[Illustration: MUSCOVY DRAKE.]
-
-
-THE RABBIT.
-
-Of all domesticated animals dear to the British schoolboy's heart the
-rabbit is, perhaps, the most general favourite.
-
-Rabbits may be kept simply as pets or curiosities, or as a commercial
-speculation, and in either or all of these conditions they are sure to
-answer the expectations of the owner, provided only that ordinary pains
-be taken with them. As pets, they can be made tame, affectionate, and
-playful; as curiosities, they can be modified, by careful breeding, into
-the oddest shapes and most eccentric colouring; while, as a commercial
-speculation, they can, with proper care and forethought, be rendered
-extremely profitable, and will pay a heavy percentage on the original
-outlay.
-
-As an example of this fact we may mention the case of a young carpenter,
-one of those steady, hardworking, intelligent men who are sure to get
-on in the world, simply because they keep their eyes open to all that
-passes, always watch for opportunities, and always seize them when
-found. This man used to make a considerable addition to his income by
-his rabbits, fattening and selling a large number annually, besides
-steadily increasing his stock. He was ever watchful on their account,
-and never went to a house where he was employed in his trade without
-asking for the waste potatoes, crusts of bread, and similar substances,
-which he used to take home and convert, by judicious mixture, into
-nutritive diet for the rabbits.
-
-As, however, there are but few boys who keep rabbits for the purpose of
-making money by them, we will treat at greater length on their general
-management than on the method of feeding them at the least cost and
-selling them at the highest price.
-
-Before rabbit-keeping is attempted it is necessary to prepare, very
-carefully, a habitation for the future pet, and in the following pages
-will be found full instructions for that task. It is hardly possible to
-take too much trouble about the rabbit-house, and any abatement in this
-respect is sure to prove the truth of the old proverb, that penny wisdom
-is pound foolishness.
-
-Two objects are to be considered in this matter; the first and most
-important being the comfort and happiness of the creature who is
-intended to live in the house, and the second the waste of time, money,
-and patience, which the constant sickness and ultimate death of the
-rabbit is sure to inflict upon a neglectful owner. So we advise the
-intending rabbit-keeper to expend plenty of trouble upon his house or
-hutch, and assure him that the healthy and thriving condition of his
-pets will more than repay the trouble, and their rapidly-increasing
-numbers more than defray the expenses originally incurred.
-
-Should a single rabbit be at first kept--a good method, by the way, of
-experimenting before undertaking the more arduous and responsible task
-of setting up a regular establishment--a house or hutch like that which
-is represented in the accompanying illustration will be all that is
-needed.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Such a one as this may be easily made by any boy of ordinary ingenuity,
-as no great neatness in joints is needed, and the only requisites are
-strength and compactness. Should not the young carpenter possess the
-wood and tools needed for the entire construction of the hutch, his best
-plan will be to purchase an old tea-chest or egg-box from the grocer's,
-and modify it into the necessary form. The box will cost about
-fourpence, or sixpence at the most; the wire will cost a penny, and the
-nails another penny.
-
-If no tools can be borrowed, a boy can set himself up for ordinary work
-at a very cheap rate, the following being all that is really needed:--
-
-Saw, one shilling; hammer, eightpence; half-inch chisel, with handle,
-sixpence; small three-cornered file, twopence; two bradawls, one large,
-and the other rather small, twopence,--these will be without handles,
-and the best way is to drive the "tang" of the bradawl into the end of a
-stick of firewood, then cut the stick into a handle, shape it with a
-knife, and bind the end with string or wire to prevent it from
-splitting. These handles are just as useful as those which are
-purchased, and have the advantage of costing nothing but a few minutes'
-labour. The whole set of tools need not cost more than half-a-crown or,
-at the most, three shillings.
-
-As will be seen from the illustration, the hutch is divided into two
-portions, that on the left hand being much the larger, and employed by
-the rabbit as a day-room. That on the right is small, and is used as a
-sleeping apartment. These two chambers are separated by a partition of
-board, in which is cut a hole, through which the inmate can pass
-backwards and forwards.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-As it is often necessary to confine the rabbit in either compartment
-while the other is being cleansed, the aperture must be closed by means
-of a sliding door drawn up and down through the roof, as seen at A. We
-have found by experience that the purpose was fully answered by
-substituting a strong iron wire for the wooden handle, and letting it
-pass through the hole bored in the roof. We mention this, because it is
-always best to know the simplest and easiest plan of proceeding. The
-wire is firmly secured, as seen in the engraving. After cutting the
-sliding door to the proper shape, bore a hole at _a_ with the little
-bradawl. Sharpen one end of an iron wire (the same as that of which the
-open front is made) and push it firmly into the hole. Now bend the wire
-upwards, until it lies flat upon the wood, and then bend it over the
-edge, as seen at _b_. Cut off an inch of wire, sharpen both ends, bend
-them so as to form a staple, and drive the staple over the wire at b, so
-as to hold it firmly in its place. Two small holes should be made with
-the little bradawl in the proper direction, and the hammer must do the
-rest. Bend up the wire again, cut it off to the proper length, and all
-is ready for fixing, which is done as follows:--
-
-Take the board which is to form the partition, and which is easiest made
-from the lid of the box, and cut out a round, arched, or square hole
-near the bottom, the hole being about an inch narrower every way than
-the sliding door. Lay the door over the hole, and place on each side of
-it a strip of wood a trifle thicker than the door. These slips are
-technically called guides, because they guide the door in the right
-direction: try whether the door will slide easily up and down them, and,
-if so, nail them firmly in their places. Then get a second pair of
-wooden slips, not so thick, but about half an inch wider than the first
-pair; lay them on the guides so that they overlap the door, and then
-nail them down. The door will then slide up and down when pulled or
-pushed by the wire.
-
-To make this part of the proceedings quite clear a section of the door
-and slide is given below: _g_ represents the guides; _f_ the board and
-their slips which overlap the door; and the door itself is shown by the
-dotted lines _b_*. When fitted together the partition-board, with its
-door and slides, is shown in the engraving. _a, a, a_ represents the
-board itself; _b_ is the sliding door, and _c_ the wire by which it is
-worked; _d_ is the hole of communication, which is opened or closed as
-the door is moved up or down; which is here shown as half closed.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The dividing-board being thus completed, mark the place where the wire
-_c_ is to come through the roof, and bore a hole about half as large
-again as the wire, so as to allow it to play freely. By the simple plan
-of making a large nail or waste bit of wire red hot, and charring this
-hole, the swelling by damp and consequent sticking of the wire will be
-prevented.
-
-All being ready, slip the dividing-board into the box, taking care to
-insinuate the wire into its proper place, get it quite upright and
-square, make sure that the sliding door plays without hitching, and then
-nail it all tight. Bend the top of the wire into a loop, and the most
-troublesome part of the business is over. The young carpenter must
-remember that the dividing-board, with its sliding door, must be made
-and fixed before anything else is done, as it not only strengthens the
-box and keeps it in shape, but would demand twice as much trouble after
-the door and front have been made.
-
-We now come to an easier and more ornamental part of the work.
-
-In the engraving both doors open from the front, the one being wired and
-the other plain wood; but it is best to have the larger door open from
-behind, as the wire-work is then twice as strong, and all the trouble of
-making a hinged frame is dispensed with.
-
-Put the box on the ground, and draw a line from one end to the other,
-just half an inch from the edge. Mark the line off in half-inches, and
-bore holes quite through the wood, one hole coming at every half-inch.
-Repeat the same process immediately below, but be careful only to bore
-the holes half through the wood, or the wire will of course fall
-through.
-
-Then cut your wire into lengths, measuring them by the depth of the box,
-and cutting them about one-third of an inch shorter than the total
-depth. Laying them against the end is a simple method of getting the
-precise length. Sharpen one end of each piece of wire, push the
-sharpened end through the hole at the top, draw the wire down, insinuate
-the point into the hole below, and then, holding the middle of the wire
-with the fingers of the left hand, in order to keep it from bending,
-drive it down with the hammer until quite level with the top of the box.
-When all the wires are thus driven home, nail a strip of wood over them
-at the top, and they can never come out again.
-
-It will be better to strengthen it further by passing a similar wire
-horizontally across the others, driving each end into the wood, and
-binding all together with fine wire. This will be a protection through
-which not even a rat could crawl, and which no cat could tear away with
-her hooked claws.
-
-The door of the sleeping apartment is easily made of a single piece of
-board, cut to the requisite shape, affixed by leathern or metal hinges,
-and fastened by a simple hasp. The door of the day-room is made in a
-similar manner, but opens from behind. A row of deep notches should be
-cut at the bottom of this door, and corresponding holes bored through
-the back of the sleeping-room floor, in order to let all the wet drain
-away and keep the rabbit dry. The hutch should be made to slant a little
-backwards so as to aid in the drainage.
-
-Slate floors have been suggested, in order to prevent the ill-drained
-moisture from soaking into the substance--a result which is sure to take
-place, sooner or later, with a wooden floor. Slate, however, is rather
-expensive, but it is easily cleaned, and can be thoroughly washed; so
-that the suggestion is worthy of notice.
-
-Having completed the hutch, we must next see about a feeding-trough. The
-ordinary troughs are nothing more than long wooden boxes; those who use
-them generally find that the food is much wasted by being scraped out
-with the fore feet, and that the rabbit contracts a habit of sitting in
-the trough, which, in course of time, renders it very offensive, and
-makes the food unwholesome. But by a little exercise of ingenuity both
-these annoyances can be prevented.
-
-To check the scratching out of the food, run a strong wire from one end
-of the trough to the other, about half an inch below the edge, and one
-inch from the side. When the rabbit begins to scratch, the paws come
-against the wire, and get so jarred that the creature soon relinquishes
-the bad habit.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The habit of squatting in the trough is easily prevented by a very
-simple plan. A strong wire, about three or four inches long, according
-to the depth of the trough, is set upright in the centre. Another wire
-is arranged as seen in the illustration, the ends being driven firmly
-into the wood of the trough, and the middle passing through a loop at
-the end of the central wire. In the engraving, _a_ represents the wire
-which prevents the animal from scratching, and _b_ that which keeps it
-from getting into the trough. The edges, whether of the trough, the
-sliding door, or the guides, must be either bound with tin or edged with
-zinc wire, the latter being rather preferable.
-
-The reader will observe that in the engraving of the hutch it is shown
-standing on a table, the top of which projects far beyond the legs. The
-object of this precaution is to keep off rats, which are the bane of all
-rabbit-owners, and can climb up almost anything. They, cannot, however,
-walk like a fly, in a reversed position, on a flat surface, and in
-consequence, a projecting board of five or six inches in width is an
-effectual protection against these pests.
-
-The hutch is easily kept clean by attending to each apartment
-separately. First close the sliding door, so as to confine the rabbit in
-the apartment in which it happens to be, and with a hoe or similar
-implement scrape the floor quite clean, afterwards rubbing it with a
-wisp of straw. Take care that every scrap of refuse food has been
-removed. Then close the outer door, open the slide, drive the rabbit
-into the clean apartment, close the slide, and scrape and rub the second
-chamber.
-
-The trough should be removed when the day-room is cleaned, and
-carefully examined before it is replaced. The hutch being clean, the
-slide may be opened, and the animal allowed to run about. The hutch
-should be cleansed at least every day, and if a second cleaning be added
-it will not come amiss. This continual cleaning will involve some
-trouble; but no one ought to keep a rabbit who neglects this essential
-duty, or to undertake the charge of an animal unless he intends to make
-it as happy as it can be in a state of imprisonment. A supply of straw
-should be placed in the sleeping-room for a bed, and should be changed
-daily.
-
-If possible, the rabbit should be allowed to take a half-hour's run
-every day; but precautions must be taken against its burrowing habits
-and the chance of finding and eating something poisonous. In the wild
-state, a rabbit never eats anything that is injurious, but when
-domesticated many of its instincts are in abeyance, and it will eat many
-substances which it would reject when wild.
-
-The best defence against burrowing is to have a brick floor for the
-animal to run about on. There is also a substance called, I believe,
-Parker's cement, which, when laid down, becomes rapidly dry, and is so
-hard that not even the teeth of a rat, much less the claws of a rabbit,
-can work their way through it. This cement is mixed with water and sand
-to the consistency of thick cream, and while settling is "flatted" with
-boards, and makes an admirable level flooring, easily washed and as hard
-as stone. On this substance the rabbit can be allowed to amuse itself
-without danger, and when its time of recreation has expired it should be
-caught and replaced in its hutch.
-
-We may here mention that the proper method of taking up a rabbit is to
-hold it by the ears with the right hand, and to support the body by
-placing the left hand under it.
-
-Should a number of rabbits be kept, it is as well to allow each family
-to have a run in succession. It is very pretty to see the playful antics
-of the young rabbits, the races they run with each other, the scufflings
-they have in the corners, and the staid manner in which the mother sits
-and looks on, and when they become too noisy silences them by a stamp of
-her foot.
-
-This gesture is used either as a signal of alarm or defiance, and the
-force of the rabbit's hind foot is really astonishing. We have known a
-buck rabbit vanquish a large cat in a fair fight simply by jumping over
-her back and kicking fiercely as he passed. He struck out whole bunches
-of pussy's fur, and the cat, unaccustomed to such treatment, ran away
-and left her antagonist victorious and triumphant.
-
-It is necessary to separate the rabbits in their exercise, and not to
-permit two families to occupy the same ground at the same time, as they
-are very quarrelsome animals, and will fight desperately among
-themselves. In any case the buck rabbits should not be allowed to mix
-with the others, for they are terrible bullies, and will assault and
-kill even their own children, without the least remorse. When properly
-tended, the rabbit becomes quite tame and familiar, and will come to its
-owner at the sound of its name.
-
-The food of rabbits is easily obtained, and consists of bran, pollard,
-grain, and various vegetables. Parsley is an especial favourite, but
-cabbage leaves should be avoided as far as possible, as they are apt to
-have a bloating and puffy effect, and are often injurious, especially to
-young rabbits, giving them the disorder that is well known under the
-expressive term of "potbelly."
-
-The following is a list of vegetables which rabbits can always eat in
-safety:--
-
-Grasses of the finer sorts--the coarse, large-bladed grasses are not to
-a rabbit's taste--lettuce, parsley, carrots and their green tops,
-turnip-tops, green ears of corn, sow or milk thistles, clover, tares,
-vetches, beet-root and leaves, vine leaves occasionally, green furze
-tops, potatoes, and Jerusalem artichokes. Cow-parsley, as it is
-popularly called (_Myrrhis temulenta_), is a very favourite vegetable
-with the rabbit: but unless the gatherer is perfectly acquainted with
-its form and leafage, he will be wise to leave it standing; for it
-marvellously resembles the common hemlock (_Conium maculatum_), which is
-extremely poisonous; and unless the two plants be thoroughly known, the
-rabbit may be poisoned through the mistaken kindness of the owner.
-
-As this plant is a really valuable one, we will give a few simple and
-plain directions for distinguishing it from hemlock.
-
-Cow-parsley is about three feet in height, the leaves are greatly
-branched, and the stem is ribbed, spotted with purple, and covered with
-numerous short hairs slightly bent downwards. The hemlock in general
-shape resembles the cow-parsley, but it may be known by the smooth
-reddish purple spots and its unpleasant smell when the leaves are
-grasped in the hand.
-
-Various dry grains, such as barley, oats, and Indian corn, are useful to
-the rabbit; and dry peas are also beneficial if sparingly given when the
-creature has been partaking largely of green food. Very little water is
-needed; but it is better to put into the hutch a small pan with a few
-spoonfuls of water in it. A very little oil-cake is useful in the
-winter. At first the rabbits do not like it, but they soon become
-accustomed to its taste, and are then very fond of it.
-
-Before proceeding to the mode of breeding rabbits, we will glance at the
-varieties into which these creatures are modified by careful management.
-
-The three chief points in a "fancy" rabbit are the ears, the dewlap, and
-the curve of the back.
-
-The ears must in every case be exceedingly long, and must never stand
-upright, as in the common rabbit of the warren. The most perfect and
-valuable form is the Full, Flat, or Perfect Lop. In this variety the
-ears lie as if hinged to the head at their bases, and bent downward, so
-that when the animal is reposing the tips should quite or nearly touch
-the ground. The convex part of the ear must be upwards, or the value of
-the creature is deteriorated.
-
-The next valuable variety is termed the Oar-Lop, because the ears spread
-horizontally from the head, like the oars of a waterman's boat. A really
-good Oar-Lop rabbit is seldom seen, and when found is thought by some to
-be equal to the Perfect Lop, of which, indeed, it seems to be the
-preliminary stage. In all cases the measurement across the ears from tip
-to tip ought never to be less than sixteen inches; the more they exceed
-that measurement, the more valuable is the animal.
-
-[Illustration: PERFECT-LOP RABBIT.]
-
-[Illustration: OAR-LOP RABBIT.]
-
-The Horn-Lop is another very curious variety, deriving its name from the
-position of the ears, which fall completely over the face, with their
-points directed to the front. In some specimens they fall so completely
-over the face that the edges pass over the eyes, and must act as a
-partial barrier to perfect sight, like the leather blinkers that are so
-absurdly attached to draught horses.
-
-[Illustration: HORN RABBIT.]
-
-The lopped ears do not show themselves when the rabbit is young, and for
-the first month or two it is not easy to decide whether the little
-creatures belong to the straight or the lop-eared variety. Moreover, it
-often happens that one or two of each family retain the upright ears
-throughout their whole existence; and it is of not unfrequent occurrence
-that the "lop" is delayed for a very long time, and then suddenly makes
-its appearance. Sometimes one ear will exhibit the lop most perfectly,
-while the other remains upright or very slightly bent. Some fanciers
-attach a piece of lead to the recusant ear in order to make it coincide
-with the other, but we do not agree with the practice. The ear never
-looks quite natural, and as the rabbit will have or, as the phrase is,
-throw young ones with perfect lops, it may be kept for breeding if a
-doe; if a buck, it can be fattened for the table.
-
-The second point of interest is the dewlap, the large double pouch which
-is seen under the chin and throat, and which is peculiar to the fancy
-rabbit. If the dewlap be not large and full, with its two lobes well
-developed, and sufficiently firm to form a cushion for the head while
-the animal reclines, the rabbit will be thought worthless by fanciers.
-
-The shape of the fancy rabbit is very different from that of the common
-variety. It is altogether on a larger scale, and the back rises so much,
-that its summit ought to be two inches higher than the top of the head.
-
-The colour, again, is very important. It may be white, black, mottled,
-tortoiseshell, blue, and in fact any colour except the plain grey.
-Whatever it be, it must be arranged after a special position. On each
-side of the nose must be a patch of the darker colour of the body,
-forming what is called the "butterfly smut." A large patch on the back
-is called the "saddle," and a row of spots termed the "chain" is drawn
-in front of the body and seems to hang over the shoulder. The legs must
-be white, and the tail and snout of the same colour.
-
-Very few rabbits possess all these qualities; but even the combined
-excellences of smut, chain, and saddle will fail to gain a high rank for
-any rabbit which does not possess a good "carriage," _i. e._ whose back
-is not at least two inches above its head, and whose nose and ear-tips
-do not nearly touch the ground. Some writers say that the fancy rabbits
-are more delicate of health and less easy to rear than the common
-variety; but we have bred many families of them, and never found any
-difficulty in rearing them. Their superior size renders them valuable
-for culinary purposes, and, as out of every family the greater number
-are deficient in the requisite marks of a fancy rabbit, the table can be
-well supplied with these fat and well-flavoured creatures.
-
-The last variety we shall mention is the beautiful Angola rabbit,
-remarkable for its long silken hair, a speaking likeness of which may be
-seen in Landseer's wonderful picture of Titania.
-
-We will now devote a few words to the breeding of rabbits.
-
-The rabbit will breed at a very early age, _i. e._ from eight months
-upwards; but those who want healthy young ought not to allow the rabbits
-to breed before they are one year old, or after they have completed
-their fourth year. The buck and doe should be always kept in different
-hutches, out of each other's sight, and only allowed to remain together
-for a very short time. The rabbit usually breeds four times in the year,
-or even oftener; but as a general rule it is not advisable to allow more
-than three breeds in the year.
-
-When the doe rabbit feels the time approaching for her young to be born,
-she begins to bite in little pieces the hay of her bed, and when she
-does so a supply of very fine soft hay should be placed within her
-reach. She then pulls this together in her sleeping-chamber, and mixes
-it with downy fur plucked from her own body, ready for the reception of
-the expected family.
-
-It is as well to put a pan of water within reach, as the animal
-generally thirsts after the young are born, and unless she can get at
-water, is apt to eat the young merely on account of the moisture. One of
-my own rabbits acted in a very odd manner. She called to one of her
-family, telling it to come to her. The disobedient child refused, and
-the mother accordingly seized it by one ear and dragged it along.
-Unfortunately, she pulled so hard in one direction, and the young one
-pulled so hard in the other, that the ear was fairly dragged from the
-head. The mother treated the matter very easily, ate the severed ear,
-caught hold of the other, and succeeded in reducing her offspring to
-obedience.
-
-While engaged in maturing her young, the mother requires a very ample
-supply of food, eating nearly twice as much as at other times. She must
-have plenty of green food, and a mash of barley meal and milk will be
-found beneficial. For the first week or ten days the door of the
-sleeping-room should not be opened, as the mother-rabbit is very jealous
-of her young, and if they are handled, or even looked at, will sometimes
-eat them. This is a terrible habit, and if a rabbit once act in that
-manner, provided that she is well supplied with food and drink, the best
-plan is to fatten her for the table.
-
-The young are suckled for about five weeks, when the mother weans them,
-and they learn to eat tender grass-blades, and other green food. If the
-family be very large, there is sure to be at least one small and weakly
-among the number. This should be removed and destroyed, so as to ensure
-that only the strong and healthy are reared.
-
-There are several diseases to which domestic rabbits are liable, but
-these ailments are nearly all caused through negligence; and in a really
-well-appointed and carefully-tended rabbitry a sickly animal is hardly
-ever seen.
-
-Except in the case of valuable fancy animals, the trouble and expense of
-attempting the cure of a diseased rabbit are so great, that few will
-find themselves repaid, even by the recovery of the invalid. Recovery,
-however, is so very dubious, that in almost every case it is cheaper and
-more humane to kill the animal at once, which is performed
-instantaneously and painlessly by holding the creature up by the hind
-legs, and with the edge of the right hand striking it a sharp blow
-behind the ears. Let the young rabbit-keeper rest assured, that if one
-of his pets should fall ill, the sickness will in ninety-nine cases out
-of a hundred be chargeable to some negligence of his own.
-
-
-THE RAVEN.
-
-All the members of the Crow tribe have a decided family likeness; and,
-as a general fact, the relationship can be recognised as long as they
-belong to the British species. But as there are several foreign birds
-which bear a decided resemblance to this tribe, though really belonging
-to other families, it is needful to give a few hints as to the method by
-which these may be distinguished. The young observer must look first at
-the beak, then at the wings, and lastly at the legs. In all these birds
-the beak is strong and conical, arched on the keel, _i. e._ the ridge
-along the upper surface, with the sides rather flattened as far as the
-tip. The nostrils are set at the base of the beak, and hidden by plumes.
-The wings are never very large, and mostly pointed. The tarsi, _i. e._
-the long, straight leg-bones, are of moderate length, and covered with
-strong, shield-like scales.
-
-The British representatives of this large family are the carrion crow,
-the rook, the Royston or hooded or grey crow, the chough, the raven, the
-jackdaw, the jay, and the magpie.
-
-The Raven, once so plentiful over England, is now nearly extinct, except
-in some of the wild uncultivated districts, where it still lingers,
-uttering its hoarse, loud cry, flapping its broad wings, and committing
-no small havoc among the young or feeble animals that have the
-misfortune to dwell in its neighbourhood.
-
-To procure a raven is now a difficult task, and can seldom be
-accomplished except by giving an order to the regular dealers. We do not
-advise any of our young readers to possess themselves of a raven unless
-they have ample space for the bird, and are quite certain that it cannot
-get into any mischief. Either a magpie, a jay, or a jackdaw, seems to be
-possessed with an incessant spirit of mischief, but the raven seems to
-have enough for the three, and as it possesses enormous muscular power
-and irrepressible audacity, it is a peculiarly unsafe inmate of a house
-or garden.
-
-For our own part, we have been for some months undecided whether we
-shall have a raven or not. We should greatly like to possess one of
-these birds, but then we know that he would pull up all our newly-sown
-seeds, bully our cat, peck the servants' heels, get into the milk-pail,
-tear our papers to pieces, and, in short, spoil everything within his
-reach. We could, of course, chain him up, and clip his wings, or put him
-into a metal cage, but we think all such proceedings to be needlessly
-cruel, especially in the case of a bird like the raven, whose instinct
-teaches it to roam far and wide, and whose opportunities of exercise
-ought never to be confined to the limited space comprehended by a chain
-or a cage.
-
-When treated properly, the raven possesses a very mine of amusing and
-companionable qualities, at all events to those who treat it kindly, and
-whom it does not suspect of any intention to injure. It is a capital
-talker, equalling the parrot in that respect, except that the voice is
-very gruff and low, as if spoken from under a feather bed.
-
-The raven is not long in taking the measure of its companions, and has a
-supreme contempt for those who display weakness of mind or resources.
-Nothing seems to make a raven so happy as frightening somebody. He likes
-to come quietly behind a nervous person, deliver a heavy _dab_ at the
-ankle with his iron bill, and then walk away as if he knew nothing about
-the assault. He will frighten dogs half out of their senses, chase the
-cats, drive the fowls about, and as to the horses, he mostly takes a
-fancy to them, sitting on their backs, or walking calmly and
-deliberately among their legs. Indeed the raven always has a great
-affection for stable life. He likes to saunter in and out of the stalls,
-to flap his way from one horse to another, to peck at strangers, to
-patronise the helpers, to be on speaking terms with the grooms, and, we
-regret to say, has a strange talent for picking up all the evil language
-which is too often found in and about the stable-yard.
-
-He encourages the presence of dogs and cats, because he always steals
-their dinners; and if he can find an opportunity of making a sly raid
-upon the luncheon of a groom, he is sure to seize it. He becomes the
-patriarch of the yard, and stands by his dignity as such. He _won't_
-die, but lives on, year after year; sees successive generations of
-horses, grooms, and proprietors pass away, and seems to despise them for
-not living as long as himself. Time seems to have little power with him.
-His feathers take a greyer hue when he is a century or two old, but in
-disposition he remains ever young, malicious, crafty, active, quaint,
-and voracious.
-
-He will eat anything, and can be taught to devour the most remarkable
-substances, provided that he thinks them very valuable, and not intended
-for food. Raw meat is perhaps his favourite diet, and he is greatly
-pleased with rats, mice, small birds, fat beetles, big grubs or worms,
-and similar delicacies. But he will eat bread when he cannot get meat;
-and if he can only be got to believe that the article is extremely
-valuable, he will make a breakfast on a newspaper or a shirt-collar.
-
-He can be easily induced to swallow even a black-lead pencil or a
-pocket-handkerchief, by a very simple process. Drop the article as if
-accidentally, search for it anxiously, go away without seeming to see
-it, and hardly will your back be turned when the raven will have
-snatched up the missing article and conveyed it to his storehouse.
-
-If watched from a spot where the observer cannot be seen, he will be
-noticed to proceed in a very methodical manner. He will first pick up
-his prize, and walk about solemnly with it in his beak, as if displaying
-a captured trophy of war. He will then put his foot on it, seize one
-corner of the paper or handkerchief in his beak, and deliberately tear
-it into strips, which he will probably swallow. As to the pencil, he
-pegs at it with the point of his beak at a wonderful pace, making the
-splinters fly in all directions, and ever and anon looking round, to see
-that no one is watching him.
-
-Clever as is the raven, and intelligent beyond the wont of birds, his
-very superiority in this respect often has the effect of rendering him a
-victim to superior powers. There is scarcely any bird that can be hoaxed
-more readily than a raven, or that can be "drawn out" with greater ease.
-Those who humour his ways can make a perfect puppet of him, and induce
-him to play most undignified antics, without giving him the least idea
-how thoroughly he is being imposed upon.
-
-Our last advice is that, unless the reader can afford plentiful space
-for his bird, and assure it a kind treatment, he will act wisely not to
-attempt to procure a raven. Should, however, he be able to afford it
-these necessaries of existence, by all means let him procure one of
-these most amusing birds.
-
-Ravens require scarcely any trouble, and when they have fairly
-established themselves, will not desert their homes under any
-circumstances. They ought to be fed once, and once only, _per diem_, for
-they will find plenty of insects, worms, and other little delicacies,
-without giving any trouble. They should always be furnished with a place
-of retreat into which they can retire whenever they feel tired of the
-world, and they like the hermitage to be deep, dark, and warm, sheltered
-from wind and rain, and out of the way of inquisitive eyes.
-
-Finally, a raven is an excellent judge of character, and if he is really
-appreciated, he will become a firm and faithful friend.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-SILKWORMS.
-
- "The proudest king
- May thank the silkworm for his robe of state."--AKENSIDE.
-
-The rearing and management of silkworms is an innocent and agreeable
-pastime both to boys and girls, and it is very interesting in many
-points of view. One fact is, that while the caterpillars of all the
-other tribes of moths and butterflies, when they have arrived at a
-certain state of maturity, show a restless disposition, and wander about
-and hide themselves in a variety of places in order to spin their
-cocoons, the silkworm, on the contrary, is content to remain stationary
-in the open tray or box in which it may be placed. After consuming its
-immediate supply of mulberry leaves, it waits for a further quantity,
-and when the period arrives for spinning its cocoon, instead of showing
-any migratory disposition, it seems to place itself with confidence
-under the care of man to provide it with a suitable place for its
-convenience and protection.
-
-The silkworm is systematically known under the name of the _Bombyx Mori_
-of Linnæus, or the Mulberry-tree Moth, which in the winged state is of a
-cream colour, with several transparent bands of a darker colour across
-the anterior wings and a crescent-shaped central mark. The caterpillar
-when full grown is nearly three inches in length, and is too well known
-to our young friends to need any particular description. The eggs when
-good are of a pale slate or dark lilac colour; they may be purchased in
-Covent Garden market for about ten shillings per ounce; and care should
-be taken to obtain them of a proper colour, because those that are of a
-pale yellow are imperfect.
-
-The silkworm when first hatched is black, and does not exceed in length
-one-fourth of an inch. The desire for food is the first symptom it
-exhibits of life, and at this period it is more active than at any
-other. When about eight days have elapsed after its hatching, its head
-becomes considerably enlarged, and it turns sick, refuses food, and
-remains in a state of lethargy for about three days. This sickness would
-appear to arise from the pressure of the animal's skin, which has become
-too tight for the increased bulk of its body. Indeed, the very great
-difference in the size of the worm from the beginning to the end of the
-caterpillar state is so great, that Nature has furnished it with several
-skins, each of which it casts in succession.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The body of the caterpillar is begirt by twelve rings, which approach to
-or recede from each other according to its motion; there are nine
-breathing-holes on each side of the body, seven eyes on each side of the
-head, and two small orifices below the jaws, through which the worm
-ejects its silken filament.
-
-The art of using this filamentous substance seems to have originated
-with the Chinese, and to have been discovered at a very early period,
-and the raw material was purchased by the Persians, Tyrians, and Indians
-for a long time before it was introduced into Europe. For many ages silk
-bore an enormous price at Rome, but about the middle of the sixth
-century two monks arrived at Constantinople from India, bringing with
-them the white mulberry and the eggs of the silkworm, which have since
-been reared in Italy, Spain, France, and other parts of Europe.
-
-
-FOOD OF THE SILKWORM.
-
-The silkworm feeds, as every one knows, on the leaves of the white
-mulberry; or, when these cannot be obtained, upon those of the black
-mulberry; or, in lieu of these, upon the leaves of the common garden
-lettuce. The white mulberry is especially cultivated for the value of
-its leaves, its fruit being insipid and very inferior to that of the
-common species, the leaves of which are equally good in this country for
-the food of the silkworm. There has been a variety lately introduced
-from the Philippine Isles (_Morus multicaulis_), which has larger
-leaves, and which is easily propagated by cuttings put into a cucumber
-frame in October, and transplanted in the following May; yet, still, to
-ensure success in the rearing of silkworms the young naturalist should
-stick to the old black mulberry, as such trees are to be found in
-various vicinities. To propagate this, a branch from another tree may be
-set in the earth, which will frequently grow. The amiable Sir John
-Philipport of Hammersmith, so celebrated for his "Elysian groves and
-fountains fair," and for his sterling English qualities, has in his
-grounds a fine mulberry-tree, which he reared by placing a very loose
-branch in the ground in the autumn of 1850, which threw out roots, and
-started at once into a tree. The story of a gate-post made of a mulberry
-trunk becoming, and now remaining, a fruitful tree, is well
-authenticated. The leaves to be used should be those of a large and
-well-grown, prolific tree, and they should be gathered with care, so
-that the young buds of future leaves should in no way be injured;
-moreover, a tree should never be stripped twice in a year.
-
-
-HATCHING, FEEDING, AND TEMPERATURE.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Having procured the eggs, which should be obtained about the latter end
-of April--they are generally bought on slips of paper just as they were
-laid by the moth--they should be placed in trays made of stout cartridge
-or thin pasteboard of the form seen in the cut, and there should be
-provided to go over the case some thin gauze. The trays may be placed in
-a window facing the south, where they are fully exposed to the rays of
-the sun; there they should remain undisturbed till they begin to hatch;
-and as the young worms appear they should be removed into other trays,
-and fed with the mulberry leaves. The temperature should be regulated
-from sixty-six to seventy degrees, and the room ventilated, and
-preserved equally free from damp or too much dryness. They should be
-kept particularly clean, dead leaves and dung cleared carefully away,
-and in lifting them from one tray to another they should not be touched
-by the fingers, but removed by threads of cotton passed under their
-bodies, or with a camel's-hair pencil.
-
-
-MOULTINGS.
-
-The caterpillar has four moultings, which may be all accomplished in the
-period of four days each, if the heat of the room be increased to from
-ninety-five to one hundred degrees of Fahrenheit. When the heat is
-regulated to a lower standard, the first moulting takes place on the
-fourth or fifth day after hatching, the second in four days more, the
-third in five or six days more, and the last in about eight days. Ten
-days more are required after this moulting, so that in about thirty-two
-days after hatching the caterpillar has attained its full size. During
-all these changes of the worm it requires the nicest attention.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE COCOON.
-
-At the end of the time mentioned above the worms change to a clear pink
-or flesh colour, and look semi-transparent; they refuse their food,
-become restless, and prepare to spin or form their cocoon. At this time
-care should be taken to raise the walls of their tray habitation, or
-they will climb over them and be lost. What is called the cocoon nest
-should now be prepared by twisting the corners of a piece of
-writing-paper, and raising its edges into the form of the lower shell of
-an oyster. A number of these should be prepared and affixed to a piece
-of tape, with their pointed ends downwards; and into each one a single
-worm should be placed when it quits its food, and seems ready to spin:
-it will then dispose its web in such a manner as to leave a cavity
-within.
-
-The cocoon consists of three distinct layers of silk: the first is loose
-and flossy, and is unserviceable for the silk manufacture; the second is
-closer, the silk crossing from side to side; and the third is still
-finer, and is glued strongly together, so as to form a compact inner
-coating.
-
-
-THE AURELIA.
-
-When the cocoon is completed, the enclosed caterpillar again casts its
-skin, with the head and jaws attached to it, when it appears under the
-form of a conical chrysalis of the ordinary shape. At first the
-chrysalis, when opened, exhibits only a yellowish fluid, but by degrees
-the various parts of the future moth appear, and in about a fortnight or
-three weeks a slight swelling of the chrysalis indicates the approach of
-another change; a rupture down its back succeeds, and by degrees the
-moth bursts through its horny coating into the hollow chamber of the
-cocoon, and if left to itself would soon eat its way out.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-WINDING THE SILK.
-
-The chrysalis, however, must be prevented from eating through the
-cocoon; and previous to the egress of the moth from its aurelian state,
-the silk must be wound off. When, by taking up the cocoon, it is found
-that the caterpillar has passed into the aurelian state--which may
-easily be known by shaking it, as then the aurelia, from its harder
-texture and shrunken size, will be heard to rattle--then it is time to
-wind off the silk. The cocoon is placed in a cup of warm water, after
-the loose outward silk has been removed, and then, an end being taken,
-the whole continuous filament may be wound off on a piece of card. The
-length of the thread of a cocoon varies from 600 to 1,000 feet; yet the
-whole does not weigh more than three grains and a half. An ounce of eggs
-will produce about 40,000 caterpillars, which will consume 1,073 lbs. of
-leaves, and produce from 80 lbs. to 100 lbs. of cocoon, or about eight
-pounds of raw silk.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE MOTH.
-
-When the silk is wound off the aurelia presents itself, and being put in
-a separate case, it remains motionless for about twenty days, when
-suddenly it appears as a pale yellow moth, with wings which seem
-scarcely adapted for flight. It crawls heavily about the place where it
-has been hatched, having a slight tremor in its wings, and eats
-nothing: the male speedily dies; the females hover about a while without
-flying, and lay their eggs on the slips of paper presented to them for
-that purpose. They then soon perish. The female moth generally produces
-about 300 or 400 eggs.
-
-[Illustration: THE MOTH.]
-
-
-GENERAL REMARKS.
-
-The place where silkworms are bred, should persons wish to pursue their
-rearing upon a larger scale, must be free from noisome smells, cattle,
-and all noises. Persons attending them must be scrupulously clean in
-their persons, and wash themselves after every meal. Great attention
-must also be paid to the temperature of the apartment in which they are
-kept, which must also be free from all dust or smoke; and the most
-thoughtful and tender care is requisite in everything connected with
-their treatment and management.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE SQUIRREL.
-
-The pretty little squirrel has long held a high place in the affections
-of pet-lovers, and there are few who have not admired the brisk lively
-movements, the full intelligent eye, and the soft bushy tail of this
-creature. To possess a tame squirrel is often a legitimate object of boy
-ambition, not unfrequently shared by their elders. In order to give our
-readers a few hints as to the procuring, management, and taming of this
-pretty playmate, we offer the following suggestions.
-
-The first care of every intending possessor of a squirrel should be to
-prepare a comfortable home for the expected guest, so that the little
-creature may find its first association with captive life as agreeable
-as it can be made. In point of fact, the young naturalist should try to
-give to the squirrel's future home the greatest possible resemblance to
-the native domicile.
-
-The very best house for a squirrel is an unused room, fitted up with
-strong tree-branches, and furnished with a cosy little box, filled with
-hay and dry mosses, by way of a bedchamber. As, however, such
-accommodation is not readily found, we will just describe the mode of
-making a very strong, sightly, and cleanly cage, at a comparatively
-small expense, and possessing the advantage of coming to pieces when
-needed, and being packed flat like a portfolio for removal. It will be
-much cheaper than a purchased cage, quite as handsome, and more easily
-cleansed.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
-
-Make, or, if you are not a good workman, get a carpenter to make, a
-shallow wooden tray about two inches deep, lined with tin, which should
-be turned fairly over the edges, or sundry difficulties will appear in
-course of time. (See fig. 1.) Then go to a wire-worker's, and order him
-to make two frames of galvanized iron wire, like fig. 2, and two more
-like fig. 3, each being about half an inch shorter than the interior
-length and width of the tray, into which they are intended to fit
-easily. Also have another piece of similar wire made large enough to
-bend over the arched tops of the end-pieces, so as to make a roof like
-the transepts of the Crystal Palace. The edges of the side and
-end-pieces should be very stout, but those of the roof only moderately
-strong, or it will not bend easily. It will be better to have a square
-opening at each end, which should be closed by a door of similar
-materials. As this wirework will be of coarse manufacture, and have
-tolerably wide intervals, the cost will be very moderate.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
-
-After these frames have been procured, fit them together, and fasten
-them by twisting bits of wire round the edges at intervals of three
-inches or so. Put this frame into the tray, and the cage is complete.
-The staples at the ends are useful for receiving the hooked end of a
-slight iron rod, looped at the other end to the edging-wire, as seen in
-fig. 4. These rods act as braces to keep the whole structure firm, and
-also hold it down to the tray. Some suitable sticks or branches should
-be fastened to the wires, as the squirrel is fond of playing about on
-them.
-
-This is the day-room of the squirrel, and its bedroom is merely a
-proper-sized box, with wire-work substituted for the wooden bottom, a
-hinged lid, and a hole cut in one end. This should be supported on four
-legs; a nail at each corner (not a brass-headed nail) will answer the
-purpose perfectly well. This box is simply placed in the tray at the
-back of the cage. If it can be managed, a duplicate tray will be
-exceedingly convenient, as the cage needs the extremest cleanliness, and
-can be simply purified by changing the tray every morning, washing very
-carefully the one just removed, and leaving it in the air till the next
-day. A duplicate sleeping-box will be equally serviceable. The box
-should be furnished with perfectly clean hay, mosses, lichens, &c.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
-
-The cage should never be less than two feet long, two high, and one foot
-wide. All should be thus particular about the size of the cage, because
-we hold it to be a cruel deed to take an active little creature like the
-squirrel from its fields and wide woods, where it can sport at will over
-unlimited space, and coop it up in a close, evil-smelling, little cage,
-where its only exercise can be obtained by driving a wheel round, and
-its wonderful faculty of leaping wholly checked. How much wheel-work
-would the squirrel do if it had the choice of a tree or a wheel for its
-exercise? Even in a cage, provided it be of a proper size, the little
-creature would not trouble itself to get into a wheel, but prefer
-clambering about the wires, and jumping from one side to another, in the
-exuberance of its activity.
-
-Many persons assert that the squirrel is quite fond of the wheel, and
-delights in driving it; but they forget that the poor little creature is
-driven to that as its last resource for needful exercise; and it no more
-delights in pulling a wire wheel than the caged lion and tiger delight
-in their restless pacing of their dens.
-
-The exercise of the powers with which it is so liberally gifted is
-essential to the health of the squirrel, and its health must suffer if
-it be not permitted to leap. Look at it in a tree, and just see what
-astonishing jumps the pretty creature takes; how it will spring fairly
-from the ground to the trunk of a tree, making a jump of some six or
-seven feet in length and four in height; how it gallops up the
-perpendicular stem, with its tail laid behind it, like a fox's brush;
-how it scuttles up the branches, always contriving to keep the bough
-between itself and the spectator; and then how, when it has arrived at
-the topmost branch, and considers itself safe, it sits up in its own
-charmingly impertinent position, spreads its tail over its head, and
-looks down with a calmly supercilious contempt on the clumsy two-legged
-animal below, who cannot run up a tree, and has no bushy tail for a
-parasol.
-
-No one who has once witnessed this sight could ever be guilty of such a
-cruel act as penning up a squirrel in a small cage, where it has no room
-to perform its pretty tricks; and if the reader cannot furnish his pet
-with a proper house, we earnestly dissuade him from keeping a squirrel
-at all.
-
-Having prepared the house, the next business is to procure the
-inhabitant. Be ever wary of those wandering dealers who carry a squirrel
-about for sale in their arms, stroke its head, and put their fingers to
-its mouth to show its tameness. In almost every case the man is a cheat,
-and in many instances a cruel one.
-
-The apparent tameness of some of these little creatures is caused by a
-small dose of strychnine, which renders the animal dull and spiritless,
-and is generally fatal in the course of a day or two; so that the
-disappointed purchaser finds his pet dead and stiff at the bottom of its
-cage before he has possessed it for many hours. Some of these men are
-said to employ a preparation of opium for the same purpose.
-
-In cases where these impostors wish to sell an old and cross-grained
-squirrel as a gentle, young one, they pull out its front teeth, so that
-the poor creature not only cannot bite, but feels such pain in its jaws
-that it recoils whenever the cruel owner puts his finger to its mouth as
-a proof of its good education and gentle disposition. As all rodent
-animals depend solely on their beautifully-formed and chisel-shaped fore
-teeth for their subsistence, the unfortunate squirrel is unable to eat,
-and dies miserably of hunger.
-
-Taking warning, therefore, of these hints, let every intending purchaser
-of a squirrel be very wary respecting the seller, and examine the
-squirrel's eye, to see if it be bright and lively, and its mouth, to see
-if the teeth be perfect. The age of the squirrel may also be known by
-its teeth: if young, they are nearly white; if old, of a deep yellow.
-Squirrels when taken after they have reached their full age are nearly
-always vicious and ill-tempered.
-
-The best way, therefore, to obtain a good squirrel is either to order it
-from a respectable dealer, who will be sure to supply a young and
-healthy animal, or to be independent of dealers, and take the creature
-out of the nest.
-
-For this purpose the young naturalist should go into the woods about the
-middle of summer, and look carefully among the branches for the home of
-the squirrel, called either a "cage" or a "drey," according to the
-locality. The nest is made on the exterior of leaves and fine twigs, and
-lined with moss, lichens, and similar soft substances. There are two
-kinds of nests, one used in summer and the other in winter. The winter
-nest is very carefully concealed, being placed at the junction of
-several large branches with the trunk, so as to shield it from prying
-eyes below, the blasts of the keen winter wind, and to support its large
-dimensions.
-
-The summer cage, on the contrary, is not so carefully concealed, but is
-placed upon a considerable elevation, and often upon boughs so slender
-that they bend in a most alarming manner beneath the weight. Still, it
-often happens that a nest can be reached without danger, in which may be
-found one or two young squirrels of just the proper age.
-
-When captured at an early age, the squirrel often becomes extremely tame
-and confiding, and will play with its owner as if they had both lived in
-the same nest. It is a pretty sight to witness the gambols of a squirrel
-with its human playfellow, to see the active little animal jump on the
-shoulders, run all over the body, perch on the head, poke its wise
-little head into a pocket, and then with a quick dive of the ready paw
-bring out a nut, which it straightway cracks and eats as merrily as if
-in its native woods. Such a sight is pleasant for many reasons; not the
-least being that it proves the kindly disposition of the boy with whom a
-squirrel, though naturally timid, will thus fearlessly play, and it
-gives promise of more extended sympathies when he attains to riper years
-and more matured faculties.
-
-The squirrel when in confinement is best fed on the substances which it
-eats while in the wild state, such as nuts, acorns, corn, and similar
-substances. It will also eat bread-and-milk, and likes to nibble a
-biscuit by way of a treat. As the squirrel is known to be carnivorous to
-a certain degree, it may be useful to give it occasionally a young bird,
-or a few eggs of the thrush, sparrow, or any other common bird. We
-cannot, however, give personal testimony to the good effect of this
-diet. Hard shell-fruits, such as nuts, acorns, &c., are absolutely
-necessary to this animal, as the structure of the teeth compels it to be
-continually nibbling. In all the rodent animals the front teeth are four
-in number, flat, slightly curved, and edged like a chisel. They play
-against each other in such a manner that they mutually keep each other
-sharp; and in order to supply the constant wearing away to which they
-are subject, they grow throughout the whole lifetime of the animal,
-being pushed forward by fresh growth at the base.
-
-It sometimes happens that a rodent animal, such as a rat or a rabbit,
-loses one of its teeth, and the consequence is that the corresponding
-tooth in the jaw, finding nothing to check it, grows so long that it has
-been known to reach even the forehead, to form a complete ring, and
-sometimes to penetrate the other jaw. In all these cases the poor
-creature was miserably thin, and would probably have died from gradual
-starvation at no distant period.
-
-The last-mentioned point in squirrel-keeping, though of course the most
-important, is the absolute necessity for the most scrupulous
-cleanliness. In their native state, all animals are clean to a degree
-that might shame many a human being, and their instinctive sanitary
-customs are most praiseworthy. Even the pig, for instance, so often
-cited as an example of filthy habits, is when wild a model of
-cleanliness, and when domesticated absolutely revels in a thorough
-scrubbing with soap and hot water. The squirrel, in like manner, though
-perfectly sweet and clean in a wild state, is sure to be most offensive
-in captivity, unless the cage be carefully purified daily.
-
-It is for this reason that we are so particular in recommending
-galvanized iron for the materials of the cage, avoiding wood altogether,
-as an evil odour readily penetrates wood, and can never be totally
-expelled. The duplicate tray and sleeping-box will prove to be of the
-greatest service in keeping the cage clean, and will save much trouble
-to the proprietor and annoyance to the inhabitant.
-
-Should the squirrel-rearer prefer to employ wood in any part of the
-cage, he must be sure to bind with sheet-tin every edge and angle of the
-woodwork, as the little creature will nibble at the exposed edges so
-continually with its chisels of teeth, that it will speedily render the
-article useless.
-
-Before closing these remarks, let us enjoin on every intending rearer of
-a pet to consider well before he undertakes the sole guardianship of any
-creature, and to assure himself that he will perform with punctuality
-and completeness the many little offices required by animals when taken
-from their natural state of existence, debarred from the exercise of
-their ordinary capacities, and rendered incapable of procuring food or
-keeping themselves in that state of cleanliness which is the ordinary
-condition of creatures in a state of nature.
-
-He must make up his mind that the task will be somewhat troublesome, and
-will now and then interfere with contemplated projects; but at the same
-time he must rigidly determine that nothing shall cause him to forget,
-or induce him to omit, one single duty towards the little creature under
-his care. It is dumb, and has no language to declare its wants or
-proclaim its injuries; and this very dumbness ought to incite in every
-right-feeling heart a strong compassion for the helpless state in which
-the creature is placed, an unshakeable resolution to make it as happy as
-it can be under the circumstances.
-
-It is possible to elevate the character of a kindly-treated pet to such
-a degree, that it will voluntarily forsake the society of its own kind
-for that of man, and even if granted its liberty, will refuse to avail
-itself of the gift, and return to the protection of the sheltering hand.
-By humane and sympathetic treatment a pet may be made happier than in
-its native state, and be saved many pangs of suffering by a kindly
-owner. All animals when wild have to pass through a sort of schooling,
-and get sadly knocked about and bullied by their elders before they
-attain maturity and strength to become bullies in their turn; but if
-reared in gracious captivity, they will escape the ordeal through which
-they must have passed.
-
-Lastly, let the owner remember that his little favourite is wholly
-dependent on him for every necessary and comfort of life, and that it
-will be a piece of arrant cruelty--or, at all events, of inexcusable
-thoughtlessness--to permit the captive to feel the pangs of hunger or
-thirst, or to suffer the discomfort of an unclean home.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-WHITE MICE.
-
-The mouse is a lively little animal, and one of the most timid, although
-he eats in the trap as soon as he is caught. The brown mouse can very
-rarely be tamed; but white mice are bred and brought up in a state of
-domestication, and the young fancier can obtain a pair for a shilling at
-any of the fanciers. The female has frequently six or eight broods in a
-year, but at these times she must be separated from the buck, who very
-frequently destroys the young ones.
-
-Cages for white mice may be easily purchased by those who _have the
-money_--mark that--and you may indulge yourselves, my young friends, to
-any tune, from the sweet jingle of sixpence to the respectable clink of
-a golden sovereign. The best kind of cage is that like a squirrel's, but
-on a small scale.
-
-Some boys who have ingenuity will construct pretty little houses for
-their white mice. We remember seeing one on which there was a mill, by
-which the white mice, very much like millers in their looks, ground
-their own corn by means of a turnabout fixed on a post of the dormitory,
-and it was very amusing to see the little creatures come out of the
-chimney and look about as unlike chimney-sweeps as white is to black.
-
-The principal food for white mice is bread-and-milk, oatmeal grits, and
-any other common food, except cheese, which is bad for them. They should
-be kept particularly clean, and their cages ought to be arranged, and
-beds made up every day, or they will give out a most disagreeable smell.
-
-Piebald mice are sometimes produced by a union of the common field-mouse
-with a white mouse: there are also some expensive varieties, such as the
-black mouse, and the black and white mouse, which the young gentlemen
-who have more money than wit may purchase for a few shillings each; but
-we say sixpence: sixpence apiece is enough for any pets of this kind.
-
-
-[Illustration: MISCELLANEOUS.--CONJURING, CHESS, ETC.]
-
-
-
-
-PART V.
-
-Miscellaneous:
-
-INCLUDING
-
- BAGATELLE.
- BILLIARDS.
- BOAT-BUILDING.
- CARPENTERING.
- CHESS.
- CONJURING.
- CRYPTOGRAPHY.
- DEAF AND DUMB ALPHABET.
- DOMINOES.
- DRAUGHTS.
- FIREWORKS.
- GARDENING.
- MIMICRY AND VENTRILOQUISM.
- PUZZLES.
- SHOWS.
- STAMP-COLLECTING.
- TINSELLING.
-
-
-BAGATELLE.
-
-Whatever diversity of opinion there may be with respect to the skill
-required to excel at bagatelle, there can be none with regard to its
-popularity. The familiar long green table, with its round end and nine
-numbered cups let in level with the cloth, is found nearly everywhere.
-The games played on a bagatelle board are various, the principal of
-which are, English bagatelle (which is the ordinary game), French
-bagatelle, Sans Egal, Mississippi, Tron Madame, the Cannon game or
-Bagatelle _versus_ Billiards. Many of the strokes at billiards will be
-found useful at bagatelle, but much less strength will be required.
-
-
-ENGLISH BAGATELLE
-
-May be played by any number of persons. The order of precedence is
-settled by each person striking a ball up the board, and whoever gets
-the highest number takes the lead and possession of the whole nine
-balls. He places his ball on the white spot nearest the striking point,
-and the black ball (which counts double) on the spot nearest the holes.
-The black ball must be struck at the commencement of every round, but
-afterwards the player can either play for the holes direct or by
-striking the other balls. The mace or cue may be used, as agreed upon.
-Any number of rounds may be played, and the score is counted from the
-marked holes into which the balls are driven. The sides of the table are
-filled with holes and pegs to mark the progress of the game.
-
-
-THE FRENCH GAME
-
-Differs from the English in two or three essential particulars. It is
-generally played by two or four persons, who, instead of playing with
-the whole nine balls, take it in turn to strike, and score all they make
-until a hole is missed. The player forfeits one point if he misses the
-black ball, which counts double, as in the English game. A hundred up is
-the usual score, and occasionally different values are given to coloured
-balls, so that a black counts double, a red the same, or adds two to the
-score otherwise made.
-
-
-SANS EGAL
-
-Is a favourite game for two persons. The lead is decided as in the
-English game, and each player has four balls of different colours. The
-black ball is placed as in the English game, and the players take
-alternate strokes. The one that holes the black ball counts it towards
-his game, as well as all he may hole of his own; but should he hole any
-of his adversary's, the number is scored to the owner of them. The game
-is played 21 or 31 up, and the winner of one round takes the lead in the
-next.
-
-
-THE CANNON GAME.
-
-This is also called "Billiards _v._ Bagatelle," and is played by two
-persons,--101 up. Three balls of different colours are used--black, red,
-and white: the choice of the two last, and the lead, is determined as in
-the English game. The game is commenced by placing the black ball on the
-spot; but should the player miss it, his opponent scores five; and if
-the ball is holed at the same time, the number of the cup is also
-counted to his opponent, who then takes the turn. The black ball
-invariably counts double, and is taken out of the cup every time it is
-holed and placed on "the spot," as at the commencement. If the player's
-ball is holed after contact with the black ball, or after having made a
-cannon, it counts the number of the cup, and is returned to him, when he
-continues to play until he misses. A cannon scores two to the game, but
-the black ball must be struck first, or else five is added to the
-adversary's score. There are a few other points to be observed. The
-player continues playing after making a cannon, or after holing his own
-or adversary's ball, if he has struck the black ball first. Should any
-ball rebound beyond the centre of the table or be forced off the board,
-it must not be played that round, unless it is the black ball, which
-must be placed on "the spot," as at the commencement of the game.
-
-
-MISSISSIPPI.
-
-This is a variation of the game by means of a wooden perforated bridge,
-each arch of which bears a particular number. The bridge is placed close
-up to the circle, and each player strikes up one ball; he who gets the
-highest number takes the lead, and plays the nine balls successively.
-The balls must strike one of the cushions previous to entering the
-bridge, otherwise the number will be scored to the adversary. The game
-may be played 30, 60, or 100 up, as may be agreed on.
-
-
-BILLIARDS.
-
-Of all indoor games, billiards ranks highest. It is without doubt the
-king, and reigns triumphant over chess, backgammon, parlour croquet; and
-since those delightful miniature billiard tables have been introduced,
-it is rapidly superseding bagatelle as a parlour game. These miniature
-tables possess all the advantages of the larger and more aristocratic
-tables. The same principles operate, the practice is similar, and the
-laws which govern the play are alike; need it be a matter of wonder that
-billiards is fast becoming as popular and universal as it is excellent?
-
-When a boy first tries his hand at billiards, he is generally confounded
-by the apparently erratic conduct of the balls. They are apt to diverge
-into the strangest places, and somehow manage to remain precisely in
-those spots where a practised player can make a good break from them.
-This arises first from the want of a knowledge of the laws which
-regulate moving bodies, the general principles of billiards, and an
-acquaintance with the various "strokes," and the effects they produce.
-Thus to become a good billiard-player requires a nicety of touch, a good
-eye, and sound judgment. These are to be acquired if the player attends
-to the following principles and points of the game.
-
-Most boys are aware that billiards is played on an oblong table twelve
-feet long by six feet wide, inside the cushions: the smaller tables
-preserve these general proportions. In France, for instance, the table
-is some four feet by eight feet, and without pockets, it being used
-solely for the cannon game; but English tables have invariably six
-pockets, one at each corner and two at the sides. No good table is now
-made without a slate bed, perfectly level, and covered with fine green
-cloth. The old list cushions are now superseded by those made of
-vulcanized india-rubber, which not only resists the deteriorating
-influence of the weather, but increases the "speed" of the table. The
-surface of the cloth is marked with three "spots." The first "spot" is
-placed about twelve inches from the upper end or top of the table, and
-is known as "_the_ spot." The second is placed two feet six inches from
-the top, and the third is in the centre of the table. Two feet six
-inches from the bottom of the table is the "baulk line," on which is
-inscribed a semicircle, called the "striking point," shown on figs. 4 to
-7. The position of the semicircle is also marked by three spots, one at
-each end and one at the centre.
-
-The moveable adjuncts to the table are cues, balls, butt, and a rest or
-jigger. With respect to these one or two words of advice. See that your
-cue is well balanced; beware of fancy cues; let the leathered tip be
-moderately broad, and keep it always well chalked. The balls are perfect
-spheres turned out of the centre of the tusk. It may be mentioned that
-the ordinary length of a cue is four feet nine inches, and the diameter
-of "match balls" is two inches and a sixteenth. The "butt" is a stiff,
-thick cue, well leathered at the butt end, and is used occasionally for
-pushing the ball when it is necessary to come off a cushion at an exact
-angle. The uses of the "rest" and long cues are obvious.
-
-Ere touching on the game itself, there are a few essential points which
-claim the attention of a young player. They are these: 1. The attainment
-of a good position. 2. The making of a firm "bridge." 3. The acquirement
-of a good, easy, but firm, stroke. The last two essentials depend in a
-great measure on the first. It is obvious that the billiard player
-requires an easy play for his right arm, and firmness in his left to
-give solidity to the "bridge." To ensure this he must stand firmly on
-his right leg, so that it supports the weight of his body. The left leg
-should be placed slightly in advance, and pressed gently to balance the
-body only. This will throw additional weight on the left arm, which
-rests on the table, and leave the right arm free. If the position is a
-good one, the left leg may be lifted from the floor without disturbing
-the body. To form the "bridge," the left hand must be first extended on
-the table, and the fingers drawn up straight towards the wrist, so as to
-elevate the knuckles. If well done, the tips of the fingers, the wrist,
-and ball of the thumb will touch the table. The point of the thumb must
-be then kept slightly apart from the fingers to form a groove, in which
-the cue can rest, as shown in fig. 1.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 1.--THE BRIDGE.]
-
-The bridge should be formed almost six inches from the ball. To strike
-well, surely, and firmly, the cue must be held in the grasp of the right
-hand. This is essential, for unless the cue is so held it will be
-impossible to make a good, and therefore a sure, stroke. All fancy modes
-of holding the cue by the tips of the fingers should be avoided. The cue
-may be laid on the groove of the bridge, and drawn back, and then firmly
-and steadily send it forward in a straight line, keeping the right hand
-well down behind you, so that the force of the blow comes from the
-shoulder, not the elbow. The eye must be educated to guide the hand,
-and, hit or miss, the stroke should be given at once. There should be no
-hesitation, no see-sawing of the cue to and fro, and no violent motions
-whatever. The body should be so placed as to give firmness to the
-bridge, ease to the right arm--which should be kept straight, with the
-point of the cue slightly above the surface of the cloth--and a general
-freedom from constraint, which is highly essential to success.
-
-The best method of practice for a young beginner is to place a ball
-before his cue and strike it firmly and gently into different pockets,
-or at different marked points of the cushion, until he can pocket the
-ball and hit a given point with freedom and precision. The ball must be
-fairly struck with the tip of the cue, not pushed or jerked forward; and
-hence it will be necessary to draw back the point of the cue five or six
-inches ere striking the ball. The stroke, though firm, must not be
-violent, lest the natural angles of the table should be destroyed. If
-the ball is watched carefully after it has struck the cushion, it will
-be found to return at an exactly equal angle to the one at which it was
-struck. In other words, "the angle of reflexion is equal to the angle of
-incidence." This is the first and most important rule of billiards, and
-one that should never be forgotten. The variation of the strength and
-direction of the stroke will be found to materially affect this law, and
-enables the skilled player to make those formidable and seemingly
-impossible strokes which secure him his victory. This peculiarity of the
-angles is best illustrated, and the practice of the student advanced, by
-placing another ball at a little distance before the player, which we
-will call the object ball. If we place them in a line with one of the
-marked places on the cushion, and strike the first ball fair in the
-centre, and cause it to strike the object ball full,--if this is done,
-it will strike the marked spot, and come off at the same angle as your
-first ball would have done.
-
-For the purposes of play the object ball is divided thus:--
-
-[Illustration: 1. Full Ball.
-
-2. Three-quarter Ball.
-
-3. Half Ball.
-
-4. Quarter Ball.
-
-5. Eighth Ball.
-
-6. Very fine Ball.
-
-FIG. 2.--DIVIDING THE OBJECT BALL.]
-
-Fig. 2, No. 1, shows the object ball struck full, fig. 2, No. 2, the
-three-quarter ball, and so on. The half ball is the most important in
-practice, as by it the natural angle is made, an angle that is of the
-greatest importance at billiards, though each have their particular
-uses, which the young player should endeavour to understand. He will
-find that the balls diverge at different angles, more or less acute,
-according as the object ball is struck "full" or "fine;" the fine ball
-being precisely the reverse of the three-quarter ball.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 3.--THE PLAYER'S BALL DIVIDED FOR THE SIDE-STROKE.]
-
-There are many ordinary hazards and cannons which can be made by simply
-dividing the object ball, but the motion which the striking ball obtains
-after contact with the object ball will be modified by the position of
-the cue and the manner in which it is struck. First let us take the
-position of the cue. For the full centre stroke or straight hazard the
-ball must be struck well in the centre, and produce what is termed _the
-retard_, or stop ball, if the object ball is struck full likewise. If
-the striker's ball is struck considerably above its centre, it produces
-the _following stroke_. To make the ball _jump_, it must be struck
-sharply on the top with a "downward, forward motion," and this, if
-carefully done, will cause the ball to jump over a neighbouring and
-intervening ball. When the ball is struck low, it produces _the recoil_,
-and the striker's ball will return from the object ball to the player.
-This leads the beginner to the greatest of all modern improvements in
-the game, the _side-stroke_. It is found that it is much easier to
-divide the striker's ball with accuracy than the object ball, but when
-both balls are divided with judgment the highest scientific play is
-obtained. The application of _side_ and twist to the striker's ball is
-often misapplied by beginners, and is frequently the cause of
-mischievous results; for all students should remember that "the harder
-you strike the balls the more rapidly they fly apart;" and frequently a
-modification of the strength of the stroke will achieve the desired
-result better than the application of "side," which may fail. It should
-always be remembered that the ball must be struck on the side on which
-it is intended to go after contact with the object ball, and that the
-effect is not produced until after it has come in contact with another
-ball or the cushion. It is used for the same purpose as the division of
-the object ball, and accomplishes the same object. In order that it may
-be properly understood we give in fig. 3 the player's ball divided for
-the side-stroke.
-
-The student can only acquire a knowledge of the effect of the strokes
-given at these varied points by practice, or from the instruction of an
-expert teacher; all that a writer can do is to lay down well-defined and
-easily-understood axioms, rules, and cautions. Thus, if the ball is
-struck at _c c_, at the top, it becomes the following ball; at the
-bottom _c c_, a recoil; at _f f_ it will give a strong side to the ball
-at the lower angles, the screw or twist, which causes the balls to twist
-back; the upper angles will give high right-hand side or left-hand side,
-according to the side they are struck.
-
-
-THE ANGLES OF THE TABLE
-
-Should never be forgotten. They change infinitely, and if the student
-has made good use of the hints given as to the elementary practice with
-one ball, he will have acquired some valuable information, and soon see
-the truth of the axiom, that the "angle of reflexion is equal to the
-angle of incidence;" and the advantage of a knowledge of the angles of
-the table will be best seen in making cannons, for many players will
-make them off one, two, three, and even four cushions.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 4.--ANGLES OF THE TABLE.]
-
-Fig. 4 shows a series of very useful angles, which may be advantageously
-studied. The black lines represent the course of the ball before
-reverberation, the dotted lines its course after the first reflexion,
-and the faint lines its course after the second reflexion. In these
-examples the ball is supposed to be struck fairly in the centre with
-moderate force, except in case 1, where the effects of different
-strengths is shown. An ordinary, moderate stroke would bring the ball
-into the left-hand corner pocket, while a harder stroke would produce
-the angles _a b_: if played with greater strength the angles _c d_ will
-result. "_Bricole_" angles are made across the table, and are of course
-proportionately more acute. The _Bricole_ game is being obliged to
-strike a cushion, and make the ball reverberate or recoil from it
-previous to hitting the adversary's ball. This is a very great
-disadvantage, and is used principally in "_cramp games_," where the
-advantage of one player is neutralized by this; or by playing cannons
-against cannons and hazards, or four pockets to two, or five to one, or
-cannons and winning hazards against the whole game.
-
-All strokes at billiards are distinguished by the name of cannons or
-hazards. Cannon is a contraction of _carambole_, and is a stroke in
-which the player strikes both balls in succession with his own. The
-"losing hazard" is when the player's own ball is forced into either of
-the six pockets, after contact with the other ball. The "winning hazard"
-is made by forcing the ball played upon into either pocket after
-contact.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 5.--CANNONS.]
-
-Here are a few examples of cannons made from the cushion, without the
-use of the side-stroke. They only indicate the infinite variety that can
-be made.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 6.--WINNING HAZARDS.]
-
-Some rather difficult, but useful, _winning hazards_ are shown in fig.
-6. The stroke A is termed the "spot stroke." This stroke is sometimes
-made a score or more times in succession by a good player. It is one of
-the best of winning hazards. It requires a nearly full ball of moderate
-strength, and to repeat it from one side to the other you should
-slightly divide your own ball by putting on a little side (see D _e_ in
-fig. 3); and you will find your ball in the right position to repeat the
-stroke. Sometimes it may be made by a slow hoist, which causes the ball
-to come back to the starting-point; or the ball may be stopped a little
-behind the object ball, and thus make a succession of hazards from the
-same pocket. The champion billiard-player, Roberts, makes tremendous
-breaks from the "spot stroke." Get a good player to show the variety of
-ways in which it can be made, and practise it. Here are a few examples
-of the effect of dividing the object ball. Strokes 1 to 14 are made from
-the baulk into the top end pockets by dividing the object ball from a
-nearly full ball, as in 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, to an eighth in 1 and 9.
-Stroke 5 represents a half ball vulgarly called a pair of breeches.
-Stroke 11 should be made to hug the cushion. Strokes 15 and 16 must be
-played gently with a half ball, and 17 with a quarter ball. Strokes 18
-to 33 show a variety of cuts made by striking the ball in the direction
-shown by the line between the white ball and the red.
-
-Now for a few _losing hazards_. They require a little different
-treatment. Here are a few.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 7.--LOSING HAZARDS.]
-
-The first eight strokes require a screw, and more or less side,
-according to their position; 9, 10, 11, and 12 require strong side, as
-shown; and in 13 the striker's ball must first strike the cushion
-gently, rebound, hit the other ball, and fall into the corner pocket.
-Stroke 14 is an ugly position for a beginner, yet it frequently occurs.
-You must put on plenty of side to your own ball, which will remove the
-object ball, and your ball will then roll along the cushion into the
-pocket. Stroke 22 alone requires a word in explanation. It shows now the
-losing hazard is made from baulk off the red on the spot. Put on a
-strong-side twist, and practise it well. Remember that practice can
-alone make perfect. Be always decided, play steadily, and do not lose
-your temper.
-
-Now for a few hints with respect to the games to be played. With every
-billiard table a set of rules is supplied, and these must be studied and
-obeyed, as regulating the game; but an endless variety of games may be
-extemporised to suit the various parties and skill of the professors.
-
-
-THE AMERICAN GAME
-
-Is played with four balls, a light red, or pink, and dark red. The balls
-are placed on the spots in the centre between the pockets. The baulk is
-not confined to the semicircle, but you can place your ball anywhere
-within the line which is extended level with the winning-hazard spot.
-The game is usually played 63 up, and consists of winning hazards and
-cannons. In this game "doubles" are of great advantage. Doubles are so
-called when a player strikes his own or an object ball at a certain
-angle of the cushion, so as to cause it to come off at an equal angle
-and go into a pocket at the opposite side of the table. It is called a
-"double double" if the ball returns and goes into a pocket on the side
-of the table it first struck; and there is a game in which no score is
-made unless the cushion is first struck with the ball.
-
-
-PYRAMIDS, OR PYRAMID POOL,
-
-Is played with fifteen red and one white ball. The red balls are
-arranged in a triangle, thus:--
-
- o o o o o
- o o o o
- o o o
- o o
- o
-
-The first ball is placed on the winning-hazard spot. The white ball is
-placed in baulk. The game is placed by holing all the red balls. A great
-deal will depend in this on keeping the white ball safe, so that your
-adversary may have to play a cramp stroke. It is a pretty game to play
-with friends. Pyramids can be so modified as to suit a number of
-players, each striking in succession, and scoring according to the
-number of balls pocketed. A small stake is placed on each ball to give
-an interest in the game. When played in this manner, the winner who
-scores the greatest number takes the stakes.
-
-
-"WINNING AND LOSING CARAMBOLE GAME"
-
-Is played by either two or four persons. Winning and losing hazards,
-cannons, and forfeits, go to make the score, which is usually 50. If
-four players make a match, and play side against side, they play 63 up,
-and the partners may instruct each other. This plan is open to
-objection, and a far better one is for each to play his own game, and
-handicap the inferior players by giving them ten or fifteen points at
-the commencement. In this case, if either party gives a miss, it is far
-better that he should lose one point than the others should take one
-each. The white and spot white balls are then played alternately, as if
-only two were playing. The game commences by stringing for the lead and
-the choice of balls. The player must place his ball within the striking
-ring, and stand within the limits of the corner of the table. He whose
-ball rests nearest to the cushion at the baulk end of the table wins the
-lead, and chooses his own ball. A few general hints respecting the rules
-only is necessary. The red ball is placed on the lower of the two spots
-at the bottom of the table, and replaced there when it is holed (_i. e._
-pocketed) or forced over the edge of the table, or when the balls are
-broken or, in other words, placed as at the commencement of a game.
-Whoever breaks the balls leads off. With respect to scoring: if the
-striker holes the white ball (called a white winning hazard), or if he
-holes his own ball from the white ball (called a white losing hazard),
-he gains two points; if he does both, he gains four points. If he holes
-the red ball, he wins three; and if by the same stroke he holes his own
-from the red, he wins three more.
-
-
-POOL.
-
-There are several ways of playing pool. There is the ordinary game, with
-as many balls as there are players, or with two balls only, the players
-playing in turns, and playing with alternate balls; playing with the
-nearest ball; playing at the last player; or the player playing at
-whichever ball he chooses. The most popular game is that in which the
-player plays at the last player. When coloured balls are used, they are
-played as the colours are placed on the marking board. Each player has
-three lives at starting. But there is this drawback to pool: if the
-player happens to lose all his lives in rapid succession, he is
-condemned to inglorious idleness until the pool is played out, and then
-the same thing may happen. This may be obviated by allowing the lives to
-be unlimited, and paying nothing into the general pool, so that if a
-player's ball be pocketed, he has only to pay his stake and remain on
-hand until his turn comes round again. In this manner the players may
-continue their game for an unlimited period, and a new-comer may join
-the game at any time.
-
-There is a cannon game which affords excellent practice. All the pool or
-pyramid balls are ranged in a line against the top and bottom cushion,
-having the plain white ball in the middle. A cue is then laid flat
-against them, and they are pushed along the table, so as to strike the
-opposite cushion. The object of the player is to take the white ball and
-make as many consecutive cannons as possible. Should his own ball run
-into a pocket, he is obliged to stop and let the next player in; and if
-any of the coloured balls run into a pocket, it must stay there, and of
-course decrease the chances of a long series of cannons. This is much
-more difficult than it looks.
-
-There is a cannon game with one red and the two white balls. In this
-pocketing either of the white balls causes two to be deducted from the
-score, and pocketing the red ball loses three. The regular French game
-consists of cannons only; misses and pockets do not count either way.
-It is usually played on a French table, without pockets, with two and a
-half inch balls, and a heavy one. The baulk is not confined to the
-semicircle. At the commencement the red is placed on the winning spot,
-and the non-striker's ball on the centre spot in baulk.
-
-
-ITALIAN SKITTLE POOL
-
-Is an excellent game for boys. It is played thirty-one points up. Four
-balls are used, two being white, one red, and one blue; and five
-skittles are placed in the centre of the table. Each of the skittles is
-numbered in the following order:--The first opposite the baulk is
-numbered 1; the one to the right 2; the one opposite to the first 3; the
-opposite to the second, on the left, 4; and the one in the centre 5. The
-red ball is placed as in the cannon game, the blue one beneath it. The
-two white balls are kept by the two players who have to play first.
-There is a peculiarity in this game, from the fact that a number, from
-one to sixteen, is chosen by the player at random, and the marker
-secretly adds it to the score, and in order to win the pool the player
-must make between the points of the game and those on the hidden ball
-thirty-one points, neither more nor less: if he makes more he is
-technically dead, and out of the game. The first player has to strike
-the red ball, the second the blue one, while the following players may
-use either. The points are made by knocking down the skittles, each of
-which counts as many points as its number, and by whatever ball these
-skittles are knocked down they always count. If a ball is knocked out of
-the table, it destroys all the points made by the stroke. Any player
-reaching twenty-nine or thirty points has a right to stop on his
-declaring so, only the points he makes in his subsequent play count to
-the advantage or disadvantage, whichever it may be, of the previous
-player. The survivor from amongst all the players who have died by
-overstepping the thirty-one points wins the pool. He who knocks down the
-four outside skittles, leaving the centre one only standing, makes what
-is called the royal, and wins the pool. There are some minute rules
-about stopping, which must be declared immediately on reaching
-twenty-nine or thirty points, and only one person can stop. The
-advantage of stopping is the chance of being the survivor.
-
-On a wet day, in a country house, the best round game is _Penny Pot_,
-played like pool, and for every ball pocketed the player receives a
-small stake, and plays until he ceases to score. After making a winning
-hazard, the nearest ball is played on. A life is forfeited for every
-miss, coup (_i. e._ playing a ball into a pocket without its touching
-another ball), or losing hazard, and paid to the owner of the ball
-played on.
-
-
-[Illustration: BOAT BUILDING]
-
-This truly English amusement cannot be too highly extolled, as it is
-calculated to incite boys to emulate each other in acquiring proficiency
-in an art which exercises their ingenuity and taste, while it inculcates
-habits of patient industry. A good sailing ship is rather a troublesome
-thing to construct; but when a lad sees it "walk the waters like a thing
-of life" he experiences feelings which fully repay him for all his
-labour. Every boy ought to learn to swim, if only to prevent anxious
-parents including boat-sailing with dangerous pastimes that ought not to
-be encouraged. We are always pleased to see boys sailing their miniature
-vessels, and we cannot think that an occasional ducking ought to
-interfere with an occupation so befitting to the youth of a great
-maritime nation. As long as French boys amuse themselves with playing at
-soldiers, we trust English boys will continue to build and sail their
-model ships.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-If you wish to possess a good ship, you must make it yourself, as the
-smartly-painted vessels of the toy-shops are usually made to sell, and
-not to sail. To form the hull you will require a few carpenter's tools,
-such as a couple of chisels, a gouge, and a saw, in addition to that
-invaluable instrument, a good pocket-knife. Having procured a suitable
-piece of good white deal, with a straight grain, mark a line down the
-middle, on the upper and lower sides, and at both ends; then mark out
-with pencil the shape of the intended vessel, which should be broad in
-proportion to length, and deep in proportion to the width. Most boys
-shape their vessels before scooping them out, but it is far better to
-reverse the process, and hollow out the wood before commencing the
-outside. The deck is to be made of a thin piece of deal, and must be
-fitted very accurately, so that no water may enter the hold. A flush
-deck, without a raised edge or gunwale, is to be preferred, as such a
-deck does not hold the water.
-
-The mast should be made of strong, light wood; should be tapering, and
-rather long. The less rigging there is the better; two shrouds and a few
-stays will be enough. The best models for miniature ships are those
-vessels that are rigged "fore and aft," such as cutters and schooners;
-square-rigged ships are unmanageable unless made very large.
-
-[Illustration: CUTTER.]
-
-Our first illustration shows a model cutter, with her sails set. The
-principal sail is termed the mainsail, the one above it the gaff
-topsail, and the triangular sail attached to the bowsprit the foresail
-or jib.
-
-The blocks used in rigging a model ship are to be made of boxwood or
-alder. The latter is a softer wood than the former, and can be more
-readily fashioned into shape with a penknife. The holes for the cords
-should be bored through the pieces of wood before they are shaped into
-blocks, as it is not easy to drill the blocks without splitting them.
-The rudder should be attached to the keel by bent pins. The little
-staples on the keel, in which the bent pins work, are to be formed of
-brass wire. The stem of the rudder passes through a hole in the stern of
-the vessel, and is provided with a tiller. Before launching the ship,
-the tiller must be fixed so as to keep the rudder at the required angle.
-Many boys fear to launch their ships in large ponds; but if a ship is
-properly rigged, and answers to her rudder, there need be no doubt as to
-her safe arrival at port.
-
-[Illustration: SMACK.]
-
-The smack is not so graceful as the cutter, but is a capital sailer. The
-large sail is called a spritsail, from the spar or sprit which crosses
-it diagonally from the mast to the upper aftmost corner.
-
-[Illustration: SCHOONER.]
-
-A schooner is a vessel with two masts, and fore-and-aft sails like
-those of a cutter. The schooner-rig is not suited to very small boats.
-
-[Illustration: LUGGER.]
-
-The lugger is shown in the annexed engraving. The lug-sail which
-distinguishes this rig is a square sail fastened to a yard that hangs
-obliquely to the mast at one-third of its length. A lug-sail may be
-fitted to a single-masted boat. The lugger is an excellent boat for
-sailing, but it lacks the trim appearance of the cutter.
-
-Cutters or schooners intended for fast sailing should have but one
-foresail, as a large balloon-jib rigged with a boom holds more wind than
-an ordinary jib and staysail. The ships should be well ballasted to
-prevent the wind capsizing them, and their topmasts should be made
-moveable, as in rough weather it will be found necessary to "strike"
-them. Each boat may have two sets of sails--one set large, for light
-winds, and the other considerably smaller, to be set up when the wind is
-high. The sails should be made of very light stuff--thin calico is
-best--and should have a line run round them, with loops for hooking them
-on to the spars. Beware of putting too many blocks and useless ropes
-about your boats, as the lighter the upper part of a vessel is the
-better she will sail. In conclusion, spare no pains in finishing your
-work neatly, so that your boats may bear witness to your skill and
-patience.
-
-[Illustration: THE RAW MATERIAL.]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-CARPENTERING.
-
- "All made out of my own head.
- And wood enough left for another."
-
-Nothing is more useful to a youth than to be able to do a little
-carpentering. To be handy with a chisel and saw, a nail and a hammer,
-saves many a pound in the course of the year. If you call in a carpenter
-for a little work he is sure to spin out a "regular job." I remember
-once buying some oak saplings, which cost me eightpence a stick; and
-wanting to build a summer-house, I required eight of them to be sawn
-through, so I applied to a carpenter, and the sticks were cut, but to my
-astonishment, sixteen shillings was charged for this little "job,"
-although the wood cost me only five shillings and fourpence. I found out
-afterwards that the proper price for sawing would have amounted to about
-four shillings, so that twelve shillings profit was clapped on for the
-benefit of my experience. I just mention this to show my young friends,
-that if they wish to make summer-houses for their gardens, cages for
-their birds, fowl-houses, rabbit-hutches, or boxes for their books, they
-must learn to make them for themselves. I shall therefore offer them a
-little advice upon "carpentering."
-
-
-THE SHOP AND BENCH.
-
-Endeavour to procure some small outhouse, in which you may erect what is
-called a carpenter's or joiner's bench. These may very often be bought
-second-hand, or if not, can easily be procured at a reasonable rate. I
-am very particular in recommending a bench, as without it you will find
-many obstacles to your work. You must also provide yourself with a set
-of tools,--gimlets, hammers, planes, saws, gouges, files, nails, screws,
-and such articles of use.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The bench is composed of a platform or top, supported by four stout
-legs; A is what is called the bench hook; this ought to be fitted in
-tight, so as to move up and down with a hammer only. The use of it is to
-keep any wood steady you may have to plane: B is the bench screw, used
-for keeping any wood firm and steady you may have to saw, which is to be
-put in the grip and screwed tight. Sometimes the edges of wood require
-to be planed, and then the wood is put in the grip or cheeks of the
-bench and held tight while you plane it. The holes in the side of the
-bench, C C, are for the insertion of a movable pin to support the end of
-the board you have to plane or saw, which is not in the screw. The
-height of your bench should be about 2 feet 8 inches. The common length
-is from 10 to 12 feet, and the breadth about 3 feet 6 inches.
-
-
-OF PLANES.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-C is what is called the jack plane, which is the first to be used. It is
-about 17 inches in length, and is used to take the rough parts from a
-piece of wood. It should be held steadily by fixing the right hand at
-the handle (_h_), and the left over the top and side at (_s_), and
-pushed forward on the wood, when the knife (_k_) will take off a shaving
-which runs through the hole (_o_), and falls on the side. In using the
-plane the endeavour should be to take off a clean shaving, which is
-done by using the instrument uniformly and steadily over every surface
-to be planed.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-D is another kind of plane, called the trying plane, having a double top
-or handle. It is used to regulate and smooth, to a higher degree, the
-surface of the wood that had previously been smoothed from the rough by
-the jack plane. Its length is about 22 inches, and it is broader than
-the jack plane. There is another plane called the _long_ plane, which is
-used for facing a piece of stuff, which it does with the greatest
-exactness; its length is about 2 feet 4 inches. There is also the
-joiner's plane, which is the longest of all the planes, being 30 inches
-long. But the most handy of the planes to the boy carpenter is the
-smoothing plane, E. It is the last plane used in joining, and gives the
-utmost degree of smoothness to the surface of a piece of finished work;
-it is about 7 inches in length, the sides of the stock are curved, and
-resemble in figure a coffin; it is used in a similar way to the other.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-SAWS.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-There are many kinds of saws, but the most useful one is what is called
-the "hand saw." It has a blade or plate about 28 inches long; the teeth
-of which are so formed as to allow you to cut the wood crossways as well
-as lengthways. The handle of the saw is made so as to allow a full yet
-free grasp of the hand, either for a pull or a thrust.
-
-The _panel saw_. This saw has a plate nearly of the same size as a hand
-saw, and is used for cutting very thin boards, which the rough teeth of
-the hand saw would not cut through without breaking them.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The _tenon saw_ is of a different shape to the others, and is made to
-cut across the grain of the wood so as to leave the ends nicely even,
-that it may fit to the piece it is joined to, which is called a
-shoulder, being that part which comes in contact with the fibre of the
-wood thus:
-
-[Illustration]
-
-To do this it requires that the teeth should be much smaller, and they
-are therefore placed so close as eight or ten to the inch, according to
-the length of the blade.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The _dovetail saw_. There is another most useful saw it would be of
-advantage for the young carpenter to have, namely, the dovetail saw. It
-is about 9 inches long, and contains at least fifteen teeth in the inch.
-It is used for cutting the dovetails of boxes. Its plate is very thin,
-and it requires some care in using. It has a back for the purpose of
-strength, formed of a thin piece of brass or iron, let in so as to give
-the blade the requisite firmness necessary in using it.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The _compass saw_. The plate of this kind of saw is very narrow, and not
-more than one inch wide at the broadest part, gradually diminishing to
-about a quarter of an inch at the lower end. It is about 15 inches in
-length, and is used for cutting a piece of wood into a circular form,
-and the plate being narrow allows it to follow the foot of the compass
-to a very small diameter.
-
-The _keyhole saw_. The keyhole saw is much smaller than the above. It is
-used for cutting short curves, small holes, &c., such as a keyhole. The
-handle is the same form as that of the chisel, a small slit being cut
-through from end to end. It has a screw on one side, in order that the
-blade may be set to any length, according to the circumference of the
-hole to be cut.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE SPOKE SHAVE.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-This is a very useful tool. It is employed for smoothing the edges of
-round pieces, or other ends requiring to be shaved down. It is a narrow
-plane made of boxwood, and has generally a steel blade let into it to
-cut; it is used by taking hold of each end with a hand, and moving it to
-and fro over the wood to be shaved down.
-
-
-STOCK AND BITS.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-There are about thirty-six bits to a set, all of different shapes and
-sizes; but our young friends need not get quite so many: if they provide
-themselves with a couple of a medium size, this will be sufficient, such
-as the centre bit and the auger bit. The centre bit will cut holes
-varying from a quarter of an inch to three quarters of an inch in
-diameter, and is used by pressing the knob end against the chest, and
-twirling the centre part round with the hand. It cuts a hole very clean,
-leaving it quite smooth inside. The auger bit is for the same purpose,
-and is used in the same manner. Another bit, called the taper shell bit,
-is used for making holes wider, and is a very useful implement.
-
-
-HOW TO MAKE A WHEELBARROW.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-One of the handiest things in a garden is a wheelbarrow, and one of the
-prettiest for the young carpenter to exercise his ingenuity upon. To
-make one, take a wide plank or board about an inch and a quarter thick.
-Proceed to your bench, and having fitted it to its proper position, take
-your jack plane and plane off the rough, next use your smoothing plane
-to make it smooth. Then take your pencil and draw upon its side the
-following figure, A. Then take your compass saw and cut round the marks
-you have made: to do this you will have to fix your board in the screw
-of your bench. When this is done take your spoke shave, and shave the
-edges all round till they are very smooth and even, and you have one
-side of your barrow. Lay this on another piece of board, and mark the
-shape of it with your pencil; cut and shave it exactly as you did the
-first side, so that when finished the two will exactly correspond; then
-cut a piece off another board for the back and front of the barrow, of
-the subjoined shape, by the same method you cut the sides, and plane and
-finish them up in a similar way. Cut some tenons at the end of each
-exactly to correspond with the mortices shown on the sides, D D; let
-them be a trifle larger than the mortices, so that they will drive in
-tight. Then cut the bottom out neatly, and nail it to the sides. Having
-proceeded thus far, cut out the legs of your barrow, B, and nail one on
-each side as shown in the figure. Give each leg a shoulder for the sides
-to rest upon.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-_To make the wheel._ Take a piece of board, A, and strike a circle upon
-it the size you wish your wheel to be of, B, and with the compass saw
-cut close round to the stroke; cut out a square hole, C, in the centre
-for the nave to join. Then get the blacksmith to put an iron rim round
-the wheel to keep it from splitting, and a round pin in each side of the
-nave, and put a staple in each side of the barrow to keep the wheel in
-its place. Paint the whole of any colour you choose, and you will have
-
- PUNCH'S COACH.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE WAY TO MAKE A BOX.
-
-First ascertain the size you wish your box to be of. Then cut off your
-stuff, but take care to cut it a quarter of an inch longer than the size
-of your box from outside to outside. Should you want it deeper or
-broader than the length of a deal, the widest of which is generally only
-eleven inches; suppose, for instance, you wish your box to be 18 inches
-deep, and you have only 9-inch deal to make it with, you will of course
-have to join two together, or make what is called in carpentering a
-_glue joint_. First, then, after you have cut off your stuff, take your
-jack plane and "scuffle the rough off;" then put your board edgeways
-into the bench-screw, and take your trying plane or long plane to get
-the edge of the deals that are to be glued together perfectly straight
-and even; and lastly, use the joiner plane, which will take off a nice
-uniform shaving of the whole length of the board. Proceed exactly in the
-same manner with the other board to be joined to the first. Then, after
-having made each thoroughly smooth, clap the two together and see if
-they will lie close in every part, if not, you must plane them till they
-do, taking care to plane the edges perfectly square, or at right angles
-to the surface of the board, for if you are not careful in this
-particular, when your boards are glued together they will be of this
-form. When you have joined them properly for glueing, let your glue be
-nicely hot and not too thick, and hold both edges of the boards together
-so that you can with a brush put the glue on both at one time, put the
-two together very quickly, let one of them be in the bench-screw, and
-while there rub the other backwards and forwards till the glue sets,
-which it will soon do if well joined. Let the whole dry, and then the
-glued part will be as strong as any other part of the board.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-After your sides, ends, bottom, and top are thus prepared, you must then
-plane them up nicely, so that they are perfectly smooth and straight.
-Use first the jack plane, then the trying plane. When this is done you
-have to proceed to a nice little job, namely, to dovetail the corners
-together, so as to form your box. In this process much depends upon the
-planing and squaring of the stuff, for if you have not done this nicely
-the dovetailing will be very imperfectly performed. Assuming that
-everything has been well done, then take the two ends of the box, and
-see that each is perfectly square and true to the other. Then allow
-one-eighth of an inch more than the thickness of your sides, and set out
-the ends, squaring it over on both sides, which when the dovetails are
-cut out will form the inside of the box.
-
-
-TO CUT THE DOVETAILS.
-
-Take one "end-piece" of the box and place it endways into the
-bench-screw, and mark out the dovetails on the edge of the board inside,
-thus:
-
-[Illustration]
-
-then with your dovetail saw cut in into the marks down to the
-lines squared over on the flat side like this--
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Then with a chisel cut out that part of the wood that is crossed, and
-leave the other part, this being the part which will form the pins or
-tails. Then take one side of your box and lay it flat on the bench, the
-inside uppermost; then place the end you have cut on it, keeping the
-edges flush, and mark round the shape of the pins, which will leave them
-after this form--
-
-[Illustration]
-
-the black places being the mortices which are to be cut out. In cutting
-out these you must be careful to cut within side of the stroke, so that
-the mortices will be a little smaller than the pins, which will admit of
-their being driven in quite tight, and will allow the glue to adhere to
-them (for you have to glue these when you fix them). When you have thus
-put the ends and sides together let them stand till the glue gets dry,
-then take your planes and plane the quarter of an inch off the pins
-which you allowed to be a little longer than the length of the box, and
-you have then made the body of your box.
-
-
-THE BOTTOM OF THE BOX.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Cut your bottom the exact size of the box, nail the bottom on, and "get
-out" a piece of wood (by cutting and planing in the usual manner) to
-nail round so as to form a skirting to it, and at the same time hide the
-joints of the bottom; "get out" a similar piece of wood to nail round
-the top which will form the lid. Then get a pair of box joints and a
-lock, and having put them on by a stroke of your own ingenuity you will
-have a "box."
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE GAME OF CHESS.
-
-It is the principal aim of this little treatise to assist the young
-player in his examination of the theory of the openings in the game of
-chess--a branch of study that to the beginner generally appears to be of
-a most dull and uninviting character, but which, nevertheless, is of the
-highest importance to all those who are ambitious of attaining to any
-degree of proficiency in the game.
-
-Before proceeding further, we would presume that the young player
-possesses at least an elementary knowledge of the game, such as the
-moves and value of the various pieces, the laws of checking, &c. Should
-he not be thus fortunate, we would strongly advise him to have recourse
-to the assistance of some chess-friend for an explanation of the
-elementary principles; for, thanks to the almost daily increasing
-knowledge of the game, there are few localities so remote that cannot
-produce a brother of the free-masonry of chess. Though, in compliance
-with the time-honoured custom of all writers on chess, we subjoin a
-brief description of the various pieces and their moves, yet it is our
-firm conviction that no beginner has ever succeeded in mastering by the
-assistance of "the books" alone, the mere elementary principles of the
-game.
-
-In the following pages we have endeavoured to give a brief synopsis of
-the most important of the openings, collected from the most approved
-authorities, and at the same time to present to the tyro as it were a
-passing glimpse of the chief modern discoveries.
-
-If we have occasionally strayed from the beaten path, or insensibly
-diverged into any of the as yet unexplored regions of chess, we would
-fain crave the reader's kind indulgence for any of those errors which
-almost invariably find their way into variations that have not undergone
-the "limæ labor," or the test of actual play. Finally, should we have
-had the good fortune by the following pages to assist a single beginner
-in mastering any of the elementary difficulties which beset the rough
-road that only leads to proficiency in chess--should there, through our
-means, have been added but a single recruit to the ranks of Caissa, well
-will our labour have been repaid!
-
-
-THE LAWS OF THE GAME.
-
-I.--The chess-board must be so placed that each player has a white
-corner square nearest his right-hand. If the board have been improperly
-placed, it must be adjusted, provided _four_ moves on each side have not
-been played, but not afterwards.
-
-II.--If a Piece or Pawn be misplaced at the beginning of the game,
-either player may insist upon the mistake being rectified, if he
-discover it before playing his fourth move, but not afterwards.
-
-III.--Should a player, at the commencement of the game, omit to place
-all his men on the board, he may correct the omission before playing his
-fourth move, but not afterwards.
-
-IV.--If a player, undertaking to give the odds of a Piece or Pawn,
-neglect to remove it from the board, his adversary, after _four_ moves
-have been played on each side, has the choice of proceeding with or
-recommencing the game.
-
-V.--When no odds are given, the players must take the first move of each
-game alternately, drawing lots to determine who shall begin the first
-game. If a game be drawn, the player who began it has the first move of
-the following one.
-
-VI.--The player who gives the odds has the right of moving first in each
-game, unless otherwise agreed. Whenever a Pawn is given, it is
-understood to be always the King's Bishop's Pawn.
-
-VII.--A Piece or Pawn touched must be played, unless at the moment of
-touching it the player say "_J'adoube_" or words to that effect; _but if
-a Piece or Pawn be displaced or overturned by accident, it may be
-restored to its place_.
-
-VIII.--While a player holds the Piece or Pawn he has touched, he may
-play it to any other than the square he took it from; but, having
-quitted it, he cannot recall the move.
-
-IX.--Should a player take one of his adversary's Pieces or Pawns,
-without saying "_J'adoube_" or words to that effect, his adversary may
-compel him to take it; but if it cannot be legally taken, he may oblige
-him to move the King; should his King, however, be so posted that he
-cannot be legally moved, no penalty can be inflicted.
-
-X.--Should a player move one of his adversary's men, his antagonist has
-the option of compelling him--1st, to replace the Piece or Pawn and move
-his King; 2d, to replace the Piece or Pawn and take it; 3d, to let the
-Piece or Pawn remain on the square to which it had been played, as if
-the move were correct.
-
-XI.--If a player take one of his adversary's men with one of his own
-that cannot take it without making a false move, his antagonist has the
-option of compelling him to take it with a Piece or Pawn that can
-legally take it, or to move his own Piece or Pawn which he touched.
-
-XII.--Should a player take one of his own men with another, his
-adversary has the option of obliging him to move either.
-
-XIII.--If a player make a false move, _i. e._ play a Piece or Pawn to
-any square to which it cannot legally be moved, his adversary has the
-choice of three penalties; viz., 1st, of compelling him to let the Piece
-or Pawn remain on the square to which he played it; 2d, to move
-correctly to another square; 3d, to replace the Piece or Pawn and move
-his King.
-
-XIV.--Should a player move out of his turn, his adversary may choose
-whether both moves shall remain, or the second be retracted.
-
-XV.--When a Pawn is first moved in a game, it may be played one or two
-squares; but in the latter case the opponent has the privilege of taking
-it _en passant_ with any Pawn which could have taken it had it been
-played one square only. A Pawn cannot be taken _en passant_ by a Piece.
-
-XVI.--A player cannot castle in the following cases:--
-
-1. If the King or Rook have been moved.
-
-2. If the King be in check.
-
-3. If there be any Piece between the King and Rook.
-
-4. If the King pass over any square attacked by one of the adversary's
-Pieces or Pawns.
-
-Should a player castle in any of the above cases, his adversary has the
-choice of three penalties; viz., 1st, of insisting that the move remain;
-2d, of compelling him to move the King; 3d, of compelling him to move
-the Rook.
-
-XVII.--If a player touch a Piece or Pawn that cannot be moved without
-leaving the King in check, he must replace the Piece or Pawn and move
-his King; but if the King cannot be moved, no penalty can be inflicted.
-
-XVIII.--If a player attack the adverse King without saying "Check," his
-adversary is not obliged to attend to it; but if the former, in playing
-his next move, were to say "Check," each player must retract his last
-move, and he that is under check must obviate it.
-
-XIX.--If the King has been in check for several moves, and it cannot be
-ascertained how it occurred, the player whose King is in check must
-retract his last move and free his King from the check; but if the moves
-made subsequent to the check be known, they must be retracted.
-
-XX.--Should a player say "Check," without giving it, and his adversary,
-in consequence, move his King, or touch a Piece or Pawn to interpose, he
-may retract such move, provided his adversary have not completed his
-last move.
-
-XXI.--Every Pawn which has reached the eighth or last square of the
-chess-board, must be immediately exchanged for a Queen or any other
-Piece the player may think fit, even though all the Pieces remain on the
-board. It follows, therefore, that he may have two or more Queens, three
-or more Rooks, Bishops, or Knights.
-
-XXII.--If a play remain, at the end of the game, with a Rook and Bishop
-against a Rook; with both Bishops only; with Knight and Bishop only,
-&c., he must checkmate his adversary in fifty moves on each side at
-most, or the game will be considered as drawn; the fifty moves commence
-from the time the adversary gives notice that he will count them. The
-law holds good for all other checkmates of Pieces only, such as Queen,
-or Rook only, Queen against a Rook, &c. &c.
-
-XXIII.--If a player agree to checkmate with a particular Piece or Pawn,
-or on a particular square, or engage to force his adversary to stalemate
-or checkmate him, he is not restricted to any number of moves.
-
-XXIV.--A stalemate is a drawn game.
-
-XXV.--If a player make a false move, castle improperly, &c. &c., the
-adversary must take notice of such irregularity before he touches a
-Piece or Pawn, or he will not be allowed to inflict any penalty.
-
-XXVI.--Should any question arise, respecting which there is no law, or
-in case of a dispute respecting any law, the players must refer the
-point to the most skilful disinterested bystanders, and their decision
-must be considered as conclusive.
-
-
-THE KING'S KNIGHT'S OPENING.
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to K's 4th. 1. P. to K's 4th.
- 2. K's Kt. to B's 3d.
-
-Black has now only three satisfactory methods of defence; viz., 2. P. to
-Q's 3d; 2. K's Kt. to B's 3d; 2. Q's Kt. to B's 3d. He may, however,
-adopt five other modes of play; viz., P. to K. B's 3d; Q. to K. B's 3d;
-B. to Q's 3d; P. to Q's 4th; and P. to K. B's 4th. Of these the first
-three are utterly untenable, and the last two are highly dangerous.
-Should he play 2. P. to K. B's 3d, you reply with 3. Kt. takes K's P.,
-checking with Q. at K. R's 5th, if the Kt. be taken. Should he play 2.
-Q. to K. B's 3d, or B. to Q's 3d, you equally reply with B. to Q. B's
-4th, with the advantage. If he adopt 2. P. to Q's 4th, you play 3. P.
-takes P., following it up with Q's Kt. to B's 3d, if he retake with
-Queen. If he play 2. P. to K. B's 4th, you reply 3. Kt. takes K's P., or
-B. to Q. B's 4th, and obtain the better game shortly. Having disposed of
-these unsafe defences, we will now return to the examination of the
-three satisfactory replies:--P. to Q's 3d; K's Kt. to B's 3d; Q's Kt. to
-B's 3d. For the last two, see Games II. and III.
-
-
-GAME I.--PHILIDOR'S DEFENCE.
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to K's 4th. 1. P. to K's 4th.
- 2. K's Kt. to B's 3d. 2. P. to Q's 3d.
- 3. P. to Q's 4th.
-
-This is your best reply; if instead you play,--
-
- 3. B. to Q's B's 4th, he plays-- 3. B. to K's 2d. (best.)
-
- 3. P. takes P. (best.)
- 4. Q. takes P. 4. Q's Kt. to B's 3d.
-
-If you play 4. Kt. takes P., probably his best reply is P. to Q's 4th.
-
- 5. B. to Q. Kt.'s 5th. 5. B. to Q's 2d.
- 6. Q. to Q's sq. 6. B. to K's 2d, or K's Kt. to K's
- 2d.
- 7. Q's Kt. to B's 3d, with the better position.
-
-You may also, instead of 4. Q. takes P., try K's B. to Q. B's 4th.
-Black's best reply seems to be Q's Kt. to B's 3d.
-
-
-GAME II.--PETROFF'S DEFENCE.
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to K's 4th. 1. P. to K's 4th.
- 2. K's Kt. to B's 3d. 2. K's Kt. to B's 3d.
-
-This defence was brought into notice by Petroff some years ago, and has
-been approved of by many of the leading players. It is an excellent
-defence when receiving the odds of a piece.
-
- 3. Kt. takes K's P. 3. P. to Q's 3d.
- 4. Kt. to K. B's 3d. 4. Kt. takes K's P.
- 5. P. to Q's 4th, (or Var. A.) 5. P. to Q's 4th.
- 6. B. to Q's 3d. 6. B. to K's 2d, (not to Q's 3d.)
- 7. Castles. 7. Q's Kt. to B's 3d.
- 8. P. to Q. B's 4th. 8. Q's B. to K's 3d.
- 9. P. to Q. R's. 3d. 9. Castles.
- 10. Q. to Q. B's 2d, with a slightly better game.
-
-
-_Variation A. on White's 5th Move._
-
-White has another move at this point, which seems at least as good as 5.
-P. to Q's 4th; viz., Q's Kt. to B's 3d.
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 5. Q's Kt. to B's 3d. 5. Kt. takes Kt.
- 6. Q's P. takes Kt. 6. B. to K's 2d.
- 7. B. to Q's 3d.
- White has the better opened game.
-
-
-GAME III.--THE GIUOCO PIANO.
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to K's 4th. 1. P. to K's 4th.
- 2. K's Kt. to B's 3d. 2. Q's Kt. to B's 3d.
-
-This is recommended by nearly all authors, as Black's best reply. Of
-late, however, there has been an opinion prevalent among many of our
-best players, that it is inferior to K's Kt. to B's 3d, or even P. to
-Q's 3d. For our own part, we incline to the old move of Q's Kt. to B's
-3d, but doubt whether there is any defence by which Black can acquire a
-_perfectly even_ game.
-
- 3. B. to Q. B's 4th. 3. B. to Q. B's 4th. (best.)
- 4. P. to Q. B's 3d. 4. K's Kt. to B's 3d. (best.)
- 5. P. to Q's 4th. 5. P. takes P.
- 6. P. to K's 5th, (or Var. A.) 6. P. to Q's 4th. (best.)
- 7. K's B. to Q. Kt.'s 5th. 7. K's Kt. to K's 5th.
- 8. P. takes P. 8. B. to Q. Kt.'s 3d. (best.)
- 9. Castles. 9. Q's B. to K. Kt.'s 5th.
- 10. B. takes Kt. (ch.) 10. P. takes B.
- 11. Q's B. to K's 3d, or Q's Kt. 11. Castles.
- to B's 3d.
-
-These are the moves given in the Handbook, and the game is dismissed as
-equal. In actual play, however, we should take Black's game for choice.
-
-
-_Variation A. on White's 6th Move._
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 6. P. takes P. 6. B. to Q. Kt.'s 5th (ch.)
-
-White's 6th move is recommended by the German masters, and in our
-opinion is preferable to P. to K's 5th; Black's best reply is to
-check,--
-
- 7. B. to Q's 2d. 7. B. takes B. (ch.)
- 8. Q's Kt. takes B. 8. P. to Q's 4th.
- 9. P. takes P. 9. Kt. takes P.
- 10. Q. to Q. Kt.'s 3d. 10. Q's Kt. to K's 2d.
- 11. K's R. to K's sq.
-
-We much prefer White's game.
-
-
-GAME IV.--THE EVANS' GAMBIT.
-
-It would be impossible, in the narrow limits assigned to our treatise,
-to enter into the merits of this opening; we shall therefore give one or
-two of the leading variations, and refer learners, who may be desirous
-of a more comprehensive analysis, to Mr. Walker's excellent articles on
-this popular opening, in Vol. ix. of the "Chess Player's Chronicle," the
-"Handbook," and Mr. Boden's useful little work, entitled "A Popular
-Introduction to Chess."
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to K's 4th. 1. P. to K's 4th.
- 2. K's Kt. to B's 3d. 2. Q's Kt. to B's 3d.
- 3. B. to Q. B's 4th. 3. B. to Q. B's 4th.
- 4. P. to Q. Kt.'s 4th. 4. B. takes Q. Kt.'s P.
- 5. P. to Q. B's 3d. 5. B. to Q. B's 4th.
- 6. Castles. 6. P. to Q's 3d. (best.)
- 7. P. to Q's 4th. 7. P. takes P.
- 8. P. takes P. 8. B. to Q. Kt.'s 3d.
- 9. B. to Q. Kt.'s 2d. 9. K's Kt. to B's 3d.
-
-Instead of 9. B. to Q. Kt.'s 2d, you may adopt several other modes of
-play; viz., 9. B. to Q. R's 3d; 9. R. to K's sq.; 9. P. to K. R's 3d; 9.
-Q's Kt. to B's 3d. To the two first of these, Black equally replies with
-Q's B. to K. Kt.'s 5th, with the better game. (For 9. P. to K. R's 3d,
-and 9. Q's Kt. to B's 3d, see Variations A. and B.)
-
- 10. P. to Q's 5th. 10. Q's Kt. to K's 2d. (best.)
- 11. B. takes K's Kt. 11. P. takes B.
- 12. K's Kt. to Q's 4th.
-
-White has rather the better game.
-
-
-_Variation A. on White's 9th Move._
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 9. P. to K. R's 3d. 9. Kt. to Q. R's 4th.
-
-This is the move usually recommended for the defence. Black may however
-adopt, 9. P. to K. R's 3d, apparently with little disadvantage.
-
- 10. B. to Q's 3d. 10. K's Kt. to K's 2d.
- 11. P. to Q. R's 4th. 11. Castles.
- 12. R. to Q. R's 2d. 12. K. to R's sq.
- 13. R. to K's 2d. 13. P. to K. B's 4th.
-
-The game is about equal.
-
-
-_Variation B. on White's 9th Move._
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 9. Q's Kt. to B's 3d.
-
-We have long suspected that the force of this form of the attack has
-been vastly underrated. The following variations are taken from an able
-analysis by Mr. G. B. Fraser, of Dundee, who has kindly presented the
-result of his labours in the investigation of this attack at our
-disposal:--
-
- 9. B. to K. Kt.'s 5th.
-
-This move is considered by all the modern writers on Chess to be Black's
-best reply.
-
- 10. Q. to Q. R's 4th. 10. B. takes Kt.
-
-In reply to White's last move, Black may play either 10. Q. to Q's 2d,
-or 10. B. to Q's 2d, instead of the move in the text. If he adopt 10. Q.
-to Q's 2d, White replies with B. to Q. Kt.'s 5th, apparently winning a
-piece. It has been suggested to us that perhaps Black's best move is 10.
-K. to B's sq., to which White might reply with K. Kt. to his 5th; and on
-Black's moving K. Kt. to R's 3d, advance the P. to Q's 5th. (For B. to
-Q's 2d, see Variation A.)
-
- 11. P. to Q's 5th. 11. B. to K. Kt.'s 5th. (best.)
- 12. P. takes Q's Kt. 12. P. takes P.
-
-Black might play also Q's R. to Q. Kt.'s sq., whereupon follows,--
-
- 13. P. takes P. (dis. ch.) 13. B. to Q's 2d.
- 14. Q. to Q. Kt.'s 3d, and wins.
-
- 13. P. to K's 5th.
-
-White might also with advantage take the Q. B's P. checking, although
-the move in the text seems stronger.
-
- 13. B. to K's 3d.
-
-If he play,--
-
- 13. Q. to Q's 2d.
- 14. P. takes P. 14. P. takes P.
- 15. Kt. to Q's 5th, and wins.
-
- 14. B. takes B. 14. P. takes B.
- 15. Q. takes P. (ch.) 15. K. to B's sq.
- 16. B. to Q. R's 3d, with a winning game.
-
-
-_Variation A. on Black's 10th Move._
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 10. B. to Q's 2d.
- 11. Q. to Q. Kt.'s 3d. 11. Kt. to Q. R's 4th. (best.)
- 12. B. takes K. B's P. 12. K. to B's sq.
- 13. Q. to Q's 5th. 13. Kt. to K. B's 3d.
- 14. Q. to K. Kt.'s 5th. 14. K. takes B.
- 15. P. to K's 5th. 15. P. to K. R's 3d.
-
-This is Black's best reply. If he retire the Kt. to his square, or to
-K's square, or K. Kt.'s 5th, White will obtain a winning game, by 16. Q.
-to K. B's 4th. (ch.)
-
- 16. Q. to K. B's 4th. 16. P. to K. Kt.'s 4th. (best.)
- 17. Q. to Q's 2d.
-
-This seems White's most promising move. He may also play 17. Q. takes
-Kt., upon which Black exchanges Queens with the better game.
-
- 17. Kt. to K. R's 2d.
- 18. P. to Q's 5th. 18. B. to K. B's 4th.
-
-Black might also take Pawn with Pawn, and the game would probably be
-continued thus:--
-
- 18. P takes P.
- 19. Kt. takes P. (ch.) 19. K. to Kt.'s 2d.
- 20. B. to Q. Kt.'s 2d. 20. Kt. to K. B's 3d.
- 21. K. to R's sq. 21. R. to K's sq.
- 22. P. to K. B's 4th, and will win.
-
- 19. P. to K's 6th. (ch.) 19. K. to K's 2d.
- 20. Kt. to Q's 4th. 20. B. to K. Kt.'s 3d.
- 21. P. to K. B's 4th, with a fine attack.
-
-Instead of retiring his Bishop to Q. B's 4th, as in Game IV., Black may,
-though apparently less advantageously, play him to Q. R's 4th.
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to K's 4th. 1. P. to K's 4th.
- 2. K's Kt. to B's 3d. 2. Q's Kt. to B's 3d.
- 3. B. to Q. B's 4th. 3. B. to Q. B's 4th.
- 4. P. to Q. Kt.'s 4th. 4. B. takes P.
- 5. P. to Q. B's 3d. 5. B. to Q. R's 4th.
- 6. P. to Q's 4th. (best.) 6. P. takes P.
- 7. Castles. 7. P. to Q's 3d.
- 8. Q. to Q. Kt.'s 3d. 8. Q. to K. B's 3d. (best.)
- 9. P. takes P., with a very fine game.
-
-N.B.--Should Black at his 7th move, instead of 7. P. to Q's 3d, play P.
-to Q. B's P., or K's Kt. to B's 3d, you, in reply, advance P. to K's
-5th, with a powerful attack.
-
-
-THE GAMBIT DECLINED.
-
-We now come to consider the consequences of Black's not accepting the
-gambit pawn at move 4.
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to K's 4th. 1. P. to K's 4th.
- 2. K's Kt. to B's 3d. 2. Q's Kt. to B's 3d.
- 3. B. to Q. B's 4th. 3. B. to Q. B's 4th.
- 4. P. to Q. Kt.'s 4th. 4. B. to Q. Kt.'s 3d
- 5. B. to Q. Kt.'s 2d. 5. P. to Q's 3d.
- 6. P. to Q'S 4th.
-
-We prefer White's game.
-
-There is also another method of declining the Gambit, which, although
-hitherto unanalysed, seems to present some interesting features.
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to K's 4th. 1. P. to K's 4th.
- 2. K's Kt. to B's 3d. 2. Q's Kt. to B's 3d.
- 3. B. to Q. B's 4th. 3. B. to Q. B's 4th.
- 4. P. to Q. Kt.'s 4th. 4. P. to Q's 4th.
- 5. P. takes Q's P. 5. Kt. takes Q. Kt.'s P.
- 6. P. to Q. B's 3d. 6. Kt. takes Q's P.
- 7. Q. to Q. Kt.'s 3d. 7. P. to Q. B's 3d.
- 8. B. takes Kt. 8. Q. takes B. (best.)
- 9. Q. takes Q. 9. Q. takes Q.
- 10. Kt. takes K's P. Even Game.
-
-It is very possible some of White's moves may be improved upon, but the
-foregoing variation seems satisfactorily to demonstrate that Black can
-gain no advantage.
-
-Before taking our leave of this beautiful opening, we would again remind
-the young player, that it is perfectly immaterial, whether Black at move
-5 captures the gambit pawn with B. or Kt., if with the latter White
-equally replies with P. to Q. B's 3d; and on Black's retiring the Kt. to
-Q. B's 3d (best), the position becomes the same as given in a previous
-variation.
-
-
-GAME V.--RUY LOPEZ KNIGHT'S GAME.
-
-We will now proceed to examine this, perhaps, the strongest and most
-embarrassing attack the board affords. It is through fear of this
-variation, that many of our best players have abandoned the usual
-defence of 2. Q's Kt. to B's 3d, and turned to the King's Knight's
-defence, or the old move of P. to Q's 3d.
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to K's 4th. 1. P. to K's 4th.
- 2. K's Kt. to B's 3d. 2. Q's Kt. to B's 3d.
- 3. B. to Q. Kt.'s 5th. 3. K's Kt. to B's 3d.
-
-By playing your Bishop thus, you again threaten to win his K's P. The
-move in the text, commonly known as the Berlin defence, is perhaps as
-good a reply as the position admits. He has, however, three other
-plausible moves; viz., B. to Q. B's 4th; B. to K's 2d; P. to Q's 3d,
-which will be touched upon hereafter.
-
- 4. P. to Q's 4th. 4. P. takes P.
-
-This move (or perhaps still better, 4. Castles) appears to yield a far
-stronger attack than the old move of Q. K's 2d. Black, instead of P.
-takes P., might either reply with 4. K's Kt. takes K's P., or 4. Q's Kt.
-takes Q's P. If the former, perhaps castling at once is your best
-reply; if the latter, you take Kt. with K's Kt., and then play P. to K's
-5th, as in the present variation.
-
- 5. P. to K's 5th. 5. Kt. to K's 5th.
- 6. Castles. 6. B. to K's 2d. (best.)
- 7. Kt. takes P. 7. Kt. takes Kt. (or Var. A.)
- 8. Q. takes Kt. 8. P. to K. B's 4th.
- 9. P. takes P. _en passant_. 9. Kt. takes P.
- 10. Q's Kt. to B's 3d.
-
-White has a very fine game.
-
-We will now turn our attention to the other modes of play Black may
-adopt at his 3d move, instead of K's Kt. to B's 3d; viz., B. to Q. B's
-4th; P. to Q's 3d; B. to K's 2d. (see Variations B. C.)
-
-
-_Variation B. on Black's 3d Move._
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to K's 4th. 1. P. to K's 4th.
- 2. K's Kt. to B's 3d. 2. Q's Kt. to B's 3d.
- 3. B. to Q. Kt.'s 5th. 3. B. to Q. B's 4th.
- 4. P. to Q. B's 3d. 4. K's Kt. to K's 2d. (best.)
- 5. Castles. 5. Castles.
- 6. P. to Q's 4th. 6. P. takes P.
- 7. P. takes P. 7. B. to Q. Kt.'s 3d.
- 8. P. to Q's 5th. 8. Q's Kt. to his sq.
-
-White may also play 8. Q's Kt. to B's 3d with advantage.
-
- 9. P. to Q's 6th. 9. P. takes P.
- 10. Q. takes P. 10. B. to Q. B's 2d.
- 11. Q. to Q. R's 3d. 11. P. to Q's 4th.
- 12. K's R. to Q's sq. 12. B. to Q's 3d.
-
-The move 12. K. R. to Q's sq. is recommended in the Handbook as giving
-White an advantage of position. The reply, however, in the text, which
-occurred to the writer in actual play, seems calculated to free Black
-from his embarrassment.
-
-
-_Variation C. on Black's 3d Move._
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 3. P. to Q's 3d.
- 4. P. to Q's 4th. 4. B. to Q's 2d.
- 5. Castles.
-
-Black has a tolerably safe though constrained position.
-
-N.B.--For 3. B. to K's 2d, see the games illustrative of this opening.
-
-
-GAME VI.--THE SCOTCH GAMBIT.
-
-This opening derives its name from having been adopted in the great
-match by correspondence between the London and Edinburgh Chess Clubs.
-The attack consequent on this opening at one time considerably
-embarrassed Mr. Cochrane, who considered there was no satisfactory
-defence to it. Major Jaenisch, however, with characteristic patience and
-analysis, has proved the contrary.
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to K's 4th. 1. P. to K's 4th.
- 2. K's Kt. to B's 3d. 2. Q's Kt. to B's 3d.
- 3. P. to Q's 4th. 3. P. takes P.
-
-If he play 4. Kt. takes P., you reply with either Kt. takes Kt., or Kt.
-takes K's P., and obtain the better position.
-
- 4. B. to Q. B's 4th. 4. B. to Q. B's 4th.
-
-This is now acknowledged to be Black's best move; for 4. B. to Q. Kt.'s
-5th. (ch.) see Variation A.
-
- 5. P. to Q. B's 3d. 5. K's Kt. to B's 3d. (best.)
-
-And the position is the same as given in the leading variation of the
-Giuoco Piano, see page 622. Should Black instead play: P. takes Q. B's
-P., you take his K. B's P. with your B. (ch.); and if he takes the
-Bishop with King, play Q. to Q's 5th (ch.), and then take his Bishop.
-
-
-_Variation A. on Black's 4th Move._
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to K's 4th. 1. P. to K's 4th.
- 2. K's Kt. to B's 3d. 2. Q's Kt. to B's 3d.
- 3. P. to Q's 4th. 3. P. takes P.
- 4. B. to Q. B's 4th. 4. B. to Q. Kt.'s 5th. (ch.)
- 5. P. to Q. B's 3d. 5. P. takes P.
- 6. Castles. 6. P. to Q. B's 7th.
-
-Instead of 6. Castles, you might adopt Mr. Cochrane's method of
-continuing the attack, by 6. P. takes P.
-
-N.B.--It would be very bad play of Black to take the Q. Kt.'s P.,
-instead of the move in the text.
-
- 7. Q. takes P. 7. P. to Q's 3d.
- 8. P. to Q. R's 4th. 8. B. to Q. R's 4th.
- 9. P. to Q. Kt.'s 4th. 9. B. to Kt.'s 3d.
- 10. Q. to Q. Kt.'s 3d, with a fine game.
-
-There is another not uninteresting method of attack, which White might
-adopt at his fifth move, instead of 5. P. to Q. B's 3d; viz., K's Kt. to
-his 5th.
-
- 5. K's Kt. to his 5th. 5. K's Kt. to R's 3d. (best.)
- 6. Kt. takes K. B's P. 6. Kt. takes Kt.
- 7. B. takes Kt. (ch.) 7. K. takes B.
- 8. Q. to R's 5th. 8. P. to K. Kt.'s 3d.
- 9. Q. takes B. 9. P. to Q's 4th.
-
-Black's 9th move was first suggested in an able analysis on this
-variation by Messrs. Jaenisch and Schummoff, in the "Chess Player's
-Chronicle" for July, 1850. It is far superior to the old move of P. to
-Q's 3d, and without great care on your part will give him an
-irresistible attack.
-
- 10. Castles. 10. P. takes P.
-
-This is your strongest move, and appears to have been overlooked by the
-talented authors of the article in question:--
-
- 10. P. to Q. B's 3d. (best.) 10. R. to K's sq.
-
-If Black play 10. P. to Q's 6th, you reply with Q. to Q. B's 4th (ch.),
-winning the King's Pawn.
-
- 11. B. to K. Kt.'s 5th. 11. Q. to Q's 3d.
- 12. Q. takes Q. 12. P. takes Q.
- 13. P. takes P. 13. Kt. takes P.
- 14. Q's Kt. to B's 3d.
-
-And Black will have great difficulty in avoiding the loss of a Pawn.
-
-There is another variation of this opening hitherto, we believe,
-unanalysed, which, although it presents many points of interest, seems
-altogether unknown to the majority of amateurs.
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to K's 4th. 1. P. to K's 4th.
- 2. K's Kt. to B's 3d. 2. Q's Kt. to B's 3d.
- 3. P. to Q's 4th. 3. P. takes P.
- 4. B. to Q. B's 4th. 4. B. to Q. B's 4th.
- 5. Castles. 5. P. to Q's 3d.
- 6. K's Kt. to his 5th. 6. K's Kt. to R's 3d.
- 7. P. to K. B's 4th. 7. P. to Q's 6th. (dis. ch.)
-
-If he play 7. B. to K. Kt.'s 5th, your best reply seems to be Q. to K's
-sq., although you might obtain a strong but hazardous attack by playing
-Q. to her 3d, and afterwards, on his attacking her, with Q's Kt. to Q.
-Kt.'s 3d.
-
- 8. K. to R's sq. 8. P. takes P.
- 9. Q. takes P. 9. Q's Kt. to Q's 5th.
- 10. Q. to Q. B's 3d.
-
-And although minus a Pawn, you have a fine game. If he now play P. to K.
-B's 3d, you reply with B. to K's 3d.
-
-
-THE KING'S BISHOP'S OPENING.
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to K's 4th. 1. P. to K's 4th.
- 2. K. B. to Q. B's 4th. 2. K. B. to Q. B's 4th.
-
-By this move you attack his weakest point, viz. the K. B's P. Most of
-the classical writers on Chess concur in recommending the same move as
-Black's best reply. Major Jaenisch and the German authors unanimously
-recommend 2. K's Kt. to B's 3d in preference, the move generally adopted
-in actual play. (See Game III.)
-
-White has now several methods of continuing the attack. He may play the
-move recommended by Philidor, viz. P. to Q. B's 3d, to which Black may
-reply with either K's Kt. to B's 3d, or Q. to K. Kt.'s 4th, or P. to Q's
-4th, in every case with at least an equal game.
-
-You may also play K's Kt. to B's 3d, and upon Black's bringing out his
-Q's Kt., the position is resolved into the Giuoco Piano.
-
-If you play Q. to K. R's 5th, (a move frequently adopted by young
-players,) Black will reply with Q. to K B's 3d, or to K's 2d, with no
-inferiority of position. Besides these moves you have two others at
-command, viz. Q. to K's 2d, and P. to Q. Kt.'s 4th, which we will
-proceed to examine.
-
-
-GAME I.--THE LOPEZ GAMBIT.
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to K's 4th. 1. P. to K's 4th.
- 2. K. B. to Q. B's 4th. 2. K. B to Q. B's 4th.
- 3. Q. to K's 2d. 3. Q's Kt. to B's 3d.
-
-By playing thus you threaten at once to take his K. B's P. (ch.), and if
-K. takes B, to win his Bishop in return by the check of the Q. The move
-in the text is Black's best reply, any other move would leave you with
-at least an even position.
-
- 4. P. to Q. B's 3d. 4. K's Kt. to B's 3d.
-
-Instead of P. to Q. B's 3d, you may take the adverse K. B's P (ch.); see
-Variation A.
-
- 5. P. to K. B's 4th. 5. B. takes K's Kt.
- 6. R. takes B. 6. Castles.
- 7. P. to Q's 3d. 7. P. to Q's 4th.
-
-With a superior game.
-
-
-_Variation A. on White's 4th Move._
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 4. B. takes K. B's P. (ch.) 4. K. takes B.
- 5. Q. to Q. B's 4th. (ch.) 5. P. to Q's 4th.
- 6. Q. takes B. 6. P. takes K's P.
- 7. Q. to Q. B's 4th (ch.) 7. B. to K's 3d.
- 8. Q. takes P. 8. K's Kt. to B's 3d.
-
-Black has by far the better game.
-
-
-GAME II.--THE DOUBLE GAMBIT.
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to K's 4th. 1. P. to K's 4th.
- 2. K's B. to Q. B's 4th. 2. K's B. to Q. B's 4th.
- 3. P. to Q. Kt.'s 4th. 3. B. takes P.
- 4. P. to K. B's 4th. 4. P. to Q's 4th.
-
-His best move. If, in lieu of P. to Q's 4th, he adopt P. takes K. B's
-P., you reply with K's Kt. to B's 3d, and obtain a fine attack.
-
- 5. P. takes Q's P. 5. P. to K's 5th.
-
-If you play B. takes P., Black replies with P. to Q. B's 3d, with the
-better game.
-
- 6. K's Kt. to K's 2d. 6. K's Kt. to B's 3d.
- 7. Castles. 7. Castles.
- 8. Q's Kt. to B's 3d. 8. P. to Q. B's 3d.
- 9. P. takes P. 9. Q's Kt. takes P.
-
-Black has the better game, thereby proving that the Double Gambit, if
-correctly met, is disadvantageous to the first player.
-
-
-GAME III.
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to K's 4th. 1. P. to K's 4th.
- 2. K's B. to Q. B's 4th. 2. K's Kt. to B's 3d.
- 3. K's Kt. to B's 3d. 3. Kt. takes K's P. (best.)
-
-Your third move is probably the best on the board; 3. P. to Q's 4th, and
-3. P. to Q's 3d, seem much inferior, as Black immediately gains the
-attack.
-
- 4. Q's Kt. to B's 3d. 4. K's Kt. to B's 3d.
-
-Your fourth move was introduced two or three years ago, and was first
-analysed by Mr. Boden, in his "Popular Introduction," where Black's
-reply, of 4. K's Kt. to B's 3d, is recommended as his best; we believe,
-however, he can at least as advantageously play 4. Kt. takes Q's Kt.,
-or, as has been suggested to us, 4. P. to Q's 4th.; see Variation A.
-
- 5. Kt. takes K's P. 5. P. to Q's 4th.
- 6. B. to Q. Kt.'s 3d. 6. B. to Q's 3d.
-
-Equal game.
-
-
-_Variation A. on Black's 4th Move._
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 4. Kt. takes Q's Kt.
- 5. Q's P. takes Kt. 5. P. to Q. B's 3d.
-
-He may also play 5. P. to K. B's 3d, by which he preserves his Pawn,
-though with a somewhat inferior position.
-
- 6. Kt. takes K's P. 6. P. to Q's 4th.
- 7. B. to Q's 3d. 7. B. to Q's 3d.
- 8. K's Kt. to B's 3d. 8. Castles.
- 9. Castles.
- Black has no inferiority of position.
-
-
-THE KING'S GAMBIT.
-
-
-GAME I.
-
-This beautiful and brilliant début, which, as Mr. Staunton observes,
-gives birth to the most intricate and beautiful combinations the
-chess-men are susceptible of, has been a universal favourite with every
-class of players from the earliest stages of European Chess up to the
-present day. In order to facilitate the analysis of this opening, as far
-as our narrow limits will permit, we shall divide it into its three
-principal heads; viz., The King's Knight's Gambit, The Allgaier Gambit,
-and the King's Bishop's Gambit, and afterwards devote a few words to the
-Gambit Declined.
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to K's 4th. 1. P. to K's 4th.
- 2. P. to K. B's 4th. 2. P. takes P.
- 3. K's Kt. to B's 3d. 3. P. to K. Kt.'s 4th.
-
-This is Black's best move, indeed the only one to retain the gambit
-pawn. He, however, may obtain a nearly equal game by 3. P. to Q,'s 4th.
-If he play 3. B. to K's 2d, commonly known as the Cunningham Gambit,
-White replies with B. to Q. B's 4th, and on Black's checking with B. at
-R's 5th, plays K. to B's sq., with a much better game.
-
- 4. B. to Q. B's 4th. 4. B. to K. Kt.'s 2d (best), or
- Var. A.
- 5. P. to Q B's 3d. 5. P. to K. R's 3d. (best.)
-
-Should Black play the obvious-looking move of 4. P. to Q's 3d, White
-gains a striking advantage by the following mode of play:--
-
- 6. Q. to Q. Kt.'s 3d. 6. Q. to K's 2d.
- 7. Q. to Q. Kt.'s 5th. (ch.) 7. B. on P. interposes.
- 8. Q. takes K. Kt.'s P., &c.
-
- 6. P. to Q's 4th. 6. P. to Q's 3d.
- 7. Castles. 7. Q's Kt. to Q's 2d.
-
-This is usually considered his best move, though Q's Kt. to B's 3d, or
-K's Kt. to K's 2d, are perhaps equally good.
-
- 8. P. to K. Kt.'s 3d. 8. P. to K. Kt.'s 5th.
-
-If he takes P. with P., you get a fine attack by B. takes K. B's P.
-(ch.)
-
- 9. Kt. to K. R's 4th, (or to K's 9. Kt. to Q. Kt.'s 3d.
- sq.)
- 10. B. to Q. Kt.'s 3d. 10. P. to K. B's 6th.
-
-He has a Pawn more, and a strong position.
-
-N.B.--Instead of 5. P. to Q. B's 3d, you may also play 5. P. to K. R's
-4th, with a good attack.
-
-
-THE SALVIO GAMBIT.
-
-
-_Variation A. on Black's 4th Move._
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to K's 4th. 1. P. to K's 4th.
- 2. P. to K. B's 4th. 2. P. takes P.
- 3. K's Kt. to B's 3d. 3. P. to K. Kt.'s 4th.
- 4. B. to Q. B's 4th. 4. P. to K. Kt.'s 5th.
- 5. Kt. to K's 5th. 5. Q. to K. R's 5th. (ch.)
-
-Instead of 5. Kt. to K's 5th, you may castle, for which see Game II.
-(The Muzio Gambit.)
-
- 6. K. to B's sq. 6. K's Kt. to R's 3d.
- 7. P. to Q's 4th. 7. P. to K. B's 6th.
- 8. P. takes P. 8. P. to Q's 3d.
- 9. B. takes K's Kt. 9. Q's P. takes Kt.
-
-And Black has a fine Game.
-
-You seem to have no better move than 9. B. takes K's Kt.; if you play
-Kt. to Q's 3d, he replies with K. Kt.'s P. takes P., and your game is
-gone.
-
-
-GAME II.--THE MUZIO GAMBIT.
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to K's 4th. 1. P. to K's 4th.
- 2. P. to B's 4th. 2. P. takes P.
- 3. K's Kt. to B's 3d. 3. P. to K. Kt.'s 4th.
- 4. B. to Q. B's 4th. 4. P. to K. Kt.'s 5th.
- 5. Castles. 5. P. takes Kt.
-
-This sacrifice of the Kt., daring as it may appear at first sight, is,
-nevertheless, considered by modern analysis to be quite sound.
-
- 6. Q. takes P. 6. Q. to K. B's 3d. (best.)
- 7. P. to K's 5th. 7. Q. takes K's P.
-
-Your 7th move is given by most of "the books" as the best. We have found
-Q's Kt. to B's 3d at this point a strong move in actual play.
-
- 8. P. to Q's 3d. 8. K's B. to R's 3d.
- 9. Q's B. to Q's 2d. 9. K's Kt. to K's 2d.
- 10. Q's Kt. to B's 3d. 10. P. to Q. B's 3d.
-
-Some authors recommend Q's Kt. to B's 3d as more attacking than the move
-in the text. It has however been proved untenable in the "Handbook"
-(page 281.)
-
- 11. Q's R. to K's sq. 11. Q. to Q. B's 4th. (ch.)
- 12. K. to R's sq. 12. P. to Q's 4th.
-
-Mr. Staunton recommends 12. R. to K. B's 2d, instead of retiring the
-King to R's sq. We have tried this move in actual play, following it up
-with Q's R. to K. B's sq., which seems to give White an overwhelming
-attack.
-
- 13. Q. to K. R's 5th. 13. Q. to Q's 3d.
- 14. B. takes Q. P. 14. P. takes B.
- 15. Kt. takes Q's P. 15. Q's Kt. to B's 3d.
- 16. Q's B. to his 3d. 16. Q. to K. Kt.'s 3d.
- 17. R. takes Kt. (ch.) 17. K. to B's sq.
-
-The moves up to this point, both for attack and defence, are given by
-Jaenisch and the "Handbook" as the best the board affords; with the best
-play, probably the game ought to be drawn.
-
-We much regret that our space will not allow of a more elaborate
-analysis of this beautiful gambit; we trust, however, that the above
-variations will show the young player the difficulty and resource of
-this opening.
-
-We cannot quit the subject without alluding to a defence lately
-introduced by Messrs. Kling and Horwitz, which consists in Black's
-playing Q. to K's 2d at his 5th move, instead of taking the Kt. With all
-deference and respect for the wonderful and almost inexhaustible power
-of analysis displayed by these two eminent players, we must confess that
-we have our doubts as to the soundness of the move in question. The
-young players, however, will find it full analysed in Kling and
-Horwitz's "Chess Studies," one of the most valuable and interesting
-works on Chess of modern days, which needs not our recommendation to
-find its way to the book-shelf of every lover of Chess.
-
-
-GAME I.--THE ALLGAIER GAMBIT.
-
-This opening, the invention of which is erroneously ascribed to
-Allgaier, has of late years become a favourite with all classes of
-players, though we agree with Mr. Boden in considering that its
-resources have been considerably overrated, although not perhaps from
-the same reason as adduced in his "Popular Introduction."
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to K's 4th. 1. P. to K's 4th.
- 2. P. to K. B's 4th. 2. P. takes P.
- 3. K's Kt. to B's 3d. 3. P. to K. Kt.'s 4th.
- 4. P. to K. R's 4th. 4. P. to K. Kt.'s 5th.
-
-You may here play your Kt. to K's 5th, or to K. Kt.'s 5th. Modern
-authorities agree in recommending the former, as giving a more lasting
-attack. As, however, some very embarrassing positions may arise from
-playing the Kt. to his 5th, we will examine the consequences resulting
-from it at present, leaving the move of 5. Kt. to K's 5th for after
-examination, (Game II.).
-
- 5. Kt. to Kt.'s 5th. 5. P. to K. R's 3d. (best.)
- 6. Kt. takes K. B's P. 6. K. takes Kt.
- 7. B. to Q. B's 4th. (ch.) 7. P. to Q's 4th.
-
-Your 7th move gives a far more embarrassing attack than the old move of
-Q. takes K. Kt.'s P., to which Black replies, K's Kt. to B's 3d. with a
-winning position.
-
-In the present game Black's reply of P. to Q's 4th is his only move. If
-he retire K. to Kt.'s sq., you must gain some advantage by Q. takes K.
-Kt.'s P., &c.
-
- 8. B. takes P. (ch.) 8. K. to K's sq.
-
-In our opinion the move of K. to K's sq. is preferable to K. to Kt.'s
-2d. At all events the defence seems much simpler, and at least as
-satisfactory.
-
- 9. P. to Q's 4th. 9. P. to K. B's 6th. (best.)
- 10. P. takes P. 10. B. to K's 2d.
-
-With a winning game.
-
-
-GAME II.
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to K's 4th. 1. P. to K's 4th.
- 2. P. to K. B's 4th. 2. P. takes P.
- 3. K. Kt.'s to B's 3d. 3. P. to K. Kt.'s 4th.
- 4. P. to K. R's 4th. 4. P. to K. Kt.'s 5th.
- 6. Kt. to K's 5th. 5. P. to K. R's 4th.
-
-Black's 5th move has been recommended by almost all the authorities as
-the correct reply; although the moves 5. P. to Q's 3d; 5. B. to K's 2d;
-or 5. K's Kt. to B's 3d, seem, to say the least, equally advantageous
-for the second player.
-
- 6. B. to Q. B's 4th. 6. Kt. to K. R's 3d.
- 7. P. to Q's 4th. 7. P. to K. B's 6th.
- 8. P. takes P. (best.) 8. P. to Q's 3d.
- 9. Kt. to Q's 3d. 9. B. to K's 2d.
- 10. B. to K's 3d.
-
-This is the move given by the "books;" B. to K. B's 4th, however,
-appears at least as good.
-
- 10. B. takes K. R's P. (ch.)
- 11. K. to Q's 2d. 11. P. takes P.
- 12. Q. takes P. 12. B. to K. Kt.'s 5th.
- 13. Q. to K. B's 4th. 13. Q's Kt. to B's 3d.
-
-One of the advantages of the move 10. B. to K. B's 4th, as suggested
-above, seems to be that the White Q. could not be played to K's 3d,
-instead of the more assailable part of K. B's 4th.
-
- 14. Q's Kt. to B's 3d.
-
-And the game, in spite of the formidable appearance of the adverse
-Bishops, seems in White's favour, from the disposition of his forces, so
-well calculated for a vigorous assault.
-
-N.B.--It would be very unadvisable for Black to reply to White's move of
-Kt. to Q. B's 3d. with Kt. takes Q's P.
-
- 14. Kt. takes Q's P.
- 15. B. takes Kt. 15. B. to K. Kt.'s 4th.
- 16. B. takes K's R. 16. B. takes Q. (ch.)
- 17. Kt. takes B.
-
-And White has a more than ample equivalent for his lost Queen, and a
-considerable superiority of position.
-
-
-GAME I.--THE BISHOP'S GAMBIT.
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to K's 4th. 1. P. to K's 4th.
- 2. P. to K. B's 4th. 2. P. takes P.
- 3. B. to Q. B's 4th. 3. Q. to K. R's 5th. (ch.)
-
-Black's 3d move is the one generally recommended at this point. He has,
-however, the option of several other moves, the most important of which
-seems to be P. to Q's 4th. (See Game II.)
-
- 4. K. to B's sq. 4. P. to K. Kt.'s 4th. (best.)
-
-If Black, instead of the move in the text, play B. to Q. B's 4th, a move
-frequently adopted by young players, you reply with P. to Q.'s 4th and
-K's Kt. to B's 3d, with a fine position.
-
- 5. Q's Kt. to B's 3d. 5. B. to K. Kt.'s 2d. (best.)
- 6. P. to Q's 4th. 6. P. to Q's 3d.
- 7. K's Kt. to B's 3d. 7. Q. to K. R's 4th.
- 8. P. to K. R's 4th. 8. P. to K. R's 3d.
- 9. P. to K's 5th. 9. P. takes P.
-
-Major Jaenisch, to whom we owe almost all our knowledge of this fine
-opening, at one time we believe recommended 9. B. to K. Kt.'s 5th for
-Black, instead of P. takes P., but has we believe qualified his opinion
-in favour of the move in the text.
-
- 10. Q's Kt. to Q's 5th. 10. K. to Q's sq.
- 11. P. takes P. 11. B. to Q's 2d.
- 12. K. to Kt.'s sq. 12. Q. to K. Kt.'s 3d.
- 13. P. takes P. 13. P. takes P.
- 14. R. takes R. 14. B. takes R.
- 15. K's Kt. takes P. 15. Q. takes K's Kt.
-
-This sacrifice is the invention of Petroff, the great Russian master;
-and without the greatest care in the defence, will give you an
-overpowering attack.
-
- 16. Q's B. takes P. 16. Q. to K. Kt.'s 3d. (best.)
- 17. P. to K's 6th. 17. P. takes P.
- 18. Kt. takes Q. B's P. 18. P. to K's 4th.
- 19. Kt. to K's 6th. (ch.)
-
-
-GAME II.
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to K's 4th. 1. P. to K's 4th.
- 2. P. to K. B's 4th. 2. P. takes P.
- 3. B. to Q. B's 4th. 3. P. to Q's 4th.
-
-We would recommend this defence to the young player, (especially when
-receiving the odds of a piece,) as it leads at once to at least an even
-game, and avoids an intricate and difficult series of moves, the least
-error in which would be fatal.
-
- 4. B. takes P. 4. K's Kt. to B's 3d.
- 5. Q. to K's 2d. 5. Kt. takes B.
-
-This is probably your best move, though Kt. to Q. B's 3d, may be played
-without danger.
-
- 6. P. takes Kt. (dis. ch.) 6. B. to K's 2d.
- 7. Q. to K. B's 3d. (best.) 7. B. to K. R's 5th. (ch.)
- 8. P. to K. Kt.'s 3d. 8. P. takes P.
- 9. P. takes P. 9. B. to K. Kt.'s 4th.
- 10. Q's Kt. to B's 3d.
-
-The game is about even.
-
-Instead of Black's 8th move of P. takes P., Mr. Staunton suggests the
-highly ingenious move of castling; and the game would probably be
-continued thus:--
-
- 8. Castles.
- 9. Kt. to K's 2d. (best.) 9. R. to K's sq.
-
-This is your best reply, if you capture either B. or P. you lose in a
-few moves. (See the "Handbook," p. 335.)
-
- 10. Q's Kt. to B's 3d. 10. B. to K. B's 3d.
-
-We do not see that Black has anything better.
-
- 11. Q's Kt. to K's 4th.
-
-And White has some little advantage. It is worth while remarking, that
-if Black now adopt the tempting move of B. to K. Kt.'s 5th, White will
-win at least a pawn. We leave the "modus operandi" for the investigation
-of the young player.
-
-We cannot take our leave of this inexhaustible opening, without once
-more recommending the amateur who is ambitious of becoming initiated
-into the mysteries of the Bishop's Gambit, to study the admirable
-articles on this début, published by Major Jaenisch, in the late volumes
-of the "Chess-Player's Chronicle," which exhibit, perhaps, the most
-patient and profound analysis the annals of Chess have ever produced.
-
-
-THE GAMBIT REFUSED.
-
-The refusal of the gambit, though it may be done with perfect safety,
-generally leads to a dull and uninteresting game; we would therefore
-advise the young player to accept the proffered pawn, more especially
-when receiving the odds of a piece, as he will gain more knowledge of
-the game by observing the manner in which a fine player pursues his
-attack, than can be obtained from all the works that have ever been
-written on the subject.
-
-
-GAME I.
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to K's 4th. 1. P. to K's 4th.
- 2. P. to K. B's 4th. 2. B. to Q. B's 4th.
-
-This has usually been received as the best method of declining the
-gambit, though a preference has sprung up lately in favour of P. to Q's
-4th (See Game II.). Major Jaenisch recommends K's Kt. to B's 3d, to
-which you reply with P. takes P.; and upon his taking K's P. with Kt.,
-you play K's Kt. to B's 3d.
-
- 3. K's Kt. to B's 3d. 3. P. to Q's 3d.
- 4. P. to Q. B's 3d. 4. B. to K. Kt.'s 5th.
- 5. P. to K. R's 3d. 5. B. takes Kt.
-
-We believe your 5th move is now more generally preferred to B. to K's
-2d. You may also play 5. P. to Q's 4th., though it is somewhat
-hazardous.
-
- 6. Q. takes B. 6. Q's Kt. to B's 3d.
- 7. B. to Q. B's 4th, or Kt.'s 5th.
-
-And the game is about even.
-
-
-GAME II.
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to K's 4th. 1. P. to K's 4th.
- 2. P. to K. B's 4th 2. P. to Q's 4th.
- 3. P. takes Q's P. 3. P. to K's 5th. (best.)
-
-You may also play 3. K's Kt. to B's 3d., apparently without danger.
-
- 4. P. to Q's 4th. 4. Q. takes Q's P.
-
-Your 4th move seems far stronger than the usually received play of B. to
-Q. Kt.'s 5th. (ch.)
-
- 5. P. to Q. B's 4th. 5. Q. to Q's sq.
- 6. B. to Q. B's 4th.
-
-You have the better game.
-
-
-THE CENTRE GAMBIT.
-
-This opening, though passed over by many of the books, frequently gives
-birth to many beautiful and critical positions, and unless properly
-opposed, is very embarrassing.
-
-
-GAME I.
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to K's 4th. 1. P. to K's 4th.
- 2. P. to Q's 4th. 2. P. takes P.
- 3. B. to Q. B's 4th. 3. K's Kt. to B's 3d.
-
-You may also play here P. to K. B's 4th, a move as yet, we believe,
-unanalysed. (See Game II.) Black's reply is the correct one, whereby he
-reduces the game to a position similar to one in the K. Kt.'s defence to
-the King's Bishop's game. (For B. to Q. Kt.'s 5th. (ch.) see Variation
-A.)
-
- 4. P. to K's 5th. 4. P. to Q's 4th.
- 5. B. to Q. Kt.'s 3d. 5. Kt. to K's 5th.
-
-Retiring the Bishop thus is far better than taking the Kt. with K's P.
-(See the Giuoco Piano for a similar position.)
-
- 6. K's Kt. to K's 2d. 6. P. to Q. B's 4th.
-
-If you play 6. K's Kt. to B's 3d., Black will gain some advantage by B.
-to Q. Kt.'s 5th. (ch.)
-
- 7. P. to K. B's 3d. 7. Kt. to K. Kt.'s 4th.
- 8. Kt. to K. B's 4th. 8. P. to Q. B's 5th.
- 9. B. to Q. R's 4th. (ch.) 9. Kt. to Q. B's 3d.
- 10. B. takes Kt. (ch.) 10. P. takes B.
- 11. Q. takes P.
-
-Even game.
-
-These are the moves given by Jaenisch, who seems to consider the
-position in Black's favour.
-
-
-_Variation A. on Black's 3d Move._
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to K's 4th. 1. P. to K's 4th.
- 2. P. to Q's 4th. 2. P. takes P.
- 3. B. to Q. B's 4th. 3. B. to Q. Kt.'s 5th. (ch.)
- 4. P. to Q. B's 3d. 4. P. takes P.
- 5. P. takes P. 5. Q. to K. B's 3d.
- 6. P. takes B. 6. Q. takes Q's R.
-
-Perhaps your soundest move at this point is 6. Q. to Q. Kt.'s 3d, as
-recommended in the German Handbook, although, by the mode of play in the
-text, you get an attack that amply compensates for the loss of the
-"exchange."
-
- 7. Q. to Q. Kt.'s 3d. 7. Q. to K. B's 3d.
- 8. Q's Kt. to B's 3d.
-
-Afterwards playing Kt. to K's 2d, with a fine position.
-
-
-GAME II.
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to K's 4th. 1. P. to K's 4th.
- 2. P. to Q's 4th. 2. P. takes P.
- 3. P. to K. B's 4th. 3. B. to Q. B's 4th.
-
-This appears to be his best reply.
-
- 4. B. to Q. B's 4th. 4. P. to Q's 3d.
-
-By your last move you threatened to take his K. B's P. (checking) and if
-he took your Bishop with King, to play Q. to K. R's 5th. (ch.) &c. If
-Black, instead of P. to Q's 3d, play K's Kt. to B's 3d, you reply with
-P. to K's 5th; and upon his playing P. to Q's 4th, you must gain some
-advantage by capturing his Kt. with K's P.--a mode of play not feasible
-in a similar position in the Giuoco Piano.
-
- 5. K's Kt. to B's 3d. 5. Q's Kt. to B's 3d.
-
-If he play B. to K. Kt.'s 5th, you reply with P. to K's 5th, and should
-he take P. with P. you get a winning position by B. takes K. B's P.
-(ch.)
-
- 6. Castles. 6. P. to Q's 6th.
- 7. K. to R's sq. 7. P. takes P. (dis. ch.)
- 8. Q. takes P.
-
-And though minus a pawn, you have an ample equivalent in the attack. It
-is highly probable that many moves, both of attack and defence, in this
-somewhat novel variation may be improved upon. I only regret that I am
-precluded, both by want of time and space, from going further into the
-variations.
-
-
-THE QUEEN'S GAMBIT.
-
-
-GAME I.
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to Q's 4th. 1. P. to Q's 4th.
- 2. P. to Q. B's 4th. 2. P. takes P.
-
-It is considered more advisable to decline the gambit. (See Game II.) By
-taking the Pawn, Black generally subjects himself to some slight
-inferiority of position.
-
- 3. P. to K's 3d. 3. P. to K's 4th.
-
-Your move of P. to K's 3d, appears somewhat preferable to P. to K's 4th,
-as recommended by the "classical" writers on Chess, to which Black would
-equally reply with P. to K's 4th, with an even game. It is worth while
-remarking, that if he attempt to sustain the gambit pawn by P. to Q.
-Kt.'s 4th, you gain the advantage. (See Variation A.)
-
- 4. K's B. takes P. 4. P. takes Q's P.
- 5. P. takes P. 5. K's Kt. to B's 3d.
- 6. Q's Kt. to B's 3d. 6. B. to Q's 3d.
- 7. K's Kt. to B's 3d. 7. Q's Kt. to B's 3d.
- 8. Castles. 8. Castles.
- 9. P. to K. R's 3d. 9. P. to K. R's 3d.
-
-White has perhaps a slightly better position.
-
-
-_Variation A. on Black's 3d Move_.
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to Q's 4th. 1. P. to Q's 4th.
- 2. P. to Q. B's 4th. 2. P. takes P.
- 3. P. to K's 3d. 3. P. to Q. Kt.'s 4th.
- 4. P. to Q. R's 4th. 4. B. to Q's 2d.
-
-If he play P. to Q. B's 3d, you take Pawn with Pawn, and on his
-retaking, win a piece by Q. to K. B's 3d.
-
- 5. P. takes P. 5. B. takes P.
- 6. P. to Q. Kt.'s 3d. 6. Q. to Q's 4th.
- 7. P. takes P. 7. B. takes P.
- 8. Q. to Q. R's 4th. (ch.) winning a piece.
-
-These moves are from Mr. Staunton's Handbook.
-
-
-GAME II.
-
- WHITE. BLACK.
- 1. P. to Q's 4th. 1. P. to Q's 4th.
- 2. P. to Q. B's 4th. 2. P. to K's 3d.
-
-This is now acknowledged to be his best method of declining the gambit.
-
- 3. Q's Kt. to B's 3d. 3. K's Kt. to B's 3d.
- 4. P. to K's 3d. 4. P. to Q. B's 4th.
-
-Your 4th move is the one given by all "the books." In the late match
-between Messrs. Löwenthal and Harrwitz, the latter several times adopted
-the move of 4. Q's B. to K. B's 4th, at this juncture, with advantage, a
-sortie hitherto denounced by most of the modern writers on Chess.
-
- 5. K's Kt. to B's 3d. 5. Q's Kt. to B's 3d.
- 6. P. to Q. R's 3d. 6. P. to Q. R's 3d.
-
-There is no advantage on either side.
-
-We will now briefly examine those other methods of opening a game, which
-either player may adopt in lieu of 1. P. to K's 4th, or 1. P. to Q's
-4th.
-
-The most important of these the second player has at his command to
-reply to 1. P. to K's 4th, are, 1. P. to Q. B's 4th, and 1. P. to K's
-3d. It is true there are other moves, such as 1. P. to Q's 4th; 1. P. to
-K. Kt.'s 3d.; 1. P. to Q. Kt.'s 3d.; 1. P. to Q's 3d.; but they are of
-so rare occurrence in actual play, we shall hardly be justified in our
-narrow limits for entering into an analysis of them.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-THE YOUNG CONJUROR
-
-INCLUDING SLEIGHT OF HAND WITH OBJECTS OR CARDS, WITH AND WITHOUT
-APPARATUS.
-
-From the very early ages of the world the art of legerdemain, commonly
-called conjuring, has been known and practised. In some of the old
-heathen ceremonies the priests made use of skilful deceptions, in order
-to impose upon the people; and in ancient Egypt, in Greece, and in Rome,
-the worship of the gods was frequently associated with mere tricks,
-which were used for the purpose of obtaining an influence by a pretence
-of extraordinary and supernatural powers. Among the Eastern nations
-juggling was a profession, and to this day the jugglers of Hindustan and
-other Oriental nations are so skilful that they are able to deceive even
-the most acute observers. In our own country, after the Norman Conquest,
-the juggler (who was called jongleur, or joculator) was a minstrel as
-well as a conjurer, a reader of the stars or astrologer, and at the same
-time a jester, a merry-andrew, and a teller of droll stories. These
-jongleurs travelled from place to place, and exhibited at fairs,
-feasts, and merrymakings, as well as in the houses of noblemen, where
-they diverted the company in the great halls. In the fourteenth century
-they gave more attention to tricks and feats of skill, and became known
-as tregetours. The performances of some of these gentry were so
-marvellous, that the common people believed them to be the result of
-witchcraft, and classed the tregetour with the warlock and the sorcerer.
-Chaucer, who no doubt had frequently an opportunity of seeing the tricks
-exhibited by the tregetours of his time, says, "There I sawe playenge
-jogelours, magyciens, tragetours, phetonysses, charmeresses, old
-witches, and sorceresses;" and the old poet goes on to say of them,
-"Sometimes they will bring on the similitude of a grim lion, or make
-flowers spring up as in a meadow; sometimes they cause a vine to
-flourish, bearing white and red grapes, or show a castle built with
-stone, and when they please they cause the whole to disappear:" and in
-another part of his works he says:--
-
- "There saw I Coll Tregetour
- Upon a table of sycamour
- Play an uncouthe thynge to tell;
- I sawe hym cary a wyndemell
- Under a walnot shale."--_House of Fame_, book iii.
-
-Our learned monarch James I. was perfectly convinced that these and
-other inferior feats exhibited by the tregetours of his day could only
-be performed by diabolical agency. The profession had already fallen
-very low, and at the close of the reign of Queen Elizabeth the
-performers were ranked by the moral writers of that time not only with
-ruffians, blasphemers, thieves, and vagabonds, but also with Jews,
-Turks, heretics, pagans, and sorcerers; and in more modern times, by way
-of derision, the juggler was called a mocus-pocus, or hokus-pokus, a
-term applicable to a pickpocket or a common cheat.
-
-The following pages are not intended to make the young reader either a
-cheat or a trickster; there is nothing perhaps so utterly contemptible
-in every-day life as trickery and deceit, and we would caution our young
-friends not to cultivate a love of deception, which is only allowable in
-such feats of amusement, because it is in fact not deception at all,
-when everybody expects to be puzzled, and is only left to find out the
-mystery the best way he can.
-
-With this sage advice we shall present a collection of amusing conjuring
-tricks, premising that a considerable number of tricks usually embodied
-in this division will be found in that part of our work relating to
-Scientific Experiments and Amusements, as they more properly belong to
-"Natural Magic," and are to be referred to the various operations of
-nature in the several departments of art, science, and philosophy.
-
-
-SLEIGHT OF HAND.
-
-It is intended in the following pages to lay more stress upon those
-tricks which require no apparatus than upon those for which special
-apparatus or the assistance of a confederate is required. No one is
-nearly so well pleased by a trick whose essence evidently lies in the
-machinery, while every one feels pleasure at seeing a sleight of hand
-trick neatly executed. The audience often despise all the numerous
-boxes, bottles, variegated covers, and other gimcracks which are
-generally seen on a conjuror's table; and are seldom so pleased with any
-performer as with one who does not even require a table, but presses
-into his service articles borrowed from his audience. The spectators
-should never be able to say, "Ah! the trick lies in the box: he dares
-not show it to us!"
-
-The following tricks have almost all been successfully performed, and
-have caused some reputation in the magic art. Some of them are the
-invention of one of the most eminent "conjurors" of modern times.
-
-
-1. THE FLYING SHILLING.
-
-This trick must be frequently practised before it is produced in public.
-
-Borrow two coloured silk handkerchiefs from the company, and have
-_three_ shillings in your hand, but only show _two_, keeping the other
-one firmly fixed against the first joint of the second and third
-fingers. You must also have a fine needle and thread stuck inside the
-cuff of your coat. Then take one of the handkerchiefs, and put in _both_
-shillings, but pretend that only _one_ is in the handkerchief; then put
-the handkerchief into a hat, leaving one corner hanging out. Now hold up
-the _third_ shilling (which the spectators imagine is the _second_), and
-ask one of the company to lay the second handkerchief over it. You then
-ask him to hold the shilling tight between his finger and thumb, while
-you twist up the handkerchief. While doing so, with both hands concealed
-under the handkerchief, you pass a few stitches under the shilling, and
-replace the needle. This being done, spread one corner of the
-handkerchief over the hand of the person who is still holding the
-shilling, and, taking hold of another corner, tell him to drop the
-shilling when you have counted three. At the word "three" he lets go the
-shilling, and you whisk the handkerchief into the air, when the shilling
-appears to have vanished, but is really held in the handkerchief. You
-then tell the astonished individual to draw the other handkerchief out
-of the hat by the corner that is hanging out. The two shillings are
-heard to fall into the hat, and every one is persuaded that you have
-conjured one of the shillings out of the person's hand, and sent it into
-the hat.
-
-
-2. ANOTHER METHOD.
-
-Perhaps the spectators may ask to see it again, or demand to mark the
-shilling. In this case, vary it as follows. Ask some one (always choose
-the most incredulous of the party) to mark a shilling of his own and
-give it you. Take the same handkerchief and give him the shilling to
-hold that is already enclosed in it, as in the last trick, dropping the
-marked shilling into the palm of your hand. Twist it up as before, and
-then leave it entirely in his hands. Direct him to place it on a table,
-and cover it with a basin or saucer. Ask him to give you a cup or
-tumbler, and hold it under the table, beneath the place where the saucer
-is. Then tell him to knock three times on the saucer, and at the third
-knock let the marked shilling fall into the tumbler. Hand him the
-tumbler, and while he is examining the shilling to see if it is the same
-one that he marked, take up the saucer, and shake out the handkerchief
-that is lying under it, as in the last trick. You must then return the
-handkerchief, and while you pretend to be searching for the marks, draw
-out the thread that held the shilling and drop the coin into the palm of
-your hand, taking care to rub between your finger and thumb the spot
-where the threads had been, in order to eradicate the marks. This
-variation seldom fails to confuse the company.
-
-You must remember to keep talking the whole time, and always try to make
-a joke, or otherwise to distract the attention of the audience, while
-you are executing the necessary changes.
-
-
-3. THE BEADS AND STRINGS.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Ask some lady to lend you the beads off her bracelet, or have by you
-five or six beads, which you may hand round for examination. Then get
-some one to cut two pieces of thin string of equal length, and twist
-them about your fingers, appearing to lay them side by side, but in
-reality placing them as in the figure, and then, by twisting them
-together with apparent carelessness, the manner in which they are
-arranged will not be seen, particularly if you keep the point of
-junction hidden either by a finger, or by throwing the shade of your
-hand upon it.
-
-When the beads are returned, thread them all, taking care to pass the
-centre bead over the point of juncture. You then bring the ends of the
-string 1 and 2 together and tie them so, doing the same with 3 and 4.
-Now give the tied ends to two persons, directing them to hold them
-tight. You need not fear that the beads will come off, even if they pull
-hard. Then grasp the beads with both hands, directing the holders to
-slacken the strings. You then, under cover of the left hand, which is
-placed above the beads, slip the centre bead to one side, and draw out
-the two loops which have been hidden in it. The beads will then easily
-come off into your right hand. Tell the holders to pull hard, which they
-will do, and the same moment remove your hands, showing the empty
-strings and all the beads in your right hand. Then hand round the beads
-and strings as before. Remember to rub out the marks in the strings
-caused by the loops before you remove your hands.
-
-
-4. TO GET A RING OUT OF A HANDKERCHIEF.
-
-Bend a piece of gold wire into the form of a ring, having previously
-sharpened both ends. You have a real ring made of the same piece of
-wire, and concealing the false ring in the palm of your hand, offer the
-real one to be inspected. When it is returned, borrow a handkerchief,
-and, while taking it from the lender, slip the real ring into your left
-hand, and take the false one at its point of junction. Throw the
-handkerchief over the ring, and give it to some one to hold between his
-finger and thumb. Let the handkerchief fall over it, and give a piece of
-string to a second spectator, directing him to tie it round the
-handkerchief, about two inches below the ring, so as to enclose it in a
-bag, and tell him to do so as tightly as he can. While he is doing this,
-take up your conjuring wand, a rod of some hard wood, about eighteen
-inches long, and when the knot is tied, step forward, passing the rod
-into your left hand, taking care to slip over it the real ring, which
-has lain concealed there. Slip your left hand to the centre of the rod,
-and direct each of the two persons to hold one end of it in his right
-hand. Then tell the one who has the ring and handkerchief, to lay them
-on your left hand, which you immediately cover with your right. Then
-tell them to spread another handkerchief over your hands, and to say
-after you any nonsense that you like to invent.
-
-While they are so doing, unbend the false ring, and draw it through the
-handkerchief by one of its points, carefully rubbing between the thumb
-and finger the place where it came through. Hang the empty handkerchief
-over the ring which is on the rod, and take away your hands, which you
-exhibit empty, as you have stuck the false ring inside your cuff. Take
-away the upper handkerchief, and let a third person come to examine,
-when he will find the ring gone out of the handkerchief, and hung upon
-the rod.
-
-
-5. TO TIE A KNOT IN A HANDKERCHIEF WHICH CANNOT BE DRAWN TIGHT.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Cast an ordinary knot on a handkerchief, and give the end out of your
-right hand to some spectator, and tell him to pull hard and sharp when
-you count three. Just as he pulls, slip your left thumb under the
-handkerchief, as drawn in the cut, and it will be pulled out quite
-straight without any knot at all. You must let go the end that hangs
-over the left hand, and grasp the handkerchief between the thumb and
-forefinger.
-
-
-6. THE THREE CUPS.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-This is an admirable delusion, but requires very careful management, and
-should be practised repeatedly before it is exhibited publicly. You get
-three tin cups, of the shape shown in the cut. They should have two or
-three ridges running round them at the mouth, in order to give a better
-hold. Four balls should now be made of cork, and carefully blackened.
-One of the balls is held concealed between the roots of the third and
-fourth fingers, while the other three are handed round for examination,
-together with the cups. When they are returned, the young conjuror
-begins by placing each ball under a cup, or, if he chooses, asks one of
-the spectators to do so for him. While this is being done, he slips the
-fourth ball to the tips of the second and third fingers. He then lifts
-up cup No. 1, replacing it on the table a few inches from its first
-position, and at the same time slips the fourth ball under it. He takes
-up ball No. 1, and pretends to throw it away, but in reality he slips it
-into the place which the fourth ball had occupied. He does the same with
-the three cups, and then commences a sham search after the lost balls,
-in which he accidentally (!) knocks over one of the cups, and, to his
-pretended astonishment, finds a ball under it. He then knocks over both
-the other cups, and finds in them the two missing balls.
-
-He again places the balls under the cups, taking care to slip the fourth
-ball under cup No. 3. He then takes up cup No. 1 and pretends to throw
-the ball into No. 3, but hides it as before. As there are already two
-balls in No. 3, the spectators imagine that he really has thrown the
-ball into it. He replaces cup No. 3 over both balls, and slips among
-them ball No. 1. He then takes up cup No. 2, and goes through the same
-process, and on knocking over cup No. 3, all three balls are found
-together under it, and while the spectators are being astonished, ball
-No. 2 can be quickly got rid of.
-
-A rather startling termination to this trick can be managed by taking up
-one of the cups with its mouth upwards, holding the finger and thumb
-close to its mouth. Then by throwing another cup into it, letting go the
-first and catching the second, you appear to have thrown the second cup
-through the first.
-
-
-7. TO TIE A HANDKERCHIEF ROUND YOUR LEG, AND GET IT OFF WITHOUT UNTYING
-THE KNOT.
-
-Hold the handkerchief by both ends, lay the centre of the handkerchief
-on your knee, and pass the two ends below, appearing to cross them, but
-in reality hitching them within each other, as represented in the
-engraving, which shows the manner in which this is managed. Draw this
-loop tight, and bring back the ends to the same side on which they were
-originally, and tie them above. If the loop is properly made, it will
-stand a good pull. Then, after showing the spectators how firmly it is
-tied, put your hand under the knot, and by giving it a sharp pull, it
-will come off.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The engraving represents the manner in which the loop is made, but it
-must be made considerably smaller than it is shown, or it will be seen.
-In fact, it ought not to be a loop at all, as it should be almost
-concealed under the fold of the handkerchief. Do not show this in public
-until you can tie it with rapidity and precision.
-
-
-8. THE MAGIC BOND.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Take a piece of string, and tie the two ends together with a weaver's
-knot, as that holds the best, and arrange it over the fingers as
-represented in the engraving. Having done so, let the long loop hang
-loose, lift both loops off the thumb, draw them forward until the string
-is quite tight, and then put them behind the hand, by passing them
-between the second and third fingers. Then pull the part of the string
-that is across the roots of the fingers, and the whole affair will come
-off.
-
-
-9. THE OLD MAN AND HIS CHAIR.
-
-[Illustration: _Fig. 1_]
-
-Take the same piece of string as in the last trick, hold your left hand
-with the palm uppermost, and hang the string over the palm. Spread all
-the fingers, and with the right hand bring forward the loop that hangs
-behind, by passing it over the second and third fingers. Loose the loop,
-take hold of the part of the string that crosses the hand, and pull it
-forwards. When tight, pass it to the back of the hand, the reversal of
-the movement that brought it forwards. Loose the loop, insert the
-fore-finger and little finger of the right hand under the string that
-encircles the left fore-finger and little-finger, and pass the two loops
-to the back of the hand, as shown in the cut, Fig. 1. Tuck both loops
-under the cross-string at the back, and your preliminaries are
-completed. Then begin your story: "There was once upon a time an old
-man, who stole a pound of candles. Here they are." You then hold your
-left hand as at the commencement, hook the right fore-finger under the
-cross-piece at the back, and draw it downward until it is long enough to
-be passed over the second and third fingers to the front. Pass it over,
-and draw it slowly upwards, when the similitude of a pound of candles
-hanging by their string will be seen. (See Fig. 2.) "The old man, being
-tired, hung up his candles," you then hang the long loop over your
-thumb, "and sat down in his high-backed chair, which you see here." You
-then hitch the right fore-finger and middle finger under the two loops
-that will be found hanging behind the left hand, bring them to the
-front, raise them perpendicularly, and the chair will be seen as in Fig.
-3. The thumb must be raised perpendicularly, and brought as much as
-possible into the centre of the hand, or the chair will be all aside.
-
-[Illustration: _Fig. 2_]
-
-[Illustration: _Fig. 3_
-
-1. Right fore-finger.
-
-2. Right middle-finger.]
-
-[Illustration: 1. Fore-finger of left hand.
-
-2. Little finger of left hand.
-
-3. Fore-finger of right hand.
-
-4. Middle finger of right hand.
-
-_Fig. 4_]
-
-[Illustration: _Fig. 5_
-
-1. Right middle-finger.
-
-2. Right fore-finger.]
-
-[Illustration: 1. Right fore-finger.
-
-2. Left hand.
-
-_Fig. 6_]
-
-"When the old man was rested, it began to become dark, and he took a
-pair of scissors to cut down a candle for himself. Here are the
-scissors." While you are saying this, you slip the loop off the thumb,
-and you get Fig. 4. Move the blades and handles of the scissors, as if
-cutting something with them. "Just as he had lighted it, in came a
-policeman, and produced his staff, with the Queen's crown at the top."
-Now let go the little finger of the left hand, and the loop will run up
-the string towards the right hand, producing Fig. 5. "The old man in
-vain tried to resist, for the policeman called a comrade to his
-assistance, and they tied a cord round the old man's arms in a tight
-knot, like this,"--slip the right middle-finger out of its loop, and you
-will obtain Fig. 6,--"and carried him off to prison."
-
-
-10. TO TIE A KNOT ON THE LEFT WRIST, WITHOUT LETTING THE RIGHT HAND
-APPROACH IT.
-
-[Illustration: _Fig. 1_]
-
-[Illustration: _Fig. 2_]
-
-Take a piece of thick pliant string by each end, and with a quick jerk
-of the right hand cast a loop on it as in Fig. 1. The jerk must be given
-upwards and towards the left hand, and its impetus will cause the loop
-to run up the string until it falls over the left wrist, as in Fig. 2.
-The moment that the forward jerk is given the right hand should be drawn
-back, so that the loop is drawn tight directly it has settled on the
-wrist. Both ends should be let fall when the knot is firm. This is a
-very nice little sleight of hand to practice in the intervals between
-more showy tricks, and, although rather difficult to learn, is soon
-acquired.
-
-
-11. THE HANDCUFFS.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Let two persons, A and B, have their hands tied together with string, so
-that the strings cross, as represented in the engraving. The object is,
-to free themselves from each other without untying the knot. It is
-executed in the following manner.
-
-Let B gather up the string that joins his hands, pass the loop under the
-string that binds either of A's wrists, slip it over A's hand, and both
-will be free. By a reversal of the same process, the string may be
-replaced.
-
-
-12. TO PULL A STRING THROUGH YOUR BUTTON-HOLE.
-
-Take a piece of string about two feet in length, and tie the ends
-together. Pass it through a button-hole of your coat; hitch one thumb at
-each end, hook the little fingers into the upper strings of the opposite
-hand. Then draw the hands well outward, and the string will look very
-complicated, as in the engraving.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-To get out the string, loose the hold of the right thumb and left little
-finger, and separate the hands smartly, when the string will appear to
-have been pulled out _through_ the substance of your coat.
-
-It is an improvement of the trick, if, immediately on loosing the hold
-of the right thumb, you change the string from the right little finger
-on to the thumb.
-
-
-13. THE CUT STRING RESTORED.
-
-[Illustration: 1. The twisted string. 2. The manner of holding it.]
-
-Tie together the ends of a piece of string, pass one hand through each
-end, twist it once round, and put both ends into the left hand. Draw the
-right hand rapidly along the double strings until you come to the place
-where the strings have crossed each other, as seen in the engraving.
-Conceal the junction with the thumb and finger of the right hand; hold
-the strings in a similar manner with the left hand, and tell some one to
-cut the string between them. You show that the string has been divided
-into two pieces, and say that you will join them with your teeth. Put
-all four ends into your mouth, and remove with your tongue the little
-loop that has been cut off. When you take the string out of your mouth,
-the spectators will not notice the absence of so small a portion of its
-length, and will fancy that you really have joined them.
-
-
-14. THE GORDIAN KNOT.
-
-[Illustration: 1]
-
-[Illustration: 2]
-
-Take a silk handkerchief, and lay it on a table. Take each of the
-corners, and lay them across each other in the middle of the
-handkerchief, which will then be square, as in the cut, Fig. 1. Do the
-same with the new corners, and go on until the handkerchief is reduced
-to the size of your hand. Then with your left finger and thumb take hold
-of the centre, taking care to grasp all the four corners that lie there,
-and with the right finger and thumb take hold of the outer layer of
-silk, and pull it towards you as far as it will come. Then turn it a
-little on your left hand, and repeat the operation until it is all
-screwed up into a tight ball, as is represented in the engraving, Fig.
-2. No ends will be then perceptible, and a person who is unacquainted
-with the mode will never be able to untie it. Of course you must prepare
-it previously. When the person to whom you give it has failed to untie
-it, you take the ball in your hand, and holding it behind your back, you
-reverse the method by which it was tied, and when it is loose a good
-shake will release it.
-
-
-15. THE KNOT LOOSENED.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-This is a very amusing deception. You ask any one for a handkerchief,
-and tie the ends firmly together in a double knot, allowing him to feel
-it, or pull the ends as tight as he pleases. You then throw the centre
-of the handkerchief over the knot, and ask the person to hold it tight
-between his finger and thumb. You ask him if the knot is still there, to
-which he will answer in the affirmative. You then take hold of any part
-of the handkerchief, and direct the holder to drop the handkerchief at
-the word "three." You count, "one, two, three," at which word he looses
-his hold of the handkerchief, and there is no vestige left of the knot.
-
-The method of managing this trick is as follows:--Take the handkerchief
-and tie the ends in a simple knot, keeping _one end tight_, and the
-other end loose. We will call the tight end A, and the loose one B. Keep
-A _always_ in the right hand, and on the stretch horizontally, and the
-handkerchief will look as in the cut. Do this when you tie it the second
-time, and draw B tight, which will then form a double tie round A, but
-will not hold it firm. When you throw the handkerchief over the knot,
-you draw out A with the finger and thumb of the left hand, and the knot
-will apparently remain firm, although in reality it is nothing but a
-double twist of silk, which of course falls loose when the handkerchief
-is dropped.
-
-
-16. TO PUT NUTS INTO YOUR EAR.
-
-Take three nuts in the left hand, show them, and take out one of them
-between your right finger and thumb, and another between the first and
-third finger. This latter is not seen by the company. You then put one
-of them in your mouth and retain it there, unknown to the spectators,
-while you exhibit the second as the one that you put into your mouth.
-This second one you carry to your ear, as if you meant to insert it
-there, and on replacing it in your left hand, only two nuts will be left
-instead of three, the third of which appears to have gone into your ear.
-
-
-17. TO CRACK WALNUTS IN YOUR ELBOW.
-
-Conceal a very strong walnut in your right hand, and take two other
-walnuts out of the dish. Place one of them on the joint of your arm, and
-say that you are going to break it by the power of your muscles. You
-will now have one walnut in your arm and two in your right hand. Close
-your left arm, and strike it an apparently violent blow with the right
-hand, at the same time clenching the right hand violently, which will
-smash the second walnut in it, and the spectators hearing the crash will
-be sure to fancy that it is caused by the demolition of the walnut in
-your arm. Then open you arm very gently (for fear of dropping any of the
-fragments, you must say), and, when pretending to take out the walnut
-which you had placed there, you substitute for it the broken one from
-your right hand.
-
-
-18. TO TAKE FEATHERS OUT OF AN EMPTY HANDKERCHIEF.
-
-Procure at the military clothier's four or five large plumes, such as
-are worn by officers. Take off your coat, and lay the plumes along your
-arms, the stem being toward your hand. Now put on your coat again, and
-the feathers will lie quite smoothly and unsuspected. Borrow a
-handkerchief from one of the spectators, and wave it about to show that
-it is empty. Throw it over your left hand, and with the right draw out
-one of the plumes from up the coat-sleeve, at the same time giving it a
-flourish in the air, which will loosen all the fibres of the feather,
-and make it appear much too large to have been concealed about the
-person. Wave the handkerchief again, and repeat the operation until all
-the plumes are gone. You can carry enough plumes under the sleeve to
-cover a table with, and if you prepare a board or an ornamental vase
-full of holes, you can place the plumes upright as you take them out.
-
-
-TRICKS REQUIRING SPECIAL APPARATUS.
-
-None of the following tricks are wholly managed by the apparatus, as
-such performances are unworthy of notice. Therefore, every trick
-mentioned in the following pages must be carefully practised in private
-before it is produced in public. The apparatus, of course, cannot be
-inspected by the audience, and for that reason it is better to mix them
-with those tricks which have been already mentioned, in order that
-suspicious persons may be quieted by an occasional permission to inspect
-the objects used in the performances.
-
-The young conjuror should always vary the mode of performance in the
-non-essentials, and should study combinations of one trick with another,
-by which means he will produce more astonishing results than if he
-restricted himself to the methods mentioned in this work. He should also
-invariably make a little speech, acknowledging that he is only deceiving
-the eye and not the mind, and should therefore request the company not
-to ask any questions, or to demand inspection of any of his apparatus.
-
-
-19. THE DIE TRICK.
-
-Get a wooden die about two inches and a half square (1), and a hollow
-tin die exactly the size of the wooden one, but without one of the sides
-(2). Then paint them both exactly alike, as in the engraving. It will be
-better to let an _accidental_ flaw appear on the same side of each. Then
-get a tin cover (4) that exactly fits the dies. Now for the trick
-itself.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Borrow two hats, and while you turn your back upon the audience as you
-go to your table, slip into one of them the false die. Place both hats
-on the table, and send round the real die and cover for inspection. When
-they are returned, say, "Now, ladies and gentlemen, it is my intention
-to place these hats one above another, thus." You then place the two
-hats as in No. 3, the hollow die being in the bottom hat. "I shall then
-cover the die thus," which you do, "and after I have knocked on the
-cover, I shall take it off, and you will find that the die is not under
-the cover, as it is now," taking it off, "but inside the hat, like
-this." You then put the real die into the hat. "You do not believe me,
-ladies and gentlemen, but I will soon convince you." You then take out
-the false die, and replacing the upper hat, put the die on the upper hat
-(of course, with the open side downward) and place the cover over it.
-Pick up your conjuring wand, give it a few flourishes, and bring it down
-on the cover. Grasp the cover tightly near the bottom, when both cover
-and false die will come up together; put the end of your wand into them,
-and give them a good rattle. Then knock off the upper hat with a blow of
-the wand, and push the lower one off the table, so that the die tumbles
-out of it. Always use plenty of gesture about your tricks.
-
-
-20. THE PENETRATIVE PENCE.
-
-Get a brazier to cut out all the interior of five pence, only leaving
-the rims. He must then bore out nearly all the interior of a sixth
-penny, merely leaving a shell of copper at the top. A long rivet must
-then be let into the rim as shown in Fig. 1, No. 2, and a hole must be
-drilled in each of the five rings, as in No. 3. The rivet is to be
-passed through the holes in the rings, and fastened below, so that all
-the rings can play easily upon it. Fig. 1, No. 1, is a section of the
-entire apparatus, the dotted lines representing the rivet. They can then
-be placed as shown in Fig. 2, No. 1, and no one will imagine that they
-are only shams, as you can rattle them or move them about upon each
-other. A leathern cover, Fig. 2, No. 2, is then made, which passes
-easily over the heap of pence, but being pliable, is capable of picking
-up the hollow pence with it, when it is held firmly. To the under
-surface of the table you fasten a little shelf, Fig. 2, No. 3, which
-moves on a hinge, and is let fall by placing the foot on the pedal, Fig.
-2, No. 4, which draws the catch.
-
-[Illustration: _Fig. 1_
-
-_Fig. 2_]
-
-To perform the trick, place six real pence on the little shelf, and have
-the sham pence on the table. Take them up and rattle them, and put them
-down as in Fig. 2, No. 1. Keep a sixpence in the palm of your hand, pick
-up the sham pence, and as you put them down, slip the sixpence under
-them, as you do the ball in trick 6. Take the cover, and put it over the
-sham pence, make a short speech, and knock the cover with your wand, at
-the same time pressing the pedal with your foot, which will cause all
-the six real pence to tumble down with a great crash. Take up the cover
-and false pence together, put the end of your wand into them and hold
-them up triumphantly, showing the spectators that the six pence have
-been replaced by a silver sixpence. While you are picking up the pence,
-slip the sham ones out of the cover into your left hand, and take some
-opportunity of letting the empty cover roll towards the audience, one of
-whom you ask to pick it up and bring it you. This man[oe]uvre generally
-disarms all suspicion, for the picker-up is sure to examine it very
-closely.
-
-I have only given mere outlines of this really excellent trick, which
-may be varied in a hundred ways, and is capable of combination with
-other tricks to a large extent. It will add to its complicity, if a set
-of six half-pence is also made like the pence. For the pedal may be
-substituted a lever running immediately under the surface of the table,
-if the performer prefers to have a short cloth on it. There should be
-always two cloths on the table,--the lower one thick and soft, to
-prevent jingling of objects, and the upper one white, as it displays
-everything better than a coloured one. The ingenuity of the young
-conjuror will easily find methods of varying this trick.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-21. THE DOLL TRICK.
-
-Get a comical looking doll, and cut off his head diagonally, taking care
-to do it very neatly. Drive a peg into the neck, and bore a hole in the
-body, into which the peg fits, as in the cut. Paint his body and head
-carefully, and if you put a gold chain or two round his neck, it will
-conceal the line of junction. Make also a coat of silk, and sew a pocket
-inside the edge of the skirt.
-
-Take up the doll, and say, "Now, ladies and gentlemen, here is a very
-learned man. Observe the development of his forehead, the sagacity of
-his nose, the eloquence of his lips, the dignity of his spectacles, and
-the philosophy of his pigtail. He is professor of astronomy at
-Timbuctoo, and here is his gown of office. See how handsome he looks in
-it. He is going to Amsterdam to see the eclipse of the last new comet.
-He has the honour to wish you all farewell before starting on his
-journey. Now, professor, we are waiting to see you go. Oh! you want
-funds, do you? I beg your pardon; here is a shilling for you." So
-saying, you take your right hand from under the gown, taking with it the
-body, and put the body into your pocket, while you jingle some silver.
-The head is now supported by your left hand. Pretend to give him some
-money, and then say, "What! you won't go unless you have more! Get
-along!" Hit the head a hard rap with your right hand, which drives it
-into the pocket, which you hold open for it with your left thumb and
-little finger. "Oh dear! the doctor is dead, and cannot be found."
-Saying this, you grasp the gown by the place where the head is, and
-shake it about to show that it is empty. If you like, you can make
-another oration and hold a dialogue, making the doctor resuscitate
-himself, which is of course done by taking the head out of the pocket
-with the left hand, and working it about by the peg.
-
-
-22. THE FLYING COINS.
-
-Take two sovereigns, or rather brass imitations, and grind them down
-until they are reduced to half their thickness. Do the same with two
-shillings, and fasten them accurately together, so that you will have
-two coins, each having one silver face, and one brass face. Take one of
-them in each hand, showing the silver side of one and the brass side of
-another, and offer to change them without moving your arms. Shut your
-hands, and the coins will turn over. Then, on opening them again, they
-will appear to have changed from one hand into the other.
-
-
-23. THE VANISHED GROAT.
-
-Put a little wax on the nail of the middle finger of the right hand, and
-take a fourpenny piece into the palm of the same hand. Close the hand,
-pressing the wax on the coin. Then rapidly open it, and the silver piece
-will adhere to the wax, and be quite concealed behind the finger when
-you hold your hand up.
-
-
-24. THE RESTORED DOCUMENT.
-
-Make a memorandum book, and line the cover with paper which has been
-previously rubbed with a mixture of lamp-black and oil. The paper must
-be loosely affixed, so that it can be raised up, and a leaf from the
-memorandum book placed under it. You must also make a flat box, having a
-double opening.
-
-You now take a leaf out of the memorandum book, and ask some one to
-write a sentence, at the same time offering him the book to write upon.
-The pencil with which you furnish him is very hard, and he is forced to
-press upon the paper in order to mark. In so doing, the black is
-transferred by the pressure of the pencil from the blackened paper to
-the white leaf that has been placed under it, and of course makes an
-exact copy of the writing. You then give the man his document, put the
-memorandum book in your pocket, and go out of the room to fetch your
-box, which you have _forgotten_. While you are out of the room, you take
-out the leaf from under the black paper, and put it into one side of the
-flat box, and shut down the cover that hides it. You bring in the box,
-apologising for your absence, and give the box, open at the _other_
-side, into the writer's hands. Tell him to burn his writing in a candle,
-and to place the ashes in the box. He does so, and closing the box,
-returns it to you. You then flourish about a little with the box, wave
-it in the air, bring it down with a bang on the table, strike it with
-your wand, and then, opening it as at first, you produce the duplicate
-leaf, which the writer acknowledges to be his own hand-writing. If the
-lamp-black should have come off and smeared the paper, you can account
-for it by observing that it is very difficult to get rid of all traces
-of the burning.
-
-
-25. THE MAGIC RINGS.
-
-Get a blacksmith to make a number of rings, about six or seven inches in
-diameter, as in the cut. A is made with a spring opening on one side, B
-is a set of two rings forged permanently within each other, C is a set
-of three rings formed in the same manner, and D D are two simple rings.
-The rings should be about the thickness of a rather large blacklead
-pencil.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Lay the rings on one another, and they will all appear to be separate
-and distinct; D D should be the uppermost rings, then B, then A, and
-then C. Hand round D for inspection, and if any more are desired, hand
-round the other D. When returned, you hang them over your left arm, or
-grasp them in your hand, and tell the company that you are going to
-weave all the rings together. You clash them together, and after going
-through some complicated movements, bring out B, which the spectators
-will think you have just fastened together. Hand them round. When they
-are returned, mix them all up, and bring out C. Then take A in your
-hand, and passing one of the outer rings of C through the opening, you
-have four rings together. Then add D and you have five. Take off D and
-substitute B, which will give you six. So you go on, weaving them into
-all kinds of fantastic shapes. You must always conceal the joint in A
-with your thumb, and contrive as often as you can to have one at least
-of the rings D at liberty. This is a capital trick, and may be
-diversified to any extent, especially if the number of rings is
-increased.
-
-
-26. THE FISH AND INK TRICK.
-
-This is really a first-rate delusion. You bring before the spectators a
-glass vase, full of ink. You dip a ladle into it, and pour out some of
-the ink upon a plate, in order to convince the audience that the
-substance in the vase is really ink. You then throw a handkerchief over
-the vase and instantly withdraw it, when the vase is found to be filled
-with pure water, in which a couple of gold fish are swimming.
-
-This apparent impossibility is performed as follows. To the interior of
-the vessel is fitted a black silk lining, which adheres closely to the
-sides when pressed by the water, and which is withdrawn inside the
-handkerchief during the performance of the trick. The ladle has a hollow
-handle with an opening into the bowl. In the handle is a spoonful or so
-of ink, which runs into the bowl when it is held downwards during the
-act of dipping it into the vase.
-
-
-27. THE CANNON BALLS.
-
-The performer of this trick borrows a number of hats, and places them on
-the table. He then returns each person his hat, and on turning it over,
-a thirty-two pounder cannon ball rolls out.
-
-The method of performing this delusion is as follows. Get a turner to
-make a number of wooden balls, each the size of a thirty-two pounder
-cannon ball, and let a hole be bored in each which will admit the
-middle finger. The balls are arranged hole upwards on a shelf on your
-table on the side opposite to the audience, so that the balls are nearly
-level with the top of the table. When you take a hat off the table, you
-slip your fore or middle finger into the ball just as you would into a
-thimble, and by bending the finger, bring the ball into the hat.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Any object may be brought into a hat in this manner, a great cabbage,
-for instance, having a hole cut in the stalk.
-
-
-28. THE SHILLING IN THE BALL OF COTTON.
-
-Get a tinman to make a flat tin tube, which will just allow a shilling
-to pass through it. Wind a quantity of worsted round it, so as to make
-it into a ball.
-
-These preliminaries having been accomplished, perform any trick that
-will get a shilling out of sight, such as No. 1 or 2. Then tell the
-spectators that you will bring the marked shilling into the middle of a
-ball of worsted. Take down the ball from the place where it is lying,
-drop the shilling into the tube, and withdraw the tube, leaving the
-shilling in the ball. A good squeeze or two will hold it tight, and
-obliterate every mark of the tube. Place the ball in a tumbler, take the
-end of the worsted, and give it to some one to unwind. This being done,
-the shilling will be found in the very centre of the ball, with the end
-of the worsted wrapped tightly round it.
-
-
-29. THE EGG AND BAG TRICK.
-
-Get a chintz or cloth bag made double, and between the two bags make six
-or seven pockets, each of which will hold an egg, and having an opening
-into the bag. Fill the pockets with eggs, and you are ready for the
-performance.
-
-Hold the bag by the place where the eggs are, shake it, turn it inside
-out and show that there is nothing in it. Then tell the spectators that
-you are sure that there is a hen in the bag. Put your head near the
-mouth of the bag, and make a clucking like a hen. You then say, "I knew
-I was right, and she has laid an egg." So saying, you put your hand into
-the bag and take out one of the eggs, taking care to pretend to grope in
-one of the corners for it.
-
-This is repeated until all the eggs but one are gone. You then, after
-taking out the last egg, say that some people think that the eggs are
-not real, but you will convince them by ocular inspection. Saying this,
-you break the egg in a saucer with your right hand, and while the people
-are occupied with it, you drop the bag behind your table, or hang it on
-a hook out of sight, and take up another exactly like it, into which you
-have put a hen. "These are real eggs," you then say, "and if any one
-doubts their reality, they cannot doubt that this is a real hen." You
-then turn the bag upside down, and shake out the hen. If any one wishes
-to inspect that bag, he can do so without being much wiser for it.
-
-
-30. THE DANCING EGG.
-
-Send for some eggs, and take care to place among them one which has been
-emptied of its contents, and to which is fastened a long hair, at the
-other end of which is tied a crooked pin. Borrow a small stick from one
-of the spectators, and as you go behind your table contrive to hook the
-bent pin into your coat, passing it over the stick. Then place the egg
-on an inverted hat, and ask for some music, and directly it begins to
-sound, a slight and imperceptible depression or elevation of the stick
-will cause the egg to twist and roll about upon it as if it had life.
-You must be careful to turn gently round now and then, so as apparently
-to vary the distance of the egg from the body.
-
-
-31. BELL AND SHOT.
-
-Get a wooden bell made, so thick that there is a considerable space
-between the outer and inner surfaces, especially on the upper part of
-the bell. A hollow must be cut in this, and the handle so made, that
-when it is at rest, it is forced upwards by a spring, and draws up the
-round piece of wood to which the clapper chain is attached, and closes
-the aperture, as shown in the engraving.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-You have a cardboard measure, which is of precisely the same capacity as
-the cavity in the bell, and just wide enough to hold a farthing. Into
-this you privately put a farthing, and then fill up the measure with
-shot, heaping it a little, to compensate for the farthing. You make up a
-tale about a man going out shooting, and ringing the bell of the
-gunmaker's shop. (You then ring your wooden bell.) How the man bought a
-measure full of shot for a farthing, (you pour the shot into the bell
-and back again two or three times,) but was so long haggling over three
-shots, that the gunmaker took away the shot, (here you again pour the
-shot into the bell, and by pressing on the handle, allow them all to run
-into the hollow,) and kept the farthing for his trouble. The man went
-out of the shop, but soon came in again, and rang furiously. (Here you
-again ring the bell, which is now apparently empty, and invert the
-measure on the table. The farthing not being held by the finger and
-thumb will now fall on the tablecloth.) Then finish the story with an
-account of the manner in which the man got back his farthing. When you
-have finished, invert the bell over the empty measure, and on pressing
-the handle, the shots will refill it. Do not touch, it until you have
-done another trick or two, and then, when you put the bell aside, ring
-it again, and remark that the purchaser was a silly fellow after all,
-for here are his shots in his measure.
-
-
-32. THE BURNED HANDKERCHIEF RESTORED.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Get a tinman to make a double canister, such as is shown in the cut,
-with an opening at each end. This must so slide within a tin tube, that
-either end can be concealed within it alternately, as seen in the
-engraving, where the end A is shown, and B is concealed. In this
-position it looks like an ordinary canister. The interior is divided
-into two parts. Into B put a piece of cambric made to look like a
-handkerchief.
-
-Borrow a cambric handkerchief, and say, "Now, ladies and gentlemen, I
-shall burn this handkerchief to ashes, place them in this canister" (so
-saying, you put it into A), "and when I have uttered a spell, it will be
-restored perfectly whole. Will the owner say what mark it has?" While
-the audience are looking towards the owner, you turn the canister over,
-and push up the canister until the shoulder of B is on a level with the
-top of the tube. When the mark has been declared, you open B, take out
-the cambric, and pretend to verify the mark. You then put it into a
-candle flame, and when it has burnt entirely to ashes, put the ashes
-into B, shut it up, and rapidly reverse it as you turn round to your
-audience, so that A is uppermost again. Then, utter any nonsense you
-like, open A and take out the handkerchief uninjured. It rather adds to
-the trick if you drop a little eau de cologne into A before commencing.
-
-
-33. THE FIRE-EATER.
-
-If the young conjuror is desirous of appearing in the character of a
-fire-eater, it is very easily managed. He must prepare a piece of thick
-string, by soaking it in a solution of nitre, and then drying it. He
-cuts off a piece about an inch in length, lights one end, and wraps it
-up in a piece of tow which he holds in his left hand. The trifling smoke
-will be concealed by a huge bundle of loose tow also carried in the left
-hand.
-
-He takes a handful of tow in his right hand, puts it into his mouth,
-chews it up, and appears to swallow it. He then takes another handful,
-and with it the piece in which is the string. As he puts this into his
-mouth, he takes out the piece which he has already chewed. By taking
-breath through the nostrils, and breathing it out through the mouth,
-smoke begins to issue forth, and the whole interior of the mouth is soon
-lighted up with a glow. When the mouth is shut, and the tow pressed
-together, the fire goes out, except the piece of prepared string. More
-tow is then taken into the mouth, and treated in the same manner.
-
-In this short account of conjuring, I have purposely avoided such tricks
-as require expensive apparatus. Such apparatus is either entirely beyond
-a boy's reach, or at all events he ought not to be encouraged in the
-notion of spending much money on objects of no real use. A boy of any
-ingenuity will make the greater part of the apparatus himself, or at
-least he can do the painting and polishing of his machinery. I have
-mentioned no machinery that need cost more than two or three shillings
-at the outside, and not that, if a boy is acquainted with the use of
-tools.
-
-
-TRICKS WITH CARDS.
-
-In accordance with the previous rule, the principal stress is laid on
-card tricks that require no apparatus, and may be performed with
-ordinary cards.
-
-
-1. TO MAKE THE PASS.
-
-This is a necessary beginning for card tricks. "Making the pass" is the
-technical term for shifting either the top or the bottom card to any
-place in the pack that you like. It is almost impossible to describe it,
-and I can only say that it will be learnt better in five minutes from a
-friend, than in as many hours from a book. As, however, a friend is not
-always to be found who can perform the pass, I will endeavour to
-describe it.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The cards are held in both hands, right hand underneath and left above,
-as in the engraving, where, as the _bottom_ card is to be raised to the
-top, the little finger is seen between that card and those above it. By
-a quick movement of the right hand, the bottom card is slipped away
-towards the left, and is placed upon the top card, under shadow of the
-left hand, which is raised for the moment to allow of its passage.
-
-This movement must be assiduously practised before it is exhibited in
-public, as nothing looks more awkward than to see it clumsily performed,
-in which case two or three cards generally tumble on the floor.
-
-
-2. TO TELL A CARD BY ITS BACK.
-
-While shuffling the pack, cast a glance at the bottom card, make the
-pass, and bring it to the top. Continue to shuffle, and lay upon it by
-degrees as many cards as you like, say six. Then lay the pack on the
-table, face downwards, and divide it into seven heaps, beginning at the
-bottom, and leave the seventh heap larger than any of the others.
-
-When you have done this, take one card from the top of the seventh heap,
-appear to calculate, and lay it, face upwards, on one of the other
-heaps. Do so with five more cards, thus leaving your slipped card at the
-top of the seventh heap. You then announce that by the aid of the six
-cards you will name the seventh. You name it accordingly, after
-carefully studying the other cards, and on asking a spectator to take it
-up, it will be seen that you are right.
-
-If you place five cards above the slipped card, you will lay out six
-heaps, and if eight cards, there will of course be nine heaps.
-
-
-3. THE CARD NAMED WITHOUT BEING SEEN.
-
-As in the last trick, cast a glance at the bottom card, say the ace of
-spades. Lay out the pack in as many heaps as you like, noting where that
-one is laid which contains that bottom card. Ask any one to take up the
-top card of any heap, look at it, and replace it. You then gather up the
-heaps apparently by chance, but you take care to put the heap containing
-the bottom card upon the card which has been chosen. You then give any
-one the cards to cut, and on counting them over, the card that
-immediately follows the ace of spades is the card chosen.
-
-If by any accident the two cards should be separated when cut, the upper
-card of the pack is the chosen one, and can be picked out with seeming
-care.
-
-
-4. THE CARD TOLD BY THE OPERA GLASS.
-
-Make out a table, such as is given on the next page, Fig. 1, and place
-it in an opera-glass, so that the figures will be visible when you look
-through it. For convenience, I have made mine as seen in Fig. 2, the
-numbers 1, 2, 3 in each series being understood. The best plan is to
-write the numbers, or cut them out of a book, and paste them on a
-circular piece of cardboard, which must then be soaked in oil, so as to
-make it semi-transparent. The light will then easily pierce through it,
-and the figures will be better visible than if it were opaque.
-
-It will be seen that Fig. 2 contains as much matter as Fig. 1, and that
-two-thirds of the figures are saved by it.
-
- +------------+--------------+-------------+
- | 1. 131 | 10. 132 | 19. 133 |
- | | | |
- | 2. 231 | 11. 232 | 20. 233 |
- | | | |
- | 3. 331 | 18. 332 | 21. 333 |
- +------------+--------------+-------------+
- | 4. 121 | 13. 122 | 22. 123 |
- | | | |
- | 5. 221 | 14. 222 | 23. 223 |
- | | | |
- | 6. 321 | 15. 322 | 24. 323 |
- +------------+--------------+-------------+
- | 7. 111 | 16. 112 | 25. 113 |
- | | | |
- | 8. 211 | 17. 212 | 26. 213 |
- | | | |
- | 9. 311 | 18. 312 | 27. 313 |
- +------------+--------------+-------------+
-
-FIG. 1.
-
- -------+-------
- / | \
- / | \
- / | \
- / 1. 31. | 10. 32. \
- / | \
- / 4. 21. | 13. 22. \
- / | \
- / 7. 11. | 16. 12. \
- | | |
- +---------------+--------------+
- | |
- \ 19. 33. /
- \ /
- \ 22. 23. /
- \ /
- \ 25. 13. /
- \ /
- \ /
- \ /
- ---------------
-
-FIG. 2.
-
-These preliminaries being arranged, tell any one to take any
-twenty-seven cards out of a pack, and to think of any one of them. Deal
-them into three heaps, and ask him in which heap it is, and what number
-from the top he would like it to come after the third deal. Suppose he
-chooses it to be the twenty-sixth card, you take up your opera-glass,
-and look for the number 26. This you will find last but one, arranged
-thus,--26. 213. The meaning is, that if the chosen card is to be the
-twenty-sixth, the heap in which it was found must be for the first time
-placed second, the second time first, and the last time third. So you
-pick up the cards, taking care to keep that heap number two. You again
-deal them in three heaps, and this time you place the heap in which is
-the chosen card at the top, being number one. Deal them a third time,
-and on gathering up the heaps, place it at the bottom.
-
-Then, on counting from the top, the chosen card will be found to be the
-twenty-sixth.
-
-
-5. THE FOUR KINGS.
-
-Take the four kings out of a pack of cards, and also two other court
-cards, which are not to be shown. Spread out the kings before the
-spectators, but conceal the two court cards between the third and fourth
-kings. Lay the cards face downwards on the table. Take off the bottom
-card, which is of course one of the kings; show it as if by accident,
-and place it on the top. Take the next card, (which is one of the court
-cards,) and place that in the middle of the pack. Take the third card,
-(_i. e._ the second court card,) and place that also near the middle of
-the pack. There will then be one king at the top and three at the
-bottom. Ask any one to cut the cards, and to examine them when he will
-find all four kings together in the middle of the pack.
-
-It is better to use court cards to place between the third and fourth
-kings, because if the cards should slip aside, they would not be so
-readily distinguished as common cards.
-
-
-AUDACITY.
-
-Several tricks may be successfully played by sheer audacity. A whole
-party has been astonished by the performer holding a pack of cards over
-his head, and naming each. The fact was, that he was standing exactly
-opposite a large mirror, in which the cards were reflected, while the
-spectators, having their backs to the mirror, suspected nothing.
-
-Here are one or two tricks that depend on audacity for success.
-
-
-6. THE CARD FOUND AT THE SECOND GUESS.
-
-Offer the cards to any one, and let him draw one. You then hold the
-cards behind your back, and tell him to place his card on the top.
-Pretend to make a great shuffling, but only turn that card with its back
-to the others, still keeping it at the top. Then hold up the cards with
-their faces towards the spectator, and ask him if the bottom card is
-his. While doing so, you inspect his card at your leisure. He of course
-denies it, and you begin shuffling again furiously. "Let me do that," he
-will probably say; so, as you are perfectly acquainted with his card,
-you let him shuffle as much as he likes, and then, when you get the
-cards back again, shuffle until his card is at the bottom. Then pass
-them behind your back, make a ruffling noise with them, and show him his
-own card at the bottom.
-
-
-7. THE CARD FOUND UNDER THE HAT.
-
-Have a needle stuck just inside your sleeve. Hand the cards, &c. just as
-in the preceding trick, and tell the taker to put the card on the top.
-Take out the needle, and prick a hole nearly through the top _left_-hand
-corner. Replace the needle, shuffle the cards, or let any one shuffle
-them. Place the pack on the table, cover them with a hat, and the marked
-card will be known by a little raised knob on the _right_-hand top
-corner. Draw out card by card, saying whether it is that card or not,
-until you come to the marked one, which you throw on the table
-carelessly, and when you are about taking out another card, stop
-suddenly, and pretend to find, by some magic process, that it is the
-chosen card.
-
-
-8. TO CALL THE CARDS OUT OF THE PACK.
-
-Tell the spectators that you will call six cards out of the pack. Secure
-a card,--say the ace of spades,--in the palm of your hand. Throw the
-pack on the table, face downwards, spread out the cards, give one of the
-spectators your conjuring wand, and tell him, when you name a card, to
-touch one, which you will take up.
-
-First name the ace of spades. He touches a card, which you take up
-without showing the face of it. This card may be, say the eight of
-diamonds. Put it into your left hand, and place it upon the ace of
-spades which is already there, so that the two look like one card. Then
-call for the eight of diamonds. Another card is touched, say the queen
-of clubs. This you put with the others, and, after pretending to
-calculate, call for the queen of clubs.
-
-Proceed in this manner until six cards have been drawn. Then substitute
-the last card drawn (which is of course a wrong one) for the ace of
-spades, and conceal it in the palm of your hand. Then strew the others
-on the table, and while the eyes of the spectators are fixed upon them,
-get rid of the card in your left hand.
-
-It is a good plan to ask some one to write down the names of the cards
-as they are called, and then to have the list called over, in order that
-every one may see that there has been no mistake.
-
-
-9. HEADS AND TAILS.
-
-While you are shuffling the cards, contrive to arrange quietly all their
-heads one way, or as many as possible, rejecting all the diamonds except
-the king, queen, knave, and seven, and passing them to the bottom. Put
-the pack upon the table, take off a number of the upper cards, and offer
-them for some one to choose a card from. While he is looking at it, turn
-the cards round, and offer them to him, in order that he may replace it.
-Shuffle the cards, and on looking them over, the chosen card will be
-standing with its head one way, while the others are reversed.
-
-
-10. THE SURPRISE.
-
-When you have discovered a card, the following plan will make a
-_striking_ termination to the trick. Get the card to the bottom of the
-pack, and tell one of the spectators to hold the cards by one corner as
-tightly as he can. Give them a sharp rap with your finger,--not with
-your hand,--and all the cards will be struck out of his hold, and fall
-on the floor, except the bottom card, which will remain between his
-finger and thumb. It has a rather more dashing effect, if you put the
-chosen card at the top, and strike them upwards, when the whole pack
-will fly about the room, like a flock of butterflies, only leaving the
-top card in the person's grasp.
-
-
-11. THE REVOLUTION.
-
-Another neat way of finishing a trick is as follows. Get the card to the
-top of the pack; and taking care that all the cards are even, drop the
-pack on the floor, taking care just as you let go, to slip the top card
-a little off the rest of the pack. In falling, the resistance of the air
-will turn the card over, and it will rest with its face upwards on the
-top of the pack.
-
-
-12. THE SLIPPED CARD.
-
-Ascertain the bottom card of the pack; hold the cards in your left hand,
-with their faces downwards. Place your right hand upon them, and with
-your right fore-finger slide them slowly over each other, asking some
-one to stop any card he chooses, by putting his finger upon it. When he
-has done so, open the pack at that card, but while opening it, make the
-pass, and bring the bottom card under the one touched. Hold up the
-cards, and ask the chooser to be sure of his card; hand all the cards to
-him, and let him shuffle as much as he chooses. Afterwards discover the
-card in any manner that you prefer. The following is a good plan.
-
-
-13. THE NAILED CARD.
-
-Take a flat-headed nail, and file it down until its point is as sharp as
-a needle, and the head quite flat. The nail should be about half an inch
-long, or even shorter if anything. Pass the nail through the centre of
-any card,--say the ace of spades,--and conceal it in your left hand.
-
-Take another pack of cards, get the ace of spades to the bottom, and
-perform the preceding trick. When the cards are returned, shuffle them
-about, and exchange the pierced card for the other. Put the pierced card
-at the bottom of the pack, and throw the cards violently against a door,
-when the nail will be driven in by the pressure of the other cards
-against its head, and the chosen card will be seen nailed to the door.
-The nail should be put through the face of card, so that when the others
-fall on the floor, it remains facing the spectators.
-
-
-14. TO ASCERTAIN THE NUMBER OF POINTS ON THREE UNSEEN CARDS.
-
-In this amusement the ace counts eleven, the court cards ten each, and
-the others according to the number of their spots.
-
-Ask any one to choose any three cards, and lay them on the table, with
-their faces downwards. On each of these he must place as many as with
-the number of the card will make fifteen. He gives you the remaining
-cards, and when you have them in your hand, you count them over on the
-pretence of shuffling them, and by adding sixteen, you will have the
-number of points on the three cards.
-
-For example, the spectator chooses a four, an eight, and a king. On the
-four he places eleven cards, on the eight seven, and on the king five.
-There will be then six cards left. Add to these six sixteen, and the
-result will be twenty-two, which is the number of points on the three
-cards, the king counting ten, added to the eight and the four.
-
-
-15. TO TELL THE NUMBERS ON TWO UNSEEN CARDS.
-
-As in the preceding trick, the ace counts eleven, and the court cards
-ten each. Let the person who chooses the two cards lay them on the table
-with their faces downward, and place on each as many as will make their
-number twenty-five.
-
-Take the remaining cards and count them, when they will be found to be
-just as many as the points in the two cards. For example, take an ace
-and a queen, _i. e._ eleven and ten, and lay them on the table. On the
-ace you must put fourteen cards, and on the queen fifteen. There will be
-then fifteen cards in one heap and sixteen in the other: these added
-together make thirty-one cards: these subtracted from the number of
-cards in the pack, _i. e._ fifty-two, leave twenty-one, the joint number
-of the ace and the queen.
-
-
-16. THE PAIRS RE-PAIRED.
-
-Tell out twenty cards in pairs, and ask ten people to take a pair each,
-and remember them. Take up the pairs in their order, and lay them on the
-table in order, according to the accompanying table, which forms a
-memoria technica, and may be construed. Mutus gave a name to the Coci,
-(a people who have yet to be discovered.)
-
- M U T U S [14]
- 1 2 3 2 4
- D E D I T
- 5 6 5 7 3
- N O M E N
- 8 9 1 6 8
- C O C I S
- 10 9 10 7 4
-
- [14] The figures represent the pairs, _i. e._ the 1 under M signifies
- that M belongs to the _first_ pair.
-
-Arranging these words in your mind on the table, take the first card of
-the first pair, lay it on M in Mutus, and the second on the M in Nomen.
-The next pair goes entirely in Mutus, being two U's. The first card of
-the second pair goes on T in Mutus, and the second on T in Dedit; and so
-on until all the cards are laid in their places.
-
-Ask each person in succession in which rows his cards are, and you can
-immediately point them out. For example, if he says the second and third
-row, you point out the second and fourth cards in those rows, because
-they both represent the letter E. If another says the first and last
-rows, you point out the last card in each, because the cards represent S
-in Mutus and S in Cocis. It will be seen that the whole table consists
-of ten letters, each repeated.
-
-
-17. THE QUEEN DIGGING FOR DIAMONDS.
-
-Select from a pack the aces, kings, queens, and knaves, together with
-four common cards of each suit. Lay down the four queens in a row, and
-say, "Here are four queens going to dig for diamonds. (_Lay a common
-diamond over each queen._) They each took a spade with them (_place a
-common spade on each diamond_) and dug until they were nearly tired.
-Their four kings, thinking that they might be attacked by robbers, sent
-four soldiers to keep guard. (_Lay an ace on each spade._) Evening came,
-and the queens had not returned, so the kings, fearing that they might
-have come to harm, became uneasy and set off themselves. (_Place a king
-on each ace._) They were only just in time, for as they came along, they
-met their queens being carried off by four villains (_lay a knave on
-each king_), who, although only armed with clubs (_place a common club
-on each knave_), had overpowered the guards and driven them off. But the
-four kings, being possessed of bold hearts (_lay a common heart over
-each king_), soon vanquished the villains, and bound them." Gather up
-the cards, place the heaps upon each other and direct some one to cut
-them. Have them cut four or five times, and continue to do so until a
-common heart appears at the bottom. Then continue the tale, and say,
-"The party then returned home in the following order. First the queen
-(_lay down the top card_) with the diamonds which she had found (_lay
-down the second card, which will be a diamond_) in one hand, and her
-spade (_the third card will be a spade_) in the other, &c. &c." You
-continue dealing out the cards in that manner, and it will be found that
-they will be in precisely the same order as when they were taken up.
-
-
-18. THE TRIPLE DEAL.
-
-Take any twenty-one cards, and ask some to choose one from them. Lay
-them out in three heaps, and ask the person who took the card in which
-heap it is. You may turn your back while he searches. Gather them up and
-put that heap between the other two. Do this twice more, and the chosen
-card will always be the eleventh from the top.
-
-
-19. THE QUADRUPLE DEAL.
-
-This is a variation of the preceding. Take twenty-four cards, and lay
-them in four heaps. Act as in No. 18, putting the heap in which is the
-chosen card second. The tenth card will be the one thought of.
-
-
-TRICKS WITH CARDS, THAT REQUIRE APPARATUS.
-
-One or two of these tricks must suffice, because, in general, the
-apparatus required for cards is exceedingly expensive. Those that are
-here given require but little apparatus, and any boy with the use of his
-hands can make it.
-
-
-20. THE CARDS IN THE VASE.
-
-Make a vase with five divisions, two of which hold an entire pack of
-cards, and the remaining three are only large enough just to admit one
-card each, as in the figure. A strong silk thread is fastened at A,
-passes over the three little compartments, through the bottom of the
-vase, and running over two pulleys, terminates in the weight at B.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Take three cards, say the ace of spades, the ten of diamonds, and the
-king of hearts, out of a pack of cards, and put one into each of the
-little divisions, pressing the thread down into the bottom of each
-division. If the cards are left, the weight will descend, and the string
-being tightened, will push the cards upwards. So a kind of trigger shelf
-is made, on which the weight rests. The remainder of the pack you put
-into division 2.
-
-When you show the trick, you take another pack of cards exactly like
-that which is already in the vase, and handing it to three persons
-successively, compel them to choose the ace of spades, the ten of
-diamonds, and the king of hearts.[15] Let some one shuffle the cards,
-and when this is done, put the pack into division 1. Tell the spectators
-that when you have struck three times on the table, the cards will come
-out of the vase. At the third stroke, loosen the catch on which the
-weight stands, by means of a string that communicates with your table,
-and the three cards will rise slowly up. In order to show that the cards
-have really vanished from the pack, take the pack out of division 2 and
-let any one examine it.
-
- [15] This may be done by making the pass.
-
-If you prefer, you can draw the thread yourself, by having a kind of
-pedal under your table, to which the other end of the string is
-attached, instead of being fastened to the weight B. If you prefer the
-weight, you must have a small shelf for the weight to rest upon, when it
-has descended sufficiently low, or the cards will be forced entirely out
-by the thread. C is a representation of one of the divisions, showing
-the semi-circular cut that is made in them for the convenience of taking
-out the cards.
-
-
-21. THE METAMORPHOSIS.
-
-In this most excellent trick you choose from the pack the four eights
-and the two of diamonds; you put the four eights in the left hand and
-the two on the table; you take in the two, placing an eight on the
-table, and they are all two's. You exchange the two for the eight, and
-they all become black cards; you again exchange the eight for the two,
-and they all turn red; and after again exchanging, you have, as before,
-the four eights and the two of diamonds.
-
-The method of accomplishing this trick is as follows: Get three plain
-white cards, exactly like playing cards, and paint them as in the
-engraving. Mix them with an ordinary pack, and when you are searching
-for the four eights, with which you say you are going to perform a
-trick, take them from the pack, and with them an ordinary eight of clubs
-and a two of diamonds.
-
-[Illustration: _Fig. 1_]
-
-Show the cards as in Fig. 2, making the spectators observe that there
-are the four eights. Put the two of diamonds behind the eight of clubs,
-and lay the eight on the table. The two must be inserted before the
-eight is removed, or the mystery of the marking will be apparent. Close
-the cards, turn them over, and spread them out, when they will appear
-as in Fig. 3. Take in the eight and lay the two on the table; close the
-cards, and while shuffling them, turn card No. 2 the other way upwards.
-The cards will then all appear black, as in Fig. 4. Take in the two and
-remove the eight, turn them over, and spread them out, when they will
-appear all red, as in Fig 5. Finally, take in the eight, replacing the
-two on the table, reverse No. 2, and you will have the four eights and
-the two of diamonds just as they were at first. You must invent plenty
-of talk during your changes. If the spectators say that the cards are
-double, spread them out, and hold them up to the light, (for the light
-cannot penetrate through the places where the cards are placed over each
-other,) and if they are still sceptical, hand them the two of diamonds
-to look at, and in a moment or two hand them the eight of clubs, asking
-them whether they would like to examine a black card also. This will
-effectually disarm suspicion.
-
-[Illustration: _Fig. 2_]
-
-[Illustration: _Fig. 3_]
-
-[Illustration: _Fig. 4_]
-
-[Illustration: _Fig. 5_]
-
-
-22. TO CHANGE A CARD IN A PERSON'S HAND.
-
-Cut very neatly the spots from a three of spades. Lay the pierced card
-on an ace of diamonds, and rub pomatum on the ace of diamonds through
-the places which the spades occupied. Remove the pierced card, and
-sprinkle the ace of diamonds with jet powder, which adhering to the
-pomatum, will transform the card into a three of spades.
-
-Place the transformed card at the bottom of the pack, and show a person
-what card it is. Make him declare it that every one may hear, then place
-it on the table, face downwards, and push it over the cloth to the
-spectator, which action will rub off all the jet powder. Tell him to
-place his hand on the card. Let a three of spades be at the top of the
-pack, and an ace of diamonds the second from the bottom. Show another
-person the ace of diamonds, and ask him to tell the name of the card
-openly. Put the pack down, face downwards, And in so doing, make the
-pass, and bring the three of spades to the bottom.
-
-Tap the hand of the person who is guarding the card, and then tell him
-to take up the card and show it to the spectators, when it will be seen
-to be the ace of diamonds. Simultaneously, you take up the pack, and
-show the three of spades at the bottom.
-
-
-CRYPTOGRAPHY.
-
-The meaning of the word "Cryptography" is, as is well known, "hidden or
-secret writings," and was used in ancient times, when conspiracies were
-common, and murders an every-day occurrence, as the means of
-communicating from one person to another in such a manner that it could
-not be read by any one save those who were admitted into the secret of
-its construction.
-
-A widespread conspiracy, or, as it would be more properly termed,
-rebellion, could not be carried on between persons at a distance from
-each other unless they resorted to cryptography; in fact, the means of
-correspondence was in those times of so slow and dangerous a nature,
-that without the utmost care and secrecy in the arrangement of the
-cipher it would certainly have been discovered, and then death would be
-the consequence.
-
-In order to mature their designs in safety, and to throw off all
-suspicion, men were obliged to put their wits to work and invent some
-way of informing each other of everything that did transpire, so that no
-one else should be the wiser for it: thus was cryptography discovered;
-and wonderful cunning and ingenuity were displayed in its construction,
-as will be seen by the examples that are given.
-
-It was also used in former times in transacting affairs of state, in
-communicating messages from one general to another in time of war, and
-in many other ways of a more innocent nature, too numerous to mention.
-
-Now, at the present time, when all is peace and prosperity, and news is
-brought to our very doors by post and telegraph, cryptography is only
-interesting as a curious study, or to amuse ourselves in an idle hour by
-finding out its hidden mysteries.
-
-The first and most common form of cryptograph we read of was by the
-transposition of letters, and is, as we may see, capable of great
-improvement; indeed, it is the basis on which most of the letter ciphers
-are formed at the present day.
-
-We give the following as an example:--
-
- For--a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z.
- Use--d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z a b c.
-
-The sentence, "We meet to-night," in this cipher would become, "Zh phhw
-wr-qljkw."
-
-The next is formed on the principle of the above, but is rather more
-intricate: for instance, if we wanted to inform some one that, "All
-going on well, send supplies as soon as possible," we should put it down
-in the following order:--
-
- a g s p s o
- l o e l o s
- l n n i o s
- g w d e n i
- o e s s a b
- i l u a s l
- n l p s p e
-
-You must read it down the first perpendicular column, then down the
-second, and so on. You must then form the letters in the horizontal
-columns into imaginary words, and place them down on paper as you would
-a common sentence, thus:--"Ag spso loelos lnn iosgwden ioes sab iluas
-lnlp spe."
-
-You must arrange with your correspondent beforehand that the width of
-the horizontal column should consist of six letters (or more, if you
-like); so by placing the letters six in a line, one under the other,
-without regard to words, the puzzle is easy to solve.
-
-Another good cipher is by using the figures 1 and 2 differently arranged
-for every letter in the alphabet, as will be seen by the following
-key:--
-
- a b c d e f g h i
- 11111 11112 11121 11122 11211 11212 11221 11222 12111
-
- j k l m n o p q r
- 12112 12122 12211 12212 12221 12222 21111 21112 21121
-
- s t u v w x y z
- 21122 21211 21212 21221 22222 22212 22221 22122
-
-Now if we wanted to write the words "Come now," we should do it in this
-way, knowing that there are five figures to every letter, and when a
-word is formed there is a comma:--
-
- 11121122221221211211, 122211222222222.
-
-The next was a favourite of that unfortunate king, Charles I.:--
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The next is rather good and somewhat difficult:--
-
-Divide a piece of cardboard into twenty-six departments, and in each
-place a letter; then take another piece (small enough that the letters
-on the first piece can be seen), and fit it into the centre of the
-first, dividing this into the same number of departments; then put a
-piece of thread through the centre of both, so that you can turn the
-smallest card round, filling the spaces up with letters in any way you
-like. Thus:
-
-[Illustration]
-
-In using the dial, turn it round until, say, the letter m in the middle
-card comes under the letter A in the outer circle; next take what you
-want to write, and find it letter by letter in the outer circle, putting
-down on paper what appears directly under it in the inner circle.
-
-Now if you want to write "I shall come soon," first write the letters A
-m, so as to enable your correspondent to fix his dial like your own, as
-the A is in the outer circle and the m under it in the inner--"Am d
-ufmyy rjxi ujjk."
-
-You may arrange your dial in any way you like, but must be sure to place
-what letter is under the A at the beginning of your cipher.
-
-The next is something like the last:--
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Now if you want to tell some one that "They are all coming over," you
-must write it down and place the figures 5, 4, 3 over every letter in
-succession. Thus:--
-
- 5 4 3 5 4 3 5 4 3 5 4 3 5 4 3 5 4 3 5 4.
- T h e y a r e a l l c o m i n g o v e r.
-
-Then look for the letter T in the dial; the figure 5 being over it, you
-must look for the fifth letter from it, which is O: put it down, and go
-on to the next letter in the message, H; find H in the circle, and as 4
-is over it, put down the fourth letter from it, D: for E, with the 3
-over it, we must write down the third letter from E; and for the next
-letter, Y, 5 being over it, the fifth letter; and so on, always counting
-in the direction of the arrows. The cipher will run eventually: "Odbt
-woz wig ylhekb kszn."
-
-The way to read this cipher is to put 543 down the same as before, and
-to count them on the circle in the opposite way to which the arrows are
-pointing.
-
-The most famous and complex cipher perhaps ever written was by Lord
-Bacon. It was arranged in the following manner:--
-
- aaaaa stands for a
- aaaab " b
- aaaba " c
- aaabb " d
- aabaa " e
- aabab " f
- aabba " g
- aabbb " h
- abaaa " i & j
- abaab " k
- ababa " l
- ababb " m
- abbaa " n
- abbab " o
- abbba " p
- abbbb " q
- baaaa " r
- baaab " s
- baaba " t
- baabb " u & v
- babaa " w
- babab " x
- babba " y
- babbb " z
-
-Now, suppose you want to inform some one that "All is well;" first place
-down the letters separately according to the above alphabet--
-
- aaaaa ababa ababa abaaa baaab babaa aabaa ababa ababa.
-
-Then take a sentence five times the length in letters of "All is
-well,"--say it is, "We were sorry to have heard that you have been so
-unwell."
-
-Then fit this sentence to the cipher shown above, like this--
-
- a a a a a a b a b a a b a b a a b a a a b a
- W e w e r e _s_ o _r_ r y _t_ o _h_ a v _e_ h e a _r_ d
- --- --- --- --- --- ---
-
- a a b b a b a a a a b a a a b a b a a b a b a.
- t h _a__t_ y _o_ u h a v _e_ b e e _n_ s _o_ u n _w_ e _l_ l.
- ------ --- --- --- --- --- ---
-
-Marking with a dash every letter that comes under a B. Then put the
-sentence down on your paper, printing all marked letters in italics, and
-the others in the ordinary way, thus--
-
-"We were _s_o_r_ry _t_o _h_av_e_ hea_r_d th_at_ y_o_u hav_e_ bee_n_ s_o_
-un_w_e_l_l."
-
-The person who receives the cipher puts it down and writes an A under
-every letter except those in italics; these he puts a B under; he then
-divides the cipher obtained into periods of five letters, looks at his
-alphabet, and finds the meaning to be, "All is well."
-
-Here is a specimen of a music cryptograph:--
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The next is good, but rather lengthy:--
-
- a b c d e f g h
- .:... :...: .::.. ...:. ....: .:.:: ..:.. :....
-
- i j k l m n o p
- ::... ..::. .:.:. :.:.. ...:: ..:.: :::.. .:::.
-
- q r s t u v w x
- ::::: ::.:: :.:.: ::..: :.::. ::::. .:::: :::.:
-
- y z
- :.::: .::.:
-
-Here is the key of another:--
-
- 1 2 3 4 5
- a b e d e--1
- f g h i k--2
- l m n o p--3
- q r s t u--4
- v w x y z--5
-
-In picking out the letter you want, you must see under what number it
-stands, then see what number is at the end of the line, then put those
-two figures together, and they will represent the letter: thus, 15
-represents V; 23, M; 43, O; and 55, Z.
-
-The sentence, "We meet to-night," would be--2551, 23515144, 4443,
-3342223244.
-
-The next is a very difficult and complex cryptograph to decipher.
-
-Draw a table of four columns, like the figure below. In the first column
-place the six different arrangements of the figures 1, 2, 3, and number
-the other columns 1st, 2d, and 3d respectively:--
-
- +-----+---------+---------+---------+
- | | 1st. | 2d. | 3d. |
- +-----+---------+---------+---------+
- | 123 | t y c n | h r e m | e a o i |
- | 132 | b e f s | y h i s | g t r t |
- | 213 | e r e e | t m x w | a e n t |
- | 231 | e r m c | k m a r | a h h y |
- | 321 | l m r t | i c i h | l o e g |
- +-----+---------+---------+---------+
-
-You must agree with your correspondent how many letters wide each of the
-three columns shall be--we will say four. Then take your sentence--say
-it is, "They are coming by the first steamer next week from America; we
-hope they will come right." You must then place every letter down
-separately, writing the figures in the first column in succession over
-them, thus--
-
- 1 2 3 1 3 2 2 1 3 2 3 1 3 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 3 1 3 2 2 1 3 2
- T h e y a r e c o m i n g b y t h e f i r s t s t e a m
-
- 3 1 3 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 3 1 3 2 2 1 3 2 3 1 3 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 3 1
- e r n e x t w e e k f r o m A m e r i c a w e h o p e t h e
-
- 3 2 2 1 3 2 3 1 3 1 2 3 2 1.
- y w i l l c o m e r i g h t.
-
-Over the first letter, "t," stands "1," therefore write "t" in the
-column marked first; over "h" is "2," therefore write "h" in the second
-column; over "e" is "3," then put "e" in the third column, and so on;
-but when four letters are written abreast you must begin a new line.
-
-After doing the above, you must take the letters in each column
-separately (beginning with the first), and form them into imaginary
-words, putting a dot under the last letter of each column to show your
-correspondent that the column ends there; thus--
-
-Tycnb efse ree ermc w pee lmr[t.] hrem yhistmx wk mar eot wi ci[h.]eaoi
-gtrtae ntfoei ah hyl oe[g.].
-
-The person receiving the message knows the width of the column (four
-letters), the arrangement of the figures 1, 2, 3, and the use of the
-dots, and reconstructs his table directly; he then puts the letters in
-order by a backward process to the one we have gone through, and reads
-the message.
-
-The next is a cipher of a different kind:--
-
- O P | A B | C D
- .| . |.
- -----+-----+-----
- | |
- M N .| Q R |. E F
- | . |
- -----+-----+-----
- .| . |.
- K L | I J | G H
-
- \ S T /
- \ /
- \ . /
- W X . >-< . U V
- / . \
- / \
- / Y Z \
-
-The dots stand for the last letter in each square: thus O would be ___|,
-and P the same with a dot put in the middle, thus _._|. A |___| and B
-|_._|
-
-The sentence, "ROUTLEDGE'S MAGAZINE FOR BOYS," would be
-
- +---+ | / \ / ---+ +--- | +--- +--- \ /
- | . | | < \. / .| | |. | | \ /
- +---+ ---+ \ \/ | +--- +--- | +--- \/ ,
-
-
- ---+ | | +--- | | /\ +---+ ---+ +---
- | | | | | | /. \ | | .| |
- ---+ +---+ | +---+ / \ | | ---+ +--- ,
-
-
- +--- | +---+
- |. | | . |
- +--- ---+ +---|,
-
-
- | | | /\ \ /
- | . | | / \ \ /
- +---+ ---+ / \ \/ .
-
-In finding out the meaning of a cryptograph, you must first settle in
-your mind to what class of cipher it belongs, whether it is written by
-means of letters, figures, or signs; having done so, you must go to work
-with patience, and try to find out, by means of perseverance and study,
-what each figure, sign, or letter represents; as even the above
-specimens of cryptography can be so altered and improved upon, yet
-continuing in their original form to some extent, that it would be
-impossible to give positive rules to enable any one to decipher any kind
-of cryptograph; in fact, it can only be done by those who have made it
-their study for years, and consequently have had great experience in the
-matter.
-
-Most of the examples given will only enable one to decipher the most
-simple kinds, such as are generally found in magazines, &c.; for if that
-intricate cipher of Lord Bacon's were put in a book for boys, it would
-be a waste of paper, as we will venture to say that not one in a
-thousand would be able to find it out.
-
- * * * * *
-
-There is another class of cryptographs which we have not yet noticed,
-and which are done by means of sympathetic inks, a list of which will
-consequently be interesting.
-
-_Inks which appear when heated, and become invisible when cooled_:--
-
-Solution of nitro-muriate of cobalt; when heated turns green.
-
-Solution of acetate of cobalt, with a little nitre; rose-colour when
-warm.
-
-_Inks which remain visible when heated, but do not disappear when
-cooled_:--
-
-Onion-juice, yellow; equal parts of copper and sal-ammoniac in water,
-yellow; aquafortis, spirits of salt, oil of vitriol, and salt and water,
-yellow or brown.
-
-_Inks which appear when exposed to light_:--
-
-Diluted solution of nitrate of silver.
-
-Diluted solution of terchloride of gold.
-
-[Illustration: PETER POUNCE, THE FIRST TEACHER OF THE DEAF AND DUMB,
-INSTRUCTING A BOY.]
-
-
-THE DEAF AND DUMB ALPHABET.
-
-Amongst the many useful inventions which have been planned for the
-solace of individuals deprived of some portion of their senses, the art
-by which deaf and dumb persons are taught to express their own thoughts,
-and to comprehend those of others, is one of the most noble. The
-earliest attempt at a method of teaching the deaf and dumb was made in
-Spain, towards the end of the sixteenth century, by a Benedictine monk
-named Peter Pounce; and without doubt he must have formed his idea from
-observing the natural propensity of the dumb to supply the want of the
-organs of speech by making signs. After the essay of Peter Pounce many
-successful trials were made, and in 1692 John Conrad Amman, a Swiss
-physician, reduced the plans to a fixed method, or art, and published
-the scheme of it at Amstelod. The first asylum for the deaf and dumb in
-London was founded in the year 1792.
-
-
-THE ALPHABET.
-
-[Illustration: A]
-
-[Illustration: B]
-
-[Illustration: C]
-
-A is expressed by touching the top of the thumb of the left hand with
-the forefinger of the right.
-
-B. Join the forefinger and thumb of each hand, and place the backs of
-the forefinger nails together.
-
-C. Bend the fingers and thumb of the left hand, so as to form three
-parts of a circle.
-
-[Illustration: D]
-
-[Illustration: E]
-
-[Illustration: F]
-
-[Illustration: G]
-
-D. Bend the fingers and thumb of the right hand into a semicircle, and
-then join them to the forefinger of the left, which keep in a straight
-line.
-
-E. Touch the top of the forefinger of the left hand with the forefinger
-of the right.
-
-F. Place the forefinger of the right hand across the backs of the first
-and second fingers of the left.
-
-G. Clench both hands, and put one fist upon the other.
-
-[Illustration: H]
-
-[Illustration: I]
-
-[Illustration: J]
-
-H. Pass the palm of the right hand across that of the left, sweeping it
-along to the tips of the fingers, as if brushing something off.
-
-I. Touch the top of the second finger of the left hand with the
-forefinger of the right.
-
-J. Clench the hands together, as directed for the letter G.
-
-[Illustration: K]
-
-[Illustration: L]
-
-[Illustration: M]
-
-K. Form a semicircle with the thumb and forefinger of the right hand,
-and join it to the forefinger of the left, which must be kept straight
-out; both forefingers must meet at the second joints.
-
-L. Place the forefinger of the right hand across the centre of the palm
-of the left, so that the top of the finger may be exactly in the middle
-of the palm.
-
-M. Place three fingers of the right hand flat upon the palm of the left.
-
-N. Place two fingers of the right hand flat upon the palm of the left.
-
-O. Touch the top of the third finger of the left hand with the
-forefinger of the right.
-
-[Illustration: N]
-
-[Illustration: O]
-
-[Illustration: P]
-
-[Illustration: Q]
-
-P. Place the tips of the forefinger and thumb of the left hand in a
-semicircular form against the first and second joints of the forefinger
-of the right, which should be kept straight.
-
-Q. Form a circle with the forefinger and thumb of the left hand, and
-then curve the forefinger of the right into the shape of a hook, and
-place it exactly where the other fingers join.
-
-[Illustration: R]
-
-[Illustration: S]
-
-[Illustration: T]
-
-R. Bend the forefinger of the right hand and rest it on the palm of the
-left.
-
-S. Bend the little finger of each hand and lock them together.
-
-T. Fix the tip of the forefinger of the right hand against the middle of
-the lower edge of the left.
-
-[Illustration: U]
-
-[Illustration: V]
-
-[Illustration: W]
-
-[Illustration: X]
-
-[Illustration: Y]
-
-[Illustration: Z]
-
-U. Touch the top of the little finger of the left hand with the
-forefinger of the right.
-
-V. Place the first and second fingers of the right hand, apart, upon the
-palm of the left.
-
-W. Lock the fingers of one hand between those of the other.
-
-X. Cross the forefingers at the second joints.
-
-Y. Extend the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, and at the lower
-part of the fork so made place the forefinger of the right hand.
-
-Z. Elevate one hand towards the face, and rest the elbow upon the palm
-of the other.
-
-The end of every sentence is indicated by snapping the second finger and
-thumb of the right hand. This result is requisite to avoid the confusion
-which might result from running the sentences into each other.
-
-
-THE NUMBERS
-
-Are denoted by holding up one finger to signify 1, two fingers for 2,
-the open hand for 5, both hands for 10, and so on.
-
-
-DOMINOES.
-
-There was a time when dominoes was a much more favourite game than at
-present. In many old houses beautifully finished sets of dominoes are
-yet kept, a memento of the favour in which the game was once, and still
-deserves to be, held. For boys it is second to none, as it improves
-their power of calculation, exercises their judgment, and leads them to
-acquire a habit of estimating chances in connexion with numbers, which
-is exceedingly useful in after-life.
-
-The ordinary game of dominoes is played with twenty-eight pieces, which
-include every combination of numbers, from double-blank to double-6; but
-boxes of dominoes are not uncommon which have fifty-two pieces, or even
-eighty-five pieces, one including double-9's, and the latter
-double-12's. These are more used in the north than the south. The
-dominoes are usually made of oblong pieces of ivory, frequently cemented
-to an ebony back; whilst on the front they are divided into two parts by
-a fine line across the middle, and marked with round black spots. These
-are 1 and 1, 1 and 2, and so on to 6; then 2 and blank, 2 and 1, and so
-on. Where a set of dominoes is not handy, a pack of what printers call
-third-large cards may be made available, if they are marked with a pen,
-and the backs kept perfectly clean. These may be shuffled and dealt in a
-similar manner to playing cards; but the dominoes must be placed face
-downwards on the table and "shuffled" by being well mixed together.
-
-The turn to commence is called "the pose," and is the same in all games
-of dominoes. After the players have drawn from the bulk the number of
-dominoes each requires, double-6 is called for, and he who has it plays
-first. If it is not in hand, then the highest double plays; if no
-doubles are out, then the call is from the highest domino to the lowest,
-as 6--5, 6--4, and so on.
-
-
-THE ORDINARY BOY'S GAME
-
-Is played in two modes. The first is called the _French game_. After the
-dominoes are well shuffled, each player (usually two) draws from the
-bulk the number of dominoes agreed upon. Seven is the common number, and
-this leaves fourteen dominoes on the table. The dominoes are either held
-in the hand, or set on their sides on the table, so that the pips are
-visible to the player only. In the north of England a small tin, angular
-frame is used to hold the dominoes. The player holding the highest
-double then plays first, and then each plays in turn by placing a domino
-of the same number of pips to the domino played at either end when you
-both have played. If your opponent cannot do this it is called "a go,"
-and you can then play for him, until he can play. If you can play to
-both ends, do not do so until you have exhausted your hand at one end,
-and be sure to get out your doubles at the earliest opportunity, unless
-by so doing you close both ends against yourself. By pursuing this plan
-you can, when pressed, play at the ends closed against your adversary
-the domino you have reserved for that purpose. When you have played all
-your dominoes out, you win the game; or when neither can play, he that
-has the lowest number of pips, not pieces, wins the game. It is best,
-however, to play a definite number up, such as 30, 50, or 100. In these
-cases the game is better played by the
-
-_Second mode_, which is commenced in the same manner; but when you play
-a double, and it is your turn, you can play it out and still keep your
-turn. When your adversary cannot play, you play _for him_, and _for
-yourself_ too, before he can play again. The game is counted thus:--When
-one has played all his dominoes out, he counts the number of pips in his
-adversary's hand, and scores them in his favour; if neither can play,
-the one who has the fewest left counts the other's numbers, and
-subtracts the number of his own, and scores the balance in his own
-favour. Formerly the whole number was scored, but this is dispiriting to
-the loser. In this game it is better to try to play so that neither can
-go on again than to play out all the dominoes. By a little practice it
-will be seen that heavy dominoes do not always lose, or light ones win.
-In playing these and any game at dominoes it should be understood that a
-domino once played should not be recalled, as it frequently destroys all
-interest in the game. Sometimes it is understood that if the domino is
-not placed on the table you may recall it; but it is better to play it
-at once, as a skilful player can easily calculate the chances in his
-favour.
-
-There are two or three variations on the first method. In one the winner
-of the game scores all the points left in his own hand (if any), as well
-as those in his opponent's. Another method is, when one player cannot
-go, the other is not bound to proceed, even if able, but can at once
-shut the game and count, if he likes to do so. Another variation is to
-permit the second player, if he chooses, to take all the dominoes but
-two left on the board. If he does not choose, the next player may draw
-as many as he chooses (always excepting two); and if one cannot play, he
-must draw until he can do so. The pose in this game is alternate, or is
-taken by the winner.
-
-
-ALL FIVES
-
-Is a game played by four persons, two against two, each player taking
-five dominoes. It may, however, be played by two persons only, when
-seven dominoes are given to each, and none are afterwards added. The
-score seldom exceeds 31, or any smaller number, and is marked on a
-cribbage-board. The object of this game is to play so that the two ends
-of the dominoes, after you have played, are a multiple of five. Thus the
-first player endeavours to make a point by putting down a 5 and blank, 4
-and 1, 3 and 2, each of which counts 5: if he has the double-5 it counts
-2. The other players follow on in the same way, endeavouring to make 5,
-10, 15, or 20, for which they score 1, 2, 3, or 4 respectively. This
-game requires great caution, so as to prevent your opponent from
-scoring, if you cannot do so yourself. 20 is the largest number that can
-be made: thus, if there is a 4 at one end and a 6 at the other end, the
-next player, having the double-6, plays it to the 6, and the following
-player, having the double-4, plays it to the 4; doubles in this, as in
-all other games of dominoes, being laid across, there are 12 at one end
-and 8 at the other, making 20, or four fives. When one hand is played
-out, or neither can go, the lowest number counts one towards game. This
-is peculiarly a game of stratagems, and when one holds the double-5, he
-generally tries to keep it until there is a 5 at each end, when he plays
-it and scores 3, and generally, in that case, 1 for game as well.
-
-
-THE MATADORE GAME
-
-Is on an entirely different principle. You do not fit the same numbers
-together, as in other games at dominoes, but you must add a number
-which, when joined to one already there, makes seven. The double-blank,
-the 4--3, 6--1, and 5--2, are termed matadores, and can be played at any
-stage, and either end turned outward at will, for your opponent to play
-to. Three dominoes only are taken at the outset, and if one of the
-players cannot "go," he must draw until he can do so, unless the number
-of dominoes left on the board is reduced to two. The game is played 30,
-50, or 100 up, and the winner counts to his score his opponent's pips.
-
-
-ALL THREES
-
-Is a capital game for boys, and exercises the players in the four rules
-of arithmetic. It is played similarly to the All Fives, only 3 is the
-multiple instead of 5: thus, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, and 18 points count 1, 2,
-3, 4, 5, and 6, respectively.
-
-
-TIDLEY-WINK
-
-Is a good round game. Any number can play, so long as there are two or
-more dominoes left on the board, after three dominoes each have been
-taken. The pose is settled as before; but the leader has the privilege
-of playing to his double, if he can do so, and any person having a
-double in his turn can play to it, if he can. The game runs round, and
-the first person who plays out pronounces himself "Tidley-Wink," and is
-the winner.
-
-
-THE FORTRESS.
-
-When four persons are playing, this will be found one of the most
-amusing of games. It is sometimes called "Sebastopol." All the dominoes
-are divided equally amongst the players. The double-6 is played first,
-and then every person must play a 6 to the double, and thus form a
-cross. The person who has not a 6 loses his turn. The play then proceeds
-in the usual way, only that the player can choose which corner he likes
-to play at. The result is a curious irregular figure resembling the
-ground-plan of a fortress, with bastions, &c.; hence its name.
-
-
-WHIST DOMINOES
-
-Is also played by four persons, seven dominoes being given to each. The
-persons in this case are partners, and sit opposite to each other. This
-game is led off as all others, but requires considerable powers of
-memory to play it properly, for it is necessary to remember not only the
-numbers played, but who played it, and under what circumstances, so as
-to help your partner's hand and checkmate your opponent's. Several other
-games of dominoes may be played; but the foregoing, with their
-numberless variations, will enable any one to master the principles of
-any other introduced.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-DRAUGHTS.
-
- "White to black and black to white.
- Now give the challenge--wage the fight."--CLARKSON.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Draughts is a modern invention, and is a good preliminary to chess. It
-is not so intricate a game, for the pieces are of equal value till they
-become kings, and can only move one way; but like chess, success depends
-entirely upon skill, and one false move frequently occasions the loss of
-the game. Draughts seems to have come into vogue in Europe about the
-middle of the fourteenth century, and for a long time there were two
-methods of playing it; the one commonly used in England being the French
-game, which is played upon a chess-board, and the other the Polish game,
-which requires a board with ten squares or chequers in each row, and
-twenty men. The men in the Polish game can only move forwards as they do
-in the French game, but they have the privilege of taking backwards and
-forwards, and the king, when made, if not opposed by two men close
-together, can move from one corner of the board to the other The Polish
-game admits of most variety, and is in our opinion infinitely the best,
-but it is little played in this country, except by foreigners, many of
-whom during the Great Exhibition year proved themselves adepts at the
-game.
-
-
-HOW TO PLAY THE GAME.
-
-The draughtboard consists of sixty-four squares, black and white, and
-there are twelve men, or pieces, of a white colour, and twelve of a
-black colour to be used. The board should be placed with an upper white
-corner towards the right hand. The players select each twelve men of the
-colour they prefer. The pieces, or men, are to be thus placed on the
-board: the black pieces on the _first_ twelve white squares, and the
-white on the _last_ twelve white squares. When they are thus placed the
-game begins.
-
-
-THE MOVES.
-
-The pieces move forward diagonally, and it is the object of the players
-to take all each other's men; the player who has the _black_ pieces
-taking the _white_, and the player who has the white men taking the
-_black_. The first player--say Black--moves his piece angularly to the
-first white square, and then, if nothing intervenes between his piece
-and that of his opponent, and there is a vacant square in his line left
-behind him, the _white_ can pass his piece over him to the space so
-unoccupied, and take his man, which is withdrawn from the board. The
-same may be repeated by the adversary; and thus the players go on taking
-each other's pieces till one or the other cannot move, or all the pieces
-are taken. When a piece, however, arrives at the last row of the enemy's
-ground, it becomes what is called a king, and is crowned by another
-piece being placed on it. It may then be moved backwards and forwards at
-pleasure, and can take both ways. When a player neglects to take a
-piece, he is what is called _huffed_, that is, he loses the piece that
-ought to have been moved.
-
-
-LAWS OF THE GAME.
-
-1. The moves are alternate, the first move being determined by lot.
-
-2. The choice of men to be also decided by lot, but they should be
-changed every three games.
-
-3. Whichever piece is touched must be played.
-
-4. No player can remain more than five minutes without playing. He may
-be warned at the end of five minutes.
-
-5. Neither player must leave the room without permission of his
-adversary.
-
-6. In case of huff, the opponent, in lieu of taking a piece for the
-omission, can insist on his being taken.
-
-7. Each party must sit free so as not to obstruct a view of the board,
-and no pointing at pieces is allowed.
-
-8. When a false move is made, the piece must be moved to whatever square
-the opponent dictates.
-
-9. All disputes between players to be referred to a third party.
-
-10. Bystanders must make no remarks during the game.
-
-
-GAMES FOR PRACTICE.
-
-Playing draughts is a game which is best learned by experience and
-repeated defeats. It requires circumspection and caution, and especially
-demands calculation of the effects of the different moves upon the
-fortune of the game. The moves should be calculated mentally. The men
-should be kept as much in the centre of the board as possible; and the
-gentlemanly player will consider all drawn games as won by his opponent,
-and never triumph over the vanquished. The following games will give the
-young player a good general idea of draughts, but his success as a
-player will depend entirely upon his own application and habit of
-thought:--
-
-
-GAME I.
-
- No. Colour. from to
-
- 1. B. 11 15
- 2. W. 22 18
- 3. B. 15 22
- 4. W. 25 18
- 5. B. 8 11
- 6. W. 29 25
- 7. B. 4 8
- 8. W. 25 22
- 9. B. 12 16
- 10. W. 24 20
- 11. B. 10 15
- 12. W. 27 24
- 13. B. 16 19
- 14. W. 23 16
- 15. B. 15 19
- 16. W. 24 15
- 17. B. 9 14
- 18. W. 18 9
- 19. B. 11 25
- 20. W. 32 27
- 21. B. 5 14
- 22. W. 27 23
- 23. B. 6 10
- 24. W. 16 12
- 25. B. 8 11
- 26. W. 28 24
- 27. B. 25 29
- 28. W. 30 25
- 29. B. 29 22
- 30. W. 26 17
- 31. B. 11 15
- 32. W. 20 16
- 33. B. 15 18
- 34. W. 24 20
- 35. B. 18 27
- 36. W. 31 24
- 37. B. 14 18
- 38. W. 16 11
- 39. B. 7 16
- 40. W. 20 11
- 41. B. 18 23
- 42. W. 11 8
- 43. B. 23 27
- 44. W. 8 4
- 45. B. 27 31
- 46. W. 4 8
- 47. B. 31 27
- 48. W. 24 20
- 49. B. 27 23
- 50. W. 8 11
- 51. B. 23 18
- 52. W. 11 8
- 53. B. 18 15
- &c.
-
-White loses.
-
-
-GAME II.
-
- No. Colour. from to
- 1. B. 11 15
- 2. W. 22 18
- 3. B. 15 22
- 4. W. 25 18
- 5. B. 8 11
- 6. W. 29 25
- 7. B. 4 8
- 8. W. 25 22
- 9. B. 12 16
- 10. W. 24 20
- 11. B. 10 15
- 12. W. 21 17
- 13. B. 7 10
- 14. W. 27 24
- 15. B. 8 12
- 16. W. 17 13
- 17. B. 9 14
- 18. W. 18 9
- 19. B. 5 14
- 20. W. 24 19
- 21. B. 15 24
- 22. W. 28 19
- 23. B. 14 17
- 24. W. 32 27
- 25. B. 10 14
- 26. W. 27 24
- 27. B. 3 7
- 28. W. 30 25
- 29. B. 6 9
- 30. W. 13 6
- 31. B. 1 10
- 32. W. 22 13
- 33. B. 14 18
- 34. W. 23 14
- 35. B. 16 30
- 36. W. 25 21
- 37. B. 10 17
- 38. W. 21 14
- 39. B. 30 25
- 40. W. 14 9
- 41. B. 11 15
- 42. W. 9 6
- 43. B. 2 9
- 44. W. 13 6
- 45. B. 15 18
- 46. W. 6 2
- 47. B. 7 10
- 48. W. 2 6
- 49. B. 10 14
- 50. W. 6 9
- 51. B. 25 21
- 52. W. 31 26
- 53. B. 14 17
- &c.
-
-Drawn.
-
-
-FIREWORKS.
-
-Our book is intended for the gratification of boys. We know full well
-the intense delight taken by boys in risking their limbs or their lives,
-especially when such risk is accompanied with noise. Boys always have
-done so, and always will do so in spite of the very best of advice or
-precautions. As, therefore, it is impossible to keep them from making
-noises and endangering themselves, we have in the following pages
-endeavoured to show them how to make as much noise as possible with as
-little danger as possible.
-
-What is there that makes the most noise and is most dangerous?
-Gunpowder, of course. Therefore, we have given descriptions of the best
-methods of employing this material, feeling quite sure that of accidents
-with gunpowder nine out of every ten are caused by ignorance. We knew a
-boy who lost the use of a thumb, and took all the skin off the palm of
-his right hand, by ignorant management of powder. He had read of
-blasting rocks, and nothing would satisfy him but blasting a bank. So he
-bored a deep hole in it with a stick, filled the hole with gunpowder,
-and then poked a lighted lucifer into the powder. The consequence was,
-that his face was so scorched as not to be recognised, all his eyebrows
-and eyelashes and most of his hair were burned off, while his right hand
-was injured as has been already mentioned. Now that boy had been
-studiously kept out of the way of powder by female relatives, and was
-naturally profoundly ignorant of its effects. Had he been taught to
-handle it, he would not now be forced to keep his right hand closed, or
-to write by holding the pen between the fingers of his clenched hand.
-
-
-GUNPOWDER.
-
-It will not be very advisable for the firework boy to make his own
-powder, but still it will not be amiss that he should know how it is
-prepared. Pulverise separately 5 drams of nitrate of potass, 1 dram of
-sulphur, and 1 dram of newly burnt charcoal, mix them together in a
-mortar with a little water, so as to make the compound into a dough,
-which roll out into round pieces of the thickness of a pin upon a slab.
-This must be done by moving a board backwards and forwards until the
-dough is of a proper size. When three or four of these pieces are ready
-put them together thus,--
-
-[Illustration]
-
-and cut them off into small grains. Place these grains on a sheet of
-paper in a warm place where they will soon dry, but away from a fire.
-During granulation the dough must be prevented from sticking by using a
-little of the dry compound powder. This mode of granulation, though
-tedious, is the only one to be used for so small a quantity for the sake
-of experiment. In making powder in a large way it is granulated by
-passing the composition through sieves.
-
-
-HOW TO MAKE TOUCH-PAPER.
-
-Dissolve in a little spirits of wine or vinegar a little saltpetre, then
-take some purple or blue paper, and wet it with the above liquor and it
-will be fit for use. When pasting paper on any of the following works
-take care that the paste does not touch that part which is to burn. The
-method of using this paper is to cut it into slips long enough to go
-once round the mouth of a serpent, cracker, &c.
-
-
-CASES FOR SQUIBS, FLOWER-POTS, ROCKETS, ROMAN CANDLES, ETC.
-
-Procure a hard wooden cylinder, or, if possible, one made of metal,
-whose diameter corresponds with that of the interior of the proposed
-case. Roll round it several folds of cartridge paper, and paste the
-edges well, so that it may be held securely. Tie it round until dry.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-TO CHOKE THE CASES.
-
-When the cases are thus made they will require to be tied at the lower
-end. This is called choking them, and as much force is required it is
-necessary. Fix a wire into a small solid cylinder (_d_). Take another
-short piece (_b_) an inch or two long, with a hole up it to admit the
-other end of the wire, fit it on and pass it up the case. Then having
-fastened a piece of whipcord to a post, wind it round the part left
-hollow by the wire, which should be about half an inch from the end;
-pull it tight with the right hand and work the case round with the left.
-Cut out a piece of touch paper two inches long and an inch and a half
-broad, wind it round the choke, and tie it on with a piece of fine
-string--twist it to a point. The cases are best choked while damp.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-COMPOSITION FOR SQUIBS, ETC.
-
-Gunpowder half a pound, charcoal 1 ounce, brimstone 1 ounce, or in like
-proportion; grind them in a muller or pound them in a mortar. Or you may
-take 1 part steel filings, 1 charcoal, 1 sulphur, and 4 powder, which is
-a very good mixture, and can be rubbed together in a mortar.
-
-
-HOW TO FILL THE CASES.
-
-Your cases must be very dry when ready, and should be put into an iron
-or wooden mould; first put in a thimble full of your powder, and ram it
-down very hard with your ruler, then put in a little more till the case
-is full, ramming it down hard every time. If you have no mould, hold the
-case in your left hand with the twisted touch-paper downwards, and fill
-it after the same manner. When you have filled within an inch of the
-top, fill up this with loose powder not rammed, for a bang, and fold in
-the ends; after filling a dozen or two melt some pitch in a small ladle,
-and smear the ends of the case with it by means of a small brush.
-
-
-TO MAKE CRACKERS.
-
-Cut some stout cartridge-paper into pieces three inches and a half broad
-and one foot long, fold down one edge of these pieces lengthwise about
-three quarters of an inch broad, then fold the double edge down a
-quarter of an inch, and turn the single edge back half over the double
-fold. Open it, and lay all along the channel which is formed by the
-folding of the paper some meal powder, then fold it over and over till
-the paper is doubled up, rubbing it down at every turn; this being done
-bend it backwards and forwards two inches and a half, or thereabouts, at
-a time, as often as the paper will allow. Hold all these folds flat and
-close, and with a small pinching cord give one turn round the middle of
-the cracker and pinch it close; bind it with packthread as tight as you
-can, then in the place where it was pinched prime one end and cap it
-with touch-paper.
-
-When these crackers are fired they will give a loud report at every turn
-of the paper; if you want a great number of these, you have only to cut
-the paper longer, or join it on to a greater length; but if they are
-made very long you must have a piece of wood with a groove in it deep
-enough to let in half the cracker, which will hold it straight while you
-are pinching it.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-ROMAN CANDLES AND STARS.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-These are best made with the following ingredients: 1 ounce of powder, 1
-ounce of sulphur, and 2 ounces of nitre. Some persons, however, prefer 1
-part sulphur, 1 charcoal, 1 iron filings, 4 of powder, and 8 of nitre.
-The composition being made, in filling the cases fill the contrary way
-to a squib--stop up the choke by driving down a piece of paper. Put in 1
-quill of gunpowder loose and 1 star made in the following manner: 1
-ounce of camphor, 1 of sulphur, 2 of meal powder, 1 ounce of the
-coloured fires, moisten them with oil of turpentine, and work them into
-little round balls. Having placed a star within the case, put in above
-it 3 quills of the composition, ram down, then powder, star, and
-composition alternately, till the case is full. Paste touch-paper round
-the top and twist to a point.
-
-
-ROCKETS.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-There are several recipes for making rockets, the best of which is 3
-ounces of charcoal, 6 of sulphur, 8 of nitre, 32 of meal powder. Another
-very good one is, 3 ounces of iron filings, 4 of powdered charcoal, 8 of
-sulphur, 16 of nitre, and 64 of meal powder. If a smaller quantity is
-wanted divide each proportion by 2, if a still smaller divide by 4. In
-this cut _s_ is the loose gunpowder with eight or ten stars upon it; _c_
-is that part of the rocket in which the composition is to be rammed
-hard, _p_ the priming or quick match, _t_ the touch paper. The cases are
-to be put into a mould and the composition must be well rammed. The
-cases should be four times the thickness of those for squibs.
-
-
-RAINS.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Sometimes gold or silver rains are added to rockets, which give them a
-very beautiful appearance. A gold rain is made of 2 parts sawdust, 4
-sulphur, 4 meal powder, 6 glass dust, 16 nitre, in all 32 parts. A
-silver rain may be made of 2 parts salt prunella, 8 sulphuret of
-antimony, 8 sulphur, 8 meal powder, and 14 nitre, in all 32 parts.
-
-
-CATHERINE WHEELS.
-
-These are very pretty fireworks, and are made to turn on a pivot. There
-are many recipes for the composition of which they are formed; 1 part
-camphor, 1 sulphur, 1 nitre, 2 meal powder. Another is, 3 parts iron
-filings, 4 sulphur, 12 nitre, 16 meal powder. This composition is to be
-rammed into small cases, and bound round a small wheel, having a hole
-for a pivot in the centre.
-
-
-VARIOUS COLOURED FIRES.
-
-The following recipes will give the young firework maker a great variety
-of the most beautiful fires. They should never be fired in a room,
-however, and always away from a dwelling.
-
-
-CRIMSON FIRE.
-
-The principal ingredient in this is nitrate of strontium, of which 40
-parts are taken, with 13 of sulphur, 15 of chlorate of potass, 4 of
-sulphuret of antimony, and 2 of lamp-black. These, as all the
-ingredients for the other fires, should be rubbed in a ladle, and they
-may be used in a ladle or iron dish set on the ground.
-
-
-BLUE FIRE.
-
-The ingredients of blue fire are 20 parts; 12 of nitre, 4 of sulphur, 2
-of sulphuret of antimony, and 2 of lamp-black.
-
-
-GREEN FIRE.
-
-The ingredients for green fire are in 54 parts; 42 of nitrate of
-barytes, 8 of sulphur, 3 of chlorate of potass, and 1 of lamp-black.
-
-
-PURPLE FIRE.
-
-The best recipe for purple fire is of 60 parts; 25 of nitre, 25 of
-nitrate of strontium, 7 of sulphur, 2 of realgor, and 1 of lamp-black.
-
-
-WHITE FIRE.
-
-The best and purest white fire is made of 24 parts of nitre, 7 of
-sulphur, 2 of red arsenic, and 1 of lamp-black.
-
-
-SPUR FIRE.
-
-9 parts of nitre, 4 of sulphur, and 3 of lamp-black, well rubbed
-together.
-
-
-BLUE LIGHTS.
-
-These are made of 4 parts of sulphur, 2 of nitre, and 1 of powder, and
-are rammed into squib-cases the contrary way.
-
-
-PORT OR WILDFIRES.
-
-Saltpetre 4 parts, meal powder 6 parts, and sulphur 3 parts. The
-composition to be moistened with linseed oil.
-
-
-SLOW FIRE FOR WHEELS.
-
-Saltpetre 4 parts, sulphur 2 parts, and meal powder 2 parts.
-
-
-DEAD FIRE FOR WHEELS.
-
-Saltpetre 5 parts, sulphur 1 part, lapis calaminaris 1 part, and
-antimony 1 part.
-
-
-CAUTIONS.
-
-Such are the principles and methods by which fireworks may be made; but
-we would advise our young friends to be very cautious, and never to
-attempt making any fireworks by candle-light; always to select some
-outhouse for their operations; to see that no iron or steel implements
-are about the place in which their fireworks are being manufactured, or
-they may go off before they wish it; to use wooden or brass implements
-in the bruising, grinding, and sifting of their mixtures; and never to
-bring the fireworks, or any of their ingredients, into the
-dwelling-house, or they may suddenly receive a
-
- "Heavy blow and great discouragement."
-
-
-TO MAKE AN ILLUMINATED SPIRAL WHEEL.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Procure a circular horizontal wheel two feet in diameter with a hole
-quite through the nave, then take four thin pieces of deal three feet
-long each, and three-quarters of an inch broad each. One end of each of
-these pieces is to be nailed to the felloe of the wheel at an equal
-distance from one another; and the other end nailed to a block with a
-hole in its bottom, which must be perpendicular with that in the block
-of the wheel, but not so large. The wheel being thus made, a hoop planed
-down very thin must be nailed to the felloe of the wheel, and wound
-round the four sticks in a spiral line from the wheel to the block at
-the top; on the top of this block a case of Chinese fire must be fixed,
-and on the wheel any number of cases, which must incline downwards and
-burn two at a time. The axis of the wheel must be a little longer than
-the cone, and made very smooth at the top, on which the upper block is
-to turn and the whole weight of the wheel to rest. The entire framing of
-the wheel, with its connecting tubes, is shown in the above cut.
-
-
-THE GRAND VOLUTE.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Should my young friends wish to prepare a grand volute illuminated with
-a revolving wheel; the first step is to procure a large circular wheel,
-and on its rim lay as many four-ounce cases as will complete the circle,
-only allowing a sufficient distance between the cases that the fire may
-pass free, which may be done by cutting the upper part of the end of
-each a little shelving. On each spoke fix a four-ounce case about three
-inches from the rim of the wheel. These cases are to burn one at a
-time. On the front of the wheel form a spiral line with strong wire, on
-which tie port-fires, placing them on a slant with their mouths to face
-the same way as the cases on the wheel; all these port fires must be
-fired with the second cases of the wheel. Let there be a series of
-wooden spokes all made to screw into a block into the centre. When the
-large wheel begins to discharge the fireworks, the spiral wheel will of
-course revolve and produce a very beautiful illuminated cone.
-
-
-A BRILLIANT YEW-TREE.
-
-To prepare a brilliant yew-tree, a frame like the one represented in the
-drawing must be firmly attached to the ground. When the branches are
-fixed, place illuminating port-fires on the top of each, as many as is
-convenient; behind the top of the stem fasten a gerb or white fountain,
-which must be fired at the beginning of the illumination on the tree. A
-series of these, varying in the angular directions taken by the boughs,
-produce a very fine effect.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Such are a few general directions respecting the making of fireworks;
-but we have again to advise our young friends to be cautious of the
-gunpowder, and to keep away from the fire, or from a light, or from
-flames, steel, iron, or any other matter likely to cause a spark.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-GARDENING.
-
- "'Tis a delightful task
- To rear the tender flower, to see the bud
- Put forth its bloom, the little seedling sprout
- From its dark grove, to meet the sunbeams, and
- To drink the gracious rain. Here Innocence
- May well amuse herself, and blithe Industry
- Make mate with ants, and bees, and busy things,
- From morn to evening daily."--MARTIN.
-
-Gardening is one of the most delightful occupations for young persons.
-It combines innocent amusement, exercise of the healthiest kind, skill,
-forethought, method, taste, and is full of instruction,--leading the
-mind, not only to the wonderful operations of nature, but to the great
-Originator and Preserver of all things.
-
-Gardening was the first of the arts. Before man had fallen from his
-"high estate," and lost his heirship of heaven, he was placed by his
-Creator in a garden, and ordered to dress it and to keep it. The
-sustenance of man in all countries is derived, directly or indirectly,
-from the vegetable kingdom: it is supposed that he first made his
-appearance in that fertile and fruitful land from whence we get our best
-grasses. It was natural, then, that some rude kind of gardening should
-first occupy the attention of primitive man. In a savage state, now,
-in many countries, plants supply all the wants of man to an extent
-greater even than we are apt to suppose, from the necessity and
-possibility of a greater variety of animal food in our own climate.
-
-[Illustration: MISCELLANEOUS.--GARDENING, FENCING, ETC.]
-
-From the earliest times of profane history, gardens are alluded to. The
-gardens of the Hesperides abounded with fruit of the most delicious
-kind, and the hanging gardens of Babylon were among the wonders of the
-world. The gardens of the Persians are called by Xenophon, "delightful
-places, fertile and beautiful;" and the gardens of Alcinous abounded
-with fruits, grapes, and various horticultural wonders. The philosophers
-of Athens walked in ornamental gardens, among shady groves, statues, and
-fountains.
-
-There are many so-called styles of gardening, but these are readily
-divisable into two varieties--the geometrical and natural style. In the
-first may be comprised all gardens laid out with straight or geometrical
-lines. In the second, which is often called the English style, we
-include gardens and parks where the irregularity that we observe in
-pretty wild places, or in Nature's own gardens, are preserved more or
-less judiciously and tastefully. On the one hand, we take Nature for a
-model; on the other, we merely apply geometrical lines to the garden and
-its contents. As the geometrical garden is merely a thing of straight
-lines, it is very much easier to dispose than the natural, with which a
-great many people make sad mistakes, and then blame the style instead of
-their own taste. It is very much easier to make straight walks, and
-circles, and figures of all kinds in a garden, than to imitate on a
-small scale the variety, and indefinite, ever-pleasing character
-exhibited by Nature where she most attracts us with floral beauty.
-
-However, to see some specimens of the various styles of gardens will
-give a better idea of their worth, and main features, than any reading.
-We will indicate a few of the places where good examples are to be seen.
-The Crystal Palace is perhaps the best place to observe their
-differences, particularly as most boys visit that attractive place. The
-great terraces and fountains are, of course, in the geometrical style;
-while the more remote, or outer parts of the grounds, are a good example
-of the natural or English style of laying out grounds. The irregular
-"lakes," surrounded by vegetation, the rock cropping out here and there,
-the natural-looking grouping of fine trees, and the freely rolling
-beautiful green grass mounds, &c. are, though perhaps not the most
-frequented, certainly among the best features of the Crystal Palace. The
-Royal Botanic Gardens in the Regent's Park is also a good, a very good
-example of the best method of laying out gardens in the English style.
-It is disfigured, however, by a small, mean kind of geometrical garden,
-which we must not be supposed to praise. On the other hand, the garden
-of the Royal Horticultural Society at South Kensington is a capital
-example of a completely opposite style--the Italian and geometrical;
-and once having seen these, any boy can at once distinguish between the
-two, and probably say which he most admires.
-
-In France, during the reign of Louis XV., the bad and artificial method
-was carried to excess;--clipped hedges, always laid out in straight
-lines--flower-beds tortured into fantastic shapes--trees cut into the
-form of pyramid haystacks, animals, &c. The gardens were like the
-manners and dress of that period, in which scarcely anything natural was
-left. The Dutch imitated the French: and this kind of gardening
-continued to prevail till attacked by Addison, in the "Spectator," and
-Pope, in his Fourth Moral Epistle.
-
-[Illustration: A GARDEN IN THE TIME OF LOUIS XV.]
-
-However, the boy's garden is so small as a rule, that to attempt any
-kind of ambitious "laying out" would be nonsense; and having thus
-explained what is meant by different "styles" in gardening, we proceed
-to show how the boy's garden should be laid out.
-
-
-ON LAYING OUT A SMALL GARDEN.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The size of a piece of ground which we should recommend to the young
-gardener ought to be about 33 yards long, and about 25 broad. It should
-be divided into four portions, as in the diagram. A B C D are four
-paths, 5 feet wide, which might be gravelled, and the edges should be
-planted with box, or some neat and tiny flowering plant. The borders
-should be about 2 feet in width; and this, with the breadth of the path,
-will take 9 feet, or 3 yards, from the 25 yards of width; which will
-leave 11 yards, or 11 yards broad, for each of the four compartments.
-The length of the four compartments--reduced by 9 feet, or 3 yards, as
-before, for the cross-path and two borders--will allow each of the four
-compartments to be 15 yards in length; so that each quarter of the
-garden would contain 15 yards multiplied by 11 yards, and would equal
-165 square yards, which again multiplied by 4, would give 660 square
-yards of surface, which would be amply sufficient for a young person to
-obtain something like an idea of gardening, and at the same time be a
-profitable advantage. This will be found too large, however, except for
-those who wish to work at gardening in earnest, and have, moreover,
-plenty of time and thought to give to the matter. One half the size will
-be found to suit a greater number. In such, the same plan and
-proportioning may be carried out.
-
-
-PLANTING THE GROUND WITH TREES, FLOWERS, ETC.
-
-In the foregoing diagram, the borders are for flowers, and the other
-parts of the compartments for the raising of vegetables; but here and
-there a space should be left for the planting of fruit-trees,
-rose-trees, currants, gooseberries, raspberries, &c. The places marked
-by dots (*) are where fruit-trees may be planted, which should consist
-of some of the best sorts of apple, cherry, pear, and plum-trees, which
-ought to be planted from four to five yards apart. In the borders,
-rose-trees, both of the standard and common kind, might be planted, as
-indicated by the dots (*); and at the four corners, where the paths
-intersect, climbing-roses should be placed, having strong poles upon
-which their tendrils and branches may run. The spaces in the border may
-be appropriated to the various kinds of flowers, at the choice of the
-young gardener.
-
-
-THE NOBLEST KIND OF GARDENING FOR BOYS.
-
-There is one kind of gardening the results of which will afford a higher
-satisfaction to boys, when they become men, than any other pastime or
-exercise they can possibly engage in, and that is the planting of fine
-hardy trees. These will not require much attention, or any beyond the
-planting. They will grow freely and vigorously when you are at school or
-asleep, soon find their own supply of moisture by striking their roots
-deeply into the ground, and are able to withstand our cold and cloudy
-climate at all seasons. Nearly all intelligent and educated men are
-admirers of fine trees. Many who care nothing about our ordinary
-low-lying plants, take the highest interest in fine hardy trees--the
-late Prince Consort and the present Emperor of the French, for instance.
-Generally we display this interest in trees by planting them extensively
-when we come to be men; but how much would many lovers of trees not give
-to have commenced their tree-planting at an early age, so that they
-might walk under giant groves of their own planting! The Indian says,
-"He has not lived in vain who has planted a tree;" and certainly it is a
-noble thing to embellish the earth with its finest ornaments, and plant
-tiny shoots that will in time become great trees, and shed leaves over
-the graves of our children for ages. And it is well to observe in the
-beginning, that a tree of thoroughly hardy and vigorous disposition is
-one of the most lasting things on earth. Though a living thing,
-susceptible, like ourselves, of almost every change of atmosphere, cold
-or heat, it often survives great monuments of stone, and may live and
-see extinguished not only many generations of men but even the lives of
-nations.
-
-The age of many trees has been computed upon fair proof to be greater
-than that of the Pyramids of Egypt. There are trees in America which
-were of colossal development ere that country was discovered, so that
-the growth of a mighty nation may require but little time compared to
-that witnessed by the giant Wellingtonia, whose bark you may have seen
-at the Crystal Palace. In our own country the age of many oaks and yews
-is proverbial. But apart altogether from the mighty age which our finest
-trees attain, let us venerate them for their beauty, dignity, and
-utility. What so full of life and change, so inexhaustive in their
-well-built and subtle ramifications, as the branches and branchlets of a
-fine tree! "The pillars of the valleys, the fringes of the hills," as an
-eloquent writer calls them, "so stately, so eternal" are, while the most
-useful of all things to man, at the same time the most beautiful natural
-objects which he can contemplate. Nothing adds so much to the beauty of
-park, pleasure ground, or garden, as the planting of handsome and
-suitable trees: in fact, they are the only true and pleasing ornaments
-of such. What constitutes the difference between the aspect of naked,
-blast-swept, and desolate-looking heaths, or lowland--monotonous ground
-of any kind, in fact--and one of those grand parks of old England, say
-Goodwood, or Richmond, or indeed any pleasure ground such as you may see
-in almost every parish, with every shady ferny corner, or lane opening,
-or tree-fringed sloping grass mound, a picture of fresh and changeful
-loveliness? Why, simply the presence of trees. With them you may impart
-every charm to the wildest heath or flattest prairie--with them the
-highest and grandest beauty may be imparted to the charmingly undulated
-surface of a great part of the British Isles.
-
-So much for the trees and their attractions. What is next to be done? It
-is to be hoped that every boy fond of gardening has already made up his
-mind to plant a tree, or several. We have seen a great many little boys'
-gardens, but it was the fate of most of them to become disused and
-neglected, dug up or forgotten, when the little gardeners had arrived at
-the "big boy," or manhood stage. The inmates being small and fleeting,
-of course every trace soon departed. But by adopting the kind of
-gardening here recommended, a pleasing and stately souvenir of pleasant
-early days will be the result. It must not, however, be attempted in the
-ordinary little boy's garden, which is usually a small patch under a
-wall, or in some obscure spot totally unfit for trees. If you once make
-up your mind to plant a tree, the first thing to do is to choose a good
-position for it. It should be one in which it will grow well, and in
-which the tree will not be in the way of anything else. This will save
-it from being disturbed after it gets to some size, and your hopes from
-being disappointed in a way you least expected. And lastly, it will be
-very desirable to so place the tree that its effect when grown up may be
-a good and beautiful one. It is, for instance, very bad management to
-plant the noble Wellingtonia, or Cedar of Lebanon, near a house. This is
-very often done in suburban and villa gardens, but if the trees attain
-their natural size they spoil the house, or must be cut down. The finest
-cedar of Lebanon we know of is planted within twenty feet of a house,
-and completely overshadows it; yet so noble is the tree that the owner
-would not touch it on any account: he would give a great deal, however,
-to have it in a proper position. The planting of a large kind of tree
-where it may, when grown up, stop a pleasant view, is also a great
-mistake.
-
-From these instances it will be seen that the position is a subject of
-the highest importance in tree-planting. Now, as of course every boy
-cannot be a judge of tree-planting, it will be found the best plan to
-consult papa or the gardener about it. They will be so well pleased at
-the idea of your planting a tree instead of a geranium or a wallflower,
-that you are sure to be encouraged with advice and assistance. To plant
-it in the ordinary boys' garden would be a great mistake. It should be
-at once put in a position in which it might flourish undisturbed for
-ages. Generally, hardy trees are not fastidious as to soil. Mere
-planting is all the noble hardy ash, the graceful birch--the lady of the
-woods--the spreading beech, and others of our native trees require. But
-when we come to plant the grandest of all trees--the Wellingtonia and
-the Cedar of Lebanon, with many of the nobler pines of North America--if
-the soil be not naturally very good, we must make a preparation for the
-young plant. This is to be done by digging out a hole and taking the bad
-soil out at the bottom, leaving the top spit at one side, and then
-filling in the opening, say six feet wide or so, with good soil taken
-from a pasture and chopped up with a spade. This should be raised above
-the surface to allow for subsequent sinking, and also to keep the neck
-of the young tree a little above the level ground. The part meant by the
-neck, is the base of the stem, or, in other words, the part where root
-begins and stem terminates.
-
-As most gardens or pleasure grounds are well drained, the little planter
-is not likely to have much to contend with on that score, but where the
-bottom or lower soil is of a disagreeable nature, gardeners very often
-place a quantity of broken bricks or rough stones in the bottom of the
-hole, and over them place turf to prevent the top soil from falling
-down.
-
-The best time for planting is in the autumn--say September, October, or
-November; but any time through the autumn, winter, or early spring will
-do, provided the ground be not saturated with rain, and all other
-circumstances be favourable. The choosing of a good young tree is an
-important point. Do not have anything to do with those grown in pots;
-the roots of such are usually contorted round the ball, and in a very
-bad condition to make good trees. Nice symmetrical plants growing in a
-nursery, say at about from two to four feet high, are the best. The
-price of even the best of such will not amount to more than that of an
-ordinary toy, while in the case of the common native trees, and such
-things as the willows, that grow freely from a sucker, it is a mere
-trifle. Indeed, in the case of boys who live where there is anything
-like an extensive garden or grounds, most probably good young trees will
-be at hand ready to plant. It will be well to have the assistance of the
-gardener in planting a rare thing like the Wellingtonia, though after a
-little practice an intelligent boy can do it easily. The main points
-are, to place the roots of the tree on soil made pretty firm, to spread
-the roots out carefully before covering them, and finally, if the
-weather or soil should happen to be very dry, to give the ground a
-_thorough_ soaking of water. This will refresh the little root fibres,
-make them "take kindly to the earth," and, in short, put the little tree
-in a fair way for its long life. And as boys may frequently have
-occasion to water their gardens, as well as other people, we may assure
-them that one thorough good watering is better than a dozen bad ones. A
-bad watering is one in which the surface of the soil is merely wetted,
-and if you poke down a little way you find the soil quite dry: a good
-watering is one in which the water descends deep and far into the soil,
-as deep or deeper than the roots go, in fact. The dragging about of
-water in pots is a very laborious and awkward affair. If the little
-gardener can secure the loan of the water-barrel on wheels, and have it
-filled quite full, and the contents gently supplied to the root of his
-tree, he will save himself much trouble, and probably have no further
-attention to pay to it in that way during the course of his life. By the
-way, have you ever heard the little story about the famous Jean Jacques
-Rousseau and his little tree? If not, here it is.
-
-When he was a little pupil about ten years of age, his master planted a
-walnut-tree to give a grateful shade to a place immediately outside the
-house. The planting of this walnut-tree was attended with some ceremony,
-little Rousseau and his friend, a fellow-boarder, acting as godfathers,
-singing songs of triumph around it. The master and his assistants formed
-a kind of basin around the tree, or, in other words, made a little
-embankment of earth around it, so that the water could not escape. Jean
-Jacques and his companion saw and were much interested in all this, made
-up their minds that it was a nobler thing to plant trees than to plant
-colours on a breach, and at once became very anxious to plant. This they
-soon did by cutting a slip of willow, and planting it with due ceremony
-on the terrace near the august walnut-tree that had been planted by the
-master. They made a basin of earth round it in imitation of the bigger
-one, and then came their grand difficulty--how to water it. They were
-not permitted to fetch any, or they would have gladly done so, though it
-was at a distance. The tree was safe for a short time from some cause or
-other, and began to put forth a few leaves, which they hoped would in
-due time afford them shelter and shade; but hot days came, and it was
-apparent that unless the little tree had water it would surely die. What
-was to be done? Well, it is pretty evident that either of them could
-think a little, even at that age, for the little rogues made up their
-minds to make a tiny grass-covered canal between the large basin and
-their little one, so that when the master came to water his big tree,
-the water might run from his basin to theirs! Their first essay failed;
-the earth fell in, and they were miserable for a moment, but soon set to
-work again. This time they cut an old box into narrow planks, and lined
-the furrow with them, made the slope so that the water would be sure to
-run as desired, and covered the trench over so that nobody could see it,
-putting a grating of twigs over the upper end, so as to hide appearances
-and keep out rubbish, and waited in hope and fear for the result. The
-master and his men came and poured in the water, which soon ran through
-the furrow to the little tree. This was too much for our otherwise
-sagacious little gardeners. They roared with delight at the success of
-their plan, and betrayed it to the master, who immediately sent for a
-pick-axe, and cut up their little trench, shouting at the same time, "An
-aqueduct! an aqueduct!" They were of course sorry, but soon took heart,
-and planted another tree, which lived to be a big one. To have set this
-slip in competition with a large one, Rousseau tells, gave him a degree
-of glory he had not known before, and says that he had a juster idea of
-it at that age than Cæsar had at thirty.
-
-We will next turn to the selection of trees, and to the various wants of
-those who are likely to plant. The most popular trees in England at
-present are those noble evergreen pines. They are not all suited for
-town gardening, but very much so for most parts of the country. Around
-the beautiful mausoleum raised to contain the remains of the late Prince
-Consort at Frogmore, there is a row of these trees, mostly tapering and
-slender in habit, and very dark green. They have been planted by the
-various members of the Royal family _in memoriam_. The late Prince was
-very fond of these pine-trees, and many country gentlemen take the
-greatest interest in their planting. We merely tell you this to point
-out that the planting of trees is an object of ambition with many of the
-best and the highest in the land. When Her Majesty, and many other
-distinguished persons, visit a nobleman's place or a public park, one of
-the most graceful acts they can do is to plant a tree; and the custom is
-very general. Let us hope, then, that many boys will imitate the example
-of Rousseau, and say, why should not we too plant trees? But to return
-to our pines, or conifers, as they are called. The race is a wonderfully
-beautiful one--so much so, that you must take care, or you may plant
-things that will do very well for a few years, perhaps, but get quite
-killed by the first very severe frost. It is a sad sight to see a tree
-which has perhaps grown to considerable size and beauty killed to the
-very ground by a frost such as we had in January, 1866--some of our
-noblest pines perished then; and therefore a list of the most thoroughly
-hardy kinds must prove useful. The giant Wellingtonia of California is
-fortunately hardy in all parts of these islands. So is the great
-arbor-vitæ of Nootka Sound (_Thuja gigantea_), a specimen of which
-obtained the first prize for trees of this kind at the great Paris
-Exhibition. One of the most beautiful of all pines, one which has its
-"leaves," or little branchlets rather, as graceful as those of a fern,
-is Thujiopsis borealis, and it too is perfectly hardy. We regret that
-hard names must be used, but then, as thousands of our plants are not
-natives of England, they have of course no recognised English name, and
-to translate the scientific one would simply produce an awkward
-barbarism. In addition to the above, the following trees of this fine
-family may be planted with the confidence that we shall not see them
-perish in the vigour and beauty of youth:--Lawson's cypress (we give you
-the English name where possible). Nearly all kinds of juniper. Picea
-Pinsapo, nobilis, and Nordmanniana, all noble trees--also amabilis and
-cephalonica. Abies Albertii, Morinda, Menziesii, the Cedar of Lebanon,
-and the Deodar cedar--these are hurt now and then, but on the whole are
-hardy enough generally. The common spruce fir; the Scotch fir, always a
-picturesque tree. The deciduous cypress, a fine tree for the margins of
-water, where after a time its roots send up most curious knobs, in many
-cases nearly as big as a beehive, above the ground. It is quite
-extraordinary to see the specimens of this noble tree in the pleasure
-grounds at Syon, the Duke of Northumberland's fine place near Brentford.
-The new Japanese larch (_L. Kæmpferi_), the Austrian pine, the Swiss nut
-pine (_P. Cembra_), the Corsican pine. The youthful gardener, who lives
-near a large nursery, park, or place like Kew, Glasnevin Botanic
-Gardens, near Dublin, the Botanic Gardens at Edinburgh, the gardens of
-the Crystal Palace, at Sydenham, or many places of this kind, would do
-well to examine specimens of the kinds named, or indeed any others, so
-that he may take his choice; making sure to inquire, however, that the
-particular kind he selects is perfectly hardy: a tree may be quite hardy
-in one part of the country, and quite tender in another. The curious and
-fine monkey puzzle (_Araucaria imbricata_), for instance, has been
-killed in some parts by severe frosts, in others it has always escaped
-with impunity. It is always easy to ascertain facts of this kind in a
-neighbourhood, and of course we should make a point of cultivating the
-things that are best suited to our climate and soil.
-
-So much for coniferous trees. We will next turn to a far nobler group,
-so far as regards our wants--deciduous trees, or those that lose their
-leaves in winter. These are generally quite hardy, and make large and
-long-lived trees. They may be grown in many places where the pines would
-not live, and are therefore admirably suited for places in and near
-towns. They should be preferred by all boys who live in suburban
-gardens, as in such the leaves of pines and evergreens are sure to be
-soiled and disfigured, if not half-killed, by smut. Many of these
-deciduous trees flower beautifully, and in not a few the leaves, even in
-our dull clime, assume rich and varied tints in autumn. The following
-list includes the noblest, best, and hardiest known:--The great
-Columbian maple, the silvery maple (_A. eriocarpum_), the red maple (_A.
-colchicum rubrum_), the Norway maple, the purple-leaved sycamore, and
-the variegated negundo; the double horse chesnut (the flower of this
-lasts very much longer than the single kind), the red chesnut, the
-Hungarian lime-tree, and the Mississippi lime, the tree of heaven
-(_Ailanthus glandulosa_), the tulip-tree, the Japanese sophora (a noble
-tree, fine for dry soils), the Kentucky coffee-tree (not a large tree,
-but with very graceful leaves), the hawthorns in variety, both red and
-white. Some of the hawthorns bear handsome fruit, and of such the most
-distinct is Aronia, Layi, Celsiana and Douglasii. The flowering ash, the
-showy Chinese Pyrus spectabilis, the American ash, the Canadian ash or
-lancewood; the Cornish, Chichester, and Irish elms (the last being a
-tree of large growth) and also most particularly the weeping variety of
-the wych elm; the black walnut, and the yellow-twigged willow; the
-silver-leaved poplar, the Carolina poplar, and of course the Lombardy
-poplar; the splendid western plane, which does so well in towns, the
-Eastern plane, and the Spanish plane. Lastly, we will name the noble
-oaks, both the American and our own. The American oaks are among the
-finest trees of the world. The best of them are Q. ambigua, Prinus, the
-champion oak, the scarlet oak, the black oak, and the willow oak. Any of
-these will form long-lived and noble trees.
-
-The preceding remarks and instructions generally apply to the wants of
-boys whose parents have gardens of some size. But a very large class are
-not so fortunate--have not sufficient space to develop a good tree, and
-perhaps live in or near towns, where it may be difficult to grow a good
-one. For convenience sake, we will divide these into two classes--those
-who have small gardens in the country, and those who have small gardens
-in or near towns or cities. In the former, it will be better to pay full
-attention to subjects of a comparatively dwarf though hardy and
-long-lived habit, and to fine hardy shrubs like the hollies, &c. Except
-on the very margins of a small country place, it is a mistake to plant
-great trees, as at some time they are pretty sure to become an
-overshadowing nuisance, too near the house to be seen to advantage, and
-also too near to be agreeable or healthful. Of beautiful dwarf evergreen
-trees suited for such, there is nothing better than the comparatively
-new Retinosporas, which are at once graceful, hardy, and beautiful.
-They are natives of Japan, and in any large nursery various handsome and
-comparatively dwarf pines may be selected suitable for the same purpose.
-For the town or suburban garden the best things are decidedly beautiful
-dwarf and free-flowering deciduous trees, like the almond, the various
-finely coloured double peaches, the beautiful double cherries, the
-Chinese crab, the silvery eleagnus, the better kinds of hawthorn, and if
-there be room for a large tree, the plane is the best. Of course there
-is great difference in the climate and atmosphere of what are called
-suburbs. Thus, in many of the suburbs of London it is nearly impossible
-to get a pine-tree to live, while in the suburbs of many other towns and
-cities the choicest trees flourish freely. But ten or twelve years'
-increase of smoke and increase of houses may make a sad difference to
-the pleasantest of suburbs, and things that flourished healthfully at
-one time may gradually perish from increasing smut and vileness of
-atmosphere. The best trees of the pine tribe for town planting are the
-dwarf and beautiful Thuja aurea, well suited, from its dwarf size, for
-the pleasure ground or flower garden; the Austrian pine, the common
-arbor-vitæ, and perhaps a few others; but as a rule, it is better not to
-plant pines where they will be exposed to the evil effects of a city
-atmosphere. On the other hand, all trees that lose their leaves in
-winter are likely to do well in such places, because they are leafless
-and quite at rest in the winter, when every chimney is vomiting forth
-poison, and the air is thick with filth. Then, when the atmosphere
-begins to clear, and the spring returns, they put forth their leaves and
-expose them during the best of the year, while the poor pine or
-evergreen has to stand exposed at all seasons.
-
-
-THE BOY'S FLOWER GARDEN.
-
-Of course every boy who cares about gardening will have a little flower
-garden. That is the first thing he is likely to attempt, and, perhaps,
-on the whole, that which he may attempt with the greatest certainty of
-success. A nice little varied flower garden is a source of interest and
-pleasant exercise for a boy nine months out of twelve. But it is not by
-imitating the common style of flower garden that a boy can make his
-little piece pretty and interesting for the length of time we have
-named. Nothing can be more bald and awkward-looking, more miserable in
-aspect, than most flower gardens he is likely to see at the present day;
-and therefore he must not attempt to imitate them, but follow the
-instructions to be presently given. The reason why the greater number of
-flower gardens of the present time are bad and miserably vulgar-looking,
-is that those who arrange them simply use a few sorts of plants, and
-many of them in great excess, so that an oppressive kind of monotony is
-produced, which is anything but agreeable in the flower garden; and,
-besides, nearly every flower garden you enter is very like every
-other--no life or interest to be seen in them as a rule; but, on the
-other hand, a great deal of mere gaudiness.
-
-In addition to these demerits, the ordinary type of flower garden is
-usually filled with tender plants--plants which must be put out in the
-ground when the frosts are quite gone, in the beginning of June, and
-taken up again as soon as they reappear in autumn--leaving the ground
-bare for the winter and long spring. Now, even if this were the most
-beautiful way of managing a flower garden, it would not suit the boy
-gardener. He has, as a rule, no time to attend to tender plants, and if
-he once plants his garden, keeps it clean, and adds a new member to it
-now and then, it is perhaps as much as can be expected, considering how
-many other things he has to do. Besides, he goes away to school now and
-then, and what is to become of his tender plants then? Most boys will be
-proud to take care of their own things, and will be much better
-satisfied with a hardy little plant, which cannot suffer when they go
-away for six weeks at a time, than with one that may go off with the
-first frost. Clearly the best thing for the young gardener to do is to
-cultivate the most interesting and pretty of the hardy flowers of all
-seasons. Usually these are infinitely more interesting than the tender
-exotics of the grand flower garden. Many of them are English plants,
-notably the beautiful lily of the valley, the pink, the carnation, the
-graceful Solomon's seal, the various lovely primroses and polyanthuses,
-and a host of others. Yes, you will do most wisely by adopting all those
-charming old inmates of our gardens, which, independently of their
-associations, are not to be surpassed for their beauty by any
-tenderlings. It will be our pleasant duty to point out to you the kind
-that you may grow with the greatest ease, and pick out for you the most
-beautiful kinds known. It is most essential to be very careful about the
-plants you put in your little flower garden, for your space is generally
-small, and there is in consequence the greater necessity to take care
-that every spot of it is occupied with a "good thing," as gardeners are
-wont to say. There are hundreds of plants mentioned in garden books, and
-sold in nurseries, that are little better than weeds, and which would,
-therefore, sadly disfigure your garden. Presently we shall write you a
-list, which may be implicitly depended upon--every plant being
-beautiful, hardy, and in all respects suited to your wants.
-
-As boys are usually allotted but a small portion of border for their
-flower garden, it is better to adopt the mixed border system, that is, a
-mixture of different kinds, tastefully arranged, and have nothing to do
-with what is called "bedding-out," or planting great masses of one
-thing. By the mixed system, you will be enabled to enjoy a little of
-everything, and at all seasons, from the time that the crocus opens its
-brightly-burnished golden blossoms in early spring, till the Christmas
-rose ventures to show its large white flowers in the depth of winter. Do
-you like exquisitely coloured little flowers in the dawn of
-spring--little brightly blue things that "come before the swallow
-dares?" You can grow such without expense or trouble in your little
-parterre. The charming bushes of dwarf shrubs, and large border flowers,
-which bloom in May, must have charms for you as for all of us, and these
-too you may have in perfection; while the roses of June and July, the
-lilies of August, and the grand gladiolus of the autumn, will all be
-perfectly at home in your borders, as will every good and beautiful
-flower garden plant. In laying out your small patch of flower garden, it
-is best to confine yourself to a central bed (which may be square,
-round, or oval), and borders around that, and not to attempt anything
-elaborate in the way of laying. Attempts to lay out small bits of ground
-in a geometrically elaborate or Lilliputian imitation of the natural
-style, is almost sure to end in the production of something ridiculous
-or cockneyfied. Confine your attention chiefly to the plants, laying out
-the ground in a convenient manner. Let the design be subordinate
-altogether to the plants. All trivial artificial ornaments, in the way
-of shells, coloured gravel, statuettes, sundials, &c. should be left out
-of the plan altogether. The most beautiful gardens are those in which
-plant-beauty, and that alone, is conspicuous. If you can make the
-visitor forget all about design--forget everything but the fact that he
-is in a beautiful and varied garden, with nature's own gems, free and
-healthy, on every side, you will attain the highest success of which the
-ancient art of gardening is capable.
-
-We will suppose, then, that you have selected your little bit of ground.
-The next thing to do is to prepare it thoroughly. Now, in ordinary cases
-this is not half done. We are going to recommend you to plant permanent
-things, plants which will not require removal for many years, and you
-will not have a thorough opportunity of preparing the ground after you
-once plant. Therefore, the preparation of the ground is of tenfold
-greater importance in your case than in that of the ordinary gardener,
-whose beds of geraniums, or suchlike, are empty in winter, so that he
-has an opportunity of dressing and digging them every year.
-
-Before marking the walks or anything of the kind, when, in fact, your
-little piece of ground comes into your hands at first, remove all
-matters from its surface, add manure to it in abundance, and have the
-whole dug as deep as you can go, without bringing up the bad subsoil at
-the bottom. If the ground be sandy, so much the better; then all you
-have do is to give it plenty of cow, or any other rich manure that comes
-to hand. If, on the other hand, it be of a clayey, stiff, tenacious
-nature, like much of the ground to the north side of London, you must
-act quite differently. Most pretty border plants like a light, warm,
-free or sandy soil, and abhor a heavy, wet one. The way to cure, if we
-may so speak, or, in other words, improve the very stiff soil, is to add
-plenty of sand, leaf-mould, horse manure, or gritty scrapings from
-roads, or any other loosening material of this kind that you can
-obtain. Dig it in deep, and dig the ground over again, so that it may be
-thoroughly incorporated with the soil. All this should be done in
-autumn, if you have the time--in early autumn, if possible. When well
-done, and the ground levelled, then you may mark your little walks--with
-a line--and your central bed; and if in this operation you can get the
-gardener to assist you, do so by all means. In many cases the gardener
-gets ready the boys' garden, and presents it to him ready for planting,
-and that is the best way; for the planting and attention required
-afterwards will be as much as you can do, if you do it well. A word or
-two as to edgings for the borders and the bed. Don't have anything to do
-with those nasty stone edgings, so much advertised of late, as they look
-very ugly and out of place in a garden. The neat little edging of box
-is, perhaps, the prettiest as well as the oldest in existence. But we
-are inclined to think that little edgings of plants that flower are the
-best for your case. Try to be original with your edging as with
-everything else, if possible, and whatever may be used as an edging near
-your garden, avoid, and have something distinct. We know of about one
-hundred pretty plants for making edgings, but can only mention such here
-as you are likely to be able to obtain without difficulty. The best are
-the rosy thrift (_Armeria vulgaris rubra_), a lovely spring plant; the
-pretty little white and blue campanula pumila, and its white variety;
-the large blue gentian of the Alps (_G. aculis_), this is plentiful in
-Scotland, but not about London; the pretty little blue aubrietia, to be
-obtained everywhere; the variegated cocksfoot grass (_Dactylis glomerata
-variegata_;--what a pity it is that we are obliged to use such names);
-and the double daisy in various colours. Should you make a box edging,
-use the dwarfest and best kind; and if you happen to notice any other
-dwarf hardy plants that make tasteful edgings, use any you fancy, by all
-means. The more variety we have the better, and the only thing that it
-is particularly desirable you should avoid is any forms of those
-crockery wares, or artificial stone edgings, as they are all as bad and
-ugly as need be.
-
-We will now follow with a list of the most suitable plants for your
-garden. To each plant a figure will be attached, to indicate the
-position it should occupy in your beds or borders. We will, for
-convenience sake, throw the various heights of the plants used into
-three classes--1, for the smallest plants, or those fitted for the front
-of the border; 2, for the medium-sized, or those suitable for the middle
-parts; and finally, 3, for the taller kinds, which require to be placed
-at the back, or near the back of the border. Doubtless you will make a
-point of growing the rose; that is deservedly everybody's favourite. You
-may plant the rose either in the back part of your border, as a standard
-in the middle, as a dwarf bush, or on the front edge, pegged down close
-to the earth--not a bad way of growing it, by the way. But avoid the
-standard rose, if you can; it is ugly, awkward, and by no means so
-satisfactory as a rose "growing upon its own roots:" that means, a kind
-not grafted upon another, but quite on its own resources. Roses
-generally are grafted upon free growing common kinds, known as stocks.
-The most pleasing in the end, and by far the most satisfactory, are the
-roses upon their own roots. They make dwarf but long-lived and vigorous
-bushes--the very best things you can employ in the middle parts of your
-borders. If there be sufficient room, have a dozen kinds of roses, each
-different. Every spring, from deaths during the winter, and changes of
-one kind or another, you will have to look over your borders to fill up
-vacancies. It is best done about the end of May, when you may exactly
-see the state of the plants in the border, by filling up the majority of
-these vacancies with the better kinds of bedding plants, &c. By doing so
-you may enjoy both phases of gardening--the beautiful and interesting
-hardy flowers, to be presently named, and the brilliant and common
-flowers of the summer parterre, the pretty kinds of verbenas, the dwarf
-and neat lobelias, the variegated and other geraniums, and in fact, any
-kind of bedding plant that comes to hand.
-
-Next, for the selection of the more valuable and more uncommon hardy
-flowers, leaving out all such as are difficult to obtain. Among
-all the flowers of spring, few are better known than some of the
-anemones--apennina (1), fulgens (1), coronata (1), sylvestris (1), and
-Honorine Iobert (2), are the very best. Among them we have the sweetest
-blue, the brightest scarlet, and the purest white. Of the columbines
-(_Aquilegias_), the best for your purposes are the common border
-varieties. They are mostly fitted for the central line of the border. Of
-the magnificent delphiniums, so richly blue, tall, and stately, there
-are many beautiful new kinds--so many that I need not enumerate them,
-but most nurserymen are pretty sure to have varieties of them. Being
-tall, they are mostly suited for the back, or nearly the back portions
-of the borders: if you have a central bed, they will also look very
-well towards the middle of it. By the way, the middle of such bed might
-well be devoted to a choice shrub or two, say a good rhododendron or
-kalmia--that is, if the soil would suit such. The peony is almost too
-big for such little gardens; but a plant or two may be ventured in some
-unimportant spot. The yellow bachelor's button (_Ranunculus acris_, fl.
-pl. 2), is very pretty, and so exceedingly is Dielytra spectabilis (2).
-Baptisia australis (3). Coronilla varia (2). Galega officinalis alba
-(3). Lathyrus grandiflorus (3), a climbing plant, very fine for going up
-a low trellis. The white and red everlasting peas (3), also climbers.
-Orobus vernus (2). The perennial Lupin (3). Achillea ægyptiacum (2), A.
-aurea (1), A. Eupatorium (3), and A. millefolium roseum (2)--all fine
-and free. Of Michaelmas daisies (_Asters_), A. versicolor (1), elegans
-(3), turbinellus (2), Amellus (2), will be found highly beautiful. The
-Pyrethum in fine variety of beautiful colour and size: they have been
-raised of late years in great quantity by Mr. Salter of the Hammersmith
-nurseries, and are admirably suited to the middle line of borders,
-therefore the figure 2 will indicate their position to a T; their colour
-is rich and distinct in the extreme. The fine autumnal flowering Phlox
-(3) is also sold in great and beautiful variety, and should have a
-place in every good collection. Six or eight of the best kinds should
-be in the boy's garden. Nearly every nurseryman supplies them cheap.
-In the harebell family (_Campanulas_) we will find some very fine,
-particularly pumila (1), carpatica (1), persicifolia (3), and P. alba
-(3), grandis (2), macrantha (3), rotundifolia (2). The fleur-de-lis, or
-Iris, has some beautiful varieties, of which the best are germanica (2),
-florentina (2), pallida (2), De Bergii (2), pumila (1). Tritoma grandis
-(3), and glaucescens (3), are noble things for the back of a border.
-The double wallflowers (2), the alpine wallflower (1) (_Cheiranthus
-alpinus_). The Potentillas (2). Veronica amethystina (2), and corymbosa
-(2). The Virginian tradescantia (2); the crimson loose-strife (3);
-Lythrum roseum superbum. I give you the hard names so that you may have
-the less difficulty in procuring the plants, for many may know them by
-their Latin name, who would not know them by their common one, and _vice
-versâ_. The American cowslip (1): this being a very chaste and pretty
-plant, have as much as you can of it. Salvia argentea (2). This plant
-has grand silvery leaves, and should be in every collection. Perennial
-candy tuft, 1 (_Iberis_). There are three kinds of this--corræafolia,
-saxatilis, and Garrexiana, all good, hardy, and beautiful. Arabis alpina
-(1); Aubrietia purpurea (1); Alyssum saxatile (1): all three very easy
-to grow, and very common. The beautiful little Hepaticas in various
-colours, blue, white, and red. You must secure a stock of these, above
-all things; they are among the prettiest of spring flowers, and will
-"set off" charmingly the front parts of your borders. There is a fine
-new kind of hepatica (_H. angulosa_), a noble kind, which you will also
-do well to obtain: give it a rather shady position in light soil. One or
-two tufts of the Christmas rose will be quite enough. When this begins
-to show its flowers, a few weeks before Christmas, you will do well to
-cover the plant with a hand-glass, leaving a little air at the top. This
-will prevent the flowers from being injured or hurt by rain; they will
-grow very much larger and whiter than if left exposed. Of Pentstemons
-(2), a good variety should be grown, especially if the soil be light and
-good, such as they delight in. Sedum fabaria (2), is a fine autumnal
-flowering plant, which must not be forgotten. Rudbeckia Newmannii (3), a
-very fine autumnal bloomer. Lithospermum fruticosum (1), a wonderfully
-pretty plant for the fronts of borders. Any kind of pink (1) that you
-can conveniently obtain, should be grown; they are sweet, hardy, neat,
-and, in a word, perfect for your purposes. They are considerably varied
-of late years, and highly useful for cutting for bouquets, &c. The front
-of the border is the best place for them. Immediately behind them, and
-scarcely so far back as the line of the second row, is the place for the
-carnations and picotees, which of course you will be sure to cultivate.
-There is nothing more beautiful in our gardens than many of these, so
-beautifully and richly coloured, and so delicately and exquisitely
-margined and striped. Linum narbonense (2), and Perenne album (2), noble
-kinds of hardy flax, are also good. The [OE]nothera tribe will furnish
-some beauty: notably the sweetly coloured [OE]. acaulis (1), which opens
-its very large flowers in the evening, and keeps them open till nearly
-breakfast-time in the morning; the noble yellow macrocarpa; and the
-large evening primrose (_[OE]. Lamarkiana_). Some dwarf tiny shrubs,
-that flower freely, will look beautiful in your border, and of such you
-cannot find one more beautiful than the early spring flowering heath,
-1 (_Erica carnea_); it is a mass of handsome bloom, and very hardy and
-neat in habit. Other capital little shrubs are Daphne Cneorum, sweet and
-pretty--various dwarf kinds of native heaths, and Genista tinctoria (1),
-and sagittalis (1).
-
-In addition to the above, it need hardly be added, that such universally
-esteemed plants as the lily of the valley (1), the primrose (1), and the
-polyanthus, should be well represented. Latterly there have been raised
-considerably varied kinds of primrose and polyanthus, and nothing can be
-more charming than mixed masses of such. From a packet of seed of each
-(ask for that of the ordinary mixed kinds), you may raise a considerable
-variety of beautiful kinds. Double daisies (1), too, in various colours,
-will be found very pretty in the spring, as will the numerous kinds of
-pansy (1), the gentian, and the forget-me-not. By the way, you must not
-forget some tufts of the common forget-me-not; it does very well as a
-border plant in all but the driest soils. At Trentham it is tastefully
-employed to form a margin round some pretty little gardens, dedicated to
-the various younger members of the family; and we have known people to
-be so full of gratitude to a departed dog, as to plant a ring of it
-round the little monumental slab which indicated his place of burial in
-the garden border. The various pretty and very dwarf kinds of saxifrage
-(1), and Sedum (1), too, you will find neat and distinct for the very
-front of your border, in which you will of course arrange the dwarfest
-plants.
-
-One word more. It would be a pity to confine you to this or any other
-selection. The more varied your garden is, and the more distinct from
-that of your friends or neighbours, the better. The selection above
-given is as good as can be made, and may save you from getting a lot of
-ugly weeds in your garden, under the name of flowers; but in addition to
-these, you would do well to add any other pretty plant met with in your
-rambles, and which seems to you worthy of a place; while with friends
-who cultivate plants, you may exchange any that you have plenty of, for
-new varieties, or anything that you may fancy.
-
-
-THE BOY'S FRUIT GARDEN.
-
-There are few boys who cannot appreciate the virtues of a delicious
-melting pear or good apple; and our object in writing this paper is to
-tell them how to grow such in a comparatively short space of time. In
-old times, and, indeed, generally at present, people plant for those who
-come after them--"plant for their heirs," in fact,--plant trees that
-will come into bearing in twelve years or so; and therefore some may
-say, why offer the boys such a far-off treat? But times change, and the
-system which produces the finest fruits now in our markets, happens to
-be exactly suited to the boy's garden. Large and beautiful apples have
-been sold in Paris during the past spring for as much as three francs
-a-piece! These were in many, or in nearly all cases, grown upon little
-trees not more than a foot from the ground, and several of them not more
-than two or three years old! The French are the best growers of apples
-and pears in existence; and in France originated this dwarf method of
-growing them. The way they do it is as follows:--The best kinds of
-apples are grafted on a variety known as the Paradise, which induces a
-very dwarf growth and early fertility in the kinds grown upon it. We
-have seen these fruiting, this year, at two years of age, bearing fine
-fruit, much better than you see on trees developed to full size. They
-are grown in two ways, generally as cordons, and occasionally as little
-standards. The "cordon" is simply a single plant of apple, trained along
-a wire, supported about a foot from the ground. The little standard, or
-bush, is simply a diminutive Lilliputian kind of tree--just such as a
-boy would wish for in his garden. Not taller, if as tall as himself, he
-can shorten the shoots and gather the fruit with the greatest ease. The
-culture of these little trees is so simple that no boy need fail with
-them. A sunny spot should in the first instance be chosen, that is, if
-the young gardener can get it; and it is not often that he is allowed
-any but a bye nook of some kind or other; and no wonder, because
-hitherto boys' gardens have simply been short-lived little exhibitions
-of untidiness, never yielding any result and very little beauty. But the
-young gardener who manages well his fairy part of fruit garden, will
-soon produce a little feature that any place might be proud of. Next, as
-to how to do it.
-
-Very little ground is required. A small patch will afford space for a
-great number of little trees. A sunny open spot should be selected,
-where the trees will have all the advantages of sun and air to perfect
-their fruit, and render their shoots short, firm, and fertile, instead
-of sappy, gross, and useless. The soil should be of a slightly sandy or
-loamy nature, and not wet. If the ground be badly drained, and water
-lies in it much, it is almost hopeless to attempt fruit-growing, and
-the little gardener had in that case better turn his attention to
-something with which his soil and circumstances are likely to agree. One
-of the chief points in gardening is to choose the course most suited for
-your own soil, climate, and position. Thus the boy who lives in a great
-city, or the suburb of one, and who has to contend with the smoke and
-other evils incident to such, must pursue a very different plan of
-gardening to the boy who lives in the country, and has all the
-advantages of pure, sweet air for his plants. The best of all soils for
-our little fruit-trees, is one moderately sandy, yet not too loose and
-free, with what we may term a free bottom, that is, a sandy or other
-subsoil beneath, which will permit the water to pass off freely from the
-fertile or upper earth. But although this is the best soil, there are
-few others that we need reject--the worst, perhaps, being deep, stiff,
-soap-like clay. The best time to plant is in the autumn. Be sure you ask
-for the young apple-trees grafted on the "Paradise," and the pears on
-the Quince stock. Both apples and pears may be grown as little standard
-trees or as cordons. In planting, do not put the roots deep, and spread
-them out even, forming first a rather firm and slightly convex surface,
-on which to place the little plant. This will be found to suit very much
-better than making a loose sort of hole into which to put the roots.
-
-It should be borne in mind that when fruit-trees send their roots deep
-into rich or cold ground, they produce a lot of coarse, useless wood,
-barren of fruit, or nearly so. To counteract this tendency, what is
-called root-pruning has been resorted to. It simply consists in taking
-up the trees once in two years or so, and replanting them--at least,
-this is the way with our little trees. It may not be necessary on many
-soils; but where it is, it may be readily done during pleasant dry
-weather in autumn. The check given to the tree by the disturbance,
-causes it to form fertile buds and a stubby habit. It is well that the
-young amateur gardener should know this, so that he may apply a remedy
-if his fruit-trees grow too strong and prove barren. But generally they
-are fertile enough, and even sometimes produce a successful crop the
-first year after planting; the second year they should bear well. The
-accident of a severe frost while the trees are in flower, will of course
-always do mischief, and may ruin a crop; but all are liable to this, as
-well as our Lilliputians. It is best to plant the erect little trees in
-a small square--pears and apples separate, for uniformity sake--and to
-place the cordons around this, just as the French make a sort of edging
-of them in their gardens. Indeed, if the boy cannot obtain a neat little
-sunny square for his tiny trees, he will hardly fail to succeed in
-getting permission to arrange a few in cordon fashion along the edge of
-some border. It is simply done by either driving down a strong wooden
-post, or an iron one, so as to support a wire at about ten inches or a
-foot from the ground. Beneath that, the trees are to be planted, say at
-a distance of six or eight feet, and tied along the wire. When once this
-is done there is no further trouble, except to pinch back the shoots in
-summer so as to keep them close and compact. This operation requires a
-little attention. The main stem, which is of course tied carefully but
-not too tightly to the wire sends out side shoots in the summer. When
-these are about four, or say from three to five inches long, they are to
-be pinched back, or in other words, nipped off, within about an inch of
-the base of the young shoot, in the case of apple-trees--in the case of
-pear-trees it should be left somewhat longer. This is for the summer
-pruning; in winter it may be necessary to go over the trees with a
-knife, and remove or shorten awkward spurs, or cut out dead bits here
-and there; but the summer pinching is the chief thing to be done in the
-matter. When the trees produce too plentiful a crop of fruit, these
-should be thinned when very young, so that those left may assume the
-splendid flavour and size which makes fruit grown in this way superior
-to that grown in the old and large tree system. I will now give you a
-list of the best kinds to use in this way, and which can be bought in
-any respectable nursery. Of apples the very best are Colville Blanche
-and Reinette de Canada, Cox's orange pippin, Hawthornden, Herefordshire
-Pearmain, Greaves' pippin, or any other first-class kind of apple. Of
-pears, Marie Louise, Winter Nelis, Beurré Diel, Jargonelle, Beurré
-d'Amanlis, and Joséphine de Malines, will be found very suitable for the
-dwarf bush or cordon style, as will most first-class pears.
-
-
-_Cropping the Ground._
-
-
-DIGGING.
-
-When land is first brought under the spade it should be well dug, and it
-ought to be trenched up; that is, a full spit or spadeful should be
-taken and thrown somewhat higher than the general level of the ground,
-and turned, so that the under part of the soil is brought to the
-surface; in doing this effectually a sort of trench will be left at the
-part where the spade goes in, and at the end of digging a piece of
-ground in this manner this trench will be required to be filled up. It
-is usual for gardeners to provide for this at the onset by bringing a
-barrow full of the mould from the part at which the spade is first put
-in, and filling up the trench so left at the end of the process. Common
-digging, when the ground is not to be trenched, consists in turning it
-over regularly and evenly with the spade. When manure is necessary, it
-is either hoed over the ground and dug in as the digger proceeds, or in
-trenching it may be laid in each successive trench as it is made, which
-will of course be covered by the next line of digging. Flower-beds are
-best turned up with a small three-pronged spade-fork; and it is often
-necessary to use the same instrument when digging between strawberry and
-other roots, which is technically called forking. The earth in this
-process is not turned over, but only broken up and loosened, and the
-handle of the fork not turned in the process, but drawn gently backwards
-with a kind of knock, which can be easily acquired by practice.
-
-
-HOEING.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The hoe is of very great use in a garden. There are generally three
-kinds of hoes: 1st, the narrow; 2d, the broad; and 3d, the Dutch hoe.
-The small hoe is used for hoeing in flower-beds; the broad one for
-earthing up peas, potatoes, &c., and the Dutch hoe is of service in dry
-weather in clearing the ground quickly of weeds. The two former hoes are
-used by drawing the handle to you, and hence called _draw hoes_; but the
-Dutch hoe is used by thrusting forward, when the weeds cut up by it fall
-through the hollow portion at (_a_) clear of the operation. In hoeing
-the hoer should be particularly careful to go quite to the roots of the
-weeds, and clear of the roots of the plants. In hoeing up peas he should
-be careful to draw the earth nicely among the haulms; and in hoeing up
-cabbages not to sprinkle the dirt among the tender leaves forming the
-heart of the plant.
-
-
-RAKING.
-
-There are two kinds of rakes,--the broad and narrow. The broad rake is
-for raking over seed beds, and the narrow one for raking borders among
-flowers, &c. In the use of the rake the gardener should first lightly
-drag off all the weeds and stones from the soil. In holding the handle
-of the rake high, all the loose stones, weeds, &c., will be easily drawn
-from the ground without the mould; when the handle is held low, the
-teeth of the rake enter the ground and scratch it up, which is sometimes
-necessary to be done; but the little gardener should be careful not to
-rake away his soil; and the little hard balls of earth that come over
-with the stones, &c. should be pulverised by the back of the rake.
-
-
-WEEDING.
-
-The garden should always be kept perfectly clear of weeds; a weed in a
-garden is a disgrace to the gardener, and unless a young person makes
-up his mind to be very particular in this he had better never think of
-gardening. Chickweed, dandelion, plantain, bindweed, and every other
-description of extraneous growth should be quickly removed, and that
-worst of all weeds, called the gardener's plague, "couchgrass," should
-be extirpated entirely, as should all suckers from the roots of trees.
-Weeds, if not in seed, should be thrown into the manure pit, but sticks
-or stones should never be mixed with them.
-
-
-SOWING SEEDS.
-
-[Illustration: DIBBER.]
-
-The ground having been dug and raked, and otherwise prepared, is fit for
-the reception of the seed. Radishes, carrots, parsnips, are sown by the
-hand broadcast; the way of sowing carrot seed is to mix it with the
-earth in a large flower-pot, and then to scatter it very thinly over the
-bed: at least, that way is suited to the boy's garden; in the open
-garden and the field they sow carrots and parsnips in drills. Peas are
-sown in drills about three inches deep and four feet apart. Broad beans
-are put in with a dibber in straight lines about five inches apart, the
-rows being four feet from each other. French beans are sown thinly in
-drills about four feet apart. Scarlet runners are put in by the dibber
-singly about three inches apart, and should have bean sticks placed near
-them as soon as they appear, upon which to climb. Cabbage-plants should
-be put in by the dibber about nine inches apart, in rows about four feet
-distant from each other. Cauliflowers should be planted eighteen inches
-apart either way, as should Scotch kale and sprouting brocoli. Spinach
-may be sown thinly in drills three feet apart, or broadcast in beds.
-Lettuce-seed, cabbage-seed, cauliflower-seed, and all kinds of
-flower-seeds should be first sown in warm situations in good mould very
-thinly, and then the plants should be transplanted as they grow of
-sufficient size. Potatoes should be planted with the dibber nine inches
-apart, in rows three feet apart, as should Jerusalem artichokes. Onions
-should be sown broadcast, in beds about six feet wide and fifteen or
-twenty long. The beds for parsnips and carrots may be six feet wide and
-thirty long.
-
-
-TRANSPLANTING.
-
-[Illustration: TROWEL.]
-
-This is a most important operation, and is indispensable in the art of
-gardening. A vast number of seeds must be sown in beds, and afterwards
-transplanted into their final situations; this is particularly the case
-with regard to flowers. The instrument with which transplanting is
-performed is called a trowel, of which there are both small and large.
-In using it the principal thing to be attended to, is to take the best
-and most vigorous of the plants raised in the seedbed, without injuring
-their roots, and with the earth around them, and placing them, with as
-little disturbance of their roots as possible, in their new situations.
-In transplanting shrubs, &c. from pots, the planter should very slightly
-break the earth round the roots of the plant, so that its fibres may
-have free play in the new earth. In transplanting shrubs, &c. particular
-care should be taken in digging them up, so that the young fibres of the
-roots are not injured. When shrubs, &c. are first transplanted, they
-should be moderately watered, and of course it is bad management to
-plant shrubs at a time when they are likely to suffer from sun. The
-right time to transplant is in the autumn and spring, when the ground is
-nice and dry, and "in good working order," as gardeners term it.
-
-
-WATERING.
-
-Nature is the best waterer of plants, and it is good policy to leave the
-matter as much as possible in her hands; but we must assist her now and
-then by applying it ourselves. In watering, pond water is much better
-than pump water; and in warm weather, if no pond water can be procured,
-it is well to pump the water into some large tank or tub, and let it
-stand for some hours exposed to the sun and air before using it. Morning
-and evening are the proper times for watering; the middle of the day, or
-during a hot sunshine, is a very improper time for using the
-watering-pot in summer-time, although it is the best time for using it
-in the winter. In watering plants in flower-pots the finger should be
-first passed round the pot where the mould joins the sides of the pot,
-so as to close up the little crack or crevice between them, otherwise
-the water will pass down this crack, and go out at the hole at the
-bottom of the pot without affording it any benefit. In watering, never
-let the water pass from the watering-pot close to the stem, but rather
-turn up the earth in a little circular space for a few inches round the
-plant, so that the water may soak down to the extremities of the roots,
-where the spongelets are which draw up the nutriment from the earth to
-support the plant. When you water, water well and thoroughly, and then
-there will be little need to do it often. To water frequently, and give
-a little at a time, is very bad gardening.
-
-
-VARIOUS MODES OF PROPAGATION.
-
-Plants are reproduced or propagated in various ways; some by seeds, some
-by offsets, as tulips and hyacinths; some by dividing the root, some by
-layers, some by cuttings. Currant and gooseberry-trees, as well as
-rose-trees, and also the vine, are propagated by cuttings; _i. e._
-pieces of the young last-year branches are cut off about six inches in
-length, and, the top being taken off, are placed with the thickest end
-in the ground. Strawberries are reproduced by dividing the root, or by
-taking the runner which the plant has itself fixed in the ground as the
-nucleus of a new plant, and putting it in a proper situation.
-Raspberries give out suckers from the parent root, which may be taken
-off and replanted, like the lilac, the rose, and many other plants; but
-in taking them off, which is generally done by a spade, they should be
-taken pretty near to the parent stem, and should have fibrous roots
-attached. In taking offsets, such as those of bulbous roots, it is only
-necessary to take those which nature herself separates from the parent
-bulb; in tubers, such as the artichoke and potato, the tubers of middle
-size are to be taken and planted; or in regard to the latter root, the
-eyes or shoots only are sometimes planted, the root being cut into
-various portions.
-
-
-LAYERS.
-
-If we observe the strawberry plant, we find that at a certain season of
-the year it throws out offsets, and at certain distances a knob or knot
-arises, from which roots shoot into the earth, while from its upper
-centre a bud appears, and then a new plant is formed. The process of
-layering is to artificially produce this, and similar operations of
-nature. Some plants throw out roots whenever their stump or branches
-come in contact with the soil, but others require the assistance of art.
-The art of layering, therefore, consists in taking the shoot of a
-growing plant as near the root as possible; this is first to be cut half
-through, and then a slit is made in an upward direction, and, a piece of
-twig being placed in the divided part, the shoot is pegged down with the
-joint buried in the ground. After a time this joint begins to throw out
-roots, and when these are firmly established and begin to draw nutriment
-from the earth, the shoot may be detached from its parent stem, and it
-then becomes a new plant. Layers may be made in the spring months, and
-also in the month of July.
-
-
-PIPINGS
-
-Are cuttings of carnations, pinks, &c. They are tubular stems, having
-joints at certain distances, and they are pulled asunder by the fingers
-at these joints; the lower leaves are then pulled off, and the pipe is
-placed in some nicely prepared soil, leaving its upper portion,
-consisting of the sprouting leaf bud, to grow, while the lower pipe
-shoots into a root.
-
-
-GRAFTING.
-
-Grafting, inarching, and budding, are generally performed in the month
-of March. The operation of inarching is sometimes performed by nature.
-When two branches of a tree lie in contact, the rough winds of winter
-often cause them to rub against each other, so that a wound is produced
-in one or both, and the juices that flow from the wounded parts
-gradually cause an incorporation of the substances, so that the two
-branches become united into one. This is not to be wondered at in
-branches of the same tree, or in those of the same kind, but it is a
-matter of some surprise to find that a tree bearing small and
-unpalatable fruit may be cut down, and the remaining part grafted with a
-scion from a species bearing large and delicious fruit, instead of the
-small sour fruit of the stalk. Thus it is then that by grafting, we
-preserve and multiply a favoured variety of trees which could not be
-propagated from seeds with any certainty of success.
-
-In order to the full success of this operation, grafting must be
-performed according to the rules that experience has laid down. The
-first is to graft or unite only such species as have a relationship
-subsisting between them. The operation never succeeds unless this union
-of nature is attended to, and the plants belong to the same genus. The
-next rule requires that the inner bark of the scion, and the inner bark
-of the stalk, be exactly united together, in order to facilitate the
-free course of the sap.
-
-The most common method of grafting is whip-grafting, or tongue-grafting.
-The name of whip-grafting is given from the method of cutting the stock
-and the scion sloping on one side so as to fit each other, and then
-tying them together in the manner of a whip-thong to the shaft or
-handle. The scion and stock are cut obliquely, and as nearly as possible
-at corresponding angles. The top of the stock is then cut off nearly
-horizontally, and a slit is made near the centre of it downwards, and a
-similar one in the scion upwards. The tongue, or wedge-like process
-forming the upper part of the sloping face of the scion, is then
-inserted downwards in the cleft of the stock, the inner barks being
-brought closely to unite on one side so as not to be displaced by tying,
-which ought to be done immediately with a riband, or matting, or bass,
-brought in a neat manner several times round the stock. The next
-operation is to clay the whole over an inch thick all round, for about
-half an inch or more below the bottom of the graft to an inch over the
-top of the stock, finishing the coat of clay in a kind of oval form,
-closing it effectually, so that no light, wet, nor wind, may penetrate.
-
-
-TONGUE-GRAFTING.
-
-Tongue-grafting is not very different to whip-grafting, and is performed
-as follows. The stock being ready, cut it off at three or four inches
-from the ground, and, with a very sharp, straight, and narrow-bladed
-knife, cut a thin slip of wood and bark upwards from about two inches
-below the top of the shortened stock. Make this cut at one pull of the
-knife, inserting the edge rather horizontally, and when it has gone
-through the bark and into the wood a little short of the middle, pull
-straight upwards. Then at less than half-way down this cut a thin
-tongue, not more than three-eighths of an inch long. Proceed in the same
-way with the thick part of the scion, making a sloping cut of about the
-same length as the cut of the stock, and make a tongue to correspond
-with that in the stock. Bring the four edges of the bark, that is, the
-two edges of the cut in the top of the stock and the two corresponding
-edges of the cut in the bottom of the scion, to meet precisely, which
-can never be the case unless the first cut in the stock and that in the
-scion is even as a die, and performed with a knife as sharp as a razor.
-The two parts thus formed, the tongues and the stock clasping one
-another must be bound up as before.
-
-
-BUDDING.
-
-Budding is the art of taking a bud from one tree and making it grow on
-another. A bud can only be planted upon a tree of the same kind as
-itself, and the operation is generally performed in the month of August.
-The bud should be taken from a shoot of the same year's growth, and, in
-taking it, should be neatly cut out by incisions made above it, below
-it, and longitudinally on either side, and the piece taken should
-include the bud, without injury to the bark, and a small piece of wood
-of an oblong form pointed at its extremity. A place is now cut to
-receive the bud in the shoot of a stock, and the best place is near the
-fork of a branch; the method of cutting is similar to that adopted for
-taking out the bud, and the bark is open on both sides of the slit, and
-the piece of bark to which the bud is attached is then filled in, and
-the bark of the stock closed over it; the two parts are then bound
-together with strips of fresh matting tied in bows and ends, for the
-purpose of being easily loosened as the bud increases in growth. The
-operation of budding requires the aid of a budding-knife, which may be
-readily purchased, and the success of the operation depends upon the
-care and nicety with which it is performed.
-
-
-INARCHING.
-
-We have already mentioned how nature performs what is called inarching.
-The gardener's art consists simply in bending a branch partly cut
-through, and inserting the belt thus formed into a slit made downwards
-in the stock to receive it. The parts being nicely fitted are bound with
-matting. In five or six months the head of the stock may be cut off, and
-the plant removed.
-
-
-GRAFTING-CLAY.
-
-Most of the operations of grafting require clay to be put round the
-parts. This is made of three parts of stiff yellow clay to one of
-horse-dung fresh as it falls, with a little cut hay, well mixed
-together; another kind of clay is made of a pound of pitch and a pound
-of yellow wax, mixed with two pounds of cow-dung. The use of them in
-covering the grafting posts is to keep them moist and cool till a proper
-union has taken place.
-
-
-PRUNING.
-
-The proper time for pruning trees is in December or January, for then
-the sap is down, and no injury can be done; and the art in pruning
-consists in cutting away the "water shoots," or non-bearing wood, "dead
-wood," and "superfluous wood." The water shoots, as they are called,
-appear to be strong growing branches, but generally produce neither
-flowers nor fruit; the superfluous wood are those shoots which grow in
-the way of each other, or cross each other, which should always be
-removed. The great principle in pruning a fruit tree is to leave all the
-tree free and open, so that the air and sunshine may pass through it,
-and to preserve the buds of the bearing wood. The shoots should be cut
-off as near to the stem or branch as possible, and all growths or
-suckers which appear below the crown of the tree should be taken off.
-The present practice of thumb-pruning is very excellent; by this means
-the superfluous shoots, &c., are removed by the thumb nail as soon as
-they appear, and thus the tree does not exhaust itself by the growth of
-useless wood. The young pruner should be very careful in cutting away,
-and recollect that what he cuts off he cannot put on again.
-
-
-TRAINING.
-
-The training of trees applies principally to those that are fastened to
-wooden trellises, to poles, or to walls. The principle of the art is to
-extend the bearing branches of a tree or plant, so as to improve its
-growth, its beauty, and its produce. Peaches, nectarines, apricots,
-vines, &c., are trained against walls by shreds of cloth being placed
-round the branches, and the two ends nailed to the wall. In doing this,
-care should be taken to give the branch room to play, and yet to confine
-it, not to hurt the tender fruit-shoots in the operation, and to let all
-the branches be free of each other. Roses and jasmines are often trained
-round verandahs by their different parts being tied with ropes' end or
-tarred twine to different parts of the trelliswork. Sometimes flowers
-are trained by being tied to stakes or long poles, and others are
-brought to pass through the round of an ornamental ladder, or through
-the meshes of wirework of different forms. But in every kind of training
-the principle is the same, namely that of keeping the branches clear of
-each other, and of preserving the flowering and bearing shoots. Neatness
-and taste are also indispensable requisites to the training and
-management of trees and flowers, whether for use or ornament.
-
-
-INSECTS AND DEPREDATORS.
-
-There are various kinds of depredators which find their way into
-gardens;--worms, slugs, caterpillars, moles, ants, birds, butterflies,
-snails, &c. These must be got rid of, or kept down, otherwise the
-gardening labours are soon at an end. In wild nature all the above
-"vermin," as some people designate them, are of the greatest service in
-some way or other; even worms and moles, which are very destructive in
-gardens, are of great service on commons, and therefore in destroying
-them we should always do so with as little pain as possible to the
-individuals; and, as prevention is better than cure, the young gardener
-should look out in winter for the eggs of various moths and butterflies,
-which may be often seen encircling the twigs of trees, or under the
-eaves of paling, &c., and destroy them. Caterpillars are best got rid of
-by picking them from the plants; and slugs, and snails, and worms, are
-often eradicated by turning a brood of young ducks into the ground for a
-short time, where they can do no injury to the beds. They may also be
-entrapped by laying cabbage leaves in different parts of the garden,
-under which they will creep in the night time. Moles must be caught with
-a mole-trap set in the line of their march. It consists simply of a bent
-stick, and a wire formed into a noose, slightly attached to the neck of
-a peg, into which the animal runs his head and gets strangled, by the
-elasticity of the rod drawing up the noose when the peg is disturbed.
-Ants are best got rid of by destroying their nest and eggs, the latter
-of which are excellent food for young chickens, pheasants, &c. The most
-destructive insect is the aphis, which attacks the rose, and this is
-best destroyed by the fumigation of tobacco-smoke, either through a pair
-of common bellows, or by means of the whirl-fumigator, which may be
-purchased for a few shillings; but the most certain mode of destruction
-is to obtain a few "golden beetles," and put near the plants infected by
-aphides; these are their natural enemies, and where they are placed the
-aphides will soon become extinct.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-PROTECTION FROM FROST.
-
-The common trees and fruits of the garden require but little care as
-regards frost in our comparatively mild winters, but many plants, trees,
-and shrubs, coming originally from warmer climates, require much
-attention during winter to keep them alive. It is useless to attempt
-preserving geraniums, myrtles, and a great many of our common summer
-plants, without keeping them through the winter in a greenhouse of some
-kind or other. A small greenhouse may now be cheaply erected, but for
-the preservation of a small number of plants the greenhouse pit is the
-cheapest and most convenient substitute. It consists only of a hole
-twelve feet by four dug in the ground to the depth of six feet, having
-at the top a skylight. It should if possible be dug in a sheltered
-situation, open to the south and well backed behind, and the glass-top,
-which should merely consist of one frame laid in a slanting position to
-the south over the top of the hole, the back of which is raised to
-support it, the front being slightly lowered. The entrance to the pit is
-at the side, to which a stout wooden door nailed over with straw bands
-should be attached, and two or three steps should lead to the interior
-of the pit, where a few shelves may be arranged upon which to place the
-flowers, &c. In this pit flowers, cuttings, bulbs, and a variety of
-other things, may be preserved through the winter, with very little cost
-or trouble, and it will be of a great deal of use in many other
-respects.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-THE YOUNG GARDENER'S CALENDAR FOR THE WORK TO BE DONE IN ALL THE MONTHS
-OF THE YEAR.
-
-
-JANUARY.
-
-In January, if the weather will permit, manure the ground, and dig the
-manure in. Plant out some strong early cabbage in warm situations: plant
-early kinds of Windsor beans. Sow peas, early Warwick, in drills two
-feet and a-half asunder; sow a first early crop of spinach; sow early
-radishes, and cover them with straw two inches thick, then uncover every
-mild day, and cover again in the evening. Plant in the flower border the
-various bulbs, such as snowdrops, crocuses, daffodils, jonquils, &c.,
-and also their offsets. Plant also the hardy herbaceous plants, such as
-asters, golden rods, campanulas, Canterbury bells, &c. Keep gravel walks
-clean.
-
-
-FEBRUARY.
-
-Peas, beans, spinach, lettuce, carrots, parsnips, beet, &c., may now be
-sown; and in hotbeds cucumbers, small salading, melons, lettuce, &c.
-Give air to plants under frames in the natural ground. Dig and prepare
-the compartments of beds and borders; sow many sorts of hardy annual
-flower seeds; the tender sorts in hotbeds, such as larkspurs,
-candy-tuft, yellow lupines, pansies, virgin stock, sweet scabious
-mignonette, ten-weeks stock, &c. And for edgings of border, plant box,
-thrift, daisies, parsley, strawberries, &c.
-
-
-MARCH.
-
-Still continue to prepare an appropriate ground by digging and manuring,
-sow again peas, beans, &c., if necessary, and especially a bed of
-turnips. Now is the time also to sow small herbs, as thyme, savory; you
-may also now plant various slips or cuttings of rosemary, rue, wormwood,
-and lavender. These should be the outward shoots produced last year,
-five or six inches long, and should be planted in a shady border, six
-inches apart. Now also may be sown nasturtiums, which may be sown in
-patches, dibbed in six inches apart, or in drills, near a rail or
-running fence. Potatoes may also be now planted in open weather. In
-planting them, take care to get the best sorts, and pick out some of the
-finest of a moderately large size, and then divide the tubers into two
-or three parts, leaving an eye or two to each; plant the pieces in rows
-about eighteen inches from each other, and about four inches deep. Now
-also is the time for pruning the various fruit trees, planting fresh
-sets of raspberries, strawberries, &c. In the flower garden the tender
-annuals are to be sown in hotbeds, such as cockscomb, balsam,
-china-aster, tobacco, convolvulus, &c. Ranunculuses, anemones, and the
-hardy annuals, may be sown in the open ground, and transplanting of all
-kinds of plants, shrubs, &c., may now be performed.
-
-
-APRIL.
-
-This is a transplanting month, particularly for cabbages and
-cauliflowers, all which should be now taken and put out for summer use.
-Celery should also now be pricked out. Continue to plant, if necessary,
-pot herbs and sweet herbs, such as rooted slips of balm, penny royal,
-and camomile. It is a good time also to plant out slips of mint from the
-roots; other crops of peas may also now be sown, as also a late crop of
-beans. Now also you may sow gourds and pumpkins in a frame. All pruning
-must be finished. Insects must be looked after on fruit trees. Vines may
-be laid down in layers; wall-fruit thinned; strawberry beds weeded, and
-kept very clean; new-budded and new-grafted trees well examined to see
-if the clay keeps close to the grafts. In the flower garden or borders
-some of the tender annuals may now be pricked out, and some of the
-others sown in the frame, such as Prince's feather, capsicum,
-love-apples, Indian corn, gourds, sweet balsam, marvel of Peru; stocks,
-and the hardy annuals, may now be sown in the open ground, as Adonis
-poppy, sweet peas, catch-fly, annual sunflower, larkspur, lupines,
-Venus's looking-glass. The best way to sow sweet peas is in pots, and
-protect them well from the birds, who will otherwise not leave one.
-Inarching may now be performed on evergreens and other plants, which you
-may wish to propagate this way.
-
-
-MAY.
-
-Lettuces will now want tying up. Peas will require sticking. Do not tie
-your lettuces up too tightly, and when you stick your peas put in the
-stick in a slanting direction. Clear and thin carrots and parsnips,
-leaving the largest plants at least four inches from each other; thin
-also onions; plant out cauliflowers. Sow brocoli seeds for the crop to
-come in on the following winter and early spring. Sow and plant savoys;
-top the broad beans that are now in blossom, which will make the pods
-set sooner and swell faster. Plant the various kinds of French beans,
-such as the white speckled, in drills about three feet apart, and sow
-them thin. Prick out and plant celery; continue to sow radishes and
-small salading for daily use. Water new planted crops, and now let more
-than common care be taken to destroy weeds amongst crops of every kind;
-and now is the time for using your Dutch hoe freely among the rows of
-peas, beans, and spinach; but do not leave your weeds about in the
-drills or borders; clear all carefully away, and keep the garden clean
-and neat.
-
-
-JUNE.
-
-Look after your melons, pumpkins, gourds, and cucumbers, in frames; let
-them be well supplied with fresh air and water. To save cauliflower
-seed, mark some of the best and earliest plants, with the largest and
-whitest and closest flower heads, which should not be cut, but left to
-run to seed. Peas may still be sown, and French beans also, as may
-cabbage and colewort seed. Gather mint, balm, and other aromatic herbs,
-towards the end of this month, for drying. Examine any new planted
-trees, see that they are not too dry, and that they are well secured.
-Water should be given to those that show any symptoms of flagging; water
-them well, but not frequently. Take care that your strawberry beds are
-also well watered. Hang up nets before early cherry-trees against walls,
-and over small trees, to protect them from the birds. Most of the tender
-annuals may be now finally planted out, and now is the time to take up
-the roots of tulips, crown imperials, jonquils, &c., and to take away
-the offsets. Continue to support with sticks all the tall growing
-flowering plants. Cut box-edgings, and regulate your flower borders,
-keeping your plants well watered if the weather should be very dry.
-
-
-JULY.
-
-You may now sow a batch of turnips for winter or autumn use, and also
-some carrot seed to raise young carrots for use later in the autumn.
-Celery may be transplanted, winter spinach may be sown, lettuces may be
-planted out, coleworts may be sown. Gather your cucumbers as they
-appear, and gather all sorts of seeds as they ripen in dry weather,
-pulling up the stems with the seed where it can be done. Bring out the
-cockscombs, double balsams, and all other curious annuals kept till this
-time in frames. Transplant annuals into the borders. Lay carnations and
-sweetwilliams; propagate pinks by pipings; transplant perennial plants.
-Take up bulbous roots, cut box-edgings, regulate your flower borders.
-Plant cuttings and slips of succulent plants; shift geraniums and other
-plants into larger pots, if necessary.
-
-
-AUGUST.
-
-Cauliflower seed must be sown between the 18th and the 24th. Celery
-should now be transplanted into trenches, and lettuce planted out. In
-the end of the month the dry flower stems of aromatic plants, such as
-hyssop, sage, lavender, should be cut down. Now look well out for
-various seeds as they ripen, which gather by cutting or pulling off the
-seed-stalks, then place them in the full sun against a hedge or wall to
-get them thoroughly dry. All flowers should now be carefully attended,
-and watered when necessary. The pink pipings should now be planted out
-in beds, and the seeds of many bulbous flowers, such as tulips,
-hyacinths, lilies, may be sown to obtain new varieties. Flower borders
-should occasionally be gone over with a sharp hoe, after which they
-should be raked over neatly, and all weeds and litter cleared away.
-
-
-SEPTEMBER.
-
-Lettuces may now be planted in frames, or in very warm borders, for
-winter use. Brocoli, cabbage and savoy plants may also be planted out,
-and young plants pricked out into nursery beds. Celery should be earthed
-up, and you should tie up the leaves of endive to blanch the plants
-white. The spinach sown in August should be thinned and cleared out, and
-small salading should be sown once a-week or fortnight. Gather ripe
-seeds as before, and see that the birds do not devour them. Now is a
-good time to plant the strong runner plants into separate beds, and at
-about fifteen inches asunder either way. Towards the end of the month
-hyacinth and tulip roots may be planted, as well as any other bulbous
-root. Anemone and ranunculus seed may be sown, and perennial plants
-transplanted. Continue to keep the flower borders always very clean, and
-begin digging vacant beds and borders for future planting.
-
-
-OCTOBER.
-
-Now the apples and pears begin to ripen. Seeds are still to be looked
-for and preserved, vacant spaces of ground are to be dug up and manured.
-Fruit trees may now be transplanted, and currant and gooseberry-trees
-may be planted. Recollect that the currant-trees may be cut close down
-to the fruit buds, but the gooseberry only half way down the last year's
-wood. Cut out irregular growths and suckers, and keep them trained to a
-single stem below. Strawberry beds should this month have their winter
-dressing of manure, and all the runners cleared away close to the head
-of the main plants. Raspberry plants may be pruned, the old stems cut
-away, and the last year's suckers' stems selected for the next year's
-bearings, and each of them shortened one-third in height. In the
-flower-garden the borders should be nicely dressed, and all kinds of
-plants may be transplanted, or their roots divided, and bulbs not yet
-planted may be put into the earth. Plant all kinds of shrubs and
-evergreen trees.
-
-
-NOVEMBER.
-
-Now is the time for digging up potatoes, and taking up carrots,
-parsnips, onions, &c., and storing them for winter use. Winter spinach
-should be weeded, and the red beet-root dug up. Onions may be pricked
-out to come in early in the spring. Trees may be pruned; all sorts of
-fruit trees and bulbous roots planted. Now tender plants should be
-removed to the pit or greenhouse.
-
-
-DECEMBER.
-
-Peas may be sown in a warm sheltered spot to come in early in the
-spring, as may Windsor and broad beans. Celery should be well earthed
-up, and all vacant ground manured, dug, or trenched. Secure the roots of
-newly planted trees from the frost by laying dungy litter round them,
-and the same may be done to the spots in which hyacinths, tulips,
-anemones, and ranunculuses are planted. Small young tender seedling
-flower plants also require care at this season. The borders may now be
-finally cleared and laid nice and smooth, the remainder of pot plants
-removed to the greenhouse or pit, which should be closed during the
-night, and only opened in fine mild weather; as the frost comes on place
-mats above the glass during the night, which should be removed in the
-morning. All leaves from trees, &c., should be collected in a pit for
-manure, free from sticks or stones, and the whole garden put into order
-for the frost.
-
-
-MIMICRY AND VENTRILOQUISM.
-
-"How can I become a ventriloquist?" is the frequent thought of a boy;
-and he is told, probably, that it is an exceptional faculty, and cannot
-possibly be acquired. This is not so; perseverance and practice are
-alone necessary to produce those wonderful results which never fail to
-captivate the public, if the student has a fair musical ear, and a
-talent for imitation which few boys are without. The deceptive nature of
-the sounds are the result of certain natural principles, which are
-called in to aid the experimenter. Those who have seen any professors of
-the ventriloquial art now living must have been struck by the apparent
-ease with which the effects are produced. This is not only the result of
-practice, but the careful attention to certain acoustic principles which
-regulate the direction of sounds. A sudden change in the direction of
-sound is oftentimes very perplexing to the ear, even when the eye can
-assist the other organs. The change of direction of the sound of a peal
-of bells, which is often interrupted by intervening buildings, is a
-familiar instance of this, their sound appearing to come from different
-places as the hearer changes his position. We can easily imagine that
-when the hearer is still, and the source of the sound moves, the
-deception becomes much greater, if skilfully applied to the purpose.
-
-The first great secret is to take a full and deep inspiration, so that
-the lungs may be well filled, to be used as a Highlander uses the
-windbag of his bagpipes, as required. If we remember that the larynx,
-which is the cavity in the throat behind the tongue, is capable of
-considerable flexibility, as well as the trachea or windpipe, we have
-good materials for ventriloquial effect; thus the mouth and tongue have
-really, but not apparently, a great deal to do with the modifications of
-the assumed voice. A clever ventriloquist recommends the mouth to be
-kept closed, and the tongue rolled back, so as to regulate, as it were,
-the sound which is formed in the larynx. This may be done by
-strengthening the abdominal muscles; and it is probably from this being
-so frequently done, that the name of "belly-speaking" arose. The highest
-perfection of ventriloquism is speaking with the lips closed, and
-apparently without an effort of any kind. Some old and some modern
-professors had this marvellous power in perfection.
-
-It has been recently observed that by constant practice the veil of the
-palate can be so exercised that it can be raised or depressed at will,
-so as to dilate or contract the inner nostrils. The effect of this
-contraction is the same as Mr. Hardy's rolled tongue; it muffles, as it
-were, the sound, renders it weak and dull, as if coming from a distance.
-On the other hand, if the nostrils are dilated to any extent, the sound
-gradually becomes apparently closer and closer, because it is more
-distinct.
-
-The uncertainty of the direction of sound greatly aids the
-ventriloquist. If a man and a woman are placed at either end of a
-tolerably large room, and each imitates with tolerable success the voice
-of the other, the confusion between the eye and the ear is so great that
-it becomes next to impossible to know which it was that spoke. It is
-thus necessary that the ventriloquist should either by word or gesture
-direct the attention of his hearers to the spot from whence they expect
-the sound to proceed. Really, in practice, there is little difference
-between the sound of a muffled voice, whether it is outside the door,
-above the ceiling, or down in the cellar. It is possible to acquire such
-a knowledge of the modifications of sound by distance, obstructions, or
-other causes, as to imitate them with wonderful accuracy. The late Mr.
-Love used to carry on a dialogue with a person in a box, and by a
-masterly modulation of his voice he gave it a muffled tone when he sat
-upon the box, and different degrees of sharpness as he gradually opened
-the lid.
-
-The best practice is to begin with imitations only of different voices,
-until some progress is made. Then commence to practise the muffled voice
-until the audience are satisfied that it is done tolerably well, for the
-operator cannot judge of the effect it is producing save by experience.
-The voice may now be changed until the second voice is marked by some
-distinguishing characteristic, such as bass, alto, gruff, or speaking.
-Then the distant voice may be tried, to be modulated as before as
-success is attained.
-
-A well-known ventriloquist used to make some excellent effects by
-speaking with a closed mouth when drawing an inspiration, instead of the
-usual method of speaking during the expiration of the breath.
-
-We will suppose a ventriloquist about to give an illustration of his
-art. He first takes care that none of his audience are between the line
-of his mouth and the spot from which the sound appears to proceed. Thus
-the simplest cause of ventriloquial effect is produced by standing with
-your back to the audience and your face to the door. With closed jaws
-you direct a muffled voice against the door. The sound which reaches the
-ears of the audience is a voice apparently outside the door, but in
-reality it is an echo of the artificial voice only. Take a simple
-example. You knock at the door, and in your natural voice you inquire if
-anyone is there. Assuming the muffled tone, you say that "it's a
-friend," and then inquire his name and business. The answers being
-given, you slightly open the door and the corner of your lips at the
-same time, and then the voice loses its muffled tone, and appears more
-distinct as it comes closer. The deception is more difficult to
-maintain, and the ventriloquist suddenly turns round and shows that the
-voice is in reality a mere shade.
-
-If we try the ceiling voice, or the familiar "man on the roof," we
-should use the upper notes, and reserve the lower notes for the "man in
-the cellar." In either of these illusions the lips should not be opened
-at all. The modulation of tones should be managed in the larynx, by the
-action of the tongue only, unless the voice is supposed to come down the
-chimney into the room. In either case the mouth should be turned to the
-place from whence the sound is supposed to proceed; and when speaking in
-his natural tones, the performer should address himself directly to the
-audience; always using appropriate gestures to signify the ascent or
-descent of the owner of the fictitious voice.
-
-These two voices are in reality the only true ventriloquial voices. The
-variation of tone and accent depends more on the organs of imitation
-than on true ventriloquism, though when both arts are combined the
-effect is so much enhanced as to become perfectly marvellous. One of the
-simplest sounds to produce is that of the humming-bee, wasp, or
-bluebottle fly. The first sound is produced in the chest, the latter by
-the lips. It is always well to attempt to catch the insect after it has
-indicated its presence. This enables the sound to be raised in tone, and
-occasionally muffled when the offending suppositious insect is inclosed
-in the handkerchief.
-
-The imitation of a knife-grinder is easily done, the grinding being
-produced by a sharp hissing sound through the teeth, and the "buffing"
-or polishing, by gently closing the lips and drawing the breath through
-them until they vibrate--a not uncommon schoolboy accomplishment. The
-sawing of wood, the frying of a pancake, the uncorking of a bottle, and
-the gurgling noise of pouring out the liquid, may all be successfully
-imitated; but these are much less striking and ingenious than true
-ventriloquism.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-PUZZLES.
-
-
-1. THE DIVIDED GARDEN.
-
-A person let his house to several inmates, who occupied different
-floors, and having a garden attached to the house, he was desirous of
-dividing it among them. There were ten trees in the garden, and he was
-desirous of dividing it so that each of the five inmates should have an
-equal share of garden and two trees. How did he do it?
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-2. THE VERTICAL LINE PUZZLE.
-
-Draw six vertical lines, as below, and, by adding five other lines to
-them, let the whole form nine.
-
- | | | | | |
- | | | | | |
- | | | | | |
-
-
-3. THE CARDBOARD PUZZLE.
-
-Take a piece of cardboard or leather, of the shape and measurement
-indicated by the diagram, cut it in such a manner that you yourself may
-pass through it, still keeping it in one piece.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-4. THE BUTTON PUZZLE.
-
-In the centre of a piece of leather make two parallel cuts with a
-penknife, and just below a small hole of the same width; then pass a
-piece of string under the slit and through the hole, as in the figure,
-and tie two buttons much larger than the hole to the ends of the string.
-The puzzle is, to get the string out again without taking off the
-buttons.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-5. THE CIRCLE PUZZLE.
-
-Get a piece of cardboard, the size and shape of the diagram, and punch
-in it twelve circles or holes in the position shown. The puzzle is, to
-cut the cardboard into four pieces of equal size, each piece to be of
-the same shape, and to contain three circles, without cutting into any
-of them.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-6. THE CROSS PUZZLE.
-
-Cut three pieces of paper to the shape of No. 1, one to the shape of No.
-2, and one to that of No. 3. Let them be of proportional sizes. Then
-place the pieces together so as to form a cross.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-7. THREE-SQUARE PUZZLE.
-
-Cut seventeen slips of cardboard of equal lengths, and place them on a
-table to form six squares, as in the diagram. It is now required to take
-away five of the pieces, yet to leave but three perfect squares.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-8. CYLINDER PUZZLE.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Cut a piece of cardboard about four inches long, of the shape of the
-diagram, and make three holes in it as represented. The puzzle is, to
-make one piece of wood pass through, and also exactly to fill, each of
-the three holes.
-
-
-9. THE NUNS.
-
-Twenty-four nuns were arranged in a convent by night by a sister, to
-count nine each way, as in the diagram. Four of them went out for a walk
-by moonlight. How were the remainder placed in the square so as still to
-count nine each way? The four who went out returned, bringing with them
-four friends; how were they all placed still to count nine each way, and
-thus to deceive the sister, as to whether there were 20, 24, 28, or 32,
-in the square?
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-10. THE DOG PUZZLE.
-
-The dogs are, by placing two lines upon them, to be suddenly aroused to
-life and made to run. Query, How and where should these lines be placed,
-and what should be the forms of them?
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-11. CUTTING OUT A CROSS.
-
-How can be cut out of a single piece of paper, and with one cut of the
-scissors, a perfect cross, and all the other forms as shown in the cuts?
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-12. ANOTHER CROSS PUZZLE.
-
-With three pieces of cardboard of the shape and size of No. 1, and one
-each of No. 2 and 3, to form a cross.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-13. THE FOUNTAIN PUZZLE.
-
-A is a wall, B C D three houses, and E F G three fountains or canals It
-is required to bring the water from E to D, from G to B, and from F to
-C, without one crossing the other, or passing outside of the wall A.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-14. THE CABINET-MAKER'S PUZZLE.
-
-A cabinet-maker had a circular piece of veneering, with which he has to
-veneer the tops of two oval stools; but it so happens that the area of
-the stools, exclusive of the hand-holes in the centre, and the circular
-piece, are the same, (as that of the circle.) How must he cut his stuff
-so as to be exactly sufficient for his purpose?
-
-
-15. THE STRING AND BALLS PUZZLE.
-
-Get an oblong strip of wood or ivory, and bore three holes in it, as
-shown in the cut. Then take a piece of twine, passing the two ends
-through the holes at the extremities, fastening them with a knot, and
-thread upon it two beads or rings, as depicted above. The puzzle is to
-get both beads on the same side, without removing the string from the
-holes, or untying the knots.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-16. THE DOUBLE-HEADED PUZZLE.
-
-Cut a circular piece of wood as in the cut No. 1, and four others, like
-No. 2. The puzzle consists in getting them all into the cross-shaped
-slit, until they look like Fig. 3.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-17. THE ROW OF HALFPENCE.
-
-Place ten halfpence in a row on the table. Then take up one of them and
-place it on another, never in any case passing over more than a penny
-(that is to say, two halfpence). Repeat the operation until no halfpenny
-remains by itself in the row.
-
-
-18. TYPOGRAPHICAL ADVICE.
-
-You are to read the following directions:--
-
- If your B m t put :
-
- When your IS . putting :
-
-
-19. THE LANDLORD MADE TO PAY.
-
-A well-known miser once invited his tenants to dinner at an inn, and to
-the surprise of the landlord, asked him to join the party. When the bill
-was brought in, the miser proposed that they should cast lots who should
-pay the whole score for the twenty-one persons who had dined. It was
-agreed that they should be counted by the days of the week, and that
-every time the counter called "Saturday," the person so named should
-leave the room until there was only one man left, and he should be
-paymaster. How did the miser contrive to throw the expense on the
-landlord?
-
-
-20. FATHER AND SON.
-
-An old country squire planted a number of oaks when his son was born,
-and on the twenty-seventh birthday of the young man there was a tree for
-every year, and yet though there were only 27 trees, there were ten rows
-and six trees in each row, which made sixty, the age of the squire
-himself. How did he manage it?
-
-
-ANSWERS TO PUZZLES.
-
-
-1. THE DIVIDED GARDEN ANSWER.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-2. ANSWER TO VERTICAL LINE PUZZLE.
-
- ___
- |\ | | |\ | |
- | \ | | | \ | |---
- | \| | | \| |___
-
-
-3. ANSWER TO CUT CARD PUZZLE.
-
-Double the cardboard or leather lengthways down the middle, and then cut
-first to the right, nearly to the end (the narrow way), and then to the
-left, and so on to the end of the card; then open it and cut down the
-middle, except the two ends. The diagram shows the proper cuttings. By
-opening the card or leather, a person may pass through it. A laurel leaf
-may be treated in the same manner.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-4. ANSWER TO THE BUTTON PUZZLE.
-
-Draw the narrow slip of the leather through the hole, and the string and
-buttons may be easily released.
-
-
-5. ANSWER TO THE CIRCLE PUZZLE.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-6. ANSWER TO THE CROSS PUZZLE.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-7. ANSWER TO THE THREE-SQUARE PUZZLE.
-
-Take away the pieces numbered 8, 10, 1, 3, 13, and three squares only
-will remain.
-
-
-ANSWER TO NO. 8.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Take a round cylinder of the diameter of the circular hole, and of the
-height of the square hole. Having drawn a straight line across the end,
-dividing it into two equal parts, cut an equal section from either side
-to the edge of the circular base, a figure like that represented by the
-woodcut in the margin would then be produced, which would fulfil the
-required conditions.
-
-
-9. ANSWER TO THE NUNS' PUZZLE.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-10. THE DOGS' PUZZLE ANSWERED, SEE DOTTED LINES
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-11. ANSWER TO CUTTING OUT A CROSS PUZZLE.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Take a piece of writing paper about three times as long as it is broad,
-say six inches long and two wide. Fold the upper corner down, as shown
-in Fig. 1; then fold the other upper corner over the first, and it will
-appear as in Fig. 2; you next fold the paper in half lengthwise, and it
-will appear as in Fig. 3. Then the last fold is made lengthwise also, in
-the middle of the paper, and it will exhibit the form of Fig. 4, which,
-when cut through with the scissors in the direction of the dotted line,
-will give all the forms mentioned.
-
-
-12. ANSWER TO ANOTHER CROSS PUZZLE.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-13. ANSWER TO THE FOUNTAIN PUZZLE.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-14. ANSWER TO THE CABINET-MAKER'S PUZZLE.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The cabinet-maker must find the centre of the circle, and strike another
-circle, half the diameter of the first, and having the same centre.
-Then cut the whole into four parts, by means of two lines drawn at right
-angles to each other, then cut along the inner circle, and put the
-pieces together as in the above diagram.
-
-
-15. ANSWER TO THE STRING AND BALLS PUZZLE.
-
-Draw the loop well down, slipping either ball through it. Push it
-through the hole at the extremities, pass it over the knot, and draw it
-through again. The same process must be repeated with the other ball;
-the loop can then be drawn through the hole in the centre, and the ball
-will slide along the cord until it reaches the other side. The string is
-then replaced, having both balls on the same side.
-
-This plan of passing the loop over the knot is a key to all the puzzles
-of this nature.
-
-There is another and perhaps a neater way of performing this trick. Draw
-the loop through the central hole, and bring it through far enough to
-pass one of the balls through. Having done this, draw the string back,
-and both balls will be found on the same side.
-
-
-16. ANSWER TO THE DOUBLE-HEADED PUZZLE.
-
-Arrange them side by side in the short arms of the cross, draw out the
-centre piece, and the rest will follow easily. The reversal of the same
-process will put them back again.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-17. THE ROW OF HALFPENCE.
-
-To perform this trick successfully, you must place the fourth on the
-first, seventh on the third, fifth upon the ninth, the second upon the
-sixth, and the eighth upon the tenth.
-
-
-18. TYPOGRAPHICAL PUZZLE.
-
-This puzzle should be read thus:--
-
-If your grate be (great B) empty, put coal on.
-
-When your grate is (great IS) full, stop putting coal on.
-
-
-19. THE LANDLORD MADE TO PAY.
-
-The counting, which stopped at every seventh man, was made to begin at
-the sixth from the landlord, who sat at the end of the table.
-
-
-20. FATHER AND SON.
-
-The trees were planted in this form:--
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-[Illustration: SHOWS.]
-
-Under this head we describe those shows which may be exhibited by any
-ingenious youth for the amusement of a large circle of friends. Parents
-frequently employ the itinerant Punch-and-Judy man to astonish and
-delight a juvenile party with his comical puppets; and we are convinced
-that they act wisely, as children of all ages enjoy nothing so much as a
-good show. The reader, by following our directions, may exhibit the
-freaks of Punch and Judy, the dancing figures of the Fantoccini, the
-grotesque shadows of the Gallanty Show; in fine, he may become quite an
-expert showman.
-
-
-[Illustration: PUNCH & JUDY]
-
-By following our directions, the reader may, with comparatively little
-trouble, construct some comical puppets, and acquire sufficient skill in
-working them, to give private representations of the celebrated drama of
-"Punch and Judy," which never fails to excite the laughter of old and
-young.
-
-In carving the heads of the puppets, the ingenuity of the reader will be
-most severely taxed. Each head must be fashioned out of a piece of soft
-wood, with a sharp penknife, and then painted with oil colours. An old
-wooden doll will be a capital model for the reader to work from, only he
-must cut much deeper, in order to make the features of his puppets
-sufficiently prominent. Punch's nose and chin may be formed of separate
-pieces of wood, and then fastened on to the face with a little glue. Our
-artist has drawn a full-length figure of Punch (see next page), and the
-faces of the other characters in the drama--namely, 1. Judy; 2. Beadle;
-3. Foreigner; 4. Ghost; 5. Doctor; 6. Clown; 7. Jones; 8. Hangman. The
-carver should study these illustrations attentively, and endeavour to
-imitate them. The eyes of the Ghost are two black beads, which may be
-fixed by pins, or loosely attached by short pieces of thread, so that
-they may roll about in their saucer-like sockets. The eyes of the other
-puppets may be formed of white beads, fixed by black-headed pins in
-small cavities made to receive them. The hair and beard of the
-Foreigner, and the Clown's three tufts, may be made of any kind of fur;
-the Hangman's wig, and the Doctor's scanty locks, of worsted. Each head
-should be about the size of an ordinary hen's egg, and should have a
-hole made at the bottom, large enough to receive the tip of the
-showman's finger.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Punch is the only puppet that exhibits his legs to the audience, and
-therefore the only one requiring lower limbs; these legs, as well as the
-hands of all the characters, are to be cut out of wood and painted.
-
-The cloth figures of the puppets must be so constructed, that the
-exhibitor can easily slip them over his hand and wrist; to these hollow
-bodies the heads and hands are to be securely fastened with a little
-glue, or some small tacks. Punch's figure may be formed of red merino,
-or any other gay-coloured stuff; the "goodly hunch" and prominent
-stomach must not be forgotten; these important appendages may be stuffed
-with cotton or tow. Judy's dress may be made of cotton print; the
-Beadle's, of blue cloth, edged with gold lace; the Foreigner's, of
-almost any kind of stuff; the Doctor's, of black cloth; and the dresses
-of Jones and the Hangman, of any sober-coloured stuffs. The Ghost must
-be enveloped in a long white linen gown; and the popular favourite, the
-Clown, must be arrayed in the true pantomimic style. In constructing the
-dresses, the reader will have his patience sorely tried, unless he can
-persuade a few young ladies to aid him with their nimble fingers.
-
-Motion is given to each of the puppets by the showman's hand, the
-forefinger of which moves the head, while the thumb and second finger
-work the two arms; the annexed engraving will elucidate this operation.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-We have not yet alluded to two important characters in the
-drama--namely, the Baby and the eccentric dog Toby. Any little doll may
-be dressed in long-clothes to represent the Baby, so the reader may be
-spared the trouble of carving another head. The part of Toby is
-generally filled by a living performer, but as we do not suppose the
-reader to be the owner of a properly-trained cur, we recommend him to
-procure one of those barking or squeaking dogs which are sold at the
-toy-shops; with such a Toby, the fun of the piece will be increased
-rather than diminished.
-
-Punch's stick must be about a foot long, and quite half an inch thick;
-it must be formed of tough wood, as some rough work is performed with it
-during the progress of the drama. The gallows must be of the letter [F]
-form, and must have two holes bored through the end of the projecting
-beam; the cord having been knotted at one end, is to be passed through
-each hole.
-
-Having described the puppets, we will now say a few words about the show
-in which they are to be exhibited. The dingy curtains which conceal the
-street performer of Punch, are supported by a tall rectangular frame of
-wood, which the reader could not imitate without considerable labour and
-some knowledge of carpentry. The show we recommend is simply a box about
-three feet square, open in front and at bottom; this is hung upon nails
-against the wall, above the head of the amateur showman, who is hidden
-from view by curtains which reach from the box to the floor. The box may
-be a large tea-chest inverted, with the lid and one of its sides
-removed. The inside of the box should be hung with green-baize, or any
-other dark-coloured stuff. A proscenium cut out of pasteboard, and
-tastefully painted, should be fastened in front of the box, so as to
-conceal the unsightly edges of the wood. A shelf of wood about four
-inches wide should project beyond the proscenium, so as to form a little
-stage upon which Punch may drum his legs, lay down his stick, and place
-the dead bodies of his victims; this shelf may be fixed by screws
-passing through the two sides of the box.
-
-During the performance the puppets must be kept in an open box hanging
-against the wall within reach of the showman.
-
-The reader having prepared everything, should learn the drama, and
-practise the different voices which he intends to give to the different
-characters. He will probably be some time before he can acquire the
-peculiar squeak of Punch, which is generally supposed to be produced by
-an instrument called a "squeaker." With none of squeakers we have seen
-could any distinct words be uttered, and we therefore recommend the
-reader to trust to his own powers of mimicry. With regard to the musical
-accompaniments, the amateur showman should get some kind sister or
-cousin to sit at the piano, the notes of which are much more pleasing
-than those of the Pandean pipes and drum.
-
-
-[Illustration: FANTOCCINI]
-
-About sixty years ago, a puppet-show was exhibited at the west-end of
-London, with the Italian title of Fantoccini, which greatly attracted
-the notice of the public, and was spoken of as an extraordinary
-performance; it was, however, nothing more than a revival of the old
-puppet-show, which drew crowded and fashionable audiences during the
-reign of Queen Anne, and rivalled the more pompous exhibitions of the
-larger theatres. In the present day Fantoccini are exhibited in the open
-streets by the itinerant showman, whose ragged coat and battered hat
-show how puppets have fallen in the estimation of the fashionable
-public.
-
-Any ingenious youth may amuse and astonish a large circle of friends
-with an exhibition of dancing puppets, as the different figures are not
-difficult to construct, and their motions are very easily managed. The
-puppets may be common wooden dolls dressed up in appropriate costumes.
-The arms and legs are to be loosely attached to the bodies, so that they
-may be moved about in any direction by threads fastened to their
-extremities. These threads may be formed of black sewing-silk, or
-strong black cotton. All the threads proceeding from the different limbs
-and joints of a puppet are to be attached to a stick in such a manner as
-to allow the figure to stand in a natural attitude; the annexed
-engraving shows two puppets thus supported.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The puppet-show may be formed in the following simple manner:--Take a
-tall, three-sided clothes-horse, and place its outer edges against the
-wall so that it may inclose a square space; then hang curtains or shawls
-over the horse, leaving no part uncovered except a rectangular space
-close to the floor in front; to this opening you may, if you think
-proper, fix a painted proscenium. Now place a small towel-horse, hung
-with black stuff, at the distance of a foot behind the proscenium, to
-serve as a background to the stage, and to conceal your legs while you
-are engaged in working the puppets: having done this, lay down a little
-green-baize carpet on that part of the floor which represents the stage,
-and your puppet-show will be complete. The puppets may be illuminated by
-candles placed on the floor in front of the proscenium. The spectators
-are to be stationed as far from the show as possible, so that they may
-not perceive the threads.
-
-The performer takes his seat behind the small horse, and holding the
-stick to which the threads are fastened in his left hand, he manages the
-motions of the puppet with the fingers of his right hand. When the
-motions are very complicated, the showman may attach the stick to a
-string hanging from a rod placed across the top of the show, and employ
-the fingers of both hands in working the figure. With very little
-practice the amateur puppet-man may acquire great proficiency in the art
-of giving lifelike movements to the dolls.
-
-The reader may dress up his puppets in any fancy costumes, but he must
-endeavour to give to each its appropriate action. The following
-characters may perhaps be allowed to figure in his Fantoccini:--
-
-
-THE SAILOR.
-
-This puppet, which is represented in our illustration, is a popular
-favourite. The doll should have whiskers of Berlin wool glued on its
-cheeks, and a trim black silk pigtail attached to the back of the head.
-It is to be dressed in the conventional naval costume, namely, a blue
-jacket, loose white trousers, and a straw hat. On its entrance it should
-be made to bow to the audience in a characteristic manner, by inclining
-its body and kicking one leg behind it. The _Sailor's Hornpipe_ is then
-to be struck up by the pianist, and the puppet made to dance to the
-music. If the showman can manage six strings at once, two threads, not
-shown in our illustration, may be attached to the knees.
-
-
-THE JUGGLER
-
-May be dressed in a fanciful Eastern costume; a string is to be attached
-to the head, and another to each of the hands. A gilded ball, having a
-hole pierced through it, is strung on each hand-thread, and to each ball
-a fine silken thread is attached. Our illustration shows how the five
-threads are to be attached to the supporting-stick. A little practice
-will enable the showman to work this puppet so dexterously that the
-spectators will be fairly puzzled to tell how the rapid tossing and
-catching of the balls is managed.
-
-
-THE HEADLESS MAN.
-
-This puppet may be dressed according to the reader's fancy; its head is
-not fastened to the body, but is strung on a thread attached to the
-neck. When the showman has made the doll dance for a short time, he
-pulls the head from the body by means of a thread fastened to it, and
-makes the headless puppet dance on as if nothing had happened.
-
-
-THE MILKWOMAN.
-
-A puppet, dressed like a woman with a yoke of milkcans, makes its
-appearance and performs a country jig. Before the dance is concluded a
-little white doll jumps out of each can. The milkwoman tries to catch
-the dolls, but they fly out of sight. The trick is easily managed; to
-the head of each little doll is fastened a thread, which the showman
-pulls at the proper time. The yoke may be cut out of a piece of soft
-deal, and the cans may be made of pasteboard covered with tinfoil.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-POSTAGE STAMP COLLECTING, OR PHILATELY.
-
-Our young readers may vainly turn over the pages of any existing
-dictionary to find the scientific alias of the heading of this article.
-We trust the omission will be soon supplied, _Philately_, or Postage
-Stamp Collecting, having reached the dignity of a recognised science.
-
-The word is the English rendering of the French term _Philatélie_,
-bestowed by a distinguished Parisian amateur in substitution for what
-was called _timbromania_, the latter portion of which word caused an
-unpleasant association of ideas, and gave rise to many a sneer from the
-wiseacres who had not sense enough to understand the real utility of
-the pastime. It is derived from the Greek [Greek: philos] and [Greek:
-ateleia], the nearest equivalent traceable in classical lore to a modern
-postage stamp.
-
-To schoolboys in general be ascribed the honour of introducing the
-elegant and instructive fancy forming the subject of our dissertation.
-The young students of the college of Louvain in particular claim to have
-been the earliest collectors: thence the fancy spread over France and
-Germany, inoculating many an English pupil in continental seminaries, by
-whom it was transmitted home. Some Louvain scholars informed us last
-year that it had been long prohibited by the professors, as tending to
-induce inattention to their regular tasks! We think this a mistaken
-notion; convinced that a knowledge of geography, history, and the values
-of foreign coins is materially facilitated by the study of postage
-stamps; which, moreover, induces neatness, regularity, and a sure refuge
-from ennui on a rainy day. Before the reign of postage stamps, who ever
-heard of the obscure city whence emanates that unit of a strange set of
-five, engraved at page 759, or the equally mysterious Thurn and Taxis?
-
-What can give a better idea of the chances and changes fewer than ten
-years have produced in the vast tract of land known as the Danubian
-Principalities, whose stamps are representatives of Moldavia alone, of
-Moldo-Wallachia united, and of the same countries resuming their ancient
-denomination of Roumania, first under Prince Couza, now under Prince
-Charles of Hohenzollern?
-
-[Illustration]
-
-At the head of this paper is a reprint of an engraving taken from an old
-work on ancient and modern posts, printed at Paris in 1708. It portrays
-the various methods of transmitting news in use before the present
-almost universal system. The left-hand tower bears a lighted beacon; on
-the top of the right and central towers are men supposed to be shouting
-messages to be passed onwards from place to place, in the way some of
-our young classical scholars will remember is mentioned by Cæsar, book
-vii. chapter 3. The carrier pigeon above, and the dog in the foreground,
-represent other well-known modes. The former was, and still is, common
-in the East, and by no means disused here in the case of races,
-prize-fights, &c.; the latter was employed by the Portuguese during
-their East Indian conquests, and has been used until a late period by
-the Peruvians and other Americans.
-
-An early anticipation of the modern post-paid envelope is still in
-existence, appropriately addressed to the celebrated authoress of
-"Cyrus the Great," the originator of [Greek: angara] (_angara_), or
-posting-stations; but, strange to say, Persia, the earliest postal
-pioneer, has not yet adopted the stamp system, though essays have been
-submitted to the State.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The Californian Pony Expresses, and the earliest emission of Buenos
-Aires, are exemplars of this primitive way of communication. The
-last-named stamp has been supposed merely an essay; but we have seen it
-post-marked. A modification of the same is the Humboldt Express of
-Langton and Co. and a sort of travestie, the United States local of D.
-O. Blood.
-
-Other methods of transmitting correspondence, &c. are typified by the
-sailing vessels of British Guiana, the steamers on the extinct stamps of
-Buenos Aires, and the Pacific Steam Navigation Company; those of La
-Guaira and the Russian for the Levant sea-ports. An American idea, even
-too go-ahead for the reckless Yankees, for we cannot hear that it was
-ever put in practice, is also here embodied.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Nearly two centuries after the plan was broached in Paris appeared the
-well-known absurd Mulready envelope, an extraordinary evidence of
-official vagaries, that such an abortion should have received preference
-over hundreds of essays, of which the cut pictures by no means the best!
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The current envelopes for Great Britain, simple and compound, comprising
-every value from one penny to one shilling and sixpence, excepting only
-elevenpence and one shilling and fivepence, are certainly perfection;
-but are so little known or used that few are aware of other than the
-penny ones. We think our undeservedly vaunted penny label far surpassed
-in its own style by that of the islands of Antigua or St. Vincent, and
-the St. Kitt's essay here given.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-In the third year after the introduction of postal labels in Great
-Britain, the canton of Zurich would appear to have entertained the idea
-of imitating our example, the wonderfully rare if not unique pair of
-essays bearing the date of 1843 testifying visibly to that intention.
-Brazil, however, in the same year actually produced its first set, and
-is entitled to all the merit of seconding this marvellously successful
-move of ours. This was the large figure series, continued in the same
-style till those lately superseded, of which the red 280 and the yellow
-430 reis alone remain in use.
-
-Although the Zurich above alluded to was never in circulation, a pair
-something like it was so, either in the same or following year. The
-canton of Geneva next followed the lead. One of its stamps is unique on
-account of the custom of dividing it when but half value was needed.
-
-The canton of Basle next joined the philatelic ranks, followed after
-three years' interval by Vaud and Neufchatel. A twelvemonth previously
-our transatlantic brethren in the United States started the 5 cents
-bronze bearing the head of Franklin, and the large 10 cents with that of
-Washington.
-
-In the same year (1847) a decree for the adoption of postage stamps in
-Belgium was made, which was carried into effect a year and a half
-afterwards. Six months in advance appeared the beautifully engraved
-effigies of the French Republic; during the course of twenty years
-followed the counterfeit presentments of the Presidency, the uncircled,
-and the laurelled heads of the Emperor Napoleon.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The ensuing year witnessed emanations from Austria, Bavaria,
-Lombardo-Venetia, Prussia, Saxony, Sardinia, and the first of the
-interminable issues of Spain: also the long solitary pair recording the
-abortive insurrection of Schleswig Holstein in 1848-50. The postal
-representatives of Schleswig, of Holstein, and of the two States in
-combination, now number two dozen!
-
-This succession of stamps will ever possess a strong historical interest
-in consequence of their country's connexion with the startling events
-attendant on the continental convulsions of 1866. A similar value in
-relation to European annals, entitling them to the style and title of
-Paper Medals, must be laid on the now extinct hosts of Hanoverian labels
-and envelopes, with those of the defunct office of Thurn and Taxis,
-overwhelmed by the needle-guns of Prussia, after an existence of more
-than three hundred years.
-
-An approximate idea of the number of postage stamps, current and
-extinct, may be obtained from the latest edition of any good catalogue.
-That of Oppen's Album (10th edition) contains about 2,800 distinct
-individual stamps, but includes no varieties of colour other than those
-recognised by the most fastidiously disposed collectors, such as the
-light and dark blues of Thurn and Taxis, first issue; neither does it
-take much note of proofs or essays, or any of railway or local British
-labels, or of differences in watermark or mode of perforation; which
-latter variations are now considered important by the higher order of
-philatelists.
-
-The stamp-issuing localities amount at present to 122, 51 being in
-Europe; of these no fewer than seven have enlisted within the past
-twelvemonths, viz. Servia, the Virgin Islands, Guatemala, Salvador (see
-p. 758), Heligoland, Breslau, and Turk's Island. The latter is
-exquisitely engraved, but with the exception of the pink, the colours
-are execrable. The first two, and the Breslau local are appended.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Excluding the United States locals, whose name is legion, as well as
-those of Hamburg, most of which are spurious, the emissions of Spain
-count the highest. They amount to nearly ninety impressions for general
-postal purposes, besides several telegraphic and exclusively official
-issues. The later portraitures of Her Catholic Majesty, if correct,
-prove how very well she carries her age, with the assistance, perhaps,
-of some Spanish Madame Rachel. Compare one of the current set with those
-depicted at pages 759 and 767 and note the dates.
-
-The United States of North America, and those of Colombia, or the
-Granadine Confederation, afford us each the liberal allowance of between
-fifty and sixty varieties in colour, device, or value: the stamps of the
-former country, which are usually models of choice engraving, bear
-almost invariably the heads of their worthies, such as the late
-President Lincoln, and General Thomas (Stonewall) Jackson.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The memory of the great Confederate struggle will be ever preserved by
-the postage stamps issued from various cities in the revolting States;
-such as Memphis, Baton Rouge, Mobile, Charleston, New Orleans, &c. These
-had fancy devices, but the features of Jefferson Davis and J. C. Calhoun
-will reach posterity on two of the Confederate issues. On one of them
-also figures "Hickory" Jackson, a hero of the war in 1812.
-
-It is a singular fact that the illustrated postage stamp magazines, &c.
-are purchased by non-philatelic collectors for the purpose of cutting
-out the miniature portraits of celebrities, whose effigies are otherwise
-less conveniently attainable.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The palm of beauty will be assigned _nem. con._ to the current pair of
-Nova Scotia types. There are three of each, one representing the full
-front bust of our gracious Queen in state attire; the other Her
-Majesty's profile: the former in _scarlet_, _green_, and _black_; the
-latter in _lilac_, _blue_, and _black_. Of these the pair of _black_ are
-by far the most effective. One of them is more or less perfectly
-rendered by the Newfoundland 12 cents, and the South Australian two
-shilling, and fourpenny stamps; the other by the 24 cents of the former
-colony.
-
-There are numerous other exquisite specimens of the engraver's art to be
-found in a collection of postage stamps. The French republics, the Greek
-Mercuries, the Russian and Polish adhesives, and the Hong Kongs are
-admirable.
-
-The current Saxons, Bavarians, all the Portuguese, and the lately
-emitted Heligolands are the best examples of the relief or cameo style:
-engravings of these give but a poor idea of the original. The same
-method of type is much less effective in the Prussians, Oldenburgs,
-Schleswigs and Holsteins; but radiates in full effulgence in the
-faultless envelopes of our own country, in those of Baden, Hanover, and
-the extinct Saxons and Prussians; with our colonials of Ceylon and the
-Mauritius.
-
-The American Bank Note Company, we must perforce, most unpatriotically,
-admit to be unrivalled in plain engraving; of which the Nova Scotias,
-and some others noted above are instances: the trio of large newspaper
-and periodical labels issued last year in the United States, which bear
-the profiles of Washington, Franklin, and Lincoln respectively, and the
-Central-Fair locals too, are wellnigh perfection. The symbolical
-Newfoundlands are equally noteworthy.
-
-To the same, or a branch firm, we believe ourselves indebted for the
-lovely landscapes of Guatemala, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Salvador.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The swans of Western Australia, repeated in such variety of colour, ever
-attract attention; as do the keys of Bremen, the castles of Hamburg, the
-compounds of mysterious Bergedorf, the eagles of Lubeck, the quaint
-emissions of the Argentine Confederation, and the crossed keys and tiara
-of the Papal States, after the eye is wearied by the incessant array of
-heads and armorial bearings exhibited by the majority of stamp-emitting
-countries.
-
-The adhesives of the kingdoms once composing the Two Sicilies are both
-equally remarkable; that of Naples for its singularity, that of Sicily
-from its peculiar boldness of design and rich colouring.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The first stamps of Luxembourg, those of the Dutch East Indies, and
-Holland, exhibit marvellous variations in the portraiture of one and the
-same individual sovereign.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The marketable value of a postage stamp for collections does not,
-however, by any means, depend upon its beauty or deformity. The greater
-portion of the more attractive in appearance are purchasable at a very
-low figure: the most beautiful of all, the Nova Scotian black profile,
-can be had at its natal place for one cent, or an English halfpenny. The
-circular specimen of meagre ugliness below may be worth a couple of
-sovereigns, even when cancelled; a moderately well-stored juvenile album
-could be purchased for the price of an unused specimen, were such
-existing, which we strongly doubt. That of Romagna and the early Van
-Diemen's Land are little better.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Some of the frightful libels on the august countenances of the Emperor
-Napoleon, the Queen of Spain, and our own Sovereign, fetch also
-exorbitant fancy prices. The French affair goes by the name of the
-Cayenne essay; possibly because its concoctor was, or at least, deserved
-to be, transported thither for his impudence. The Queens' profiles on
-their colonial stamps for the Philippines and the Mauritius are mere
-caricatures.
-
-Slight improvement on the British Guiana stamp is made by some of the
-Honolulu emissions; also the local Bavarian; the Bollo Straordinario of
-Tuscany; the 10 and 15 centimes à percevoir of France; and the Land Post
-trio of Baden. The latter have the advantage of being printed on yellow
-paper.
-
-Some of the Sandwich Islands stamps, nevertheless, far outstrip the
-productions of some countries that were highly civilized long ere the
-full dress of one of their natives consisted of aught save a few beads.
-Portraits of the great, the late, and the regnant kings bearing the
-joint name of Kamehameha exist on stamps: the one given does but scant
-justice to its chastely designed original.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The French labels just alluded to are placed by the postal authorities
-on insufficiently paid letters. They are only surreptitiously
-purchasable at the post-offices, not being for public use; but this bit
-of red-tapeism is easily evaded for a con-sid-er-ation. Of similar
-character are the Bavarian before-mentioned, and the Italian segnatassa,
-figured above. A collector in Leghorn, unable to procure one of these
-latter, wrote a letter to himself without stamping it, expecting one of
-the then new labels to be affixed before delivery. Such was the case;
-but the letter lying on the hall-table, a friend of ours innocently
-abstracted the stamp and inclosed it to ourselves as the last new postal
-curiosity.
-
-Besides such slightly abnormal deviations from the general run of
-postage stamps, may be enumerated the "too late" label formerly used by
-the colony of Victoria, now particularly _recherché_ by philatelists,
-especially in an uncancelled state. This individual is unique in its
-application; but there are several impressions exclusively devoted to
-the _registration_ of letters. Those of Victoria, New South Wales, and
-Queensland (like the cut, but the word "registered" substituted for the
-value) are well known; and the recently emitted Prussians, one of which
-is given on the next page, are of somewhat kindred nature.
-
-The quaint centre device is an offshoot from that fertile field for
-philatelists, New Granada, alias the United States of Columbia; the R
-standing for _registrados_ (registered).
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Besides strictly governmental issues, many private firms and individuals
-have been tacitly allowed to issue postage stamps, more or less
-partaking of the character of regular official emanations. Such are
-those of the United States, amounting to upwards of five hundred; some
-of which, though catalogued, never did duty, and were only concocted for
-sale. They are now, we believe, all extinct. Some of them are
-represented on previous pages. The City of Hamburg has produced upwards
-of a hundred, of which the greater part are impostors. An unimpeached
-one will be found depicted farther on.
-
-The pages devoted to the U. S. locals by those who collect them, present
-a most varied and extraordinary appearance, from the endless varieties
-of device and colour employed. Profiles, busts, figures of men and
-animals, numerals, plain inscriptions, symbolical and allegorical
-representations meet the eye, varied with all the colours in and out of
-the rainbow.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Dresden, Breslau, Montreal, Shanghai, Constantinople, Edinburgh,
-Glasgow, and London, also contribute their quota towards the ranks of
-locals. These are all emissions of private firms: those of the third
-place mentioned are more than doubtful; the latter are now prohibited by
-law.
-
-To these may be added those of Throndhjems (Drontheim), Tammerfors,
-Helsingfors, with the Levant, Danubian, and Pacific Steam Companies. The
-legally authorised issues of Malta, the Danish West Indies, &c. and the
-very low values of continental stamps, may be likewise termed locals;
-not being available out of their own birthplace. The La Guairas, one of
-which is figured at page 754, must not be omitted from the list.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Still farther than the unaccredited locals from a strictly legitimate
-postal collection are the numerous labels issued by the several
-railroads. They amount to a considerable number altogether, ranging in
-value from one farthing to five shillings.
-
-Many of the foreign telegraph stamps are extremely tasty, especially the
-Belgian and Spanish: these, however, are not usually admitted into
-collections. Still less are our own now disused "Customs" labels, which
-far exceed the postals in beauty; as do our receipt, bill, and legal
-adhesives, some of which are as high as 5_l._ or more in value.
-
-The "needle-gun" war of 1866 introduced quite a novel genus of postage
-envelopes. They were employed in Prussia, Saxony, &c.; some for the use
-of civilians writing to their friends or relatives at camp; others for
-the exclusive service of the military. Some Brazilian youths, of more
-ingenuity than probity, concocted an imitation of these, and passed them
-off _at a price_ among dealers and amateurs, as being employed for a
-similar purpose in the conflict between the Brazilians and Paraguayans.
-
-The highest priced postage stamps were the once rare Pony Expresses (see
-page 753), one of which cost 4 dollars (16_s._ 8_d._) The 2 dollar one
-ranks next; then the five shilling of New South Wales, the Mauritius,
-and our own; the 96 cents of Hong Kong, the 8 reales of Mexico, the 90
-cents of the United States, the 1 scudo of Rome, and the 25 piastres of
-Turkey. The Ceylons are the most numerous in varieties of value, having
-no fewer than thirteen, from one halfpenny to two shillings. From four
-to six is the average number of monetary denominations for the same
-country. Some have more, as Hong Kong, which counts ten. The United
-States have the same number, besides four additional values in
-envelopes. New South Wales has eight, and Victoria nine values. France
-has nine at present, but a higher priced stamp is announced. Liberia,
-Turk's Island, and British Honduras have only three; Grenada, Nicaragua,
-British Columbia, and Antigua, issue but two; and Vancouver's Island,
-Malta, Sierra Leone, and Corrientes, only one. The last-named locality,
-being a small province of the Argentine Republic, has issued the same
-die for two several values. It was originally marked _un real_, but this
-was subsequently erased, no designation of value appearing. Three
-centavos was then its price. It is impressed in _black_, on _blue_, as
-well as _green_ paper. Like the New Caledonian, it was printed in sheets
-from a single block, each impression slightly differing.
-
-This is one of the few exceptions to the rule of postage stamps bearing
-a facial value. The earlier issues of the Mauritius, Trinidad, and
-Barbadoes partake of the same defect, being distinguishable by colour
-only. The Ionian Islanders were in a like category: but the sole
-existing specimens of this inconvenience are the halfpenny and penny
-Barbadians, and the whole set of St. Lucias.
-
-The result of this is, that the values of more than one of the early
-stamps of the Mauritius are still a subject of debate among some erudite
-philatelists. One of these stamps is sometimes found endorsed with
-"eightpence" in black letters, another with "fourpence." This clumsy
-method is even yet being adopted in a few instances, we suppose to save
-the expense of a new plate. The original sixpenny of St. Helena is
-printed in three different colours besides its own _blue_, and does duty
-in _green_, _carmine_, and _red_, cruelly tattooed with printed
-characters according to the stated value. The ninepenny of South
-Australia, doffing its modest hue for a bright orange, hand-stamped with
-black, is worth a penny more than heretofore. In like manner, the
-Italian government, wishing to put the screw on its faithful subjects,
-raised the tariff on home letters from 15 to 20 centesimi, and barred
-out the original value. The provisional East Indian may be joined to
-this uncomely group of disfigured identities, as also the newly emitted
-set for Singapore.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The impressions of Nevis; those now current of the Cape of Good Hope;
-and what are termed the Sydney stamps of New South Wales, are elegantly
-symbolical of their respective localities.
-
-The adhesives of British Columbia, Sierra Leone, and British Honduras,
-claim a very high rank for elegance of design and correctness of
-execution among our colonials. The extinct shilling stamp of Victoria
-may worthily dispute with its lately superseded sixpenny the unenviable
-distinction of ugliness.
-
-Excluding the railway stamps, and the United States newspaper labels,
-Liberia produces the largest stamps; Mecklenberg Schwerin and Brunswick
-the smallest. The latter two countries present the singularity of
-allowing the four small stamps to be used singly or in combination.
-
-The inscriptions on stamps being of course in the language of their
-native country, many impressions necessarily bear a particularly quaint
-appearance; as those of Egypt, Turkey, Cashmeer, Shanghai, Poland,
-Moldavia (see page 765), and Servia (see p. 756). The early emission of
-the Argentine Confederation is also an oddity.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The shapes of postage stamps present but little variation; a very large
-majority being more or less unequally sided rectangles. Few are
-perfectly square. The set of Bergedorf, and the disused Danish and Thurn
-and Taxis adhesives are instances, the former showing the further
-peculiarity of different sizes in regular gradation according to value.
-The impressions run sometimes on upright, sometimes on oblong
-rectangles. The narrowest of the latter is one of those of Wells, Fargo,
-and Co.; of the former, a very rare English essay, too elaborate for
-description.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Some few are octagonal, more or less irregular; some oval; some
-perfectly round; some indescribable, as the one-and-ninepenny Ceylon;
-and the ninepenny envelope of the Mauritius. The earlier emissions of
-Nova Scotia and New Brunswick were printed in such a way as to render
-the stamp lozenge-shaped.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-A small minority are triangular; the superseded stamps of the Cape of
-Good Hope, a solitary type of Newfoundland, and one of New Granada, are
-the only ones we can recollect ever seeing, except a black Austrian
-newspaper adhesive. The Langton local is unique in form.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Many stamps have been issued exclusively for newspapers, _feuilletons_,
-and printed matter in general, such as some Austrian and Venetian
-impressions. The B. G. and tassa gazzette of Modena, the 6 c. and 9
-centesimi of Parma, and others, were of like nature; as are the lower
-priced French, Italians, and Belgians. That of Frankfort is not
-adhesive, but hand-stamped, like those on our own newspapers, and is by
-some considered inadmissible in strictly postal collections.
-
-The _returned letter_ stamps must not pass unmentioned. That of
-Wurtemberg was long "alone in its glory;" but Munich, Augsburg,
-Nuremberg, and other Bavarian cities, have lately adopted them. Those
-forming the seal on returned letters in our own country are collected by
-some amateurs.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The enormous accumulation of proofs and essays, all which are ignored by
-many philatelists, are not to be lightly rejected. The former are
-certainly _articles de luxe_ or _fantaisie_, being simply veritable
-stamps printed in abnormal colours, as some of the United States, &c. Of
-the latter are three sorts--those by authorisation; those proposed by
-enterprising individuals to various governments; and those invented for
-sale to entrap the unwary.
-
-The best, as in the case of England, were not always chosen: look at the
-essay of Pellas the Genoese, and admire Italian discrimination--if you
-can. The Sicilian, on the other hand, is indubitably inferior to the
-adopted design. In the centre lies the audacious offspring of the Fenian
-rebellion.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Several essays proposed for Governments which have not yet instituted
-the postage stamp system, are surpassingly beautiful in device and
-execution. Those by M. Riester, of Paris, are particularly elegant,
-Bolivia for example. The _Poisson d'Avril_ (April Fool) stamp is a
-curiosity in philatelic lore; it was gravely chronicled as emanating
-from Moresnet, and deceived the very knowing ones. (See cut at foot of
-next page.)
-
-The longest reign in postal annals is twelve years; the defunct Dutch
-having lasted that period. Of the Spanish sets only two have outlived a
-twelvemonth unchanged. The 1 franc of the French empire, and the first
-issue of Schleswig-Holstein (see p. 755), were current rather more, the
-25 centimes of the Empire and the Italian (represented below) less than
-a year. The 1/2 tornese, Neapolitan arms, and the same _transmogrified_
-into the Cross of Savoy, endured each about a month. The 1/2 schilling
-_violet_, and 3 sch. _rose_ of Bergedorf, were a _nine_ days' wonder.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Among the notabilities of a choice postage-stamp collection may be
-chronicled the Connel essay. A New Brunswick postmaster of that name
-took the liberty of having his own physiognomy transferred to a sheet of
-postage stamps;--the result was his resignation. The tenpenny above
-depicted is unique, and was long supposed to be from Van Diemen's Land;
-but we rather believe it an English essay.
-
-The space allowed us compels an abrupt conclusion. We had intended
-touching on the eight various distinct modes of perforation, besides
-variations; and the distinguishing watermarks of various issues. We
-should also have liked to describe the amusing and exciting humours of
-'Change, which many of our readers may remember witnessing in Lombard
-Street and its neighbourhood, or in the gardens of the Luxembourg and
-the Tuileries in Paris, during the early days of stamp-collecting; but
-we trust enough has been written to excite the interest of many who have
-purchased this volume on other accounts, yet may thus be induced to
-become votaries to the interesting and instructive pursuit of Philately.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-TINSELLING.
-
-Should the reader feel inclined to try his hand at tinselling, he must
-procure one of those full-length theatrical portraits that are sold at
-the shops for a penny each. He ought to select one of the best-known
-figures, as he will then have no difficulty in procuring the embossed
-gold and silver work with which it is to be adorned. The whole figure
-must be carefully painted with water-colours, and the artist should take
-pains with those parts which are not intended to be covered or cut away.
-Having finished the preliminary operation of colouring, the artist
-should neatly cut away those parts of the engraving which represent
-drapery, and place under the spaces thus formed, satin, silk, or velvet
-of the proper colour, which may be secured to the back of the picture
-with a little gum.
-
-Many tinsellers employ regular print-colourers to shade their silks and
-satins, but we strongly advise the reader to trust to his own abilities,
-and boldly set work to indicate the folds of the drapery by proper
-shadows. The pieces cut out of the engraving will show him where the
-different shadows ought to fall, and as for the colours to be used, we
-may state as a general rule that silk, satin, or velvet of a certain
-colour ought to be shaded with darker tints of the same colour.
-Gum-water should be mixed with the colours used in shading, to prevent
-them running when applied to the woven fabric.
-
-The artist may now proceed to the work of tinselling, which consists in
-gumming little spangles and embossed ornaments over certain parts of the
-picture. Every piece of armour, every button, every jewel, and every
-weapon, should be represented in embossed work. All the pieces required
-for tinselling a figure may be purchased at the proper shops. In the
-figure of the warrior, the breastplate, shield, sword, and jewels would
-have to be formed of pieces of gilt or silver paper cut and stamped into
-proper shapes and patterns. The price of each piece of embossed work
-depends of course upon its size or elaborateness. When the picture is
-finished, it should be mounted on fine card-board, and placed in a neat
-frame.
-
-
-THE AMERICAN GAME OF BASE-BALL.
-
-The national game of ball of the American people, though having its
-origin in the English game of rounders, nevertheless possesses
-sufficiently marked features to entitle it to the distinction claimed
-for it. Unlike the schoolboy pastime from which it originated, it
-requires manly qualities in a high degree to excel in it. In fact, the
-difference between base-ball as played in America, and rounders as
-played in England, is as great as the contrast between the graceful and
-daring movements of an accomplished skater of the present time, and
-those of the skaters who, with pieces of ivory fastened to their feet,
-used to strive to glide over the ice in the year 1600. In base-ball, as
-in rounders, you use a bat and a ball and run round bases; but there all
-resemblance ceases.
-
-The American game of base-ball, as now played, is not more than ten
-years old, for its date only extends back to the period just previous to
-the organization of the National Association of Base-Ball Players, which
-Association formed the present code of rules, and is the only authorized
-body having any supervisory power over the game. In fact, the history of
-the game commences with the formation of the National Association,
-inasmuch as the rules previously in vogue were crude and irregular, and
-different in one locality from what they were in another. Since the
-organization of the National Association and the meeting of the first
-annual convention, however, the game has spread throughout the country,
-and entirely superseded every other game of ball as a national pastime.
-At first the Association consisted of delegates from clubs, but now it
-is composed of a congregation of representatives from State base-ball
-associations, governed by the National Association proper, each State
-association having immediate control of the affairs of its own clubs,
-and possessing its own judiciary committee to settle disputes, but no
-supervisory control over the playing rules of the game, that matter
-being placed in the hands of a committee of rules of the parent
-Association, to which is also attached a judiciary committee, forming a
-court of appeal from the decisions of State judiciary committees, and
-also a court to adjudicate upon disputes between clubs of two States.
-
-At the last convention of the "_National Association of Base-Ball
-Players_," which was held in Philadelphia, Dec. 11, 1867, and in which
-clubs from all sections of the country, from Maine to Iowa, and Michigan
-to Kentucky, were represented, the following code of rules was adopted
-to govern the play during the season of 1868:--
-
-
-RULES AND REGULATIONS
-
-ADOPTED BY THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF BASE-BALL PLAYERS.
-
-
-RULE I.--THE BALL, BAT, AND BASES.
-
-SEC. 1. The ball must weigh not less than five, nor more than five and
-one-quarter, ounces avoirdupois. It must measure not less than nine and
-one-quarter, nor more than nine and one-half, inches in circumference.
-It must be composed of india-rubber and yarn, and covered with leather,
-and, in all match games, shall be furnished by the challenging club, and
-become the property of the winning club as a trophy of victory.
-
-SEC. 2. The bat must be round, and must not exceed two and a half inches
-in diameter in the thickest part. It must be made of wood, and shall not
-exceed forty-two inches in length.
-
-SEC. 3. The bases must be four in number, placed at equal distances from
-each other, and securely fastened upon each corner of a square whose
-sides are respectively thirty yards. They must be so constructed and
-placed as to be distinctly seen by the umpire, and must cover a space
-equal to one square foot of surface. The first, second, and third bases
-shall be canvas-bags, painted white, and filled with some soft material;
-the home base and pitcher's points to be each marked by a flat plate,
-painted white.
-
-SEC. 4. The base from which the ball is struck shall be designated the
-home base, and must be directly opposite to the second base; the first
-base must always be that upon the right-hand side, and the third base
-that upon the left-hand side of the striker, when occupying his position
-at the home base. And in all match games a line connecting the home and
-first base, and the home and third base, shall be marked by the use of
-chalk, or other suitable material, so as to be distinctly seen by the
-umpire. The base-bag shall be considered the base, and not the post to
-which it is, or should be, fastened.
-
-
-RULE II.--THE PITCHING DEPARTMENT.
-
-SEC. 1. The pitcher's position shall be designated by two lines two
-yards in length, drawn at right angles to the line from the home to the
-second base, having their centres upon that line at two fixed iron
-plates, placed at points fifteen and sixteen and one-third yards distant
-from the home-base. The pitcher must stand within these lines, and must
-deliver the ball as near as possible over the centre of the home base,
-and fairly for the striker.
-
-SEC. 2. Should the pitcher repeatedly fail to deliver to the striker
-fair balls, for the apparent purpose of delaying the game, or for any
-cause, the umpire, after warning him, shall call one ball, and if the
-pitcher persists in such action, two, and three balls; when three balls
-shall have been called, the striker shall take the first base; and
-should any base be occupied at that time each player occupying it or
-them shall take one base without being put out. All balls delivered by
-the pitcher, striking the ground in front of the home base, or pitched
-over the head of the batsman, or pitched to the side opposite to that
-which the batsman strikes from, shall be considered unfair balls.
-
-SEC. 3. The ball must be pitched, not jerked or thrown, to the bat; and
-whenever the pitcher moves with the apparent purpose or pretension to
-deliver the ball, he shall so deliver it, and must have neither foot in
-advance of the front line at the time of delivering the ball; and if he
-fails in either of these particulars, then it shall be declared a balk.
-The ball shall be considered jerked, in the meaning of the rule, if the
-pitcher's arm touches his person when the arm is swung forward to
-deliver the ball; and it shall be regarded as a throw, if the arm be
-bent at the elbow, at an angle from the body, or horizontally from the
-shoulder, when it is swung forward to deliver the ball.
-
-SEC. 4. No player shall be put out on any hit ball on which a balk or a
-ball has been called; and neither shall a strike or a foul ball be
-called, or a base run on such a hit ball. But bases can be taken on
-third-"called" balls, and on "balked" balls, in accordance with Section
-2 of Rule II.
-
-
-RULE III.--THE BATTING DEPARTMENT.
-
-SEC. 1. The striker, when about to strike the ball, must stand astride
-of a line drawn through the centre of the home base, not exceeding three
-feet from either side thereof, and parallel with the front line of the
-pitcher's position, and he must not take any backward step when striking
-at the ball. The penalty for an infringement of this rule shall be the
-calling of one strike; and when three such strikes have been called, the
-striker shall be declared out. If a ball on which such a strike is
-called be hit and caught, either fair or foul, the striker shall be
-declared out. No base shall be run on any such called strike, and any
-player running the bases shall be allowed to return to the base he has
-left, without being put out. As soon as the striker has struck a fair
-ball, he shall be considered "a player running the bases."
-
-SEC. 2. Players must strike in regular rotation, and, after the first
-innings is played, the turn commences with the player who stands on the
-list next to the one who was the third player out.
-
-SEC. 3. Should a striker stand at the bat without striking at fair
-balls, for the apparent purpose of delaying the game, or of giving
-advantage to a player, the umpire, after warning him, shall call one
-strike, and, if he persists in such action, two, and three strikes. When
-three strikes are called, and the ball be caught, either before touching
-the ground or upon the first bound, the striker shall be declared out,
-provided the balls struck at are not those on which balls or balks have
-been called, or not those struck at for the purpose of wilfully striking
-out. If three balls are struck at and missed, and the last one is not
-caught, either flying or upon the first bound, the striker must attempt
-to make his run, and he can be put out on the bases in the same manner
-as if he had struck a fair ball.
-
-SEC. 4. The striker is out if a foul ball is caught, either before
-touching the ground or upon the first bound; or if a fair ball is
-struck, and the ball be held before touching the ground; or if a fair
-ball is struck, and the ball be held by an adversary on first base,
-before the striker touches that base.
-
-
-RULE IV.--RUNNING THE BASES.
-
-SEC. 1. Players must make their bases in the order of striking; and when
-a fair ball is struck, and not caught flying, the first base must be
-vacated, as also the second and third bases, if they are occupied at the
-same time. Players may be put out on any base, under these
-circumstances, in the same manner as when running to the first base.
-
-SEC. 2. Any player running the bases is out, if at any time he is
-touched by the ball, while in play, in the hands of an adversary,
-without some part of his person being on the base.
-
-SEC. 3. No run or base can be made upon a foul ball. Such a ball shall
-be considered dead, and not in play, until it shall first have been
-settled in the hands of the pitcher. In such cases players running bases
-shall return to them, and may be put out in so returning, in the same
-manner as when running to first base. Neither can a run or base be made
-when a fair ball has been caught without having touched the ground; but
-such a ball shall be considered alive and in play. In such cases, also,
-players running bases shall return to them, and may be put out in so
-returning, in the same manner as when running to first base; but
-players, when balls are so caught, may run their bases immediately after
-the ball has been settled in the hands of the player catching it.
-
-SEC. 4. When a balk is made by the pitcher, every player running the
-bases is entitled to one base, without being put out.
-
-SEC. 5. A player making the home base shall be entitled to score one
-run.
-
-SEC. 6. If two hands are already out, no player running home at the time
-the ball is struck can make a run to count in the score of the game, if
-the striker is put out.
-
-SEC. 7. Players running bases must touch them, and, so far as possible,
-keep upon the direct line between them, and must touch them in the
-following order--first, second, third, and home; and if returning, must
-reverse this order; and should any player run three feet out of this
-line, for the purpose of avoiding the ball in the hands of an adversary,
-he shall be declared out; or if he fail to touch each base he runs to he
-shall be declared out, unless he return to such base before the ball be
-held on it.
-
-SEC. 8. If the player is prevented from making a base by the
-intentional obstruction of an adversary, he shall be entitled to that
-base, and shall not he put out. Any obstruction that could readily have
-been avoided shall be considered as intentional.
-
-
-RULE V.--THE GAME.
-
-SEC. 1. The game shall consist of nine innings to each side, when,
-should the number of runs be equal, the play shall be continued until a
-majority of runs, upon an equal number of innings, shall be declared,
-which shall conclude the game. An innings must be concluded at the time
-the third hand is put out.
-
-SEC. 2. In playing all matches, nine players from each club shall
-constitute a full field; and they shall be members of the club which
-they represent. They also must not have been members of any other club,
-either in or out of the National Association, for thirty days
-immediately prior to the match. Positions of players and choice of
-innings shall be determined by captains previously appointed for that
-purpose by the respective clubs. Every player taking part in a regular
-match game, no matter what number of innings are played, shall be, in
-the meaning of this section of the rules, considered a member of the
-club he plays with.
-
-SEC. 3. When a club sends a challenge to play a first-nine match game of
-base-ball, and the same is accepted, the first game shall be played upon
-the grounds of the challenging club, within fifteen days from the date
-of the acceptance of the challenge; the second game shall be played upon
-the grounds of the challenged club within fifteen days thereafter; and
-if a third game be necessary, it shall be played upon grounds to be
-mutually agreed upon, within fifteen days from the date of the second
-game; _provided_: that the above arrangement may be varied by mutual
-consent. And when a first-nine match game is to be played, the
-contestants shall present on the field their recognized first-nines, as
-far as practicable.
-
-SEC. 4. Whenever a match shall have been determined upon between two
-clubs, play shall be called at the exact hour appointed; and should
-either party fail to produce their players within thirty minutes
-thereafter, the party so failing shall admit a defeat, and shall deliver
-the ball before leaving the ground, which ball shall be received by the
-club who are ready to play, and the same shall be considered as won, and
-so counted in the list of matches played; and the winning club shall be
-entitled to a score of nine runs for any game so forfeited, unless the
-delinquent side fail to play on account of the recent death of one of
-its members, and sufficient time has not elapsed to enable them to give
-their opponents due notice before arriving on the ground.
-
-SEC. 5. No person who shall be in arrears to any other club than the one
-he plays with, shall be competent to take part in any match game.
-
-SEC. 6. No player, not in the nine taking their positions on the field
-in the _third_ innings of a game, shall be substituted for a player,
-except for reason of illness or injury.
-
-SEC. 7. No match game shall be commenced when rain is falling; and
-neither shall any such game be continued after rain has fallen for five
-minutes. No match game shall be postponed unless by the mutual consent
-of the contesting clubs.
-
-SEC. 8. Every match game shall be decided by the best two games out of
-three, unless a single game shall be mutually agreed upon by the
-contesting clubs; and all matches shall terminate before the close of
-the season.
-
-SEC. 9. No person who shall be in arrears to any other club, or who
-shall at any time receive compensation for his services as a player,
-shall be competent to play in any match. No players, who play base-ball
-for money, shall take part in any match game; and any club giving any
-compensation to a player, or having, to their knowledge, a player in
-their nine playing in a match for compensation, shall be debarred from
-membership in the National Association; and they shall not be considered
-by any club belonging to this Association as a proper club to engage in
-a match with; and should any club so engage with them, they shall
-forfeit membership.
-
-
-RULE VI.--MISCELLANEOUS.
-
-SEC. 1. If an adversary stops the ball with his hat or cap, or if a ball
-be stopped by any person or persons not engaged in the game, no player
-running the bases can be put out unless the ball shall first have been
-settled in the hands of the pitcher while he stands in the line of his
-position.
-
-SEC. 2. Any player who shall intentionally prevent an adversary from
-catching or fielding the ball, shall be declared out; or if any player
-be prevented from making a base by the intentional obstruction of an
-adversary, he shall be entitled to that base, and shall not be declared
-out, even if touched with the ball.
-
-SEC. 3. If a fair ball be held by a player before touching the ground,
-after rebounding from the hands or person of a player, it shall be
-considered a fair catch. And if a foul ball be similarly held after
-touching the ground but once, it shall be considered a fair catch.
-
-SEC. 4. If the ball, from the stroke of a bat, first touches the ground,
-the person of a player, or any other object, behind the line or range of
-home and the first base, or home and the third base, it shall be termed
-foul, and must be so declared by the umpire, unasked. If the ball first
-touches the ground either upon or in front of the line or range of those
-bases, it shall be considered fair.
-
-SEC. 5. Clubs may adopt such rules respecting balls knocked beyond or
-outside of the bounds of the field, as the circumstances of the ground
-may demand; and these rules shall govern all matches played upon the
-ground, provided that they are distinctly made known to the umpire
-previous to the commencement of the game.
-
-SEC. 6. The captains of each nine shall alone be allowed to appeal for
-the reversal of a decision of the umpire.
-
-SEC. 7. No base can be run, or player be put out, on a dead ball.
-
-
-RULE VII.--DUTIES OF THE UMPIRE.
-
-SEC. 1. The umpire shall take care that the regulations respecting the
-ball, bats, bases, and the pitcher's and striker's positions, are
-strictly observed, and he shall require the challenging club to furnish
-a ball, on which the size, weight, and the name of the manufacturer
-shall be stamped. He shall be the sole judge of fair and unfair play,
-and shall determine all disputes and differences which may occur during
-the game. He shall take special care to declare all foul balls and
-balks, immediately upon their occurrence, in a distinct and audible
-manner. He shall, in every instance, before leaving the ground, declare
-the winning club, and shall record his decision in the books of the
-scorers. The umpire shall also require that the game be recorded by a
-scorer for each of the contesting clubs. In all matches the umpire shall
-be selected by the captains of the respective sides, and shall perform
-all duties above enumerated.
-
-SEC. 2. The umpire in any match shall determine when play shall be
-suspended; and, if the game cannot be fairly concluded, it shall be
-decided by the last equal innings, provided five innings have been
-played; and the party having the greatest number of runs shall be
-declared the winner.
-
-SEC. 3. When the umpire calls "play," the game must at once be proceeded
-with; and the party failing to take their appointed positions in the
-game within five minutes thereafter shall forfeit the game. When the
-umpire calls "time," play shall be suspended until he calls "play"
-again.
-
-SEC. 4. When the umpire "calls" a game, it shall end; but when he merely
-suspends play for any stated period, it may be resumed at the point at
-which it was suspended, provided such suspension does not extend beyond
-the day of the match.
-
-SEC. 5. No person engaged in a match, either as umpire, scorer, or
-player, shall be either directly or indirectly interested in any bet
-upon the game. Nor shall any person be permitted to act as umpire or
-scorer in any match unless he shall be a member of the National
-Association, or of a State branch thereof. Neither shall the umpire or
-scorer be changed during a match, unless with the consent of both
-parties, except for reason of illness or injury, or for a violation of
-the above rules.
-
-SEC. 6. No decision given by the umpire shall be reversed upon the
-testimony of any player; and no decision whatever shall be reversed,
-except for a palpable infringement of the rules, and then only on an
-appeal by the captain.
-
-SEC. 7. No person shall be permitted to approach or to speak with the
-umpire, scorers, or players, or in any manner to interrupt or interfere
-during the progress of the game, unless by special request of the
-umpire. Any match game played by any club in contravention to the rules
-adopted by the National Association, shall be considered null and void,
-and shall not be counted in the list of match games won and lost.
-
- * * * * *
-
-For the information of clubs desirous of joining the National
-Association, or of organising a State branch thereof, we give below
-those portions of the constitution of the Association bearing upon the
-subject:--
-
-ARTICLE 3, SECTION 1. This Association shall be composed of delegates
-from the several State base-ball associations which have been duly
-admitted to a representation in the convention forming this
-constitution, or which may be admitted to a representation in the manner
-hereinafter provided. Each State association shall be entitled to one
-delegate for every ten clubs, or fractional part of ten clubs, belonging
-to such association. No individual club shall be entitled to
-representation in this Association unless located in a state, territory,
-or district, where there are not sufficient clubs to form a State
-association. Each delegate shall be entitled to one vote, and no vote by
-proxy shall be allowed.
-
-SEC. 2. Any State base-ball association desiring to be represented in
-this Association shall present to the recording secretary, at least
-thirty days previous to the annual meeting of this Association, a
-written official certificate, signed by the president and secretary of
-the State association they represent, giving the names and number of the
-clubs composing said association, date of their organization, names of
-their officers, and number of members belonging to each club; also the
-date of organization of the State association, and the names of their
-delegates. Territories and the district of Columbia shall be considered
-as states within the meaning of this section.
-
-SEC. 3. All applications shall be immediately submitted to the committee
-on nominations; but no such application shall be received by said
-secretary unless presented thirty days previous to the annual meeting.
-Said committee shall thereupon ascertain the condition, character, and
-standing of such State base-ball association, and report the same at the
-annual meeting, with the said application and their opinion thereon; and
-a ballot shall thereupon be had at such meeting, upon the admission of
-such State base-ball association, when, if two-thirds of the members
-present vote in favour thereof, such State base-ball association shall
-be declared duly entitled to representation in this Association. Any
-informality or irregularity in the form or substance of the application
-may be waived by a two thirds vote of the members present at the annual
-meeting.
-
-SEC. 4. No State association shall be represented in the Association
-unless composed of ten clubs, numbering at least eighteen active members
-each, or by any delegate under twenty-one years of age; nor shall any
-State base-ball association be so represented until its delegates have
-paid a fee hereinafter designated.
-
-SEC. 5. Any State association organized after the adjournment of the
-annual meeting of this Association, may be elected probationary members
-thereof, after conforming to the requirements of sections second, third,
-and fourth, by the nominating committee. They shall be liable to the
-payment of dues and assessments, and be eligible to all the privileges
-of regular members of the Association until the next annual meeting, at
-which time they must be duly elected in the same manner as all regular
-members.
-
-
-THE GAME OF BASE-BALL.
-
-As before asserted, the American game of base-ball requires a high
-degree of physical ability, and the possession of manly characteristics
-to excel in it; for although in theory a schoolboy could easily
-comprehend the system, in practice an amount of manly vigour, courage,
-and physical endurance is requisite, surprising to those who regard the
-game in the light only of an improved edition of the old English
-school-game of rounders.
-
-The theory of base-ball is as simple as that of any field sport in
-vogue, and therein lies one of its attractive features. But yet to play
-the game up to its highest point of excellence requires as great a
-degree of mental ability, and the possession of as many manly physical
-attributes, as any known game of ball. The theory of base-ball is as
-follows:--In the first place, a level field for play is selected, about
-three hundred feet wide and five hundred long. A space of ground is then
-marked out in the form of a square, with one corner as the position of
-the home base, and the other corners for the first, second, and third
-bases, the first base being on the right of the batsman, as he stands at
-home base, and the third base on the left. The contestants in a game
-consist of nine players on each side, and these nine players occupy the
-following positions: catcher, pitcher, first, second, and third basemen,
-short-stop, and left, centre, and right fielders. The first six players
-above-named form the "_in-fielders_," and the last three the
-"_out-fielders_," the nine taking the field being known as the
-"out-hand," or "field." After the parties toss for the innings, the
-losing side go to the bat, and the winning party to the field, and each
-man to his position. The pitcher then delivers the ball to the batsman
-of the opposite nine, who endeavours to send it out of reach of the
-opposing field party, and far enough into the field to admit of his
-running round the four bases, in which case he scores one run, provided
-he is not put out in the interim. He is followed by his companions, one
-after the other in regular rotation, until three of the batting side are
-put out, when the field side take the bat and have their innings. Nine
-innings constitute a full game, and no game is considered as played
-unless five full innings have been completed. The ball--the only trophy
-in a match--goes to the party making the most runs in a full game, or in
-any number of even innings played not less than five.
-
-In case of a tie at the close of the ninth innings, the game, unless by
-mutual consent, must be prolonged innings after innings, until one or
-other of the contesting sides obtains the most runs. And if anything
-occur to interrupt or put a stop to the game before five innings on each
-side have been played, the game must be drawn. The rules and regulations
-of the game define all further particulars in reference to it.
-
-
-HOW TO PLAY EACH POSITION.
-
-
-GENERAL RULES.
-
-There are nine positions in a base-ball field, two less than in a field
-of cricketers in a match. The catcher plays behind the batsman to
-receive the ball from the pitcher. The pitcher stands near the centre of
-the in-field, forty-five feet from home base, and he is allowed only to
-"_pitch_" the ball to the bat, not to throw it, jerk it, or bowl it. The
-first base man attends to balls fielded to him on the base, his
-principal duty being to hold the ball, while having one foot on the
-base, before the batsman reaches it. The second and third basemen have
-not only to hold the ball, but also to touch players running to the
-bases before they can touch the bases. The short-stop attends to the
-duties of backing up the pitcher and basemen generally, and of stopping
-balls from the bat, and sending them to the bases, when the ball happens
-to come within reach. The principal duties of the three out-fielders are
-to catch long high balls, and to return in ground balls sent to their
-positions. But the following are special instructions to occupants of
-each position in the nine:--
-
-
-THE CATCHER.
-
-This player is expected to catch or stop all balls pitched or thrown to
-the home base. He must be fully prepared to catch all foul balls,
-especially "tips," and be able to throw the ball accurately and swiftly
-to the bases, and also to keep a bright look-out over the whole field.
-"Foul balls" are those high balls which are hit so as to fall to the
-ground _back_ of the line of the bases, from home to first base and home
-to third. "Tips" are also foul balls, coming sharply from the bat to the
-catcher.
-
-When a player has made his first base, the catcher should take a
-position nearer the striker, in order to take the ball from the pitcher
-before it bounds; and the moment the ball is delivered by the pitcher,
-and the player runs from the first to the second base, the catcher
-should take the ball before bounding, and send it to the second base as
-swiftly as possible, in time to cut off the player before he can touch
-the base. In throwing to the base it would be as well, in the majority
-of cases, to send the ball a little to the right of the base. The same
-advice holds good in reference to a player running from the second base
-to the third.
-
-The catcher should have a thorough understanding with the pitcher in
-regard to a code of signals by means of which he can not only direct the
-pitcher to throw to a base to catch a player napping off the base--as a
-wicket-keeper does the batsman when out of his ground in cricket--but
-also so as to direct him where to send a ball to the bat, high or low,
-in or out, as the peculiarity of the batsman's play may require. The
-catcher needs to be a swift and accurate thrower to the bases, a plucky
-player in facing and stopping swiftly-pitched balls, and a patient
-player in his efforts to prevent passed balls from inaccurate pitching.
-When facing a swift pitcher, his aim should be to stop the ball, and to
-be on the _qui vive_ for sharp "tips." Off slow pitching more activity
-is required, as the chances offered for difficult catches from foul
-balls are greater.
-
-As the position occupied by the catcher affords him the best view of the
-field, the person filling it is generally chosen captain, although the
-pitcher is sometimes selected for that position. We would suggest,
-however, that some other player than the pitcher be chosen for captain,
-from the fact that the physical labour attached to that position tends
-to increase the player's excitement, especially if the contest is a
-close one, and it is requisite that the captain should be as cool and
-collected as possible. The catcher, whenever he sees two or more
-fielders running to catch a ball, should designate by name the one he
-deems most likely to catch it, in which case the others should refrain
-from the attempt to catch the ball on the fly, and strive only to catch
-it in case of its being otherwise missed.
-
-
-THE PITCHER.
-
-More skill and judgment is requisite in this position than in any other
-in the game. In fact, half the battle almost in a contest depends upon
-the ability of the pitcher; and yet the best man in the position is
-comparatively useless in a nine unless he be well supported in the
-field. In cricket a bowler can take wickets when unassisted by a good
-field party, but in base-ball a pitcher's skill is entirely thrown away
-unless well supported in the field, especially by the in-field portion
-of the nine.
-
-The pitcher's position is within the lines of a space of ground six feet
-by four in extent, located on the line between home and second base, the
-front line of the position being distant forty-five feet from the home
-base. The pitcher, in delivering the ball to the bat, is prohibited from
-either throwing, jerking, or bowling the ball, and he is also prohibited
-from making any motion in his delivery which will admit of a ball being
-thrown, such as bending his arm outward at the elbow, &c. And if he
-makes any one of the series of motions he uses in delivering the ball,
-and fails to deliver it, then he incurs the penalty of a "balk," in
-which case players running the bases, but not the striker, are allowed
-to take one base. The rules governing the delivery of the ball also
-require the pitcher to deliver the ball _over_ the home base--which is
-sixteen inches in width--and "fairly for the striker," viz. within the
-legitimate reach of the bat, and as near as possible to the point
-indicated by the batsman, the boundary line in question extending from
-within a foot of the ground to the height of the batsman's head. The
-pitcher in his style of delivery, may adopt any movement he likes,
-provided he moves to deliver while standing _within_ the lines of his
-position. It is regarded as throwing the ball, however, if it be
-delivered in any way except by a straight arm, swinging
-_perpendicularly_ with the body; and it is considered as "jerked," if
-the arm touches the side of the body in delivery. He should remember
-that the rules define _unfairly_-pitched balls to be those pitched over
-the head of the batsman; to the side opposite to that he strikes from;
-on the ground before reaching the home base, or pitched so as to hit the
-batsman when he is standing in his legitimate position--viz. _astride_
-the line of the home base, and distant one foot from it. The pitcher
-should be exceedingly cautious, and on the alert in watching the bases
-when the players are attempting to run, and in such cases should
-endeavour his utmost to throw a swift and true ball to the basemen. When
-a player attempts to run in to the home base while he is pitching, he
-should follow the ball to the home base as soon as it leaves his hand,
-and be ready at the base to take it from the catcher. The pitcher will
-frequently have to occupy a base on occasions when the proper guardian
-has left it to field the ball. And in cases where a foul ball has been
-struck, and the player running a base endeavours to return to the one he
-has left, he should be ready to receive the ball at the point nearest
-the base in question, in order to comply with that section of the rules
-wherein in such cases it is required that the ball be settled in the
-hands of the pitcher before it is in play. The pitcher has to face the
-most dangerous balls sent from the bat, and therefore he requires to be
-a plucky, courageous fellow, not afraid of being hurt. He should also be
-an accurate thrower at short distances, and a sure catch. But the most
-important requisite in the position, next to the ability to pitch the
-ball accurately, is good judgment in pitching according to the skill and
-peculiarities of his opponents at the bat.
-
-
-THE BASE PLAYERS.
-
-
-THE FIRST BASEMAN.
-
-The principal duty of this fielder is to hold the ball in hand, with
-some part of his person touching the first base, _before_ the batsman
-reaches it. If held simultaneously with the base runner's touching the
-base, the latter is not out. The first baseman's position, in the
-beginning of an innings, is about twenty feet back of his base and
-towards second base, but not too far away from the foul ball line or
-from his base, as the majority of balls, which come anywhere near enough
-for him to field, are hit within twenty feet of his base. The moment the
-ball is struck, and he finds that it does not come near him, he should
-promptly return to his base, and stand in readiness, with one foot on
-the base, to receive the ball from any player who may have fielded it.
-As we said before, the striker can be put out at this base without being
-touched by the ball, provided the fielder, with the ball in hand,
-touches the base with any part of his person _before_ the striker
-reaches it. The player will find it good practice to stand with one foot
-on the base, and see how far he can reach and take the ball from the
-fielder; this practice will prepare him for balls that are thrown short
-of the base. In the same manner he should learn to jump up and take high
-balls. This position requires the player filling it to be the very best
-of catchers, as he will be required to hold very swiftly-thrown balls.
-The moment he has held the ball, he should promptly return it to the
-pitcher, or to either of the other bases a player is running to, as in
-some instances two, and sometimes three, players are put out by
-promptitude in this respect.
-
-
-THE SECOND BASEMAN.
-
-This position requires its occupant to be a very active fielder indeed,
-and especially a good judge of fly balls, and a sure catch. He should
-also be a swift and accurate thrower at short distances. His position,
-in the beginning of an innings, is at "right short," that is, about
-twenty or thirty feet back of his position and towards the foul ball
-line, in fact nearly opposite the short-stop's position on the other
-side. But he should take his position according to the known
-peculiarities of the batsman he faces. He should back up the pitcher
-well, allowing no balls to pass both that player and himself too. When
-the striker reaches the first base, the second baseman should
-immediately return to his base and stand prepared to receive the ball
-from the catcher, and put out his opponent by touching him with the
-ball, which it is requisite to do on this base as well as on the third
-and home bases, except in the cases of balls caught on the fly, or foul
-balls, in both of which instances a player can be put out in returning
-to the base he has left, in the same manner as when running to the first
-base, viz. by the ball being held by the baseman, with some part of his
-person on the base, before the base runner reaches it. When the catcher
-fails to throw the ball with accuracy to the second baseman, the latter
-should by all means manage to stop the ball, if he cannot catch it in
-time to put out his opponent. He should also promptly return the ball to
-the pitcher. He should be especially on the look-out for a double play
-when a base runner is on first base, in which case all that the baseman
-has to do, to put two players out, is to field the ball from the bat
-sharply, or receive it from short-stop or the third baseman, and first
-touching second base with ball in hand, to send the ball to first base
-in time to cut off the player running there. When a base runner, too, is
-on first base, and a high ball is hit for the second baseman to catch,
-if he sees the base runner standing near his first base ready to run
-back on the catch being made, he should manage to let the ball pass
-through his hands, partly checked in its progress, but not held, in
-which case the base runner being thereby forced from his first base can
-be easily captured at second. Should the second baseman, however, see
-the base runner trying to get to second, he should hold the fly ball,
-and return it promptly to first base, thereby putting two players out on
-a double play--one on the catch, and the other on returning to his base
-on the catch, as base runners have to do in such cases.
-
-
-THE THIRD BASEMAN.
-
-This position is the most difficult one, to play skilfully, of any of
-the three bases, as the throwing to first base from this position
-requires a stronger arm than that from short-stop or second base, while
-the third baseman has the most difficult catches to make on foul balls
-of any in-fielder except the catcher. Besides which, errors in the way
-of failures to stop balls thrown or batted to this position are more
-important in their results than at any other base, as an error at third
-base gives a run, while at first or second only a lost base is the
-result. The third baseman, after fielding a ball from the bat, has to
-throw it generally from a hundred and twenty-five to a hundred and fifty
-feet to the first base, while the short-stop has not to throw it a
-hundred, and the second base player generally not more than about eighty
-or ninety. A good third base player can readily play at first or second
-with comparative ease, but skilful players on the first and second bases
-cannot as readily play third base. In fact, it is a position requiring
-more practice to excel in it than that of either of the other bases.
-This position is no place for a left-handed man, first base being the
-only suitable place in the infield for such a player. When three men are
-on the bases, the third baseman frequently has a fine opportunity
-afforded him for double plays. Suppose, for instance, that each base is
-occupied, and a ball is sent direct to the third baseman, his point of
-play is to throw the ball to the pitcher or catcher at home base, and
-for the player receiving it to return it promptly to third base, and if
-this is done sharply two players can be readily put out on the one ball.
-The rule for all basemen is to cut off the player nearest to home base.
-For instance, if three men are on the bases, and a ball is hit to the
-first baseman, the latter, instead of putting the striker out, should
-throw the ball home, unless there was no fielder near enough to take it.
-So in the case of a ball hit to short-stop, under similar circumstances,
-unless two men are out, in which case the surest play should be
-selected.
-
-
-THE SHORT-STOP.
-
-This is the position in the field for the most active of the six
-in-fielders. Of course, like all in-fielders, his duties include the
-stopping of hot ground-balls, and in throwing the same accurately to the
-base the striker of the ball happens to be running to, generally the
-first base. But his principal work is to back up all the in-fielders. He
-should be on the alert the moment the ball is hit, and if it does not
-come within his reach, he should be ready to get on a base to receive
-it, or to back up the fielder it is thrown in to; in fact, the
-short-stop should be the "general utility" man of the nine, and
-especially active in saving the pitcher from over work in fielding. The
-short-stop should be a fearless fielder, and one ready and able to stop
-a swift ground-ball; and if he can throw swiftly and accurately, it
-would be as well to be a little deliberate in sending the ball to the
-first base, as it is better to be sure and just in time, than to risk a
-wild throw by being in too great a hurry. His position is generally in
-the centre of the triangle formed by the second and third bases and the
-pitcher's position, but he should change it according to his knowledge
-of the striker's style of batting. He must be on the alert to take foul
-balls on the bound, that are missed on the fly by either the third
-baseman or pitcher, or indeed any other player he can get near enough to
-be of assistance to in this respect. In doing this, however, he should
-be careful not to interfere with the fielder who is about catching the
-ball so as to prevent him doing so. An effective short-stop and a good
-first base player, especially if they are familiar with each other's
-play, will materially contribute to the successful issue of a
-well-contested game.
-
-
-THE OUT-FIELDERS.
-
-A great deal depends upon the skill of the three out-fielders of a nine,
-when the pitching is of medium pace, and plenty of chances for catches
-are offered off the pitching. The principal qualifications of
-out-fielders are: the power to throw a ball in well nearly a hundred
-yards, and the ability to judge high fly balls and to catch surely. The
-three positions require equally good fielders, though, if the nature of
-the ground requires one man better than another, the best judge of a
-ball should be placed in the difficult position. Out-fielders should
-watch the batsman closely, and either lay out well for the heavy
-hitters, or get closer in for those who strive to hit "safe" balls just
-over the heads and out of reach of the in-fielders. After the ball has
-been either caught or stopped, the out-fielder should promptly return
-it, either to the base requiring it, or to the pitcher. Out-fielders
-should never hold the ball a moment longer than is necessary to throw
-it. Another point of their fielding should be to start the moment the
-ball is hit, and try their utmost to take it on the fly, and not wait
-until it is about touching the ground. Bear in mind that it is easier to
-run forward to take a ball than, by being too eager, to try and take it
-by running backward; remember, however, that a ball hit high to long
-field invariably appears to be coming further than it really does.
-
-
-THE BATSMAN.
-
-The position of the batsman is expressly defined by the rules, which
-require that the striker, when about to strike the ball, must stand
-_astride_ the line of the home base. This line is six feet in length,
-running through the centre of the home base, and parallel with the front
-line of the pitcher's position. He can take a step forward, but he is
-prohibited from taking any backward step. The batsman is known as the
-"striker," and so considered in the rules, until he has struck a fair
-ball, when he immediately becomes "a player running the bases," and
-ceases to be the "striker." When the batsman takes his position at the
-home base, viz. standing astride the line of the base, and not less than
-one foot to the left of it, the umpire asks him where he wants a ball,
-and the batsman responds by saying "knee high," or "waist high," or by
-naming the character of the call he wants pitched to him, the pitcher
-being required by the rules to deliver to the batsman a ball within the
-legitimate reach of his bat, and as near the place indicated as he can,
-and also to pitch _over_ the home base; and if he fails to do this
-twice, the umpire, after first warning him of the penalty he incurs, is
-required to call a ball for every unfair ball delivered after the
-warning has been given, and when three such balls have been called the
-batsman drops his bat and goes to first base.
-
-In striking at the ball it must be hit _fairly_ to entitle the batsman
-to run for his first base, and it is only hit "fairly" when sent to the
-field in _front_ of the lines of the bases reaching from home to first
-base and home to third base. If the ball from the bat first touches the
-ground _back_ of these lines, it is considered "foul," and in that case,
-though the batsman can be caught out, he cannot run to his base. The
-moment the batsman hits a fair ball, therefore, he drops his bat and
-runs to first base, and if he reaches it before the ball is held by the
-baseman while touching the base, the striker escapes being put out; but
-if the ball be held by the baseman, while on his base, _before_ the
-batsman reaches it, the latter is out. The batsman is liable to be put
-out in the following manner. If the ball he hits "fair" should be caught
-by any of the fielders before touching the ground; or if a ball he hits
-"foul" should be caught by any of the fielders either "on the fly" or on
-the first bound; or if he strikes at the ball three times and fails to
-hit it each time, and the ball, on the third strike, be held on the
-bound, or, if not so held, it be held on the first base before the
-striker reaches it, the batsman is out; and lastly, he is out if he
-takes a step backward three times when striking at a ball. These are the
-various ways in which the batsman or striker can be put out. After
-making his first base, and thereby becoming a "base runner," he is
-liable to be put out as follows. If he be touched by any fielder with
-the ball in hand and in play, when he is off a base, he is out; also, if
-when running to a base on a foul ball, he fail to get back to the base
-before the ball, in play, is held by the baseman; or, if in running to a
-base on a fair fly ball, he be similarly off his base when the ball is
-held by the base player after being caught; also, if he fail to reach
-the next base to the one he occupies when a fair ball is hit, and not
-caught, and the ball be held on the base he is running to before he
-reaches it, he is out.
-
-
-BASE-RUNNING.
-
-The moment the striker hits a fair ball he ceases to be the "striker,"
-and becomes at once "a player running the bases," and he then becomes
-liable to be put out in the several ways alluded to under the head of
-"The Batsman," viz. by being "forced off" his base; by being "run out;"
-and by being put out in returning on a fly or foul ball. We will now
-illustrate more particularly the manner in which the base-runner can be
-thus put out. When, as above referred to, the striker has made his first
-base, and become a "base-runner," and he is occupying the first base
-when a fair ball is hit, the moment such a ball be struck that moment he
-ceases to have any right to occupy the first base, he being what is
-termed "forced off" by the batsman. In such case he must try and make
-his second base before the ball is held by a fielder on the base. If he
-fails to do this he is out. When occupying the first base, too, when a
-fair ball is hit and is held on the fly, he is required to return and
-touch the base before he can legally run for the next base; but the
-moment he has touched the base, after the catch has been made, he can
-then run for the next base. If, however, the ball that is hit be a foul
-ball, then he must not only return to the base he left when the ball was
-struck, but he must remain on it until the ball has been settled in the
-hands of the pitcher before he can again attempt to run to the next
-base. If at any time, too, when the ball is in play, he be caught off a
-base, and be touched by the ball in the hands of any fielder, he is also
-out. If, too, in running round the bases at any time he should fail to
-touch any of the bases, he must return and touch the base he failed to
-touch when first running round, and in such case, if the ball be held on
-the base before he can touch it, he is out; and he must also return to
-touch the base, in such case, the same way as he ran round, he not being
-allowed to cross over from home base to second, or from third to first.
-Base-runners should, however, remember that they have a right to return
-to the base they have left--except when "forced off" by the
-batsman--until they touch the next base; and no base-runner, occupying a
-base, can force another off the next base, unless he himself be forced
-off by the batsman, or by a base-runner who is forced off by the
-batsman. That is, a player occupying the second base, when there is no
-one on the first base, cannot force a base-runner off the third. When
-all the bases are occupied, and the batsman hits a fair ball which is
-not caught, then each base-runner is obliged to vacate the base he
-occupies and run to the next, and in this case all that is necessary to
-put either base-runner out, is simply for any fielder to hold the ball
-on the base the base-runner is trying to reach before the latter reaches
-it. It should be borne in mind that the moment the batsman is put out by
-a fair fly catch, or put out at first base, that moment the base-runners
-preceding him cease to be "forced" to leave their bases, and in this
-case they must be touched by the ball, in the hands of a fielder, before
-they can be put out. Base-runners, too, when high balls are hit into the
-outer field, and in such way as to make a catch apparently certain,
-should stand on their bases in readiness to run to the next base the
-moment the ball is held by the out-fielder. When a base-runner is on the
-first base, and a high ball is "popped up," which looks as if it would
-surely be caught by the short-stop or pitcher, or indeed by any
-in-fielder, the base-runner has a double difficulty to escape from,
-inasmuch as, if the ball is caught on the fly, he has to return to the
-base he left when the ball was hit; but should the ball, instead, be
-purposely dropped before being held, he then becomes obliged to run for
-his second base, and is in such case liable to be easily put out from
-being forced off his first base. Either horn of the dilemma is bad, but
-the safest way generally is to anticipate the ball being caught, and to
-stand ready to get back to first base easily, as the effort to drop the
-ball for a double play is one not often successful. A base-runner, when
-on first base at a time when another is on the third, can safely run
-down to second, except where two hands are out, as the catcher in the
-former case sacrifices the one base to prevent the player on the third
-from getting a chance to run home. When two hands are out, however, it
-does not matter so much, as the catcher can far easier put the third
-hand out by a throw to second than can the base-runner at the third get
-home before the third hand be put out. In the position in a game when
-two hands are out and a base-runner is running home, the run he would
-otherwise make does not count, if the batsman be put out before he makes
-his first base; and neither does it count in such case, if the
-base-runner in question fails to touch the home base before the third
-hand is put out. Players who desire to become expert as base-runners
-should not only familiarise themselves with the theory of base-running
-by attentive study of the rules, but they must realize by practical
-experience all the points of play above alluded to before they can
-successfully exemplify their theoretical knowledge, or derive any
-advantage from it. It is one thing to be thoroughly acquainted with the
-manner in which any special object in view should be attained, but it is
-altogether a more difficult matter to practically illustrate your
-theory; and an afternoon's experience in running bases against a field
-of practical experts would soon show you the fallacy of trusting to
-thorough theoretical knowledge for success.
-
-
-ON FIELDING GENERALLY.
-
-Skill in fielding is the first requisite of an expert base-ball player.
-What is called a "muffin" player is one who is a mere tyro in handling
-the ball. Muffins can bat well, and yet not be anything but "muffins."
-Occasionally, too, we find an effective pitcher who is a "muffin" in
-fielding. But a player who can field well, though he may not be a
-skilled batsman, or even able to pitch effectively, is nevertheless
-eligible to a position in the first nine of a club, when a good batsman
-who is not a good fielder would be very properly ruled out. Among the
-requisites of a first-class fielder are: first, the moral qualifications
-of courage, nerve, control of temper and coolness of judgment in
-emergencies, together with perseverance in the face of difficulties and
-in contending manfully against large odds. The physical ability
-necessary consists of the strength to throw a ball a hundred yards; the
-agility to catch a flying ball close to the ground, or two or three feet
-above your head; the activity to pick up a ball while running; the
-quickness of the eye to judge the fall of a high ball, or the rebound of
-a foul one; and the endurance to stand the fatigue of a long game.
-
-Among the general rules worthy the attention of fielders are the
-following:--
-
-The most important rule is the one which commands obedience to the
-directions of the captain of the nine. Fielders should also bear in mind
-that the captain of the nine is alone the spokesman of the party and the
-commander of the field.
-
-_Secondly._ No out-fielder should hold a ball a moment longer than it is
-necessary for him to handle it in throwing. In the in-field, however, a
-ball can be sometimes held by the fielder with safety and advantage.
-
-_Thirdly._ Never stand still in your position simply because the ball
-happens to go in another direction than the position you occupy, but
-always be on the move to aid the other fielders or to back them up.
-Activity in the field, and judgment in being prompt in support, is one
-of the important requisites of a first-class fielder.
-
-_Fourthly._ Play earnestly at all times, whether in an ordinary practice
-game or in a match. Get into the habit of doing your best on all
-occasions. It is invariably the mark of a vain and conceited ball player
-to walk on the field and play in a game as if he was conferring a favour
-by participating in the contest; and players who play with an air of
-indifference as to the result of the game, or who become despondent when
-the odds are against them, are no players for a first class nine.
-
-_Fifthly._ Next to seeing a man field well, the most attractive thing is
-to see a player take things easily and good-naturedly. If you miss a fly
-ball, allow an important ball to pass you, or fail to handle a ball in
-time on a base, nothing is more boyish than to vent your ill-temper on
-some one who may have balked you in catching it, or thrown it to you
-badly. Control yourself and take it smilingly, or if you lack the moral
-courage to do that, keep your tongue still at least. Your good-natured
-fellows, who play their best all the time, and yet take everything bad
-or good with a good-natured smile, are as desirable as companions on a
-ball field as your growlers are to be detested.
-
-_Sixthly._ When an error of play is committed, do your best at once to
-remedy the evil by using your best efforts to get at the ball either
-after "muffing" it, letting it pass you, or failing to hold it. Some
-players after missing a ball will walk after it like an ill-tempered,
-sulky ten-year old.
-
-_Seventhly._ There is no habit fielders have that is more characteristic
-of school-boys, or which leads to more unpleasantness and ill-feeling in
-a match, than that of finding fault with those who commit errors of play
-in the field. Every man in the field tries to do his best for his own
-credit sake, and if he fails censure but adds to his chagrin without in
-the least improving his play; on the contrary, fault-finding is only
-calculated to make him play worse. In no game are the amenities of
-social life more necessary to a full enjoyment of the pastime than in
-base-ball. Particularly acceptable are words of commendation for good
-play and remarks calculated to remove the annoyance arising from errors
-in the field, to young ball players, and these form some of the
-strongest incentives to extra exertion on their part, besides promoting
-kindly feelings on the field and during the game. The fact is, such men
-as your constitutional grumblers are the nuisances of a ball field, and
-destroy all the pleasure which would otherwise result from the game.
-Every manly player will keep silent when he sees an error committed, or
-if he makes any remark at all, will apologize for it in some way. Those
-who find fault and growl at errors of play are of the class who prefer
-to gratify their malice and ill-temper at the expense of the unlucky
-fielder who happens to "muff" a ball or two in a game.
-
-_Lastly._ Remember that the winning of the trophy is one of the main
-objects in view, and as it is not the most important thing in life to
-win it, or a very great disaster to lose it, the less you act as if it
-was, the less likelihood of the spectators suspecting you of having some
-ulterior object in view, such as the winning of a sum of money, for
-instance. To conclude, however, let it be remembered by every player in
-a match that a _creditable_ victory abides only with that party who, in
-winning the match, have marked their play as much by their courtesy of
-demeanour, liberality of action, and the good-nature they have displayed
-in the contest, as by their skill in the several departments of the
-game.
-
-
-THE UMPIRE AND HIS DUTIES.
-
-The position of an umpire in a base-ball match is one marked by onerous
-and important duties. Before proceeding to comment on what these duties
-are particularly, we will first give the rules of the game applicable
-to the position which are included in Rule VII. of the code of rules and
-regulations:--
-
-SEC. 1. The umpire shall take care that the regulations respecting the
-ball, bats, bases, and the pitcher's and striker's positions, are
-strictly observed, and he shall require the challenging club to furnish
-a ball, on which the size, weight, and the name of the manufacturer
-shall be stamped. He shall be the sole judge of fair and unfair play,
-and shall determine all disputes and differences which may occur during
-the game. He shall take special care to declare all foul balls and balks
-immediately upon their occurrence, in a distinct and audible manner. He
-shall, in every instance, before leaving the ground, declare the winning
-club, and shall record his decision in the books of the scorers. The
-umpire shall also require that the game be recorded by a scorer for each
-of the contesting clubs. In all matches the umpire shall be selected by
-the captains of the respective sides, and shall perform all the duties
-above enumerated.
-
-SEC. 2. The umpire in any match shall determine when play shall be
-suspended; and if the game cannot be fairly concluded, it shall be
-decided by the last equal innings, provided five innings have been
-played, and the party having the greatest number of runs shall be
-declared the winner.
-
-SEC. 3. When the umpire calls "play," the game must at once be proceeded
-with; and the party failing to take their appointed positions in the
-game within five minutes thereafter shall forfeit the game. When the
-umpire calls "time," play shall be suspended until he calls "play"
-again.
-
-SEC. 4. When the umpire "calls" a game, it shall end; but when he merely
-suspends play for any stated period, it may be resumed at the point at
-which it was suspended, provided such suspension does not extend beyond
-the day of the match.
-
-SEC. 5. No person engaged in a match, either as umpire, scorer, or
-player, shall be either directly or indirectly interested in any bet
-upon the game. Nor shall any person be permitted to act as umpire or
-scorer in any match unless he shall be a member of the National
-Association, or of a State branch thereof. Neither shall the umpire or
-scorer be changed during a match, unless with the consent of both
-parties, except for reason of illness or injury, or for a violation of
-the above rules.
-
-SEC. 6. No decision given by the umpire shall be reversed upon the
-testimony of any player; and no decision whatever shall be reversed,
-except for a palpable infringement of the rules, and then only on an
-appeal by the captain.
-
-SEC. 7. No person shall be permitted to approach or to speak with the
-umpire, scorers, or players, or in any manner to interrupt or interfere
-during the progress of the game, unless by special request of the
-umpire. Any match game played by any club in contravention to the rules
-adopted by the National Association shall be considered null and void,
-and shall not be counted in the list of match games won and lost.
-
-It will be seen by the above rules, that among the most important are
-those requiring each player first, to be a member of a club belonging to
-the National Association, or a State branch thereof. Secondly, that he
-is to be considered the sole judge of fair and unfair play, and one from
-whose decision there is no appeal, except in certain instances where the
-rules are grossly misinterpreted, in which case the injured parties can
-appeal for redress to the judiciary committee of their State
-association. Also, that from the time "play" is called until the period
-the umpire either suspends play by calling "time," or closes the game by
-"calling" it, the game must be proceeded with, or otherwise the party
-failing to play forfeits the ball. Also that the umpire is required to
-see that the ball played with is one having the maker's name stamped on
-it, and likewise the figures indicating the size and weight of the ball.
-
-
-HINTS TO UMPIRES.
-
-The umpire should invariably render his decision in accordance with the
-_first impressions_ of the point of play made on his mind. If he
-hesitates at all, the influence of any particular bias he may have will
-affect his judgment, and very likely make his decision a partial one. Be
-prompt, therefore, to decide according to the very first impression
-made. Promptness in deciding is strong testimony in favour of impartial
-judgment, and is always satisfactory to contestants. He should also see
-that the _foul ball posts_ are in position, and especially that the rule
-requiring _chalk lines_ from home to first base, and home to third, be
-complied with. He should keep silent when a fair ball is struck, but if
-asked if it be a fair ball, he can of course say so; but he is not
-required to call fair balls.
-
-The umpire, before calling "play," should see that the captains of the
-contesting sides are mutually agreed upon what the rules of the ground
-are for the match. Thus, for instance, that a ball going over a fence
-shall give but one base, or that a ball taken on the fly from a tree, or
-the roof of a house, or the side of a fence, shall be regarded as a
-bound catch, and only legitimate in the case of a foul ball; or that a
-ball passing the catcher, and being stopped by a fence too close to the
-home base, shall give one base, &c.
-
-One of his most difficult duties is that of calling balls for unfair
-delivery in pitching, and also in calling strikes on the batsmen for not
-hitting at fair balls.
-
-The umpire should first instruct himself in regard to the definition of
-unfair balls, and the following rules will give him the required
-information:--
-
-_Firstly._ A ball that strikes the ground in front of the home base is
-not a fair ball; as, in the first place, by striking the ground before
-reaching the baseman, it becomes a "bowled" ball, and secondly, because
-it is not pitched "over the home base," and "fairly for the striker;"
-for unless it goes over the home base before touching the ground, it is
-not "pitched," but "bowled" over, and unless so pitched, it cannot be
-"fairly for the striker."
-
-_Secondly._ A ball that is pitched on the side opposite to that the
-batsman habitually strikes from is not a fair ball, because not pitched
-"for the striker."
-
-_Thirdly._ A ball that is pitched so as to hit the striker--provided he
-is standing in his legitimate position, viz. astride the line of the
-home base, and one foot to the left of the base--is not a fair one, for
-the same reason. The striker should, however, stand far enough from the
-base to admit of the ball being pitched over it without its striking
-him.
-
-_Fourthly._ Balls, too, which are pitched beyond the legitimate reach of
-the batsman, either in front of him or over his head, are, for the same
-reason, not fair balls.
-
-All of the above balls are "unfair" balls, and must be called when it is
-legitimate to call a ball at all, that is, first, after two unfair balls
-have been pitched, and secondly, after the pitcher has _then_ been
-warned of the penalty--this warning being given in the form of the
-words, "ball to the bat," or some exclamation of similar purport.
-
-Should the striker not stand in his position, as required by the rules,
-or should he hit at balls at a different height to that he calls for, in
-such case the umpire is not required to call any of the above delivered
-balls as unfair balls except those out of the batsman's reach.
-
- * * * * *
-
-We now proceed to close our instructions in the game with a chapter on
-scoring, which is a part of base-ball requiring a considerable degree of
-statistical and analytical talent to do it well.
-
-
-ON SCORING IN BASE-BALL.
-
-The present system of scoring was first introduced by the writer in
-1867, and since then has been adopted by every competent scorer in the
-country. The scorer of a base-ball match has either a simple task to
-perform, or a duty requiring his close attention to every movement of
-the players in the field. To record the "outs" and "runs" in a match
-requires simply the use of the figures 1, 2, 3 for the score of outs in
-each innings, and dots for each run scored, and at the close of the game
-these are added up and the total of each placed opposite the name of the
-batsman making them; the score of runs made each innings being recorded
-at the foot of each column of the innings. To score a game properly,
-however, considerable work is necessary, as will be seen by the
-following.
-
-
-INSTRUCTIONS TO SCORERS.
-
-The following diagrams show the blank forms of the score-sheets used in
-recording the play, and also the total result, in a match game of
-base-ball; and we present these blanks before proceeding with our
-instructions in scoring:--
-
-No. I.
-
-_Diagram of Score Sheet used to record the Movements of the Players in a
-Match Game._
-
- The Score of the ___________________ Club of ___________________
-
- +-----+-----+-----+-----+--------+------------------------------+
- |Base |Bases|Bases| | | |
- |run- | on | on |Total| Play | Played at .............. 186.|
- |ning.| er- |hits.|score. called.| |
- | |rors.| | | | |
- +--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---+
- |H.|L.|B.|M.|B.|T.|O.|R.|BATSMEN.|1.|2.|3.|4.|5.|6.|7.|8.|9.|10.|
- +--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---+
- | | | | | | | | |1. | | | | | | | | | | |
- +--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---+
- | | | | | | | | |2. | | | | | | | | | | |
- +--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---+
- | | | | | | | | |3. | | | | | | | | | | |
- +--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---+
- | | | | | | | | |4. | | | | | | | | | | |
- +--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---+
- | | | | | | | | |5. | | | | | | | | | | |
- +--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---+
- | | | | | | | | |6. | | | | | | | | | | |
- +--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---+
- | | | | | | | | |7. | | | | | | | | | | |
- +--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---+
- | | | | | | | | |8. | | | | | | | | | | |
- +--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---+
- | | | | | | | | |9. | | | | | | | | | | |
- +--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---+
- | | | | | | | | |Total | | | | | | | | | | |
- +--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---+
- | | | | | | | | |Grand | | | | | | | | | | |
- | | | | | | | | |total | | | | | | | | | | |
- +--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---+
-
- +---------+-----+-----------------+-----+-----+
- | Game |Posi-| Good Plays in |Total|As- |
- | ended. |tion.| the Field. | put |sist-|
- | | | |out. |ing. |
- +---------+ +--+--+--+--+--+--+ | |
- |FIELDERS.| |B.|F.|L.|D.|K.|R.| | |
- +---------+-----+--+--+--+--+--+--+-----+-----+
- |1. | | | | | | | | | |
- +---------+-----+--+--+--+--+--+--+-----+-----+
- |2. | | | | | | | | | |
- +---------+-----+--+--+--+--+--+--+-----+-----+
- |3. | | | | | | | | | |
- +---------+-----+--+--+--+--+--+--+-----+-----+
- |4. | | | | | | | | | |
- +---------+-----+--+--+--+--+--+--+-----+-----+
- |5. | | | | | | | | | |
- +---------+-----+--+--+--+--+--+--+-----+-----+
- |6. | | | | | | | | | |
- +---------+-----+--+--+--+--+--+--+-----+-----+
- |7. | | | | | | | | | |
- +---------+-----+--+--+--+--+--+--+-----+-----+
- |8. | | | | | | | | | |
- +---------+-----+--+--+--+--+--+--+-----+-----+
- |9. | | | | | | | | | |
- +---------+-----+--+--+--+--+--+--+-----+-----+
- | | | | | | | | | | |
- +---------+-----+--+--+--+--+--+--+-----+-----+
- | | | | | | | | | | |
- | | | | | | | | | | |
- +---------+-----+--+--+--+--+--+--+-----+-----+
-
- Winning Club .................... Scorers ......................
- Umpire .......................... Duration of game .............
-
-The letters on the left refer to the batting score, as follows:--R, for
-runs; O, for outs; T, for the number of times the first base is made on
-hits; B, for number of bases on hits; M, for first base on muffs; B, for
-first base on called balls; L, for left on bases after clean hits; and
-H, for home-runs. On the right, the letters refer to the fielding only:
-B, for outs on bases; F, for fair fly-catches; L, for foul fly-catches;
-D, for foul bound catches; K, for outs on strikes; R, for run out; the
-last two columns being for the record of the total number of players put
-out by each fielder, and the total number of times each assisted in
-putting out players.
-
-The following diagram presents the blank form used to record the
-particulars of a match game at its close:--
-
-No. II. _Batting Score._
-
- _______________________ Club. _______________________ Club.
-
- +-------------+----+----+----+----++-------------+----+----+----+----+
- | PLAYERS. |POS.| O. | R. | B. || PLAYERS. |POS.| O. | R. | B. |
- +-------------+----+----+----+----++-------------+----+----+----+----+
- | 1. | | | | || 1. | | | | |
- +-------------+----+----+----+----++-------------+----+----+----+----+
- | 2. | | | | || 2. | | | | |
- +-------------+----+----+----+----++-------------+----+----+----+----+
- | 3. | | | | || 3. | | | | |
- +-------------+----+----+----+----++-------------+----+----+----+----+
- | 4. | | | | || 4. | | | | |
- +-------------+----+----+----+----++-------------+----+----+----+----+
- | 5. | | | | || 5. | | | | |
- +-------------+----+----+----+----++-------------+----+----+----+----+
- | 6. | | | | || 6. | | | | |
- +-------------+----+----+----+----++-------------+----+----+----+----+
- | 7. | | | | || 7. | | | | |
- +-------------+----+----+----+----++-------------+----+----+----+----+
- | 8. | | | | || 8. | | | | |
- +-------------+----+----+----+----++-------------+----+----+----+----+
- | 9. | | | | || 9. | | | | |
- +-------------+----+----+----+----++-------------+----+----+----+----+
- | Totals | | | | || Totals | | | | |
- +-------------+----+----+----+----++-------------+----+----+----+----+
-
-_Innings._
-
- +----------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-------+
- | CLUBS. | 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | 5. | 6. | 7. | 8. | 9. | |TOTALS.|
- +----------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-------+
- | | | | | | | | | | | | |
- +----------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-------+
- | | | | | | | | | | | | |
- +----------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-------+
-
- Home runs ____________________________________________________________
-
- No. of times first base on hits _____________ times ___________ times.
-
- No. of times first base by errors ___________ times ___________ times.
-
- No. of times first base on three balls ______ times ___________ times.
-
- Total bases on hits __________________________________________________
-
- Times left on bases after clean hits _________________________________
-
-_Fielding Score._
-
- Base play--put out by ________________________________________________
- ______________________________________________________________________
- ______________________________________________________________________
- ______________________________________________________________________
- ______________________________________________________________________
-
- Fly catches __________________________________________________________
- ______________________________________________________________________
-
- Foul bound catches ___________________________________________________
- ______________________________________________________________________
-
- Catches on strikes ___________________________________________________
-
- Double plays _________________________________________________________
-
- Outs on bases _____________________ times _____________________ times.
-
- Outs on foul balls ________________ times _____________________ times.
-
- Total errors of play _________________________________________________
-
- Umpire, Mr. ______________ of the ______________ Club, of ____________
-
- Owners, Messrs. _______________________ and __________________________
-
- Time of game ______________________ hours ___________________ minutes.
-
-In recording a game on score-sheet No. 1 we proceed as follows:--Under
-the heading of "Batsmen" we place the names of the batting nine, and
-under the heading of "Fielders" we place the names of the opposing nine.
-These names are recorded on the two score-sheets of the score-book; the
-names of the two nines thus appearing on the book twice, once as batsmen
-and once as fielders. Over the heading "Batsmen" we record the time of
-commencing the game, and this is done only on the page of the nine who
-first go to the bat; the figures of the hour of closing the game being
-recorded over the heading "Fielders," on the page of the nine who last
-go to the bat; and over the figures of the "innings" we record the name
-of the grounds the match was played on, and the date of the game.
-
-Each fielder is numbered from 1 to 9, and in recording by whom players
-are put out these figures are used to indicate the name of the fielder.
-In recording the positions of the fielders we simply use the initials of
-the words of the position, thus C for "catcher," P for "pitcher," &c.
-Instead of using C for "centre field," we use M for "middle field," as C
-is used for "catcher." The figures 1, 2, 3 are used to indicate the outs
-of each innings, and a dot thus (.) for each run. Dots only are used in
-recording the details of the batting on the left hand of the
-score-sheet, and also for recording the particulars of the fielding on
-the left. Thus, if the batsman secures his first base by a "clean
-hit"--that is, not by means of a wild throw, a dropped fly ball, or a
-palpably muffed ball--we place a dot in the square of the column of
-"times bases on hits" opposite the batsman's name; and if instead he be
-put out on the fly, we place a dot in the square of the column headed
-"fly catches," on the right, and opposite the fielder's name. Now the
-above score only gives the data for estimating the skill of the batsman
-as far as his score of bases on hits, or on muffs, &c. is concerned, and
-of the skill of the fielder as far as the record of the totals of his
-work in the field is concerned. To complete the score, however,
-something more has to be done, and that is, to record how and by whom
-each batsman is put out; and how this is to be done we now proceed to
-show.
-
-The scorer must first make himself familiar with the following
-abbreviations of words used to indicate the various movements and
-actions of the fielders, and these abbreviations will be found very easy
-to commit to memory. They are as follows:--
-
- A, Put out at first base.
- B, " second base.
- C, " third base.
- H, " home base.
- F, Put out on fly catch.
- K, " three strikes.
- R O, Put out between bases.
- L F, " on foul fly.
- L D, " on foul bound.
- T F, " on tip fly.
- T D, " on tip bound.
- H R, " for home run.
-
-As before stated, the figures 1, 2, 3 are used for recording the outs,
-and dots for runs; with small figures thus, 1st, 2d, 3d, to indicate
-being left on the bases.
-
-The key to the above abbreviations is as follows. The first three
-letters of the alphabet indicate the first three bases, and we use the
-initial letters of the words _Home_, _Fly_, _Run Out_, and _Tip_, and
-the last letter of the words _Struck_, _Foul_, and _Bound_. Thus L
-stands for foul and F for fly, and both together for "foul fly." The
-above system will be found to include everything necessary in recording
-the important details of a game, to the extent of showing the good plays
-made at the bat and in the field. In "reporting" the details of a match,
-however, we necessarily require a still more elaborate system, and our
-short-hand system for the use of reporters will be found in detail in
-our "BOOK OF REFERENCE," published in New York.
-
-In order to illustrate fully the working of the system of scoring above
-described, we will proceed to score an imaginary game as follows:--
-
-Suppose the fielders in their places and the batsman in his, and the
-scorers ready to record the game. "Play" is called, and the time of
-beginning the game at once recorded. The first striker then hits a ball,
-which is caught on the fly by the left-fielder, who is the seventh
-striker, we will say, on the other side. On the square of the first
-innings opposite the name of the first striker you first write down the
-figure 1, indicating the first hand out, and above it write the figure 7
-and the letter F, and your record will then appear thus:
-
- .......
- : 7 F :
- : 1 :
- .......
-
-the 7 representing the name of the fielder, and the letter F the initial
-of the word fly, showing by whom and in what manner the player was put
-out. Opposite the name of the seventh fielder, too, under the head of
-"On fair fly," you write down a dot, which gives him credit for the fly
-catch in the score of good plays. The second striker now takes the bat,
-and, hitting a low grounder to centre-field, makes his second base just
-before the ball is well fielded in to the second baseman. To record this
-properly you place a dot opposite the batsman's name to the left under
-the head of "number of _times_" bases are made on hits; and in the next
-column you place two dots, showing the number of _bases_ made on the
-hit; or, if you like to be more particular, you can write the figure 2
-in place of the two dots, and then you will know the bases he made on
-each hit. The third striker now comes to the bat, and hits a ball to
-short-stop, who passes it to the first baseman in time to put the player
-out. You now have to record the second hand out, and you do it thus:
-first, the figure 2 for second hand out, and the figure 3 for the name
-of the short-stop, who is the third striker on the list of names on the
-other side, and then 4 for the first baseman, who is the fourth
-striker. The square will then appear thus:
-
- .......
- :3-4 A:
- : 2 :
- .......
-
-thereby showing that the batsman was the second hand out by a ball
-fielded to the first base player by the short-stop. You then, opposite
-the fielders' names to the right, under the head of "number of times
-assisting," place a dot opposite the third fielder's name, and under the
-head of "on bases," a dot opposite the name of the fourth fielder, thus
-crediting the short-stop with the assistance rendered and the first
-baseman with putting the batsman out. The fourth striker now takes the
-bat and strikes out, and you then record the out by the figure 3 for the
-third hand out, and the letter K for struck out (in this instance, as in
-one or two others, as we have shown, we use the last letter of the
-word), and under the head of "on third strike," opposite the fielder's
-name acting as catcher, we place a dot. This closes the innings. When
-the game is closed, we add up the total outs and runs charged and
-credited to each batsman, and place the totals under the heading of
-"Outs and Runs" to the left of the batsmen's names. The above will
-suffice to show the general plan of scoring we adopt in this system. The
-statistics of the batsman's play, to the left of the batsmen's names,
-include his total score of outs and runs, the total number of _times_
-the first base is made, and the number of _bases_ made on clean hits;
-and a similar record of bases made on "muffed" and wildly thrown balls,
-and on balked and called balls, together with the number of times
-base-runners are left on bases, and the number of clean home runs. The
-statistics of the fielding, to the right of the fielders' names, include
-the totals of outs on bases, on fair fly catches, on foul fly and foul
-bound catches, on three strikes, from being run out, the totals of the
-players put out, and of times assisting to put them out.
-
-The American game of base-ball will be found an excellent substitute for
-cricket in England, for those who have not the leisure time for the
-English game, as a full game of nine innings a side can be played in
-three hours at most. It is a more vigorous exercise than cricket, and in
-a closely contested match, fully as exciting to spectators, when
-understood. For boys, after school hours, it is far better than cricket,
-owing to the short time required to play a game.
-
-
-AMERICAN BILLIARDS.
-
-The four ball, or "American game" of billiards, differs both from the
-English and French game, and in a measure combines the merits of both.
-Though it does not require the skill the French game does, it avoids, by
-custom, the simple, mechanical "hazard" feature of the English game, as
-first-class American billiard-players at the hazard and carom game never
-hole the spot ball consecutively, as in the English game. In fact, the
-hazard feature of the American game is rapidly falling into disuse, the
-four ball carom game taking its place.
-
-The American tables now are made without side pockets, and no saloon has
-any tables of this kind, except for playing pool; the four pocket tables
-and carom tables without pockets being the only style in vogue now. The
-four pocket tables were introduced by Michael Phelan, Esq., the "father"
-of the game in America.
-
-The general principles of the American game, which unites those of all
-others, are as follows:--
-
-
-THE CAROM.
-
-To make a carom, the player must cause his own ball to strike two or
-more balls in the same shot.
-
-When he strikes his adversary's ball, and either the light or dark red,
-he scores _two_.
-
-When he strikes the two red balls, or, in billiard phrase, _caroms_ on
-them, he scores _three_.
-
-
-THE HAZARD.
-
-There are two sorts of hazards--_winning_ and _losing_.
-
-A WINNING HAZARD is made by pocketing the adversary's ball, or either of
-the red balls.
-
-In the first case, the player scores _two_; in the second, he scores
-_three_.
-
-When the player pockets his own ball it is a LOSING HAZARD. If his ball
-is pocketed after having struck the white or adversary's ball, _two_
-points are added to the adversary's score.
-
-If the ball is pocketed after having struck either of the red balls,
-_three_ points are added to the adversary's score.
-
-If the ball be pocketed after having made a carom or winning hazard, the
-player cannot score the count he may have made.
-
-A _miss_, or a failure on the part of the player to strike any other
-ball with his own, counts _one_ for the opponent.
-
-The word _carom_, used in this portion of the work, is derived from the
-French word "_carombolage_." In England the word "cannon" is used, an
-evidently corrupt derivation.
-
-In learning all games of billiards practical experience is the best
-teacher. No amount of intellectual study can impart to a novice the
-manual dexterity and adroitness essential to the display of the beauties
-of the game. But months of labour and learning by practical experience
-alone may be avoided by learning thoroughly beforehand the principles of
-the science afterwards to be practised as an art.
-
-Among the most important things in billiards is a good attitude, and to
-attain this should be the student's first effort. Good attitude is the
-'groundwork' of a player's success. If his attitude be ungraceful, viz.
-strained or unnatural, his playing will assuredly be unreliable.
-
-The student's attitude must, in the first place, be perfectly easy and
-natural. His left foot should be slightly advanced, in a straight line,
-the right drawn backwards and pointing outwards, to the extent and at
-the angle most familiar and convenient to the player. The left arm
-should be extended and supported on the table by the tips of the fingers
-and the junction of the palm and the wrist (which position of the hand
-constitutes the _natural bridge_). His body should be perfectly
-balanced, and should form an acute angle with the side of the table at
-which he stands. The tapering end of the cue should rest in the natural
-groove formed by the elevation of the thumb; the thick end should be
-grasped in the right hand, loosely while being drawn back preparatory to
-the stroke, and firmly at the moment of contact with the ball. The cue
-should be held in a perfectly horizontal position, except in the case of
-some particular strokes, which will be described in the proper place.
-Beginners should pay especial attention to this. It should be impelled
-chiefly by the fore-arm, while the body should remain perfectly steady,
-as the slightest swaying motion of it will give a false direction to the
-stroke. The speed of the cue, and not the weight of the body, gives
-strength to the stroke.
-
-In the instructions in the game contained in the body of this work, the
-fundamental principles of the game are fully exemplified and enlarged
-upon. But there are exceptions to these fundamental rules to which we
-now briefly refer, and among them may be prominently named the results
-of the different degrees of strength with which the cue ball is struck,
-inasmuch as important modifications of the angles of incidence and
-reflexion are produced by the varieties of strength in the impulsion of
-the ball.
-
-It is a general law that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
-reflexion; this law is, however, modified in billiards by the degree of
-strength with which the cue ball is struck. The angle which the
-cue-ball will take after striking a cushion, being materially altered by
-the force imparted to it, the greater the strength the more acute will
-the angle of reflexion become.
-
-When the ball, instead of being played against a fixed and inert body,
-such as a cushion, is played against a moveable sphere, such as itself,
-the angle formed by the line of direction of the object-ball, and the
-line of the subsequent course of the cue-ball, will be more _obtuse_ the
-greater the strength communicated to the cue-ball.
-
-Without an approximate knowledge of the different degrees of strength to
-be imparted in order to produce different angles, the pupil labours
-through a maze of uncertainty; and if not of a patient and reflective
-tendency, is inclined to arrive at the hasty and erroneous conclusion,
-that chance constitutes an important element in successful billiard
-playing.
-
-Before commenting further on the game we will proceed to give the rules
-of the American four ball game, and also of the French three ball game
-as played in America; and here we would acknowledge our indebtedness to
-Messrs. Phelan and Collender, the great billiard-table manufacturers of
-the United States, for the privilege of quoting from their complete
-publications on the science and practice of the game of billiards.
-
-
-RULES OF THE AMERICAN FOUR BALL GAME, BY MICHAEL PHELAN, ESQ.
-
-
-ON STRINGING FOR THE LEAD.
-
-Whoever, playing from within the "string-line" against an outside
-cushion, brings the returning cue-ball nearest the head cushion, which
-is the one at which the players stand, is entitled to choice of balls
-and lead. Provided--
-
-1. That, in stringing, the player's ball has not touched his opponent's
-while the latter was at rest. 2. Nor has fallen into any of the pockets.
-In either case the player loses choice and lead. 3. Should the
-cue-balls, both being in motion, come in contact, the strokes are
-invalid, and must be played over.
-
-2. In "stringing," it is required that both cue-balls shall be struck
-simultaneously, or so nearly together that one ball cannot reach the
-lower cushion before the other has been put in motion.
-
-NOTE.--It will be well for players to bear in mind also that in
-"stringing" for the lead both cue-balls should be struck, if not
-simultaneously, at least so near together that one ball cannot reach the
-lower cushion before the other has been put in motion.
-
-
-ON LEADING.
-
-1. The player who wins the choice of balls and lead must either roll his
-ball down towards the lower cushion, as an object for his adversary to
-play at, or else compel his adversary to lead off as above described.
-
-2. In leading, the player's ball must be played from within the
-string-line, and struck with sufficient strength to carry it beyond the
-deep-red ball on its appropriate spot at the foot of the table. But it
-must not be played with such strength as to repass, after coming in
-contact with the lower cushion, the deep-red ball. Nor yet must it touch
-either red ball, nor lodge on the cushion, nor fall into a pocket, nor
-jump off the table. In any of the cases mentioned in this section, or in
-case the cue-ball is not struck with sufficient strength to pass beyond
-the deep-red, it shall be optional with the adversary (Player No. 2) to
-make No. 1 spot his ball on the pool spot nearest the lower cushion, or
-lead again: or he may take the lead himself.
-
-3. No count or forfeiture can be made or incurred until two strokes have
-been played.
-
-4. Once the lead is made, the game is considered as commenced, and
-neither player can withdraw except under circumstances specified on page
-803.
-
-
-ON OPENING THE GAME.
-
-1. The game is opened by player No. 2 playing on the white ball at the
-foot of the table.
-
-2. Should he fail to hit the white first, or fail to hit it at all, he
-forfeits one point, which shall be added to his adversary's score.
-Should he pocket himself after hitting a red ball first, he loses three
-points, even though he may have subsequently hit the white.
-
-
-ON FORFEITURES.
-
-1. If the striker fails to hit any of the other balls with his own, he
-forfeits _one_ point, which, as well as other forfeitures, must be added
-to his adversary's score. (See note, page 812.)
-
-2. The striker forfeits _two_ when the ball that he plays with is
-pocketed, or lodges on the cushion, or goes over the table, after having
-struck or been in fixed contact with the other white, no matter whether
-it has touched one or both of the reds.
-
-[An exception to this clause will be found in Sec. 2, on "Opening the
-Game."]
-
-3. The striker forfeits _three_ when the ball that he plays with is
-pocketed, or lodges on the cushion, or goes over the table, after having
-come in contact with one or both of the reds, and not the white. The
-same applies if neither red nor white be struck.
-
-4. If the player cause any ball to jump off the table, and should it, by
-striking any of the bystanders, be flung back upon the table, it must
-still be treated as if it had fallen to the floor. If a red ball, it
-must be spotted; if a white, held in hand. Should it be the last
-striker's ball, he forfeits two or three, the same as if he had gone
-into a pocket.
-
-
-ON FOUL STROKES.
-
-The penalty of a foul stroke is, that the player cannot count any points
-he may have made by such stroke, and his adversary is entitled to the
-next play. The following, in addition to those already mentioned, are
-foul strokes:--
-
-1. If either player plays with his opponent's ball, the stroke is foul;
-and, if successful, he cannot count, provided the error is found out
-before a second shot is made.
-
-2. Should two or more strokes have been made previous to the discovery,
-the reckoning cannot be disturbed, and the player may continue his run
-with the same ball, or he may have the balls changed. The same privilege
-is extended to the opposing player when his turn comes to play.
-
-3. Should it be found that both players have used the wrong ball
-successively, he who was first to play with the wrong ball cannot put in
-a claim of foul against his opponent, as the latter, in using the wrong
-ball, was simply playing from his proper position on the table.
-
-[It is the position of the cue-ball, and not its mere colour or
-designation, that governs. Aside from this, before one player can charge
-another with error, it must be shown that no act of his contributed to
-that error.]
-
-4. Though the striker, when playing with the wrong ball, cannot count
-what points he may make, except in those cases mentioned above,
-nevertheless, whatever forfeitures he may incur while playing with the
-wrong ball, he is bound to pay, as if he had been playing with his own.
-
-5. Should, however, both the white balls be off the table together, and
-should either player, by mistake, pick up the wrong one and play with
-it, the stroke must stand, and he can count whatever he has made.
-
-[As he plays from his proper position, it is immaterial, because no
-advantage is to be gained, which ball he uses. In this case, as in the
-others where it is permitted to play with the wrong ball, the balls
-should be changed at the conclusion of the run. This will prevent
-confusion and disputes.]
-
-6. If the striker play at a ball before it is fully at rest, or while
-any other ball is rolling on the table, the stroke is foul.
-
-7. If, after going into a pocket, a cue-ball or an object-ball should
-rebound and return to the bed of the table, it must be treated as a ball
-not pocketed.
-
-8. If the player, when playing with the butt or side of his cue, does
-not withdraw the butt or side before the cue-ball touches the
-object-ball, the stroke is foul.
-
-9. A stroke made while a red ball is off the table, provided its spot is
-unoccupied, is foul. When its proper spot is occupied, the red must
-remain off the table until its spot is vacated and all the balls have
-ceased rolling. [See following rule.]
-
-10. If the game being played is one in which hazards, or pockets, do not
-count, a red ball that has been pocketed or forced off the table shall
-be spotted on another spot, provided its own is occupied, and provided
-also the non-striker's ball is off the table at the time. If the
-light-red, it shall be placed on the dark-red spot; and if that spot is
-occupied, the light-red shall be placed on the pool spot at the foot of
-the table. If the dark-red, it shall be placed on the light-red spot,
-&c. If both reds are off the table at the same time, and their spots are
-occupied by the two whites, one of the reds may be placed on the pool
-spot. The other must remain off the table until its proper spot is
-vacant.
-
-NOTE.--In the full game, or when pockets are counted, the old rule
-applies, and the red ball, when its spot is occupied, must remain off
-the table until its spot is uncovered and all the balls have ceased
-rolling.
-
-11. If, after making a successful stroke, the player obstructs or
-otherwise affects the free course of any ball in motion, the stroke is
-foul, and he cannot score the points made thereby.
-
-12. A touch is a shot. And if, while the balls are at rest, a player
-touches or disturbs any ball on the table other than his own, it is
-foul. He has, however, the privilege of playing a stroke for safety,
-provided his own ball has not been touched, but he can make no count on
-the shot.
-
-13. In playing a shot, if the cue leaves the ball and touches it again,
-the stroke is foul.
-
-14. If the striker, through stretching forward or otherwise, has not at
-least one foot on the floor while striking, the shot is foul, and no
-points can be reckoned.
-
-15. If, when the player's ball is in hand, he does not cause it to pass
-outside the string before touching any of the object-balls or cushion
-(except in the case mentioned in the following rule), the stroke is
-foul, and his opponent may choose whether he will play with the balls as
-they are, have them replaced in their original positions, or cause the
-stroke to be played over; or, should the player make a losing hazard
-under such circumstances, the penalty may be enforced.
-
-16. Playing at a ball whose base or point of contact with the table is
-outside the "string," is considered playing out of the "string;" and the
-stroke is a fair one, even though the side which the cue-ball strikes is
-hanging over, and therefore within the "string."
-
-17. Playing directly at a ball that is considered in the "string" is
-foul, even though the cue-ball should pass wholly beyond the "string"
-line before coming in contact.
-
-18. Giving a miss inside the "string," when the player is in hand, is
-foul. But he may, for safety, cause his ball to go out of the "string"
-and return.
-
-19. If a player alters the stroke he is about to make, at the suggestion
-of any party in the room,--even if it be at the suggestion of his
-partner in a double match,--the altered stroke is foul.
-
-20. Placing marks of any kind whatever, either upon the cushions or
-table, is foul; and a player, while engaged in a game, has no right to
-practise a particular stroke on another table.
-
-
-ON CASES WHERE THE BALLS ARE IN CONTACT.
-
-[At the request of a majority of the leading players, amateur and
-professional, the rule observed since 1858, under which no count could
-be effected unless the striker first played upon some ball other than
-that with which his own was in contact, has been amended as below. The
-new rule came into effect January 1, 1867.]
-
-1. When the cue-ball is in contact with any other ball, the striker may
-effect a count either by playing first upon some ball other than that
-with which his own is in contact, or by playing first against the
-cushion, or by a _masse_. In either of the two last-mentioned cases, it
-is immaterial which ball the returning cue-ball strikes first.
-
-2. Should the cue-ball be in contact with all the other balls on the
-table,--or, if with two balls only, while the remaining ball is on the
-table, in such a way that the striker cannot play either on the free
-ball or the cushion _first_,--it shall be optional with him to have all
-the balls taken up and the reds spotted as at the commencement of the
-game. It shall also be at his option to take the lead himself or compel
-his opponent to lead.
-
-[This is the same as starting the game anew, except that there is no
-occasion to "string" for the lead and choice of balls.]
-
-
-ON WITHDRAWING FROM, WITHOUT FINISHING A GAME.
-
-1. The player may protest against his adversary standing in front of
-him, or in such close proximity as to disarrange his aim.
-
-2. Also, against loud talking or any other annoyance by his opponent,
-while he is making his play.
-
-3. Also, against being refused the use of the bridge, or any other of
-the instruments used in that room in playing, except when a special
-stipulation to the contrary was made before commencing the game.
-
-4. Or in case his adversary shall refuse to abide by the marker's,
-referee's, or company's decision on a disputed point, which it was
-agreed between them to submit to the marker or company for arbitration.
-In any one, or all of the foregoing cases, if the discourtesy be
-persisted in, the party aggrieved is at liberty to withdraw, and the
-game shall be considered as drawn, and any stakes which may have been
-depending on it must be returned.
-
-5. Should the interruption or annoyance have been accidental, the
-marker, if so requested by the player, who is entitled to repeat his
-stroke, must replace the balls as near as possible in the position they
-occupied before the player made the stroke in which he was interrupted.
-
-
-ON CASES IN WHICH THE MARKER MUST REPLACE THE BALLS, IF CALLED ON, AS
-NEARLY AS POSSIBLE IN THEIR FORMER POSITION.
-
-1. In the case mentioned in the 5th paragraph of the preceding rule.
-
-2. Where any of the balls, when at rest, are moved by accident.
-
-3. Where any of the balls, while rolling, are suddenly obstructed either
-by accident or design on the part of any person other than the player.
-In this case, the marker, if so requested by the players or referee,
-shall place the interrupted ball as nearly as possible in the situation
-which it would apparently have occupied had it not been stopped.
-
-4. Where the cue-ball, resting on the edge of a pocket, drops into it
-before the striker has time to play.
-
-5. Where the object-ball, in a similar position, is rolled back into the
-pocket by any of the ordinary vibrations of the table or atmosphere.
-
-6. In all the cases aforementioned where it is specified that in
-consequence of a foul stroke the player's opponent shall have the option
-either of playing at the balls as they are, or causing them to be
-replaced by the marker.
-
-7. When either or both of the red balls are pocketed, or forced off the
-table, it is the marker's duty to spot them before another stroke is
-played--except (the game being played is caroms and pockets) the spot
-appropriate to either be occupied by one of the playing balls, in which
-case the red one must be kept in hand until its position is uncovered.
-
-8. If, after playing a ball, the player should attempt to obstruct or
-accelerate its progress by striking it again, blowing at it, or any
-other means, his opponent may either play at the balls as they stand, or
-call upon the referee or marker to replace them in the position they
-would otherwise have occupied.
-
-9. It is the duty of each player to see that a ball is properly spotted
-before the next stroke is made. As in the case where a player is in
-hand, a claim of foul, after the cue-ball has been struck in the one
-instance, and the red ball disturbed in another, cannot be entertained.
-All claims to the effect that the red ball is not on its spot, or that
-the striker's ball is not inside the "string" when he is about to play
-after having been in hand, should be made _before_ the stroke is played,
-as it can seldom be decided _after_ the stroke, whether there was any
-ground for the claim.
-
-
-ON THE DUTY OF THE PLAYERS TO EACH OTHER.
-
-1. Each player must look after his own interest, and exercise his own
-discretion. His opponent cannot be compelled to answer such questions
-as, "Is the ball outside or inside the string?" "Are the balls in
-contact?" and so forth. These are questions for the player's own
-judgment to decide.
-
-2. When the cue-ball is very near another ball, the player must not play
-directly upon that ball without having warned his adversary that they do
-not touch, and given him or his umpire time to be satisfied on that
-point.
-
-3. It is obligatory upon the adversary or umpire to call "time!" or give
-some other notice of his approach, if, while the player is preparing to
-make a stroke, either of them desires to look at the balls, or submit a
-question to the referee.
-
-4. Each player should attend strictly to his own game, and never
-interfere with his adversary's, except in the cases mentioned in Section
-9, on p. 804, or when a foul stroke or some other violation of these
-rules may call for forfeiture.
-
-
-ON THE DUTY OF THE MARKER AND THE SPECTATORS TO THE PLAYERS.
-
-1. In a single game, no one, except the player and his umpire, has a
-right to interfere with the play, or point out an error which either has
-been or is about to be committed. The player to whose prejudice the foul
-stroke is being or has been made, should find that out for himself.
-
-2. Even after a stroke has been made, no one in the room has any right
-to comment upon it, either for praise or blame: for the same stroke may
-occur again in the course of the game, and the player's play may be
-materially altered by the criticism to which he has just been listening.
-
-3. Let the marker and spectators keep their places as much as possible,
-for if they crowd or move around the table they are _liable_ to
-interfere with the players, and certain to distract their attention.
-
-4. When the spectators are appealed to by the marker or referee for
-their opinion on a point which he has been asked, but finds himself
-unable to decide, such of them as are well acquainted with the game
-should answer according to the best of their knowledge and belief. Those
-who know little or nothing of the game would oblige themselves and
-others by at once confessing their incompetency. Either they may not
-have seen the disputed stroke, or, seeing it, may not have been familiar
-with its merits.
-
-
-THE THREE-BALL CAROM GAME.
-
-This is considered by many the finest and most scientific game of
-billiards in vogue. The game is played with three balls only, two white
-and one red, and on a carom table. The red is placed on the spot
-assigned to the dark-red in the American four-ball game. At the
-commencement of the game one of the white balls is placed on the
-light-red, or upper spot, connected with which is a described radius or
-semicircle of six inches, usually marked on the cloth with chalk. The
-other white ball, being "in hand," may be played from any part of this
-semicircle, which answers for what is known as the "string" in the
-four-ball game, and whenever the cue-ball is "in hand" the player has
-the right of playing it from this half circle. Points are reckoned by
-caroms, which ordinarily count one point each; but when the rule of
-counting, as in the four-ball game, is allowed, then misses count, but
-not otherwise.
-
-In France, where the three-ball game had its origin, there is no
-standard code of rules to govern it. In America the following rules are
-observed:--
-
-1. The game is begun by stringing for the lead and choice of balls, as
-in the four-ball game, the same regulations governing. In "stringing,"
-the players should endeavour to strike the cue-balls simultaneously, and
-he whose ball stops nearest the cushion at the head of the table shall
-have the choice either of playing first or of making his adversary do
-so--a privilege which thereafter shall belong to both players
-alternately.
-
-2. Unless a special agreement be entered into between the players and
-the table-keeper, the game commonly consists of twenty-one points, if
-each carom counts one only, and of forty-five when each carom counts
-two, and misses are scored.
-
-3. The first to play places his ball in any part of the semicircle, at
-his option. He then plays at the ball on the deep-red spot, and has no
-right to hit the white first without having caused his ball to touch the
-cushion at some point outside of the "string."
-
-4. Player No. 2, whose ball has been placed on the spot, plays in his
-turn. On a carom table he has the right to play on either ball, even
-though both should be within the "string." On a pocket table it is his
-privilege to have the red placed on its appropriate spot, or he may
-elect to play the balls as they are. Should he adopt the latter course
-in this instance, or at any other time he happens to be in hand on a
-pocket table, he must, before hitting either of the balls in the
-"string," cause his own to pass outside.
-
-5. When a player is in hand on a carom table, and the other balls are
-within the "string," he may play directly upon either. But on a pocket
-table, he can only play as described in Section 4. Furthermore, he must
-confine his ball to the semicircle, and not let the lower half of his
-body pass beyond the right line which the edge of the side cushion would
-describe if prolonged.
-
-6. The player must have at least one foot on the floor.
-
-7. A ball exactly on the "string line" is considered within the string.
-
-8. The carom is good, and the points count for the player, even though
-his ball should be lost; and he continues to play. [A ball is considered
-lost which goes into a pocket, jumps off the table, or remains on a
-cushion.]
-
-9. A pushing stroke subjects the player to the loss of the point or
-points he may have made by that stroke, and puts his ball out of hand.
-
-10. A player who plays before all the balls have ceased rolling loses
-his stroke, and his hand is out.
-
-11. When the cue-ball is in contact with one or more balls, all are
-taken up and placed as at the commencement of the game; and the player,
-being considered in hand, continues his play.
-
-12. If the balls are disturbed accidentally, through the medium of any
-agency other than the player himself--as, for instance, through the
-interference of his opponent, or the marker, or other outside
-party--they must be replaced, and the player allowed to play.
-
-13. If, in playing, or after having played, the player disturbs any ball
-other than his own, he cannot make a counting stroke, but he may play
-for safety. But if he touches his own ball, except with the cue, or if
-he touches it more than once with that instrument, the stroke is foul,
-and he cannot play for safety.
-
-14. A player has no right to disturb the balls, and ought not to do it
-without the consent of his adversary.
-
-15. When the cue-ball is very near another ball, the player ought not to
-play without warning his adversary that they do not touch, and giving
-him time to satisfy himself on that point.
-
-16. Playing with the wrong ball is foul. The rules as to playing with
-the wrong ball in the four-ball game are applicable to the three-ball
-game.
-
-17. Blowing on a ball, or using any other means to alter its course or
-position, is foul. If the player so offending is in play, he must yield
-the table to his adversary, should the latter demand it. In all cases,
-the opposing player shall have the privilege either of having the ball
-or balls replaced, or played with as they are.
-
-18. If a lost ball, on being put back on the table, disturbs another,
-the ball so disturbed must be put in its place again by the marker or
-referee, and the player whose turn it is to play shall proceed.
-
-19. The red ball being lost, and its spot being occupied, it shall be
-placed on the "string" spot; if this latter should happen to be occupied
-also, then the red shall be placed on the pool spot at the foot of the
-table. A white ball being lost and its spot being occupied, shall be
-placed on the deep-red spot, or if that is occupied, on the pool spot,
-provided that it is not the turn of the player whose ball is lost to
-play. In that case, there is no occasion for spotting the lost ball.
-
-20. On a carom table, a lost white ball that has been placed on the
-"string" spot cannot be moved after the opposing player has played a
-stroke while the ball was in this position; but on a pocket table, where
-the owner of a white ball that has been lost is compelled to play
-outside of the "string," he can, when his turn comes, play from any
-point within the semicircle, provided that his ball has not been struck
-by another. On a pocket table, it is held that a ball is in hand until
-it has been struck or moved from its position, it having been placed on
-the spot simply to afford the in-striker a chance to count. On the
-contrary, on a carom or pocket-less table, custom has made the rule that
-a lost ball ceases to be in hand after one stroke has been played; and,
-in consideration of this ruling, the player, instead of being allowed to
-shift the position of his ball, is privileged, in this country, to play
-at any ball irrespective of its being in or out of the "string," and
-regardless, also, of whether he stands at the head or at either side of
-the table.
-
-[_Explanation._--The two rules last preceding may be further explained
-in this wise: Either on a pocket or a carom table, a ball that rolls on
-to and occupies the "string" spot in the course of play cannot be moved
-aside to permit the spotting of a white ball that has become "lost." The
-lost ball must be spotted on the dark-red, or the pool spot, as directed
-in rule 19, if its owner is not entitled to the next play, or within the
-semicircle if he is. But when, on a carom table, a white ball has been
-placed on the "string" spot by either player, instead of having rolled
-thereon, it may be moved aside to accommodate a "lost" white ball,
-provided that subsequent to the placing of the ball as mentioned _no
-stroke has been played_. In marked contrast with this, a white ball that
-has been placed on the "string" spot _on a pocket table_, may be moved
-aside at any time in order to permit the spotting of a "lost" white
-ball, provided always that the first-mentioned ball has not been touched
-while occupying the spot.]
-
-21. A player who abandons a game declares it lost by so doing.
-
-There is a pretty variation of this game called the "Pillet Game," in
-which the above rules are varied only to the extent of requiring the
-cue-ball to touch the cushion first before a carom can count, the score
-in this game being ten points up only.
-
-
-HINTS TO AMATEURS.
-
-The old adage, "Experience is a great teacher," holds equally true in
-billiards as in any other of the many occupations of life. There is no
-royal road to learning, but the student of the present day enjoys vast
-facilities over his ancestors in the acquirement of every variety of
-knowledge. Every new fact promulgated aids in the development of
-additional facts, which, though ever existent, have but just been
-discovered. Bearing these axioms in mind, we propose to embody in the
-present article a few hints to billiard players, which will enable the
-tyro at once to benefit by the information which the proficient has only
-obtained by years of practice and observation.
-
-Remember that all players have equal rights, and that no gentleman will
-take any advantage of an antagonist excepting such as he may be fairly
-entitled to by superiority of judgment or of skill.
-
-Never make any remark or unnecessary noise when your adversary is about
-to play, but stand away from the table and not opposite the pocket at
-which he may be playing.
-
-Do not play carelessly, or strike at random, but with some definite
-object in view; and if no eligible stroke presents itself, endeavour to
-leave the balls as safe for your opponent as your skill will permit.
-
-Never despair of winning a game; care and caution frequently insure
-success, even against apparent impossibilities. Fortune may seem to be
-against you, but remember that in the long run luck will invariably
-succumb to skill.
-
-Attempt only strokes which seem to be within the compass of your
-abilities, except the necessities of the case require a deviation from
-this rule. This, however, is only to be considered a general law, and
-not by any means imperative.
-
-Effecting the stroke at hand is but a part of the game, and the player
-should endeavour, in making this shot, to leave the balls in a position
-where a second count can be secured.
-
-By way of illustration of some of the "points" in the game of billiards,
-we present below a few diagrams, and the first is that illustrative of
-the method of taking advantage of the chances for making points. The
-following is an explanation of abbreviations used in describing
-diagrams:--
-
-A. stands for above the _centre_ of the ball; B. for below it; R. to the
-right of it; L. to the left; and D. for diagonal. Q. P. means the
-strength or quantity of power with which the cue-ball must be struck. We
-describe as follows: Q. P. No. 1, strength enough to make the ball roll
-from the string to the lower cushion and back to the head cushion. Q. P.
-No. 2, from the string to the lower cushion, back to the head cushion,
-and from that to opposite the centre pocket. To propel it from the
-string to the opposite cushion, thence back to the head, and from that
-back to the lower cushion is Q. P. No. 3. Q. P. No. 4, is sufficient
-force to propel the ball from the string to the lower cushion, back to
-the head cushion, back to the lower cushion again, and thence half way
-down the table.
-
-In playing billiards we frequently find the balls in a position where a
-count can be effected in several different ways. In such cases, it is
-advisable for the player to take into consideration the probabilities of
-effecting the stroke, and the position of the balls thereafter. If the
-stroke be at all doubtful, he should play where he would have the
-greatest prospect of success, or, in other words, "take the chances."
-
-We will suppose the cue-ball to be in hand, and the player desirous of
-securing a good "break." The diagram below illustrates the position.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-If, in the above case, the student is playing the usual game, it would
-be advisable for him to play on the object-ball, so as to pocket it and
-return over line 1, in this way taking three chances to make a count.
-If he is playing caroms alone, it would be better for him to play on
-the left of the object-ball, so as to draw it back in the string, as
-near the other balls as possible. To make the first stroke: strike the
-cue-ball 1/4 A., 1/4 R., with Q. P. 2-1/2; and if the object-ball be
-pocketed in the corner, as represented, the carom will be made on one
-of the balls numbered 2 and 3. To make the second stroke: strike the
-cue-ball 1/4 A., 1/2 R., with Q. P. 2-1/2, the object-ball to be hit 3/8
-L.
-
-
-BRINGING THE BALLS TOGETHER.
-
-The grand strength and science of the game consists in managing the
-balls so as to leave them in a favourable position for the next play, or
-if the player considers it impossible to count, to leave them as safe as
-may be for his antagonist.
-
-We cannot insist too strongly upon a perfect mastery of this art. After
-the player has acquired a thorough practical knowledge of the philosophy
-of the _follow_, the _force_ and the _twist_, the next great essential
-is the exercise of judgment with regard to the feasibility of strokes
-and their relative relation to the game. The term _judgment_ is applied
-to the choice of strokes. The player, for instance, may have two
-apparent shots; the first may recommend itself to him because it is more
-facile, but if made will leave the balls safe, while the second,
-although more difficult, will, if successful, leave the balls in a
-position where a second count or even a run can be effected. _Judgment_,
-therefore, would dictate that he should attempt the second, rather than
-the first.
-
-The diagram annexed will illustrate our remarks.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Strike the cue-ball 1/4 B., 3/8 L., with Q. P. 2-1/2, the object-ball
-to be hit so as to make it roll over the lines, as represented, and the
-player will have a break of balls, which, with judicious management,
-will enable him to effect a long run.
-
-With one more illustration of this feature of scientific play we close
-our article.
-
-To play the balls as shown in the illustration following the player must
-strike the cue-ball a little below the centre, and with a deadened
-stroke, caroming gently on the second ball; the object-ball about
-one-third to the right. This carom should be practised until each
-position has become familiar to the player.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-In either practice or ordinary play the beginner should never play
-carelessly, or strike at random, but with some definite object in view;
-and if no eligible stroke presents itself, endeavour to leave the balls
-as safe for your opponent as your skill will permit.
-
-[_Note._--There are two exceptions to this rule. The first occurs in
-leading off, and has already been explained. The second is where the
-cue-ball, while at rest, is in contact with another ball. Then the
-player does not forfeit. It is impossible to cause the cue-ball to hit,
-by a direct stroke, the ball with which it is in contact, and the player
-should not be penalized for failing to accomplish an impossibility. But,
-as it is possible for him to count by playing _away_ from that ball--for
-example, by striking some other ball, or a cushion, _first_, or by
-taking up all the balls if his own is in contact with two or more--it is
-a settled ruling that, in case he should pocket his ball either by
-accident or design, or send it over the table, or cause it to lodge upon
-the cushion, he must pay forfeit--_two_ points, if his ball was in
-contact with a white, and _three_ if with a red.]
-
-
-THE CANADIAN GAME OF LA CROSSE.
-
-The game of La Crosse, now known as the "National game" of the new
-dominion of Canada, is of Indian origin, and is the oldest and only
-legitimate American game of ball now in vogue. La Crosse was played
-among the American Indians before the tread of a "pale face" invaded the
-"native heath" of the red man, and consequently our British friends
-cannot claim the credit of even originating the basis of this game, as
-in base-ball, though La Crosse resembles the Scotch game of Golf.
-
-An attractive feature of La Crosse is that it can be played when
-base-ball or cricket cannot. No rolling or levelling of grounds are
-required, and but a merely nominal expense for _materiel_. The rules of
-La Crosse are simple enough for a child to comprehend them; but yet it
-is a game capable of yielding a great degree of exciting sport, both to
-the young and old as participants, and to both sexes as spectators.
-Moreover, wherever there is an ordinary field or common, if the grass be
-not too long, a ground is ready for a match. As regards the physical
-requisites and advantages, the former are the possession of pedestrian
-skill and endurance to a more or less degree, with considerable activity
-of movement, while the latter consist of the benefits the excitement of
-a contest and the rapid exercise the game yields, agility, speed, and
-endurance being developed in the process of becoming a skilful player in
-the game.
-
-La Crosse is played by twelve men on each side. These twelve players
-occupy the following positions, viz.: goal-keeper, point, cover-point,
-centre, home, and seven fielders. The goal-keeper's duty is to defend
-the goal; point is the player occupying the position out in the field,
-and nearest the goal-keeper; cover-point fronts the latter's position;
-the "centre" is the player who faces the playing party in the centre of
-the field; home is the position of the player who stands nearest the
-goal of the opposing twelve; and the fielders skirmish round generally.
-
-Each contesting twelve elect a captain to superintend the game, and they
-choose umpires and toss for choice of goal.
-
-There are two umpires, and these select a referee, whose decision on
-disputed points is final.
-
-The "crosse" is a species of battledore, the ball being in the place of
-the shuttlecock, the difference being, that the portion of the bat
-formed by network is of a similar form to an English kite (see diagram).
-The network requires to be strung tightly together, so as not to "bag,"
-but to be quite level.
-
-The ball is made of soft spongy rubber, not exceeding eight inches in
-circumference.
-
-The goals consist of flag-poles, with flags, the poles standing six feet
-above the ground, and six feet apart generally, but the distance is
-optional on mutual agreement by the captains of the contesting sides. In
-front of each goal, and distant six feet therefrom, is drawn a line,
-called the "goal crease," and within this line the players of the
-opposite side to that the goal belongs to are prohibited from standing,
-unless the ball is near the flags. The position of the umpires is behind
-the above goal flags. The goal-keeper, while defending the goal, may
-stop the ball in any manner he chooses.
-
-The game consists of each party striving, by means of the crosse, or
-netted bat each player uses, to send the ball to the goal of their
-adversaries; and in doing this the ball must not be handled, or even
-touched by the hand, except it falls into a hole, in which case the man
-handling it must bat it direct to the nearest opponent; and except by
-the goal-keeper while defending his goal.
-
-But the appended rules describe all further laws of the game.
-
-It was not until 1867 that a regular code of rules was adopted for the
-government of all regular La Crosse clubs. These laws were enacted at
-the Convention of La Crosse Clubs, September 26, 1867, and are now the
-rules of play for Canada.
-
-A Canadian writer on the game says:--"Although our early days were
-devoted to cricket, we must confess to a decided preference for our own
-game, with its athletic struggles. There is nothing like La Crosse. No
-other game throws such a fascination over the spectator, who seems
-riveted to the spot in admiration of the dashing and skilful play of the
-champion twelve. For beauty and variety, skilful play and sober
-excitement, it has no equal."
-
-Any information required about the game by those desirous of forming
-clubs, will be furnished by addressing the Secretary of the Montreal La
-Crosse Club, Montreal, Canada.
-
-The following are the recognised code of rules governing La Crosse in
-the Canadas, where it has been adopted as the "National game" of the new
-dominion:--
-
-
-LAWS OF LA CROSSE.
-
-
-THE CROSSE.
-
-RULE 1.--The "crosse" may be of any size to suit the player, but the
-network must not be bagged: it must be flat when the ball is not on it.
-A leading or outside string, above the level of the others, may be used.
-It may rest on the top of the stick, but must not have anything under to
-increase its height.
-
-
-THE BALL.
-
-RULE 2.--The ball shall be india-rubber sponge, not less than eight, and
-not more than nine, inches in circumference. In matches it shall be
-furnished by the challenged party.
-
-
-THE GOALS.
-
-RULE 3.--The goals may be placed at any distance from each other, and in
-any position agreeable to the captains of both sides. The top of the
-flag-pole shall be six feet above the ground, including any top
-ornament, and six feet apart, and in a match may be furnished by either
-party.
-
-
-THE GOAL CREASE.
-
-RULE 4.--There shall be a line or crease, to be called the goal-crease,
-drawn in front of each goal, at a distance of six feet from the flags,
-within which no opponent shall stand, unless the ball is actually near
-or nearing the flags.
-
-
-SPECTATORS.
-
-RULE 5.--Spectators must stand at least twenty feet from the goals.
-
-
-UMPIRES.
-
-RULE 6.--There shall be two umpires at each goal, one for each side.
-Unless otherwise agreed upon by the captains, they shall not be members
-of either club engaged in a match, nor can they be changed during a
-match, except for reasons of illness or injury. They must be thoroughly
-acquainted with the game, and in every way competent to act. Before a
-match begins, they shall see that all the regulations respecting the
-crosse, ball, goal, goal-crease, &c. are strictly complied with, and in
-deciding whether or not a crosse is bagged they shall take the opinion
-of the captains and the referee. During the game they shall stand behind
-the flags, and shall have power to decide all disputes, subject to Rule
-7, and suspend from play any player infringing these laws. No umpire
-shall, either directly or indirectly, be interested in any bet upon the
-result of the match. No person shall speak to the umpires, or distract
-their attention when the ball is near or nearing their goal.
-
-
-REFEREE.
-
-RULE 7.--The umpires shall select a referee, to whom all disputed games
-whereon they are a tie may be left for decision. He shall take the
-evidence of the players particularly interested, the respective opinions
-of the different umpires, and, if necessary, the opinions and offers of
-the captains, in cases where the discontinuance of the game is
-threatened. His decision shall in all cases be final.
-
-
-CAPTAINS.
-
-RULE 8.--Field captains, to superintend the play, may be appointed by
-each side previous to a match, who shall toss up for choice of goal, and
-select umpires. They shall report any infringement of the laws to the
-umpires. They shall be members of the club by whom they are appointed,
-and may or may not be players in a match; and if not, they shall not
-carry crosses.
-
-
-DESIGNATION OF PLAYERS.
-
-RULE 9.--The players of each side shall be designated as follows:--
-
- 1. Goal-keeper, who defends the goal.
- 2. Point, who is first man out from goal.
- 3. Cover-point, who is in front of point.
- 4. Centre, who "faces" in the centre of the field.
- 5. Home, who is nearest the opponent's goal.
- The remaining players shall be termed "fielders."
-
-
-NUMBER OF PLAYERS.
-
-RULE 10.--Twelve players on a side shall constitute a full field, and
-they must have been regular members of the club they represent, and of
-no other club, for thirty days prior to a match.
-
-
-CHANGE OF PLAYERS.
-
-RULE 11.--No change of players shall be made after a match has been
-commenced, except for reasons of accident or injury during the match.
-When a match has been agreed upon, and one side is deficient in the
-number of players, their opponents may either limit their own players'
-numbers to equal them, or compel them to fill up the complement.
-
-
-SPIKED SOLES.
-
-RULE 12.--The players shall not wear spiked soles to their shoes.
-
-
-TOUCHING THE BALL WITH THE HAND.
-
-RULE 13.--The ball must not be touched with the hand, save in the cases
-of Rules 14 and 15.
-
-
-GOAL-KEEPER.
-
-RULE 14.--The goal-keeper, while defending the goal within the
-goal-crease, may stop balls in any manner.
-
-
-BALL TAKEN UP WITH THE HAND.
-
-RULE 15.--Whenever the ball is taken up, or out of a hole, with the
-hand, during the progress of a game, it must be faced for with the
-nearest opponent.
-
-
-ACCIDENTAL GAME.
-
-RULE 16.--Should the ball be accidentally put through a goal by one of
-the players defending it, it is game for the side attacking that goal.
-Should it be put through a goal by any one not actually a player, it
-shall not count for or against either side.
-
-
-HOLDING, STRIKING, AND PUSHING.
-
-RULE 17.--Players shall not hold each other, nor grasp an opponent's
-crosse; neither shall they deliberately strike or trip each other, nor
-push with the hand.
-
-
-CHANGING SIDES.
-
-RULE 18.--After each game the players shall change goals, unless
-otherwise agreed upon.
-
-
-PENALTIES FOR FOUL PLAY.
-
-RULE 19.--Any player convicted of deliberate foul play, or infringement
-of these rules, shall be suspended from play by the umpires, at request
-of his captain.
-
-
-DECIDING A MATCH.
-
-RULE 20.--A match shall be decided by winning three games out of five,
-unless otherwise agreed upon.
-
-
-AMENDING LAWS.
-
-RULE 21.--Any amendment, revision, or alteration, proposed to be made in
-any part of these laws, shall be made only at the Annual Conventions of
-"The National La Crosse Association of Canada," and by a three-fourths'
-vote of the members present.
-
-
- R. CLAY, SON, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS, BREAD STREET HILL.
-
-
-
-
- TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:
-
- This text follows the original work as much as possible.
- Inconsistencies in lay-out, spelling, hyphenation, capitalisation,
- etc. have been retained, except as mentioned below.
-
- The Table of Contents in the original work usually does not
- show all levels; this has not been changed. (Sub-)section headers
- show different levels, based on the text. The sub-sections under
- Baseball, American Billiards and La Crosse are not mentioned in the
- original Table of Contents, these have not been added.
-
-
- Remarks on the text:
-
- Page 75, hang from the strong downwards: possibly typographical
- error.
-
- Page 127, orbele poplar: possibly error or variant spelling of
- abele poplar (white poplar).
-
- Page 130, table: Smith's scores are not according to the
- calculation given in the text; this has not been changed.
-
- Page 389, illustration plate electrical machine: reference
- letters B are not visible in the original illustration.
-
- Page 459, first illustration: reference letters D, E and F are
- not visible in the original illustration.
-
- Page 487, spectra: the scans available of this edition show a
- fraction of letters in the right-hand margin of the page. A later
- edition (1881) of the book shows the same illustration, the symbols
- for the elements have been taken from that edition. The "metal
- discovered by Professor Bunsen" is rubidium. Page 490 lists the same
- elements.
-
- Page 569: Angola rabbit it possibly a misspelling of Angora
- rabbit; the word occurs in other publications of the same period,
- and has not been changed.
-
- Page 615: "they will be of this form." Illustration
- moved to under paragraph; ... on the edge of the board inside, thus:
- illustration moved to before paragraph.
-
- Page 627, (or Var. A.): there is no Var. A. for this game in the
- original work.
-
- Page 650, Fig. 6: reference number 1 is missing from the
- original illustration.
-
- Page 670, ... and ask some to choose ...: possibly (part of) a
- word is missing (someone, some person or similar).
-
- Page 682, Amstelod.: Amstelodanum (Amsterdam).
-
- Page 697, realgor: possibly error or variant of realgar.
-
- Page 724, In order to the full success ...: possibly a word is
- missing (In order to achieve ... or similar).
-
- Page 764: Mecklenberg Schwerin: possibly error or English variant
- spelling for Mecklenburg Schwerin.
-
- Page 798, carombolage: the French word is carambolage.
-
- Page 812, a similar form to an English kite (see diagram): the
- diagram is not present in the original work
-
-
- Changes made to the text:
-
- Some missing punctuation, repeated words and typographical
- errors have been corrected silently.
-
- Footnotes have been moved to underneath paragraph they refer to.
-
- i.e. and i. e. have been standardised to i. e.
-
- Some illustrations have been moved from within text to
- underneath/above paragraph. Several tables and forms have been moved
- and re-arranged; therefore page numbers referring to illustrations
- are not necessarily correct in this text.
-
- Parts of some illustrations have been enhanced for better
- visibility.
-
- Page vii: Snow-Ball changed to Snow-Balls; Will you 'List changed to
- Will you List (both as in text)
-
- Page viii: The Hoop added (as in text)
-
- Page ix: Under-hand-hand bowling changed to Under-hand bowling;
- Single Wicket changed to The Laws of Single Wicket (as in text)
-
- Page x: The Britzschaka, New Brougham and The Family Coach
- deleted from ToC, these are illustrations, not sections; BROADSWORDS
- treated as hierarchically higher level section, as in the text
-
- Page xiii: Phantasmacope changed to Phantasmascope
-
- Page xv: To crack Walnuts on your Elbow changed to To crack
- Walnuts in your Elbow (as in text)
-
- Page xvi: The Row of Halfpence added
-
- Page 1: Heading PART I added for consistency with other parts
-
- Page 16: National-school doys changed to National-school boys
-
- Page 17: water slashed over changed to water splashed over
-
- Page 31: the second mode changed to The second mode
-
- Page 124: fixed their staes changed to fixed their stakes
-
- Page 155: snooters changed to shooters
-
- Page 166: alloted changed to allotted
-
- Page 170: illustration rotated 90°
-
- Page 172: illustration (post) rotated 90°
-
- Page 189, illustration: d changed to D as in text
-
- Page 208: coupé sur peint changed to coupé sur point
-
- Page 212, figure Target: inverted R changed to 1
-
- Page 218: Page 605 changed to Page 219
-
- Page 265, illustration: 7 changed to 4 as in text
-
- Page 302: proportionably changed to proportionally
-
- Page 310: not two high changed to not too high
-
- Page 315, first illustration: text paragraph changed to caption
-
- Page 328: free from noles changed to free from holes
-
- Page 359: Is is a powerful supporter changed to It is a powerful
- supporter
-
- Page 370, sal ammoniac: NH_{4}C_{2} changed to NH_{4}Cl
-
- Page 371: section title IODINE--BROMINE--FLUORINE changed to
- IODINE as in ToC (sections on Bromine and Fluorine follow on same
- and next page)
-
- Page 381: hickel changed to nickel
-
- Page 391, illustration ringing bells: reference letter A added
-
- Page 392: the knob E changed to the knob F
-
- Page 405: jet-d'eau changed to jet d'eau
-
- Page 406: jet-d'-eau changed to jet d'eau
-
- Page 408: superscripts in chemical formula changed to subscripts
- as elsewhere
-
- Page 448: a open umbrella changed to an open umbrella
-
- Page 453: representatation changed to representation
-
- Page 489: Kirchoff changed to Kirchhoff; fraction 1/2,500,00: the
- numerator was lacking in the original, numerator 1 has been added
-
- Page 490: Kirchoff's changed to Kirchhoff's
-
- Page 495: combe changed to combs
-
- Page 505, Frequently the claws ...: "former" and "latter" reversed
-
- Page 549, illustration Tumbler: moved to before section, caption
- deleted for consistency with other breeds
-
- Page 551, illustration Fantail: moved to before section, caption
- deleted for consistency with other breeds
-
- Page 554: hither and hither changed to hither and thither; créve
- c[oe]ur changed to crève c[oe]ur
-
- Page 557: créve c[oe]ur changed to crève c[oe]ur
-
- Page 593: indiarubber changed to india-rubber as elsewhere
-
- Page 640, Variation A. on Black's 3d Move: column headers BLACK and
- WHITE changed to WHITE and BLACK
-
- Page 642, GAME II, White's second move: 1. changed to 2.
-
- Page 676, Charles I. code: letter r inserted
-
- Page 678: coded messages corrected to be in agreement with cipher
- given and coding procedure
-
- Page 709: Mississipi changed to Mississippi
-
- Page 712: Liliputian changed to Lilliputian
-
- Page 719: Beurre Diel changed to Beurré Diel (as in Beurré
- d'Amanlis, same sentence)
-
- Page 737, Cross Puzzle illustration: pieces renumbered according
- to solution
-
- Page 760: à perçevoir changed to à percevoir
-
- Page 767: Van Dieman's Land changed to Van Diemen's Land.
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Every Boy's Book: A Complete
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