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diff --git a/42146.txt b/42146.txt deleted file mode 100644 index de00f72..0000000 --- a/42146.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,17397 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, Western Himalaya and Tibet, by Thomas Thomson - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - - - - -Title: Western Himalaya and Tibet - A Narrative of a Journey Through the Mountains of Northern India During the Years 1847-8 - - -Author: Thomas Thomson - - - -Release Date: February 20, 2013 [eBook #42146] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WESTERN HIMALAYA AND TIBET*** - - -E-text prepared by Melissa McDaniel and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made -available by Internet Archive (http://archive.org) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original illustrations. - See 42146-h.htm or 42146-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42146/42146-h/42146-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42146/42146-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - http://archive.org/details/westernhimalayat00thom - - -Transcriber's note: - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=). - - - - - -[Illustration: ISKARDO. -_From the South._ - -_Pl. I._ - -J. W. del. W. L. Walton, Lithog. -Printed by Hullmandel & Walton.] - - -WESTERN HIMALAYA AND TIBET; - -A Narrative of a Journey Through the Mountains of Northern India, -During the Years 1847-8. - -by - -THOMAS THOMSON, M.D., F.L.S., - -Assistant Surgeon Bengal Army. - - - - - - - -London: -Reeve and Co., Henrietta Street, Covent Garden. -1852. - -Printed by -John Edward Taylor, Little Queen Street, -Lincoln's Inn Fields. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -On the termination of my journey in Tibet, I submitted to the Indian -Government a detailed report of my observations in that country. It -was my original intention to request the permission of the Court of -Directors to publish this report in the form in which it was drawn up; -but after my return to England, this plan was, at the suggestion of -friends, abandoned for that now followed. - -At the time of my appointment to the Tibet Mission, my attention had -not been specially directed to the Himalaya, but I have since had many -opportunities of studying that chain of mountains. My first definite -impressions of Himalayan geography were received from my -fellow-travellers, Major Cunningham and Captain Henry Strachey. The -latter gentleman had just completed one of the most adventurous -journeys ever made in the Himalaya; and Major Cunningham's knowledge -of the geography of Northern India is so accurate and extensive, that -the delay in the publication of his map, although caused by the -devotion of his leisure time to other branches of research, is a -subject of deep regret to all who know its value. More recently I have -had the good fortune to travel in the Eastern Himalaya with Dr. -Hooker, and it was a source of great gratification to me, when we met, -to find that in studying these mountains at opposite extremities of -the chain, the results at which we had arrived were almost identical. - -My botanical collections, which were very extensive, have as yet been -only roughly assorted, and the names of plants given in the present -work are chiefly derived from a careful comparison of specimens with -the Hookerian Herbarium at Kew,--a collection which, as is well known -to Botanists, both from its extent and from the liberality with which -it is thrown open to students of that science, occupies in this -country the place of a national collection. - -The heights of places given in the work have been derived from very -various sources. Those in the earlier part are chiefly from the -extremely accurate observations of the Gerards; for others I have to -thank my fellow-travellers; but the greater number are calculated from -my own observations of the boiling-point of water, and do not -therefore pretend to great accuracy. Still the thermometer which I -used (by Dollond) was a very good one, and comparisons with barometric -observations, or with known heights, have given such results as -satisfy me that at considerable elevations it may be depended upon to -within three or four hundred feet as an extreme error. - -The orthography of oriental proper names is a question of great -difficulty, and grave objections may be urged against any system which -has been proposed. If each European nation represents the sound of the -vowels and variable consonants after the mode which prevails in its -own language, then proper names must be translated, as it were, when -rendered from one of these languages into another; whereas, if the -mode of spelling the names remain fixed, then the value of the letters -must be different in the majority of the languages from that which -usually prevails. For purely popular purposes the former method would -probably be the most judicious; and the English language has peculiar -facilities for rendering oriental sounds, in consequence of its -possessing the open sound of _u_, as in _but_, which is wanting in -other European languages, though so common in Arabic, Persian, and -Hindee, and all cognate tongues. - -A uniform mode of spelling, however, has so many advantages, that I -have been induced to give it a preference; but it will be seen that in -a few instances, where the popular mode of spelling has become -familiar, and as it were a portion of the English language, as in the -words Punjab, Jumna, Sutlej, Kussowlee, and a few others, I have not -had courage to carry out the rule. - -For the plates which accompany the work I have to thank Mr. -Winterbottom, who very kindly permitted me to select from a series of -sketches those which I thought most suitable. This was not an easy -task; but in the two views of the neighbourhood of Iskardo I found so -faithful a representation of the extremely rugged scenery of the -Tibetan mountains, contrasted with the level plain of Iskardo, and the -lacustrine strata of the neighbourhood, that no more desirable -illustrations for a journey in Tibet could be conceived. The little -vignette, too, though it does not represent any part of the country -through which I travelled, is precisely similar to many ravines in -Rondu, and serves to show that the Gilgit valley is quite the same in -general appearance with that district. I was more particularly -desirous of introducing this sketch, from the very faithful -representation it contains of the alluvial platforms which skirt the -streams in every part of Tibet. - -The map is founded principally upon Mr. Arrowsmith's large map, and -his name is its best guarantee. The districts round the Pangong lake -are taken from a sketch given to me by Captain H. Strachey, and the -whole of the eastern part has been revised by him. A great part of the -course of the Shayuk has been laid in by Mr. Arrowsmith from my own -rough survey, while the little-known district between Jamu and -Zanskar, which I was not competent to survey, has been rendered as -nearly as possible from the notes which I had made of the length and -direction of my marches. - -The sketch of the district between Nubra and the Karakoram pass, which -will, I hope, be found useful as an illustration of that part of my -journey, has been prepared for me by Dr. Hooker, from a rough draft of -my survey, assisted by verbal explanations. - -In conclusion, I have to add, that for the correction of the press, -during which process many asperities by which the manuscript was -disfigured have disappeared, I have to thank my kind friends, Dr. and -Mrs. Hooker. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I. - - Page - - Appointment to a Mission about to proceed to Tibet -- Leave - Firozpur for Simla -- Approach to the Mountains -- Appearance - of Himalaya from Plains of India -- Kalka -- Ascent to - Kussowlee -- Vegetation of Plainward Face -- Origin of - Kussowlee Ridge -- Climate and Vegetation of Kussowlee -- - Aspect of inner ranges -- Road from Kussowlee to Simla -- - Sabathu -- Cross Gambar River -- Haripur -- Tropical Vegetation - of Basin of Gambar -- Steep Ascent to Simla -- its extent and - situation -- its Vegetation -- Oak-forest -- Pines -- Flora of - Spring Months -- of Rainy Season -- View from Peak of Jako -- - Structure of Mountain Ranges 1 - - - CHAPTER II. - - Leave Simla -- Mahasu Ridge -- Pine Forest -- Summit of Mahasu - -- Vegetation of Northern Slope -- Fagu -- Theog -- Mattiana -- - Cultivated Valley -- Nagkanda -- Ascent of Hattu -- Forest of - Pine and Oak -- Vegetation of Summit -- View from top of - Mountain -- Plainward slopes bare of forest, while those facing - the interior are well wooded -- Cultivation at 9500 feet -- - Descent from Nagkanda towards Sutlej -- Damp shady Ravine - densely wooded -- Kotgarh -- Cultivation -- Rapid Descent -- - Change of Climate -- Tropical Vegetation -- Rampur -- - Swing-bridge -- Diurnal fluctuations in level of River -- Gaora - -- Serahan -- Tranda -- Western boundary of Kunawar 29 - - - CHAPTER III. - - Sildang river -- Fine grove of Deodars -- Nachar -- Fruit-trees - -- Vine seen for first time -- Boundaries of Kulu and Kunawar - -- Cross Sutlej at Wangtu bridge -- Vegetation of bare rocky - valley -- Waterfall -- Chegaon -- _Pinus Gerardiana_ -- Miru -- - Absence of rain -- Alteration of vegetation -- _Quercus Ilex_ - -- Rogi -- Willow and Poplar -- Chini -- Cultivated Plain -- - Kashbir -- Pangi -- Camp at upper level of trees -- Junipers -- - Werang Pass -- Alpine Vegetation -- Birch and _Rhododendron_ -- - Granite Boulders -- Lipa -- Alluvial Deposits -- Encamp at - 12,500 feet -- Runang Pass -- Vegetation very scanty -- Stunted - Forest -- Sungnam 63 - - - CHAPTER IV. - - Hangarang ridge separates Kunawar from Piti -- Ascent to - Hangarang Pass -- Alluvial deposit -- Steep ascent -- View of - valley -- Limestone rocks -- _Caragana versicolor_, or _Dama_ - -- Camp at 14,000 feet -- Top of pass -- View from pass -- - Vegetation of summit -- Descent to Hango -- Cultivation round - the village -- Luxuriant wild plants -- Road to Lio -- _Crambe_ - -- Ravine of Piti river -- Lio -- Bridge over Piti river -- - Ascent to Nako -- Nako -- Cultivation of the village -- - Buddhist temple -- Transported blocks -- Chango -- Changar -- - Stopped by villagers on Chinese frontier -- Natural bridge -- - Kyuri -- Alluvium -- Clay deposit with shells -- Lari -- - Ramifications of mountain ranges -- Alluvial platforms -- Pok - -- Dankar -- Lara -- Rangrig -- Upper part of Piti -- Climate - -- Saline exudations 96 - - - CHAPTER V. - - Leave valley of Piti river -- Kibar -- Cultivation above 14,000 - feet -- Vegetation of mountains -- Rocky gorge -- Encampment at - 17,000 feet -- Parang Pass -- Snow-bed and glacier -- First - plants at 16,500 feet -- Parang valley -- Gorge leading to - Chumoreri Lake -- Kiang, or wild horse -- Chumurti -- - Remarkable grassy plain -- Lanak Pass -- Granite boulders -- - Plants above 18,000 feet -- Undulating hilly country -- Hanle - plain -- Vegetation -- Monastery of Hanle 130 - - - CHAPTER VI. - - Descend Hanle river -- Unsettled weather -- Encamp on banks of - Indus -- Upper course of Indus -- Pugha ravine -- Forest of - Myricaria trees -- Borax plain -- Hot springs -- Borax lakes of - Eastern Tibet -- Sulphur mine -- Pulokanka Pass -- Salt lake -- - Lacustrine clays with shells -- Ancient water-mark -- Rupchu -- - Tunglung Pass -- Fall of snow -- Alluvial conglomerate -- Giah - -- Narrow ravine -- Miru -- Upshi -- Indus valley -- Marsilang - -- Richly cultivated plain of Chashut -- Bridge over Indus -- - Le -- Buddhist edifices 155 - - - CHAPTER VII. - - Departure from Le -- Sabu valley -- Pass between Le and Nubra - -- Snow -- Encamp at 15,500 feet -- Digar -- Valley of Shayuk - -- Alluvium -- _Populus Euphratica_ -- Tsatti -- Nubra river -- - District of Nubra -- Villages -- Irrigation -- Saline soil -- - Isolated rocks -- Chirasa -- Panamik -- Lower Nubra -- - Platforms of Alluvium -- Traces of a great flood -- Unmaru -- - Kuru -- Great contraction of valley -- Mountain pass of Waris - -- Boghdan ravine -- Chorbat -- Mahommedan population -- - Villages -- Outburst of granite -- Siksa -- Khapalu -- Open - plain of Khapalu -- Junction of Shayuk and Indus -- Nar -- - Iskardo plain -- Description of Iskardo -- Aqueduct -- Fort -- - Lacustrine clay formation -- Vegetation 187 - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - Leave Iskardo in the direction of Kashmir -- First march - through snow to Turgu -- Lacustrine clay -- it extends into - narrow valleys beyond Nar -- Gol -- Junction of Indus and - Shayuk -- Parkuta -- Tolti -- Kartash -- Extensive lacustrine - deposits -- Tarkata -- Road turns up the Dras river -- Ulding - Thung -- Fall of snow -- Hardas -- Karbu -- Continued snow -- - Dras -- Find pass in front shut by deep snow -- Obliged to - return to Iskardo -- Rafts and rope-bridges on Indus -- - _Elaeagnus_ and Apricot apparently wild -- Winter at Iskardo 223 - - - CHAPTER IX. - - Leave Iskardo for Rondu -- Insurrection in Gilgit -- Koardu -- - Kamar -- Enter narrow part of Indus valley -- Difficult road -- - Range of mountains south of Indus -- Description of Rondu -- - Thawar -- Avalanches -- Alluvium -- Swing-bridge -- Villages -- - Juniper -- _Pinus excelsa_ -- Rocks -- Vegetation -- Return to - Iskardo -- Agriculture of Balti -- Game of Chaugan -- Chakor - hunting -- Shigar valley -- Journey towards Kashmir -- Dras - valley -- Karbu -- Dras fort -- Maten -- Cross pass into - Kashmir -- Baltal -- Valley of Sind river -- Sonamarg -- - Gagangir -- Gond -- Gangan -- Ganderbal -- Enter main valley of - Kashmir -- Town of Kashmir -- Description of Kashmir -- - Lacustrine formation -- Trap hills -- Lake -- Climate -- - Vegetation 248 - - - CHAPTER X. - - Environs of Kashmir -- City lake -- Gardens of Shalimar and - Dilawer Khan -- Pampur -- Avantipura -- Platforms of lacustrine - clay -- Mountain of Wasterwan -- Ancient city -- Clay, with - shells and fragments of pottery -- Ancient temple imbedded in - clay -- Lakes caused by subsidence -- Islamabad -- Shahabad -- - Vegetation -- Vernag -- Banahal Pass -- Valley of Banahal -- - Tropical vegetation -- Pass above Chenab Valley -- Nasmon -- - _Jhula_, or Swing-bridge -- Balota -- Ladhe ke Dhar -- Katti -- - Fort of Landar -- Mir -- Kirmichi -- Tertiary sandstones -- - Dhuns -- Seda -- Jamu 285 - - - CHAPTER XI. - - Leave Jamu to return to Tibet -- Lake of Sirohi Sar -- - Vegetation of lower hills -- _Dodonaea_ -- Ramnagar -- Garta -- - Dadu, on a tributary of the Chenab -- Camp at 10,000 feet -- - Badarwar -- Padri pass -- Descend a tributary of the Ravi -- - and ascend another towards the north -- Sach _Joth_, or pass -- - Snow-beds -- Camp in Chenab valley 315 - - - CHAPTER XII. - - Marked change in the Vegetation -- Bridge over Chenab -- - Pargwal -- Description of Chenab valley -- Asdhari -- - Chatargarh -- Road turns up valley of Butna -- Vegetation of - Chenab valley -- Chishot -- Snow-beds -- Camp at 10,500 feet -- - Ancient moraines -- Glacier -- Camp at 11,500 feet -- Rapid - ascent along glacier -- Camp on moraine, at 14,600 feet -- - Change of weather -- Ascent towards pass over glacier -- Cross - Umasi La -- Descent -- Immense glacier -- Encamp in Tibet, at - 13,800 feet -- Open valley of Zanskar -- Padum -- Great change - of climate -- and in vegetation 342 - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - Rope bridge across Zanskar river -- Tongde -- Zangla -- Road - leaves Zanskar river -- Takti La -- Nira -- Bridge over Zanskar - river -- Singhi La -- Phutaksha -- Wandla -- Lama Yuru -- Cross - Indus river -- Kalatze -- Nurla -- Saspola -- Nimo -- Le -- - Pass north of Le -- Small glacier -- Kardong -- Kalsar -- - Vegetation -- Diskit -- Passage of Shayuk river -- Upper Nubra - -- Vegetation of Nubra -- Hot spring at Panamik 367 - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - Start for Karakoram -- Steep ascent out of Nubra valley -- Meet - a party of Merchants from Yarkand -- View from summit of pass - -- Rapid torrent -- Large glacier -- Steep moraines -- Alpine - vegetation -- Numerous glaciers -- Lakes -- Glacier on crest of - Sassar pass -- Sassar -- Cross Shayuk river -- Murgai -- - Limestone rocks -- Ascend Murgai Valley to 16,800 feet -- - Singular limestone formation -- Open plain above 17,000 feet -- - Re-cross Shayuk river -- Karakoram pass -- Return to Sassar -- - Glaciers of Sassar -- Return to Le -- Start for Kashmir -- - Lamayuru -- Phatu pass -- Kanji river -- Namika pass -- Molbil - -- Pashkyum -- Kargil -- Dras -- Zoji pass -- Kashmir -- Lahore - -- Completion of journey 408 - - - CHAPTER XV. - - General description of Tibet -- Systems of mountains -- - Trans-Sutlej Himalaya -- Cis-Sutlej Himalaya -- Kouenlun -- - Four passes across Kouenlun -- Boundaries of Western Tibet -- - Height of its mountain ranges and passes -- Climate of Tibet -- - Clouds -- Winds -- Snow-fall -- Glaciers -- their former - greater extension -- Elevation to which they descend -- - Snow-level -- Geology -- Lacustrine clay and alluvium 456 - - - - - [Illustration: MAP of the MOUNTAINS OF NORTHERN INDIA. _to illustrate_ - Dr. Thomson's Travels in Western Himalaya _and_ Tibet. - - _Dr. Thomson's Route is coloured Red._ - Drawn & Engraved by John Arrowsmith.] - - - - -WESTERN HIMALAYA - -AND - -TIBET. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - - Appointment to a Mission about to proceed to Tibet -- Leave - Firozpur for Simla -- Approach to the Mountains -- Appearance - of Himalaya from Plains of India -- Kalka -- Ascent to - Kussowlee -- Vegetation of Plainward Face -- Origin of - Kussowlee Ridge -- Climate and Vegetation of Kussowlee -- - Aspect of inner ranges -- Road from Kussowlee to Simla -- - Sabathu -- Cross Gambar River -- Haripur -- Tropical Vegetation - of Basin of Gambar -- Steep Ascent to Simla -- its extent and - situation -- its Vegetation -- Oak-forest -- Pines -- Flora of - Spring Months -- of Rainy Season -- View from Peak of Jako -- - Structure of Mountain Ranges. - - -In the month of May, 1847, while with my Regiment at Firozpur on the -south bank of the Sutlej, I received intimation that Lord Hardinge, at -that time Governor-General of India, had appointed me a member of a -mission which he had determined to despatch across the Himalaya -Mountains into Tibet; and I was directed to proceed without delay to -Simla, from which place the mission was to start, as soon as the -necessary arrangements could be completed. - -I left Firozpur on the evening of the 20th of May, and travelling only -at night, on account of the extreme heat, I arrived at the foot of -the hills, on the morning of the 24th. The greater part of the road -was through a perfectly level country, and nearly parallel to the -Sutlej, but without following its sinuosities. During a part of the -last night's journey, I travelled among low hills, partly composed of -loose sand and boulders, partly of clay and sandstone. The road enters -this tract by an open valley, bounded on both sides by hills, which on -the left are low and rounded. On the right they are scarped towards -the plains, as well as towards the valley up which I travelled, and -the strata of which they are composed, dip towards the Himalaya. The -valley is traversed by a little stream descending from the mountains, -one of the tributaries of the Gagar or Markanda, that remarkable -river, which runs in a south-west direction, as if about to join the -Indus, but ultimately loses itself in the sands of the Bikanir desert. - - [Sidenote: APPEARANCE OF HIMALAYA - FROM THE PLAINS OF INDIA. - _May, 1847._] - -When viewed from the plains of India, at a distance sufficient to -enable the spectator to see the most elevated part of the chain, the -Himalaya appear to form several distinct parallel ranges on the -horizon, rising in succession one behind another. The most distant of -these is covered with perpetual snow, while the other two, usually -called the middle and outer ranges, have the usual blue-grey tint of -distant mountains. From very great distances in the plains, the most -remote of these three apparent ranges is alone visible; and as the -traveller advances towards the base of the mountains, the others rise -in succession above the horizon. - -The optical deception, in consequence of which, masses of mountains of -every configuration resolve themselves into ranges perpendicular to -the line of sight, as soon as the eye is so far removed that the -outline of the different parts becomes indistinct, has given to our -maps many mountain-chains, which a nearer inspection proves to have no -existence. As a good instance of this, I may mention the Suliman -range, west of the Indus, which, though laid down in all our maps as a -mountain belt, parallel to and skirting the plain country, behind -which no mountains at all are represented, evidently consists of a -series of ranges, almost perpendicular to the Indus, and separated -from one another by considerable rivers. The sources of these rivers -lie far back, and the north and south axis from which they spring, -separates all the tributaries of the Indus from a succession of -streams, which run in a south-westerly direction, and appear to -terminate, without reaching the sea, in the low and flat country of -Seistan and western Beluchistan. - -At distances of between sixty and thirty miles from the base of the -Himalaya, the three parallel chains are well seen. On a nearer -approach, the lower and outer mountains by degrees become more -distinct, and subtend a greater angle, so as at last to conceal the -more distant portions of the chain. At the same time, the uniformity -of outline by which they had been characterized, insensibly -disappears. Ridges become visible in the face presented to the eye, -which, as the traveller continues to advance, become developed into -projecting spurs, separated from the general mass by wide valleys, -previously quite undistinguishable. On a still nearer approach, the -elevation continuing to increase, the extent of range embraced by the -eye is gradually lessened, till at last, when we arrive at the base of -the mountains, a single valley with its bounding ranges of low hills -is alone visible, the giant masses, so conspicuous from a greater -distance, being no longer to be seen. - -The low sandy or sandstone hills, which form the outskirts of the -Himalaya, are not, on the road from Firozpur to Simla, anywhere of -greater elevation than a few hundred feet. A few miles beyond the -entrance, the valley, which has a considerable slope, widens as it -approaches the more lofty mountains, and the sandstone cliffs are -replaced by rounded hills, probably of a more ancient rock, covered -with soil and vegetation. - - [Sidenote: KALKA. - _May, 1847._] - -At the very base of the steep mountains is situated the village of -Kalka, at which, as it is the termination of palankin travelling, -travellers in general stop, to arrange for the continuance of their -journey. Situated close to the source of the little stream which I had -been following since I had entered the hilly country, and surrounded -on all sides by low hills, Kalka has an elevation of perhaps 2000 feet -above the level of the sea, or 1000 feet above the plain on the -outside of the sandstone hills. - -The general aspect of the low hills around Kalka is barren and -uninviting; it was especially so at the season of my visit, when the -great heat had scorched the herbaceous vegetation, and all nature had -a burnt-up appearance. The subtropical valleys are not here, as -farther to the east along the base of the mountains, filled with dense -forest. They are in general bare, a few scattered trees only appearing -here and there. In the level part of the valley, at the very entrance, -where the soil was still of some depth, _Acacia Arabica_ and _Butea -frondosa_, the most prevailing trees of the plains beyond, were -frequent; but the stony water-courses contained little but a bamboo, -and the hill-sides were covered with scattered bushes of the more -ordinary shrubs of the plains of Northern India, and presented few -features of interest. - - [Sidenote: ASCENT TO KUSSOWLEE. - _May, 1847._] - -Immediately on leaving Kalka, a long and steep ascent commenced, -continuing for about ten miles, to the military post of Kussowlee, -which occupies the crest of the ridge overlooking the Kalka valley, -and can be seen throughout the greater part of the ascent, overhanging -the winding road, which has been constructed along the side of the -mountain. The elevation of Kussowlee is about 6500 feet, an altitude -at which the climate in the Himalaya is perfectly temperate, so that -during the ascent a traveller from the plains of India meets with a -complete change of climate, a change, too, which in the month of May, -the period of my visit, is particularly grateful, the heat below being -most oppressive and disagreeable. - -As the elevation increases, the view from the road becomes more -extensive. The low ranges of hills to the south and west, which had -obstructed the view, are by degrees overtopped, and the plains beyond -become visible. Soon after leaving Kalka the road crosses a low ridge, -and enters a receding bay, or steeply sloping valley beyond, at the -upper extremity of which, all along the crest, are seen the houses of -Kussowlee. Winding round this valley, and continuing to rise, the -stream in its centre is crossed about midway, and the ascent -continues on the spur which forms its western boundary. This ridge is -crossed close to the point where it is given off by the main range, -and the road, winding round its most projecting part, enters a -fir-wood, and, turning back very abruptly in an opposite direction, -proceeds eastward along the northern face of the Kussowlee range. - - [Sidenote: VEGETATION. - _May, 1847._] - -The plainward face of this range, along which the road from Kalka -ascends, is quite devoid of forest. The lower part is covered with -scattered jungle, to use a most expressive Indian word, of small -shrubs, almost all of forms common in the plains. _Carissa_ and -_Adhatoda_ are the most common, with _Rottlera tinctoria_, a plant -which does not extend far into the plains, and a scandent leguminous -shrub, apparently a species of _Mucuna_. Around the few houses which -occur on the ascent, the bamboo occurs planted, as well as the mango, -and other common cultivated trees of the Indian plains. At an -elevation of about 4000 feet, an alteration in the vegetation begins -to be perceptible. The thin jungle of plain shrubs disappears, the few -shrubs which still occur, are generally scattered bushes of -_Hamiltonia_, _Nyctanthes_, _Prinsepia_, _Scutellaria_, and _Rubus_, -but the slopes are usually bare and grassy. Ferns and mosses appear in -the crevices of the rocks, and the first individuals of those species -which predominate in the temperate zone, are found in shady spots -where they are sheltered from the sun. At the same elevation -_Euphorbia pentagona_ makes its appearance. This tree, which is -confined to the hottest and driest slopes of the Himalaya, is -remarkable for its peculiar shape, its thick fleshy five-angled -branches, and its milky juice. It is nowhere to be met with in the -plains of Upper India, but is common throughout the subtropical belt -of the Himalaya from Kamaon westward. - - [Sidenote: ORIGIN OF KUSSOWLEE RIDGE. - _May, 1847._] - -A glance at the map will serve to show that the great Himalayan -mountain range, dividing the waters of the Sutlej from those of the -Jumna, holds a nearly due east and west course in its middle part, but -that at its western extremity it bends round to the south, and -terminates in the Indian plain, not far from the town of Nahan, and -that (among many others) the Kussowlee ridge is a branch from it, -running in a north-westerly direction, and separating the waters of -the more western branch of the Gambar, from the small tributaries of -the Gagar, which find their way to the plains on the left hand. - -The ridge upon which the station of Kussowlee is built, nowhere -attains an elevation exceeding 7000 feet. It is very narrow, and often -rocky and precipitous immediately below the crest on the plainward -face, which dips very suddenly. The inner slope is somewhat less -abrupt, and is covered from the summit to perhaps 1000 feet below it, -with an open forest of a species of fir (_Pinus longifolia_), which, -in general appearance and mode of growth, much resembles the Scotch -fir, but is distinguished by the very great length of its leaves. The -barracks for the troops and the houses of the residents are scattered -over the northern slope, or perched on the narrow summit of the ridge. - -The shrubby and herbaceous vegetation which occurs scattered among the -fir-wood, is so markedly different from that which prevails at the -base of the mountains, and during the greater part of the ascent, that -the traveller appears suddenly transported into a new world. Instead -of those tribes of the vegetable kingdom which abound in the torrid -zone, all the forms which now meet the eye are characteristic of a -temperate climate. The moderate elevation of the range, and its -proximity to the plains, tend to lessen the rapidity of the diminution -of temperature; and as the greater part of the ascent lies on a bare -sunny slope, the tropical flora extends towards the summit, much -farther than it does on ranges which rise higher, and are clothed with -shady forest. During the ascent, therefore, the traveller, though -often struck with the appearance of new forms, is still accompanied by -many species familiar to him as natives of tropical jungles, but on -passing to the northern face of the spur, the temperate region is at -once entered, and most of the tropical forms disappear. - - [Sidenote: VIEW FROM KUSSOWLEE. - _May, 1847._] - -As soon as the crest of the first slope of the Himalaya has been -gained, the eye is naturally directed towards the mountains beyond, in -order to ascertain their appearance and position, when viewed at a -diminished distance and from so much more considerable an elevation -than had previously been the case. Nor will the view from Kussowlee in -favourable weather disappoint the traveller who is desirous of meeting -with beautiful scenery. Immediately to the north lies a deep ravine, -and beyond a single ridge is the wide valley of the Gambar, with -numerous mountain spurs, which, from their comparatively lower level, -are not prominently brought into view. To the south-east the main -range dips abruptly to a level, nearly 1000 feet below what it attains -in the station of Kussowlee itself, but again rises into the finely -wooded hill on which has recently been built the Lawrence Asylum. -Still further to the south are deep dells, with bare and rugged slaty -mountains, scarcely at all wooded. In the months of May and June, when -the atmosphere is generally extremely hazy, the prospect is limited to -the ranges more immediately in the vicinity; but occasionally even in -these months, as well as in the dry intervals of the rainy season, and -during the delightful autumn weather which follows the termination of -the rains, a much more distant prospect is opened, stretching far up -the valley of the Sutlej, to the snow-clad peaks which, on either -hand, hem in that river. - -In the direction of the plains of India, the view is also very -remarkable. The Kussowlee ridge so completely overtops the hills which -intervene between it and the level country, that from its summit they -interfere very little with the commanding view of the interminable -flat which, like the ocean, stretches as far as vision extends. In the -usual state of the atmosphere, especially in the hot season, a dense -haze overhangs the plains, and entirely obscures their more distant -parts; but in the cold season, as well as at day-break in summer, and -especially after heavy rains, the misty vapours are entirely -dissipated, and distant objects are defined with extreme precision. - -Perhaps the most striking, because the most unexpected part of the -view of the inner Himalaya, from Kussowlee, lies in the great depth of -the valleys in the interior, and the distance of the next elevated -range, of which the appearance of the mountains from the plains of -India affords no indication. The extreme narrowness of the ridge, and -the suddenness of the descent on both sides, is also very remarkable, -and has, as already remarked, a very sensible effect on the climate, -the heat of the lower mass being conveyed upwards, while the small -extent of the knife-edge-like ridge, which rises above 6000 feet, -exposes a minimum surface to the refrigerating influences of a -rarefied atmosphere. - - [Sidenote: ROAD TO SIMLA. - _May, 1847._] - -The distance from Kussowlee to Simla is by the road about thirty -miles, though in a direct line the two places are not much more than -half that distance apart. The road descends from Kussowlee almost to -the level of the plains, crossing the Gambar at an elevation of a -little less than 3000 feet, and ascends to Simla by following the -ridge which runs parallel to that river on its right bank, the source -of the Gambar being immediately below Simla. It would indeed be -possible to reach Simla, by following the crest of the ridge, without -descending at all into the valley of the river; but for this purpose -it would be necessary to follow the Kussowlee ridge so far to the -southward, in order to reach its junction with the main range, that -the length of the journey would be very much greater than that now -followed. The road, therefore, only keeps the ridge for a very short -distance, or as far as the "col," or lower part immediately north of -Kussowlee, which is quite bare of trees. It then turns abruptly to the -left, descending on the north face of a spur, at first in a winding -manner, afterwards for a short distance along a shady ravine, and -finally through a good deal of cultivation, at an elevation of between -4000 and 5000 feet, to a considerable stream which runs towards the -north to join the Gambar. The greatest part of the descent is bare of -trees, except along the banks of the little stream, which are covered -with a belt of wood. The cultivated lands are extensive, occupying a -flattish terraced slope, such as is of very general occurrence in the -mountains, the fields being adapted for the growth of rain crops, -principally of rice, with a few fields of ginger and cardamoms. - - [Sidenote: SABATHU. - _May, 1847._] - -After reaching the stream just mentioned, which is crossed by a ford, -a suspension bridge, for which the piers are partly built, having -never been erected, the road continues to descend parallel to it -towards the north, passing under the military station of Sabathu, -which, at the elevation of 4200 feet, occupies the crest of the ridge -immediately to the east of the little river, a very short distance -before its junction with the Gambar. - -After passing Sabathu the road turns to the right, round the -projecting ridge of the range, and descends rapidly to the valley of -the Gambar river, which is crossed by a good suspension bridge at an -elevation of 2700 feet above the level of the sea. It then ascends by -a steep and laborious path to Haripur, a small village about 500 feet -above the bed of the river. The Gambar river, where the road crosses -it, flows through a narrow rocky ravine, somewhat picturesque, but -quite devoid of trees. This, however, is not the general character of -the river-bed, which is frequently wide, with a broad gravelly -channel, and sloping though often rather steep mountains on either -side. There is occasionally even a strip of flat land, capable of -cultivation along the banks; and where such is the case, the water of -the river is carried off in artificial channels, for the purpose of -irrigation. - -After attaining the crest of the ridge, and passing through the -village of Haripur, the road follows the ridge parallel to the river -Gambar, nearly all the way to Simla, not always on the very crest or -top, which would entail a great many unnecessary ascents and descents, -but generally a little on one side or other of the hill, as -circumstances may render most convenient; at one time ascending rather -steeply, but more generally rather gently as far as Sairi, the last -stage on the way to Simla, beyond which the road is pretty level, -nearly to the bottom of the mountain on which Simla stands. - -The valley of the river Gambar may be regarded as an excellent -specimen of a smaller Himalayan river, draining a large extent of -country, and discharging its waters independently into the plains, -though not, like the first-class rivers, deriving its origin from the -snowy mountains. The southern border of the basin of the Gambar, is of -course the main chain of the South Sutlej Himalaya; and the whole of -the country between the Jutog spur, which leaves that chain at Simla, -and the Kussowlee ridge, the origin of which I have already detailed, -is drained by the Gambar and its tributaries. This includes an extent -of country of not less than 1000 square miles, the bounding ranges of -which have, throughout the greater part of their extent, an elevation -varying from 8000 to about 6000 feet. Both the Kussowlee and Jutog -ranges dip at last rather abruptly, so that it is only during a very -short distance that they are below the last-mentioned elevation. This -elevation, which is quite temperate, is however by no means that of -the whole superficies of the basin, the bed of the river having, at -its _debouchure_ into the Sutlej, an elevation of not more than 2000 -feet, and rising very gently till near its source immediately below -Simla. The lateral ridges, which traverse the basin in every -direction, are in general less elevated; not exceeding 5000 feet in -their upper part, and sinking to 3000 or even lower, so that the mean -elevation of the whole basin cannot be estimated, I should think, -higher than 3500 feet. - - [Sidenote: BASIN OF GAMBAR - VEGETATION. - _May, 1847._] - -Such being the case, it is not surprising that the general appearance -of the vegetation should be tropical, and closely approximate to that -of the low hills on the very exterior of the Himalaya. This is in -general the case. The hills, which are generally grassy, and, though -steep and frequently stony, rarely rocky or precipitous, are quite -devoid of forest, or even brushwood, except in a few shady nooks with -a northern exposure, and favourably situated with respect to moisture; -the shrubby vegetation being thin and scattered. This total want of -forest, is unquestionably caused by the dryness of the climate during -the greater part of the year, which is to a certain degree increased -beyond what it would otherwise be, by the proximity of the surrounding -mountain ranges, to which a large proportion of the rain-clouds are no -doubt attracted. - -In the shady ravines north of Kussowlee, where there is the greatest -approach to forest, a species of laurel is the most conspicuous tree. -On the more exposed hills, _Falconeria insignis_ and _Euphorbia -pentagona_ occur, scattered as small trees, and one small wood of -_Aegle marmelos_ is passed close to the village of Haripur. The most -common shrubs are _Adhatoda Vasica_, _Carissa_, and _Zizyphus -Jujuba_, species universal in the plains of upper India; _Colebrookea -oppositifolia_, _Grislea_, _Bergera_, _Roylea_ and _Boehmeria -nivea_, all species which are throughout the north-west Himalaya, -characteristic of the lower and drier parts of the outer ranges. Two -Labiate shrubs, _Plectranthus rugosus_ and _Meriandra strobilifera_, -are particularly abundant on the slopes between Haripur and Sairi, and -strongly mark the aridity of the climate. - -The herbaceous vegetation, being principally of annual growth, -approaches still more closely to the plains types. At the season of my -journey in May, the extreme drought had dried up almost all the -smaller plants, but during, and immediately after the rainy season the -herbage is very luxuriant. The steep slopes are then covered with a -uniform herbage of tall grasses, which is in many places cut and -preserved for hay, by the inhabitants of the scattered villages in the -valleys. The most prevailing grasses are a tall sweet-scented -_Cymbopogon_ and _Heteropogon contortus_. A species of _Kalanchoe_, a -large and conspicuous plant, with thick fleshy leaves, is very common, -and the superb _Gloriosa_ or _Methonica_ is by no means rare. - -On the highest ridges in the valley, at elevations of 5000 feet and -upwards, there are frequent approaches to the temperate flora, the -shady slopes on northern exposures being frequently covered with small -patches of brushwood, containing species of _Berberis_, _Rubus_, -_Spiraea_, etc., and numerous herbaceous species, of forms common at -Simla. These, however, are quite exceptional, though no doubt with a -very little more humidity the shrubby vegetation would rapidly extend, -and under its shelter many small plants would be able to grow, which -are now, when they attempt to vegetate, destroyed by the scorching -heat of the sun. - -It must also not be forgotten, that notwithstanding the general -tendency to a tropical flora, the natural result of the low elevation -and great aridity of these hills, a portion of the vegetation even at -the lowest levels consists of plants of European forms, such as -characterize the temperate vegetation of the Himalaya. I do not here -refer to what may be called the cold-weather vegetation of the plains -of north-western India, at which season, the temperature of the air -approaching to that of the summer of the temperate zone, a -considerable number of European plants make their appearance in -corn-fields and along the banks of water-courses; as, for example, -_Veronica Anagallis_ and _agrestis_, _Anagallis_, _Medicago_, -_Melilotus_, _Potentilla supina_, _Juncus bufonius_, _Arenaria -serpyllifolia_, _Heliotropium Europaeum_, and many others. These -naturally occur at the same season, in the low valleys among the -hills, in similar situations. The circumstance to which I desire to -advert, is the occurrence at very low levels among the mountains, -during the hot and rainy seasons, of species belonging to genera -characteristic of temperate climates, and which therefore are the -prevailing forms at considerable elevations on the Himalaya. As -instances, I may adduce the occurrence in the valley of the Gambar, at -elevations not exceeding 3000 feet, of species of _Thalictrum_, -_Fragaria_, _Rosa_, _Rubus_, _Berberis_, &c., &c. This remarkable fact -has been ascribed by Jacquemont[1] to the obscure influence of the -mountains; and as the genera just enumerated never occur in the -plains of Upper India, it appears evident that the mountainous nature -of the country must be viewed as an essential element in the reasons -for their descent. These, with some others which also occur at low -levels in the Himalaya, appear to be in all parts of the continent of -India those genera of temperate climates, which descend to the lowest -altitudes. Some of them were found by Dr. Hooker on Parasnath, a hill -in upper Behar, the elevation of which does not exceed 4000 feet; and -they are all natives of moderate elevations on the Nilgherries and in -Ceylon, as well as on the Khasya mountains in eastern Bengal. - - [Sidenote: ASCENT TO SIMLA. - _May, 1847._] - - [Sidenote: SIMLA. - _May, 1847._] - -The ridge which runs from Haripur to Sairi, parallel to the river -Gambar, is a branch from the Jutog spur, nearly north of Simla, a -ridge which is given off by the main South Sutlej chain in Simla -itself, and which runs directly north to the Sutlej river. The road, -after following this ridge till within a few miles of Simla, leaves it -on the left hand, to descend into a small stony ravine; after crossing -which it mounts abruptly a very steep spur, ascending at least 1500 -feet to gain the crest of the ridge, and enter Simla at its -north-western extremity. - -The hill station of Simla, which was originally selected as a -sanatarium, or suitable residence for the servants of Government, or -other Europeans, whose health had been impaired by disease, or by too -long residence in a tropical climate, has of late years, in -consequence of the political state of north-western India, and of the -increasing number of retired officers, and of gentlemen unconnected -with the public service, who have made it their residence, become a -place of great importance. Besides an extensive bazaar or collection -of shops, which may now almost be designated a small native town, -Simla contains nearly 400 houses, scattered along the crest of -different mountain ranges. Its situation is a most favourable one, on -the main range of mountains south of the Sutlej river, at a point -where a massive peak rises to a height of 8100 feet, and on the -nearest part of the ridge to the plains of India, which is -sufficiently elevated, well wooded, and situated favourably with -regard to water. The greater part of the station is built on the main -range, partly surrounding the peak of Jako, and partly on the ridge -running north from it, at an elevation of about 7000 feet, as far as a -smaller culminating point of the range, which is by the inhabitants -named Prospect Point. At this point the main range turns sharply to -the west, and the station is continued for nearly a mile on a spur -which runs towards the north, passing through the station of Jutog. -From the scattered position of the houses, the extent of Simla is much -more considerable than the bare statement of the number of houses -might lead one to suppose. The northern ridge extends almost four -miles, and the circuit of Jako, by the principal road, which is from -500 to 1000 feet below the summit, measures five miles. - -In consequence of the sudden elevation of the mountain range at the -place where Simla has been built, there is a most complete and -surprising change in the vegetation and general appearance of the -scenery. During the last ascent on the road from the plains this is -sufficiently perceptible, although from the great ravages which the -proximity of so large a population has made in the oak woods, only a -few stunted bushes are now left on the southern exposure. Between the -plains and Simla the hills are totally devoid of trees, but -immediately on gaining the top of the ridge on which the station is -built, we enter a fine forest, which covers all the broader parts of -the range, especially the slopes which have a northern aspect, -stretching down on these in many places to the bottom of the valleys, -fully 2000 feet. - - [Sidenote: OAK FOREST. - _May, 1847._] - - [Sidenote: PINES OF SIMLA. - _May, 1847._] - -The nature of the forest varies a good deal with the exposure and with -the quality of the soil. By far the greater part consists of an oak -and a rhododendron, both small evergreen trees, rarely exceeding -thirty or forty feet, with wide-spreading arms and rugged twisted -branches. A species of _Andromeda_ is also very common, and a holly, -an _Euonymus_, _Rhamnus_, and _Benthamia_, are the other more common -trees, if we except the _Coniferae_, of which four species occur. Of -these, _Pinus longifolia_ is common at the western or lower extremity -of the station, and prevails, to the exclusion of any other tree, on -the dry sunny spurs which run towards the south, at elevations from -7000 to 5000 feet. This species is, of all the Indian pines known to -me (except its near ally _P. Khasyana_), that which is capable of -enduring the most heat, and at the same time the greatest variation in -amount of moisture; as it is found at elevations of not more than 1000 -feet above the level of the sea, equally in the hot humid valleys of -Sikkim, where it enjoys a perpetual vapour-bath, and on the dry -sandstone hills of the upper Punjab, on which rain hardly ever falls. -It is only, however, at low elevations, where the mean temperature is -high, that it is capable of supporting a great amount of humidity, -for in the damp climates of the Himalaya it is entirely wanting, -except in the deepest valleys; and even in the drier districts it is -always observed to select the sunnier, and therefore warmer exposures. -Its upper limit is usually about 7000 feet above the level of the sea, -though on Jako at Simla a few stunted trees rise as high as 7700 feet. - -_Pinus excelsa_ is also a very common species at Simla, particularly -on the southern face of Mount Jako, which is the highest part of the -ridge. _Abies Smithiana_, the third coniferous tree, is exceedingly -rare, a few trees only occurring in a shady ravine facing the west; -while the deodar, the fourth species, is common on the southern and -western slopes of Jako, above 7000 feet; and again in shady groves at -the bottom of the valleys on both sides of the ridge, as low as 5000 -feet. This beautiful tree, the cedar of the Indian mountains, seems -limited to the western half of the Himalayan range, extending from the -most westerly part of Nipal, as far as the mountains of Affghanistan. -It was first described by Roxburgh from specimens sent to him from -Kamaon, at a time when the western Himalaya was almost inaccessible to -Europeans, under the name by which it is known to the inhabitants of -that province, as well as in Kashmir. It is, however, singularly -enough, not known by that name in the Simla hills, where it is called -_Kelu_; another conifer, _Cupressus torulosa_, a rare tree in the -district, having usurped the name, as well as the sacred character, of -deodar. - -In the thick woods of Simla, a large white monkey, the _Langur_ of the -natives, is very common. These animals move about in large flocks, in -which may be seen individuals of all sizes and ages, and seldom remain -more than a few hours in one place. They are in constant motion, -leaping from bough to bough and from tree to tree, chattering -constantly; and, notwithstanding their great size, are in general -harmless, though ready enough to defend themselves if assailed. - -The forest extends in parts close up to the peak of Jako, which has an -elevation of 8130 feet. The very summit, however, which is a short -flat ridge, and a considerable part of the east and south face, are -bare and grassy, or covered with scattered shrubs. The more common -shrubby forms of the vegetation of the temperate zone, are _Salix_, -_Rosa_, _Rubus_, _Lonicera_, _Viburnum_, _Berberis_, _Indigofera_, and -_Prinsepia_, all, except the two last, quite European. _Indigofera_ -forms a remarkable exception, and one well worthy of note, as the -genus is a very tropical one, although its shrubby species are -particularly abundant throughout the whole of the western Himalaya. -These shrubby species, however, constitute a particular section of the -genus, very distinct in habit, and in the large size and bright colour -of the flower, from the more ordinary forms, and they are confined to -the drier parts of the mountains, being quite wanting in the humid -climate of Darjeeling and Khasya, and almost entirely so in the -mountains of the Peninsula. - - [Sidenote: VEGETATION OF THE SPRING MONTHS. - _May, 1847._] - -The herbaceous vegetation of the spring months quite corresponds, in -the temperate nature of its forms, with what has been found to be the -case with the trees and shrubs; but during the rainy season, as has -been well pointed out by Dr. Royle in his valuable essay on the -distribution of Himalayan plants, this is much less markedly the case. -At the commencement of spring, in April (for March is still too cold -for much vegetation), the weather being generally bright, though with -occasional heavy showers, the earliest flowers are species of _Viola_, -_Fragaria_, _Geranium_, _Veronica_, _Valeriana_, and dandelion. From -April, as summer advances, the temperature gradually rises, till -towards the end of June, when the rainy season commences. These months -are generally dry, and if no rain falls the heat is sometimes -considerable, the thermometer rising as high as 80 deg. in the shade. -Still the flora is almost entirely temperate, the early spring plants -being succeeded by many others of European families, principally -_Ranunculaceae_, _Rosaceae_, _Labiatae_, _Stellatae_, _Polygonaceae_, -_Epilobiaceae_, _Primulaceae_, etc. I can scarcely enumerate a single -spring flowering plant which does not belong to an European family, -unless _Arum_ be an exception, which it can hardly be considered, the -flowers only being displayed during May and June, while the leaves do -not make their appearance until after the rainy season has commenced. -Few species are, however, identical with those of Europe, except -_Stellaria media_, _Cerastium vulgatum_, _Taraxacum officinale_, -_Verbascum Thapsus_, _Thymus Serpyllum_, and _Poa annua_. - - [Sidenote: FLORA OF RAINY SEASON. - _July, 1847._] - - [Sidenote: PEAK OF JAKO. - _July, 1847._] - -The rainy season generally commences about the 20th of June, or -between that date and the end of the month, and continues till the -middle or end of September, with occasional intermissions, rarely -exceeding a week at a time. During the rains the atmosphere is -exceedingly moist, dense fogs usually prevailing when rain does not -fall. The rain-fall is probably more considerable at Simla than in -the lower ranges, which are nearer the plains, for it has been -observed that ranges of 7-8000 feet (which are generally for this -reason well wooded), attract much moisture, and the peak of Jako and -other parts of Simla are frequently observed from the stations of -Sabathu and Kussowlee, to be covered with dense clouds or mist, at -times when at the latter places the weather is bright and clear. - -The commencement of the rainy season is the signal in the mountains, -as it is very universally throughout India, wherever that season is -well marked, for the appearance of a very vigorous and luxuriant -growth of plants of annual growth, the seeds (or rootstocks) of which -had been lying dormant in the soil awaiting the access of heavy rain. -At Simla, as elsewhere in the temperate region of the Himalaya, we -find at this season numerous species of Balsams, _Acanthaceae_, -_Orchideae_, and _Labiatae_, several Gentians and _Cichoraceae_, a great -many grasses and _Cyperaceae_, and species of _Parnassia_, _Drosera_, -_Pedicularis_, _Roscoea_, _Dipsacus_, _Thalictrum_, _Urtica_, etc., -etc. Some of these are quite European genera, while others, as -_Roscoea_, are interesting as belonging to orders whose maxima occur -in very humid climates. The _Labiatae_ of the rainy season are mostly -species of _Plectranthus_ and _Elsholtzia_, both quite Indian genera, -and very extensively distributed in mountainous districts. Balsams are -quite an Indian order, and they seem everywhere, as has already been -remarked by Dr. Royle and by Dr. Wight, to abound in humid shady -places, either in dense forest or on the stony banks of mountain -streams, in the drier districts only during the rainy season, but in -more humid countries more or less throughout the year. The _Orchideae_ -of Simla are entirely terrestrial, the dryness and cold of the winter -months being greater than are compatible with the occurrence of -epiphytical species of this natural order, and for the same reason, I -presume, _Melastomaceae_, so abundant in the Eastern Himalaya, are -quite wanting. - -Among the many advantages of situation by which Simla is -characterized, one of the most fortunate is its position on a part of -the mountain range which lies transversely to the ordinary direction -of the chain, so that the view towards the plains of India, as well as -up the Sutlej valley, is very much more extensive than would be -obtained, had the station been situated in a less favourable position. -This advantage is further enhanced by the sudden rise in elevation of -the chain, which enables a resident at Simla to overlook in the -direction of the plains the continuation of the range which would -otherwise obstruct the view. Towards the interior of the mountains, -this advantage is not possessed by Simla; for the ridge of Mahasu, -which rises 1000 feet higher than the peak of Jako, obscures at least -half of the snowy range, the view being limited in that direction to -the course of the valley of the Sutlej, and to the mountains north of -that river. - - [Sidenote: VIEW FROM THE - PEAK OF JAKO. - _July, 1847._] - -With all these advantages of situation, the view from the peak of Jako -is one of the most agreeable and diversified, which occur in any part -of the Himalaya; although, from the rather too level top of the -mountain, and the intrusion of the forest almost to the very summit, -the whole panorama cannot be embraced at once. Immediately under the -eye are the numerous spurs and ridges covered with scattered houses, -and the deep ravines which terminate the steep slopes below the -station; towards the plains, the whole valley of the Gambar is seen, -with the stations of Sabathu and Kussowlee, the church and esplanade -of the former appearing low down almost within a stone's throw, while -the brilliant white of the houses of Kussowlee, more nearly on a level -with the eye, sparkle in the sunbeams. The ridge of Kussowlee in one -place excludes the view of the plains, but to the right they may be -seen stretching away in the distance, and only recognizable at last by -the track of the Sutlej river, which, from the very remarkable curve -close to its exit from the mountains, may be traced as far as vision -can extend, a distance of 116 miles[2]. To the north a valley -stretches from Simla as far as the Sutlej river, distant about fifteen -miles, so direct that the greater part of it is seen, though the river -itself is concealed. East of north a long partially wooded ridge, -about four miles distant at its nearest point, running parallel to the -valley just mentioned, excludes the view of the nearer part of the -Sutlej valley; but the lofty ranges north of that river, covered with -dense forest, and backed by masses of brilliant snow, close in the -view in that direction. Due east lies the Mahasu ridge, covered on the -Simla slopes with a dense forest of deodar; and to the south, across -the valley of the Giri, towards which numerous rugged ridges run, is -the mountain called the Chor, the highest peak of the range which -separates the Giri from the Tons, the crest of which is upwards of -12,000 feet in height. - -From the peak of Jako, the serpentine course of the range, which -prevails universally throughout the Himalaya, may be well traced, as -the eye of the spectator, following the direct course of the ridge, -can observe numerous turns in its course, each of which, from the -great foreshortening, appears much more abrupt than it really is. At -each curve the range rises into a peak, while the intermediate -portions are lower and excavated into "cols" or passes. In the -concavity of each bend of the range is situated the head of a valley, -numerous small spurs dividing the different ravines which unite to -form it; while on the convex side, from the high portion of the ridge, -is given off a branch of the range, forming a separation between two -adjacent valleys, each of which occupies a concavity in the main range -of mountain. - -On my arrival at Simla on the 25th of May, I found that Major A. -Cunningham, of the Bengal Engineers, and Captain Henry Strachey, of -the 66th Regiment N.I., were to be my fellow-travellers, the former -having been appointed the head of the mission. As Captain Strachey had -to travel from Dinapore, it was evident that some time would elapse -before he would arrive at Simla, nor was it till the beginning of -August that the completion of the necessary preliminaries rendered it -possible for us to commence our journey. I took advantage of this -delay to make myself as far as possible acquainted with the physical -features and vegetation of the surrounding country, though the -necessary preparations for the approaching journey occupied a good -deal of time, and the commencement of the rainy season rendered -travelling difficult, and even out-of-door exercise unpleasant. I have -already attempted to convey an idea of the general physical aspect of -the scenery, which, after a short residence has made one familiar with -the structure of the ridges, appears very simple. Situated on the -dividing range, by which the waters of the Giri, a tributary of the -Jumna, on the left, are separated from those of the tributaries of the -Sutlej on the right, the spectator looks into two of the immense -basins into which the Himalaya is divided by transverse ranges running -parallel to the great rivers; and after a short time he finds that the -chaos of mountains, which at first perplexed the eye and confused the -mind, gradually resolves itself into a definite shape, each ridge -being capable of being referred to its parent, and that in its turn to -a branch of the main chain. From his commanding position he can also -see that the main range is generally more elevated than its branches, -and that each chain, by a succession of sudden sinkings, diminishes in -elevation, each peak being lower than its predecessor. Nowhere in the -wide tract of country visible is there the least approach to a system -of parallel ridges, such as is indicated by the distant view of these -mountains. On the contrary, it is seen that the great ranges are, -though very irregularly, perpendicular to the general direction of the -mountain mass, and that it is only the shorter spurs which have a -general uniformity of direction. - - [Sidenote: STRUCTURE OF THE - MOUNTAIN RANGES. - _July, 1847._] - -Nor could I find in the structure of the mountains around Simla any -confirmation of the view entertained by Humboldt of the sudden -elevation of the Himalaya out of a vast fissure in the external crust -of the earth. However plausible such a view might appear when the -Himalaya is contemplated as a whole (on a map), without any portion of -its extent being under the eye, I found it, on the spot, quite -impossible to conceive in what way, after such a sudden elevation, any -power in the least analogous to existing forces could have excavated -out of the solid rock those numerous valleys, so various in direction, -so rugged in outline, and so vast in dimensions, which now furrow the -mountain mass. - -On the contrary, the conclusion has been forced upon me that these -mountains have emerged extremely gradually from an ocean, of the -existence of which, at very various levels, the most evident traces -are, I think, discoverable. The present configuration of the surface -must, I do not doubt, have been given to it during periods of rest, or -of very slow elevation, the action of the sea upon submerged rocks -being so very superficial that no denudation takes place at any great -depth. During the period of emergence of the Himalaya, from the great -length of the present valleys, which extend between parallel ranges -far into the interior, the coast must have borne a strong resemblance -to that of Norway at the present day, numerous promontories projecting -far into the sea, and separated from one another by narrow and deep -bays. - - [Sidenote: GEOLOGY.] - -The geological structure of the Himalaya between Simla and the plains -is not easily discovered by the cursory observer. The general basis of -the mountains is clay-slate, occasionally very micaceous, passing -into a coarse sandstone, but here and there limestone occurs -interstratified. The dip is extremely variable, and the rocks, -whatever their age, are evidently highly metamorphosed. The tertiary -formations, so well illustrated by Falconer and Cautley, extend all -along the base of the mountains, and penetrate in some places far into -the valleys, for certain rocks in the neighbourhood of Sabathu have -been indicated by Major Vicary, which appear to be of the same age, or -perhaps of a still older tertiary epoch. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] Voyage, etc., vol. ii. p. 6. - -[2] In this I allow 800 feet for the height of Loodiana above the -level of the sea. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - - Leave Simla -- Mahasu Ridge -- Pine Forest -- Summit of Mahasu - -- Vegetation of Northern Slope -- Fagu -- Theog -- Mattiana -- - Cultivated Valley -- Nagkanda -- Ascent of Hattu -- Forest of - Pine and Oak -- Vegetation of Summit -- View from top of - Mountain -- Plainward slopes bare of forest, while those facing - the interior are well wooded -- Cultivation at 9500 feet -- - Descent from Nagkanda towards Sutlej -- Damp shady Ravine - densely wooded -- Kotgarh -- Cultivation -- Rapid Descent -- - Change of Climate -- Tropical Vegetation -- Rampur -- - Swing-bridge -- Diurnal fluctuations in level of River -- Gaora - -- Serahan -- Tranda -- Western boundary of Kunawar. - - -On the 2nd of August, 1847, every necessary preparation having been -completed, and the officers of the mission having received the -instructions of the Governor-General to proceed to Ladakh, and thence -to take severally such direction as they should consider most -conducive to the increase of our knowledge of these countries, Major -Cunningham, Captain Strachey, and myself left Simla. - - [Sidenote: DEPARTURE FROM SIMLA. - _August, 1847._] - -The route selected as most eligible, in order to reach Hangarang and -Piti, to which we had been instructed in the first place to proceed, -lay up the course of the Sutlej river, through Kunawar. The advanced -period of the season, at which almost constant rain might be -expected, rendered the river route, on which at most stages tolerable -shelter is obtainable, preferable to that by the Pabar valley, and the -Bruang (or Borendo) pass, which otherwise we should have preferred, -from its passing through a more elevated tract of country. - -From Simla the first day's journey towards the interior of the -mountains is usually to Fagu, a distance of fourteen miles. Here, and -for several stages farther, as far as the road lies through British -territory, there are houses (bungalows, as they are termed in India) -provided by Government for the accommodation of travellers, upon the -payment of a small fixed sum per diem. Though often in bad repair, and -therefore very uncomfortable in rainy weather, these houses (which -occur also between Simla and the plains) are a very great convenience, -as they enable tourists to dispense with the carriage of tents. - -The difficulty of making a start, from the small number of porters -procurable for our baggage, was so great that it was some time after -dark before I reached the Fagu bungalow, in the midst of an extremely -heavy fall of rain, which had commenced about sunset, after a fair -though lowering day. The road from Simla to Fagu follows throughout -the course of the main range, not always on the very crest of the -ridge, but seldom at any great distance from it. After passing round -the peak of Jako, it turns northward, and descends abruptly about 500 -feet, to a low part of the ridge, elevated about 6800 feet, and quite -bare of trees, the micaceous slaty rock being in many places exposed. -The ridge continues in a direction for nearly four miles, varying -very little in level, only one short and rather steep ascent -occurring to a peak where a spur branches off to the south, beyond -which the road again slightly descends. About half-a-mile to the north -of this little ridge, on the slope of the hill below the road, there -is a small cluster of trees of _Cupressus torulosa_, a species of -cypress, one of the rarer conifers of the Himalaya; the most favourite -situation of which seems to be on very steep mountains in the -interior, at elevations of from seven to nine thousand feet. It was -found abundantly by Major Madden[3] on Shali, a peak twenty miles east -of Simla, and it appears to extend thence west as far as Simla, where -it occurs in several places on hot, dry, and very bare rocky hills, as -low as six thousand feet. - -About four miles from Simla, a sudden increase in the elevation of the -range takes place, and at the same time it turns abruptly towards the -south-east. The road ascends the steep face of the ridge, in a series -of zigzags, rather steeply, with a deep ravine on either hand, that to -the right bare, while on the left there is first a thicket of rose and -willow bushes, and further on an oak-wood, of a species (_Quercus -floribunda_ of Wallich) different from that common at Simla, and -indicative of greater elevation, though here growing with -_Rhododendron_ and _Andromeda_, common Simla trees. When near the top -of the ascent, the road bends rapidly to the right, keeping on the -south face of the ridge, and passing under but close to a small house, -built on the very crest of the ridge, at an elevation of about 8000 -feet. Close to this bungalow, which occupies a most excellent site, -forest commences, and the road runs for a mile through fine trees of -deodar and spruce (_Abies Smithiana_), generally on the very crest of -the ridge, looking down towards the east into a deep and broad valley. -Right across this valley, north-east, rises the remarkable peak of -Shali, a bold rocky mass sloping gently to the south, while to the -north, which seems to overhang the Sutlej valley, it is cut off very -abruptly. This highly beautiful mountain, the termination of a -northerly spur, given off close to Mattiana, is hardly visible from -Simla, its top only being seen from some of the more northerly houses. - - [Sidenote: MAHASU RIDGE. - _August, 1847._] - -From an elevation of about 8000 feet at its north-west end, the Mahasu -ridge rises, at first gradually, to at least 9000 feet, and as it is -throughout well wooded, the road along it is extremely beautiful. On -the earlier part of the ridge, the forest consists chiefly of pine, -_P. excelsa_ and _Abies Smithiana_ being abundant, and more especially -the deodar, which, on the slope facing the west, may be seen in the -greatest profusion, thousands of young trees springing up in dense -masses, on the slopes which have been bared by the axe, or still more -destructively by the fires of the hill-men. - -After about five miles of what, in the Himalaya, may be called -tolerably level road, another sudden ascent follows, the road -inclining rather to the northern slope of the mountain, and entering a -dense forest of large massive pines, intermixed with two species of -sycamore, and a fine cherry, which relieve the otherwise too gloomy -foliage of the coniferous trees. A magnificent climbing vine, which -attaches itself to the tallest trees, rising in light green coils -round their trunks, and falling in graceful festoons from the -branches high over head, adds much to the elegance of the scene, and -renders it, in the expressive words of Griffith, who was familiar with -the rich vegetation of the humid forests of the Eastern Himalaya, the -only true Himalayan forest of the western mountains. - - [Sidenote: SUMMIT OF MAHASU. - _August, 1847._] - -On this ascent the road rises to about 9000 feet, the crest of the -Mahasu ridge being, according to Captain Herbert, 9200 feet. The large -size and dense shade of the trees, and the abundance of _Abies -Smithiana_, of the sycamore, and of the gigantic vine, give the forest -a totally different appearance from that of Simla, and the undergrowth -presents also a considerable amount of novelty; a species of currant, -a fine _Spiraea_, _Indigofera atropurpurea_, and fine species of _Rosa_ -and _Rubus_, forming thickets under the tall trees. This forest, -indeed, from its dense shade, and great humidity, exhibits a much -greater contrast to the ordinary temperate vegetation of the Himalaya, -than is usually observed below 9000 feet, at which elevation the upper -temperate, or subalpine vegetation, begins fairly to predominate over -that which is prevalent from 5000 to 9000 feet. - -On reaching the summit of the steep ascent, the road again gains the -crest of the ridge, which consists of a succession of rounded knolls, -covered with grass, and quite bare of trees, the forest rising almost, -but not quite, to the top. On the very summit of one of the first of -these knolls, is a small wooden shrine or temple, of a form common in -the hills; the top of a mountain, or the summit of any very steep -ascent, being usually selected as a proper spot for the erection of a -sacred building by Indian mountaineers, in whose superstition every -hill and grove is tenanted by supernatural beings. - - [Sidenote: POTATO CULTIVATION. - _August, 1847._] - -The steep ascent on the northern shoulder of Mahasu, from 8000 feet, -and even lower, to above 9000 feet, is the great seat of the potato -cultivation in the neighbourhood of Simla. The steepest slopes seem to -be preferred for this purpose, if they have only a sufficiency of -soil, which is very light, loose, and stony. The undergrowth of shrubs -is cleared away entirely on the spot where potatoes are planted, but -the pine forest is only partially thinned, the tall straight trunks -allowing of a free circulation of air below, while the thick branches -above afford the amount of shade requisite for the crop. The potatoes -are planted in rows in May; and, early in June, when the plants have -attained a height of a few inches, the soil is earthed up round their -stems in low ridges. The rains commence in the latter part of June, -and during their continuance nothing is done to the crop, beyond -keeping it clear of weeds. The steepness of the slope seems to afford -a sufficient drainage to prevent any injury from the great rain-fall -and constant humidity. The growth of the plants is exceedingly -luxuriant, the foliage being tall and bushy. By the middle of October, -or after the close of the rains, the potatoes are dug and ready for -market, supplying not only the station of Simla, but being despatched -in great quantities to the plains of India, where the potato is only -cultivated as a winter crop, and where, therefore, during the cold -months, none are otherwise procurable. - -On the very summit of the Mahasu ridge, there are a few trees of -_Quercus semicarpifolia_, the alpine oak of the western Himalaya, an -European-looking and partially deciduous species, and of _Picea -Webbiana_, or _Pindrow_, the silver fir of the Indian mountains, a -dark sombre-looking pine, abundant in the forests of the interior. -These trees may be adopted as the characteristics of the subalpine -zone, in every part of which, from 9000 to about 12,000 feet, which is -the highest limit of tree vegetation in the Western Himalaya, they -abound. On Mahasu they are entirely confined to the crest of the -ridge, and form no part of the forest below. - - [Sidenote: FAGU. - _August, 1847._] - -The descent from the top of Mahasu to the Fagu bungalow, is at first -abrupt, the road leaving the ridge to enter the forest on the northern -face, and winding down, after a few hundred yards of bare stony slope, -among dense forest, among which it continues for a couple of miles, -rising at last rather steeply to the crest of the ridge at the point -where it resumes a northerly direction. Here the bungalow of Fagu has -been built, at an elevation of 8200 feet, at the very base of the -steep mountain ridge behind, which rises abruptly, to a height of six -or seven hundred feet. The bungalow faces the north-east, and commands -a most superb view of the snowy range beyond the Sutlej, with -occasional glimpses of the Jumno-Gangetic snows on the right hand. - -On my arrival at Fagu, in the midst of a pelting fall of rain, I found -the bungalow already occupied by my fellow-travellers, and before a -bright and comfortable fire I soon forgot the discomfort of my wet -ride, which indeed was not to be complained of, as it was only what -might fairly have been expected in the middle of the rainy season. -The confusion among our baggage, however, was so great, from its -arriving irregularly and being set down hurriedly by the drenched -porters, anxious to escape as soon as possible to shelter, that it was -not without difficulty I procured the necessary change of clothing. - -The morning of the 3rd of August was densely foggy, but without rain, -and it was unanimously decided that it would be advisable to push on -to the next stage, Mattiana, a distance of fifteen miles. Our -anticipations of fair weather were unfortunately disappointed, for it -began to rain heavily before ten o'clock, and continued to do so with -little intermission till nearly two, when it cleared, and the -remainder of the day was fine. - - [Sidenote: GIRI VALLEY. - _August, 1847._] - -The whole day's journey lay along the ridge, which scarcely fell below -7500 feet, and nowhere rose above 9000 feet. Fagu is situated -immediately above the valley of the river Giri, a large mountain -stream, the most western tributary of the Jumna. A road across the -Jumnetic valleys to Massuri descends abruptly towards that river, -descending more than 5000 feet in little more than five miles, and -crossing the river by a bridge at an elevation of 3000 feet. The -mountains to the right, which dip into the valley of the Giri, are -bare of forest, with a good deal of cultivation in small terraced -fields on the steep sunny slopes, while scattered houses, scarcely -collected into villages, are seen here and there among the fields. On -the left hand, again, the deep valley which runs towards the Sutlej is -full of forest, not rising however to the ridge, which is bare, or -lined only with scattered jungle of _Indigofera_, _Desmodium_, -_Spiraea_, roses, and brambles. It seems to be a constant rule that -the depressions of the ridges are bare and open, while the more -elevated portions are covered with forest. Probably the cause of this -is the greater humidity of the higher slopes, which attract the -rain-clouds, while the lower ranges are dry. The currents of air which -sweep up the valleys may also in part be the cause of the bareness of -the ridges opposite their summits. - - [Sidenote: THEOG. - _August, 1847._] - -At Theog, nearly eight miles from Fagu, there is a fort belonging to a -Rana, or hill chieftain, and a small village, with a good many fields. -The cultivation at this great elevation, for the fields reach to at -least 8000 feet, is principally of barley, which is sown in early -spring, and reaped in the beginning or middle of June, according to -the season. Beyond Theog the road rises a little, and is covered with -brushwood on the left hand, but bare on the right. The highest part of -the road is about two miles beyond Theog, and has an elevation of -about 9000 feet. The northern face of this hill is prettily wooded -with the holly-leaved oak, and covered with numerous large angular -boulders, whose origin is rather difficult to explain. After passing -this little hill the ridge sweeps round to the left in a semicircle, -ascending very gradually and gently to a low ridge, from the crest of -which the bungalow of Mattiana comes into sight, at a distance of -nearly two miles, the whole of which is a gentle descent. The latter -part of the road has a direction nearly due north, and the bungalow is -situated in a very commanding position on the top of a little -eminence, a quarter of a mile from the village, which occupies the -slope of the hill facing the south-east, at a considerably lower -level. The hills on both sides of the bungalow, which has an -elevation of 8200 feet, are extremely steep, and descend at least 2000 -feet. The valley on the left, tributary to the Sutlej, is well wooded, -but that on the right is rather bare, with only a little wood here and -there in the ravines, and on the more shady exposures. - - [Sidenote: MATTIANA. - _August, 1847._] - -The slopes below Mattiana are covered with numerous scattered houses -and a good deal of cultivation. A little rice is grown during the -rains, but the principal crops are barley and some wheat, sown in -spring and reaped before the commencement of the rains. The opium -poppy, also a spring crop, is cultivated to some extent in the lower -part of the valley. It is sown in early spring, and the opium is -gathered in June. - -On the morning of the 4th of August we resumed our journey, proceeding -as far as Nagkanda, about thirteen miles. Nagkanda, like Mattiana and -Fagu, lies exactly on the crest of the main range, south of the -Sutlej, and it is possible to proceed to it by a footpath along the -ridge. The ascent, however, immediately north of Mattiana, where the -ridge rises suddenly to nearly 10,000 feet, is so steep, rocky, and -difficult, that it is quite impassable for horses, and so nearly for -loaded men, that a more easy, though somewhat longer road is always -preferred. I have more than once walked from Nagkanda to Mattiana by -the upper road, and found it quite easy on foot, and so very beautiful -as to be well worth a visit. The ascent from Mattiana is exceedingly -steep, and facing nearly due south, very bare, stony, and barren; but -when the higher portion of the ridge has been gained, the remainder of -the road lies through beautiful forest, with much fine scenery--the -earlier part steep and rocky, the remainder nearly level, till the -last descent, and generally on the north face of the range. - - [Sidenote: VALLEY BEFORE MATTIANA. - _August, 1847._] - -On our present journey, however, we took the usual road, which -descends from Mattiana to the valley immediately on the east, crosses -it, and passes over a long spur on its eastern side, into another -valley, the head of which is immediately below Nagkanda, to which -place the road ascends, at last very steeply. The ravine immediately -below Mattiana is crossed at an elevation probably a little above 6000 -feet, as the trees of the temperate region, such as the holly-leaved -and woolly oak, _Andromeda_, and _Rhododendron_, continue to the very -bottom of the descent; and _Pinus excelsa_ is common on the eastern -slope, a little way above the stream, which descends very abruptly, -like all the hill torrents near their sources, along a rocky channel, -filled with large boulders. On the banks of the little stream there -were a few trees of an _Acacia_, common in the lower forests, which -Mr. Bentham considers a hairy variety of the _Albizzia Julibrissin_ of -western Asia. I observed also a Laurel, an Olive, _Rhus_, and the -common Toon (_Cedrela Toona_), all indicative of the commencement of a -subtropical vegetation, which no doubt must be abundant on its banks a -very few miles further down. Few of the plants observed in the valley -were different from those common around Simla; a species of -_Caragana_, a Leguminous genus abundant in Siberia, and in the -interior and more dry parts of the Himalaya, was perhaps the most -interesting. - -The ascent from the ravine was well wooded in its lower part with oak -and pine. A few trees of a very handsome poplar (_P. ciliata_), a tall -widely-branching large-leaved tree, occurred in its lower part, as did -also _Benthamia fragifera_, and a yew, apparently undistinguishable -from the common European species. The upper part of the ascent was -bare and grassy. The spur is a steep one, descending rapidly from the -main range, and the road winding round its shoulder does not ascend -beyond 7000 feet, but as soon as it has gained the eastern face -continues nearly level, gradually approaching the centre of the -valley, and winding along the hill-sides among numerous villages. The -slopes are generally bare; here and there in the hollows or recesses -along the lateral streamlets there is some very fine forest. - - [Sidenote: CULTIVATED VALLEY. - _August, 1847._] - -The appearance of this valley is considerably different from that of -any of those nearer to the plains. The population is considerable, and -collected into villages, some of which occupy the lower part of the -valley, and are surrounded by a good deal of cultivation and numerous -walnut and apricot trees, the latter of which are said, in autumn, -frequently to tempt the bears from the forest, to indulge in what to -them is a grateful feast. The ripening of the apricot in a valley, -among forest, at an elevation of 7000 feet, indicates an undoubted -diminution of the rain-fall. Very little change, however, is -observable in the wild vegetation till the upper part of the last -steep ascent, when a number of species make their appearance which are -strangers to the more external ranges. A species of hazel, as a tree, -and _Lappa_, _Achillea_, _Leonurus_, _Cheiranthus_, and _Rumex -acetosa_, as herbaceous plants, may be mentioned as instances, as -also a lax-paniculate _Polygonum_, with elegant panicles of white -honey-scented flowers. - - [Sidenote: NAGKANDA. - _August, 1847._] - -Nagkanda bungalow, elevated 9300 feet above the level of the sea, is -situated on a depression of the main range, where it has a direction -from west to east. The ridge to the west, towards Mattiana, is -elevated little more than 10,000 feet, while to the east rises the -peak of Hattu to a height of 10,674 feet, by the determination of the -trigonometrical survey. Here the range has approached nearer to the -Sutlej, now distant only about twelve miles, than at any point since -leaving Simla. The valley of the Sutlej being only 3000 feet above the -level of the sea, while the mountains directly opposite rise to 12,000 -feet, the scenery is of the grandest description. The river itself is -nowhere visible, the descent being so abrupt at the bottom that the -intervening spurs entirely conceal it. - -The northern slope of the ridge on which Nagkanda stands, is occupied -by a very deep valley, bounded by two long spurs, which run towards -the Sutlej. The whole of this valley is occupied by dense forest, a -great part of which is pine, especially on the upper part of the deep -receding bay which runs up nearly to the top of Hattu, the sides of -which are covered with a dense sombre forest of _Picea Webbiana_ -(Pindrow). - - [Sidenote: ASCENT OF HATTU. - _August, 1847._] - -On the 5th of August, a portion of our baggage, which had been left at -Fagu two days before, from a deficiency of porters, not having arrived -at Nagkanda, it became necessary to halt, in order to give it a chance -of reaching us. The day was fortunately fine, and we availed ourselves -of the opportunity to ascend Hattu, Captain Strachey taking with him -his barometers, to verify their accuracy by the trigonometrically -determined height of this mountain, which was one of the stations of -the Himalayan survey by Captain Herbert. As the top of the mountain is -only about 1500 feet above the Nagkanda bungalow, and the distance is -nearly five miles, the ascent is an easy one. The first mile is nearly -level, and bare of wood on the ridge, though the forest on both sides -rises within a few feet of the crest, which is bordered by brushwood. -As soon as the ascent commences, the ridge becomes covered with -forest, at first principally pine, spruce and silver fir (_Picea_) -being the principal species. Yew is also very common, forming a fine -tall tree, and the few non-coniferous trees are chiefly the alpine -oak, sycamore, and cherry. The road, which at first ascends a western -spur, by degrees winds round to the face of the mountain, and finally -ascends to the summit from the east. The wood on the upper part is -entirely oak, and more open than the pine forest lower down. The top -of the mountain is steep and bare towards the east, for about five -hundred feet, with precipitous rocks thirty or forty feet high towards -the west, below which the slope is exceedingly steep and rocky in that -direction. - -The continuation of the main range towards the east is at first lower -than the peak of Hattu some 600 or 700 feet, but rises again to -another peak within a mile. A long spur or ridge to the south-west is, -however, for nearly two miles, within a few feet of the same height as -the summit of Hattu, and rises at about that distance into a point, -which probably rather exceeds it. It then sinks rapidly towards the -Giri river, the most easterly branch of which has its source in the -ravine on the eastern face. - - [Sidenote: TOP OF HATTU. - _August, 1847._] - -On the top of Hattu there are the remains of a square building, with -very thick walls, I believe of native origin, and intended as a sort -of fort, which, however, from the want of water, must have been quite -untenable. It is now in ruins, its interior being filled with a -wilderness of hemp, nettles, _Galium Aparine_, dock and other coarse -plants. The grassy slopes of the summit are covered with a luxuriant -herbage of _Potentillae_, _Labiatae_, _Gentianaceae_, _Epilobium_, -_Polygonum_, and _Anemone_, while a few stunted bushes of _Quercus -semicarpifolia_, a simple-leaved _Pyrus_, and a willow, are the only -shrubby vegetation. The forest, however, rises close to the base of -the cliffs on the western face, and contains all the species common on -the ascent of the mountain, the vegetation of the summit being in no -respect peculiar, not even in early spring exhibiting any truly alpine -plant. The mountain bamboo, a graceful small species of _Arundinaria_, -which is extremely abundant in the woods of the upper temperate and -subalpine zones, adorns the rocky hollows close to the summit. - - [Sidenote: VIEW FROM HATTU. - _August, 1847._] - -In every direction except south, and along the ridge to the east, the -view from the top of Hattu is very extensive, as it overlooks all the -peaks in the immediate vicinity. To the north the mountains of Kulu, -which separate the valley of the Sutlej from that of the Beas, and -from the upper Chenab, are most beautifully seen, their peaks rising -above one another from west to east, till they enter the region of -perpetual snow. Towards the plains, in clear weather, the view must -be superb; but in that direction there is so generally a hazy state of -the atmosphere, that though I have ascended Hattu four times, I have -never been fortunate enough to obtain a favourable day. - -In looking back from the summit of Hattu towards Simla and the plains, -it may be observed that the country is well wooded, though when viewed -from Simla or the heights of Mahasu the same mountains had appeared -almost bare. This diversity in the aspect of the country, according to -the direction from which it is seen, is due to the ridges being well -wooded on one face, and bare of trees on the other. The plainward face -is never, except under very exceptional circumstances, at all wooded, -while the northern and eastern slopes are generally covered with -forest. Probably the more direct influence of the sun, and the action -of the strong winds which generally blow up the valleys towards the -interior of the mountains, act in concurrence in drying the -atmosphere, and checking the growth of trees on the southern and -western faces of the ridges. - -The shrubby and herbaceous vegetation of Hattu is exceedingly -luxuriant. The more open glades of the forest are filled with an -undergrowth of tall balsams, annual-stemmed _Acanthaceae_, _Dipsacus_, -_Compositae_ (among which the beautiful _Calimeris_ is very abundant), -while in the drier pine-forest a graceful little bamboo occurs, often -to the exclusion of every other plant. It grows in dense tufts, eight -or ten or even twelve feet high, the diameter of the stem not -exceeding a quarter of an inch. The currant of the Mahasu ridge is -also common, with many of the same shrubs which are there abundant. -The ridge close to Nagkanda is much drier, and has fewer peculiar -plants; the resemblance to the Simla flora being there very -remarkable. - - [Sidenote: CULTIVATION. - _August, 1847._] - -On the southern slopes of this ridge, at elevations equal to that of -Nagkanda bungalow, and even higher, in some places as high as 9500 -feet, there are considerable patches of cultivation. Barley is -probably the spring crop, but during the rains a good deal of -buckwheat is cultivated. This plant will not thrive in the very humid -regions, and is therefore indicative of a drier climate than that of -Simla; indeed, even the occurrence of cultivation at such an -elevation, during the rainy season, satisfactorily proves the -existence of a more moderate rain-fall and greater warmth than on the -peaks nearer the plains, as for instance on the Mahasu ridge, on -which, except the potato, no cultivation whatever is attempted during -the rains, though there are a few fields of wheat or barley in one -spot as high as 8000 feet. - - [Sidenote: DESCENT TOWARDS THE SUTLEJ. - _August, 1847._] - - [Sidenote: SHADY RAVINE. - _August, 1847._] - -Our missing loads having arrived at Nagkanda on the evening of the 5th -of August, we resumed our journey on the morning of the 6th, marching -to Kotgarh, ten miles. At Nagkanda we finally left the main range, and -began to descend towards the valley of the Sutlej, following, at the -commencement of our journey, a spur which runs from immediately west -of the bungalow directly towards the river. After about four miles we -quitted this spur to descend into the valley on the right, after -crossing which we ascended to Kotgarh, situated on a long spur -descending from the peak of Hattu. The early part of the descent was -very abrupt, through a forest of large pines, principally _P. -excelsa_ and spruce (_Abies Smithiana_). Some trees of the latter -measured upwards of seventeen feet in circumference. Sycamore and -cherry were also common in the forest, and a good many trees of -_Corylus lacera_, the hazel of the north-west Himalaya, were observed. -The trees were festooned with the gigantic vine already noticed in the -Mahasu forest. After the first two hundred feet of descent, the forest -was less dense, and chiefly pine. _Rhododendron arboreum_ commenced -about 1000 feet below Nagkanda, and was soon followed by the -holly-leaved oak, and a little lower by _Q. incana_, the common hoary -oak of Simla; and by the time we had got down to 7000 feet, the -vegetation was quite similar to that of Simla. At a little below this -elevation, the road leaves the crest of the ridge, which may be seen -to continue in a northerly direction, partly bare and partly -pine-clad, and descends rapidly to the bottom of the deep ravine on -the right. Soon after leaving the ridge we entered thick forest, and -at the bottom of the ravine two considerable streams are crossed -within a very short distance of one another, at an elevation of about -5500 feet, the lowest level to which we descended during the day's -journey. Along the banks of these streams, which have a considerable -inclination of bed, the forest is very dense and shady. Few of the -trees are coniferous, nor do oaks in this part of the Himalaya select -such moist localities. _Lauraceae_ of several kinds, the horse-chesnut, -alder, and hornbeam (_Carpinus viminea_), with Toon and _Celtis_, are -the prevailing trees. - -The streams which the road here crosses descend from different parts -of the ridge of Nagkanda. They occupy the bottom of deep ravines, and -are in their whole course densely wooded. These ravines are, in their -upper part especially, extremely steep and rocky, often with -precipitous walls, and scarcely practicable even on foot. The -denseness of the forest is principally due to their northern exposure, -and to the consequent more equable temperature and greater humidity. -They contain many trees not previously observed on the journey from -Simla, though all of them, I believe even the horse-chesnut, occur in -the very similar steep rocky ravines below Fagu. The alder is a common -tree at 4-5000 feet in the north-western Himalaya, always in valleys -and on the banks of streams. - -In this shady forest I collected a considerable number of plants which -do not occur at Simla. A scandent _Hydrangea_, the loosely-adhering -bark of which separates in long rolls like that of the birch, and is -used as a substitute for paper, was seen twining round the trunks of -trees. I observed also a fine _Calanthe_, and abundance of -_Adenocaulon_, a remarkable genus of _Compositae_, which, till Mr. -Edgeworth discovered a species in the Himalaya, was only known as a -native of South America. In the thickest part of the forest in this -ravine, I was also fortunate enough to meet with a few specimens of -_Balanophora_, which here probably attains its western limit. All -these plants are abundant forms in the most humid parts of Nepal and -Sikkim, and their presence may, I think, be regarded as indicative of -a more equable temperature throughout the year than prevails in the -more open parts of the Sutlej Himalaya. The range of mountains on -which Nagkanda stands certainly intercepts a great deal of moisture -during the rainy season, and therefore makes the valleys on its -northern aspect less humid at that period of the year. This would -appear to be more than counterbalanced by the effect of the dense -forest in keeping up moisture and preventing radiation during winter, -for the cold and dryness of that season seem to have a much greater -effect in determining the cessation of the forms characteristic of the -eastern Himalaya, than the diminished rain-fall during the three -months of the rainy season. - - [Sidenote: KOTGARH. - _August, 1847._] - -After crossing the stream at the bottom of the valley, the road -advances in a northerly direction, at first gradually ascending -through fine shady woods, but afterwards, turning to the right, -mounting rapidly by very abrupt zigzags, up a bare dry hill-side, to -the Kotgarh ridge. Here we took up our quarters for the night, in a -house the property of Captain P. Gerard, a little above the village of -Kotgarh, at an elevation of about 7000 feet, in a fine grove of _Pinus -excelsa_. - -Kotgarh, a large village, and the seat of an establishment of -missionaries, was at one time a military post, and is interesting to -the Himalayan traveller, from the fact of the detachment here -stationed having been long commanded by one of the brothers Gerard, -whose labours in these mountains, geographical and meteorological, are -so well known. It has, however, long been abandoned as a military -station, the peaceable state of the hill population rendering it -unnecessary to keep a garrison in these mountains. - - [Sidenote: CULTIVATION. - _August, 1847._] - -Captain Gerard's house, in which we spent the night, is elevated -several hundred feet above the upper part of the village of Kotgarh, -which occupies the steep face of the ridge directly overlooking the -valley of the Sutlej. One reach of the river is visible from the front -of the house, and the deep roar of the rapid stream was distinctly -audible, notwithstanding that we were still 4000 feet above it. On the -morning of the 7th of August we resumed our journey, descending -abruptly through the village of Kotgarh to the Sutlej. At first the -pine-forest which surrounded our night quarters, accompanied us down -the steep hill-side. It was intermixed with a few scattered deodars; -and the shrubby and herbaceous vegetation was in all its features -identical with that of Simla. Soon, however, the descent was on a bare -hill-side, and after reaching the village, the road, inclining to the -right or east, kept nearly level for about a mile, passing through -much cultivation, in terraced fields on the slopes. The crops were -_Kodon_ (_Eleusine Coracana_) and a cylindrical-headed _Panicum_, both -grains commonly cultivated in the plains of India. There were also -many fields of _Amaranthus_ and _Chenopodium_. The first of these is -occasionally cultivated in all parts of the hills, its bright red -inflorescence, in autumn, tinging with flame the bare mountain slopes. -The _Chenopodium_ was new to me as a cultivated grain, and is -particularly interesting from its analogy with the Quinoa of South -America. It is entirely a rain crop, and grows very luxuriantly, -rising to a height of six or eight feet, with a perfectly straight -stout very succulent green stem, and large deltoid leaves, either pale -green or of a reddish tinge, and covered with grey mealiness. The -seeds, which are extremely small, are produced in great abundance on -all the upper part of the plant, and are ripe in September. - - [Sidenote: DESCENT TO THE SUTLEJ. - _August, 1847._] - -For about a mile after leaving the village of Kotgarh, the descent was -trifling, but the remainder of the road to the Sutlej was very steep, -so that the change in the vegetation was sudden, commencing just at -the point where _Quercus incana_ disappeared; before which few plants -indicating heat occurred. The want of wood, no doubt, assisted the -rapidity of the change, for the heat soon became considerable. In the -course of the descent, I noted all the new forms as they occurred; but -the exact order in which each individual species makes its appearance, -depends so much upon accidental and unimportant circumstances, and is -so likely to be affected by errors of observation, unless many series -are obtained in different aspects of the same slope, that it would -lead to no advantage to enumerate the species as they were met with. -Nearly 1000 feet above the bed of the river, or at an elevation of -about 4000 feet, the vegetation had become quite subtropical, species -of _Mollugo_, _Polanisia_, _Corchorus_, _Leucas_, _Euphorbia_, -_Microrhynchus_, and the ordinary grasses and _Cyperaceae_ of the -plains, being the common weeds. The descent continued very abrupt, the -heat increasing rapidly, till the road reached the bank of the Sutlej, -at the village of Kepu, which occupies a flat piece of land -overhanging the river. - - [Sidenote: VALLEY OF THE SUTLEJ. - _August, 1847._] - -Having commenced our day's journey before daybreak, in order to -complete the march before the extreme heat had commenced, we stopped -here to breakfast, under the shade of a fine mango-tree. The -neighbourhood of the village was well cultivated, with extensive -rice-fields and a fine grove of tropical trees--mango, _Ficus Indica_ -and _religiosa_, _Melia Azedarach_ and _Azadirachta_, _Grewia_, -oranges, and plantains. Our late residence in a cool climate made us -feel the heat much, though the temperature at nine in the morning was -not much more than 80 deg. After breakfast, we continued our journey -up the valley, to Nirt or Nirat, a distance of six or seven miles, and -next day we reached Rampur, the capital of Basehir, twelve miles -further, and still in the Sutlej valley. - -The district of Basehir is an independent hill state, governed by a -rajah, whose dominion also extends over Kunawar; it commences a very -little north of Kotgarh, and occupies the south side of the river -Sutlej and the mountain slopes above it, as far east as the confines -of Kunawar. The valley of the Sutlej, in the western part of Basehir, -from Rampur downwards, has an elevation of little more than 3000 feet, -Rampur (140 feet above the bed of the river) being 3400 feet above the -level of the sea[4]. The river, at the season of our journey, which -was the height of the rains, at which time it is at its largest, is an -impetuous torrent, of great size, but very variable in breadth, -foaming along over a stony bed, with generally very precipitous rocky -banks, and filled with large boulders. During the rainy season it is -extremely muddy, almost milky, and deposits in tranquil parts of its -course a considerable amount of white mud. The valley is generally -very narrow, with steep bare hills on either side, quite devoid of -trees and covered only with a few scattered bushes and long coarse -grass. In the bays or recesses on the mountain-sides, between the -terminations of the rocky spurs which descend to the river, the valley -is often filled with a hard conglomerate rock, the cement of which is -calcareous, evidently (geologically) of very recent origin. These -patches of conglomerate are flat-topped, and often scarped towards the -river, and are frequently 200 feet and more in thickness. They differ -in degree of consolidation only from ordinary alluvial deposit, so -that they appear to owe their preservation from the denuding effects -of river action, to the calcareous matter, which has cemented the -pebbles and sand into a solid rock. - - [Sidenote: VEGETATION. - _August, 1847._] - -The road follows throughout the course of the river, rising sometimes -200-300 feet, to pass over rocky spurs; at other times it lies on the -surface of the boulder conglomerate, and more rarely close to the -river. Here and there is a small village, with a few rice-fields, but -the greater part of the valley is utterly sterile. Like the valleys of -the outer Himalaya, that of the Sutlej here exhibits a curious mixture -of the ordinary vegetation of the plains, with forms which point out -the mountainous nature of the country. The whole flora is strongly -characteristic of a dry soil and an arid climate. The mountain ranges -to the west and south, no doubt, intercept a good deal of rain; and -the lofty mountains, 10-12,000 feet in height, which, on the right and -left, rise rapidly from the river, appropriate to themselves a great -part of the moisture which reaches the valley. We may, therefore, in -the absence of direct meteorological observations, infer, from the -physical structure of the valley, and from the nature of its -vegetation, that its climate is drier than that of the valleys at the -base of the Himalaya. - -The Sutlej valley cannot, of course, be properly compared with the -base of the mountains farther east, where luxuriant forest covers all -the slopes; but when contrasted with the Pinjor valley, or the low -hills above Kalka, it is only on a careful comparison that a -difference is to be observed, and then, perhaps, more by the absence -of forms abundant in them than by any marked addition of new ones. The -ordinary shrubs of the Sutlej, at 3000 feet, are _Adhatoda Vasica_, -_Carissa edulis_, _Colebrookea_, _Rottlera tinctoria_, and some -species of _Boehmeria_, all characteristic of the outer hills, and -the two first common plains plants. The remarkable _Euphorbia -pentagona_ is also common. _Butea_, _Aegle_, and _Moringa_ do not -occur, nor are there any bamboos. _Flacourtia sepiaria_, _Capparis -sepiaria_, and _Calotropis_, which are three of the commonest plants -of the plains, were also not observed. A large white-flowered caper -(_Capparis obovata_, Royle) and a glabrous _Zizyphus_ were the most -remarkable new forms. The herbaceous vegetation differed scarcely at -all from that of the plains, consisting chiefly of species which, -during the rainy season, spring up in the lightest and driest soils. - -Mountain plants were only occasional, and mostly such as at Simla -descend on the dry grassy slopes into the valleys: a berberry and -bramble (_Rubus flavus_), _Plectranthus rugosus_, which is a grey and -dusty-looking shrub, _Melissa umbrosa_, _Micromeria biflora_, a little -_Geranium_, _Ajuga parviflora_, a _Galium_, _Senecio_, _Aplotaxis -candicans_, and one or two _Umbelliferae_. They did not, however, -amount to a twentieth part of the whole vegetation, and the aspect of -the flora was quite subtropical. A little _Eriophorum_, which is -everywhere common in arid places at the base of the Himalaya, from -Assam to the Indus, was frequent in the crevices of the rocks. Ferns -were very scarce, only two or three being observed. - - [Sidenote: RAMPUR. - _August, 1847._] - -The town of Rampur is a considerable place, on a small level tract of -ground, about a hundred feet above the bed of the river Sutlej, which -it overhangs. The houses are substantially built, in the form of a -square, with an open space in the centre; they are mostly one-storied, -and have steeply-sloping slated roofs. The town has a good deal of -trade with Tibet, principally in shawl wool, and is the seat of a -small manufacture of white soft shawl-cloths. The river is here -crossed by a rope suspension-bridge, of a kind very common in the -lower valleys, which has often been described. It consists of nine -stout ropes, which are stretched from one side of the river to the -other. The width of the Sutlej at the bridge, according to Captain -Gerard, by whom it was measured, is 211 feet. - -During our stay at Rampur, Major Cunningham directed my attention to -the alteration of the level of the river at different periods of the -day, from the variable amount of solar action on the snows by which it -is fed. This effect he had noticed on his former visit to the -mountains, and we had frequent opportunities of observing it during -our journey. At Rampur the diurnal variation was not less than three -or four feet, the maximum being, I believe, during the night or early -in the morning. In the immediate vicinity of snow, the streams are -highest in the afternoon, but as the distance increases the period of -greatest height becomes by degrees later and later. - -Except on our two first days' journey, we had been extremely fortunate -in weather since leaving Simla. The day of the 8th was very cloudy and -oppressive, and the 9th, on which we remained stationary at Rampur to -make arrangements with the Rajah for our further progress through -Basehir and Kunawar, was rainy throughout. The rain, however, was -light, and did not prevent the Rajah from visiting us in the -afternoon, impelled, I suppose, by a desire to see our apparatus and -arrangements for travelling. We were lodged in an excellent -upper-roomed house of his, overhanging the Sutlej, and not far from -his own residence, which lies at the east end of the town, and -externally is quite without beauty, presenting to view nothing but a -mass of dead walls. The Rajah seldom remains during the hot season at -Rampur, as he has a second residence at Serahan, twenty miles up the -river, and 7000 feet above the level of the sea, in which he usually -spends the summer, though during 1847, for some reason or other, he -remained during the greater part of the year at Rampur. - - [Sidenote: ANCIENT RIVER-CHANNEL. - _August, 1847._] - -On the morning of the 18th of August we resumed our journey. Our -direction still lay up the valley of the Sutlej, and for the first -three miles the road kept parallel to the river, ascending -occasionally a few hundred feet to cross spurs, when the immediate -margin of the Sutlej was too rocky and precipitous to allow of a -passage. This was not unfrequently the case, and after a few miles -the river-bank became so rugged and difficult, that the road left it, -to ascend a long ridge, descending from the mountain range to the -south. The early part of the road, from the many views of the river -rushing over its rocky bed, often among immense boulders, and from the -general boldness of the mountain scenery, was, though bare of forest, -very striking. Frequently the road overhung the river, which ran -through a narrow rocky ravine many hundred feet below. At other times, -it lay over the surface of the flat platforms which occupied the -valley, and in several places curious excavations were noticed on the -rocky surface, as if the river had formerly flowed over higher levels. -One of these ancient channels was so very remarkable, that it could -not be overlooked. The rocky banks on either side were at least a -hundred feet apart, and the large water-worn boulders, with occasional -rugged pointed rocks which filled the bed, conveyed unmistakeably the -conviction that we were walking over an ancient river-bed, though the -elevation could not be less than 150 feet above the present level of -the river. - - [Sidenote: ASCENT TOWARDS GAORA. - _August, 1847._] - -Three miles from Rampur the road began to ascend a long spur in a -south-east direction. After we had ascended a few hundred feet, the -course of the river could be seen on the left among precipitous rocks, -quite impracticable. The ascent was through a well-cultivated tract, -the base of the hill and lower slopes being covered with fields of -rice, still only a few inches high. The road ascended rapidly, through -villages with numerous fruit-trees. At first, the vegetation continued -the same as in the valley, and the hills were bare, except close to -the village. Within a thousand feet of the base, the cultivation -ceased, and the road entered a wood of scattered firs, mixed after a -little with the common oak (_Q. incana_). At about 5000 feet the steep -lateral spur joined the ridge, and the road turned to the eastward, -and continued along the steep sides of the ridge, which overhang the -valley of the river 2000 feet below. The Sutlej was well seen, running -among bare rocky hills, the pine-wood being confined to the upper -parts of the steep slopes. - -Had we continued our course along this ridge, it would in time have -conducted us to the crest of the main range south of the Sutlej, the -same which we had left at Nagkanda to descend into the Sutlej valley. -It would have been necessary for this purpose to ascend to a height of -between 12,000 and 13,000 feet, and to proceed to a considerable -distance south; our object, however, being to keep along the river as -nearly as possible, it would not have suited our purpose to ascend so -far, and the road only left the banks of the Sutlej on account of the -difficult nature of the ground in the bottom of the valley. We found, -therefore, after continuing a mile or two on the steep slope of the -ridge, that the road again began to descend, not exactly towards the -Sutlej, but to the bottom of the ravine or dell, by which the spur on -which we had ascended was separated from that next in succession to -it. - - [Sidenote: GAORA. - _August, 1847._] - -As far as the beginning of the descent the hill-side had been bare, or -only clothed with scattered pine-wood, but as soon as the eastern -slope was gained, and the descent commenced, the slopes became well -wooded with _Rhododendron_ and Oak. The descent was probably not more -than 1000 feet, perhaps scarcely so much, as the ravine sloped very -abruptly to the Sutlej; on the lower part of the descent, and on the -bank of the stream, the wood was principally alder, and a few -subtropical grasses and _Cyperaceae_ marked the commencement of the -vegetation of the lower region, while a valerian, a _Hieracium_, a -species of _Datisca_, and an _Arundo_ or allied grass, were the new -species of plants observed; of these, perhaps the _Datisca_ alone -markedly indicated an approach to the interior Himalaya. After -crossing the ravine the road ascended abruptly up a well-wooded slope, -on the northern face of a steep spur, to the village of Gaora, at -which, for the first time since leaving Simla, we encamped, no house -being available for our accommodation. The morning had been fair, -though dull, but soon after our arrival at Gaora it began to rain, and -continued to do so all the afternoon. - -Gaora is situated, according to Captain Gerard, about 3000 feet above -Rampur; but from the appearance of the vegetation, and a comparison -with known heights on both hands, we estimated the elevation of our -encampment to be not more than 5500 feet, so that probably Captain -Gerard's observations refer to some more elevated point. - - [Sidenote: MANGLAD VALLEY. - _August, 1847._] - -On resuming our journey on the morning of the 11th of August, we -continued the ascent of the spur on which the village of Gaora is -situated, which is well wooded with the ordinary trees of the -temperate zone of the Himalaya. There were a few rice-fields on the -hill-side on cleared places above 6000 feet, and some orange-trees in -the villages at about the same elevation; from both of which facts, -more sun-heat and less rain during summer may be inferred, than in -similar elevations on the outer Himalaya, where neither rice nor -oranges occur so high. A little way higher up, the forest changed its -character, the holly-leaved oak, the deodar, and the spruce, being the -common trees, among which the road continued for four or five miles, -without much change of level, when the forest ceased, and the road, -after continuing for a short time at about the same level, descended -abruptly to the ravine of the Manglad river, a considerable stream, -now swollen into a furious torrent, which rushed with impetuosity down -its steep rocky bed. A great part of the descent was bare, over -crumbling mica-slate rocks. - -The vegetation in the bottom of the glen showed, as on former -occasions, indications of a low elevation, but presented no novelty, -except in the occurrence of _Melia Azedarach_, apparently wild. I have -occasionally noticed this tree in the interior of the Himalaya, always -at an elevation of between 4000 and 5000 feet, and invariably in the -drier valleys of the mountains, but it is so commonly cultivated in -India, that its occurrence can scarcely be regarded as a proof of its -being indigenous, especially if we consider that it is a rare -circumstance to find it in even an apparently wild state. I do not, -however, know that it has a greater claim to be considered a native of -any part of the world. - - [Sidenote: SERAHAN. - _August, 1847._] - -The ascent on the east side was long, steep, and fatiguing, up -well-wooded slopes. At about 6000 feet, a single tree of _Hippophae -conferta_, with nearly ripe fruit, was observed near a spring, and a -few hundred feet higher the road gained the ridge, and continued for a -mile and a half of very gentle ascent, on a broad, nearly level -mountain-side, to Serahan, through beautiful forest of oak and pine. -Serahan, the summer residence of the Basehir Rajah, is pleasantly -situated at an elevation of 7000 feet above the level of the sea, on -the northern slope of the mountain range, surrounded on all sides by -pine-forest. The village is small, and occupies the lower margin of an -open glade of considerable extent, on which there is a good deal of -cultivation, of the same plants as I have noted at Kotgarh. The latter -part of our march had been through heavy rain, which continued all the -evening, and the greater part of the night, but we were fortunate -enough to find an empty house, capable of sheltering our servants and -baggage, as well as ourselves. - -Besides the _Hippophae_, which I noted on the ascent from Manglad, -several plants appeared on this day's journey, which served to -chronicle a gradual alteration in the flora, notwithstanding that the -forest-trees and general character continued generally the same. Of -these, the most interesting, by far, was a plant discovered by Mr. -Edgeworth, in the same tract of country, and by him described as -_Oxybaphus Himalayanus_, a species of a genus otherwise entirely South -American. It is a rank-growing, coarse, herbaceous plant, with tumid -joints, and a straggling dichotomous habit, and has small pink or -rose-coloured flowers, covered with a viscid exudation. It grows in -open pastures and in waste places near villages, and is an abundant -species throughout the Kunawar valley. - - [Sidenote: TRANDA. - _August, 1847._] - -On the morning of the 12th of August we marched to Tranda, along the -mountain-side, winding a little with its sinuations, and occasionally -descending to cross the little streamlets which furrow its side, and -separate the lateral ridges from one another. The road lay through -beautiful forest, and as the day was fine we obtained at intervals a -succession of superb views, of the deep and well-wooded valleys below, -and the rugged mountains north of the Sutlej. The forest-trees were -still the hoary and holly-leaved oak, with deodar and spruce, though -in the more shady woods along the streams, the horse-chesnut, and a -fine glaucous-leaved laurel, were common. The shrubby and herbaceous -vegetation was in general character the same as in the denser woods of -Simla, the new species being still quite exceptional. - -It soon became necessary to descend, in order to gain a place on the -next range in succession to the eastward, so as not to leave the river -at too great a distance. Forest continued to the bottom of the -descent, which showed no signs of tropical vegetation, and was -therefore not to so low a level as those of previous days. The -remainder of the day's journey consisted of a succession of ascents -and descents, mostly long and fatiguing, with occasionally half a mile -nearly level. Many of the steeper parts were very rocky and rugged, so -difficult that artificial steps were required to make them -practicable, and even with their aid a horse could scarcely pass. The -greater part of the road lay through forest, and two considerable -streams were crossed besides the one on the early part of the march. -From the last of these a long and very laborious ascent led to the -crest of the Tranda ridge, on the very top of which we halted for the -night in a log hut, built for the accommodation of travellers, in the -midst of a fine forest of deodar-trees. - -The Tranda ridge has, till near its termination, an elevation of -upwards of 8000 feet, and projects boldly forward towards the Sutlej, -dipping at last extremely abruptly to the river. The Sutlej is here -thrown to the north, in a sharp bend, and runs through a deep gloomy -ravine. This ridge, therefore, more lofty and abrupt than any farther -west, is considered as the commencement of Kunawar; and the valley to -the eastward, as far as the Wangtu bridge, is generally called Lower -Kunawar, to distinguish it from the upper and drier parts of that -district. The rise of the bed of the river is so gradual, that the -transition of climate takes place at first by almost insensible -gradations; but as soon as the spurs retain a height of 8000 feet till -close to the Sutlej, they exercise a powerful influence upon the -climate, and the vegetation and physical aspect of the country change -with great rapidity. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[3] Journal of Agr. Hort. Soc. Calc. vol. iv. - -[4] Gerard's 'Koonawur,' Appendix, Table 3. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - - Sildang river -- Fine grove of Deodars -- Nachar -- Fruit-trees - -- Vine seen for first time -- Boundaries of Kulu and Kunawar - -- Cross Sutlej at Wangtu bridge -- Vegetation of bare rocky - valley -- Waterfall -- Chegaon -- _Pinus Gerardiana_ -- Miru -- - Absence of rain -- Alteration of vegetation -- _Quercus Ilex_ - -- Rogi -- Willow and Poplar -- Chini -- Cultivated Plain -- - Kashbir -- Pangi -- Camp at upper level of trees -- Junipers -- - Werang Pass -- Alpine Vegetation -- Birch and _Rhododendron_ -- - Granite Boulders -- Lipa -- Alluvial Deposits -- Encamp at - 12,500 feet -- Runang Pass -- Vegetation very scanty -- Stunted - Forest -- Sungnam. - - - [Sidenote: SILDANG VALLEY. - _August, 1847._] - -The night we spent at Tranda was stormy, with thunder and heavy -showers of rain, but the morning of the 13th was bright and beautiful, -enabling us to see from our elevated position on the ridge, a single -snow-peak, far to the eastward, in Kunawar. At the commencement of the -day's march, the road receded from the Sutlej into a deep mountain -bay, densely wooded with deodar and pine (_Pinus excelsa_). A few -trees only of spruce and horse-chesnut occurred. After a mile, passing -round a projecting spur, a fine view was obtained of the river Sutlej -at the bottom of a deep ravine, and of the mountain range north of the -river, now in several places covered with heavy snow. A little farther -on, the road descended very abruptly along the face of rugged and -precipitous rocks, to the valley of the Sildang river, a large stream -which was crossed in two branches by two very indifferent wooden -bridges. The Sildang valley, at the point where the road crosses it, -has been stated by Gerard to be elevated 5800 feet above the level of -the sea. It is a larger stream than any of those yet crossed since -leaving Rampur, and its ravine is beautifully wooded. The ascent to -the east was gentle, through woods of oak and pine, and after rising a -few hundred feet, the road continued nearly level for some miles, with -the Sutlej in sight below. A large village was passed on the latter -part of the march, with many temples evidently of old date, and -situated in a grove of very large deodar-trees, several of which were -upwards of twenty feet in circumference. One large tree with a -flattened trunk, as if formed by the union of two, measured, at five -feet from the base, thirty-five and a-half feet round. This grove was -evidently of great age, and probably consisted of old trees, at the -time the village was founded, and the temples were built under its -sacred shade. - -Nachar, at which we took up our quarters for the night, is a very -large village, by far the most considerable yet passed, with many good -houses, much cultivated land, and great numbers of fine fruit-trees. -Walnuts, peaches, apricots, and mulberries, were all common; and I saw -one grape-vine, which bore a good many bunches of fruit. The crops -cultivated were chiefly millet and buckwheat, with a good many fields -of _Amaranthus_ and _Chenopodium_. The fruit-trees were evidently, -from their numbers and luxuriance, a very valuable part of the -possessions of the inhabitants; and it was very interesting to meet -with the vine, though only in small quantity, and evidently not yet in -a thoroughly suitable climate. The elevation of the village, which -occupied a great extent of the hill-side sloping down towards the -Sutlej, now close at hand, was nearly 7000 feet. - - [Sidenote: EASTERN BOUNDARY OF KULU. - _August, 1847._] - -Nearly opposite Nachar, the district of Kunawar, which had hitherto -been confined to the south bank of the Sutlej, extends to both sides -of the river; the province of Kulu, which had hitherto occupied the -northern bank, being bounded on the east by the mountain-chain which -separates the waters of the Beas river from those of the Piti, a -tributary of the Sutlej. By this very lofty chain, the villages on the -north side of the Sutlej, to the east of the point now reached, are -entirely cut off from the valley of the Beas, and naturally become -connected with the district immediately opposite to them, with which -alone they have an easy communication. Kulu, till the campaign of -1846, had belonged to the Punjab; but one of the results of the Sikh -war, in that year, was the transfer of that district to British rule, -so that the Sutlej, in its lower course, no longer served as a -boundary between hostile states. In Kunawar, the north side of the -river is the most important, because it is more populous and fertile -than the south, not only from its more favourable exposure, but -because the chain to the south of the Sutlej continues to increase in -elevation as it proceeds eastward, while that on the north becomes -gradually lower as it advances towards the confluence of the Sutlej -and Piti rivers. - - [Sidenote: DESCENT TOWARDS THE SUTLEJ. - _August, 1847._] - -For this reason the main road or highway through Kunawar crosses to -the right bank of the Sutlej, a short way above Nachar. At starting, -therefore, on the morning of the 14th of August, we began to descend -towards the river. For about a mile and a half the descent was very -gentle, through a good deal of cultivation. There were many -fruit-trees, but very little natural wood; a few horse-chesnut trees -were observed, and occasionally a scattered deodar, spruce, or pine. -On the earlier part of the road the pines were _P. excelsa_, but lower -down that tree gave place to _P. longifolia_. After a mile and a half, -the descent became more rapid, over a rocky and bad road, which -continued to the bridge, distant three miles from Nachar. On the bare, -arid, and rocky hills between Nachar and the river, several very -striking novelties were observed in the vegetation; but as the road -had for several days been at a higher level, and generally among dense -forest, it is not improbable that many of these new plants may occur -on the lower parts of the hills, in the immediate vicinity of the -river, further to the westward. The new species were in all about six -in number, of which three--two species of _Daphne_ and an olive--were -very abundant, and therefore prominent features in the appearance of -the country. - - [Sidenote: WANGTU BRIDGE. - _August, 1847._] - -At the point where the bridge has been thrown across, the river Sutlej -has an elevation, by the determination of Captain Gerard, of 5200 feet -above the level of the sea. Its bed and the banks on both sides are -very rocky and bare, and the width of the stream not more than seventy -feet. The bridge is of that kind called by the mountaineers _sanga_, -which means a wooden bridge or bridge of planks, contrasted with -_jhula_, a rope-bridge. On the left bank the pier of the bridge is -formed by an isolated rock, separated from the rocky banks by an -ancient bed of the river, now quite dry, but worn smooth by the action -of the current. This former channel is stated by Gerard to have been -blocked up by a fall of rocks from above; previous to which -occurrence, the isolated rock must have stood as an island in the -centre of the stream. The construction of the bridge is singular, but -simple, and only adapted for very little traffic. Six stout trunks of -trees are laid alongside of one another on the pier, so that the end -towards the river is a little higher than the other; above these are -placed in succession two similar layers of trunks, each projecting -several feet beyond the one below it, and the whole of these are kept -in position by a substantial stone building, through which the roadway -runs. A similar structure on the opposite bank narrows the distance to -be spanned, at the same time that it affords support to the central -portion of the bridge, which consists of two strong pine-trees fifty -feet in length, placed about two feet apart, and supporting stout -cross planking. The whole forms a bridge quite strong enough to -support foot-passengers or lightly laden horses, the only purpose for -which it is required. - - [Sidenote: WATERFALL. - _August, 1847._] - -In spite of the considerable elevation which the Sutlej valley had now -acquired, a number of plants of tropical character occurred in the -neighbourhood of the Wangtu bridge. These were mostly common grasses -and _Cyperaceae_, _Polycarpaea corymbosa_, _Achyranthes aspera_, and a -few other species, all common mountain-plants at low elevations, which -here, from the great heat caused by the lessened rain and the -concentration of the sun's rays, at the bottom of a deep bare valley, -surmounted on both sides by mountains 10,000 feet above its level, -enjoy a congenial climate. They are, however, confined to the most -exposed places, and to the lower levels only. A few rugged pine-trees -are scattered on the steep rocks, both _Pinus excelsa_, which does not -descend quite to the base of the hills, and _Pinus longifolia_, which -has here reached nearly its eastern limits, the elevation of the -river-bed soon becoming greater than that at which it will grow. Close -to the Wangtu bridge, on the right bank, a considerable stream joins -the Sutlej from the north, and is crossed by the road not far from its -junction with the great river. The lower part of this tributary -exhibits a succession of fine rapids and a waterfall, now much swollen -by the melting of the snow; and which, notwithstanding the want of -trees and consequent bareness of the accessories, formed a picture -such as often greets the eye of the traveller in the alpine districts -of Himalaya, but which no amount of repetition renders less grand and -magnificent. Captain Gerard has, in his little 'Tour in Kunawar,' -described this torrent in strong language, which showed that he felt -the beauty of the scene. For this he has been condemned by Jacquemont, -who sneeringly says that he describes it "comme si c'etait le -Niagara," an expression which induced me to turn on the spot to -Gerard's book, so that I can testify to the accuracy and absence of -exaggeration of his description. - -After crossing this stream, the road ascends the spur which runs -parallel to it, to an elevation of about 1000 feet above the Sutlej, -but only to descend again to its banks, the ascent being caused by -the impracticable nature of the rocky banks of the river. The spur was -bare of trees, but with scattered brushwood, in which the olive and -white _Daphne_, observed on the descent from Nachar, still abounded, -with several other novelties, among which a _Clematis_, _Silene_, -_Stellaria_, and _Selaginella_, all previously-described Kunawar -species, were the most remarkable. Several of the grasses of the -plains of India, such as a _Panicum_ (perhaps _P. paludosum_), -_Eleusine Indica_, and _Heteropogon contortus_, occurred on the hot -dry pastures among the rocks, up to above 6000 feet. The rock was -everywhere gneiss, but varied much in appearance and texture, and -contained many granite veins. - - [Sidenote: CHEGAON. - _August, 1847._] - -After regaining the river, the road ran along its bank, or on low -spurs not more than a few hundred feet above it, through a dry -treeless tract, till about two miles from the end of the day's -journey, when a long steep ascent led to Chegaon, a large village -situated on a stream with steep rocky banks, the houses as usual being -surrounded with fruit-trees. Here we encamped after a march of at -least fourteen miles, at an elevation of 7000 feet above the level of -the sea, or nearly 1800 feet above the valley of the Sutlej. - - [Sidenote: GERARD'S PINE. - _August, 1847._] - -Next day our journey was a short one, not more than five and a half -miles, to the village of Miru. It began by a rapid ascent for two -miles to the crest of the ridge, advancing all the time towards the -Sutlej, which wound round the base of the steep spur 2000 feet below. -The ascent was bare (as the slopes facing the west generally are), and -the hill-side almost precipitous; but as soon as the crest of the -ridge, at an elevation of about 8000 feet, had been gained, scattered -trees appeared of a species not previously seen. This was _P. -Gerardiana_, the pine of Kunawar and the other dry regions of the -Western Himalaya, from the back parts of Garhwal (where it has been -seen by Dr. Jameson) to the valleys of the Upper Chenab. The first -trees met with were small, and in appearance quite distinct from _P. -longifolia_ and _excelsa_, being more compact, with much shorter -leaves and a very peculiar bark, falling off in large patches, so as -to leave the trunk nearly smooth. - - [Sidenote: MIRU. - _August, 1847._] - -Beyond the crest of the ridge, from which the view into the Sutlej -valley, and towards the mountains across the river, was superb, the -road on the east slope again receded from the river, entering an -oak-wood, through which it continued nearly level for more than a -mile, but soon began to descend slightly towards the stream, which ran -at the bottom of a deep ravine, down to which the road plunged -abruptly, to ascend again as steeply on the other side; after which a -steep ascent of upwards of a mile led to Miru, a large village in -which we encamped, at an elevation of 8500 feet. - -At this delightful elevation, in a climate where the periodical rains -of the Himalaya are scarcely felt, embosomed in extensive orchards of -luxuriant fruit-trees, and facing the south, so that it has the full -benefit of the sun's rays to mature its grain-crops, Miru is one of -the most delightful villages of Kunawar, being rivalled only by Rogi -and Chini, beyond which the climate becomes too arid for beauty. The -crops at Miru, both of grain and fruit, were most luxuriant, and the -vine thrives to perfection. The principal vineyards, however, are -lower down, at elevations of between 6000 and 7000 feet, at which -level the sun has more power in autumn to ripen the grape. - -The scenery around Miru is indescribably beautiful, as it almost -overhangs the Sutlej 3000 feet below, while beyond the river the -mountain-slopes are densely wooded, yet often rocky and with every -variation of form. A single peak, still streaked with snow, but too -steep for much to lie, rises almost due opposite; behind which the -summits of the chain south of the Sutlej rise to an elevation of -upwards of 18,000 feet. - -At Miru we found that we had completely left the rainy region of the -mountains, and henceforward the weather continued beautiful. The -change had been very gradual. At Serahan we had heavy rain; a rainy -night at Tranda was succeeded by a brilliant day, till the afternoon, -when it rained smartly for an hour. The next day was again fine, and -at Miru, though the afternoon was cloudy, and a heavy storm was -visible among the mountains across the Sutlej, only a few drops of -rain fell. The transition from a rainy to a dry climate had thus been -apparently very sudden, four days having brought us from Serahan, -where the periodical rains were falling heavily, to a place at which -there were only light showers. This was in part, of course, accident. -Fine weather may, perhaps, have set-in in the interval in all parts of -the mountains. In very rainy seasons, when the rain-fall in the outer -Himalaya is considerably above the mean, heavy showers extend into -Kunawar, at least as far as Chini; and careful meteorological -observations would probably show that the transition of climate is a -very gradual one, the snowy mountains and the great spurs which run -towards the Sutlej collecting and condensing, as they increase in -elevation, more and more of the moisture which is brought by the -south-east winds from the Bay of Bengal. - - [Sidenote: VEGETATION OF KUNAWAR. - _August, 1847._] - -Jacquemont, in the valuable journal of his tour in India, which has -been published by the French Government, has observed that the passage -of the ridge between Chegaon and Miru may be considered as producing a -marked change in the vegetation. This change, as we have seen during -our journey up the Sutlej, had long been going on, though very -gradually and almost insensibly. Several circumstances combine to make -the transition appear at this point more sudden than a careful -calculation of the number of new species will prove to be the case. It -is the first wooded ridge on the north side of the Sutlej over which -the road passes, and it rises higher than any other part of the route -east of Nagkanda. A considerable effect is also produced by several -new arboreous or shrubby species making their appearance, as well as -by the fact that the new forms, which day by day have insensibly been -increasing in number, have at last begun to form a prominent feature -in the country. - -I find among my notes a list of all the species of plants which came -under my observation during the walk from Chegaon to Miru. Their -number is rather above 150 species, of which number about 120 are -common Simla plants. Of the remaining thirty, eleven were quite new to -me, ten had occurred only the day before, and nine had been common -for some days past. These numbers convey a very different idea of the -amount of change from that produced at the time, but the latter must -be admitted to be very fallacious, the eye of the botanist being so -naturally attracted by novelty, to the utter disregard of what is -common, that it is difficult to preserve the degree of attention -requisite to observe properly. - - [Sidenote: QUERCUS ILEX. - _August, 1847._] - -_Pinus Gerardiana_ produces a very large cone, containing, like the -stone-pine of Europe, eatable nuts, of an elongated oblong form, -which, when roasted like chesnuts, are agreeable to the taste, though -with a little flavour of turpentine. This tree has been repeatedly -tried in the rainy districts of the Himalaya, but will not succeed, a -dry climate being essential to it. Besides Gerard's pine, a new -species of oak was the most conspicuous tree, forming a thick dry wood -on western exposures. This oak, the only species of the genus which -grows in the interior of Kunawar, is the _Quercus Ilex_. The specimens -which I collected quite agree with the European plant, and belong to -that form of the evergreen oak, which has been called _Q. Ballota_. -The same tree is common in some parts of Affghanistan, where it is -called _Balut_. A small graceful ash was also common, and species of -_Stellaria_, _Lychnis_, _Dianthus_, _Herniaria_, _Cruciferae_, -_Senecio_, and _Valeriana_, which, with several _Chenopodiaceae_ and -_Artemisiae_, were the new species observed. - - [Sidenote: VIEW OF THE SUTLEJ. - _August, 1847._] - -On the morning of the 16th of August, we proceeded to Rogi, eight and -a half miles. On leaving Miru the road at first ascended gradually -through a pretty wood of deodar and Gerard's pine. The common -pear-tree of the Himalaya, and many of the more ordinary Simla -shrubs, species of _Desmodium_, _Indigofera_, _Spiraea_, _Buddleia_, -and _Plectranthus_, were common under the shade of the pine-forest. As -the elevation increased, the trees gradually diminished in number, and -the road continued to rise along the side of a rocky hill, with only a -few scattered deodars. A very pretty reach of the Sutlej now came into -sight. The river was broader than usual, and seemed to flow with a -gentle stream along an even bed, without interruption from rocks. -Opposite the junction of the Miru tributary, which was in sight at the -end of the reach, the Sutlej was particularly wide, and its channel -was divided into several branches, which enclosed a number of gravelly -islands, immediately beyond which the stream again contracted in -width, and resumed its usual rocky character. - -From the top of the steep ascent, which must have exceeded 9000 feet -in elevation, the road continued along the side of the hill, without -much change of level. The slopes were nearly bare, a few trees of the -deodar and Gerard's pine only occurring occasionally. The latter tree -was more common, and larger than the day before. It is a compact small -tree, with much-twisted ascending branches, and a mottled grey bark, -quite smooth from the decortication of the outer layers. It bore -abundance of large pendulous cones, the size of a small pine-apple, -still quite green. - - [Sidenote: BURANG PASS. - _August, 1847._] - -A little more than two miles from Miru, the road descended to pass a -stream, which was crossed in two branches. Immediately afterwards -another long ascent commenced, at first steep and bare, with a western -exposure, then more gradual through an open wood of deodar and _Pinus -excelsa_. The highest elevation attained was almost 11,000 feet, and -close to the summit a most superb view was seen to the south. The -valley of the Sutlej was not in sight, but the whole course of the -Baspa, except its junction with the Sutlej, and a great extent of fine -snowy range beyond, were beautifully seen. The Burang or Borendo pass, -elevated 16,000 feet, which leads from the Baspa valley to the upper -part of the Pabar or Tons river, a branch of the Jumna, was very -conspicuous, with many large patches of grey dirty-looking snow on the -hills near it, but its summit seemingly bare. At the highest elevation -attained the face of the hill was a mass of precipitous rocks. A fine -peak, which had long been visible across the Sutlej, was now almost -opposite. This mountain, the termination of the range to the east of -the Baspa river, when viewed from the west and north-west, has the -appearance of a vast precipice, rocky and bare of trees, commencing -within little more than a thousand feet of the Sutlej. The north-east -face, which comes into view for the first time from the heights above -Miru, is covered throughout with magnificent forest, rising to an -elevation considerably higher than that at which I stood. - - [Sidenote: VEGETATION. - _August, 1847._] - -The elevation we had now attained was higher than any previous part of -our journey, being 200 feet above the peak of Hattu. A cold westerly -wind was blowing up the valley of the Sutlej, evidently bringing a -good deal of moisture along with it, for thin wreaths of mist were -occasionally condensed, for a few minutes obscuring the distant view, -and then melting again into transparent vapour. The vegetation was -less different from that below, than I had expected, and much more -luxuriant than I could have supposed, with nothing of an alpine -character. Many of the species were identical with those of Nagkanda -and the crest of Hattu; but there was no bamboo, nor any of the -_Acanthaceae_, so common in the more shady and humid forest further -east. Balsams, however, were abundant and large, _Potentillae_, _Salvia -nubicola_, and _Nepetae_, _Polygona_, _Achilleae_, _Gnaphalia_, and -several species of _Pedicularis_ and _Ophelia_, formed a thick and -rank growth. The most remarkable forms observed were Astragaline, of -which several species, one a spinous _Caragana_, were abundant. A -pretty little _Veronica_ and _Bupleurum_, and several new -_Cichoraceae_, were also collected, as well as an _Orobanche_, -parasitical upon the roots of the common thyme (_Thymus Serpyllum_). - - [Sidenote: ROGI. - _August, 1847._] - -From the crest, the remainder of the road consists of a succession of -short ascents and descents, along the face of a very rocky hill, till -within a mile of Rogi, when it descends very abruptly down the side of -a rugged ravine to that village, which, though elevated 9000 feet, -lies low down on the mountain-side, and has the appearance of being in -a hollow. At Rogi we found the grapes quite ripe, and extremely -abundant, but all from vineyards at lower levels. The commonest grape -is globular, and of a deep, nearly black colour; but many varieties -are cultivated. The apricots were also ripe, and had been gathered -from the trees. The flat tops of the houses were now covered with -them, drying in the sun. They are split up the middle and dried, the -stones being taken out. In this state they keep well, and form a -considerable article of export to India. Peach and walnut trees are -also common at Rogi, and I saw a few apple-trees. A species of willow, -which, in shape of leaf and general appearance, closely resembles a -common English willow (_Salix alba_), is commonly planted along with a -glabrous poplar, a small, rather spreading tree, which is frequent -throughout Tibet, and seems to be the balsam poplar of Siberia and -North America. The English henbane (_Hyoscyamus niger_) abounds in -waste places. This also is a common Tibetan plant, and extends into -the drier valleys of the Himalaya, such as Kunawar and Kashmir, but -not into the outer mountains, where the periodical rains are heavy. - -On the 17th of August we proceeded to Pangi, nine miles farther, -passing on the road the village of Chini, the largest inhabited place -and most fertile tract of Kunawar, of which it may therefore be -considered the capital. From Rogi we had to make a considerable ascent -to regain the road, that village lying lower than the direct route -from Miru. The ascent lay first through the cultivated lands of the -village, and afterwards through open wood. After regaining the road, -the ascent continued through a gloomy forest of large deodar-trees for -about a mile, terminating at about 10,000 feet of elevation, at which -height, turning round a corner on the crest of the ridge, we found -ourselves on the upper part of a precipitous cliff, which descends -sheer down to the Sutlej. Unfortunately the morning was very misty, a -dense fog, condensed from the steadily blowing west wind, enveloping -everything, till after ten o'clock, by which time we had long passed -the precipitous part of the road. We were told, however, that the -cliff was absolutely impracticable below, and, indeed, even where we -passed, no little engineering skill was displayed, as the road led -along the face of an absolute precipice, on ledges scarcely three feet -broad, or just as often over wooden planking, supported at intervals -by large upright pieces of timber, whose resting-places were invisible -in the dense mist by which we were surrounded. - - [Sidenote: CHINI. - _August, 1847._] - -As soon as this rocky projection was passed, the road descended -rapidly, but over good level ground for half a mile, through a forest -of deodar, in which some of the trees were of large size, one of them -measuring nineteen feet eight inches in circumference. At the bottom -of this descent, after passing a projecting rocky ridge, the village -of Chini came in sight, straggling along the side of a sloping hill. -Chini occupies the most level, and therefore the most fertile, valley -in Kunawar. The village is prettily situated among deodar-trees, while -below, and on either side of it, the slopes are disposed in a -succession of terraces, some of them of considerable extent, richly -cultivated with wheat, barley, and buckwheat. Through this fertile -tract, the road was quite level, winding among the stone enclosures of -the fields, and often bordered on both sides by grassy pastures, or -patches of beautiful green turf, where the little rills, which served -to irrigate the fields, had overflowed their banks, and converted the -flat land into swampy meadows. Near Chini, we passed a single vineyard -of small extent, at an elevation of 7000 feet, the fruit still quite -unripe, though for several days we had been plentifully supplied with -ripe grapes from the lower vineyards. The vines are supported by -erect poles, about four feet high, placed about three feet apart, and -connected by horizontal ones laid across them, on which the vines -twine. - - [Sidenote: KASHBIR. - _August, 1847._] - -A little further we passed the small village of Kashbir, consisting of -two or three houses only; beyond which a pleasant forest of deodar and -Gerard's pine was entered, quite dry, and almost devoid of -undergrowth; a few bushes of _Daphne_, occasionally a small ash-tree, -two or three stunted oaks, and quantities of withered grass and -dried-up _Artemisia_, being the only plants observed. Everything -looked arid, notwithstanding the eastern exposure, and showed -strikingly the rapid change of climate which was taking place. Some of -the trees of _Pinus Gerardiana_, which seemed to thrive more in this -arid wood than further west, were between fifty and sixty feet in -height, and one of the largest of them which I noticed was nearly -twelve feet in circumference. Through this forest the road continued -nearly level, till it reached a ravine, on the opposite bank of which -was situated the village of Pangi. A very steep descent of half a mile -brought us to the stream; and an ascent of more than a mile, in the -course of which we rose about 1000 feet vertically, terminated the -day's journey. Pangi is a large village, 9000 feet above the level of -the sea, with much cultivation and magnificent orchards of apricots, -peaches, and walnuts. - - [Sidenote: PANGI. - _August, 1847._] - -From Chegaon to Pangi we had passed through the finest and most -fertile part of Kunawar, which is, however, by no means confined to -the north bank of the Sutlej; many large villages having been seen on -the opposite side of the valley, with almost as much cultivation as -those through which we had passed. The communication across the Sutlej -is kept up by paths which lead through the lower cultivation and -vineyards to the bank of the river, which is spanned in several places -by rope-bridges, one of which only, we saw at a distance. During these -three days' journey, the weather was most beautiful, and we could -never sufficiently admire the ever-changing beauties of the scenery, -which, probably, for variety and magnificence, is nowhere surpassed. -The great peak of Raldang, a culminating point of the south Sutlej -Himalaya, lies nearly opposite to Chini, and, from a great part of the -Kunawar valley, is a prominent feature from almost every point of -view. It forms a rugged rocky mass, and the ravines on its slopes are -filled with large masses of snow, the lowest beds at this season of a -dirty grey colour, and evidently still rapidly receding under the -influence of the powerful autumn sun. No glaciers were anywhere in -sight. - -We were now about to enter upon a very troublesome part of our -journey, the crossing of the various ridges which are given off by the -mountain range north of the Sutlej, at the great bend of that river -where it is joined by the almost equally large Piti river, from the -north. These long ranges, given off by an axis 18,000 feet in height, -slope at first gently towards these rivers, but at last dip extremely -abruptly into the enormous ravine, at the bottom of which the Piti and -Sutlej rivers run. Occasionally a rugged and difficult footpath may be -found to lead among these precipices, by frequent steep ascents and -descents, at no great distance above the river. These paths are always -most laborious, and often very dangerous, and the usual road into the -valley of the Piti river leads across the higher part of all these -ridges, where they are no longer precipitous, but slope at a gentle -inclination. - - [Sidenote: ROCKS OF KUNAWAR. - _August, 1847._] - -During the journey from Simla, I had been able to acquire very little -information regarding the geology of the valley of the Sutlej; the -quantity of forest, and the rapidity with which we travelled, being -unfavourable to the determination of the nature of the rocks. In the -earlier part of our journey argillaceous schist, often highly -micaceous, predominated. In Kunawar, from Wangtu eastward, gneiss and -mica-schist were almost the only rocks which I observed. These -appeared to alternate again and again as we advanced, but I obtained -no certainty regarding their relative position. Veins of granite -occurred occasionally in the gneiss, especially at Wangtu, and -probably, from the number of boulders, the axis of the range north of -the Sutlej is composed of granite. - -Behind Pangi is the Werang ridge, crossed by the pass of that name at -a point where its height is 13,200 feet above the sea. This ridge, as -will be seen by the map, separates the valley east of Pangi from that -of Lipa, the next in succession to the eastward, through which a large -tributary flows to join the Sutlej. From Pangi to Lipa, the distance, -though considerable, is not too much for an active man to accomplish -in one day. It would, however, have been a very long march, allowing -of no delay on the way, or on the top of the pass. We therefore -divided the distance into two days' journey, ascending on the 18th of -August to the upper limit of tree vegetation on the west side of the -ridge, and leaving the remainder of the ascent and the whole descent -for the next day. - - [Sidenote: ASCENT TOWARDS - THE WERANG PASS. - _August, 1847._] - -At daybreak we were on foot, preparing for the ascent. The morning -was, as usual for some days past, thickly foggy, and a heavy dew had -fallen during the night. At starting we ascended gently through a dry -pine-wood, towards the face of the mountain ridge of which Pangi -occupies the western slope. This ridge, like that above Rogi, on the -previous day's journey, is very precipitous towards the Sutlej; and -the road leads among rocks, and sometimes over planks of wood, -ascending gradually as we advanced. After about a mile and a half, -rounding the most projecting part of the ridge, we began to recede -from the Sutlej on the eastern slope of the range, along the western -side of a beautifully wooded open valley, at the bottom of which ran a -large rapid stream, evidently descending from snow. Without descending -at all, we continued to advance for a mile and a half through fine -forest, till we nearly met the stream, which we crossed after a slight -abrupt descent. Immediately after crossing, a steep fatiguing ascent -of not less than three miles commenced, continuing, with scarcely any -intermission, till we reached the spot selected for our encampment, -inclining all the way in the direction of the course of the stream, -and therefore towards the Sutlej; so that when we stopped, we almost -overlooked that river, and had a fine view of the peak of Raldang, -covered with a dazzling coat of fresh snow. - -The forest at the base of this ascent was principally composed of -deodar and Gerard's pine. The former continued abundant till within a -quarter of a mile of the top, when it suddenly disappeared. _Pinus -Gerardiana_ gradually diminished in number during the ascent, and at -last disappeared about the same time as the deodar. _Pinus excelsa_ -was not seen at the bottom, and was scarce on the earlier part of the -ascent, but became more abundant as we increased our elevation, and -was the only tree seen round our encampment. At this point the trees -were straggling and distant, but very tall and luxuriant, being well -sheltered by rocks. Above our encampment, which was, according to -Captain Strachey's barometer, 11,800 feet, there were only a very few -stunted trees on a rocky ridge behind. Excepting in the occurrence of -a few new species of _Astragalus_ and _Artemisia_, now quite typical -forms, the vegetation during the greater part of the ascent was the -same as on the higher levels east of Miru, and it was only above -11,000 feet that any considerable change was observed. Here three -species of juniper made their appearance, all stunted bushes, though -one of them was _J. excelsa_, which, in more favourable circumstances, -grows to a small tree. The second species was _J. squamosa_, a -depressed shrub, with rigid twisted branches, and the third was -undistinguishable from the common juniper of Europe. A thorny species -of _Ribes_, very like the common gooseberry, a strongly scented -Labiate, _Dictamnus Himalayanus_, several _Compositae_, one of which -was a large-flowered thistle, and European-looking _Junci_ and -grasses, were all observed above 11,000 feet. A beautiful Rose (_R. -Webbiana_) was common all the way from the stream. - -During the ascent, after crossing the ravine, the rock was throughout -gneiss, passing sometimes into a curious dark slaty rock. It was -often very fine-grained; and in one place a granite vein was observed, -entirely without stratification, and about a foot thick. Throughout -the ascent the surface was strewed with erratic blocks of granite, -evidently transported from a distance. - -The slope below our camp, for several hundred feet, was cultivated -with barley, but the crops were indifferent. Lower down, the -mountain-side was too steep to admit of tillage. There were no houses, -the fields being the property of the inhabitants of a village a long -way below, to the east of Pangi. - -The morning of the 19th, before sunrise, was a good deal clearer than -the two last had been, but mist began to collect soon after sunrise, -and did not entirely disappear for about two hours. Immediately after -starting, the last trees of _Pinus excelsa_ were left behind, and the -ascent to the crest of the pass was gentle, over rough stony ground, -covered with tufts of juniper, a shrubby _Artemisia_, and _Pteris -aquilina_. The pass, which has an elevation of 13,200 feet, occupies a -low part of the ridge, the slope to the left descending gently, but -rising again into a sharp rocky peak, five or six hundred feet higher. -The crest of the pass is a vast mass of loose rocks, and the slopes of -the hill on the right are likewise covered with a mass of fragments. -These angular boulders are all granite, none of which occurs _in -situ_; the rocks throughout the ascent, so far as I could observe, -being gneiss and mica-slate, the latter in one place containing large -crystals of cyanite in great abundance. - -In the crevices of the loose stones which covered the pass, a very -luxuriant vegetation was found; the same plants grew on the hill to -the right, and were especially abundant among its rocky recesses. The -forms were, for the first time on our journey, quite alpine, very few -of the plants being even shrubby, while the great majority were small -herbs. A willow, a very small _Rhododendron_, and _Andromeda -fastigiata_, were almost the only shrubby plants, and the majority of -forms were those common on the Alps of Europe, and comprised species -of _Astragalus_, _Stellaria_, _Anemone_, _Ranunculus_, _Meconopsis_, -_Saxifraga_, _Sedum_, several _Umbelliferae_, _Pedicularis_, -_Gentiana_, _Gnaphalium_, _Dolomiaea_, _Saussurea_, _Artemisia_, -_Ligularia_, _Morina_, _Galium_, _Valeriana_, and many others. I added -to my collection in all about thirty new species in a very short time. -I had, however, never before been at so great an elevation in the -Himalaya, so that almost every plant I met was new to me. - -The view from the top of the pass was only remarkable for its -barrenness. In the direction we had ascended, the prospect was not -striking; and to the north-east, the valley in advance and hills -beyond were almost bare, scattered bushes and very little forest being -visible. The wind blew over the pass from the Indian side, and -continued throughout the day to blow on our backs strongly as we -descended. - - [Sidenote: DESCENT FROM - THE WERANG PASS. - _August, 1847._] - -From the crest of the pass, the descent to Lipa was long and steep, -the distance being about five miles. At about 500 feet or rather more -(of perpendicular height) below the pass, the first tree, a large -birch, stood quite alone, with a stout erect trunk. A little further -down, a small grove of the same trees was passed, in which every -individual had its trunk bent in the direction of the slope, probably -by the weight of the winter's snow. No birches had been seen on the -south face of the pass, nor did the dwarf _Rhododendron_ and little -_Andromeda_ appear till the summit had been gained, though they were -abundant on the northern face. _Rhododendron campanulatum_ was the -next plant observed, forming bushes four or five feet in height, and -growing in large green patches, along with the willow, which I had -found on the top, and the same rose common on the southern side. About -1200 feet below the summit, that is, about 12,000 feet above the sea, -pine-trees commenced--_Pinus excelsa_ and _Picea_ making their -appearance together, the deodar not till a considerably lower level -had been reached. The trees of silver fir were small, with smaller and -shorter leaves than the common tree of the forests in the outer -Himalaya, and were therefore the true _Picea Webbiana_ of Royle, the -more common long-leaved form being the _Picea Pindrow_ of that -author[5]. - -At an elevation of 11,000 feet, at a rough estimate, we passed the -first deodars, and at the same height cultivation commenced. The first -fields were wheat, now nearly ripe. With the cultivation many plants -of lower elevation began to appear, which had disappeared on the upper -part of the mountain, but many were missed which had been common, and -the general aspect of the vegetation was strikingly altered, the -diminution affecting at once the number, the abundance, and the -luxuriance of the plants. Juniper was frequent till some time after -the first corn-fields were passed, and Gerard's pine was common on the -lower part of the descent. Throughout the whole distance from the -crest to the Lipa stream, the road lay along a ravine, which was very -rough and uneven, and covered with numerous and often very large -boulders of granite[6] scattered irregularly over the surface of the -valley. Towards the end of the day's march, we reached the Lipa -stream, which was of large size; and we continued along its right -bank, through a dry fir-wood, till close to the village, when we -crossed by a substantial wooden bridge to enter Lipa, which is situate -on a flattish piece of ground on the left bank of the stream, and very -little above its level. It is a small village, with some cultivation, -and a rather odd-looking little temple, close to which are two fine -trees of _Juniperus excelsa_, the sacred juniper of the Kunawarees -and Tibetans. We were accommodated with a room close to the temple, -which afforded us sufficiently comfortable quarters. - -At the back of the village a thick bank of alluvial clay was observed -resting on the rocks behind, and vast masses of the same extended up -the valley for a considerable distance. This was the first occurrence -of a very common feature of Tibetan valleys, so common as to be almost -universal; and as I shall have many opportunities of referring to it -again, and shall find it necessary to try to give some explanation, or -rather to attempt some conjectures as to its cause, I shall only here -pause to observe that the first time of its occurrence coincided with -the first entrance into an extremely dry climate; the passage of the -Werang ridge having effected a greater change in the aspect of the -country than had been seen during very many previous days--the change -from luxuriant forest, not indeed to treelessness, but to thin and -stunted woods. - - [Sidenote: LIPA. - _August, 1847._] - -In the valley of Lipa I met with a species of caper, apparently the -same which I had collected at Rampur on the Sutlej, on hot rocky -places close to the river, but which had not been met with in the -intermediate parts of the journey. This little prickly shrub I -afterwards found to be a common Tibetan plant, which (like most of its -tribe) prefers the hottest and driest exposures, expanding its large -white blossoms on dry stony ground, or among rocks where hardly any -other plant will vegetate. - -Lipa is situated at no great distance from the Sutlej, at an elevation -of 8000 feet above the level of the sea. The next range to the -eastward is that of Runang, separating the Lipa valley from that of -the Ruskalan, on which is situated the village of Sungnam. As in the -former instance, we divided the passage into two days' journey, -encamping on the 20th of August at an elevation of 12,500 feet. The -road began to ascend as soon as we left Lipa. At first we took the -direction of the stream, gradually rising along the face of a rocky -hill composed of a dark clay-slate, which had now taken the place of -the gneiss of the lower part of the Sutlej; but turning to the left, -to ascend the ridge, as soon as its crest had been gained. The surface -was everywhere barren and dried up. A few scattered pine trees -occurred at intervals, but nothing approaching to forest, and the -parched stony ground was quite destitute of any covering of turf or of -herbaceous vegetation in sufficient quantity to attract the notice of -the general observer. The ascent on the ridge was steep and -uninterrupted; but as the general direction of the day's journey was -down the range, or towards the Sutlej, we had to pass from one ridge -to the next in succession, across the ravine by which the two were -separated. Here the road was nearly level, and took a long curve in -the receding hollow of the hill, turning round a belt of green which -occupied the middle of the hollow. - -On the left hand, above the road, there was not a trace of verdure in -the ravine; but just below the road a small spring burst out from the -stony ground. For three or four yards the banks of the little -streamlet were quite bare, but at about that distance from its source -they were fringed with luxuriant marsh plants, _Veronica Beccabunga_ -and _Anagallis_, rushes, and several kinds of grasses, which gradually -increased in abundance. Within a hundred yards of its origin a -thicket of willows bordered the stream, and a rich vegetation grew -under their shade. From this it would appear that the barrenness of -the country cannot be ascribed to any fault of temperature or of -altitude, but solely to the deficiency of moisture. - - [Sidenote: ASCENT TOWARDS - THE RUNANG PASS. - _August, 1847._] - -On the next ridge beyond this little green spot, the ascent continued -steep, over loose shingly soil, among scattered trees of deodar, and -occasionally a fine tree of _Pinus Gerardiana_; a spinous -_Astragalus_, and several species of _Artemisia_, formed almost all -the scanty vegetation. Higher up there was, in one place, a good view -of the Sutlej to the south-east, with a very lofty snowy mountain -beyond. A little further on, the pines ceased to grow, and no tree but -juniper was seen, the vegetation becoming more and more wretched in -appearance, though the same _Astragalus_ and _Artemisiae_ predominated. -Above 12,000 feet, two or three alpine species made their appearance; -these were a _Polygonum_, a _Mulgedium_, and a little shrubby -_Potentilla_. Except these, however, not one of the numerous alpine -forms observed on the Werang pass two days before were to be seen. - -We encamped at an elevation of 12,500 feet on the north-east slope of -the ridge, overhanging a deep wide valley, in which there were several -patches of cultivation still green, at an elevation which I estimated -at about 1000 feet below the level of our tents. By this wide valley, -(in the lower part of which, on its east side, is the village of -Kanam,) we were still separated from the central range on which the -Runang pass is situated. The hills all round had a desolate aspect. -They were rounded in outline, and appeared quite smooth and destitute -of herbage, excepting large dark-green patches of juniper, by which -they were mottled. A single stunted tree of _Pinus excelsa_ stood -within a short distance of our encampment, and four or five hundred -feet lower was a small grove, apparently of birch. During the -afternoon a furious west wind blew without intermission. The morning -had been quite calm, but before noon the wind had begun to blow, and -gradually increased in violence till late in the afternoon; after dark -it became calm. - -The next morning was clear, with scarcely any wind, but the mountains -above us were partly shrouded in mist. For the first time during our -journey we had _Zobos_ furnished for the conveyance of our tents. -These animals, which are mules between a Yak bull and Indian cow, are -intermediate between the two, having most of the peculiarities by -which the Yak is distinguished, though in a much less degree. Their -colour varies much,--black, white, and iron-grey being all common. -They have coarse long shaggy hair, much shorter than in the Yak, a -stout rounded body, and the tail has a small tuft at the end, quite -similar in miniature to that of the Yak. These mules are exceedingly -common in Upper Kunawar and Hangarang, and are much preferred as -beasts of burden to the Yak, being more docile, and less sensitive to -climatic influences. - - [Sidenote: THE RUNANG PASS. - _August, 1847._] - -The first half-mile of the ascent to the pass was very gentle, till we -passed round the hollow of the valley which lay below our encampment. -The hill-sides were covered with stones, among which grew a few tufts -of thyme, a large-leaved saxifrage, a yellow _Scorzonera_, a curious -_Polygonum_, and an _Oxyria_, the same in appearance with that of the -Alps of Europe. Two or three little rills of water trickled across the -road, but their margins had no trace of green. The remainder of the -ascent was more rapid, but nowhere fatiguing, and I reached the top -about 9 A.M. Nothing can be conceived more dreary and bare than the -aspect of the pass and the mountains all around. The hills, which at a -distance appeared smooth and rounded, were now seen to be covered with -loose stones piled upon one another, in the crevices of which a few -plants found an attachment for their roots. The elevation was about -14,500 feet, but there was no appearance of snow. To the north-east a -wide and straight valley ran from the crest, at the end of which, far -below and perhaps eight miles off, was seen the village of Sungnam, -beyond which another lofty range of equally rounded mountains, -apparently smooth, ran parallel to that on which I stood. On this -range, at a level, to the eye sensibly the same as that of the Runang -pass, an evident track indicated the pass of Hangarang, over which lay -the continuation of our journey. - - [Sidenote: VEGETATION. - _August, 1847._] - -I spent a considerable time on the top of the pass, and by close -searching, in the crevices of the stones, especially on the hill which -rose to the south-east, I succeeded in collecting a considerable -number of species of plants, though very much fewer than on the Werang -pass two days before. From our morning's camp to the top of the pass -the whole number of species which I met with was only forty-six, not -half of which were observed on the summit. The number gathered on the -former pass was nearly three times as great. It must not be -forgotten, however, in comparing the two ranges, that the Werang pass -is 1300 feet lower than that of Runang, and ought therefore, -independent of climate, to be more productive. The species which were -observed for the first time on the summit of the Runang pass were not -more than six, and were all forms which I have since found to be -abundant throughout the higher parts of Tibet. A little willow, -creeping among the stones, and scarcely more luxuriant than _Salix -herbacea_, was the only shrubby plant. The others were _Oxytropis -chiliophylla_, _Biebersteinia odora_, a _Draba_, _Lamium rhomboideum_ -of Bentham, and a species of rhubarb, of which I found only a few -leaves and one or two panicles, from which the ripe fruit had nearly -fallen away. - -The descent from the pass to Sungnam was even more barren and desolate -than the other side. The valley was open and almost straight, and the -slope gradual. Till nearly half-way not a drop of water occurred on -the road, and for miles almost the only vegetation on the hill-sides -was an erect branched _Polygonum_, never more than a foot in height. -At an elevation of about 10,000 feet, a few deodars occurred, all -miserably stunted in height, though often with trunks of considerable -diameter. Gerard's pine, and the ash of Tibet, also appeared a little -lower, but in very small numbers. During the greater part of the -descent, the white houses of Sungnam were in sight, to all appearance -at the end of the valley down which we were proceeding; but when near -the bottom, we discovered that we were still separated from them by a -wide and level plain, that of the Ruskalan river. On the opposite -side of this plain, on the side of a hill just sufficiently high to -terminate the vista down the valley by which we descended from the -pass, stands the town of Sungnam; while the cultivated lands, which -form a wide belt, scarcely higher than the level of the river, were -entirely out of sight till we arrived close to the precipitous bank -parallel to the river. Here the descent was abrupt to the bed of the -Ruskalan. The bank was alluvial, with enormous boulders, and was -covered with tufts of _Ephedra_, a remarkable leafless plant with -rod-like branches, which is abundant in every part of northern Tibet, -especially in the driest and hottest exposures. It extends also -occasionally into the partially rainy district, being found in Kunawar -nearly as far west as the bridge of Wangtu. - - [Sidenote: SUNGNAM. - _August, 1847._] - -Sungnam is one of the principal places of Kunawar, dividing with -Kanam, which we did not visit, the claim to be the principal seat in -the Sutlej valley of the Buddhist religion. It contains numerous -temples and monasteries, with also a considerable industrial -population. Cultivation occupies a great part of the valley, and -extends up the course of the stream to a considerable distance. The -level tract along the river has in many places a breadth of nearly a -quarter of a mile, and the town occupies a ridge on the mountain side, -to which a gently-sloping road leads from the bridge by which we -crossed the Ruskalan. - -The elevation of Sungnam above the level of the sea is 9000 feet. -Still the vine thrives well, the steep slopes facing the river being -covered with vineyards: the grapes were not yet ripe. The principal -fruit-trees are apricots and apples. Willows and poplars are also -frequent in the village; a new species of the latter being for the -first time observed, with leaves white and downy underneath, which -appears in no way to differ from _Populus alba_, the common white -poplar of Europe. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[5] I have carefully compared, since my return to England, a great -many specimens of the Himalayan _Picea_, and am sorry to be obliged to -dissent from the opinion of their distinctness, which has been -expressed by many excellent observers. Great variations occur in -length of leaf, which is either green on both sides, or very glaucous -below. All have notched leaves, but the notch varies much in depth and -form. There are also differences in the form of the cones and the -shape of the scales. The long green-leaved state is that of the moist -Himalaya; in the driest regions the very short glaucous-leaved form -occurs. There are, however, among the specimens collected by Wallich, -Strachey, and myself, so many intermediate forms of leaf, that I feel -satisfied that all must be considered states of one species, varying, -like most _Coniferae_, with climate and other accidental circumstances. - -[6] I have now no doubt that the whole of this descent was over an -ancient glacier moraine, but I was not at the time familiar with -glaciers or their moraines by personal experience; and though on this -and other similar occasions my notes show that I was much puzzled by -the numerous transported blocks, the idea of this explanation did not -suggest itself to me till I had an opportunity of seeing the -connection of such phenomena with actual moraines. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - - Hangarang ridge separates Kunawar from Piti -- Ascent to - Hangarang Pass -- Alluvial deposit -- Steep ascent -- View of - valley -- Limestone rocks -- _Caragana versicolor_, or _Dama_ - -- Camp at 14,000 feet -- Top of pass -- View from pass -- - Vegetation of summit -- Descent to Hango -- Cultivation round - the village -- Luxuriant wild plants -- Road to Lio -- _Crambe_ - -- Ravine of Piti river -- Lio -- Bridge over Piti river -- - Ascent to Nako -- Nako -- Cultivation of the village -- - Buddhist temple -- Transported blocks -- Chango -- Changar -- - Stopped by villagers on Chinese frontier -- Natural bridge -- - Kyuri -- Alluvium -- Clay deposit with shells -- Lari -- - Ramifications of mountain ranges -- Alluvial platforms -- Pok - -- Dankar -- Lara -- Rangrig -- Upper part of Piti -- Climate - -- Saline exudations - - -The Hangarang ridge, as we may conveniently call that mountain range -on which the pass of Hangarang is situated, forms the boundary between -the districts of Kunawar and Hangarang. As this range terminates at or -close to the point where the Sutlej is joined by the Piti river, this -division is geographically convenient. It has also a marked physical -signification, forming the absolute limit of the deodar and Gerard's -pine; and indeed, if we except the juniper, of all tree vegetation. - -On the 22nd of August, our party left Sungnam to ascend towards the -Hangarang pass, encamping, as on the two previous occasions, on the -upper part of the ascent, so as to get to the summit of the pass at -an early hour next day. Our road lay up a narrow ravine, through which -a small stream descended from the vicinity of the Hangarang pass, to -join the Ruskalan immediately below Sungnam. We followed for a long -time the course of this rivulet, so that the ascent was by no means -fatiguing. A very few stunted deodars, and a single tree of _Pinus -Gerardiana_, were the only trees met with. A little shrubby vegetation -was now and then seen, consisting of an ash, rose, _Colutea_, -_Lonicera_, and _Spiraea_. The banks of the ravine were everywhere -composed of a conglomerate of angular stones, in general imbedded in -soft clay, though the matrix was not unfrequently calcareous, and in -several places even composed of crystalline carbonate of lime. - - [Sidenote: BEDS OF CONGLOMERATE. - _August, 1847._] - -The hard calcareous conglomerates are, I think, of different origin -from the clayey ones. Indeed, I was induced to believe from what I saw -in the neighbourhood of Sungnam, and occasionally in other districts -(as I shall have again occasion to notice), that the calcareous -conglomerates, which only occur in the neighbourhood of the limestone -formation, and therefore where calcareous springs are common, are -formed by the infiltration of water containing lime among beds of -loose shingle which have accumulated along the base of the steep -hills. These calcareous conglomerates are quite local, never very -extensive, and are often covered with an incrustation of lime, showing -the continued existence of the calcareous springs, by the action of -which I suppose them to have been formed. - - [Sidenote: ALLUVIAL CONGLOMERATE. - _August, 1847._] - -The clay beds, on the other hand, are continuous and uniform in -appearance. They vary much in thickness, but are on the whole much -thicker and more remarkable in the upper part of the ravine, where (on -the east side) a mass of clay, not less than five or six hundred feet -in thickness, has accumulated, forming steep sloping or quite -perpendicular banks, which at the top are worn away into pinnacles, -and excavated into deep grooves and hollows, I presume by the action -of melting snow. The fragments of rock which it contained were all -angular, or at most a very little worn at the edges. - -Five or six miles from Sungnam, the road left the course of the -ravine, and began rapidly to ascend the steep spur which bounded it on -the left. At first we followed a fissure in the clay conglomerate, -which still had a thickness of nearly two hundred feet. Above, the -ridge was rocky and very steep. When we had attained a sufficient -height to overlook the valley by which we had ascended from Sungnam, I -was able to estimate better than while in the ravine, the extent of -the clay deposit. It was now seen to occupy both sides of the valley, -and to be pretty equally diffused throughout, but certainly thicker on -the left or eastern side,--in the upper part at least, for low down, -just behind Sungnam, it capped a round sloping hill of considerable -elevation to the right of the little streamlet and of the road. The -valley did not narrow at the lower extremity, where it debouched into -that of the Ruskalan, so much as to give any reason for supposing that -it could have been closed by a barrier, so as to form a lake. Indeed, -the absolute elevation of the conglomerate was so great at the upper -end of the valley, that it would be necessary to suppose a barrier -several thousand feet above the bed of the Ruskalan to produce such an -effect. The greater thickness of the conglomerate in the upper part of -the ravine, and the almost complete angularity of the fragments, were -equally opposed to such a view. Nor was I able to form any probable -conjecture as to the mode in which these accumulations had been -formed. - - [Sidenote: ROCKS OF HANGARANG. - _August, 1847._] - -In the earlier part of the day's journey, the rock, where exposed, was -invariably clay-slate, not different in appearance from that which, -commencing at Lipa, had been observed on every part of the Runang -ridge. It dipped generally at a high angle, but was often much -contorted. In the upper part of the ravine, thick beds of a hard -cherty quartz rock alternated with the slate; and in the course of the -last steep ascent, at an elevation of about 13,500 feet, the first -limestone was observed. It was of a dark blue colour, very hard, -coarsely stratified, and much veined with white calcareous spar. It -seemed to dip at a high angle towards the north-east. - -The ridge by which we ascended was quite bare of trees and exceedingly -barren, producing very little vegetation of any sort, and no novelty, -till we had almost attained an elevation of 14,000 feet. We then -observed bushes of a species of _Caragana_ (_C. versicolor_), the -_Dama_ of the Tibetans, a very curious stunted shrub, which is very -extensively distributed at elevations which no other woody plants -attain, and which, therefore, is much prized and extensively used as -fuel. I had not met with it before, nor does it appear to extend at -all into the wooded region of the Himalaya. We encamped on a flat -piece of ground at 14,000 feet. Notwithstanding the elevation, the -heat of the sun was very great during the day, but the evening and -night were extremely cold. - - [Sidenote: HANGARANG PASS. - _August, 1847._] - -Early next morning a short steep ascent of about 800 feet brought us -to the top of the pass, which has an elevation of 14,800 feet above -the sea. The _Dama_, in green patches from two to four feet in -diameter, was abundant till near the summit. The pass occupies a -hollow in the ridge, which rises considerably on both sides. To the -north-west, on the northern exposure, there was at a short distance -one small patch of snow, from which the pass and surrounding mountains -were otherwise quite free. No remarkable difficulty of breathing was -experienced by any of the party, except immediately after any -exertion. The ascent was latterly so steep, that it was necessary to -stop frequently to take breath, and the pulse was found to be very -considerably accelerated when counted immediately after walking. There -was, however, a great difference according to the individual; in one -case it rose as high as 136; but a few minutes' rest restored it -nearly to the usual standard. - -At the crest of the pass, the rock was a hard bluish-grey limestone, -traversed in every direction by numerous crystalline veins. I ascended -the hill to the south-east, to an elevation of nearly 16,000 feet, -which was within a few hundred feet of the summit. At that height it -was composed of a mass of loose fragments of black slate, perfectly -moveable, and so steep, that it was difficult to progress in an upward -direction. Vegetation had almost disappeared; more, however, from the -moveable shingly soil than from the elevation attained, for wherever a -solid rock peeped out, straggling plants still lingered; the rhubarb, -_Biebersteinia_, a minute saxifrage, and a yellow lichen, were the -species which attained the greatest altitude. - -The view from the summit of the pass, and the steep hill above it, was -extensive, but very desolate. In the direction of our previous -journey, the rounded outline of the Runang range bounded the view, but -in front a much wider and more diversified extent of country was -embraced. To the eastward, the lofty mountain of Porgyul was seen -almost to its base; its upper part a magnificent mass of snow, the -summit being upwards of 22,000 feet in height. To the north of -Porgyul, where the valley of the Piti river allowed the distant -mountains to be seen, a succession of ranges rose one beyond another, -the furthest evidently at a great distance, and covered with heavy -snow[7]. - -The vegetation at the summit of the ridge was even more scanty than on -the Runang pass. There was, however, more novelty in species than I -had met with there. A grass, several saxifrages, _Potentillae_ and -_Seda_, a little _Thermopsis_, an _Anemone_, and a beautiful -_Delphinium_ (_D. Brunonianum_, Royle), were the new species observed; -and these, I believe, (as was indeed to be expected from the -minuteness with which the country had been investigated by Dr. -Royle's collectors,) were all previously described species. - - [Sidenote: HANGO. - _August, 1847._] - -From the pass the descent was pretty steep all the way to Hango, a -small village, elevated 11,500 feet. The road lay on the side of a -ravine, keeping the hills on the left hand, and the channel of the -stream on the right. The _Dama_, which had disappeared at the summit, -was again plentiful on the northern slope; and a shrubby species of -_Potentilla_, quite new to me, was exceedingly common. Otherwise, -little change was visible. The road was good, but the hills were dry -and stony. - -The village of Hango, notwithstanding its great elevation, has a -considerable extent of cultivation, though I think the corn was less -luxuriant than at lower levels. The wheat was still green, and rather -scanty, a good deal of a wild oat (perhaps _Avena fatua_) being mixed -with it; but the barley was stronger and more productive. There was -also a number of fields of _Hordeum Aegiceras_, that curious awnless -monstrous barley, which seems peculiar to the higher regions of Tibet, -where it is very frequently cultivated. This grain was much further -advanced than the wheat, being nearly ripe. The arable lands of Hango -are nearly destitute of trees, a few willows being the only arboreous -vegetation. They are abundantly supplied with water, circulating in -copious rills among the different fields, which are disposed in -terraces one above another, faced by walls about three feet in height. -On the margins of the cultivation, stimulated by the moisture derived -from the irrigation, there was a very abundant growth of shrubs, and -of luxuriant herbaceous plants. The gooseberry, _Hippophae_, and rose, -were the shrubs, and several large _Umbelliferae_, one of which was -closely allied to the _Assafoetida_, a tall _Thalictrum_, a -yellow-flowered _Medicago_, _Verbascum Thapsus_, two species of -thistle, the common henbane, dock, mint, _Plantago_, and various -species of _Artemisia_, were the most common herbaceous plants. - - [Sidenote: HANGO VALLEY. - _August, 1847._] - -On the 24th of August we proceeded to Lio, a village on the right or -west bank of the Piti river. The road crosses the small stream which -runs past Hango, a little below the village, and gradually ascends the -slope of the hill on its left bank. Close to the stream there is a -bank of clayey alluvium, with stones, and traces of it may be seen at -intervals for some distance down the valley, but it is nowhere of any -great thickness. The hill along which the road lay was composed of a -cherty sandstone of a light-blue colour, often nearly white; in -fragments, and especially when pulverized, it was quite so; and being -extremely brittle, the slopes were covered with fine white dust, the -glare of which, in the bright sunshine, was very unpleasant. On this -gravelly ascent the vegetation was equally scanty, and much the same -in character as at moderate elevations on the two previous days; a -large thistle, species of _Artemisia_, _Chenopodiaceae_, and a spinous -_Astragalus_, being the most abundant plants. - -The road continued to ascend gently for about half a mile, rapidly -increasing its height above the stream, which had a considerable -slope. The next two miles were tolerably level, over a good but stony -road, at an elevation a little under 12,000 feet. A species of -_Crambe_, with a long fusiform root, smelling somewhat like a turnip, -was common along this part of the road. The young leaves of this -plant are used by the Tibetans as a pot-herb, and are said to be -well-flavoured. A species of currant (_R. glandulosum_), with viscid, -glandular, very aromatic-smelling leaves, was also met with; its -fruit, now ripe, had a sweetish taste, but no flavour. It is a common -Tibetan species, extending on the Indus as low down as 6500 feet. - - [Sidenote: THE PITI RIVER. - _August, 1847._] - -An abrupt descent followed, of not less than seven or eight hundred -feet, into a wide steeply-sloping valley, descending from the north to -join that of Hango. On the surface of this hollow, the road passed -among a multitude of large angular boulders of limestone, irregularly -scattered over the surface. This limestone was much like that of the -Hangarang pass, and as it nowhere occurred _in situ_ on the road, the -boulders must have come from the hills on the upper part of the -lateral ravine. A small spring of water and a solitary willow marked -the centre of the valley, beyond which the road again ascended -slightly, till on rounding a corner, the Piti river came into view, at -the bottom of a most remarkable rocky ravine. Full in front, just -beyond the river, was a scarped rock of great height; it was of a dark -grey colour, and was traversed in every direction by immense white -veins. Round this precipice, which seemed to project beyond the -general mass, the river swept in a deep curve, of which the convexity -was towards me. - -The mountains on the right bank of the river, which formed the -termination of the range on which I stood, seemed not less steep than -those opposite, for the road, instead of passing round them without -change of level, rose rapidly as it turned to the left, till it had -attained an elevation of at least 12,000 feet, at which height it -wound among precipitous rocks of hard dark slate, covered with bushes -of _Ephedra_, and scattered trees of _Juniperus excelsa_. When fairly -round the rocky projecting range, the village of Lio was discovered -more than 2000 feet below, in a narrow ravine, on the bank of a small -stream descending from the north-west, and close to its junction with -the Piti river. The descent was very abrupt, in a rocky ravine among -large boulders, partly of slate, partly of granite. This rock occurred -in thick veins in the clay-slate, most abundantly on the lower part of -the precipices which rose on the left hand during the descent. - - [Sidenote: LIO. - _August, 1847._] - -Lio, at an elevation of 9600 feet above the sea, is a considerable -village, with a large tract of cultivation, disposed in terraces from -three to six feet above one another. The crops of wheat and barley had -been all cut, but there were many fields of buckwheat in full flower, -and of millet (_Panicum miliaceum_) still quite green. Numerous -apricot-trees, from which the fruit had long been gathered, were -interspersed among the cultivated lands. Surrounded on all sides by -very precipitous mountains, which reflect the sun's rays, Lio appears -to enjoy a great amount of heat, and the weeds which bordered the -corn-fields were rank and abundant, and included many species which -had not been seen at the higher villages. _Salvia glutinosa_, almost -the only remaining Simla plant, burdock, sow-thistle, lucerne, and -melilot, were the commonest weeds. A little _Cuscuta_ was common on -these latter. No tree of any kind occurred in the valley, nor on the -slopes on either side. Elevation could not be the cause of this, the -height being much lower than the line of upper limit of tree -vegetation in the outer Himalaya, and the temperature of the valley, -as was evident from the kinds of grain cultivated, very much greater -than it would have been at the same level, in the more rainy climates -nearer the plains of India. - -The ravine through which the Lio stream runs is narrow and rocky, and -contains a great number of transported blocks of various sizes, -scattered irregularly over the surface. Close to the village there is -a curious isolated rock, separated by the stream from the mountain -mass with which it has evidently once been connected. - - [Sidenote: CROSS THE PITI RIVER. - _August, 1847._] - -On the 25th of August we crossed the Piti river, a little above Lio, -and ascended to the village of Nako, on a very steep ridge, which -descended from the great mountain Porgyul. After leaving the -cultivated lands of Lio, which extend for half a mile from the upper -part of the village, we ascended the right bank of the Piti river for -nearly a mile, to a bridge, by which it is crossed. The river ran here -in an extremely narrow ravine, precipitous mountains rising on either -side. Its banks were steep, and covered with loose shingle, the -_debris_ of the precipices above. The stream is of considerable size, -but much inferior to the Sutlej where we had last observed it close at -hand, though I believe it is nearly as large as that river, at the -point of junction of the two. The Piti runs in this part of its course -with great rapidity, and is probably of considerable depth. - - [Sidenote: ASCENT TO NAKO. - _August, 1847._] - -The bridge was situated at a bend of the river, where the rocky banks -contract more than usual. It was similar in structure to that over the -Sutlej at Wangtu, but much smaller, and in so dilapidated a state, -that it could scarcely be expected to last another year. The ascent to -Nako was throughout steep, the difference of elevation being about -2500 feet, and the distance not more than two miles and a half. When -at a sufficient height above the narrow dell in which the Piti runs, a -good view was obtained of the mountains by which we were surrounded, -which rose on all sides in rugged precipices. The steepness of the -cliffs allowed their geological structure to be well seen. The -fundamental rock, wherever I saw it, appeared to be clay-slate, -sometimes passing into chert or quartzy sandstone. This basal rock was -everywhere traversed by innumerable veins of quartz and granite, which -exhibited no signs of parallelism, but ramified in every direction. -These veins were often of great thickness. Not unfrequently, indeed, -the mass of granite much exceeded the slaty beds between which it was -interposed; but its connection with other veins of more moderate size -rendered it evident that it had been injected into the slate. - -Behind the village of Lio a thick deposit of alluvial clay was -discernible, which seemed to suggest the idea of the valley having -formerly been a lake; and at no place where I had seen these clayey -accumulations was this hypothesis so plausible, for the precipices -south of the junction of the Lio stream, rose almost perpendicularly -for more than 1000 feet above the Piti river, and approached so close -to one another, that their disruption was at least a possible -contingency. - -The slopes, as we ascended, were covered with boulders of granite in -countless profusion, and the vegetation was extremely scanty, -_Ephedra_ being the most abundant plant observed. On the upper part of -the ascent the road crossed a little streamlet, which was conducted in -an artificial channel to irrigate a few fields of wheat. The margins -of this little stream, and a belt a few feet in width on both sides, -where the ground was swampy, were covered with a dense thicket of -_Hippophae_ and rose-bushes, among which grew thickly and luxuriantly -a scandent _Clematis_, and _Rubia cordifolia_, mint, dock, and -thistles. The number of species altogether was scarcely more than a -dozen, but the brilliant green formed so delightful a contrast with -the prevailing monotony, that what in a more fertile country would -have been passed as a mere thicket of thorns, to my eyes appeared a -most beautiful grove of graceful shrubs; and I lingered in the swampy -ground, till I had traversed it repeatedly in every direction, and -completely exhausted the flora. - - [Sidenote: NAKO. - _August, 1847._] - -Nako is a smaller village than Lio, and from its elevation (12,000 -feet) has no fruit-trees; but at the base of the cultivation, which is -extensive, there was a copse of willows and poplars. The predominant -crop was barley, now quite ripe, and being cut; the species was the -common one, not _H. Aegiceras_, but the ears were very short, and the -return must, I should think, have been very small. There was abundance -of water, which ran in every direction through the fields. The little -streamlets had a narrow belt of green on their margins, consisting of -small grasses, several gentians, and _Potentillae_, one of which I -could not distinguish from _P. anserina_, a _Polygonum_ very like _P. -viviparum_, and, most remarkable of all, a small orchideous plant, -which seemed to be a species of _Herminium_. - - [Sidenote: BUDDHIST TEMPLES. - _August, 1847._] - -At Nako, we had a most satisfactory proof of the little estimation in -which the lamas, or priests of the Buddhist religion, hold their -religious buildings, the apartments furnished to us in the village -being the different parts of the temple, surrounded with full-sized -figures of the different incarnations of Buddha, in sitting posture, -each with his hands in the position which is conventionally used to -indicate the individual. The remarkable forms and system of the -Buddhist religion, as practised in Kunawar and Ladak, have been so -often and accurately described, that it would be useless for me to -attempt to give any account of what I could, from want of previous -knowledge, very imperfectly understand, and from my other occupations -scarcely at all inquire into. The gradual transition, in ascending the -Sutlej, from Hinduism to Buddhism, is very remarkable, and not the -less so because it is accompanied by an equally gradual change in the -physical aspect of the inhabitants, the Hindus of the lower Sutlej -appearing to pass by insensible gradations as we advance from village -to village, till at last we arrive at a pure Tartar population. The -people of upper Piti have quite the Tartar physiognomy, the small -stature and stout build of the inhabitants of Ladak, to whom also they -closely approximate in dress. To what extent mere climatic influences -may cause these differences, and how far they depend on an -intermixture of races, I do not pretend to decide. It is impossible, -however, to avoid being struck by the coincidence between these -physical and moral changes in the human race, and the gradual -alteration in the forms of the vegetable world, which are observable -as we advance from a wet to a dry climate. - - [Sidenote: PORGYUL - _August, 1847._] - -From Nako we proceeded, on the 26th of August, nearly due north, to -Chango, about ten miles up the Piti valley. Nako is situated on the -shoulder of the great mountain Porgyul, which rises to a height of -10,000 feet above that village, and Chango is at the very extremity of -a long spur given off by that mountain further east: it is therefore -separated from the Nako spur by a valley of considerable size, which -descends abruptly towards the Piti river. Our road lay in a long sweep -round the deep bay formed by this valley, at an elevation not lower -than that of Nako, crossing in the most receding part a foaming -torrent which descends from the perpetual snows of the mountain -behind. Half a mile from Nako, and scarcely lower than that place, is -a patch of cultivation, watered, as I was surprised to find, by a -conduit brought more than a mile along the side of the hill from the -stream which occupies the mid-valley; the water of which was collected -into several ponds, one above another, in which it was kept in reserve -till required for irrigation. The crops cultivated were buckwheat and -a species of _Brassica_, both in flower. A number of poplars and -willows were planted along the stream, but no fruit-trees. - - [Sidenote: ANGULAR BOULDERS. - _August, 1847._] - -Beyond this cultivated tract, the road, till we reached Chango, was -entirely barren. For several miles we continued to pass through a most -extraordinary accumulation of transported blocks, scattered -irregularly on the gently sloping sides of the mountains. They -covered a very large area, and occurred in such almost incredible -profusion, that the road seemed to lie in a hollow among fragments of -rock on all sides. They were all angular; and at so considerable an -elevation as 12,000 feet, I have now no hesitation in referring them -to glacier action. The rock _in situ_ was clay-slate, with copious -granite veins, and the boulders were in general the same. In one -place, however, a dark mica-slate, with large crystals of cyanite, was -the predominating rock of the erratic blocks, which no doubt might -have been traced to its source in the ravine above, as I nowhere saw -it _in situ_ during the day. - -After passing the torrent which occupies the centre of the valley, the -road very gradually approaches the Piti river, from which it had at -first receded considerably. We could now observe that the mountains -which overhung the river in this part of its course were much less -precipitous, and the valley wider and more open, than around Lio. -Alluvial beds of great thickness everywhere rested on the ancient -rocks, assuming the most diversified forms, but in general thicker and -higher on the sides of the hills, at some distance from the river, -than in the centre of the valley. About a mile and a half from Chango, -the road began to descend rather rapidly along a dry water-course -filled with huge boulders. It then crossed a stream, which had cut for -itself a very deep channel through the alluvial conglomerate, and -ascended slightly to the village of Chango. Close to the last stream -was a bed of very fine clay, which had a thickness of at least -twenty-five feet, and did not appear to contain any stones, pebbles, -or fragments of rock. This clay had quite a different appearance from -the alluvial conglomerate, which covered it, without appearing to pass -into it. It occurred extensively in several places in the -neighbourhood of Chango, and had entirely the appearance of having -been deposited in a very tranquil lake, while the alluvium which -rested upon it, and, therefore, was of more recent formation, -contained so many fragments of rock, all seemingly angular, that its -origin could scarcely be assigned to deposition under water, unless -under some very peculiar circumstances. - - [Sidenote: CHANGO. - _August, 1847._] - -Chango is situated in the middle of an open, nearly level tract of -considerable size, which slopes very gently towards the Piti river. -The cultivation is extensive, water being more than usually abundant, -so that much of the ground is swampy from its waste, and covered with -tufts of a small _Iris_ and a species of _Equisetum_. The barley had -been all cut, as well as the beans, which are here grown to some -extent. Buckwheat and rape-seed (a species of _Brassica_) were still -in flower, and the millet quite green. Apricot-trees were still -common, though the elevation of Chango is about 10,500 feet. The -village lies nearly opposite to Shialkar, but separated from it by the -Piti river, which, at the bridge of that place, is elevated exactly -10,000 feet above the level of the sea. - - [Sidenote: ZUNGSAM RIVER. - _August, 1847._] - -A little way above Shialkar and Chango, two very considerable rivers -unite to form the Piti river. The larger of these, descending from the -north-west, is known by the same name. The other, which flows from the -north-east, may be called the Parang river, by which name it is known -in the upper part of its course; lower down, it seems to be usually -called Zungsam. The direct road from Hangarang to the Indus lies up -this river, which unfortunately flows for several days' journey -through districts which are included within the Chinese frontier. It -was our wish to proceed by the most expeditious route, and at the same -time that nearest the line of boundary, to Hanle. It was, therefore, -our object to effect, if possible, a passage up the Zungsam river, -though, as we knew that Captain Gerard and M. Jacquemont had both been -stopped upon the frontier, we had no reason to anticipate any more -favourable result. - -We therefore took, on leaving Chango, a north-easterly direction, -proceeding, on the 27th of August, to a village on the left bank of -the Parang or Zungsam river, called Changar, the same place which, by -Gerard and Jacquemont, is named Changrezing. Leaving the cultivated -lands of Chango, and crossing the stream which skirts the plain, we -immediately commenced a steep zigzag ascent over a barren shingly -road, to the heights which overhang the village to the north-east. -After a very fatiguing climb of not less than 1300 feet, we attained -the summit of the ridge, and advanced along it for some distance -without much change of level, but still gradually ascending among -low-topped gravelly hills. A very steep ascent followed to the summit -of the pass, which was called Changrang La[8], and could not be much -under 13,000 feet. The whole ascent was extremely barren, the arid -slopes producing a minimum of vegetation. A fleshy Cruciferous plant, -with a strong pungent taste not unlike horse-radish (_Christolea_ of -Decaisne in Jacquemont), a fine _Nepeta_ (_N. floccosa_, Benth.), and -a little _Stipa_, were the only novelties; and these, with the -_Ephedra_, a little _Lactuca_, an aromatic species of _Chenopodium_ -(_C. Botrys_), the Tibetan _Euphorbia_, and a shrubby white-flowered -spinous _Astragalus_, were almost all the plants observed. - - [Sidenote: CHANGAR. - _August, 1847._] - -From the summit of the pass, the road descended abruptly into a deep -ravine, which originated in a snowy mountain to the south. At the -bottom of this ravine, between rocky precipitous banks, ran a -considerable torrent, which was crossed by a very frail wooden bridge. -Immediately after crossing, the road began to ascend rapidly, rising -to an elevation only a few hundred feet lower than the pass from which -we had descended, after which, half a mile of nearly level road -brought us to our camp at Changar, a small village on a stony hill, of -which only one house seemed habitable. A few fields of barley, not yet -ripe, separated our tents from the village; these were irrigated by a -small streamlet, whose source was a spring on the rocky hill-side a -few hundred yards off, shaded by a few rose-bushes and a small clump -of juniper-trees. - -We remained one day stationary at Changar, to complete some -arrangements which were required previous to our leaving the district -of Hangarang; and on the 29th we proceeded to ascend the valley of the -Zungsam river, intending, if no obstacles were offered, to follow its -course and the regular road to Hanle; but in case of obstruction, -which there was every reason to apprehend, to adopt the plan which had -been already followed both by Gerard and Jacquemont, of crossing the -river, encamping on its north bank, and proceeding in a westerly -direction along the course of the Piti river to the Parang pass, in -which direction we could effect a passage to Hanle without the -necessity of entering on the territories under Chinese control. - - [Sidenote: BLACK CURRANT. - _August, 1847._] - -Our road, for about three miles, was undulating, with rather a -tendency to descend, but without any abrupt change of level. It lay -along the gently sloping side of the ridge, and crossed a good many -little ravines. To the right was the crest of the ridge; to the left, -the valley of the Zungsam river, which was nearly 2000 feet below, the -slope being very precipitous. In many of the ravines, where there was -a stream of water, there was a dense jungle of shrubs, which -contrasted strongly with the barrenness of the hills. A willow, rose, -_Lonicera_, a shrubby _Astragalus_, an _Artemisia_, a _Potentilla_ of -large size, and a black currant, closely resembling that of our -gardens, were the principal shrubs; and the herbaceous vegetation was -the same as in similar places since entering the Tibetan region. The -currant, which occurred here for the first time, was quite a new -species: its ripe fruit was quite black, and had the size and flavour -of the common black currant, with, however, a considerable degree of -acidity. - -About three miles from Changar, an abrupt descent led from the -platform on which we had been travelling, to the level of the banks of -the river, more than 1000 feet lower. The path by which we descended -was steep, rocky, and difficult. The rock was still clay-slate, with -granite veins. The granite in general very much exceeded in quantity -the rock into which it had been injected, as was well seen on several -precipitous cliffs along the course of the stream, in which the -stratification of the slaty rock and the ramifications of the granite -could be examined in detail. The banks of the river were adorned with -a species of _Myricaria_, a small tree, with very delicate graceful -foliage and beautiful rose-coloured flowers. - - [Sidenote: CHINESE FRONTIER. - _August, 1847._] - -On reaching the small streamlet which forms the frontier of the -Chinese dominions, we found, as indeed we expected, that there was no -intention of permitting us to proceed by the direct road to Hanle; and -all arguments to induce a compliance with our wish proving -ineffectual, we agreed to take the route up the Piti river by Dankar, -and were then permitted to proceed about a mile, to the village of -Kyuri, where we encamped for the day. I have now no doubt that if we -had resolutely advanced, no serious opposition to our progress would -have been made; but our instructions were so precise that we should -not have been justified in using the smallest degree of force, or -incurring any risk of a collision. - -To reach Kyuri[9], we crossed the Zungsam river by a very remarkable -natural bridge, composed of an enormous block of granite, which has in -some way been placed across the stream, at a spot where it is much -contracted in width, flowing in a deep rocky fissure from fifteen to -twenty-five feet in width, evidently of great depth. At this point a -considerable number of boulders of large size are piled on both banks, -of which the one that spans the channel is eighty-five feet in length -and probably not less than forty in width and twenty in depth; it is -placed obliquely across the stream, its left or southern extremity -being lower, and inclined at so considerable an angle that the passage -is one of some difficulty for horses and loaded cattle, though for -men, with ordinary care, it is quite easy. The higher end is so much -elevated above the surface on which it rests, that a rudely -constructed stair of stones is necessary to enable travellers to -descend. - - [Sidenote: KYURI. - _August, 1847._] - -Our encamping ground at Kyuri was on a gently sloping barren plain, -seven or eight hundred feet above the valley of the Zungsam, and was -reached by a short steep ascent from the bridge. There was no -cultivation; but about a mile to the east, a long sloping tract of -alluvium interposed between the mountains and the river was covered -with green fields, though it had only two houses and not a single -tree. Alluvium abounded in every direction, forming steep sloping -banks, often much worn away by running water, and occasionally from -two to three hundred feet in thickness. The plain on which we were -encamped was also of recent origin; it consisted of a fine clay, -curiously worn into cliffs and narrow ridges. A few layers of fine -sand were included in the clay, and by a careful search I found three -or four small fresh-water shells in the clay, belonging to at least -two species--one a _Lymnaea_, the other a _Planorbis_. The shells were, -however, very scarce, and all found near one spot, nor did any other -portion of the deposit seem fossiliferous. The clay was in front of -and below our encampment, and was covered by coarse alluvial -conglomerate. - - [Sidenote: THE ROAD REJOINS - THE PITI VALLEY. - _August, 1847._] - -The road up the valley of the Parang river being tabooed to us by the -jealousy of the Chinese Government, it became necessary to make a very -considerable _detour_, no practicable road being known in the -mountains north of Piti, between that which we were thus prevented -from following, and the Parang pass, to reach which we had to make -five or six marches up the Piti river before turning to the north. On -leaving Kyuri, on the 30th of August, we ascended gently on a bare -gravelly hill for several hundred feet, and then proceeded for two -miles to the westward, along the steep side of the mountain. The road -was rocky and very barren, the caper and an _Astragalus_ being almost -the only plants seen. We then descended rapidly, so as to reach the -bank of the Piti river, at the place where it makes its great bend and -assumes a southerly direction. Here it is joined by the Giu (Gumdo of -Jacquemont), a considerable stream, which has its source in the lofty -and inaccessible range to the north. This torrent had excavated a deep -channel in the alluvial beds, which were composed of alternations of -coarse incoherent conglomerate and fine clay. In this ravine, which -sheltered them from the bleak winds of the more exposed slopes, I -found a luxuriant growth of shrubs; of which the commonest forms were -the rose, ash, _Colutea_, _Rhamnus_, _Myricaria_, _Capparis_, -_Ephedra_, and _Artemisiae_. As soon as the stream was passed, a steep -ascent commenced, but the luxuriant vegetation at once disappeared, -and the road was as barren, dusty, and stony as usual. We ascended -only to descend again, and encamped on a small level spot forty or -fifty feet above the Piti river, destitute of cultivation or -inhabitants, but known to the people of the district by the name of -Huling. - -On our next day's journey, the country at first presented the same -general character. The mountains along the road were lofty and rugged, -and sloped steeply to the river. A mass of alluvial deposit generally -rested on their bases, and the road lay at no great distance above the -river, rising a few hundred feet to pass over the spurs, and again -descending on their western sides. The steep slopes were in several -places covered with an incrustation of hard angular breccia, with a -calcareous matrix, the origin of which I conceive to have been the -same as that of the breccia noticed in the vicinity of Sungnam. Across -the river there was a considerable tract of level ground, covered with -cultivation surrounding a small village, with a few poplar and willow -trees; but the left bank, on which we travelled, was entirely barren. -Nearly opposite this village, the bank of the river becoming steep and -precipitous, we ascended about a thousand feet, and continued at that -elevation till the difficulty was passed, after which we returned to -the river-side. At this elevation two or three springs broke out on -the steep face of the hill, and, trickling down among the rocks below, -promoted the growth of a few willows and rose-bushes, and a small -thicket of _Hippophae_. Round the springs the ground was covered with -a slight saline exudation. - - [Sidenote: LARI. - _August, 1847._] - -The village of Lari, at which we encamped, is elevated 11,200 feet. It -occupies a large extent of alluvial surface, sloping at a very small -angle from the base of the mountains to the river, at a place where a -stream issued from among the mountains. The cultivated lands are -extensive, but very bare of trees when compared with the villages in -Kunawar, or even in Hangarang. One apricot-tree only could be seen in -the village lands, but there were still a few willows and poplars. The -flora of the cultivated tracts had not altered. The little _Iris_, -first seen at Chango, was very common, and the gentians, _Potentillae_, -_Astragali_, and other small plants, were the same as had been common -since crossing the Hangarang pass; the season, however, was so far -advanced, that much of the luxuriant vegetation had withered away. The -crops of wheat and barley were quite ripe, and had been partly cut; -but a few fields of millet were still green. - - [Sidenote: MOUNTAINS OF PITI. - _August, 1847._] - -In the neighbourhood of Lari, the Piti valley is considerably more -open than lower down. It had, indeed, been gradually expanding since -we joined it at Lio. The mountains now recede considerably from the -river, a long sloping surface of alluvium being interposed, which is -at one time largely developed on the north side of the river, in which -case the southern spur generally projects. A little further on, the -northern mountains send down a projecting spur, and an open tract is -seen to the south. The mountains behind the alluvial platforms rise -very abruptly, and present towards the plain, steep, almost -perpendicular slopes, which, from the peculiar nature of the rock, a -very fragile slate, are covered by a steeply-sloping mass of _debris_ -almost to the top. This talus, indeed, on some of the cliffs behind -Lari, seems to rise to the very summit of the ridges. - -It is not easy to convey an idea in words of the mode in which these -mountains are arranged, unless it is recollected that it is an -universal rule that all mountains are ramifications of an axis, giving -off branches on both sides, and that each branch is again divided in a -similar manner, till the ultimate divisions are arrived at. All -mountainous districts are in this respect similar to one another, and -differ principally in the proportion borne by the altitude to the -superficial extent of the ranges of which they are composed. An -examination of the map will show that the axis of the range which lies -north of the Piti valley, passes through the Parang pass, and in fact -occupies the midway between the Piti and Parang rivers, terminating in -the great bend of the latter, to the east of its junction with the -Piti. The whole of this range is of great altitude, and it seems to -rise in elevation to the eastward, no passage being known further east -than the Parang pass. The primary branches of this chain, descending -towards the Piti valley, are separated by considerable tributaries -which discharge themselves into that river. In general, these lateral -streams have, in the lower part of their course, very rugged rocky -channels, but they rise rapidly, and, at a distance of a few miles -from the main river, their ravines expand into open valleys, three or -four thousand feet above its level. The ramifications of the primary -branches are, as might be expected, in their upper part concealed -among the mountains, but those near their termination abut upon the -main valley, in a series of ridges separated by little streamlets. We -have, therefore, as we ascend the Piti river, not a wall of mountain, -parallel to its course, but a succession of ridges, more or less -perpendicular to it, all descending from a great elevation, and -rapidly diminishing in height. The result is necessarily a great -degree of irregularity, the width of the alluvial belt varying much, -while the direction of the ridges, and of the cliffs by which they are -bounded, is constantly changing. - - [Sidenote: ALLUVIAL PLATFORMS. - _September, 1847._] - -Leaving Lari on the 1st of September, we continued our journey up the -Piti valley. The road lay partly on the platforms of alluvial -conglomerate, and partly over the steep shingly talus which rested on -the hills where they were not separated by alluvium from the river. -One alluvial plain, about two miles from Lari, was well cultivated -with the usual crops, the barley being quite ripe, the wheat very -nearly so, the oil-seed and buckwheat out of flower, and the millet, -of which there were only a few fields, still green. The platforms of -alluvium have, in general, an irregularly triangular form, the base -resting on the river, the apex at the termination of a mountain -ravine, down which a stream runs. This stream, instead of bisecting -the platform, usually runs in a hollow channel on one side or other -between the mountains and the alluvium, and is, where practicable, -carried off in small artificial conduits for the purposes of -irrigation. The platforms always slope gently from their apex to the -river, and they are generally cut off in a cliff at the lower end. -These cliffs always show marks of stratification, sensibly parallel to -the river, and the pebbles which the alluvium contains, are (and have -been for the last two days) usually rounded. - -I ought not to omit to mention, that I use the word _alluvium_ merely -as a convenient mode of expression, without meaning to convey an idea -of the mode in which these beds originate. No equally suitable word -suggests itself, and the phenomena occur so frequently, that it is -necessary to have some short expression by which to describe them. The -origin of these alluvia is certainly very puzzling. At first sight, in -any particular spot, the most natural suggestion is, that they have -been deposited under water, and probably therefore in a lake. Their -occurrence day after day, notwithstanding the greatest changes of -altitude, their enormous thickness in many places, and the peculiar -position in which they occur, soon dispel this idea, and throw the -observer into a maze of doubt and difficulty, at last leading him to -the conclusion, that no one cause is sufficient to explain the highly -variable phenomena which he observes, and that a lengthened series of -patient observations will be necessary before the subject can be -understood. These observations have yet to be supplied, but I believe -I shall best serve future observers, by detailing as fully as possible -the points which attracted my attention, without attempting for the -present to speculate upon the causes of the phenomena. The suggestions -which I have to offer to the reader, will be best understood when I -have detailed all the facts upon which they are founded. - -It is especially necessary to distinguish between three forms of -alluvium, all of which have already occurred in Piti. These are, -first, the fine clay; secondly, the platforms, such as I have -described in the last paragraph; and thirdly, the enormous masses, -which are without any definite limits, and do not seem referable to -any present valley system. - - [Sidenote: POK. - _September, 1847._] - -We encamped at Pok, a large village nearly nine miles from Lari. Here -we found again an extensive alluvial platform, covered with much -cultivation; and on the mountain ravine above the village there was a -considerable grove of young juniper-trees. A week or two before, I -should have considered them as scattered trees; now they had quite the -appearance of a forest, so bare had the country been since crossing -Hangarang. - -West of Pok, our journey of the 2nd of September was over the alluvial -platform, which continued for two miles beyond the cultivation of the -village, gradually contracting in width by the encroachment of -successive spurs, which at last advanced close to the river. The road -now ascended by a short steep path on the mountain-side, to a higher -level. At the base of this ascent there were a great many angular -masses of limestone, evidently transported from the valleys behind. -These fragments were very numerous, and many of them of great size. -They continued abundant during a great part of the day, but no -limestone was seen _in situ_. I have not preserved any record of the -exact position of these angular fragments with regard to the valleys -behind, but I have little doubt that they will be found to be of -glacial origin, such being certainly the case in many other similar -instances. The limestone was very compact, of a blue or grey colour, -and many of the fragments were almost full of coralline remains. I -collected many fossiliferous specimens, which were afterwards -despatched from Hanle to Simla by a messenger, on whom we thought we -could rely, but they never reached their destination[10]. - - [Sidenote: DANKAR. - _September, 1847._] - -We encamped at Dankar, after travelling ten miles. This place is the -principal village of the Piti valley, and is 13,000 feet above the -level of the sea. The valley of the Piti is here very wide, and -divided into numerous channels, which are separated by low gravelly -islands, the whole width of the river being not less than half a mile. -Here the alluvium is very highly developed, lying in patches on the -face of the steep hills. The village of Dankar, though 1000 feet above -the river, occupies both sides of a steep ridge entirely composed of -alluvium. Nor is this its utmost limit; for several hundred feet above -the houses, similar alluvial masses occur. These beds are not, -however, continuous from these great elevations, down to the level of -the river: they rest, on the contrary, on the ancient rocks, which are -here very steep, and the clay may be seen in isolated projecting -masses, capping the most prominent ridges[11]. - - [Sidenote: RANGRIG. - _September, 1847._] - -The village of Dankar is built on arid barren soil, but the cultivated -lands stretch from about the level of the village almost to the river, -on a very steep slope. Thickets of _Hippophae_ were scattered among -the cultivation, where the ground was swampy; and notwithstanding the -great altitude, the exposure being favourable, the crops seemed good, -and the wild plants were more luxuriant than usual. One of the new -species observed was a pretty gentian (_G. Moorcroftiana_, Wall.), -interesting as having been one of the few plants sent from the Tibetan -country by the unfortunate traveller whose name it bears. It is also a -common species in the valley of Dras, in which, perhaps, Mr. -Moorcroft's specimens were collected, unless, indeed, they were -obtained in Piti by Mr. Trebeck, during his journey to that valley -from Ladak. - -Leaving Dankar on the morning of the 3rd of September, we ascended the -heights behind the village to the side of the main ridge behind, along -which we proceeded without change of level. The mountain was almost -precipitous, and extremely barren, but commanded a fine view of the -open flat plain of the Piti river, descending from the north-west; and -of the course of the Pin, a large tributary which descends from the -south-west, at the source of which there is a pass, by which it is -possible to descend upon the Sutlej at Wangtu. The mountain range -interposed between the Sutlej and Piti valleys was, from the elevation -at which we now stood, seen to great advantage. These mountains are, -indeed, in the terse words of Jacquemont, "d'une affreuse sterilite;" -yet, in their varied outline, massive forms, and snow-sprinkled -summits, there is no doubt a degree of grandeur, which produces a -powerful impression. - -At about a mile and a half from Dankar, during which we had, with the -ridge, gradually approached the river, the road began to descend, and -we at last reached the bank of the river, close to which, and -sometimes even on its gravelly bed, we continued for several miles. -Where the banks were lowest, and the gravel was moist, there were -thickets of low shrubs, _Hippophae_, _Myricaria_, _Ribes_, and willow; -elsewhere, the gravel was barren and unproductive. We encamped at -Lara, a village nine miles from Dankar, at which there were only two -poplar trees, and a very small extent of arable ground. The wheat was -ripe and very luxuriant, the ears being large and well filled. - -On the 4th of September, we continued our progress up the Piti valley, -which had quite the same aspect as on the day before, encamping on the -left bank of the river, opposite to the village of Rangrig, on a -desert spot among limestone rocks, at an elevation of 12,300 feet. -Here we had attained our furthest limit in a north-westerly direction, -our road now turning to the right, and ascending a considerable valley -towards the Parang pass, in a direction which promised much novelty -and interest, as it had only been traversed by one traveller, the -unfortunate Trebeck, who, in the year 1822, travelled from Le to -Dankar by this route. The further course of the Piti river, which, as -we learn from Moorcroft's travels, was visited in 1822 by Captain -Mercer, was afterwards surveyed by Captain Broome. It communicates -with Lahul, which is the upper part of the valley of the Chandrabhaga -or Chenab river, by the Kulzum pass, a depression in that great branch -of the trans-Sutlej Himalaya, by which the waters of the Sutlej and -its tributaries on the east, are separated from those of the Chenab -and Beas. - -During our journey through the district of Piti, the weather had been -almost uniformly dry and serene, though we were now in the very height -of the Indian rainy season. The only exception occurred while we were -encamped at Changar, on the lower part of the Parang river, about the -29th of August, when the sky was for two days very cloudy, and on one -night it rained gently for nearly half an hour. The clouds were, -however, high, and never dense, and the unsettled state of the -atmosphere was of very short continuance. While it lasted, it was -accompanied by violent wind, very irregular in direction. - - [Sidenote: SALINE INCRUSTATIONS. - _September, 1847._] - -In every part of Piti we found the margins of springs, and the grassy -turf which grew on low swampy spots along the river, covered with a -saline incrustation, in the form of a dry efflorescence, which -encrusted the blades of grass. It appeared to be confined to the -vicinity of water, the barren rocky tracts being destitute of it. This -saline matter, as elsewhere in Tibet, consists of sesquicarbonate of -soda, and, as a consequence of the abundance of that alkali, -soda-producing plants were common, especially _Chenopodiaceae_, among -which the common _Salsola Kali_ was very abundant. - - [Sidenote: PITI. - _September, 1847._] - -The district of Piti, which was formerly almost independent, but paid -tribute to, or exchanged presents with, all the Tibetan countries in -its neighbourhood, namely, with Garu, Ladak, and Lahul, as well as -with Kunawar, followed in 1846 the fortunes of Lahul in being -transferred to British rule. It is a very thinly populated valley, the -villages being small and distant, and the arable tracts of no great -extent. The mountains on its southern border, by which it is separated -from Kunawar, are so very elevated that they entirely intercept all -access of humidity from the districts to the northward of them, and -render the climate entirely rainless. The houses are in consequence -very generally built of unburnt bricks, made of the fine lacustrine -clay so common in the valleys, and their flat roofs are thickly -covered with a layer of the same material. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[7] The distant snowy mountains seen from the top of the Hangarang -pass are probably those due north of Zungsam and east of the Parang -pass, which Major Cunningham, from some angles obtained on our -journey, estimated (I believe, but quote from memory) at nearly 24,000 -feet. - -[8] La, in Western Tibet, seems to mean always a _pass_. To the -eastward it is often translated _mountain_. - -[9] Jacquemont writes this name _Khiri_. I follow the orthography -which I find in my notes made at the time. - -[10] This limestone will, I believe, turn out to be the counterpart of -the limestones of Silurian age, which form one of the most interesting -results of the labours of Captain R. Strachey, in Kumaon and Garhwal. - -[11] A very excellent sketch of the fort and village of Dankar, by Mr. -Trebeck, is given in Moorcroft's Travels, in which the appearance and -position of the alluvial masses is well represented. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - - Leave Valley of Piti river -- Kibar -- Cultivation above 14,000 - feet -- Vegetation of mountains -- Rocky gorge -- Encampment at - 17,000 feet -- Parang Pass -- Snow-bed and glacier -- First - plants at 16,500 feet -- Parang valley -- Gorge leading to - Chumoreri Lake -- Kiang, or wild horse -- Chumurti -- - Remarkable grassy plain -- Lanak Pass -- Granite boulders -- - Plants above 18,000 feet -- Undulating hilly country -- Hanle - plain -- Vegetation -- Monastery of Hanle. - - -Our last occupation in the valley of the Piti river was to make the -necessary arrangements for the transport of our baggage through the -deserts which were to be traversed before we should again arrive at -inhabited tracts. The principal part of our effects were carried by -men, but our party was so large that it was not easy to provide -porters for the necessary amount of food during a journey of a week in -an uninhabited country. A motley group of ponies, asses, and yaks -therefore formed part of the train which accompanied us into the -desert country between Piti and the Indus. - -Three miles north-west of our encamping ground opposite Rangrig, we -left the Piti river on the morning of the 5th of September, turning up -the valley of a considerable stream which here joined the main river. -The platform of alluvium on which we had been travelling continued -for about half a mile up the lateral valley, and was covered with -large boulders of angular fragments. The rock was limestone, the same -as had occurred everywhere since leaving Lara. A little village called -Ki, and a large monastery, situated on a curious, seemingly isolated, -conical hill above the village, were passed on the right hand. Soon -after, the ascent became rapid on a steep ridge to the east of the -stream, and the Piti valley was completely shut out from view as we -got in among the mountains. The ridge by which we ascended was barren -and stony, and produced little vegetation. A curious broad-leaved -_Allium_ was the only novelty. We continued to ascend along the stream -till we reached the village of Kibar, at which we encamped, at an -elevation of 13,800 feet, in a narrow valley surrounded on all sides -by lofty mountains. - - [Sidenote: KIBAR. - _September, 1847._] - -Kibar is rather a pleasing-looking village, remarkable for its houses -being all built of stone, instead of the mud or unburnt brick so -commonly used in the valley of Piti. It is situated on the summit of a -limestone rock, on the right bank of the stream. Our tents were on a -patch of green-sward on the opposite bank, separated from the village -by a deep ravine. Crossing this on the morning of the 6th, we ascended -the slope of the hill above the village, among cultivation which rose -on the hill-side fully 300 feet higher. Except one field of oil-seed, -the crops were all barley, which was ripe, and partly cut: it was -apparently very poor, being thin and deficient in ear. After leaving -the cultivation, we continued to ascend on the ridge, till we attained -an elevation of nearly 15,000 feet, at which height the road wound -round the sides of hills, without any considerable change of level, -for two or three miles. It was still early morning, and the air was -very frosty. Every little rill was covered with a thick coating of -ice, and some small swamps which we passed were crisp with frost. - - [Sidenote: VEGETATION. - _September, 1847._] - -Notwithstanding the considerable elevation, I noticed but little in -the vegetation different from that common in Piti. The forms were by -no means so alpine as on the passes between Kunawar and Hangarang, -though the elevation was greater than on any of these. It was probably -owing to the aridity of the climate that the flora, at elevations of -15,000 feet, instead of being composed of delicate alpine plants, was -much the same as it had been 4000 feet lower. The rose, the common -_Rhamnus_ of Piti, a little shrubby _Potentilla_, a spinous -_Astragalus_, and several _Artemisiae_, were the common shrubs, and two -species of rhubarb grew abundantly on the dry hills above Kibar. The -_Dama_, which shuns the level country, the _Allium_ first observed the -day before, and _Lamium rhomboideum_ of the Hangarang pass, were -almost the only striking plants observed; all the others were those of -the ordinary flora of the dry hills and gravelly plains of the Piti -valley. It is necessary, of course, in comparing this vegetation with -that of the passes, to recollect that we were here in a valley, on -slopes surrounded on all sides by lofty ridges, not on the summit of a -range overlooking everything around, or only surpassed a very little -by the continuation of the same ridge; so that the temperature of the -summer months must be considerably higher than on the more exposed -though less elevated passes. - - [Sidenote: ROCKY GORGE. - _September, 1847._] - -Further on, the road descended rapidly to the stream, which flowed in -a rocky gorge, through which we held our course for three miles. A few -willows, and stunted shrubs of _Myricaria_, occurred on the descent, -and the willow was found occasionally on the banks of the stream in -the gorge, which was enclosed by high and steep limestone rocks on -both sides. These gradually contracted as we advanced, but again -expanded at the point where we encamped, which was close to the bank -of the stream. The ravine being now more open, we could see the hills -to better advantage, and were struck with astonishment at the -desolation by which we were surrounded. We were, in truth, in a -wilderness of rocks, which to the south closed together, so as to shut -in the ravine by which we had ascended. High walls of cliffs rose on -either hand to an elevation of at least 1500 feet, displaying a -natural section of a multitude of strata, which seemed to be repeated -again and again in a succession of beds of limestone and slate. The -elevation of our encampment was 14,800 feet. - -On the 7th of September, the wish of our guides and porters according -with our own, we did not cross the Parang pass, which was still five -miles distant, and nearly 4000 feet above us, but contented ourselves -by ascending to the highest water, perhaps 1500 feet below the summit. -We ascended on a steep shingly ridge to the right of the stream where -we had passed the night. Tufts of _Lamium rhomboideum_ grew among the -loose shingle, but no other plant seemed to vegetate in such an -ungenial soil. When we had passed from the shingle, which was confined -to the base of the ascent, the ridge was dry and gravelly, with tufts -of _Dama_ and of a species of nettle. Above 16,500 feet, the spur was -rocky and uneven, and some alpine vegetation was observed, for which I -conjecture that the melting of the snow had probably supplied -moisture, as lower down the sterility had been complete. About fifteen -species were collected, two _Potentillae_, _Biebersteinia odora_, a -_Lychnis_, a little tufted saxifrage, and species of _Nepeta_, -_Artemisia_, _Gnaphalium_, _Saussurea_, _Allardia_, _Polygonum_, -_Rheum_, _Blitum_, one grass, and a fern. Three or four lichens grew -on the stones, and I obtained one specimen of a moss without -fructification. The _Allardia_, a pretty little rose-coloured flower, -with an agreeable smell, was the only new species; all the others were -already familiar to me. They grew in the crevices of the rocks, in -extremely small quantity, struggling as it were for existence against -the unfavourable circumstances to which they were exposed. - - [Sidenote: ASCENT TOWARDS - THE PARANG PASS. - _September, 1847._] - -A stony ravine, elevated about 17,000 feet, was the place selected for -our encampment. A small stream, supplied by a patch of snow a little -way above, trickled down under the angular gravel. The ascent had been -extremely fatiguing, because almost without intermission, and we were -glad of rest on reaching that elevation. During the day, however, I -ascended a ridge of rugged rocks, which rose above our tents to a -height of more than 500 feet, being desirous of ascertaining to what -elevation I should find vegetation. An _Alsine_ was common among the -gravel, with two small plants which were not in a determinable state; -and on the rocks, to the highest level to which I succeeded in -ascending (probably 17,600 feet), the little _Allardia_ continued to -occur occasionally. The ridge afforded a good view of the mountains -round. The range to the north, which we had still to cross, lay in a -semicircle behind; to the east was the continuation of the ridge by -which we ascended; and a deep hollow lay to the west. Rugged rock -everywhere met the view. The slates which alternated with the -limestone were so very brittle that they everywhere formed piles of -angular fragments, which filled all the hollows, and formed a sloping -talus against every precipice. The view was one not to be forgotten, -its desolation far surpassing any conception of waste and utter -barrenness which I could have formed. - -During the whole day I was never free from a dull headache, evidently -caused by the great elevation. Rest relieved it, but the least -exertion brought it back again. It continued all evening, as long as I -was awake, and still remained in the morning of the 8th, when I rose -soon after daybreak to prepare for the journey. A few paces took us -beyond the shingly ravine in which we had been encamped, and the -remainder of the ascent was throughout over loose angular fragments, -the _debris_ of the cliffs on the right. Under the latter we passed, -winding round the side of the semicircular bay, till we got to about -its centre, when the ascent became excessively steep and toilsome. The -exertion of raising the body was very fatiguing, and the last few -hundred yards were only accomplished after many pauses. A few large -patches of snow lay in hollows along the road; but up to the very -crest of the pass there was no trace of perpetual snow, nor even any -continuous snow-bed. - - [Sidenote: THE PARANG PASS. - _September, 1847._] - -The summit of the Parang pass is a narrow ridge, covered with large -blocks of stone. To the north lay a large field of snow, sloping -downwards at a very gentle angle. In this direction the view was -limited within two miles by steep rugged mountains, which closed in on -both sides. To the right and left also, the pass was overlooked by -ridges close at hand. The only direction in which a distant view was -obtained was south, where the mountains beyond the Piti river were -beautifully seen: from the great elevation at which we stood, their -summits were everywhere in view; their elevation was surprisingly -uniform, and the whole range was capped with snow. The mountains close -at hand presented much the same appearance as I had seen from the -rocks above our encampment the day before. - - [Sidenote: GLACIER. - _September, 1847._] - -I reached the summit of the pass, which has an elevation of 18,500 -feet, at a quarter before eight in the morning. At that time the -temperature was 28 deg.; and a cold southerly wind blew with considerable -violence, making us seek the shelter of the blocks which lay around. A -small red lichen, (_Lecanora miniata_,) on the fragments of rock, was -the only vegetable production I observed. After an hour's rest, we -commenced the descent over the snow-bed, proceeding towards a gap -which was visible in the mountains. The snow was hard frozen, and -crisp under the feet. Descending steadily without any fatigue, we were -soon evidently on a snow-covered glacier. A few fissures were passed, -but mostly not above a few inches wide, and none that we could not -with ease step over, the widest not exceeding two feet. At a distance -of about a mile and a half from the crest, the mountains, which on -both sides surrounded the snow-bed in the form of a circle, had so -much approached to one another, that they formed a narrow valley, -down which the snowy mass continued in the form of a rugged glacier. -We now left the surface of the ice, and proceeded along the stony side -of the ravine, with the glacier on our left hand, and steep limestone -rocks on our right. Blocks of limestone strewed our path as we -descended, and numerous small fragments of the same rock covered the -edge of the glacier. - -About three miles from the summit of the pass the glacier terminated -abruptly in a bluff precipice, the height of which was more than 100 -feet. Little rills of water were, at the time we passed (9-1/2 A.M.), -trickling from every part of the surface, and a small streamlet ran -along the edge of the glacier under an arch of ice. The structure was -here very evident: broad white bands, and narrower ones of a dirty -colour, from the earthy matter which they had absorbed, ran parallel -to the slope of the ravine, the arches or loops (so well explained by -Professor Forbes in his delightful work on the glaciers of the Alps) -being drawn out to a great length. - -At the termination of the glacier, we descended from the steep -mountain-side, along which we had hitherto travelled, to the flat -plain, the continuation of the surface on which the glacier rested. On -this descent the first vegetation appeared at an elevation of about -16,500 feet. Two small grasses, _Biebersteinia odora_, a _Lychnis_, -and a little villous _Astragalus_, were the plants observed: they grew -in the crevices of the rock, and scarcely rose above the ground. None -of the species were different from those collected in the mountains of -Piti. - - [Sidenote: THE PARANG VALLEY. - ITS VEGETATION. - _September, 1847._] - -When we had reached the middle of the valley, so as to be exactly in -face of the glacier, we found that a large stream issued from a -vaulted cavity at its termination. For some hundred feet the stream -ran among large masses of ice, as if the glacier had very recently -extended further, and had melted away irregularly, leaving these -masses standing. Leaving the glacier, we still followed the valley, -which was confined on both sides by steep cliffs. We kept close to the -stream, walking over its gravelly bed, and I collected a few more -plants as I descended; none, however, new to me. A little _Nepeta_, -four species of _Potentilla_, a _Gnaphalium_, several grasses and -_Carices_, and a very small fern, were the species. About three miles -from the end of the glacier we found our tents pitched on a small -plain, connected with a lateral ravine, and covered with tufts of -_Dama_, and a little species of _Alsine_ in flat tufts, which was -quite new to me. The elevation of our encampment was 16,000 feet. - -We followed the course of the valley into which we had thus descended, -for three days, without meeting with any inhabitants, and through so -uniform a country, that it is unnecessary to detail each day's -journey. Rugged and rocky mountains, of moderate elevation, -principally limestone, bounded the view on both sides. In front we -seldom saw more than a few miles; and behind, the view was in general -equally limited, though occasionally we could see, up a lateral -valley, the peak of a snowy mountain. The valley was almost invariably -wide and level, once or twice only interrupted by projecting ridges of -low rocks advancing to its centre. Low platforms of alluvium, like -those of Piti, occupied the wider parts, their upper angles resting -(as in Piti) on the opening of lateral ravines, while their bases were -cut into cliffs by the stream. - -During these three days we descended from 16,000 to about 14,800 feet. -The surrounding mountains were quite barren and desolate. The gravelly -plains were covered with tufts of _Dama_ and of the curious tufted -_Alsine_, which formed dense flattened hassock-like masses, of -considerable size. The soil was very saline, and as we descended it -gradually became more so. In the earlier part of the descent, the -alpine forms were the same as those to the south of the Parang pass, -and the plants were few in number and much scattered. Lower down, -however, more novelty was met with. A little willow was the first -shrubby plant, and was followed by _Ephedra_, _Myricaria_, and -_Hippophae_, all much stunted. Still lower there were large patches of -green-sward along the stream, generally swampy, and always covered -with a saline incrustation. _Artemisiae_, _Astragali_, _Gentianae_, and -_Potentillae_, were the commonest forms, with a number of saline -plants, chiefly _Chenopodiaceae_, which abounded on the lowest spots. - -On the 11th, the last of these three days, the vegetation had quite -lost its alpine character, notwithstanding that the elevation was -still 15,000 feet. No _Biebersteinia_ was seen, and the little species -of _Potentilla_, _Alsine_, _Saxifraga_, _Cruciferae_, and _Parnassia_, -were no longer met with. The large _Hyoscyamus_ of Piti (_Belenia_ of -Decaisne) had made its appearance, with tall _Artemisiae_, a -_Clematis_, a rank-growing _Corydalis_, _Cicer Soongaricum_, and other -plants in no way alpine. I was much surprised to observe so complete -a change in so moderate a descent, and very much interested to find -that the alpine flora had so completely disappeared. I regret that I -am as yet unable to give my results in more perfect form, the -necessary comparison and determination of the species collected still -remaining to be done. - - [Sidenote: CHUMORERI. - _September, 1847._] - -During our descent we had gradually taken a more easterly course, and -on the 11th our direction was nearly due east. On this day we passed -the gorge in the mountains, up which the road turns to the Chumoreri -lake, by which Mr. Trebeck had travelled to and from Ladakh. This -would have been our most direct route to Le, but we were desirous of -visiting the more eastern districts, so as to reach the Indus as soon -as possible. The mountains in this gorge suddenly lowered; a wide -gravelly plain sloped gently up to a low ridge, which did not appear -to rise higher than two or three hundred feet above the level of the -Parang river. Beyond this ridge, on the assurance of our guides, -confirmed by Major Cunningham, who had on a former occasion travelled -along the Chumoreri lake as far as its southern extremity, lies the -lake, without any more considerable elevation separating it from the -Parang river. - -It is much to be regretted that the late period of the season, and the -other important objects which we had to accomplish, should have -prevented us from crossing this narrow neck of land. It would probably -have thrown much light upon the question of the origin and nature of -the salt lakes, which are, as is well known, scattered over Tibet, -Central Asia, and Siberia. The Chumoreri lake has certainly no outlet, -but from the nature of the surrounding mountains, everywhere steep -and lofty, there can be no doubt that at one period its waters were -discharged at its south end by the narrow valley which we saw from the -south side of the Parang river[12]. An accurate determination of the -height of the separating ridge above the present surface of the lake, -a careful examination of the configuration of the surface at its -southern end, and an analysis of the water, which is described as -sufficiently brackish to be unpleasant though not absolutely -undrinkable, would certainly enable conclusions to be drawn as to the -nature of the cause which has lowered the level of the waters of the -lake, and so put an end to its discharge. - - [Sidenote: WILD HORSE. - _September, 1847._] - -In the plain which sloped gently upwards from the Parang river towards -the Chumoreri lake, we saw for the first time a Kiang, or wild horse, -but at too great a distance to enable his shape and appearance to be -distinctly made out; and the river, which was interposed between us, -prevented our approaching nearer. We afterwards frequently saw these -animals, but from their extreme wariness, and the open nature of the -country, we were never fortunate enough, notwithstanding repeated -trials, to get within gunshot distance of them. They appear to abound -at elevations between 14,000 and 16,000 feet, on the open undulating -tracts on the summits of the mountain ranges, and to avoid valleys and -rocky districts, where they would be liable to surprise. - - [Sidenote: THE PARANG VALLEY. - _September, 1847._] - -To the eastward of the former outlet of the lake, the valley of the -Parang river was more contracted than it had been in any previous part -of its course. Rocky hills, projecting from the southern mountains, -advanced so close to the river, that no passage was practicable along -their base, and the road several times ascended several hundred feet -to cross these ridges. This obstruction was, however, but temporary, -lasting only for a few miles, beyond which the valley expanded into a -very wide plain, extending for five or six miles in an easterly -direction, by about half that distance from north to south. The -borders of this wide expanse were very low platforms, almost -horizontal, and not more than from six to ten feet above the river. -The middle portion was a plain of gravel, scarcely higher than the -level of the stream, and evidently occasionally submerged. Here the -river bends rapidly round towards the south-east. The district at -which we had now arrived is called Chumurti, and about eight or ten -miles to the east of our encampment on the 11th of September, is a -village or assemblage of tents called Chumur, from which we obtained a -supply of porters, to relieve the party who had accompanied us from -Piti. Here also, in accordance with the instructions we had received -on leaving Simla, Captain Strachey left us, with the intention of -following the course of the Parang river, as far as he conveniently -could, and then turning to the left across one of the passes of the -great trans-Sutlej chain to the Indus. Major Cunningham and myself, on -the other hand, proposed to proceed by the direct, and equally -unknown, route to Hanle, and thence to visit the Indus, and proceed to -Le. - - [Sidenote: THE PARANG RIVER. - _September, 1847._] - -The Parang river, whose source is in the mountains immediately north -of the Parang pass, has, as we have seen, at first a northerly -direction, but gradually bends more and more to the eastward and -southward, and finally has a nearly south-west course, where it joins -the Piti river, nearly opposite Shialkar. Its source, as well as its -confluence with the Piti river, are within the British territory; but -the most important, because the most populous, part of its course lies -within the Chinese border. The boundary of the Chinese district runs -nearly from north-east to south-west, passing a little to the west of -Rodok, and crossing the Indus at the village of Chibra, where Mr. -Trebeck was stopped in his attempt to penetrate up the Indus; thence a -little south of Haule, and across the course of the Parang river. It -then bends more towards the south, and again crosses the Parang at the -point where we were stopped in the end of August, whence its direction -is nearly due south as far as Nilang, on the Jahnavi branch of the -Ganges. - -The Parang river being a tributary of the Sutlej, by crossing the -great chain at the Parang pass we had not reached the Indus valley, -but had descended into a lateral valley still connected with the -drainage of the Sutlej. The great line of watershed between the Indus -and Sutlej lay still before us. This chain, which is the prolongation -of Kailas, must be called the trans-Sutlej Himalaya, unless the name -Himalaya be restricted to the chain south of the Sutlej, in which case -the mountains of Lahul, Kishtawar, and Kashmir, would lose their claim -to that appellation. - - [Sidenote: ASCENT TOWARDS - LANAK PASS. - _September, 1847._] - -Towards this chain, which we were to cross by the Lanak pass, we -commenced our journey on the morning of the 12th of September. Our -road lay across the Parang river, which flowed in several channels -among the wide expanse of gravel which here formed its bed. The -morning was bitterly cold, and the water almost icy, to the great -discomfort of our porters. The largest stream was perhaps twenty-five -feet wide and two and a half deep, with a moderately rapid current. -After crossing the river we took a northerly direction, leaving the -valley or plain of the Parang river, and ascending an open, almost -level valley, bounded by low hills. The mountains on the left, which -were interposed between our route and the Chumoreri lake, were the -most rugged in sight. In the centre of the plain was the channel of a -stream, very shingly, but without water, along which, or on alluvial -banks only a few feet higher, we gradually advanced. The level of our -camp on the Parang river had been 14,800 feet; and from this we were -now gradually but imperceptibly rising. The hills on either hand were -rounded and low, but increased in height as we receded from the Parang -river. The soil was very barren, and showed many indications of salt. -Scattered plants of _Salsola_ were common, with _Christolea_, a pretty -Cruciferous plant, with purple flowers and fleshy wedge-shaped leaves, -tasting strongly of horse-radish, which has been described by Decaisne -from specimens collected by Jacquemont in Piti. A little white -_Alyssum_, which I had not previously met with, was also very common. - -Four miles from the Parang river we reached a flat grassy plain of -considerable extent, with deep black soil, in which meandered a very -slowly running stream, perhaps twelve feet wide, which seemed to have -an outlet by an open valley on our right, and to join the Parang some -miles to the east of where we left it. A great part of this plain was -swampy, the turf rising in little knolls, but round the edges and in -all the higher parts it was covered with a thick incrustation of white -efflorescent salt. To the north and east, low gently-sloping hills as -barren as ever rose from the edge of the green plain; and in the -north-east corner, close to the foot of the hills, a large fountain, -discharging copiously clear tasteless cold water, was evidently the -source of the stream which flowed over the plain. The grassy turf -produced a considerable number of plants, not a few of which were new -to me. An _Umbellifera_, an _Aster_ with large purple flowers, a -_Saussurea_, and two species of _Pedicularis_, one with white, the -other with yellow flowers, were very common, as were also a species of -_Triglochin_, a white _Juncus_, several _Carices_, and three or four -very beautiful grasses. In the shallow water of the pools scattered -over the plain, a species of alga was common, floating without -attachment. It was a broad foliaceous green plant, and has been -determined by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley to be a species of _Nostoc_, -closely allied to, if not identical with _N. commune_, a species which -occurs in all parts of the globe. - -After crossing this plain, and stopping to rest by the fountain, we -began to ascend the long slopes of the hills, partly on a level ridge, -partly along the wide sloping valleys by which the low hills were -separated. Both hills and plain were frightfully arid, the aspect of -the country being of an uniform grey colour; and coarse gravel, with -scattered stones of larger size, everywhere covered the surface. The -ascent was very inconsiderable till towards the end of the day's -journey. The distance travelled was about ten miles, and we encamped -at about 15,800 feet, on the left bank of a small stream which -descended from the north, the borders of which were swampy and covered -with green turf, in which the common plants of the country occurred, -such as little gentians, _Ranunculi_, _Parnassia_, several _Polygona_ -and _Potentillae_, _Carices_, and grasses. On the west bank of the -stream was a low ridge of clay-slate rocks, while on the right and in -the valley was a heap of granite boulders; no doubt an ancient -moraine, for the fragments were piled on one another to a great -height, and rose far above the stream as well as the ordinary level of -the plain. - - [Sidenote: LANAK PASS. - _September, 1847._] - -On the 13th of September we crossed the Lanak pass, which lay before -us at a distance of about five miles. From our encampment the -mountains appeared easy of access and rounded in outline, and we -commenced the ascent by a nearly level walk across the gravelly plain. -After a mile and a half we rejoined the stream, and kept along it for -a little way. Its banks were green with a narrow belt of turf; and the -bed was often rocky, the rock being still clay-slate, notwithstanding -the granite boulders everywhere scattered about. The edges of the -stream were frozen, spiculae of thin ice adhering to the herbage. The -vegetation was quite alpine, the elevation being certainly above -16,000 feet. A _Delphinium_, which seemed the same as the _D. -Brunonianum_ of the Hangarang pass, a little yellow saxifrage, and a -white-flowered species of the same genus, which I believe to be the -Scottish alpine _S. cernua_, an entire-leaved yellow _Ranunculus_, a -_Pedicularis_ with purple flowers, and some grasses, were the most -remarkable plants observed. - -After a mile, we left the ravine and ascended to the open -gently-sloping ground on its left, still rising sensibly as we -advanced. The surface was, as usual, dry and gravelly, and _Oxytropis -chiliophylla_ and a little _Stipa_ were almost the only plants. We -continued nearly parallel to the ravine, and crossed it again a little -further on. It was now dry, and its steep stony banks were covered -with bushes of _Dama_. Still gradually ascending, we crossed the same -ravine a third time, where its bed was upwards of 17,000 feet. There -was again no water visible, but the ground was still moist, the -streamlet probably, as is very general in these arid regions, -trickling under the surface among the loose gravel. The little alpine -nettle, which I had first found on the northern spurs of Porgyul, near -Changar, and again on the southern face of the Parang pass, was here -common, as were two species of _Alsine_, which formed dense tufts. A -little saxifrage and the _Delphinium_ were also still observed, but -all the other plants had disappeared. - -Leaving the ravine for the last time, we continued the ascent, which -became steeper as we advanced. A rounded ridge lay to our right hand, -and we rose nearer and nearer to its crest. Fragments of granite, -piled on one another in increasing numbers, covered the steep slopes. -Rock _in situ_ was only to be seen in one place; it was still -clay-slate, containing a good deal of mica. The top of the pass was -nearly level for several hundred yards, and covered with boulders, -principally of granite, but a few of quartz and of a trappean rock, -quite black and homogeneous. The outline of the mountains was -generally rounded, and they rose gradually in both directions above -the pass, which had an elevation of 18,100 feet. The view, both -towards the direction in which we had come and that in which we were -proceeding, was rather extensive, but from the prevailing uniformity -of outline and colour it was more striking than beautiful. There were -no trees or villages, no variation of surface greater than an -occasional grey rock, but everywhere the same dreary sterile -uniformity. Nothing could be seen of Lake Chumoreri, which lies at -least fifteen miles westward, and is surrounded by mountains, -everywhere (except in the direction of the former outlet) higher than -that on which we stood. - -The occurrence of great accumulations of boulders, of a rock different -from that which occurs _in situ_ on the very summit of the pass, was -quite conformable to what I had observed on some of the passes between -Kunawar and Hangarang. It was not, however, on this account the less -puzzling, nor was it till I crossed the Sassar pass, in August, 1848, -that I could at all conceive in what way it was to be explained. On -this pass, as I shall afterwards relate in detail, a glacier occupies -the crest of the pass, descending from higher mountains to the north, -and presenting a bluff termination in two directions. - -On the summit of the pass I collected specimens of three phenogamous -plants, probably nourished by a recently melted patch of snow; for -though there was none on the pass itself, nor on the descent on -either side, a steep mountain, half a mile to the right, in a due -northern exposure, was still covered with snow to at least five -hundred feet below the level of the pass. The small quantity of snow -seen in the distant view was very remarkable, and the more so as there -was no indication of diminished elevation; ridge rising beyond ridge, -and peak behind peak, to the utmost limits of view. The three plants -which were observed were a little _Arenaria_ or _Stellaria_, and two -Cruciferous plants, one of which only was in fruit. A red lichen, the -same as that seen on the Parang pass, covered the stones. - -The descent from the Lanak pass was at first gentle, but very soon -became steep, to the bottom of a valley in which a small stream of -water was running, derived, I suppose, from some small snow-beds in a -lateral ravine out of sight, for it almost immediately disappeared -under the gravel. Soon after leaving the crest of the pass, we came -upon clay-slate rock finely laminated, and dipping south-south-west at -a high angle. The valley by which we descended gradually contracted -into a rocky ravine, at last very narrow, with high precipitous walls, -and full of large boulders. We encamped for the night at its junction -with a large stream descending in a rocky dell from the west. Around -our camp, on both sides of the stream, there was an outbreak of -greenstone, which had upheaved the clay-slate rocks. - -On the 14th of September we proceeded along the stream close to which -we had encamped the day before. High mountains, whose summits could -not be seen from the bottom of the narrow ravine, rose on both sides. -The rock on both banks was clay-slate, much altered by heat, often -very hard, and with numerous quartz veins; no more greenstone was -observed. The stream, copious when we started, gradually disappeared -as the ravine widened, and water soon lay only in pools along the -gravelly bed. Boulders of granite were abundant all along. After three -miles the ravine opened into a wide gravelly plain, skirted by rounded -hills of considerable elevation, to which the alluvial platforms -sloped very gently on both sides. _Christolea_, a little shrubby -_Artemisia_, and a small _Stipa_, were the plants which grew among the -gravel. - - [Sidenote: UNDULATING COUNTRY. - _September, 1847._] - -After about a mile and a half, the direction of the plain trending to -the south more than was suited to our purpose, we turned to the left, -to cross the ridge which ran parallel to it on the north-east. A long -gravelly plain, sloping almost imperceptibly upwards, led us to the -summit of the ridge, which was not more than two or three hundred feet -above the plain we had left. From this pass, for such it was, though -an insignificant one, an open valley, skirted on both sides by low -rounded hills, ran to the north-east for nearly five miles. The -appearance of the country was very remarkable. The hills were all very -gentle in slope, and quite rounded in outline, so that the surface was -almost undulating. It required reflection on the fact that we were -traversing a tract in which the bottoms of the valleys were from -15,000 to 15,500 feet above the level of the sea, to make us aware of -the very mountainous nature of the country we were passing through, -which was, if any part of Tibet (which I have seen) may be so called, -the _Table Land_ north of the Himalaya. The height of the mountains, -too, was in fact greater than we had at first been inclined to -believe, the gentleness of the slopes making us think the ridges -nearer than they really were, and therefore leading to a false -estimate of their height. In general they were from 1000 to 2000 feet -in height, and their summits therefore from 16,000 to 17,000 feet -above the level of the sea. - - [Sidenote: OPEN VALLEYS. - _September, 1847._] - -The open valley along which we now proceeded was remarkable in another -point of view. It was quite waterless, and seemed hemmed in on both -sides by hills, so that its drainage must take place in the direction -of its long axis; at least, no lateral depression could be perceived -on either side. About a mile from its eastern end, this plain was -lower than in any other part. We had been descending along it from -west to east, and we could see that beyond that point it rose gently -to the eastward. The surface of the lowest part was covered with a -hard shining white clay, without any of the fine gravel which abounded -elsewhere. A few tufts of an _Eurotia_ were the only plant which it -produced. It was evident that the winter snows which fall on this -isolated spot, when melted in summer, finding no exit, form a small -lake, till they completely disappear by evaporation. - - [Sidenote: HANLE PLAIN, - ITS VEGETATION. - _September, 1847._] - -After crossing this low clayey tract, we ascended gently for nearly a -mile in an easterly direction, when the valley terminated very -abruptly and unexpectedly in a precipitous descent of four or five -hundred feet, the clay-slate rocks emerging suddenly from beneath the -gravel at the very edge of the precipice. The road descended in a -narrow gorge, which had apparently been worn by aqueous action in the -almost perpendicular cliff. On emerging from this gorge, we found -ourselves on the border of a very extensive perfectly level tract, -seemingly surrounded by hills, and approaching in shape to a circle, -though its outline, from projecting ranges of hills, was very -irregular. The margins of this plain were dry and gravelly; the -centre, as seen from a distance, was green, but in many places -encrusted with a saline efflorescence. - -Skirting this plain, which lay on our right, while ranges of hills, -separated by wide gravelly valleys, occupied the left, we reached -Hanle, a Buddhist monastery inhabited by about twenty lamas, built on -the summit of a steep hill which rises abruptly out of the plain. We -encamped in a ravine at the foot of the hill on which the monastery is -built, in which the tents of the wandering population are erected when -they bring their flocks into this neighbourhood. - -The plain of Hanle, which is not, I think, less than six or eight -miles in diameter, resembles very much that curious flat tract which -we passed on the 12th of September, on the south side of the Lanak -pass; it is, however, much larger in dimensions. Several streams, very -tortuous and sluggish, wind over its surface. These were frequently -three feet or more in depth, and contained multitudes of small fish, -usually about six inches in length, but growing to eight or ten inches -at least. They were a species of carp. We tried to eat them, but, -though sweet and well-tasted, the bones were so numerous and -troublesome that we relinquished the attempt. We were much interested -at the occurrence of fish at an elevation of 14,300 feet, a height at -which, _a priori_, it would scarcely have been expected that they -would have existed. - -The surface of the plain was very saline, and, where not swampy, -covered with coarse grasses and _Cyperaceae_. It was very uneven, -hummocks or knolls being scattered over the surface, which made -walking very difficult. These, I presume, were caused by the gradual -growth of plants, which, in process of time, formed heaps in spots not -covered by water during the melting of the snow in spring. In some -parts there were extensive patches of _Dama_. A species of _Elymus_ -and a _Blysmus_ were very abundant. The ground in the vicinity of the -streams was swampy, and the coarse grasses of the drier parts were -replaced by little _Potentillae_, _Glaux maritima_, _Taraxacum_, -_Aster_, and a number of Chenopodiaceous plants. In the running waters -a _Potamogeton_ and _Ranunculus aquatilis_ were plentiful. The -streams, which must, I believe, as in the case of the plain of the -12th, principally derive their supply from springs which break out on -the edge of the flat country, all converge to a point at the -north-east end of the plain, and, uniting into one, continue their -course down an open valley in a northerly direction towards the Indus. - -As no section of the bed of this remarkable plain is anywhere to be -seen, it is not possible to form an estimate of the depth of its boggy -soil, or of the nature of the subjacent deposit. It can scarcely be -doubted that it has at one time been a lake, which has been gradually -silted up; but it is not easy to conjecture the length of time which -has elapsed since it became dry land, in the absence of any knowledge -of the nature and contents of the deposits which occur beneath the -surface. As an outlet for the waters of the plain exists to the -northward, we may infer that the waters of the lake were always fresh. - -We remained two days at Hanle, to effect a change of porters, a matter -which cannot be accomplished in a hurry in an almost uninhabited -country, without unnecessary hardships on individuals. There is no -settled population except the monks or lamas; a few stone huts without -roofs, which were scattered about the foot of the rock, having no -tenants. To the east of the monastery, on the border of the plain, -watered by an artificial channel brought with considerable labour from -the river, we observed two or three small fields. The grain, which was -barley, had been cut and carried away, so that harvest at Hanle was -over. The view from the top of the monastery was extensive, as we -overlooked the whole plain to the south, and the valley of the Hanle -river on the east. The mountains were highest to the east, where a -very lofty, steep, and irregular range, with a good deal of snow in -some places, separated Hanle from the Indus. To the south and west, -the mountains, though high, were rounded. - -The rock on which the monastery is built is wholly igneous, but varies -from a coarse-grained granite, rapidly decaying, to a dark-coloured -greenstone, with large crystals scattered through it. Close to the -foot of the hill, the clay-slate was in a few places visible, -considerably altered by igneous action, as was to be expected from its -proximity to the greenstone. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[12] I state these facts on the authority of Major Cunningham. Captain -H. Strachey visited this district in 1848, and will, I hope, soon make -public his observations. He has ascertained that the surface of the -lake is 15,200 feet above the level of the sea. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - - Descend Hanle river -- Unsettled weather -- Encamp on banks of - Indus -- Upper course of Indus -- Pugha ravine -- Forest of - Myricaria-trees -- Borax plain -- Hot springs -- Borax lakes of - Eastern Tibet -- Sulphur mine -- Pulokanka Pass -- Salt lake -- - Lacustrine clays with shells -- Ancient water-mark -- Rupchu -- - Tunglung Pass -- Fall of snow -- Alluvial conglomerate -- Giah - -- Narrow ravine -- Miru -- Upshi -- Indus valley -- Marsilang - -- Richly cultivated plain of Chashut -- Bridge over Indus -- - Le -- Buddhist edifices. - - -On the 17th of September we left Hanle, _en route_ to Le. Our road lay -down the left bank of the river by which the waters of the lake-plain -are discharged into the Indus. The valley through which it flowed was -open and level, and its slope imperceptible. On the left lay a low -range of hills, an irregular mass increasing much in width, as well as -in height, as we proceeded northwards, the Hanle extremity being the -termination where it slopes into the plain. On the right, a very lofty -range, some of the peaks of which were certainly not less than 21,000 -feet in elevation, ran parallel to our course, separating the open -valley of the Hanle river from the Indus. - - [Sidenote: HANLE RIVER. - _September, 1847._] - -The width of the valley varied from one to three miles. The stream was -very winding, crossing from side to side, and often pressing the road -close to the spurs of the range on the left. The range on this side -was principally clay-slate, with occasional outbreaks of trap, which -had in many places converted the stratified rock into a hard red or -green jasper. From the immediate proximity of the igneous rock the -stratified masses were very much contorted, and no regular dip was -observable. - -Saline efflorescence occurred everywhere in great quantity in the -vicinity of the stream; as a consequence, Chenopodiaceous plants were -more than usually abundant, and I collected at least three species of -that family which I had not previously observed. The banks of the -stream were everywhere bordered by a belt of green herbage, more or -less broad, in which the usual species of _Ranunculus_, _Gentiana_, -_Pedicularis_, _Juncus_, _Cyperaceae_, and grasses were common. _Glaux -maritima_ also occurred abundantly. Two other European plants were -found in the swamps along the course of the river, which were very -interesting as a proof of the extremely European nature of the flora: -these were _Hippuris vulgaris_ and _Limosella lacustris_. Towards the -end of the day's journey, _Caragana versicolor_ (_Dama_) became very -common, covering a large extent of surface, and growing to a much -greater size than I had ever before seen, with an upright stem nearly -six feet in height. I could scarcely persuade myself that the species -was the same as the little depressed shrubs which grew on the passes -further south. Two species of _Myricaria_, both of which I had seen in -Piti, also reappeared during the day, so that we were evidently -approaching a lower level and more genial climate. - -Banks of alluvial conglomerate occurred on the sides of the valley, -in the spaces between the projecting spurs of the range on the left -hand, on the latter part of the day. The beds were distinctly -stratified and very sandy, more or less full of rounded stones, and -often passing into pure sand, which was interstratified with the -coarser beds. The day was very cloudy and threatening, and a few drops -of rain fell for the first time since the 29th of August, the weather -during the whole of that interval having been brilliant and quite dry. -We encamped eleven miles from Hanle, on a gravelly plain close to the -river. - -Dining the night the weather did not improve, but continued very -cloudy, and on the morning of the 18th the mountains on the right side -of the valley were covered with snow, down to within 1500 feet of the -plain. The wind blew strongly from the northward, and the day, which -was still very cloudy, was bitterly cold, and, to our feelings, -extremely uncomfortable. We continued to follow the course of the -Hanle river, passing over long gravel flats, which alternated with -turfy saline meadows. Several low spurs from the mountains on the -left, which projected far into the plain, making the river bend much -to the right, were crossed as we proceeded. About ten miles from our -morning's camp, we left the course of the river, which turned to the -right and entered a rocky mountain gorge, while our road kept its -northerly direction. An open valley led us to the crest of a low ridge -of trap and slate, from which a very long stony monotonous valley -descended to an extensive plain covered with fine mud and saline -exudation, on which the only vegetation was a few tufts of _Suaeda_ and -coarse grass. Crossing this plain, on which the dry clay was in many -places deeply cracked and fissured, as if it had till within a short -time been under water, or at least swampy, we encamped, at an -elevation of 13,800 feet, on the banks of the Indus, here a muddy -torpid stream, without any apparent current, about four feet deep and -twenty or twenty-five feet wide. There was, however, another channel, -separated from that on which we were encamped by a small island. - - [Sidenote: RIVER INDUS. - _September, 1847._] - -So sluggish was the stream at the point where we joined it, that we -were for a long time uncertain in which direction the current was -flowing; and though we were prepared to find the Indus at the end of -our day's journey, the river on whose banks we were encamped was so -much less than our anticipations, that we were very unwilling to be -convinced that we had really arrived at the great river, to which we -had so long looked forward as one of the most interesting objects of -our journey. The island in the centre of the channel was a bank of -very fine sand or mud, on which large flocks of wild-fowl were -resting; it was very little elevated above the surface of the water, -which must frequently, I should think, rise sufficiently to cover it. -The bank on which we were encamped, though rather higher, was not more -than four feet above the water; it was quite vertical, and composed of -fine clay, without any intermixture of stones or gravel. - - [Sidenote: UPPER COURSE OF THE INDUS. - _September, 1847._] - -The course of the river Indus, from its source to Le, has hitherto -been less known than any other part in Tibet; but as Captain Strachey, -a month or two after our visit, descended along it from the Chinese -frontier, as far as Le, the unknown portion is now very much reduced. -It rises in the mountains north of the lakes of Mansarawer and Rawan -Rhad, and runs in general towards the north-east. Moorcroft has -described its appearance at Garu or Gartop, where it is a very -insignificant stream; but the intervening country is so little known, -except by native report, that we can scarcely be said to have an exact -knowledge of the upper part of its course. There is in some maps an -eastern branch laid down, but of that we have no definite information. -From the arid and snowless nature of the country through which it must -flow, it is probably a very small stream, but its length may be -considerable. - -Immediately above the open plain in which we joined the Indus, it -would appear to have a very rocky and rugged channel. Such, at least, -was the description given to us by our guides of the lower course of -the Hanle river, which we left only a few miles before it joined the -Indus; and as the mountains to the south-west appeared to close in -very abruptly within a very short distance of our encampment, we could -not doubt that the open and level plain which we found in this portion -of the river's course was of limited extent, and quite an exceptional -feature in the character of the country through which the Indus flows. -From the great elevation and abrupt slope of the range which runs -parallel to the Hanle river on the east, there can be no doubt that -the spurs which it sends down on its north-east slope, towards the -Indus, must be bold and rocky; and though the hills on the left bank -of the Hanle river are much less elevated, yet they rise as they -advance to the eastward. The descent of this river too, though very -gentle in the upper part of its course, while its valley is broad, is -probably very abrupt in the last few miles, where its channel is rocky -and its ravine narrow. The elevation of its junction with the Indus -is, I believe, about 13,800 feet above the level of the sea. - - [Sidenote: INDUS VALLEY. - _September, 1847._] - -On the 19th of September our road lay in a westerly direction down the -Indus. The weather was still extremely unsettled, the sky being cloudy -and a violent north or north-west wind continuing to blow in frequent -gusts. No rain, however, fell. The plain gradually narrowed as we -advanced, and the mountains on the left approached by degrees close to -the river. Low grassy plains, covered with a saline incrustation, -quite dry, and without any brushwood or tall herbaceous vegetation, -skirted the river, the course of which we followed very closely. -Indeed, notwithstanding the considerable diminution of altitude, the -aspect of the valley of the Indus was more dreary and barren than we -had for some days been accustomed to. The rocky spurs were quite bare; -and even on the level tracts no vegetation was seen, excepting on the -very lowest banks, which were moistened by the river. This utter -sterility was no doubt due to the absence of lateral rivulets, the -hills which rose on our left hand being stony and steep, and not -rising to a sufficient elevation to be covered with perpetual snow, or -to accumulate and retain snow-beds in their ravines till a late period -of the year. - -The rock on the left-hand mountains during the day was quite different -from any that had hitherto occurred, being a conglomerate, with -rounded stones of various sizes, many of them granite. The matrix was -of a very dark colour, and generally extremely hard; more rarely it -was a coarse sand, crumbling to pieces. This conglomerate was -everywhere stratified, the beds dipping to the south-west, at an angle -of about forty-five degrees. During the day the river varied much in -width, being seldom less than twenty-five yards, and sometimes as much -as eighty. The stream was generally very gentle, not exceeding two -miles an hour, except in a few rapids, and the river was in most -places fordable. We encamped on the left bank, in a place where it was -shallow and wide. - -On the 20th of September we continued at first to follow the left bank -of the Indus, which gradually assumed a more northerly direction. The -mountains on both sides approached much more closely to the river than -they had done the day before, and those on the right continued -extremely lofty. The river now flowed more rapidly, and was often -wider and more shallow; one rapid was not less than 150 yards in -width. Banks of alluvial clayey conglomerate were usually interposed -between the mountains and the river, forming cliffs which attained not -unfrequently an elevation of fifty feet. These were separated by -projecting spurs, over which the road passed wherever they advanced so -close to the centre of the valley as to prevent a passage along the -level plain. Some small streamlets were crossed during the day, and in -consequence the vegetation was at times more varied, and at the same -time more luxuriant, than it had been the day before. A few bushes of -_Myricaria_ were seen on the bank of the river; and in the lateral -ravines the ordinary shrubs and herbaceous vegetation were common. -The only new plant was a species of _Labiatae_, a coarse-growing -under-shrub, probably a species of _Ballota_. - - [Sidenote: PUGHA RAVINE. - _September, 1847._] - -The hard conglomerate of the day before did not again occur, various -forms of clay-slate being the prevailing rock. The steep slopes were, -however, very frequently covered with a talus of angular fragments, -which obscured the structure of the lower portions of the mountains, -at the same time that it revealed the nature of the higher strata, -which would otherwise have been inaccessible. Red and green jaspery -rocks, very hard and brittle, were abundant, with various forms of -greenstone, at times closely resembling syenite. These were evidently -the same rocks as had been met with in the neighbourhood of Hanle, and -along the river for some way below that town. Their recurrence here, -therefore, tended to confirm what had for some time appeared to me to -be the prevailing strike of these formations, namely, from S.S.E. to -N.N.W. - -After following the course of the Indus for about eight miles, we -turned abruptly to the left, ascending a narrow gorge, in which a -considerable stream flowed from the south-west. The slope was, from -the first, considerable, and the course of the ravine very winding. -Steep rocky cliffs rose precipitously on both sides, and generally -approached so close to one another that their tops could not be seen. -The channel of the stream was at first stony and quite bare, but after -a mile bushes of the _Myricaria_ became common, fringing the stream, -but nowhere growing at any distance from it. These gradually increased -in size and abundance, and at our camping place, three miles from the -commencement of the ravine, they were generally small trees, many of -them not less than fifteen feet in height, with stout erect trunks -five or six inches in diameter. - -The morning of the 21st of September was bright and clear, and -intensely frosty, the unsettled weather which had continued since our -leaving Hanle having quite disappeared. Our road still lay up the -gorge, which had quite the same appearance as on the previous day. -High precipices, or very steep banks, hemmed in the stream on both -sides. Small trees of _Myricaria_ still continued abundant in the -immediate vicinity of the water; elsewhere, all was as desolate as -ever. Some of these trees were not less than a foot in diameter; the -trunk was generally very short, often branching within a foot of the -base. At intervals there was a good deal of alluvium, partly in the -shape of coarse conglomerate, partly a fine micaceous sand, filling up -the recesses at the bends of the ravine. After three miles, the ravine -suddenly expanded into a narrow plain, the surface of which was -irregularly undulating, and completely encrusted with salt. As this -plain was interesting in consequence of the production of borax, we -encamped on the bank of the little stream about a mile from the end of -the gorge, and remained stationary the next day in order to examine -the nature of the locality in which the borax is found. - - [Sidenote: HOT SPRINGS. - _September, 1847._] - -As the day's journey was a very short one, we arrived at the salt -plain by eight o'clock A.M. The air was still quite frosty. While our -tents were being pitched on a dry bank a little way above the stream, -we proceeded to its bank, and were not a little surprised to find the -water quite tepid, notwithstanding the extreme cold of the air. On -procuring a thermometer, it was found to have a temperature of 69 deg. -Advancing up the stream, we found that numerous hot springs rose on -its banks, and sometimes under the water. The hottest of these had a -temperature of 174 deg. From these springs gas was copiously evolved, -smelling strongly of sulphur; and in their immediate neighbourhood -the water of the little river had a faintly sulphurous taste, though -elsewhere it was quite pure and good. The stream, which was perhaps -twenty feet wide, was usually rather deep. Dense masses of aquatic -weeds, chiefly species of _Zannichellia_ and _Potamogeton_, grew in -the water, and along the margins their dead stems, mixed with mud, -formed immense banks, scarcely strong enough to bear the weight of a -man, and yet seemingly quite solid. A small crustaceous animal was -common among the weeds, but though I searched with care I could find -no shells. The stream was full of fish, which swarmed among the weeds, -and darted backwards and forwards in the tepid water in immense -shoals. They were generally about six inches in length, and appeared -to my inexperienced eye to belong to two or three species, all -different from those which had been seen at Hanle. In the hottest -water of the hot springs I collected three species of _Conferva_. - - [Sidenote: MYRICARIA TREES. - _September, 1847._] - -The existence of the tree _Myricaria_ in the gorges between Pugha and -the Indus, which had appeared to us at the time very remarkable, was -fully explained by the occurrence of the hot springs, and the -consequent high temperature of the water of the stream, and was -peculiarly interesting as an illustration of the influence of -temperature upon vegetation. It may fairly be considered, I think, as -a proof, that arboreous vegetation does not cease at great elevations -in consequence of the rarefaction of the air, but only on account of -the diminution of temperature which usually accompanies increased -elevation. The trees of _Myricaria_, it must be observed, came -abruptly to an end with the ravine, none occurring on the open plain. -We cannot suppose that the trifling increased elevation caused their -disappearance; it seems probable that the narrow walls of the gorge, -by concentrating the heat, prevented its escape, and that, therefore, -the temperature was more elevated than in the open plain, where the -action of winds and free radiation combined to lower it. The -occurrence of fish in the water of Pugha, at an elevation of nearly -15,500 feet above the level of the sea, is also very remarkable, and -still more strikingly demonstrative of the same fact, inasmuch as it -would certainly not have been very surprising that air at that -elevation should, from its rarity, be insufficient for the support of -life in animals breathing by gills. - -At the gorge, where the narrow ravine expands into the lake plain of -Pugha, the rock is clay-slate, but the hills which skirt the open -plain are micaceous schist, varying much in appearance, often with -large crystals of garnet, and crumbling rapidly to decay. On the -surface of the plain lay many scattered boulders of a peculiar kind of -granite, evidently transported from a considerable distance along the -stream; and in all the central parts of the plain, a very remarkable -conglomerate in horizontal strata, consisting of angular fragments of -the surrounding rocks, cemented together by calcareous matter, was -observed. - - [Sidenote: BORAX PLAIN. - _September, 1847._] - -The whole of the plain is covered, to the depth of several feet at -least, with white salt, principally borax, which is obtained in a -tolerably pure state by digging, the superficial layer, which contains -a little mixture of other saline matters, being rejected. There is at -present little export of borax from Pugha, the demand for the salt in -Upper India being very limited, and the export to Europe almost at an -end. - - [Sidenote: BORAX LAKES OF TIBET. - _September, 1847._] - -It has long been known that borax is produced naturally in different -parts of Tibet, and the salt imported thence into India was at one -time the principal source of supply of the European market. I am not -aware that any of the places in which the borax is met with had -previously been visited by any European traveller, but the nature of -the localities in which it occurs has been the subject of frequent -inquiry, and several more or less detailed accounts have been made -public. These differ considerably from one another, and no description -that I have met with accords with that of the Pugha valley. Mr. -Saunders[13] describes (from hearsay) the borax lake north of Jigatzi -as twenty miles in circumference, and says that the borax is dug from -its margins, the deeper and more central parts producing common salt. -From the account of Mr. Blane[14], who describes, from the information -of the natives, the borax district north of Lucknow, and, therefore, -in the more western part of the course of the Sanpu, it would appear -that the lake there contains boracic acid, and that the borax is -artificially prepared by saturating the sesquicarbonate of soda, -which is so universally produced on the surface of Tibet, with the -acid. At least, the statement that the production of borax is -dependent on the amount of soda, leads to this conclusion. The whole -description, however, (as is, indeed, to be expected in a native -account of a chemical process,) is very obscure, and not to be -depended upon. Mr. Saunders does not notice any hot springs in the -neighbourhood of the borax; but in the more western district described -by Mr. Blane, hot springs seem to accompany the borax lake as at -Pugha. - -It is not impossible that the three districts in which the occurrence -of borax has been noticed, which are only a very small portion of -those which exist, may represent three stages of one and the same -phenomenon. The boracic acid lake may, by the gradual influx of soda, -be gradually converted into borax, which, from its great insolubility, -will be deposited as it is formed. On the drainage or drying-up of -such a lake, a borax plain, similar to that of Pugha, would be left -behind[15]. - -From Pugha, two roads towards Le were open to us. We might either -return to the Indus, and follow the valley of that river throughout, -or proceed by a more direct route across the mountains to join the -road from Lake Chumoreri to Le, by which Mr. Trebeck had travelled on -his way to Piti. As we knew that the Indus route would be surveyed by -Captain Strachey, who was desirous of following the course of the -river as far as practicable, we preferred the more mountainous road, -and, therefore, on leaving our encampment at Pugha, on the morning of -the 23rd of September, we continued to ascend the valley of the little -stream, on the banks of which we had been encamped. For the first two -miles the plain was nearly level, and similar in character to what has -just been described, hot springs being observed at intervals. - - [Sidenote: SULPHUR MINE. - _September, 1847._] - -Two miles from our encampment, we stopped and examined the spot whence -sulphur is obtained, at the base of the mountain slope on the north -side of the valley. Ascending a few feet over a loose talus of -shingle, which skirted the bottom of the hill, we found two narrow -caverns in the slaty rock, apparently natural, or only a little -widened by art, roughly circular, and less than three feet in diameter -at the mouth. One of these caverns continued a long way inwards, -nearly horizontally, but it contracted considerably in diameter, and -was so dark that we could not penetrate far. The rock was principally -gypsum, interstratified with very friable mica-slate. Sometimes the -gypsum was amorphous and powdery, at other times in needles two or -three inches long, perpendicular to the strata of slate. The sulphur -was in small quantities, scattered among the gypsum, and was more -abundant in the lower beds. It was frequently in very perfect -crystals, not, however, of any great size. - -The air which issued from these funnel-shaped apertures was very -sensibly warm, and had a strongly sulphurous odour. Unfortunately, we -had not anticipated the necessity for observing the temperature, which -was not by any means oppressive, and was only remarkable in contrast -with the extreme cold of the external air. - -In the neighbourhood of the sulphur-pits, the hot springs along the -course of the stream were very numerous, evolving much gas. A little -higher they ceased altogether, and the upper part of the plain was -without any springs, as was evident from the quantity of ice by which -it was covered. For more than a mile it was a dead level, and very -swampy; but afterwards the valley became gently sloping and gravelly, -the little stream being often hidden under the pebbles. Large boulders -of the same granite which we had observed the day before, were -scattered over the surface. The vegetation in this valley was -extremely scanty, a few scattered tufts of _Dama_, and some shrubby -_Artemisiae_, were occasionally seen, but the herbaceous vegetation had -been almost entirely destroyed by the intense morning frosts, which -had for some time been of daily occurrence. On the latter part of the -day's journey the rock on the mountain-side changed from mica-slate to -gneiss, of which very lofty scarped cliffs rose abruptly on the right -hand. We encamped on a level spot, after ten miles of almost -imperceptible ascent. - -Next morning we continued to ascend the valley, which was now very -rugged, from masses of boulders, which were heaped one on another to a -very great thickness. The stream had cut for itself a narrow channel, -nearly a hundred feet in depth, the walls of which were entirely -composed of huge incoherent masses of rock, all more or less angular. -A walk of three miles brought us to the crest of the pass, which was -nearly level and grassy for about a mile; its elevation was about -16,500 feet. The pass (Pulokanka La) is a very deep depression in the -axis of the chain, which runs parallel to the left bank of the Indus, -separating the waters tributary to that river from those which join -the Zanskar river, some of the feeders of the latter springing from -the valleys on the western slopes of these mountains. The hills right -and left of the pass rise very boldly into rugged masses, contrasting -strongly with the level plain which constitutes the pass, in which the -watershed is scarcely perceptible. - - [Sidenote: SALT LAKE. - _September, 1847._] - -From the pass the descent was considerably more abrupt than the ascent -had been. The valley to the right was bare and stony, watered by a -small streamlet, which had, as on the eastern face of the pass, cut a -deep channel for itself among boulders. On descending, we turned -gradually to the right, and a lake by degrees came in view, towards -the southern extremity of which the road advanced over undulating -hills of fine clay, full of fresh-water shells, almost entirely of one -species of _Lymnaea_, of which the specimens were extremely numerous. -This lake is the Thogji Chumo of Mr. Trebeck, who travelled along it -on his journey from Le to Piti. - - [Sidenote: FOSSILIFEROUS CLAYS. - _September, 1847._] - -I was much surprised, and not a little pleased, to find that the -clay-beds contained fossils; as, except on one occasion in Piti, where -I found one or two specimens of a small _Planorbis_, I had in vain -sought in the clayey beds for any trace of organized beings. Here, -however, shells were in prodigious abundance, and as the species was a -large one, they were very conspicuous. The clay formation was -horizontally stratified, and quite impalpable. The uppermost beds -were at least a hundred feet above the level of the lake; and as the -valley by which we descended was in its lower part almost horizontal, -the lacustrine beds extended to a considerable distance from the lake, -forming a slightly undulating surface, over which the road ran. - -After reaching the banks of the lake, the road kept its eastern shore -throughout its whole length, which was about three miles, and we -encamped close to its north end, on the edge of a level salt plain. -Our elevation was about 15,500 feet. The margins of the lake, which -was intensely saline, were generally very shallow, and its banks often -swampy, and covered with saline plants, especially _Chenopodiaceae_; a -species of _Suaeda_, with cylindrical fleshy leaves, was especially -abundant, growing in the soft mud close to the banks of the lake. A -_Blysmus_, several grasses, and _Ranunculus Cymbalaria_ were also -common along the banks of the lake. No shells could be seen in the -water. The surrounding hills were not very lofty, but often rose -abruptly several hundred feet, and were in general rugged and rocky. -At the height of perhaps 150 feet above the lake, a weathered mark -could be traced on the face of the mountains, wherever they were -rocky, everywhere quite horizontal. This was most conspicuous from a -distance, and became indistinct on a near approach. It appeared to -indicate, as I shall hereafter show, the level of the surface of the -lake at some former period. - -On the morning of the 25th of September, our day's journey commenced -by rounding the north end of the lake, keeping at some distance from -its margin to avoid swamp. For about two miles from the northern end, -the ground continued almost level, and contained great masses of the -lacustrine clay quite horizontally stratified, and very little higher -than the surface of the water, but here quite without shells. A wide -valley, rising gently towards the north, lay beyond this level plain; -but our road, passing across the end of the lake, ascended another -valley, which ran in a north-west direction from its north-west -corner. The slope of this valley was very gentle. It was bounded by -low undulating or rocky hills, on which, where the surface was -suitable, the same remarkable water-mark could be traced continuously, -and still, to all appearance, quite horizontal. The centre of the -valley was occupied by clay, at first non-fossiliferous, but a little -further on containing a great abundance of shells, the same as in the -bed seen the day before. A few specimens of a very small bivalve, -seemingly a species of _Cyclas_, were also met with; but they were so -very rare, that they bore an infinitesimally small proportion to the -_Lymnaea_. - - [Sidenote: ANCIENT WATER-MARK. - _September, 1847._] - - [Sidenote: FORMER OUTLET OF LAKE. - _September, 1847._] - -For several miles the ancient water-mark could be traced along the -sides of the hills, appearing to descend gradually, as the valley -slightly rose in elevation. Beds of clay continued to occupy the -middle of the valley nearly as long as the water-mark remained -visible. At last it disappeared where a depression on the left, -leading to the valley of Rukchin, seemed to indicate the former -drainage of the lake, at a time when its waters occupied a much higher -level, and contained in a living state the large mollusca of which the -shelly coverings still remain in such vast abundance in the clay. As -it was at the very edge of the lacustrine clay formation that the -shells were so abundant, while the masses of clay in the vicinity of -our encampment of the 25th, at the north-east extremity of the lake, -were without any, it would appear that the species was quite littoral, -while in the more central parts fine mud was deposited, without -shells. The outlet was indicated to me by Major Cunningham, who in a -previous journey had travelled along a part of the Rukchin valley in -descending from the Lachalang pass towards the salt lake. As it may -fairly be inferred that the lake was quite fresh at the time when it -was inhabited by _Lymnaeae_ and _Cyclades_, it is satisfactory to know -that so very small an increase of the height of the surface of the -water, as about 150 feet, would be sufficient to admit of its -discharging its waters along the course of an open valley into one of -the tributaries of the Zanskar river. - -Our road, after passing the ravine on the left, along which I suppose -the discharge of the lake at its original level to have been effected, -turned still more towards the north, and ascending an open valley to -the right, crossed a low _col_, or pass, and descended into a small -basin surrounded by hills, which was evidently at some former period -the bed of a small lake, for it was filled with pure fine clay, in -which, however, I could not observe any shells. From this plain we -passed into another open valley, up which we ascended in a northerly -direction for five or six miles, encamping where the mountains on both -sides began to close in a circle. Throughout the day we had been -gradually but very gently ascending, and the height of our encampment -was probably about 16,500 feet. We were about two miles from the -Tunglung pass, a depression in the range parallel to the Indus, the -same ridge which we had crossed before descending to the salt lake. -The axis of the range had been very near us on the right hand since we -had crossed it on the 24th, and had sent down a succession of spurs, -separated by wide valleys, along which we had been travelling. These -separating ridges appeared usually to rise to an elevation of from one -to two thousand feet above the nearly level valleys which lay at their -bases, and were, though often rocky, less remarkably so than in many -previous parts of our journey. - - [Sidenote: ASCENT TOWARDS - TUNGLUNG PASS. - _September, 1847._] - -The elevated country surrounding the sources of the Parang and Hanle -rivers, and those of the more eastern branches of the Zanskar, as well -as that encircling Lake Chumoreri, constitutes as near an approach to -what Humboldt has denominated a knot (_noeud_) of mountains, as any -part of the Himalaya which I have visited; not that I conceive there -is any reason to suppose that we have in this part of the chain an -intersection of two mountain masses of different ages, to which cause -the distinguished geographer is disposed to assign those aggregations -of mountains which he has so designated. There is, however, as -indicated by the origin of so many considerable streams in a confined -area, an extensive tract of highly elevated land, in which the valleys -have a very gentle slope, while the surrounding mountains are not much -elevated above them. The whole tract is nevertheless eminently -mountainous, if contrasted, not with the still more rugged districts -by which it is on every side surrounded, but with the hilly districts -of less alpine countries. - -In the elevated district which we had been traversing since crossing -the Parang pass, there is little or no cultivation, a field or two at -Hanle and at the monastery on the banks of Lake Chumoreri (as I am -informed by Major Cunningham) being the only exceptions. The district, -however, is much frequented by a nomade population of shepherds, who, -living in tents, move about with their flocks as the abundance of food -or their own caprice may lead them. Clusters of black tents were now -and then seen by us at intervals, especially in Rupchu, by which name -the districts round the salt lake are known to the wandering -inhabitants. - -During the whole of the 25th of September, a furious north wind had -continued to blow, accompanied by a cloudy sky, and all the -indications of extremely unsettled weather, such as had been met with -in the neighbourhood of Hanle only a week before. It was evident that, -as winter approached, these periods of disturbance recurred more and -more frequently. This time the fury of the blast increased as the day -advanced, and after dark the cold in our tents was very severe. About -10 P.M. it began to snow slightly, and at daybreak on the 26th the -ground was covered with snow to a depth of between two and three -inches. As we had a prospect of arriving in milder regions by -diminishing our elevation during the day, we hastened our departure as -much as possible. A mile and a half of level ground brought us -directly under the pass, the ascent to which was at last very steep. -The road was very stony and rugged, but everything being covered with -snow a good deal deeper than on the open plain on which we had -encamped, we did not linger at the summit. The wind still blew -strongly from the north, driving in our faces the still falling snow, -and opposing our progress towards the crest, which was very rocky, -being composed of a mass of hard stratified quartz. The elevation of -the summit was about 17,500 feet. - - [Sidenote: TUNGLUNG PASS. - _September, 1847._] - -The descent from the pass was very rapid. After a few paces, we were -in a narrow and steep ravine, in which we continued to descend very -abruptly, without obtaining any view of the surrounding country. Three -miles from the summit, at perhaps 2000 feet lower level, snow ceased -to lie on the ground, but it continued to fall lightly till the -afternoon. Large rounded tufts of an Alsinaceous plant were common on -the upper part of the descent, conspicuous under the snow. Lower down, -the remains of species of _Corydalis_ and _Saussurea_ were -discoverable in crevices of the rocks, the only remains of the alpine -vegetation. The rock on both sides was clay-slate. - -Continuing to descend rapidly, the ravine widened a little, and became -filled with a most extensive development of alluvial conglomerate, -forming thick masses, worn into pinnacles and fantastic shapes, like -the similar deposits above Sungnam in Kunawar. This was particularly -conspicuous where a lateral valley joined that along which we -descended, a flat-topped promontory of alluvium there projecting far -beyond the primitive rocks. - - [Sidenote: GIAH. - _September, 1847._] - -After a descent of about 4000 feet of perpendicular height, we arrived -at Giah, elevated 13,400 feet above the sea, not a little glad to be -among houses, in a more temperate region than it had been for some -time our lot to travel in. We took up our quarters in the upper room -of a two-storied house, which had been prepared for our reception, -and willingly agreed to halt a day in order to give time for -arrangements, for a change of porters, and a rest to our servants and -guides. Giah will be recollected, by those acquainted with Moorcroft's -travels, as the place where he entered the Tibetan country, and where -he was for some time kept in considerable uncertainty as to the nature -of the reception he would meet with. Since that time the supremacy of -the Sikhs has entirely changed the state of the country; and though -the king (Gylpo) of Giah still exists, he does not even exercise a -nominal sovereignty, but lives a pensioner on the Sikh government, -without power and with a very limited income. - -The influence of the Sikhs has, however, produced little change in the -character of the people, as their occupation of the country, except in -Le itself, and at one or two military posts, is entirely nominal, and -only maintained by the moral influence of their known superiority in -resources and military skill. The gumpa, or monastery, as in -Moorcroft's time, crowns a rocky hill on the right bank of the Giah -stream, while the town, or more properly village, on the left bank, is -built on the steep alluvial banks high above the stream. There was a -considerable extent of cultivation round the village, barley and peas -being the chief crops; both had been cut, but were still lying in -small heaps in the fields. Notwithstanding the great elevation, a -number of poplar-trees, of the large cordate-leaved species (which -seems identical with _P. balsamifera_), occur in the village, several -of which attain a considerable size. - - [Sidenote: GIAH RAVINE. - _September, 1847._] - -On the morning of the 28th of September we resumed our journey -towards Le. By crossing the Tunglung pass, we had again gained the -eastern slope of the ridge dividing the waters of the Zanskar from -those of the Indus. The Giah stream flows towards the latter river -with a north-easterly course, and two marches of little more than -seven miles each, brought us to the banks of the Indus at a village -called Upshi. For the first mile after leaving Giah, the valley was -somewhat open, with steep banks of alluvial conglomerate; it then -contracted rather suddenly into a narrow ravine, with steep rocky -walls, composed of highly inclined strata of conglomerate and -sandstone. Owing to the diminished elevation, the vegetation was -considerably more recognizable than it had been for the last week, and -several shrubby plants were seen which had long been absent. _Ephedra_ -was common in the crevices of the rocks, and the Tibetan rose and a -small shrubby _Lonicera_ grew on the gravelly banks of the little -stream. - - [Sidenote: REMARKABLE GORGE. - _September, 1847._] - -At Miru, a considerable village where we encamped, the valley expanded -into a little plain, filled as usual with alluvium, and covered with -cultivation. A few poplar-trees occurred in the village. The ravine -contracted immediately below this place, and was, if possible, more -narrow and rocky than the day before, as the little stream had to be -crossed not less than four or five times in as many miles, on small -wooden bridges of rough planks. A very beautiful Labiate shrub, a -species of _Perowskia_, with bright blue flowers, which I afterwards -found very abundant in the Indus valley from 12,000 to 8000 feet, was -here met with for the first time. Close to its junction with the -Indus, the ravine expanded into an open plain, well covered with -houses and enclosures, with scattered poplar and willow trees, as well -as a few apricots, and traversed by canals of irrigation conducted -from the little Giah rivulet. The Indus is here not more than forty -feet wide, flowing swiftly over large boulders, and quite unfordable. - -Throughout the whole course of this very remarkable gorge by which we -descended from Giah, the rock continued to be conglomerate, -alternating with strata of sandstone and of a very friable slate. The -conglomerate was extremely hard, and generally of a dark brown colour. -The matrix, which had often a semi-vitrified appearance, was not less -hard than the enclosed stones, which were all rounded and very various -in size and composition, jasper rock, granite, and quartz being all -seen. The sandstone which accompanied the conglomerate varied much in -colour, various shades of red, brown, and green being predominant. It -was also extremely hard. These strata, which were highly inclined, -often nearly vertical, were in general well marked, in consequence of -the beds of hard sandstone and conglomerate being thrown out in relief -by the more rapid decay of the soft slates with which they alternated. -The dip was everywhere very variable, and several very distinct -sections were displayed, where it was evident that the strata were -curved and sinuated. The curves observed were convex below; the strike -of the strata was nearly perpendicular to the general direction of the -ravine, or from north-west to south-east. - - [Sidenote: INDUS VALLEY. - _September, 1847._] - -From Upshi, our course lay down the Indus valley in a direction west -of north. The width of the Indus, which was a rapid stream, varied -from thirty or forty to a hundred feet. Platforms of alluvium, almost -level-topped, and often attaining a thickness of a hundred feet, were -interposed between the river and the mountains, which, still composed -of highly inclined strata of conglomerate and its associated rocks, -advanced in a succession of spurs towards the centre of the valley. -These platforms were quite bare of vegetation, a few tufts of a -prickly _Echinops_ being the only plant worthy of note which I -observed. No villages were passed till we reached Marsilang, at which -we encamped after a journey of about ten miles. Here there was very -extensive cultivation on the surface of the platform, on both sides of -a deep ravine, cut in the alluvium by a considerable stream, which -descended from the west. The plantations of willow and poplar were -very luxuriant. The willows were planted in rows, and were frequently -pollarded, their twigs being in great demand for baskets and other -useful purposes in so treeless a country. When allowed to grow their -full size, they spread much, and attain a length of upwards of thirty -feet. The cultivated willows of Tibet are mostly European forms; -_Salix fragilis_ and _S. alba_ are the most common. The poplars are of -two sorts: one a spreading tree with large cordate leaves, which was -first seen in Upper Kunawar, and is common in all the Tibetan -villages, up to the highest limit of tree cultivation; it is quite -identical with _Populus balsamifera_, which I cannot distinguish in -the herbarium from _P. laurifolia_, of Ledebour. The other, which I -had not before seen in Tibet, was a tall, erect, and slender tree, -with much darker foliage and smaller leaves; it seems, so far as my -specimens enable me to decide, to be the common black poplar (_P. -nigra_) of Europe. - - [Sidenote: MARSILANG. - _September, 1847._] - -At Marsilang the Indus is crossed by a good wooden bridge, thirty-four -paces in length, which enables its inhabitants to communicate with the -large villages and extensive cultivated tracts on the east bank of the -river. As soon as we left the cultivated lands of Marsilang, on the -morning of the 1st of October, we found ourselves again on a platform -of alluvium; but after a few miles we reached another village, with -extensive cultivation, and on the latter part of the day's journey -passed through a succession of villages separated by gradually shorter -intervals of unprofitable and barren land. These cultivated tracts -were everywhere well irrigated; indeed, every spot, where irrigation -was easy of execution, seemed to be under cultivation. Each village -had its plantation of poplars and willows, not, however, so plentiful -as at Marsilang. The grain had everywhere been cut and housed, the -operations of harvest being seemingly quite at an end. The whole of -this richly-cultivated district is called Chashut. - -Our journey of the 2nd of October was for about six miles through an -uninterrupted tract of cultivation, very little elevated above the -level of the river, the alluvial platforms being here of -inconsiderable thickness. The direction of the valley was also much -more westerly, and the mountains on both sides had receded -considerably from the river, leaving an open plain of five or six -miles in width. Numerous irrigation channels intersected the fields, -which gradually, as we proceeded, united one to another, till at last -they all combined into one large and deep canal, by which the -superfluous waters were conveyed to the Indus. Crossing this canal, we -reached the river, which we crossed by a bridge twenty-five paces in -length. A few houses, and a small patch of cultivation, lay on the -right bank of the river, immediately beyond the bridge, but no extent -of fertile country; low spurs of rocky hills descending from the -north, close down upon the Indus. After crossing the bridge we turned -up a wide and gravelly valley between two of these ridges, the course -of which we followed, ascending very gradually among large boulders, -strewed over the surface, for about three miles. We then turned -abruptly to the left, through a narrow ravine in the low granitic -hills by which the valley was on that side bounded. Emerging from -this, we entered a quite similar and parallel valley, and obtained our -first view of the town of Le, covering the top and slopes of a steep -hill by which the valley was apparently terminated, about two miles -beyond the point at which we entered it. - - [Sidenote: LE. - _September, 1847._] - -Le, the capital of the province of Ladak, and the most important -place, and only town, of Western Tibet, is situated about three miles -from the Indus, in the upper part of an open valley, which rises -gradually as it recedes from the river, so that the town is rather -more than 1200 feet above its level, or about 11,800 feet above the -sea. The town occupies the slope, and surrounds the base of a low -spur, on the left or east side of the valley, while the centre and -right side are occupied by extensive tracts of cultivation, the fields -rising in terraces one above another, and watered by little rills -drawn from a stream which descends in the centre of the valley. The -aspect of the town, which is very peculiar, is faithfully represented -in the frontispiece to the second volume of Moorcroft's Travels, from -a sketch by Mr. Trebeck. - -In the neighbourhood of the town there are several small enclosures, -planted with poplar and willow trees, in one of which we pitched our -tents. These plantations were all young, a very fine garden of old -trees having been, it was said, destroyed at the time of the Sikh -invasion. The governor of Ladak, a deputy of Maharaja Gulab Singh, the -ruler of Kashmir, to whom the rule of Ladak has devolved as a -dependency of the latter country, resides in the town; but the -detachment of troops, amounting to about 150 men, who form the -military garrison of the place, occupy a small square fort on the west -side of the valley, about a mile from the town of Le. - -The peculiarities of the Buddhist religion, as practised in Tibet, -which are everywhere conspicuous in all parts of Ladak, are especially -remarkable in the capital. The principal monasteries in the -neighbourhood of Le are at some distance from the town in the vicinity -of villages both up and down the Indus; but religious edifices, of the -many kinds which are everywhere so common in Tibet, are seen all round -Le in great numbers. Along the road by which we approached the town, -there is a very long building, of the kind called _Mane_, extending -for more than half a mile. It consists of two parallel walls, twelve -or fifteen feet apart, and nearly six feet high, the intervals between -which are filled up with stones and rubbish, and the whole covered -with a sloping roof, which rises at a gentle angle to the central -ridge, midway between the two walls. On the roof are laid large slabs -of slate, every one of which is covered with Tibetan letters, or more -rarely with a rude drawing of a temple. The words on these stones are -(I believe, invariably) a repetition of the mystical Buddhist prayer, -from one of the words of which these curious, and apparently useless, -erections take their name. The Mane seems one of the most -indispensable accompaniments of a Tibetan village, and they may -occasionally be seen even in desert tracts; so that the amount of -labour which has been expended in their construction must have been -very great, some of the largest containing many millions of -repetitions of the words _Om Mane Padme Hom_. In the smaller villages -they are often very inferior in size, sometimes not more than twenty -or thirty feet in length, and three feet high. Every traveller has -constant occasion to notice that in passing these walls the Tibetans -always leave them on the right hand, considering it both wrong and -unlucky to do otherwise; those proceeding in contrary directions -therefore take opposite sides. - - [Sidenote: RELIGIOUS EDIFICES - OF TIBET. - _September, 1847._] - -Equally conspicuous in the environs of Le are the urn-like buildings, -called Chokten or Chosten, which are, I believe, erected over the -ashes of Lamas, or priests, and are, therefore, in a country where a -third or fourth part of the male population adopt a monastic life, -particularly abundant. Long rows of these, consisting of twenty or -more urns of various sizes, may often be seen in conspicuous places -above the villages, forming, from the brilliant whitewash with which -they are covered when new, very prominent objects. Many of those near -Le are of large size, and ornamented with rude paintings of dragons -and other mythological animals of uncouth form. - -The religion of Tibet, from the remarkable nature of its institutions -and ceremonies, has of late years attracted much attention; but as, -from the hurried nature of my journey, I had no opportunity of -acquiring any information regarding it which has not already been made -public, it is not necessary for me to dwell upon it at any length. -Throughout the whole of Western Tibet, the monasteries are very poor, -in comparison with those in the neighbourhood of Lassa, of which we -read such gorgeous descriptions; all their wealth in silver and gold -having been plundered by the Sikhs, during their short possession of -the country as far east as Garu and Taklakhar. Still the number of -Lamas does not seem to have much diminished, though they are more -dependent upon the cultivation of the soil than in Eastern Tibet, -where some of the monasteries are said to contain thousands of -priests. - - [Sidenote: LE. - _September, 1847._] - -The town of Le is said to contain about 3000 inhabitants. Many of the -houses are very high, the former residence of the king containing -seven stories. They are usually built of unburnt brick, formed from -the fine lacustrine clay of the neighbourhood. The Sikh Thannadar has -lately built for himself a house of stone, but he found it necessary -to bring lime from Nubra, a distance of nearly forty miles, none being -procurable so near in the valley of the Indus. The timber used in the -construction of the houses is all poplar or willow, both of which are -found to last a very long time in the arid climate of Tibet. The beams -are laid perhaps two feet apart, and covered sometimes with small -planking, but more generally with brushwood, over which is laid a -thick coating of clay, so as to form a flat roof, to which there is -usually access by a small stair or ladder. - -The mountain ranges which bound the valley in which the town of Le is -situated, though not lofty, are very generally rocky and inaccessible. -They consist partly of distinctly stratified gneiss, but principally -of a fine white granite, which decays with great rapidity, and -contains many irregular nodules of an iron grey colour, much finer in -the grain than the rest. The width of the fertile plain of Chashut, -over which I made the last two marches down the Indus, had prevented -me from ascertaining the nature of the rocks on the mountains to the -left, so that I cannot fix the exact point where the granitic eruption -comes in contact with the slates and conglomerates of the Giah ravine. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[13] Turner's Tibet, p. 406. - -[14] Phil. Tr. 1787, p. 297. - -[15] I have made over all my specimens of the borax and other saline -products of Tibet to Dr. R. D. Thomson, of Glasgow, who is at present -engaged in examining them. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - - Departure from Le -- Sabu Valley -- Pass between Le and Nubra - -- Snow -- Encamp at 15,500 feet -- Digar -- Valley of Shayuk - -- Alluvium -- _Populus Euphratica_ -- Tsatti -- Nubra river -- - District of Nubra -- Villages -- Irrigation -- Saline soil -- - Isolated rocks -- Chirasa -- Panamik -- Lower Nubra -- - Platforms of Alluvium -- Traces of a great flood -- Unmaru -- - Kuru -- Great contraction of valley -- Mountain pass of Waris - -- Boghdan ravine -- Chorbat -- Mahommedan population -- - Villages -- Outburst of granite -- Siksa -- Khapalu -- Open - plain of Khapalu -- Junction of Shayuk and Indus -- Nar -- - Iskardo plain -- Description of Iskardo -- Aqueduct -- Fort -- - Lacustrine clay formation -- Vegetation. - - -While we were at Le there was a good deal of unsettled weather, and -two very slight falls of snow. On the 9th of October we had an -opportunity of observing an eclipse of the sun, which was welcomed by -the inhabitants of the town with a most discordant beating of drums, -intended to frighten away the demons who had taken possession of the -sun. After a week's halt, Major Cunningham and myself started in -different directions; Major Cunningham following the course of the -Indus, and proceeding by Dras to Kashmir, while I crossed the range of -mountains to the north into the valley of the Shayuk, and descended -along that river to its junction with the Indus. The mountain range -which separates these two rivers barely rises into the region of -perpetual snow, a very few peaks only retaining any snow throughout -the year. It is therefore crossed by passes at the head of each -valley; but the pass nearest to Le having a small but very steep -glacier on its northern face, is difficult and dangerous in autumn, -after the snow has entirely melted from the surface of the ice. I was, -therefore, recommended to cross into Nubra, by a pass a few miles -further east, at the head of the valley of Sabu, which is separated -from that in which the town of Le lies, by a steep ridge of granite -hills. - - [Sidenote: SABU VALLEY. - _October, 1847._] - -I left Le on the morning of the 11th of October. The road to the Sabu -valley enters the granite range close to the town, ascending a narrow -stony valley in an easterly direction, and crossing by a short steep -ascent a depression in the ridge, to descend into a narrow ravine -which has a south-east course into the Sabu valley, up which the road -led. The hills were very stony and bare, or covered with the large -_Echinops_ of the Indus valley, of which the heads of fruit were -falling to pieces. I encamped for the night in the valley of Sabu, -which is very like that of Le, with pretty extensive cultivation, but -few trees. - - [Sidenote: LAZGUNG PASS. - _October, 1847._] - -Next day I crossed the pass. The ascent was very long and fatiguing, -and, from the lateness of the season, very uninteresting. A cold bleak -wind blew from the north in strong gusts, and the sky was overcast -with light clouds. The valley contracted into a rocky ravine before -the road left it to ascend rapidly the steep mountain-sides, which -were covered with masses of boulders, heaped together in great -confusion. The upper part of the ascent, which was very steep, was -covered with snow, which lay on the loose stones of the crest to the -depth of about a foot. It was late in the evening before I reached the -top of the pass, the distance being much greater than I had been led -to anticipate. The elevation of the summit, by the observations of -Captain Strachey, is about 18,300 feet. - -On the north face of the pass snow lay thickly for two miles or rather -more, and more scantily for a mile further. As evening had begun to -close before I reached the summit, I hurried my descent as much as -possible. Fortunately, a great part of my baggage porters were in -advance, but it had been for some time quite dark before I reached a -spot sufficiently free of snow to be suitable for an encampment. The -night was intensely cold, the sky being clear; and next morning, at -half-past six o'clock, the thermometer stood at 15 deg. At the same -time I found that water boiled at 184 deg., indicating an elevation -of upwards of 15,500 feet. - -In the morning I made a short march to the village of Digar, which I -ought to have reached the day before, had not the darkness prevented -me. The distance was not more than four miles, and the descent about -2500 feet, Digar being rather more than 13,000 feet above the level of -the sea. The general direction of the valley in which I was encamped -was north-east, and it was surrounded on all sides by extremely rugged -mountains, now much covered with snow, down to about 14,000 feet. -Throughout the descent, vast piles of boulders, heaped one on another, -and forming steep banks, evidently moraines, occupied the flanks of -the valley. The village of Digar, though small, and possessing only -two small trees, had a considerable extent of cultivation, and seemed -prosperous. It was situated on the left side of the valley, or rather -on the slope of the mountains on that side opposite a lateral ravine, -from which a stream of boulders had at one time descended. The centre -of the valley was much lower, being excavated out of the alluvium -which had once filled the whole. - - [Sidenote: VALLEY OF SHAYUK. - _October, 1847._] - -On the morning of the 14th of October, I descended to the valley of -the Shayuk, making a march of fifteen miles to the village of Tsatti, -on the right bank of that river. The road skirted the steep stony -hills on the left side of the valley, parallel to the Digar stream, -for about two miles, descending rapidly, but still high above the -bottom of the dell. The Digar ravine, before reaching the Shayuk, -joined a wider one which descends from the south-east, and the united -valley has a nearly due north direction. As the road turned by degrees -to the left, round a spur of the mountains, the Shayuk valley came in -sight, 1500 feet below. It was of considerable width, and very stony, -barren, and desolate. Mountains of black slate, very lofty and rugged, -in many places too steep for snow to lie, were seen to the north-east, -from among which the river appeared to issue into the more open tract -immediately below. - -The road did not descend at once to the level of the river, but, -turning abruptly to the left, proceeded along a platform of alluvium, -at least a thousand feet in thickness, for more than a mile, before it -descended, which it did at last very abruptly down a steep sandy -slope. The mass of alluvium was, in many places, almost pure sand, -but in general many pebbles and boulders were mixed with it. Towards -the river it presented scarped cliffs, in which its composition was -well seen. - - [Sidenote: POPULUS EUPHRATICA. - _October, 1847._] - -The Shayuk, where I descended to it, flowed through a wide gravelly -plain, varying in breadth from one to two miles, and quite destitute -of vegetation. Rocky spurs of black slate and conglomerate, with many -granite veins, projecting from the mountains on the south, -occasionally narrowed the valley, while the recesses were generally -filled with a mass of alluvium. The river was occasionally divided -into several branches. In some of the recesses small trees of a -peculiar species of poplar (_P. Euphratica_) were not uncommon, -growing in pure sand. This tree is remarkable for its extended -distribution. Originally discovered on the banks of the Euphrates, it -has been found by Griffith, and more recently by Dr. Stocks and -others, to be abundant on the banks of the Indus, in Sind and Multan. -It occurs also at intervals along the valley of the Indus, within the -mountains, but appears to be far from common, and to confine itself to -hot sandy places. In several parts of Nubra it is common enough, but -only, so far as I have observed, on the south side of the Shayuk. This -poplar is also remarkable for the very changeable shape of its leaves, -which vary from broadly deltoid and coarsely toothed, to narrow-linear -and quite entire. The leaves of the full-grown tree are generally -broad and much toothed, while young plants have very narrow leaves; -the shoots of pollarded plants, which are common, the tree being much -used for fuel, are also narrow. - -After proceeding parallel to the river for six or seven miles, I -crossed to the right bank. The stream was undivided, and about a -hundred yards broad. It had a considerable velocity, and was about -three feet deep in the centre. Its bed was full of large waterworn -boulders and gravel, and the banks on both sides were, for a great -distance from the river, of similar structure, and so little elevated -above its surface, that a very slight rise of the water would have -been sufficient to submerge them. - -From the village of Tsatti, at which I encamped on the 14th of -October, I followed the course of the Shayuk to its junction with a -large stream descending from the north, which, from the name of the -district in which the junction is situated, is commonly called the -Nubra river. Thence I ascended the latter stream for about twenty -miles, with the intention of making an attempt to penetrate to the -north-east, across the mountains to the Nubra Chu of Vigne; but the -lateness of the season, and especially the occurrence of several falls -of snow, which extended down the mountain slopes almost as far as the -plain, induced me to place reliance on the assurances of the people of -the valley, that the difficulties of the road would be quite -insurmountable. - - [Sidenote: DISTRICT OF NUBRA. - _October, 1847._] - -The district of Nubra includes the whole course of the Shayuk river, -from its great bend to the eastward of the point where I joined it -below Digar, till it again contracts nine or ten miles below the -village of Unmaru; and also the lower part of the valley of the Nubra -river, as far up, indeed, as population and cultivation extend. The -place of junction of the two rivers is elevated, according to my -observation of the boiling-point of water, about 10,600 feet above -the level of the sea. This may be considered as the mean elevation of -the whole district; for the cultivated tracts nowhere rise to any -height above the bed of the rivers, which have everywhere a very -gentle and apparently uniform inclination. - - [Sidenote: DESCRIPTION OF NUBRA. - _October, 1847._] - -The valley of the Shayuk is widest at the point of its junction with -the Nubra river. At this place the level plain, including the gently -sloping alluvium on each side, has a breadth of about six miles. The -width of the valley gradually diminishes as we recede from the centre, -the mountains encroaching more and more, till at last they hem in the -river, leaving no space for villages or cultivation, and the valley -ceases to be inhabited. The centre of the plain is uniformly occupied -by a flat gravelly expanse, one to three miles in width, scarcely -raised above the surface of the river, which, when flooded, covers a -great part of it. On both sides of this gravelly bed, low platforms of -alluvium, in the form of triangles, with their apices resting on the -mountain ravines, slope very gently towards the base of mountains, -which rise abruptly and precipitously on both sides of the valley, to -a height of three or four thousand feet. Some of the more projecting -spurs, even where the width of the valley is greatest, advance so far -into the open plain as to abut upon the river and compel the traveller -to ascend their slopes, in order to cross them in travelling from -village to village. - -The gravelly plain over which the Shayuk flows, is usually quite -devoid of vegetation. A few scattered bushes of _Tamarix_ and -_Myricaria_ appear, indeed, near its junction with the Nubra river, -but further up the gravel is absolutely bare: in this it contrasts -strongly with similar portions in the valley of the Nubra river, which -are densely wooded. The cause of this difference seems to lie in the -frequent floods which have, at different periods, devastated the whole -course of the Shayuk valley, from the glaciers of Sassar. These -floods, which appear to be due to the blocking-up of the upper course -of the river by the ice, have been most destructive to the prosperity -of the valley. - - [Sidenote: VILLAGES. - _October, 1847._] - -Throughout Nubra, the villages, with scarcely an exception, occupy the -surface of the low platforms of alluvium which fill up the -funnel-shaped terminations of the ravines. In Tibet the size of the -villages, and the extent of cultivation by which they are surrounded, -entirely depend on the supply of water and on the facility with which -it can be diverted from its bed for purposes of irrigation; and as, in -this district, the width and horizontality of the alluvial tracts are -very favourable to the industry of man, the villages are in general -large and surrounded with much cultivation. Indeed, a super-abundance -of water is in general indicated by the swampy banks of the irrigation -canals, as the water, oozing through the loose gravel of the -platforms, produces a dense jungle of _Hippophae_ scrub, which makes -the cultivated tracts conspicuous, even in winter, when the trees are -bare of leaves and the fields of crops. - -This copious supply of water no doubt depends on the great elevation -of the surrounding mountains, which everywhere rise, if not above, yet -almost to the level of perpetual snow, which is about 18,000 feet, so -that at the head of each little stream there is either a glacier, or -a snow-bed which does not entirely melt till the latter end of autumn, -affording therefore a nearly perennial supply of water. Even in the -hottest months slight falls of snow are of occasional occurrence at -all elevations above 16,000 feet; and as every range rises much above -that height, a small addition to the supply is thus obtained. - -The villages have generally a few fruit-trees, as well as a good many -poplars and willows, which yield almost the only timber the -inhabitants can command. The walnut and _Elaeagnus_, both of which -trees find their upper limit in Nubra, are so extremely scarce that -they are not available for such purposes. - -In most parts of Nubra the soil is very generally saline, the dry -grassy plains which are common on the banks of the streams being -generally covered with a copious efflorescence of carbonate of soda; -while the abundance of _Salsolae_ and other Chenopodiaceous plants on -the dry alluvial plains, and even on the rocky hills, seems to prove -that the saline matter is not confined to the immediate vicinity of -water, or to the lowest levels, but is very generally diffused over -the surface. - - [Sidenote: VALLEY OF NUBRA RIVER. - _October, 1847._] - -The valley of the Nubra river, for upwards of twenty miles, is very -similar in general character to that of the Shayuk. The same wide -gravelly expanse occupies its centre, forming a plain of one or two -miles in width, through which the river runs in many branches. A great -part of this gravelly plain, particularly on the right side of the -valley, is covered by a dense thicket of _Hippophae_, extending -continuously for four or five miles, usually impervious, except in -certain beaten tracts, and tenanted by vast numbers of hares. The -gravel on which this jungle grows is almost on a level with the river, -so that it is very generally swampy, and traversed here and there by -little streamlets of water. The _Hippophae_ is here a small tree, -attaining a height of fifteen feet, with a short thick trunk and stiff -crooked spinous branches. - - [Sidenote: CHIRASA. - _October, 1847._] - -In several parts of the course of the Nubra river, low hills rise in -the valley, isolated, or nearly so, from the mountain ranges behind, -and forming, therefore, a remarkable feature. On one of these, on the -right bank of the river, is situated the little fort and village of -Chirasa, a considerable mass of houses, of a class a little better -than those usual in the district, and conspicuous from their elevated -position. The rock on which they stand is composed of a hard porphyry, -which has been injected from below, and has displaced the black slate, -which is the more usual rock in the lower part of this valley. - -In the lower part of the ravine behind the town of Chirasa, the -alluvium is more extensively developed than usual in this valley, -where aqueous action seems in a great measure to have removed the -accumulation of detritus, which once, no doubt, occupied the whole -valley. Beds of gravelly conglomerate, at times passing into fine -clay, may here be seen, at a height of perhaps 1000 feet, on the -mountain-sides in isolated patches, generally faced by cliffs, in -which a tendency to horizontal stratification is observable. - - [Sidenote: NUBRA VALLEY. - _October, 1847._] - -The lower part of the Nubra valley is very fertile, and on the east -side cultivation extends, with little interruption, from Tirit as far -as Panamik, in a belt varying in width from a few hundred feet to -nearly a mile. The villages are large, and seem populous. Many of the -houses are very substantially built, and the long sacred walls, called -Mane, are numerous, and of great length and size. Several -watercourses, which are carried along the sides of the hills at an -elevation of several hundred feet above the cultivation, and are -easily recognizable by the fringe of _Hippophae_ bushes, which forms -an impenetrable belt along their margins, indicate a degree of -industry and energy very unusual in Tibet, where, however, the amount -of cultivable land is seldom sufficient to promise much reward to any -extensive and elaborate system of irrigation. - -As the advanced period of the year rendered exploration at great -elevations scarcely practicable, and made it desirable to reach a -lower level as soon as possible, I did not remain more than a week in -Nubra. On the 22nd of October I started from Lyakjung, at the mouth of -the Nubra river, towards Iskardo, following the course of the Shayuk -river. The district of Nubra extends about thirty miles below the -junction of the river of that name with the Shayuk; but I found the -level valley gradually to diminish in width as I descended. On the -22nd of October I encamped at Hundar; on the 23rd, at Tertse; and on -the 24th at Unmaru, beyond which village there is no cultivation, and -the valley becomes extremely narrow. On the 25th of October I reached -an encamping ground called Kuru, at the termination of the Nubra -district, where the mountains, which for three days had gradually been -encroaching on the valley, completely closed in, and the river -entered a deep gorge, walled in on both sides by lofty and almost -perpendicular cliffs of black slate. - - [Sidenote: LOWER NUBRA. - _October, 1847._] - - [Sidenote: FOSSIL SHELLS IN THE CLAY. - _October, 1847._] - -The general aspect of the lower part of Nubra requires no particular -description, as it presents much the same features as the other parts -of the district. The mountains on both sides of the valley are not -less steep, barren, and inaccessible than elsewhere in Tibet. The -alluvial platforms, which were everywhere present, increased -remarkably in thickness as they diminished in size. Widely spread out -in the broadest parts of the valley, they were not more than from -twenty to forty feet thick where cut across by the river, and sloped -very gently. In the narrower parts of the valley they were often not -less than a hundred feet high along the river. In structure these -platforms varied much. The greater part certainly consisted of gravel -and clay, quite unstratified, but the lower beds were very frequently -fine clay, or fine sand, or alternations of these two. The -superposition of the coarse beds to the fine was nearly uniformly -observed, though occasionally, above the fine clays, alternations of -gravel with thin beds of sand or clay were met with. In one place, on -the north side of the river, nearly opposite to the village of Tertse, -I found these beds to contain fresh-water shells. The fossiliferous -bed was elevated very little above the present level of the river, and -was composed of a fine somewhat sandy clay, stratified horizontally, -and covered with upwards of fifty feet of coarse conglomerate. The -shells, which were all small, were species of _Planorbis_ and -_Lymnaea_, apparently identical with those afterwards found in the -neighbourhood of Iskardo, but quite different from those of the salt -lake of Thogji. - -The villages of Lower Nubra are not numerous, but some of them possess -very extensive cultivation. Hundar in particular, at the mouth of a -large ravine, by which a considerable tributary stream descends from -the south (at the source of which there is a pass across the range -into the valley of the Indus), is a very large village (probably the -most populous in Nubra), with very fine orchards of apricot-trees. -Walnut, mulberry, and _Elaeagnus_ became common at Unmaru, on the north -bank of the river. Perhaps the gradual narrowing of the valley may -have a considerable effect in modifying the climate, for the -diminution of elevation is very inconsiderable, the river at Kuru -being nearly 10,300 feet above the sea, or not more than 300 feet -lower than the junction of the Shayuk and Nubra rivers. - -In this part of its course, and at this advanced season, when the -great summer floods are over, the Shayuk appears to be everywhere -fordable. It is, however, a noble stream, with a rapid current; and is -usually divided into many channels. Above Hundar, where I forded it, -one branch was not less than 300 feet wide, and was from one to two -feet deep. Opposite Tertse, again, I found the stream running in seven -branches, of which three were from 100 to 150 feet wide, and had an -average depth of about two feet, increased in the centre to about -three. The other branches were, however, much smaller. - - [Sidenote: GREAT FLOOD OF THE SHAYUK. - _October, 1847._] - -In several places between Hundar and Tertse, on the gravelly plain -which skirted the river, I observed manifest traces of a flood, -consisting of such rejectamenta as are usually seen deposited by -swollen streams, fragments of wood and twigs, straw, sheep's dung, and -other light materials, forming a bed two or three feet wide, -continuous in many places for hundreds of yards, at a distance of not -less than half a mile from the river. To my inquiries as to the nature -of the flood which had deposited these reliquiae, the invariable reply -was, that a great flood had taken place five years before, by the -bursting of a lake called Khundan Chu, at which time the whole course -of the river was devastated, and much destruction of property, -sometimes even life, ensued, particularly in the narrower parts of the -valley. In most parts of the world the preservation of such -insignificant vestiges of a flood for so long a period would have been -impossible; but here, where rain is almost unknown, and where the -winter falls of snow seldom exceed one or two inches, there are no -disturbing causes which could prevent them from remaining till carried -away or altered in position by another similar flood. I should, -therefore, have had no difficulty in attaching credence to the -testimony of the inhabitants of the country, even had I not, in my -journey down the river, received the most abundant proofs that the -flood was everywhere well known, at least as far as Iskardo. - -The vegetation of Lower Nubra had so entirely disappeared, that I -could form scarcely any idea of its character; but, as the general -aspect of the country was unaltered, I had no reason to look for any -change. In the gravelly bed of the river, bushes of _Myricaria_ and -_Tamarix_ were common; thickets of _Hippophae_, loaded with very acid -yellow berries, lined the watercourses, forming an impenetrable -barrier. Little bushes of _Artemisia_, _Lycium_, _Perowskia_, and -_Ephedra_, were also occasionally seen on the rocks, but the -herbaceous vegetation had quite withered away. In the villages, the -cultivated trees were also rapidly shedding their leaves; constant -night frosts, and frequent falls of snow on the mountain-sides, having -so far reduced the temperature that winter was evidently at hand. - - [Sidenote: NARROW GORGE. - _October, 1847._] - -Below the village of Unmaru, the width of the valley had so much -diminished that many of the lateral spurs advanced close to the river. -Several of these prominent spurs consisted of trap rocks, various -forms of basalt and greenstone occurring, with not unfrequently veins -of coarse serpentine. Stratified rocks, however, still continued, but -the hard black slate was often with difficulty distinguishable from -the basalt. - -My encamping ground at Kuru was on the north side of the river, and -close to the gorge into which the Shayuk disappeared among rocks of -black slate, which rise almost perpendicularly from the river. A small -tributary, descending from the north, ran parallel and close to the -rugged mountain spur which formed the barrier of the valley; and -immediately above, a deep bay or recess in the mountains was entirely -filled with beds of loose sand, resting on the alluvial clay -formation. The appearance of the place was altogether most singular. -Much of the light sandy beds were evidently of very recent origin, -probably referable to the great flood five years before, at which time -the waters, suddenly checked at the gorge, after having spread out _ad -libitum_ in the open valley of Nubra, rose to a height of not less -than fifty feet above their usual level, and required several days to -subside. The beds of clay under the loose sand were all stratified, -and were, no doubt, referable to the same lacustrine formation as the -fossiliferous beds observed higher up the valley of the Shayuk. - - [Sidenote: WARIS RAVINE. - _October, 1847._] - -From Kuru there is no road along the bank of the river, the rocks -being on both sides too precipitous to permit of a passage, and the -river too deep to be forded. In winter, when the river is frozen, -travellers are able to continue their course along its bed by -proceeding on the ice in those places where the steepness of the rocks -obstructs the passage; but at other seasons it is necessary to make a -long _detour_, and to ascend a lateral ravine for eight miles before a -point is reached where the steep ridge is capable of being crossed. -Leaving Kuru on the morning of the 26th of October, I encamped at the -village of Waris, elevated 12,400 feet, among a few fields from which -the crops had long been cleared. The few huts which formed the village -contained no inhabitants, being abandoned, as soon as the harvest has -been reaped and housed, for the more temperate climate of the river -valley. - -The ravine by which I ascended from Kuru was very narrow and rugged. -The road generally lay at a considerable height on the steep slopes of -the hills, but three times crossed the stream; once by a natural -bridge composed of a huge mass of rock lying across a very narrow part -of the stream, where it had worn out in the solid rock a channel not -more than from three to twelve feet wide. The steep sloping banks of -the ravine were usually shingly and devoid of vegetation; but on the -margin of the little stream there were a good many shrubs, principally -willows, and occasionally the cordate-leaved poplar so commonly -cultivated in the Tibetan villages, which here appeared quite -indigenous. - -The geological structure of this rocky ravine was very intricate, from -the great mass of igneous rock, granite, greenstone, and amygdaloid, -which everywhere occurred. A very hard conglomerate, similar in -character to that of the upper Indus and of the Giah ravine, was also -observed at intervals, alternating with very highly metamorphic -slates. After about five miles, the road left the main ravine to -ascend into a lateral branch, much more steep than the former. Here -masses of alluvial conglomerate of great thickness rested on the sides -of the mountains, many hundred feet above the bed of the stream. -During the day the weather had been very cloudy and threatening, and a -little snow fell in the afternoon at my encamping ground at Waris. - - [Sidenote: PASS ABOVE WARIS. - _October, 1847._] - -During the night more snow fell, and on the morning of the 27th it was -four or five inches deep. From my camp I ascended at once, very -steeply, to the crest of the ridge on the left, which I then followed -in a succession of undulations in a westerly direction. As soon as I -had gained the summit, a reach of the Shayuk was seen, distant perhaps -a mile and a half, flowing among steep black rocks, with here and -there banks of gravel at the bends. The view from the ridge was very -striking, the dark colour of the rocks below contrasting strongly with -the snowy whiteness of the upper parts of the mountains, which, on -the south side of the Shayuk, rise very abruptly to a height of -perhaps 18,000 feet. - -The summit of the ridge was not less than 14,700 feet above the sea. -At this elevation, the snow, on southern exposures, had, by eleven -A.M., quite melted, under the influence of a bright sun. Along the -ridge, tufts of a prickly _Statice_, still displaying the remains of -flowers, were very common, and a few stunted trees of juniper occurred -at intervals. The descent from the ridge was exceedingly abrupt (three -thousand feet in less than a mile), into a narrow valley, in which I -encamped among the fields of a summer village named Boghdan, now, like -the one I had left in the morning, deserted by its inhabitants, who -had gone for the winter to the village of Chulungka, nine miles -distant, on the banks of the Shayuk. I was now in the district of -Chorbat, the ridge which I had just crossed being the boundary of -Nubra on the west. - - [Sidenote: BOGHDAN RAVINE. - _October, 1847._] - -The Boghdan ravine, though very narrow and tortuous, is well wooded -with small trees of poplar and willow, and with shrubs, chiefly of -_Hippophae_ and _Myricaria_. These plants are entirely confined to the -level bottom of the ravine, forming a belt, ten or twenty feet wide, -on each side of the little stream. After a descent of three miles, I -again joined the Shayuk, along which a journey of four days brought me -to Siksa, the principal village of Chorbat, encamping on the way at -the villages of Chulungka, Turtuk, and Pranu. - - [Sidenote: DISTRICT OF CHORBAT. - _October, 1847._] - -The district of Chorbat is a dependency of the government of Iskardo, -which, like that of Le, is subject to Kashmir. The desert country by -which Nubra and Chorbat are separated has, for the present, acted as -a barrier to the further extension eastward of the Mahommedan -religion, which is now universally that of the people of the whole of -the Iskardo (or Balti) district, as well as of Dras. On the Indus, and -in the valleys south of it, there is no uninhabited tract between the -two, so that the Mahommedan and Buddhist population are in direct -contact. The result is, that Mahommedanism is in that part gradually, -though very slowly, extending to the eastward. - -In this part of its course the Shayuk river is in general very rapid, -and is hemmed in so closely by the mountains on both sides, that -little space is left for the accumulation of alluvium, except where -considerable lateral streams join the main river. The barrier by which -Chorbat is separated from Nubra is the most contracted part of the -valley, and the general ruggedness by degrees becomes less marked as -we continue to descend the river. The mountains, everywhere steep, -rocky, and inaccessible, close in general to within a quarter of a -mile of one another, and their projecting spurs, at short intervals, -advance quite to the centre of the valley, forming deep bays, either -filled with sand or occasionally occupied by platforms of -conglomerate, on the top of which, where water is procurable, there is -generally a village. The river, winding from one side of its channel -to the other, washes the foot of each rocky spur, so that the road -frequently quits the level of the river to ascend abruptly the rocky -hills, which are often so steep as to be only accessible by means of -scaffoldings of wood, propped up against the face of the perpendicular -cliffs by trunks of trees. Once or twice the road lay at a great -height above the river for several miles, without descending at all to -its level. - - [Sidenote: BRIDGES. - _October, 1847._] - -The channel of the Shayuk is generally formed of coarse gravel or -large rolled stones, and immense boulders are everywhere scattered on -the level banks. The stream is rapid and deep, and the fall much more -considerable than in Nubra, Siksa being only about 9000 feet above the -sea. It is nowhere in the whole distance fordable; and as the villages -lie alternately on opposite sides of the river, I had occasion to -cross it three times before reaching Siksa. In every case a narrow and -rapid part of the river is selected, the bridges being composed of -poplar trunks, stretching from bank to bank, with a light and rude -hand-rail of hurdles to give support. Opposite Turtuk, the bridge, -which rests upon piers projecting on each side eight feet into the -river, measures twenty-five paces, so that the river is not more than -eighty feet wide. - -Where platforms of alluvium occupy the lateral ravines, they attain a -very great thickness, seldom less than two hundred feet, and -occasionally at least twice as much. They are generally cut off in -steep cliffs by the river, beautifully showing the structure of the -alluvium. In the sections of these masses of boulders and clay, I -several times observed that the strata, instead of being horizontal, -were highest in the middle and sloped gently downwards on either side. -This would indicate, I think, a local origin of these deposits, which -probably commenced under water, close to a ravine on the -mountain-side, and gradually extended, by the addition of successive -layers, till they met similar accumulations, derived from the opposite -side of the valley. - - [Sidenote: VILLAGES. - _October, 1847._] - -In the upper part of the district of Chorbat, the villages are few and -very insignificant, but lower down several are of great extent. -Chulungka, the highest village, consists of three or four houses, on a -small platform about fifty feet above the river. This village stood -formerly on the low ground close to the Shayuk, but the cultivable -soil at the lower level was entirely swept away by the flood of 1842, -so that the inhabitants were obliged to change the position of their -houses. The first considerable village is Turtuk, on the south side of -the river. Pranu, on the north side, is remarkable for the great -extent of its cultivation, and for several isolated rocks, behind -which the alluvium has accumulated to a thickness of at least six or -seven hundred feet. - -All the villages are surrounded by fine orchards of apricot-trees. -Walnut and mulberry trees are also common; and at Turtuk I saw a few -vines; these latter are, however, by no means generally cultivated in -the district. Willows are less frequent than in Nubra, but there are -plenty of poplars. The black poplar is the common species, but a white -downy-leaved species (_P. alba_), which is cultivated also in Kunawar, -and which seems to be indigenous in some of the Himalayan valleys -south of Kashmir, occurs for the first time at Turtuk. The fields are -everywhere terraced, and water seems to be very abundant. - - [Sidenote: ROCKS OF CHORBAT. - _October, 1847._] - -A very remarkable outburst of granite commences at the junction of the -Boghdan ravine with the Shayuk, and continues as far as Siksa, -altering the secondary rocks so that they can scarcely be recognized. -The granite is frequently in great mass, and usually occupies the -lowest part of the valley, sending out gigantic veins or branches into -the overlying slates, which are often transformed into a coarse -serpentine. The hard conglomerate which is associated with the slate, -seems the same as occurs in Lower Nubra, so that probably the slates -are also a continuation of the same series, and the whole may even be -connected with the conglomerates and slates of the Giah valley and of -the Indus below Le, the strike of which to the N.W. or N.N.W. would -carry them nearly in the direction of Chorbat. Here the intrusion of -the granite renders both dip and strike obscure, the beds being -frequently quite vertical. - -From Siksa, close to which there is a small fort or castle on an -isolated rock, a road leads across the Hanu pass into the valley of -the Indus. By this route Mr. Vigne proceeded when he abandoned his -intention of penetrating by the Shayuk to Nubra, and it has since been -crossed by several travellers at different times. It is, indeed, a -route very commonly adopted in travelling from Iskardo to Le, as the -lower part of the Shayuk is more open and practicable than the Indus -below the junction of the river of Dras. - - [Sidenote: PLAIN OF KHAPALU. - _October, 1847._] - -Below Siksa, the valley of the Shayuk continues narrow for eight or -ten miles. It then begins again to expand, and its width continues to -increase as far as Khapalu, which is situated near the centre of a -wide plain similar to that of Nubra, and, like that, coincident with -the junction of a large river from the north. It is certainly worthy -of note, that it is always at the point of junction of large -tributaries that the valley of the Shayuk is widest, and that the -evidences of the former existence of lakes are most evident, while in -the intermediate parts of its course the valley is narrow and rugged, -and shows no certain indications of having been at any period -lacustrine. - - [Sidenote: MACHULU RIVER. - _November, 1847._] - -The great axis of the plain of Khapalu is from south-east to -north-west, in the direction of the river Machulu, which runs through -a very open and wide gravelly plain, apparently for a considerable -distance. This stream, which is probably at least as large as the -Nubra river, has its source in heavily-snowed mountains to the north. -The general surface of the plain is gravelly, and its appearance on -the whole is so similar to that of Nubra that no detailed description -is necessary. The river divides in the open gravelly plain into -numerous branches, which separate to a considerable distance from one -another, and ramify very irregularly. There is not much alluvial -accumulation in this plain, except in the immediate vicinity of -Khapalu, where a very curious isolated rock of black slate rises -abruptly in the middle of the plain, its base being washed by one -branch of the Shayuk, now (after its junction with the Machulu) too -deep to be forded. Behind this rock there is an accumulation of -alluvium, forming a steep ridge six or seven hundred feet in height; -which it is necessary to cross in travelling from Surmu to Khapalu, as -the abruptness with which the clay-slate rock rises out of the water, -completely prevents a passage along the margin of the river. - -On the 2nd of November I forded the Shayuk a little below the village -of Abadan, where it runs in two branches, each about a hundred yards -wide, and with an average depth of about two feet. A little further -down it is joined by the Machulu, and it does not appear to be -anywhere fordable in its further course, even in winter, so that -probably the influx of water brought by that stream is very -considerable. I did not, however, see the junction, which is situated -on the north side of the plain, quite out of the direct road towards -the town of Khapalu. - -Where the valley is widest, the mountain ranges on both sides of the -river are well seen. The range south of the Shayuk rises close at hand -into a very steep mountain mass, now much snowed. A pass which leads -from Khapalu to Kartash was (I was informed) already shut up by snow, -and impracticable for travellers. To the north, up the wide valley of -the Machulu, the mountains are more distant, and the main chain of the -Muztagh is evidently fully in sight; the absence of hills close at -hand allowing a considerable extent of it to be seen; it was very -heavily snowed. The nearest, and apparently loftiest peak, bore N. 13 -W. (Magn.) from Surmu. - - [Sidenote: KHAPALU. - _November, 1847._] - -The principal villages of this open tract are Surmu and Khapalu, both -on the south side of the Shayuk, and separated from one another by a -high alluvial ridge, which rests on a bold scarped rock rising -immediately out of the river. Surmu has a very long and narrow tract -of cultivation, skirting the gravelly river-bed. It occupies the -slopes of a projecting platform of alluvium of no great height. In -this village many fields, on a level with the river, have evidently -been destroyed by the flood of 1842, as fruit-trees were still -standing among the gravel and shingle of the river-beds. Khapalu, on -the other hand, which is situated at the point of junction of a -considerable stream, occupies the surface of a thick bed of alluvium -of great extent, sloping very steeply from the apex of the triangle in -a recess among the mountains to its base, which is formed by the -Shayuk. The fort of Khapalu is perched at a great height on a -remarkable projecting scarped rock, just at the mouth of the ravine -behind the village. The cultivation has a width of not less than two -miles, and, as it abounds in fruit-trees, it must in summer, when the -fields are green and the trees are in leaf, be a place (for Tibet) of -considerable beauty. From the abruptness of the slope of the alluvial -platform, the terrace-walls of the fields are very high, often as much -as six feet. The fruit-trees are the same as those commonly cultivated -in Nubra and Chorbat; the elm and _Elaeagnus_ of Nubra are also common, -as well as the white poplar. At Khapalu there are also a few -plane-trees, which do not extend further east. - -The _Lycium_ of Nubra, which had entirely disappeared in the narrow -and rocky parts of the Shayuk, reappeared as soon as the valley spread -out into a gravelly plain, being common at Abadan, and abundant at -Surmu and Khapalu. A species of berberry, a genus wanting in the -higher parts of the Shayuk (except in the mountains, where a small -alpine species is occasionally seen), was found in Surmu. The species -was apparently identical with the common berberry of Europe, which -extends even into the drier valleys of the Himalaya. I also recognized -a few other new plants--a small, almost herbaceous _Sophora_ was one -of these, and, still more remarkable, _Peganum Harmala_, a species -which extends from the Mediterranean flora as far east as the Punjab, -and which indicates a very considerable amount of summer heat. - -The shrubby _Hippophae_ is still very plentiful, but, either from more -careful cultivation, or because the nature of the slopes prevents the -formation of swampy margins to the little irrigation streams, it does -not spread to so great an extent over the cultivated tracts, which, -therefore, in the winter season look considerably more bare than those -around the villages of Nubra. - -The height of the bed of the Shayuk at Khapalu may be roughly -estimated at about 8000 feet, as the determination of the -boiling-point of water at my tent, which was high up in the village, -gave an elevation of 8300 feet. I arrived at Khapalu from Surmu on the -3rd of November, and remained there during the 4th. The weather, which -for some days had been very unsettled and disagreeable, suddenly -cleared up on the 2nd of November, and continued for nearly a week -very fine, the days being uniformly bright and sunny, with a gentle -wind blowing up the valley of the Shayuk. The temperature in the sun -was extremely agreeable, though the shade maximum was never much -higher than 50 deg. The nights were clear and cold, the thermometer -falling at Khapalu more than 14 deg. below the freezing-point. - -A little below Khapalu I found a number of people washing the sand of -the Indus for gold; but the produce seemed to be very trifling, and -the work is only carried on during winter, when labour is of no value -for other purposes. I purchased for a rupee (paying, I believe, a good -deal more than the value) the produce in gold-dust of one man's -labour for three weeks. I suppose, however, he only worked -occasionally. - - [Sidenote: BRAGHAR. - _November, 1847._] - -Below Khapalu the valley of the Shayuk again begins to contract, but -the open plain may be considered to extend for some way below the -village of Braghar, where a large tributary joins from the north, and -to which place there is a great deal of cultivation, especially on the -right bank. Immediately below Braghar, there is a remarkable saline -grassy plain, very swampy, and traversed by numerous small streamlets, -in which a _Chara_ and a linear-leaved _Potamogeton_ were abundant. -Below this plain the mountain spurs close in upon the river, -contracting its channel very much, and frequently preventing all -passage along the bank. The narrow portion of the river extends within -a few miles of Iskardo, or for at least thirty miles of river -distance. Throughout this tract the valley is very similar to that -between Nubra and Chorbat. Villages are numerous, occupying very -elevated platforms, on which there is frequently luxuriant -cultivation. In many of the narrowest and most rugged places there is -no passage along the river, and the road crosses spurs of considerable -elevation. - -Between Kunes and Kuru the narrowness of the river is probably at its -maximum, as the road lies altogether along a ridge, elevated perhaps a -thousand feet, to which the ascents and descents are extremely abrupt. -Many parts of this ridge are capped with alluvium, which occurs in -many places along this part of the course of the Shayuk in very great -quantity. The largest village on this part of the river is Kiris, -situated just above the junction of the Shayuk and Indus, on a nearly -level alluvial platform of large size. Round Kiris there is a very -extensive deposit of lacustrine clay, very fine, and horizontally -stratified. Good sections of this, sometimes at least fifty feet in -thickness, are exposed east of Kiris, not far from the Shayuk. I did -not observe any fossils; but in so cursory an inspection as I was able -to make, it is very probable that I may have overlooked them. - - [Sidenote: JUNCTION OF SHAYUK WITH INDUS. - _November, 1847._] - -The junction of the Shayuk and Indus rivers takes place a little way -below Kiris. The Shayuk is considerably wider and more rapid than the -Indus, but much less deep, so that neither river so decidedly -preponderates over the other as to enable their relative size to be -determined at a glance. Probably the discharge of the two will be -found nearly equal. The direction of the united streams is the same as -that of the Shayuk, which the Indus joins nearly at a right angle. - -The granitic and slate rocks of the district of Chorbat are continued -unaltered as far as the junction of the Indus and Shayuk. In many -places the granite so predominates as to form almost the whole mass of -the mountains, but more generally there is also a good deal of slate. -The schists are of very various appearance; a very hard black slate is -the most common, but in contact with and near the granite many -portions of the slaty mass are quite undistinguishable from gneiss. -The direction and inclination of the dip vary extremely. In general -the granitic veins appear to be parallel to the strata of schist, but -instances are not unfrequent where vertical strata of schist are cut -through by horizontal veins of granite. - - [Sidenote: NAR. - _November, 1847._] - -On the 9th of November I encamped at Kiris, and next day I passed the -junction of the Indus and Shayuk. The direction of the united streams -soon becomes nearly due north, and it flows for many miles through a -very narrow ravine, along which the road is of a most difficult -nature, partly high on the mountains, partly on platforms of alluvium, -and occasionally over angular blocks of rock, which are piled in -enormous heaps along the banks of the river. At the most northerly -point of the river, where the ravine is narrowest, I passed through -the cultivated lands of the village of Nar, which extend for more than -two miles on the surface of an alluvial platform many hundred feet -above the bottom of the valley. Leaving this village, I continued to -ascend, and entirely lost sight of the Indus, which flowed to the -south-west, while the road kept winding among rocky hills, gradually -ascending to the crest of a low pass, among rocks of black slate, -which entirely prevented me from seeing the nature of the surrounding -country. From the summit of the ascent I descended gradually down a -narrow valley, and emerging at last rather suddenly on an open plain, -I found myself in sight of the valley of Iskardo, which presented to -the eye an expanse of level ground much greater than I had seen since -leaving Khapalu, to which and to Nubra the district round Iskardo -bears a very close resemblance. - -When the road entered the open country, at the north-east corner of -the plain of Iskardo, it lay for miles over loose sand, utterly -barren, forming low undulating hills, which rested upon a deposit of -pure white clay. Three miles from Iskardo, a spur from the northern -mountains advances close to the river, and the road skirting the -latter is for a short distance rocky and uneven. Soon, however, it -again enters a tract of bare sand, which extends as far as the ferry -immediately above the town of Iskardo. The river, being here -unfordable, is crossed by means of a flat-bottomed boat. - - [Sidenote: ISKARDO. - _November, 1847._] - -The plain of Iskardo, which surrounds the junction of the Shigar river -with the Indus, is nearly twenty miles in length, and has an average -breadth of about five miles. It is elevated about 7200 feet above the -level of the sea. In its very centre, on the south bank of the Indus, -and opposite to the junction of the Shigar river, an isolated rock of -black slate rises to the height of nearly a thousand feet, directly -overhanging the Indus, parallel to which it stretches for nearly a -mile. It is faced on all sides by perpendicular cliffs, inaccessible -except at the west end, where a steep and difficult path leads to the -summit, which is a long narrow ridge. - -The name Iskardo is a Mahommedan corruption of a Tibetan name Skardo, -or Kardo, as it is very commonly pronounced; but as the -first-mentioned name is most familiar to foreigners, and is likely to -become universal, as well from the inhabitants of the district being -all Mahommedans, as from the country being now subject to Kashmir, it -is better, I think, to retain it, than to attempt to substitute the -more pure Tibetan pronunciation. - - [Illustration: ISKARDO - _From South-east of the Valley._ - - _Pl. II._ - - J. W. del. W. L. Walton, Lithog. - Printed by Hullmandel & Walton.] - - - - -The mountains which surround the Iskardo plain rise at once with great -abruptness, and are very steep and bare. Those on the south side, -derived from the range which separates the Indus from the table-land -of Deotsu, the axis of which is not more than ten or fifteen -miles distant, rise very abruptly in rocky pinnacles, covered, at the -time I reached the valley, with much snow. Two spurs from this range -run forward to the Indus, one five miles east of Iskardo, the other -about three miles to the west of it, dividing the whole south side of -the valley into three deep bays, each watered by a considerable -stream, whose source is in the southern mountains. The mountains on -the north side, the terminal spurs of two great branches of the -Kuenlun or Muztagh, which flank the Shigar river, are considerably -lower, but equally barren and desolate. - -The river Indus traverses the open valley in an extremely winding -course. At one time it washes the base of the cliffs which terminate -the projecting mountain spurs; at another it flows between high banks -of alluvial conglomerate or of fine clay. Not unfrequently these -clayey cliffs recede to a considerable distance from the river, in -which case the intervening space is generally sandy. A small branch of -the stream, at times little more than a chain of pools, often runs -close to the cliffs, indicating a former channel of the river; and -when this is the case, the low ground between the two channels is -often swampy and grassy. - -The bed of the Indus in this part of its course is very little -inclined, the stream flowing in general very gently over a sandy bed, -its surface quite smooth and tranquil, occasionally only a little -rippled in turning round a projecting rocky spur, where its bottom is -gravelly and the inclination perhaps a little greater. Opposite -Iskardo the Indus is even in the depth of winter a noble stream, -often more than 500 feet wide, and nine or ten feet deep in the -centre. - -Iskardo occupies a nearly level plain of fine alluvial clay elevated -fifty or sixty feet above the river, and extending from the isolated -rock which overhangs the Indus towards the mountains on the south side -of the valley. To the right and left of the rocky hill, two small -streams have excavated for themselves out of the soft clay deep and -wide ravines, which are covered with coarse gravel, and are faced by -more or less steep banks of clay or sand. The surface of the platform -on which all the cultivated ground lies is watered by means of -artificial canals, brought from a distance of nearly two miles, from -the point where the streams issue from among the hills. - -The neighbourhood of the rock of Iskardo was doubtless selected as the -site of the principal town of the kingdom of Balti, from the -advantages which it afforded as a place of defence; and in the days of -the independence of the country a fortified palace occupied its -eastern extremity, while the western and more accessible end was -apparently protected by a series of rude works. The principal -buildings of the palace seem to have been at the very base of the -rock. A mass of ruins, showing large blocks of well-hewn stone, -fragments of marble fountains, and some solid walls supporting -terraces, which appear at one time to have been gardens, alone remain -to show the former magnificence of the place. A mausoleum, raised to -the memory of the last independent king, Ahmed Shah, perched on a rock -perhaps 300 feet above the plain, is still untouched and uninjured. - -An aqueduct or canal extends in a direct line from the palace towards -the mountains, a distance of at least a mile. It is an exceedingly -massive work, consisting of two walls raised perhaps fifteen feet -above the level of the plain, and built of very large blocks of hewn -stone. The intervening space is filled with earth. At present, a small -conduit, a foot or so wide, brings all the water which is required for -the use of the inhabitants of Iskardo; but a very large quantity might -be conveyed along the aqueduct, and the work is so strong and -substantial that very little repair would be requisite to restore it -to its original condition. - -The fortified post of the present rulers of the country is built on -the margin of the platform of alluvium, on the right bank of the -little stream which joins the Indus to the east of the rock of -Iskardo, and is separated by a hollow from the palace and the -principal part of the village. It is built of unburnt brick, and is -extremely irregular in shape, with rounded bastions at the angles. - -The houses of Iskardo are very much scattered over a large extent of -surface, so that there is no appearance of a town; nor is the -population in the immediate neighbourhood of the rock so extensive as -that of some of the more remote villages in the valley, and especially -of those on the banks of the Shigar river, which are very richly -cultivated. Many of the Iskardo houses, however, are very good, being -often of two stories, and built of unburnt bricks in a framework of -wood. Latticed windows, covered with paper or small plates of mica, -are also common. The roofs are all flat, and covered with mud beaten -hard. - - [Sidenote: LACUSTRINE CLAY. - _November, 1847._] - -The lacustrine clay formation occurs in great quantity throughout the -valley of Iskardo, and is nowhere seen in greater perfection than in -the immediate neighbourhood of the town, where the cliffs facing the -Indus, and those along the little lateral streams which descend from -the south, exhibit an abundance of sections of these beds. The height -of the cliffs is very variable; but it is seldom less than thirty -feet, and to the east of the town is as much as a hundred feet. The -clay formation varies much in appearance, being most commonly a very -fine unctuous cream-coloured clay, stratified quite horizontally, but -occasionally gritty and mixed with numerous particles of mica. Now and -then thin beds of sand and of small waterworn pebbles alternate with -the finer clays. In many places near the rock of Iskardo, the beds are -very irregular, undulating a good deal, and at times exhibiting very -remarkable flexures, as if the isolated rocky mass (which must have -once been under water) had formed eddies in the lake, and prevented -that regularity of deposition which is elsewhere so universal. - -Fossils are very rare in these clays, but occurred in several -different localities. Close to Iskardo I once found a very few small -specimens of a _Lymnaea_ and _Planorbis_, but after repeatedly -searching carefully did not succeed in obtaining any more. I was more -fortunate in two places east of Iskardo, where fresh-water shells are -sufficiently common in one or two thin seams of very fine clay, mixed -with a good deal of apparently vegetable matter. The great mass of the -clay is, however, quite non-fossiliferous. - -The surface of the clay formation round Iskardo is very undulating, -and is often covered with masses of large boulders. Opposite two of -the ravines which penetrate the mountains on the southern side of the -valley, two very remarkable banks of boulders project forward into the -valley. They consist of very large fragments of rock, angular or more -or less rounded, piled on one another to a height of forty or fifty -feet. They terminate abruptly, and are, I think, evidently moraines. - -On the very top of the isolated rock, in the middle of the Iskardo -plain, horizontal beds of coarse sandstone rest upon the hard -clay-slate of which the rock is composed. This sandstone crumbles with -great ease in the hand, the particles of which it is composed being -very slightly coherent. These beds, in which I could find no traces of -shells or of vegetable remains, are elevated at least 800 or 1000 feet -above the level of the Indus. The sandstone seems to cap the whole -hill, but is exposed only in a few places, being in a great measure -covered by the loose drift or alluvium which has been deposited above -it. - - [Sidenote: VEGETATION. - _November, 1847._] - -The vegetation of Iskardo had so entirely disappeared, that I was able -to form very little idea of its nature. A few shrubby species, and -some withered fragments of autumn flowering plants, alone remained. On -the whole, I was struck with the similarity of the few plants which I -recognized with those of Nubra and Le. _Artemisiae_ and _Chenopodiaceae_ -were still abundant. _Hippophae_ was the universal shrub along all the -streamlets, and _Lycium_ was common in sandy places; a berberry (the -same already seen at Khapalu) was also frequent. The few novelties -were Kashmir plants. _Lycopsis arvensis_, _Prunella vulgaris_, a -thistle, a species of _Sium_, some gentians, and _Ranunculus -aquatilis_, were the most Indian forms which I met with. From the -mountains I procured specimens of a juniper (_J. excelsa_), and of the -alpine birch of the Himalaya, which skirts the southern borders of the -Tibetan region, without extending into the driest parts of that -country. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - - Leave Iskardo in the direction of Kashmir -- First march - through snow to Turgu -- Lacustrine clay -- it extends into - narrow valleys beyond Nar -- Gol -- Junction of Indus and - Shayuk -- Parkuta -- Tolti -- Kartash -- Extensive lacustrine - deposits -- Tarkata -- Road turns up the Dras river -- Ulding - Thung -- Fall of snow -- Hardas -- Karbu -- Continued snow -- - Dras -- Find pass in front shut by deep snow -- Obliged to - return to Iskardo -- Rafts and rope-bridges on Indus -- - _Elaeagnus_ and Apricot apparently wild -- Winter at Iskardo. - - - [Sidenote: UPPER PART OF ISKARDO PLAIN. - _December, 1847._] - -On the 2nd of December I left Iskardo, in the direction of Kashmir, by -way of Dras, all other routes being shut with snow. My first march was -to Turgu, seven miles. The ground was all the way covered with snow -which had fallen during the night, but it thawed a good deal during -the day, making the journey rather unpleasant. The road lay along the -south bank of the river, at first over the level platform of -lacustrine clay, among large boulders, which were scattered over its -surface, but soon descending by a narrow and steep footpath, on the -face of the clayey cliff, to the level of the river, to cross a deep -bay, from which the clay formation has been entirely removed, to a -large village three miles from Iskardo, through the cultivation of -which the road ascended gradually, and proceeded on the barren stony -slopes behind. About five miles from Iskardo, a spur, from the -mountain range on the south, which abuts in a scarped cliff upon the -river, has been taken advantage of by the inhabitants to build a small -gateway, through which the road is made to run. The extreme steepness -of the mountain mass which lies to the south and east, makes it -scarcely possible to approach Iskardo along the south bank of the -river from these directions, without passing through this gateway, -and, therefore, a small party of soldiers is kept on this rocky pass -by the Sikh rulers of the country. A species of _Daphne_ was very -common on the rocky hills about this pass, apparently an evergreen, as -it was in full leaf in the midst of the snow. From the higher parts of -the road, and from the rocky pass which overhangs the river, there is -an extensive view over the barren sandy waste on the north bank of the -river. The lacustrine clay is, at this end of the valley, very thick -and but little excavated, forming cliffs which rise close to the -river, which has, as it were, worn for itself a narrow channel in the -clay formation. The banks or cliffs are of very different heights, and -many of them consist of alluvial gravel and boulders, overlying and -quite obscuring the clays. Behind Turgu, and in many places on the -last part of the march, there are great masses of angular fragments of -rock piled into a steeply sloping mass, as if they had fallen from the -mountains behind, but so mixed with smaller fragments and with gravel, -that it seems probable that they were accumulated under water. - - [Sidenote: WATERWORN ROCKS. - _December, 1847._] - -The next day's march, from Turgu to Gol, round the great bend of the -Indus, was entirely barren. On the western side of the curve several -rocky spurs were crossed, but after the road turns to the south it -runs generally on the surface of very elevated platforms of coarse -alluvial debris, covered in many places with enormous boulders, partly -derived, in all probability, from the fall of masses of rock from the -cliffs above, but in more than one place so curiously arranged, at the -apertures of lateral ravines, as to be, I think, almost certainly of -glacial origin. Many of the large boulders which occurred in the -alluvium were observed to be much waterworn, spherical cavities being -worn out in them. Similar waterworn rocks were also seen _in situ_ at -great heights above the river, in places to which no water has at -present access, and where it is difficult to understand in what way -the effect was produced. Behind the alluvial platforms, which are -generally one or two hundred feet above the level of the river, the -mountains rise precipitously, in cliffs of granite, which has now -replaced the slate rocks of Iskardo. - - [Sidenote: EXTENT OF LACUSTRINE CLAY. - _December, 1847._] - -At the point where the river changes its direction from north to -south-west, the mountains on the southern bank advance quite to the -river, and on the north side also they approach very near. It would -therefore, at first sight, appear that the lake, in which the clay -formation of Iskardo has been deposited, had here terminated to the -eastward, no clay being seen in the narrow ravine above Nar, or near -the river anywhere between Nar and Gol. I had at first no doubt that I -had reached the eastern extremity of the lake; but some time after -passing the most northerly point of the ravine I observed a patch of -very fine cream-coloured clay, quite similar to the finest portions of -the Iskardo formation, clinging in a remarkable position on the flank -of a very steep rocky cliff, not less than 1000 or 1200 feet above the -river. Several other patches came into sight soon after, all high up -on the mountain-sides; one above the village of Golochu, and others at -intervals all the way to the junction of the Indus and Shayuk. I -cannot, therefore, doubt that the lake in which the clay beds of Kiris -were deposited, was the same as that which occupied the Iskardo basin; -nor does it seem easy to fix its exact boundaries. The great height of -the patches of clay, in the narrow channel above Nar, show that the -depth of the lake had been very considerable; and if we assume a depth -of 1500 feet, which seems necessary, and at the same time admit the -arrangement of the ancient rocks to have been the same as at present, -we must either suppose some great barrier to have existed in the -narrow passage below Khapalu, or must admit that the Khapalu lake was -also continuous with that of Iskardo. I did not, however, observe any -beds of fine clay higher up than Kuru, in the narrow part of the -ravine of the Shayuk, which would warrant the drawing such a -conclusion; although vast masses of alluvium certainly abound there, -piled at great heights above the river. Is it possible that these may -at one time have been continuous, and have blocked up the whole -valley, and that the portions now seen capping ridges, whose origin is -otherwise inexplicable, are the last remnants of a continuous mass -which occupied the whole interspace? and if so, to what are we to -ascribe the deposition of such an enormous mass of alluvium-like -accumulation? - - [Sidenote: JUNCTION OF INDUS WITH SHAYUK. - _December, 1847._] - -To the eastward of the village of Gol the valley of the Indus again -becomes a little wider, an open sandy plain extending round the -junction of the two rivers. The cultivation round Gol is on a high -platform of alluvium; but the road descends, soon after leaving the -village, nearly to the level of the river, and continues over the low -ground, skirting the mountains of the southern bank, till it reaches -the junction of the two rivers, where it turns abruptly to the south, -ascending the left bank of the Indus, which runs nearly due north in a -narrow rocky ravine. A bluff projecting ridge of granite, sixty or -eighty feet high, polished on the surface by aqueous action, and of a -brilliantly brown-black colour, so that the nature of the rock is only -discoverable by breaking it, here advances close to the river, and is -crossed by a steep sinuous path, eked out by flights of steps, with -wooden supports, where it would otherwise be impracticable. The Indus -is here very narrow and deep, and runs with an extremely rapid -current. The path, after crossing this ridge, again descends to the -level of the river. Even in this narrow ravine I was surprised to find -the fine cream-coloured clay of the lacustrine formation, similar to -many of the beds of the same deposit round Iskardo. It was here quite -on a level with the river. - - [Sidenote: INDUS VALLEY. - _December, 1847._] - -The mountains rise on both sides of the Indus very abruptly, being -almost always precipitous. From the narrowness of the valley the great -elevation of these is not seen, and the lesser height of those on the -right bank of the Indus, which form the termination of the chain -separating that river from the Shayuk, is not brought prominently to -notice. For more than two miles, the ravine continues very narrow, -and several steep spurs are crossed. It then becomes gradually a -little wider, narrow platforms of conglomerate skirting the stream, -and changes its direction from nearly due south to south-east. The -right bank is stony and unproductive the whole way, but on the left -there is one small village, three miles from the junction of the -Shayuk, and thence after three miles of desert, a succession of small -villages continuing with little intermission on the surface of -alluvial platforms as far as Parkuta, at which I encamped. In one of -the villages a good many small juniper-trees were seen. - -The lacustrine clay formation, though not continuous throughout the -whole of this day's march, may be traced in patches, with so little -interval that its former continuity cannot be doubted. The spots in -which I observed its presence in the narrow ravine were all close to -the river, the low level of the road not permitting an extended view -of the higher slopes of the mountains. Further up, however, patches -were in my subsequent April journey seen at considerable elevations, -but in December the slopes were covered with snow to within a thousand -feet of the river. In several places the clay formed cliffs, which -rose perpendicularly from the Indus, and could be seen to be covered -with modern alluvium deposited during floods, just as the ancient -rocks are in other places. The clay appeared everywhere extremely -fine, without any intermixture of sand or micaceous grains. I saw no -appearance of fossils, which I think never occur in the very fine -cream-coloured clays, but seem always to accompany more sandy, or at -least gritty varieties, as if the influx of a small stream, and -probably the proximity of land, were requisite to the existence of -testaceous mollusks; while the central part of the lake, in which the -very finest clays were deposited, was quite devoid of them. - - [Sidenote: PARKUTA. - _December, 1847._] - -Parkuta is a very large village, three or four hundred feet above the -river, occupying both slopes of a deep ravine cut in the thick mass of -alluvium by a large stream from the south. The alluvium is scarped -towards the Indus, and a low granitic hill, the cause of its -accumulation to such a height, just rises above the general surface of -the platform. This is covered with a mass of buildings, formerly the -residence of the Rajah of Parkuta, a branch of the same family who -ruled at Iskardo, and dependent on them while that state remained -independent; he has, however, been removed by the Sikhs, and his house -is at present untenanted. The village is large, with extensive -cultivation, and many fine fruit-trees. Vines are plentiful, climbing -over the poplars. - - [Sidenote: TOLTI. - _December, 1847._] - -On the 5th of December my day's journey carried me to Tolti, a -distance of twelve miles. The valley continued narrow, and the -mountains rose precipitously on both sides. On the early part of the -march there were many villages, and much cultivation on the left bank. -The village of Urdi, three or four miles from Parkuta, seemed very -populous, and extended for a great distance along the river. It was -remarkable for an aqueduct supported on pillars of stone, which -crossed a ravine immediately above the village. At this spot the -cultivation terminated abruptly, and the alluvial platform was for -more than a mile, during which space it gradually narrowed by the -encroachments of the cliffs, covered with an accumulation of very -large granitic boulders, which seemed to have fallen on it from the -mountains behind. - - [Sidenote: KARTASH. - _December, 1847._] - -As I approached Tolti the valley of the Indus became much more rugged -and narrow. A long gentle ascent to a ridge more than a thousand feet -above the bottom of the valley, but which dipped abruptly to the -river, occupied the latter part of the march. At Tolti the belt of -cultivation is very narrow, just skirting the river on very narrow -platforms of alluvium, which are irrigated by artificial canals -carried with considerable labour between the fields and the mountains. -Tolti was the most gloomy village which I had yet seen, the -precipitous mountains forming a circle all round it, and almost -shutting out the light of day. The bird's-nest fort in the ravine -behind the village, perched on the top of a rock (in a most untenable -position, though probably well suited for defence against sudden -attack), accorded well with the gloomy aspect of the place. The -temperature was here considerably lower than in the more open valley, -as large patches of snow lay still unmelted in the fields, though four -days had elapsed since its fall. At Gol, two days before, it had quite -melted. On a bank a mile or two below Tolti, I saw a few trees of -_Populus Euphratica_, just recognizable by a few withered leaves which -still remained on the tree. - -From Tolti, I made three marches to Tarkata, a small village on the -Indus, six miles below its junction with the river of Dras. The -general aspect of the valley of the Indus was but little changed in -this distance, notwithstanding a very long and remarkable bend of the -river above Kartash, in which its direction is to the eastward of -north. From Tolti, the easiest road in an upward direction crosses the -Indus, and proceeds on the right bank; but to avoid the labour of -crossing, I suppose, my guides conducted me by a road on the left -bank. On this side, the lower part of the valley is so steep as to be -impracticable; and I found it necessary to ascend at once from Tolti -on a stony ridge, almost directly away from the river. The ascent was -long and fatiguing; the ridge being capped, in the same manner as that -above Kunes on the Shayuk, with masses of alluvium. The ridge was more -than 1500 feet above the river, and its upper part was covered with -snow, through which the path lay for four or five miles, after which -it descended very abruptly to the river, which had been in sight -almost all the way, generally running among precipitous rocks, but -with a few villages scattered at intervals on the northern bank. After -regaining the bank of the river, the road was for five or six miles -nearly level, passing opposite the village of Kartash, with a fort on -a hill. Here still resides the Rajah Ali Sher Khan, the most -intelligent of the princes of Balti; though now past the prime of -life, he still retains the intelligence and kind hospitality for which -he is so deservedly praised by Vigne. - - [Sidenote: INDUS VALLEY. - _December, 1847._] - -Kartash being situated at the northern or lower end of the great bend -of the Indus, and in an extremely narrow part of the ravine, is a most -sombre-looking place. It is possible, however, that in summer, when -the villages are green with cultivation and fruit-trees, the -appearance of this and other places may be less gloomy, and that, from -having only seen this part of Tibet in the depth of winter, I may be -disposed to regard it in too unfavourable a point of view. The abrupt -and precipitous rise of the mountains on all sides must undoubtedly -tend strongly to modify the summer temperature, which, from the want -of rain, and the reflection from masses of bare rock, would otherwise -be oppressive. The fort seems to have some good buildings, and to be -kept in excellent order, and the village looked extensive and -prosperous. - -All along the narrow ravine, from Tolti nearly as far as Tarkata, -deposits of alluvium were very extensively developed, not only in the -valley of the river, but at considerable heights on the ridges. There -was, however, I believe, none of the lacustrine clay, as -contradistinguished from the coarser alluvium. I speak here with -considerable hesitation, as I find with regret that I have not in my -notes attended with sufficient care to the distinction between the -two, not having at the time sufficiently adverted to their probably -different origin. I am now disposed to think that in the narrow ravine -above Tolti was situated the barrier which bounded on the east the -lake basin of Iskardo, a vast inland sea, which must have extended -thence in a north-westerly direction as far as Rondu. This barrier, if -my supposition be correct, must have consisted of a mass of coarse -drift or alluvium, entirely blocking up the narrow ravine to a height -of three thousand feet or more above the present level of the Indus. - -The mountains all along this ravine are extremely elevated, the peaks -above Kartash (from which a pass leads to Khapalu on the Shayuk) -being, I should think, not less than 18,000 feet. The bareness and -desolation of their sides exceeded anything I had seen since leaving -Iskardo, and quite equalled the most rugged parts of Tibet which I had -yet visited. They consisted of large masses of rock, split and -fractured in every direction, often very precipitous, without a -vestige of soil, and with scarcely the slightest traces of vegetation. -Immense tracts, both along the river and on the slopes of the ravines -descending from the mountains, were covered with boulders or with -angular fragments of rock, strewed irregularly on the surface, or -piled in masses one on another. Granite formed the great mass of the -mountains, mixed with stratified rocks, which were always highly -metamorphic, but extremely variable in appearance, sometimes, though -rarely, having the appearance of ordinary gneiss. A singular -porphyritic rock appeared (as boulders) along the river in one place -only. - -About two miles west of Tarkata, the Indus resumes its more usual -direction, and, at the same time, its valley becomes somewhat more -open, the mountains, without any diminution of elevation, receding -considerably from the river. Their lower slopes present a very -different aspect from those in other parts of the Indus, being -composed not of primitive rock, but of a soft and almost incoherent -sandstone, alternating irregularly and without any definite order with -boulder conglomerate, and fine clay. These beds, which are very -extensively developed on both sides of the river, around the village -of Tarkata, for some distance in both directions, attain a thickness -of at least six or seven hundred feet. They are, however, very -irregular, forming a succession of ridges separated by deep ravines or -gullies, on the sides of which fine sections of the strata are -generally exposed, showing them to be uniformly horizontal, and to -consist of a great many alternations of sand, clay, and drift. Above -Tarkata, very fine clays were abundant. - - [Sidenote: SOFT SANDSTONE ROCKS. - _December, 1847._] - -The sandstone, of which a greater part of these curious deposits -consists, is formed principally of coarse grains of quartz, which only -cohere very slightly, and easily crumble under pressure. It is quite -similar in appearance to the sandstone which occurs on the summit of -the rock of Iskardo, differing only in being very much more -extensively developed than that is, and in being associated and -alternating with the very fine clays resembling those which occupy the -lower levels of the valley of Iskardo. The sandstones of Tarkata did -not appear to be fossiliferous, nor did I, in the slight examination I -was able to give them, discover any shells in the fine clays in this -neighbourhood. The general similarity, however, of these deposits to -the lacustrine clays of the Iskardo valley, makes it nearly certain -that their origin is similar, while the association of the sandstones -and the fine clays in the neighbourhood of Tarkata, renders it -probable that I am right in assuming the arenaceous beds of the summit -of the rock of Iskardo to be lacustrine. - - [Sidenote: FLOATING ICE. - _December, 1847._] - -Ever since leaving Iskardo, the weather had been very unsettled, but -no more snow had fallen. The sky had been pretty generally overcast -with light clouds, and during the day the wind had almost invariably -blown down the river, generally with great violence, and, especially -in the narrowest parts of the valley, in furious gusts, against which -it was most laborious to make any progress. The mornings had been -always frosty, but the temperature rose in the middle of the day -several degrees above 32 deg. On the 8th of December, a sudden increase -of cold seemed to take place, the temperature not rising above the -freezing-point. Large cakes of ice, which appeared early on the -morning of that day, floating down the river, indicated an evident -commencement of very severe weather in the upper part of its course, -and the descent of such masses of ice, in cakes of from one to ten -feet in diameter, tended very much to lower the temperature of all -parts of the river to which they extended. The elevation of Tarkata I -found to be 7800 feet above the sea. - -The road from Iskardo to Kashmir leaves the valley of the Indus at the -junction of the river of Dras, and follows the course of that river -almost to its source. The lower part of the valley of Dras is a deep -and narrow rocky ravine, bordered by precipices of granite, which are -so steep that the bottom of the valley is quite inaccessible. In -passing from the Indus into the valley of Dras, the road crosses the -granitic spur which separates the two rivers, at an elevation of about -2000 feet above the Indus, ascending to this height very rapidly along -a steep spur, which recedes almost in a perpendicular direction from -that river. From the shoulder of this ridge, which was elevated -probably about 10,000 feet, the course of the Indus was visible for -some distance above the junction of the river of Dras. It appeared to -be hemmed in very closely by rocky mountain spurs. A good many patches -of fine lacustrine clay were in sight, on both banks. - - [Sidenote: VALLEY OF DRAS. - _December, 1847._] - -From the same ridge, the view up the Dras valley was very remarkable. -The river of that name, which formed many deep pools and was partially -frozen, ran at the bottom of a deep gorge. On the right bank opposite -to where I stood, a sheer precipice rose nearly to a level with my -eye. Between the ridge on which I stood and the next in succession up -the Dras valley, an open and shallow valley, everywhere strewed with -enormous blocks of granite, sloped gently till it approached the brink -of the almost perpendicular cliffs which overhang the Dras river. -Crossing this open valley, and the low spur beyond it, I encamped at a -small village called Ulding Thung, situated at the point of junction -of the Dras river, with a considerable tributary descending from the -west. - -This little village occupies the gentle slope of a hill-side, but I -encamped at the lowest part of it, which was a small level plain -surrounded by a number of giant boulders, resting on the upper edge of -a very steep slope, and evidently, I think, of glacial origin. They -were quite angular, and not less than from twenty to thirty feet in -length. - -On the slope of the hill above my encampment at Ulding, the lacustrine -clay formation again occurred in great quantity. It was a very fine -impalpable clay, without fossils, and was here (as is not uncommon -elsewhere) dug out by the inhabitants for the purpose of extracting -its salt, which is obtained in a state of brine by simply washing the -clay with water. The elevation of this clay formation was probably a -good deal more than 8500 feet, but not greater than that of many of -the hills and patches of similar deposit around Tarkata in the valley -of the Indus. - -At daybreak on the morning of the 18th of December I found that -between three and four inches of snow had fallen during the night. It -had ceased snowing at that time; and during the day, which was stormy -and often very cloudy, no more fell. There was a good deal of thaw -during the day, and towards evening the snow, except in sheltered -spots, was nearly melted. My day's journey was about ten miles, to the -village of Hardas, on the left bank of the Dras river; passing about -two miles before the end of the march the river of Kargyl or Pashkyum, -a very large stream which descends from the south-east. During the -earlier part of this day, the road was extremely bad. It descended -from Ulding abruptly to the level of the Dras river, to cross at its -point of junction a large tributary whose source is in the eastern -slopes of Deotsu. A succession of steep ascents and descents followed -for four or five miles, throughout which distance the ravine through -which the river ran was narrow and precipitous and quite without -villages. Further up, the valley widened a little, the mountains rose -less steeply, and left narrow strips of level ground along the margin -of the stream. - - [Sidenote: SNOW STORM. - _December, 1847._] - -Very early on the morning of the 11th of December, it began again to -snow, and continued with little intermission throughout the day. I -marched ten miles to Karbu, crossing the river three miles above -Hardas, and keeping on the right bank during the remainder of the day. -I could see that the valley was wider than the day before, but the -incessant snow made the appearance of the country undistinguishable. -The margins of the stream were occasionally fringed with bushes of -poplar and willow. Karbu is a village high up a steep lateral valley, -with scattered groves of juniper on the sides of the hills above the -cultivation. By evening the depth of snow was about fifteen inches. - -On the 12th of December, after marching five miles through a heavy -fall of snow to the village of Tashgang, crossing the river by a -wooden bridge close to the village, a violent storm of wind and -snow-drift, blowing directly down the valley, compelled me to halt for -the night. The snow-storm continued till about eight P.M., when the -weather cleared, and the night was clear and starlight. Next morning, -the weather continuing fine, I was able to proceed to Dras. The depth -of snow had increased to about two feet; and the labour of progressing -through this depth of untrodden snow was much increased by the -shortness of the steps of the porters, treading exactly after one -another, so as to form pits in the snow, not more than a foot apart, -and alternately on the right and left. - - [Sidenote: DRAS. - _December, 1847._] - -I reached the Sikh fort at Dras, which was distant eleven miles, about -two o'clock; the road was pretty level and the valley open, with low -hills on either hand. The depth of snow increased as I advanced, and -was three feet in the plain round the fort. Here I was greeted by the -most unwelcome tidings, that my advance so far was fruitless, the pass -in front being blocked up with snow. For this I was quite unprepared, -having been led to believe that the road to Kashmir in this direction -was always open, and no hint having been given me at Iskardo that my -delay there might in the least prevent my reaching Kashmir. The heavy -snow-fall of the last three or four days seemed to have been something -quite unusual; and it had accumulated, as I was told, on the pass to a -depth which quite precluded all possibility of a passage for many days -to come. - -Notwithstanding all these assurances, I should certainly have tried to -advance at least as far as Maten, had I not found at Dras one of the -principal inhabitants of Kargyl, who had returned the day before from -that place, after attempting in the morning to advance towards the -pass, which is ten miles further on, and being stopped by finding the -snow ten and twelve feet deep, and quite soft. After the assurances of -this traveller, I should not have been justified in taking so many -porters across the pass, supposing them to have acceded to my wishes -to make the attempt; I therefore very reluctantly gave up the idea of -proceeding. - -It then became a question what I should do. It might and would -probably be many weeks before the pass would be practicable for loaded -men. To have remained at Dras so long would have been impossible. The -demands of my party for fuel were found very difficult to supply, even -for a day, the faggots of brushwood, which alone are there available, -being soon consumed, and, therefore, unwillingly parted with; I -therefore resolved to return to Iskardo, and remain there till the -return of spring should enable me to resume my travels, and to visit -the district further down the Indus, before crossing into Kashmir. - - [Sidenote: RETURN TOWARDS ISKARDO. - _December, 1847._] - -My return journey, being from a severe to a milder climate, was -sufficiently agreeable. At first a succession of bright and clear days -reduced the temperature very much. The thermometer fell to zero in the -mornings, and the frost throughout the day was intense. I was no -longer able to inhabit my tent, which I had continued to occupy up to -the period of my arrival at Dras, where, in the Sikh fort, I found, -rather to my surprise, a room, with a fire-place and chimney, allotted -for my accommodation by the kindness of the commandant. In descending -again towards the Indus, I took shelter in the villages, occupying, if -possible, a cow-house in preference to one used by the inhabitants. -The houses are generally built of waterworn stones, without cement, -but plastered with mud outside and inside. The roofs are flat; the -rafters are unsawn trees or branches of poplar, covered with willow -twigs, over which is laid a thick coating of mud. A hole in the centre -of the roof serves for a chimney, the fire being made in the centre of -the floor. In some of the poorer villages the houses were less -elaborate, consisting merely of wattle-work of willow twigs, covered -with a thin coating of clay. - - [Sidenote: FROZEN WATERFALLS. - _December, 1847._] - -In the open plain below Dras I observed many withered stems of -_Prangos_, the celebrated Umbelliferous plant so much valued by the -inhabitants of Dras as a food for their sheep, still bearing ripe -seeds. Juniper, too, was common, even along the bank of the stream. -As I descended the river, I found that a very few days had made a -great change in the temperature. The river was everywhere hard frozen, -and all the little streams which ran down the mountain-sides were -coated with a thick shell of ice. More than once I saw a waterfall -with a covering, perhaps a yard in thickness, of clear blue ice, under -which the little streamlet could be distinctly seen. At Ulding, though -the cold was severe, I found the ground partially free of snow, so -that the amount of fall, at that distance from the central chain of -mountains, had been quite insignificant. - -On the 19th of December, on which day I regained the valley of the -Indus, it was again snowing heavily, after an interval of exactly -seven days. The river was now entirely frozen over, and so solid, that -one of my servants, a native of India, losing his way in the -snow-storm, instead of turning to the left on arriving at the Indus, -walked across the river to a village on the right bank, without being -aware that he had quitted the proper road. - -Instead of keeping the left bank of the river, as I had done in my -upward course, I crossed it on the ice about three or four miles above -the village of Kartash, or Karmang, as it is also called, and kept on -the north side till within a mile of Tolti. About two miles below -Kartash, there are a succession of rapids in the stream, which extend, -without much intermission, considerably more than a mile, and must -produce a very considerable change in the elevation of its bed. The -river was nowhere frozen between Kartash and Tolti, the stream being -too rapid to freeze readily. In crossing to the left bank I made use -of a raft of skins, which consisted of a light frame-work of willow -rods, six feet square, resting on about a dozen inflated sheep or goat -skins. This flimsy contrivance just floated on the water when loaded -with three or four people. - - [Sidenote: ROPE BRIDGES. - _December, 1847._] - -At Tolti and at Karmang are the only rope-bridges which I saw on the -Indus, above Iskardo. The cables used in their construction are here -made of willow twigs, twisted into a thick rope. Seven such ropes on -each side are combined to form the parallel lateral cables, about a -yard apart, from which the road way of the bridge is suspended. These -bridges are perfectly safe, though, from their open structure, rather -formidable to those who are not accustomed to use them. The principle -on which they are made is the same as one which is in use in all the -hill provinces of India, from the Khasya mountains and Butan, as far -west as the Indus; but the material differs with each particular -locality, cane being used in the most eastern parts, rope (often of -grass or _Eriophorum_) in the Western Himalaya; and in Tibet, where -even that material is not available, willow twigs are employed as a -substitute. - -In many parts of the Indus valley, even in the most rugged and -desolate spots, I noticed, occasionally, trees of the _Elaeagnus_ and -of apricot, growing in rocky places along the river, where it was very -evident that they had never been planted. The _Elaeagnus_ is always -conspicuous, even in mid-winter, in consequence of the withered leaves -remaining attached to the tree instead of falling at the end of -autumn. Occasionally, no doubt, the occurrence of these trees was due -to the former existence of villages in the vicinity of the places in -which they were observed, but they also seemed sometimes to occur in -places where no cultivation could ever have existed. Their occurrence, -however, must, I think, be considered purely accidental: they were too -few in number to be regarded as really indigenous; nor is it -surprising that these trees, which are so extensively cultivated round -all the villages of Baltistan, and so universally used as food by the -inhabitants, should occasionally vegetate at a great distance from -their usual place of growth. - - [Sidenote: WINTER AT ISKARDO. - _December, 1847._] - -I reached Iskardo on the evening of the 25th of December, and -succeeded, without difficulty, in hiring a house sufficiently large to -accommodate all my party. As I remained stationary at this place for -two months, I was able to make some observations of the thermometer, -and to watch the state of the weather during the whole of that period. -The elevation of Iskardo above the level of the sea is about 7200 -feet. Winter may be said to have commenced on the 28th of November, on -which day the first snow fell. From that date, falls of snow recurred -constantly at intervals, which varied from two or three days to a -week. The earlier falls were very slight, not more than an inch or two -in depth, but the quantity gradually increased, until each fall was -from four to six inches. The entire depth of the snow in the middle of -February, beyond which time the fresh falls were insignificant, was -from fifteen to eighteen inches. - -After each fall of snow, the weather usually became bright and calm, -with a serene cloudless sky. The sun shone out brightly, and was -agreeably warm to the feel, while the temperature of the air rose -nearly to, or a little above, the freezing-point. In the earlier part -of the winter, the snow melted rapidly, and the ground in the open -valley was generally nearly free of it before the next fall. After the -beginning of January, however, the cold increased, and the snow lay -permanently, except on the most sunny slopes. The sun seemed to have -much less power, and little thaw took place except on rocks and beaten -paths. The diminution in the quantity of snow by evaporation was often -considerable. - -The greatest cold which was registered at Iskardo was at daybreak on -the 8th of February, when Fahrenheit's thermometer stood at half a -degree above zero. The mean temperature at sunrise during the whole -winter was 19-1/2 deg., and that at two P.M. 33-3/4 deg. The mean -temperature during the period from the 28th of December to the 31st -of January was 27-1/2 deg., and from the 1st to the 24th of February -25-1/4 deg. The increase of cold was principally by the depression of -the night temperature, the mean highest temperature being within a -fraction of a degree the same during both periods. - -On the first or second day of clear weather after a fall of snow, the -temperature in the morning was often very low, with abundant -hoar-frost, which, except at such times, was not seen at all. The -surface of the plain was covered with a dense fog, which remained till -nearly noon before the sun was able to dispel it. On the second or -third day the sky would become hazy, the sun being partly obscured by -a thin stratum of cloud at a great elevation. During the continuance -of this haze, the temperature was always more elevated than when the -sky was clear. The hazy weather was once or twice dissipated by -violent winds, without any fall of snow on the open plain; but more -generally it increased gradually, till the sky was completely and -densely overcast, and snow began again to fall, perhaps most -frequently during the night. - -During the greater part of the winter the snow was invariably in -extremely minute grains. It was not till the latter part of February, -when spring was rapidly approaching, that large flakes fell. I more -than once observed the phenomenon of small quantities of extremely -fine-grained snow falling when the sky was quite clear, and the air at -the surface of the earth quite motionless. During clear weather very -little thaw took place, the cold produced by radiation appearing to -counteract the sun's action; at the same time the snow diminished -rapidly by evaporation, which was not the case when the sky was -overcast. - -The fall of snow was evidently much less considerable in the open -plain than on the mountains round Iskardo. During the heavier falls, -the snow on the steep mountain slopes often slipped downwards. It was -but rarely that these avalanches were visible, but the noise of the -snow in motion was heard like distant thunder, often many times a day, -and the bare spots which it had left could be seen after the -snow-storm had ceased. When the weather was settled, the wind was in -general very gentle, and blew up the valley of the Indus; during -snow-storms it was usually violent, and very irregular in direction. -The storms came mostly from the south-west, a moisture-bringing upper -current of air from that direction being condensed by the dry and cold -north wind. - -My collections had accumulated to such an extent, and got into such -confusion, during five months of almost incessant travelling, that I -was very glad to have an opportunity of devoting some time to their -arrangement, and found, without difficulty, occupation for all my time -during two months of rest. The snow was never so deep as to prevent me -from taking regular exercise, so that I was soon familiar with all the -roads in the neighbourhood of the town, and examined the cliffs of -clay in every direction in search of fossils, without discovering (as -I had some hopes of doing) any mammalian remains. The communication -with Le was open all winter; I was therefore able to correspond with -Captain Strachey, who, after examining the course of the Indus from -the Chinese boundary downwards, was spending the winter there. By his -assistance I succeeded in replenishing my store of tea and sugar, both -of which were exhausted. The sugar which I procured from Le was very -good, and the brick tea, though not superexcellent in quality, was, in -the absence of better, quite good enough for use. Other supplies I had -no difficulty in procuring at Iskardo, sheep and flour being abundant. -The wood supplied for fuel was almost entirely _Elaeagnus_, no wild -timber occurring in the country. - -The Thannadar of Iskardo, who is the deputy of Maharajah Gulab Singh -of Kashmir, is the governor of all Balti, but he rules by means of -native Mahommedan chiefs or rajahs. In some instances, where no -opposition was made to the Sikh invasion, the former ruler was -allowed to retain his position; in other cases a change was made. At -Iskardo, Mahommed Shah, the present Rajah, had been an exile in -Kashmir, from being on bad terms with his father. He is a feeble and -sickly young man, without the energy of his father, M. Vigne's host in -Iskardo. The inhabitants of Balti, though Tibetan in language and -appearance, are all Mahommedans, and differ from the more eastern -Tibetans of Le (who call themselves Bhotias, or inhabitants of Bhot) -by being taller and less stoutly made. Their language, I am told, -differs considerably from that of Le, but only as one dialect differs -from another. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - - Leave Iskardo for Rondu -- Insurrection in Gilgit -- Koardu -- - Kamar -- Enter narrow part of Indus valley -- Difficult road -- - Range of mountains south of Indus -- Description of Rondu -- - Thawar -- Avalanches -- Alluvium -- Swing bridge -- Villages -- - Juniper -- _Pinus excelsa_ -- Rocks -- Vegetation -- Return to - Iskardo -- Agriculture of Balti -- Game of Chaugan -- Chakor - hunting -- Shigar valley -- Journey towards Kashmir -- Dras - valley -- Karbu -- Dras fort -- Maten -- Cross pass into - Kashmir -- Baltal -- Valley of Sind river -- Sonamarg -- - Gagangir -- Gond -- Gangan -- Ganderbal -- Enter main valley of - Kashmir -- Town of Kashmir -- Description of Kashmir -- - Lacustrine formation -- Trap hills -- Lake -- Climate -- - Vegetation. - - -It was not till the 25th of February that the approach of spring was -sufficiently decided to permit me to make a move with any chance of -fair weather. On that day I started from Iskardo, with the intention -of making eight or ten days' journey down the Indus in the direction -of Rondu. The district of Rondu may be understood to comprise the -whole of the narrow part of the Indus valley, from the western end of -the Iskardo plain to the great bend of that river, where it assumes a -southerly direction. It is only during the winter season that the -route along the valley of the Indus is much frequented, as it is quite -impracticable for horses, and so very bad even for travellers on foot, -that the road over the passes towards Hasora is always preferred in -summer. At the season of my journey I had no option, the passes being -still covered with heavy snow. - - [Sidenote: KOARDU. - _February, 1848._] - -Unfortunately for my objects, the inhabitants of Gilgit had since the -beginning of winter been in a state of open insurrection, and had -besieged the garrison placed by Gulab Singh in one of the forts of the -valley. Attempts had been made by the Thannadar of Iskardo to send a -force to their relief, but the garrison of that place was too weak to -enable him to detach more than a very small portion of it; and the -forced levies of Balti men, collected in all the districts of the -country, had evidently no desire to fight against the more active -inhabitants of Gilgit and the robber tribes of the higher valleys of -Hunza and Nagyr. Large parties of fifty and a hundred were continually -arriving during the winter at Iskardo, and were as soon as possible -despatched towards the disturbed country; but the greater number of -them, I was told, managed to desert, and to return to their villages, -or to hiding-places elsewhere, long before the detachment arrived at -the end of its journey. - -Crossing the Indus in the ferry-boat, a little below the rock of -Iskardo, my road lay along the north bank of the river, through -extensive tracts of cultivation. There was much less snow on the -surface of the fields in the village of Koardu, the first through -which I passed on the north bank, than in the town of Iskardo, owing -to the more favourable exposure. The villagers were busy sprinkling a -thin layer of earth over the snow to hasten its melting. This village, -which is about five miles distant from Iskardo, is backed by very high -masses of clay conglomerate and clay, forming very irregular, often -precipitous banks, resting on the ancient rocks behind. From Iskardo -these beds are very conspicuous, but in the village itself only a very -small portion can be seen at a time. - - [Sidenote: KAMAR. - _February, 1848._] - -West of Koardu, a ridge of mica-slate, containing abundance of -garnets, advances close to the river, which here runs on the northern -side of the valley. The road up the valley skirts the base of this -projecting spur, and then passes over level platforms for about four -miles. The level tracts were still covered with snow, but in rocky -places, and on all slopes facing the south, the ground was quite bare. -Four miles from Koardu I passed the very large village of Kamar, the -fields rising in terraces one behind another on a steeply sloping -platform, which skirts the plain for nearly two miles. Behind the -village, the same system of conglomerate and clay-beds, as at Koardu, -rises in steep banks. - -About a mile beyond Kamar, which is the last village on the north side -of the Iskardo plain, the valley of the Indus contracts very suddenly, -the mountains closing in upon the river. The beds of lacustrine clay -extend without any diminution to the end of the open valley, and are -covered, when close to the mountains, by numerous boulders of all -sizes, many of which are of great dimensions. The fine clay at the -termination of the open plain appears to underlie a great mass of -boulder conglomerate, which is continued into the narrow part of the -river valley. - - [Sidenote: ENTRANCE OF RONDU. - _February, 1848._] - -Where the river passes from the open plain into the narrow ravine, the -inclination of its bed seems increased, and the rapidity of its -motion becomes much greater. This result is quite in accordance with -what has been observed in the Nubra and Khapalu plains. Indeed, narrow -valleys are so generally steeply sloping, and wide valleys so -generally nearly level, that it can scarcely be doubted that the -inclination of the surface is in some way connected with the width or -amount of excavation of the valley. - -For a mile or two beyond the end of the Iskardo plain, the mountains -are sufficiently far apart to allow of the interposition of a narrow -platform of conglomerate, over which the road runs. Soon, however, -even this disappears, and thenceforward, as far as I went, the Indus -runs through a narrow ravine of very uniform character. The mountains -on both sides of the river are extremely steep, and, so far as I could -judge at so early a season, almost uniformly rocky and precipitous. At -distant intervals a small platform of alluvium is interposed between -the cliffs and the river, but much more frequently precipices directly -overhang the stream, or steep bare rocks, only not absolutely -precipitous, rise from its margin. It is but seldom that the stony bed -of the river or the alluvial platforms overhanging it, afford a level -road for a few hundred yards at a time. In general the path -continually ascends and descends over each successive ridge; the -elevation to which it is required to ascend to find a practicable -passage, varying from a few hundred to several thousand feet above the -bottom of the valley. In at least eight or ten places between Iskardo -and Rondu, the path ascends or descends by means of ladders placed -against the face of a perpendicular wall of rock, or crosses fissures -in the cliffs by planks laid horizontally over them. This road is -therefore quite impracticable for beasts of burden or horses, and is -never used except in winter, when no other route is open to the -traveller. - - [Sidenote: INDUS VALLEY. - _February, 1848._] - -As the road lies altogether on the north or right bank of the Indus, -the elevation and appearance of the mountains on that side cannot well -be seen. This range separates the Indus valley from that of Shigar, -which is in no part of Rondu more than twenty-five miles distant, and -is crossed in several places by passes at the head of the larger -ravines. These passes being still blocked up with snow, I could not -cross them, nor ascertain their elevation, which is perhaps nowhere -less than fourteen or fifteen thousand feet, except at the very -eastern extremity of the ridge. - -From the higher parts of the road, where it attained an elevation of -eight and nine thousand feet, the mountain ranges on the south of the -Indus could be well seen. They were covered with snow from base to -summit, and in general rose so very abruptly, that the nearer spurs -completely concealed from view the main range, except when a more open -valley than usual permitted the view to extend backwards. Occasionally -very lofty peaks were seen, which appeared to attain a height of at -least eighteen or twenty thousand feet; but, as the whole landscape -was covered with snow, distances could not be estimated with any -accuracy. As the ridge to the south of the Indus keeps very close to -the river, it is probable that the highest summits seen in that -direction were situated beyond the valley of Hasora. - - [Sidenote: VILLAGES OF RONDU. - _February, 1848._] - -The villages of Rondu are not numerous, and are of very small extent; -still every available spot seems to be occupied by a small patch of -cultivation. The platforms are generally high above the river. In the -lower part of the district, where the lateral ravines are of greater -length, they open out above the very steep slope, by which they -debouche into the Indus, into gently sloping open valleys. The -villages of Thawar and Murdu, being situated in these open valleys, -are much more extensive than any of those close to the Indus. The fort -of Rondu is on the left bank of the river, on a platform perhaps two -hundred feet above its level, nearly opposite the end of the Thawar -valley, and not far from the termination of a valley which descends -from the southern mountains, along which there is a road across a pass -to Hasora. - -From Iskardo to Thawar, a large village in a lateral ravine on the -north side of the Indus, almost opposite to the fort of Rondu, the -road distance is about forty miles. As five days were employed in -traversing this distance, the average day's journey was only eight -miles; and yet, from the difficult nature of the road, all the marches -appeared long, and were felt to be very fatiguing. A great part of the -road being at an elevation much more considerable than that the -Iskardo plain, I met with much snow on all the higher parts of the -mountains. In the valley of the Indus thaw made rapid progress, and by -the beginning of March, in favourable exposures, there was no snow -below 8000 feet. - - [Sidenote: AVALANCHES. - _March, 1848._] - -The progress of the thaw occasioned constant avalanches, the snow -slipping from the steep sides of the ravines, and when once in -motion, advancing with constantly increasing momentum till it reached -the lowest level. All day long the mountains echoed with the sound of -falling snow; the avalanches were not often visible, as they took -place in the ravines, but now and then (where the ravines terminated -in precipices) they were seen pouring in cataracts of snow over the -face of the cliffs. In each large ravine which joined the Indus I -found one of these gigantic avalanches, and was enabled to see that -they were composed of a congeries of balls of snow, varying in -diameter from one to six feet, and often containing fragments of rock -in their centre. Many of these snow-streams were not less than forty -or fifty feet thick. At the level of the Indus they were now very -soft, and evidently thawing rapidly. - -In many parts of Rondu are to be seen very distinct indications of the -boulder conglomerate, by which the ravine was _perhaps_ at one period -entirely filled; though from the very steep slopes of the mountains in -most places, there is not often a resting-place for it. The platforms -on which the villages are built are all formed of this alluvium, and -are often covered with transported blocks of vast size. Between Siri -and Baicha I saw several which were not less than sixty feet in -length. In the upper part of the valley of Thawar, which is more level -than the ravines higher up the Indus, a great accumulation of clay and -boulders is seen attaining a height of at least 8000 feet above the -level of the sea, as it forms hills a thousand feet above the village, -which is at least as much above the Indus. - -The valley in which the village of Thawar is situated slopes gently -towards the Indus till near its termination, when it descends -extremely abruptly down a very steep inclined bank of boulders, which -appears to block up the whole of the end of the valley. The slope of -this steep bank was so great that it was only possible to descend by a -very devious route. Between the lower part of the cultivation and the -commencement of the steep slope, the valley was very irregular, and -filled with heaps of boulders, forming long low hills. The appearance -of the mass of debris in this valley was very remarkable, and had much -the appearance of an old moraine deposited by a glacier, which had -extended as far as the end of the present cultivation, and had shot -forward the boulders by which it had been covered into the abyss -below. - - [Sidenote: BRIDGE OF RONDU. - _March, 1848._] - -The Indus is crossed by a swing-bridge of willow twigs, which leads -from the villages on the north bank to the fort of Rondu. From Thawar -I descended to this bridge, in order to ascertain the boiling-point of -water, so as to get an approximation to the elevation of the bed of -the river. It is thrown across a remarkably contracted part of the -river, where it flows between perpendicular rocks rising several -hundred feet out of the water, and the path by which the bridge is -reached from Thawar descends the scarped face of the precipice by a -succession of ladders. - -From the boiling-point of water I estimated the elevation of the -bridge, which was more than a hundred feet above the river, at 6200 -feet. This would indicate a fall of about 1000 feet since leaving -Iskardo, or, as the river flows very tranquilly till it leaves the -Iskardo plain, from the commencement of Rondu, a distance by the road -of twenty-nine miles, but not, I should think, more than twenty along -the course of the river, as the road winds very much in crossing -ridges. This is equivalent to a fall of about fifty feet per mile, -which, for a stream discharging so vast a volume of water, is very -considerable indeed, but not more than is indicated by the general -turbulent course of the river. - - [Sidenote: CULTIVATED TREES. - _March, 1848._] - -The villages of Rondu, though mostly small, have abundance of -fruit-trees. The apricot is still the commonest of these; but there -are also many fine walnuts, and plenty of vines climbing up the trees, -and remarkable for the great size of their trunks. Willows are very -common, and two kinds of poplar, and now and then there occurs a -plane-tree of enormous girth and stature, which must, no doubt, afford -a most welcome shade from the rays of the too-powerful sun of summer, -the heat of which, in so deep and rocky a ravine, must be very -oppressive. The willow and poplar had already begun to show signs of -vitality, the flower-buds being almost ready to expand; the other -trees seemed still quite inert. - -All over the hills of Rondu the juniper[16] is rather common, and -seemingly quite at home both on the higher ridges, and in the bottom -of the ravine close to the river. It forms generally a low bush, but -occasionally I saw small trees, and once, in a level tract close to -the river and near a village, a considerable tree perhaps forty feet -high. The young plants had made considerable shoots, and were covered -with longish acicular patent leaves, very different from the short -adpressed scaly leaves of the adult plant. - - [Sidenote: PINE TREES. - _March, 1848._] - -Rondu is remarkable for producing another Coniferous tree, indeed a -true pine, namely, _Pinus excelsa_, which occurs in small groves in -several places on the south side of the river, at elevations from -eight to ten thousand feet above the sea. It was first observed -opposite the village of Siri, but is more plentiful above the fort of -Rondu. One or two trees occur close to the river, and on the north -side, so that I was enabled to get specimens and ascertain the -species. The occurrence of this tree must be considered to indicate a -greater degree of humidity than exists in the upper parts of the Indus -valley, so that Rondu is the place of transition between the Tibetan -climate and that of the eastern Punjab, into which the Indus passes at -its point of exit from the mountains. - -The mountains of Rondu contain much granite, which occurs in great -mass at the bridge opposite the fort. In this place the granite -occupies the lower part of the ravine, close to the river, while the -higher parts of the mountains are composed of gneiss or clay-slate, -sometimes passing into sandstone, or of a highly crystalline magnesian -rock. The granite consists chiefly of quartz and mica, the former, as -well as the felspar, white, the mica black and highly crystalline. -The stratified rocks are always highly metamorphic, and are shattered -and dislocated by the intrusion of the granite to a very great extent. - - [Sidenote: LOWER PART OF RONDU. - _March, 1848._] - -Below Thawar and the fort of Rondu, the valley of the Indus continues -extremely narrow and difficult, and ceases to be inhabited at the -village and fortified post of Tok, at which place a few soldiers are -stationed, to keep up the communication with Gilgit, and to give -notice of any incursions from that side. Thence, as far as the -mountain range which bounds the Gilgit valley on the east, the valley -is said to be quite desert. The disturbed state of Gilgit had made me -abandon my original intention of continuing my journey in that -direction; I therefore made only one march to the westward of Thawar, -and found the ravine, along which the river flowed, so barren and -uninteresting, that I did not consider it necessary to visit Tok, but -retraced my steps towards Iskardo, which I reached on the 11th of -March. - - [Sidenote: VEGETATION OF RONDU. - _March, 1848._] - -I should have been glad to have had an opportunity of observing the -nature of the vegetation of the valley of Rondu, but the season of the -year was unfortunately not favourable for that purpose. The cultivated -plants were not different from those of Iskardo, and much of the -shrubby vegetation was the same as that common higher up the Indus. An -ash, of which the flowers were just expanded, but which was still -quite leafless, appeared a novelty; but it was probably the same -species which I had already collected in Kunawar and Piti. The only -subtropical plants of which I saw any traces, were _Linaria_ -_ramosissima_, a shrubby _Plectranthus_, now leafless, but which I -guessed to be _P. rugosus_, and some withered stems of tall reedy -grasses, species of _Saccharum_ and _Erianthus_. In summer, no doubt, -many more would have occurred, and a complete list of the plants of -Rondu would be of very great interest, as illustrative of the -connection between the alpine flora of Ladak, which passes into that -of Siberia, and the vegetation of the mountains of Affghanistan, the -plants of which are in a great measure the same as those of Persia and -Asia Minor. There is also a transition through this country, down the -valley of the Indus, to a third flora, that of the hot dry plains of -the Punjab and of Sind, which extends with little variation along the -littoral districts of Beluchistan and Persia, into Arabia and Egypt. - -On my return to Iskardo, I found the plain almost free from snow, a -little only remaining on banks facing the north. The mountains on the -south side of the valley were, however, still snow-clad to the very -base, and the fruit-trees had scarcely begun to show any signs of -vegetation. Along the watercourses there was more appearance of -spring; a little gentian and _Hutchinsia_ were already in flower, and -most of the spring plants had begun to grow rapidly. - - [Sidenote: AGRICULTURAL OPERATIONS. - _March, 1848._] - -The return of spring set the whole population of the district to work -in their fields; and both in Rondu and in the neighbourhood of -Iskardo, I had an opportunity of seeing the mode in which the -processes of agriculture are carried on. As soon as the ground is -clear of snow, the manure, which has been accumulated during the -preceding year, consisting of the contents of the cowhouse and -stable, mixed with every sort of refuse, is carried in small baskets -to the fields, on which it is deposited in small heaps. It is then -spread uniformly over the surface by hand. Occasionally the field has -had a previous ploughing, but it is more usually just in the state in -which it had been left after the harvesting of the previous crop. - -After the manure has been spread, it is ploughed into the land. The -plough is usually drawn by a pair of bullocks, and is formed entirely -of wood, the front part being blunted and hollow. The ploughshare, a -sharp and hard piece of wood, is passed through the hollow, beyond -which it projects several inches. This moveable piece of wood does the -principal work, and is easily replaced when it has sustained injury. -After the ploughing, the seed is sown broadcast, and the field is then -harrowed. The harrow is a frame-work of wood, weighted with stones, -but without spikes; or a heavy board, weighted; or occasionally only a -thorny bush, with several large stones laid upon it. It is generally -drawn by one man, who assists its action by breaking with his feet the -clods which would otherwise be too bulky to be crushed by it. The -harrowing is repeated till the soil is reduced to a sufficient -fineness, an operation which is much facilitated by the dryness of the -atmosphere. The field is then laid out into small square beds, for -convenience of irrigation, and water is supplied to it at intervals -throughout the summer. - -About the middle of March, an assembly of all the principal -inhabitants of the district took place at Iskardo, on some occasion of -ceremony or festivity, the nature of which I have forgotten. I was -thus fortunate enough to be a witness of the national game of the -Chaugan, which is derived from Persia, and has been described by Mr. -Vigne as hockey on horseback, a definition so exact, as to render a -further detail unnecessary. Large quadrangular enclosed meadows for -this game may be seen in all the larger villages of Balti, often -surrounded by rows of beautiful willow and poplar trees. - - [Sidenote: CHAKOR HUNTING. - _March, 1848._] - -About the same time, I was invited by the Thannadar of Iskardo to be -present at a hunting party, which he had arranged for the capture of -the _chakor_, or painted partridge, by surrounding a spot of ground, -in which these birds are numerous, with a ring of men, who, -approaching from all directions, gradually form a dense circle of -perhaps a hundred yards in diameter. When the partridges are disturbed -by a horseman in this enclosure, they naturally fly towards the living -wall by which they are surrounded. Loud shouts, and the beating of -drums and waving of caps and cloaks, turn them back, and they are -driven from side to side, till at last, exhausted with fatigue, and -stupid from the noise and confusion, they sink to the ground, and -allow themselves to be caught by hand. The scene was a very striking -one. The spot selected was a deep dell, full of rocks, but without -trees. The sport, however, did not seem so successful as usual, six or -eight birds only being captured. The chakor is an extremely common -bird in all parts of the valley of the Indus, and indeed throughout -Tibet. In winter, when the hills are covered with snow, they are to be -found in great numbers close to the river, even in the immediate -neighbourhood of the villages; and in general, when approached, they -lie very close among the crevices of the stones. - - [Sidenote: SHIGAR VALLEY. - _March, 1848._] - -Before finally leaving Iskardo, I devoted three days to a visit to the -valley of Shigar, which is watered by a very large tributary which -joins the Indus opposite the rock of Iskardo. The terminal ridges of -the mountain ranges on both sides of the Shigar river, advance close -to the centre of the valley where the stream enters the Indus. The -road to Shigar from Iskardo, therefore, crosses low hills of dark -schistose rocks, winding among dry valleys which are occupied by great -masses of alluvium. A coarse sandstone, horizontally stratified, -formed beds of fifty feet thick, alternating with and capped by beds -of clay conglomerate containing numerous angular fragments. The -sandstone was very similar to that which I had previously seen on the -top of the rock of Iskardo, and rested upon thinner strata of a -bluish-grey indurated clay, quite non-fossiliferous, and different in -appearance from any deposit which I had seen in Tibet. These -lacustrine strata occupied both sides of the valley along which the -road lay. From the summit of the low range of hills, the road -descended rapidly to the level of the cultivation of the Shigar plain. -The Shigar river flows through a wide gravelly channel in many -branches; and low, grassy, and swampy tracts skirt the stream. Fifty -feet above these are the platforms of alluvium, which extend along the -left bank of the river uninterruptedly for five or six miles, and vary -in width from a quarter of a mile to a mile or more. They are almost -entirely covered with arable land, formed into terraces which rise -gradually one above another, and a succession of small villages are -scattered among the fields. Numerous little streams descend from the -mountains, and irrigation canals ramify in every direction. Ploughing -was the universal occupation of the villagers; and the yellow flowers -of _Tussilago Farfara_ were everywhere seen expanding on the clayey -banks of the rivulets. - -The fort of Shigar is close to the mountains on the east side of the -valley, where a considerable stream makes its exit from them. By this -stream, Mr. Vigne ascended to a pass on the high range to the -eastward, and descended upon the Shayuk at the village of Braghar. -Where it terminates in the Shigar plain, this valley is for a few -hundred yards very narrow; but a little above its entrance it widens -considerably, and the flanks of the mountains are covered with a great -accumulation of the alluvial deposits, clinging to the face of the -rocks on both sides, certainly as high as a thousand feet above the -stream. The beds were sometimes, but rarely, stratified, and were very -variable in appearance. Coarse conglomerates, at one time with angular -boulders, at others, with rounded stones, alternated with coarse and -fine sand and finely laminated clays. No fossils of any kind were -observed. - -In summer, the discharge of the Shigar river, which descends from the -snowy masses of the Muztagh or Kouen-lun, must be immense, as -prodigious glaciers descend very low among the valleys of its -different branches. Up one of the streams a practicable road exists -towards Yarkand over an enormous glacier. I met with one or two people -at Iskardo who had traversed it; but it is now not at all frequented, -being very unsafe, in consequence of the marauding propensities of the -wild Mahommedan tribes who inhabited the Hunza valley. It was -described to me as an exceedingly difficult road, lying for several -days over the surface of the glacier. - - [Sidenote: DEPARTURE FROM ISKARDO. - _April, 1848._] - -On the 31st of March, I left Iskardo for the last time. It was -expected that the pass between Dras and Kashmir would be easily -accessible by the time I should reach it. My road as far as Dras was -the same as that along which I had twice travelled in December, and, -except from the indications of returning spring, was much the same as -it had then been. The crops of wheat and barley in the fields in the -Iskardo plain were an inch or two high, the buds of the apricot were -just beginning to swell, and the willows had almost expanded their -flowers. - -At Gol and Nar, where the valley is narrow and the heat therefore more -concentrated, the corn was considerably further advanced, and in some -of the apricot flowers the petals had begun to expand. Wild flowers -had also begun to vegetate: a violet was in flower on the banks of -streamlets, as well as a _Primula_ and an _Androsace_. Above Parkuta, -again, the season was more backward. Large snow-banks, which had -descended in avalanches, still remained in all the larger furrows on -the mountain-sides. The river had been discoloured since the day I -left Iskardo, and on the 4th of April, the day I reached Kartash, it -became very much so, and was said to be rising rapidly. - - [Sidenote: VALLEY OF DRAS. - _April, 1848._] - -On the 6th of April, I entered the Dras valley, and encamped at -Ulding Thung, where there were still a few patches of snow. On the -7th, I marched to Hardas, ten miles. Here, at about 9000 feet, spring -had scarcely commenced. The fruit-trees showed no signs of vitality; -and though the fields had been ploughed, the grain had not yet begun -to vegetate. The valley of the Dras river begins to expand at the -village of Bilergu, four or five miles above Ulding. As soon as there -is enough of level space, beds of conglomerate, and more rarely of -fine clay, appear along the river. Round the village of Bilergu, the -poplars, willows, and apricots are as numerous as in the valley of the -Indus; but beyond it, the inclination of the valley is considerable, -and at Hardas there were but few trees. Above Bilergu the quantity of -snow increased considerably, and the contrast between the sides of the -valley was very striking: at Hardas, the shady slope was quite white, -while that facing the south had only a few patches of snow. - -On the 8th of April, I marched to Karbu, eight miles. As I advanced, I -found much more snow; but the road was in general free, except in the -ravines where snow-slips had descended. On the latter part of the day, -these were universal in all the ravines, and were frequently of great -depth, and so soft as to be difficult to cross: on the least deviation -from the beaten path, I sank to the middle at every step. These -avalanches were cut off abruptly by the river, forming cliffs of snow -fifteen or twenty feet high, in which the structure and development of -the mass by successive slips, alternating with falls of snow, could be -distinctly made out. One or two of them still crossed the river, which -flowed below the bridge of ice. Three miles below Karbu, the granite, -which had been the rock ever since entering Dras, was replaced by a -peculiar slate, apparently magnesian, and perhaps hornblende slate, -passing into or containing beds of a coarse sandstone. - -At Karbu, where I was detained a day, the Thannadar not having -expected me so soon, and my porters not being ready, the weather was -very unsettled, and in the evening, and during the nights of the 8th -and 9th of April, there was a good deal of rain, especially on the -9th. The wind during the storm was very irregular in direction. The -ground was still covered to the depth of more than a foot with snow. -The morning of the 10th was gloomy, but as the day advanced the clouds -broke, and the afternoon was bright and beautiful, with a gentle air -down the valley. - - [Sidenote: FORT OF DRAS. - _April, 1848._] - -On the 11th of April I reached the fort of Dras. For the last ten -miles the snow lay continuously, and two or three feet deep, but there -was always a clear path. The temperature being much above the -freezing-point, the thaw proceeded rapidly. A good deal of _Prangos_, -which is evidently a common wild plant (as it is also in many parts of -Kashmir), was seen; the withered inflorescence projecting through the -snow. I observed it also very abundantly in the hay, which is -preserved in the villages, and seems to consist of all the plants of -the meadows cut indiscriminately, and not of _Prangos_ alone, as I had -erroneously imagined. - - [Sidenote: MATEN. - _April, 1848._] - -My former journey having terminated at Dras, the road in advance was -new to me; but the whole country being still covered with snow, I -could see little of the nature of the surface. The fort of Dras is -about 10,000 feet above the sea: it is situated in an open, nearly -level plain of some width, skirted by low hills. The higher mountains, -which are several miles distant on both sides, are very steep. Several -villages are scattered over the plain, at some distance from the fort, -which stands alone, on the bank of a little stream, just before it -joins the Dras river. Beyond Dras, the road to the pass having -scarcely been used, there was no beaten path. In the morning the snow -was hard and firm, and even in the afternoon, notwithstanding the -warmth of the midday sun, the foot did not sink more than three or -four inches. The depth of snow increased rapidly as I advanced. Two -miles above the fort the plain contracts into a narrow valley, and the -channel of the river becomes very rocky; the stream is also very -rapid, and the slope of its bed evidently considerable. The valley -again expands around the village of Pain Dras. Immediately beyond this -I crossed the river on a bridge of snow, at least forty feet thick, -which covered the river for more than a hundred yards. This snow-bed, -which was continuous with the general level of the surface, was to all -appearance quite solid. After a march of ten miles I encamped at -Maten, the last village of Dras, a small group of stone huts half a -mile from the river on its eastern bank, and immediately at the base -of a very steep scarped mountain, which rises in precipices several -thousand feet above the village. Maten I estimated, from the -boiling-point of water, to be 10,700 feet above the sea. - - [Sidenote: ZOJI PASS. - _April, 1848._] - -On the 13th of April I crossed the pass into Kashmir, starting, as -the distance was said to be considerable, at about half-past two -o'clock in the morning. The evening before had been dull, with -irregular squalls of wind, so that the weather did not promise very -favourably. It was very dark and quite calm at two A.M., and when I -started it snowed slightly, but not enough to induce me to stop, as I -hoped it would cease with daylight. Unfortunately, on the contrary, it -increased rapidly, and by four o'clock was snowing heavily, and -continued to do so till the afternoon. There was no wind, and the air -was very mild, so that I suffered no inconvenience from cold. The -surface of the snow, even in the morning, was a little soft, the -cloudy night having prevented it from freezing. After four o'clock it -snowed so heavily that the accumulation of fresh snow soon amounted to -several feet, and we sank above the knee at every step. There was -scarcely any slope, the road appearing quite horizontal. Before -daylight my guides managed to lose their way, and we wandered for more -than half an hour puzzled by our own footsteps. The compass was of no -use, as I did not know the direction in which we ought to proceed, nor -was it till after dawn that we recovered the road. - - [Sidenote: VALLEY OF THE SIND RIVER. - _April, 1848._] - -After daylight there was no improvement in any respect, as the heavy -snow completely obscured the view. The leaders of the party, however, -seemed to recognize the outlines of the hills, as they held their -course without hesitation. The valley was quite full of snow, which -completely covered all irregularities of surface. The river was often -quite covered by the mass of snow for distances of more than a furlong -without interruption. Our path often crossed it; and, latterly, for -several miles before gaining the crest of the pass, the stream was -completely concealed. - -About noon the snow fell more lightly, and we could see around. The -width of the valley was from half a mile to a mile, and steep -mountains rose on both sides to a considerable height, the peaks -being, I should think, at least 16,000 feet. Patches of willow and -juniper were seen on the sides of the hills. Still the road was to -appearance quite level. The valley made several bends, and we turned -finally to the right, before gaining the crest of the pass, to which -there was a barely perceptible rise. - -The descent was at first gradual, but soon became very steep, down a -bank of snow, which filled the whole of a narrow ravine. The rocky -walls on either side were at first bare, but soon became sprinkled -with birch and pine. For two thousand feet below the summit of the -pass the descent was uninterrupted, till I reached the banks of the -Sind river, which flows through the northernmost valley of Kashmir, -and is separated from the main valley by a lofty range of mountains. -Here, on a level space separated by a little stream from pine-forest, -I found a log-hut buried up to the roof in snow, which was heaped up -round the building, probably from having been thrown off the roof. The -snow at Baltal--for so this first halting-place on the Kashmir side of -the Zoji pass is called--was not deep, probably little more than what -had fallen during the day. - - [Sidenote: DETENTION AT BALTAL. - _April, 1848._] - -My whole party took possession of the log-hut; but not liking the -smoke which, in an instant, filled it, so that there was no seeing -across its width, I had a space cleared for my tent. It rained smartly -in the evening, but soon after dark it again began to snow, and long -before morning I was awoke by the cracking of the ridge-pole of my -tent, which had given way under the pressure of a foot and a half of -snow. Had it fallen at once I should probably have been buried till -morning, as I was too distant to make myself heard, and had to rise to -summon assistance, to move my bed into the log-hut. - -All day on the 14th it snowed unceasingly, and my people would not -continue the journey; but on the 15th it was fair, and I gladly made a -move, as the log-hut of Baltal was a most uncomfortable resting-place. -The road lay along the Sind river, which ran to the south-west, -through a deep but rather open valley, only partially wooded. The -forest consists partly of pines, partly of deciduous-leaved trees. Of -these I could recognize birch, poplar, and willow, which formed the -mass of the woods, but there were no doubt many others. The pines were -principally _Pinus excelsa_; silver fir and spruce also occurred, but -I saw no deodar nor Gerard's pine. The trees grew in well defined -masses of forest, separated by much open ground, in the level plain -which skirted the river on the south side of the valley; on this side -they also rose high on the mountains, but the slopes on the north side -were bare. - - [Sidenote: SONAMARG. - _April, 1848._] - -Seven or eight miles from Baltal, I found an uninhabited house, at a -place called Sonamarg[17], where a bridge crosses the Sind river. Snow -had been continuous all the way, diminishing in depth as we descended -the river. A mile or two before reaching Sonamarg, the stream -approaches close to the mountains on the north side of the valley, -barely leaving a passage for the road, which for some distance skirted -the base of steep cliffs. In one of the ravines which here furrowed -the mountain slopes, I had an opportunity of seeing the descent of an -avalanche. While crossing the ravine I was warned by the sound that a -snow-slip was approaching, but had abundance of time to retreat to a -place of safety before it came near. When the avalanche came into -sight, the ravine, which was narrow and deep, was completely filled by -balls of snow of various dimensions, which continued to flow past for -several minutes. The snow-slip terminated in the river, which was -speedily blocked up for two-thirds of its width with an immense -accumulation of snow. - -At Sonamarg the Sind river bends abruptly towards the south, and -enters a rocky gorge, down which its stream advances with great -rapidity, over a steeply inclined bed, very rocky and much interrupted -by rapids. Leaving Sonamarg on the morning of the 16th of April, I -crossed the river, and after a mile and a half of level ground bare of -trees, still covered with snow, I entered a thin forest of pine and -silver fir, which continued to the entrance of the gorge. The silver -fir (_Picea Webbiana_) was a fine straight tree, with short horizontal -or drooping branches, and its leaves were very variable in length. - -When I had fairly entered the narrow gorge of the river, I found that -it was in many places still blocked up with snow, which had descended -in avalanches down the narrow ravines, and had accumulated in the bed -of the stream. We crossed the river three times on snow-beds. From the -rapidity of the descent, however, the climate changed rapidly. After -four or five miles there was no snow, except in ravines, where it had -accumulated in avalanches, and at last even these had almost entirely -melted away. Still snow lay in patches on the right bank of the river, -in the village of Gagangir, at which I halted for the day; and on the -left bank, which faced the north, and was therefore in shade, snow -still covered the whole surface down to the bank of the river. - - [Sidenote: GAGANGIR. - _April, 1848._] - -At the village of Gagangir the Sind river resumes its south-westerly -direction, and its valley becomes more open, and the descent of its -bed less abrupt. The elevation of the village is about 7900 feet above -the level of the sea, so that the descent from Sonamarg is probably -not less than a thousand feet in a distance of nine miles--a very -considerable fall. On the latter part of the day's journey, a very -considerable change was observable in the aspect of the vegetation. -Birch and willow continued common throughout, but were mixed latterly -with many other trees and shrubs, all of which were beginning to show -symptoms of vitality. The hazel (_Corylus lacera_) and a species of -_Viburnum_ were in full flower, both still devoid of leaves; a few -herbaceous plants were also in flower in open places, the most -abundant of which were a species of _Colchicum_, remarkable for its -bright orange-coloured flowers, and a pretty little rose-purple -_Corydalis_, very closely allied to, if not the same as, a species of -eastern Europe. Still the general aspect of the country was very -wintry, as there were few pines, and the forest was therefore quite -bare of leaves, while the signs of progress, though evident on a near -inspection, did not attract attention in the general view. - - [Sidenote: SIND VALLEY. - _April, 1848._] - -At Gagangir, which is the first village of Kashmir by the route along -which I was travelling, I was enabled to relieve my Dras porters, who -had accompanied me so far. The discharge and payment of these men -occupied me a great part of the 17th of April; and as the day was -rainy I did not leave Gagangir till the 18th, when I marched to Gond, -seven miles. The road still followed the course of the Sind river, -which I crossed twice during the day. The width of the valley was -considerable all along, with much arable land, and a good many -villages in ruins on both sides. The mountains on the right hand were -uniformly bare of trees, and often rocky; on the left they were well -wooded to the summit, the forest being most dense above. Early in the -day several of the ravines were still full of snow; and on the shady -side a good deal lay in patches. Further on, the snow in the valley -had quite disappeared, but on the mountain slopes there was still -plenty. As I advanced the cultivated land increased in extent, and the -appearance of the valley became exceedingly picturesque, the centre -being occupied by a broad belt of fields and orchards, while the hills -on both sides rose abruptly to a great elevation. The fruit-trees were -principally walnuts, apples, and apricots. Groves of poplar occurred -occasionally along the river, but I saw no birch during the day. Many -more spring plants were in flower than on the previous day; -_Cruciferae_ were the prevailing family, but I also collected species -of _Nepeta_ and _Gagea_, and a pretty little tulip. On the latter part -of the march, a small shrubby species of _Amygdalus_ was very -abundant; and _Fothergilla involucrata_ of Falconer, a plant of the -natural order _Hamamelideae_, which was just bursting into flower, -formed a dense coppice on the hills on the north bank of the river. -Though the greater part of the plants was new to me, still I -recognized a number of species which occur in the valley of the Indus. -_Juniperus excelsa_ was common in rocky places, and the _Ribes_ and -rose were the same as those common at Iskardo. - - [Sidenote: VEGETATION. - _April, 1848._] - -On the 19th, the road still followed the course of the Sind river, now -a rapid torrent, much swollen by the heavy rains, flowing through an -open valley. A good deal of level ground was interposed between the -mountains and the stream, and was laid out in terraced fields -evidently adapted for rice cultivation, but now quite bare. I met with -many very interesting plants. _Tussilago Farfara_ was abundant, -growing in gravelly places along the river. In shady woods a species -of _Hepatica_, with a small white flower, first discovered by Dr. -Falconer, was common. In more sunny places a _Primula_ and _Androsace_ -were in full flower. On open sandy soil a species of the curious -Siberian genus _Ceratocephalus_ was a very striking novelty. On the -higher hills there was still dense forest of _Pinus excelsa_, spruce, -silver fir, and deodar, mixed with yew and _Juniperus excelsa_, and -with many deciduous-leaved trees, few of which were recognizable. -After travelling twelve miles I encamped at Gangan, which is elevated -about 6000 feet. - -Next day I remained stationary; but on the 21st I continued my journey -to Ganderbal, nine miles further and close to the point where the Sind -valley expands into the open plain of Kashmir. As I advanced, the -valley gradually widened, and turned more to the south. There were -several platforms, or steppes, as it were, of nearly level arable -land, one above another, and below them the river flowed through a -wide stony plain. The mountains on the right, high and snow-topped, -receded to a considerable distance; those on the left gradually -diminished in elevation, became less covered with forest, and at last -terminated in low ranges of hills covered only with brush-wood. The -road was extremely pretty. At first it lay along the right bank of the -river, through fine underwood, and among beautiful meadows, which -skirted the bank of the stream; it then crossed to the left bank, and, -ascending the lower hills, entered a fine wood, in which apricot, -pear, and cherry trees, all bursting into flower, were common, and to -all appearance wild, though they had probably spread into these woods -from the neighbouring villages. Latterly we emerged upon a somewhat -elevated platform sloping to the south, covered with bushes and many -fruit-trees, with here and there a village, and a great deal of -cultivated ground. Where the Sind valley joined the plain of Kashmir, -it was several miles in width, and evidently richly cultivated. The -expanse of the plain of Kashmir was much greater than I had -anticipated; the mountains on its south side, which were still covered -with snow, were in sight, but at a considerable distance. - -Above Gond the valley of the Sind river is very poorly inhabited, and -deserted villages and abandoned cultivation showed that the population -is diminishing. The lower part of the valley, however, is very -populous. The villages are numerous and large, and the houses good: -they are usually built entirely or partially of wood, with high -sloping roofs, which are either thatched or covered with wood. The -cultivated lands all rest upon platforms or banks of alluvium, which -are probably analogous to those of the Tibetan valleys, though, as -they are generally faced by sloping banks covered with bush-jungle, -their structure is not so easily determined as that of the platforms -of that more barren country. - - [Sidenote: PLAIN OF KASHMIR. - _April, 1848._] - -On the morning of the 22nd of April, after following the base of the -low hills for half a mile, till the last projecting point had been -rounded, I entered the valley of Kashmir. This "celebrated valley" did -not at all come up to the expectations which I had formed from -previous descriptions, and from the appearance of the termination of -the valley of the Sind river. The first impression was one of -considerable disappointment. It was by no means well wooded, and the -centre of the valley along the river, being very low, had an -unpleasant swampy appearance. The road to the town, which is about ten -miles from Ganderbal, led over an elevated platform. There were -several villages, and plane, willow, and fruit trees were scattered -here and there, though far from abundantly. The platform was in -general covered with a carpet of green, now spangled with myriads of -dandelions and other spring flowers. The mountains on the left, which -at first were very low, gradually rose in elevation, and were -throughout rugged and bare. As I approached the town I mounted an -elephant, which formed a part of the _cortege_ sent, according to the -usual oriental etiquette, to receive an expected visitor; and I -consequently saw the town to much better advantage than I should have -done had I ridden through it on my little Ladak pony. Passing -completely through the city, I was conducted to the Sheikh Bagh, a -garden on the banks of the Jelam, at its eastern extremity, in a -pavilion in the centre of which I took up my quarters. - - [Sidenote: CITY OF KASHMIR. - _April, 1848._] - -The town of Kashmir is apparently of great extent, and seems very -densely populated. Its length is much greater than its width, as it is -hemmed in between the Jelam on the south and a lake on the north. The -principal part of the town is on the north side of the Jelam, but a -large suburb occupies the opposite bank, surrounding the Sher-Garhi, -or fortified palace of the ruler of the country. The streets are in -general so narrow, that there are but few through which an elephant -can pass; and the houses, which have mostly several stories, are built -with a wooden frame-work, the lower story of stone and those above of -brick. There are no buildings of any great note; and the elaborate -account of Moorcroft renders it unnecessary to enter into any detail. -The river is crossed by many bridges, all built of deodar-wood. - - [Sidenote: PLAIN OF KASHMIR. - _April, 1848._] - -The province or country of Kashmir consists of an extensive plain, -surrounded on all sides by lofty mountains. It is the valley of the -river Behat, or Jelam, which is separated from that of the Chenab on -the south, by rugged and often snowy ranges, and from the basin of the -Indus on the north, by the main axis of the Western Himalaya, which, -originating in the peaks of Kailas, separates the basins of the -Sutlej and the Chenab from that of the Indus. The mountains which -surround the plain of Kashmir are very lofty. Those on the north are -for the most part bare and rugged on their southern face, while those -which lie to the south appear from the plain to be magnificently -wooded with forests of pines and deciduous-leaved trees, descending -almost to their base. On both sides of the valley the mountains rise -above the level of perpetual snow, but those on the north side are -considerably more lofty than the others. Numerous transverse valleys -penetrate into these mountains, which are well cultivated in their -lower parts, and, higher up, present superb mountain scenery. On the -south side of the valley, many passes, varying in elevation from -10,000 to 14,000 feet, lead across the main chain to the Chenab valley -and the plains of India. To the north there are only two frequented -routes, that by the Garys pass towards Hasora and Deotsu, and that by -the valley of the Sind river towards Dras. At the eastern end of the -valley a high pass leads across the mountains to the valley of -Wardwan, from which travellers can reach Kargil and the Indus on the -left, and Kishtwar in the valley of the Chenab on the right. - -The flat country or alluvial plain of Kashmir, which is 5300 feet -above the sea, is about fifty miles in length, and not more than ten -or twelve miles wide. It commences close to Islamabad, where the last -spurs of the mountains at the east end of the valley disappear; and -terminates at Baramula, where the ranges, branches of the opposite -mountain chains, again advance close to the bank of the river. It is -traversed in its whole length by the river Jelam, which rises at the -east end of the valley, and winds from one side of the plain to the -other, at one time washing the base of the northern hills, at another -receding to a considerable distance from them. The Jelam flows with a -tranquil stream, and, being navigable throughout the whole of the -level country as far up as Islamabad, for boats of considerable -burden, is the great highway for the traffic of the country, in which, -notwithstanding its being perfectly level, wheel-carriages are -unknown. At Islamabad it is a very small stream, but it gradually -enlarges, by additions from both sides, as it descends. Near the town -of Kashmir it is from fifty to a hundred yards wide, often very deep, -and in few places fordable, even at the driest season. - - [Sidenote: LACUSTRINE STRATA. - _April, 1848._] - -The plain of Kashmir has evidently at one time been the bed of a lake, -a deposit of fine clayey and sandy strata, more rarely partially -indurated into a soft sandstone rock, occupying a great part of the -surface. Soft pebbly conglomerate is also occasionally met with, and -an indurated conglomerate, containing water-worn pebbles, occurs in -many places in the lower course of the Sind river. This lacustrine -formation forms elevated platforms, which are from fifty to one -hundred and fifty feet or more above the level of the river. In many -places, both on the Jelam and along the lateral streams which descend -from the mountains to join it, the beds of clay have been removed by -aqueous action. In such places the plain has a lower level, often very -little above the surface of the river, and is covered with rice-fields -or with marshy lands, undrained and not under cultivation. - - [Sidenote: LAKE OF KASHMIR. - _April, 1848._] - -The platforms of lacustrine clay are called, in Kashmir, "_karewah_." -They are often quite dry, and generally uncultivated, but where water -is procurable they are highly cultivated, yielding luxuriant crops of -wheat and barley. A proper application of artificial irrigation would, -I believe, make the whole of these more elevated parts of the plain -fertile, as the soil is everywhere well adapted for the growth of -corn. These karewahs generally run parallel to the lateral streams -which join the Jelam, and extend from the base of the mountains till -they are cut off by the river. There are, however, in the upper part -of the valley, several isolated patches, all horizontally stratified, -from which I infer that they had originally been continuous. One of -these, near Bijbeara, forms a table-topped hill of considerable -extent, surrounded on all sides by low land. Several low hills near -Islamabad, also, are evidently outlying patches of the same formation. -The sands and sandy clays of these platforms are usually quite -non-fossiliferous; but I determined the lacustrine nature of the -strata by finding, on the flanks of Takht-i-Suleiman, a hill near the -town of Kashmir, and close to the city lake, but at least thirty feet -above its level, a bed of clay, which contained, abundantly, shells of -the genera _Lymnaea_ and _Paludina_. - -The main chain of the Himalaya, north of Kashmir, consists, where I -crossed it, by the Zoji pass north of Baltal, of metamorphic schist; -and all its branches, which descend towards the plain of Kashmir, seem -to be formed of the same rock. Along the north side of the valley, -however, a series of hills of trap rise, almost isolated, out of the -plain. Ahathung, near the Wulur lake, is, I believe, the most westerly -of these, but I did not visit it, and only infer its structure from -its conical shape and from its similarity in appearance to those -further east. Near the town of Kashmir there are two of these isolated -hills, composed of an amygdaloidal trap: these are Hari-Parbat, which -is fortified, and Takht-i-Suleiman, which rises about eight hundred -feet above the plain. The former lies to the north-west, and the -latter on the north-east side of the town. - -The lake or _Dal_ of Kashmir lies to the north of the town, stretching -from the base of these two hills to the more lofty mountain range -which bounds the valley on the north. It is nearly circular and four -or five miles in diameter, but is only open in its northern half, the -end nearest the town being occupied by large islands, with narrow -channels between them, in some of which there is a good deal of -current. Its waters are discharged into the Jelam by a considerable -stream, which, flowing from its south-east corner, runs to the -westward in a course nearly parallel to the southern margin of the -lake for nearly a mile, when it turns abruptly south to enter the -Jelam in the middle of the town of Kashmir. This stream is evidently -an artificial canal, and the embankment by which it is separated from -the lake appears to have been constructed in order to keep the surface -of the latter higher than it would naturally be. The stream at its -point of exit from the lake flows through a narrow canal of masonry, -and has, when the Jelam is low, a fall of several feet. A pair of -flood-gates prevent the return of the stream in times of flood, when -the waters of the river are higher than those of the lake. - -The Wulur lake, below the junction of the Sind river with the Jelam, -appears to be similar in appearance to that close to the town, and, -like it, to owe its extent in part to artificial means. Its dimensions -are, however, much greater. There are several large marshy tracts in -different parts of the plain, which, by a little engineering, might -also be converted into lakes: one in particular, near Avantipura, is -quite under water in spring, though in summer and autumn it is only a -swamp. - - [Sidenote: CLIMATE OF KASHMIR. - _April, 1848._] - -The climate of Kashmir is the same as that of the interior valleys of -the Himalaya, but modified by its extreme western position, which -brings it within the influence of the spring rains which prevail in -Affghanistan and the countries on the lower mountain course of the -Indus. There are at least four months of winter; and in general a good -deal of snow falls. March and April are very rainy; the summer months -mostly dry and fine. The periodical rains of India cannot be said to -extend into Kashmir; but in July and August showers and thunder-storms -are said to be frequent. The spring and autumn are unhealthy seasons. -In the former, the cold rainy weather affects those who have already -suffered from the malaria produced by the action of a powerful sun on -neglected swamps. The abandonment of cultivation, in consequence of -the long oppression of the country under a foreign government, has -been the cause of the increase of marshy ground. The river in seasons -of flood rises higher than the level of the lowest portion of the -alluvial land, and is only excluded (as in Holland) by means of -artificial works along the course of the river. By the omission to -repair these _bunds_, or dykes, a large extent of country which might -be under cultivation is left in a state of swamp. - - [Sidenote: VEGETATION OF KASHMIR. - _April, 1848._] - -There is no natural forest on any part of the open plain of Kashmir, -and the cultivated trees are not numerous; the plane, poplar, and -willow are all common, with numerous fruit-trees, chiefly walnuts, -apples, apricots, cherries, and quinces. A mulberry is also common, -the dried specimens of which are in no way distinguishable from those -of the common white mulberry of Europe, with which I have compared it. -The vines are trained up the poplar-trees, rising to their very tops, -and hanging down from their summits. A species of _Celtis_, which is -commonly planted around the town, is, I think, the most tropical of -all the Kashmirian trees, being common in the warmer valleys of the -outer Himalayas; it is, however, I think, _Celtis australis_, L., a -species which is a native of western Asia and eastern Europe, and -appears to find its eastern limit in the Himalaya. - -At the time of my arrival in Kashmir, the fruit-trees were in full -blossom; the wild vegetation had, however, made very little progress, -only the earliest plants being in flower. The spring flora was -eminently European in character; not only the genera, but many of the -species, being identical with those of our own island. _Cruciferae_ -were the most abundant natural order; and, among many others, I -collected _Draba verna_, _Capsella_, _Erysimum_, _Alliaria_, _Turritis -glabra_, and European species of _Lepidium_, _Thlaspi_, _Alyssum_, and -_Sisymbrium_. Other common forms were _Lycopsis arvensis_, -_Lithospermum arvense_, _Myosotis collina_, _Scandix Pecten_, -_Ranunculus Philonotis_, _Anagallis arvensis_, _Euphorbia -Helioscopia_, and several species of _Veronica_. None of the annual -plants were Indian forms, though a few of them were such as occur -commonly in the plains in the cold season. The shrubby vegetation was -very limited: a Juniper (_J. communis_), a _Cotoneaster_, _Rubus_, -_Rosa Webbiana_, _Zizyphus_, _Elaeagnus_, _Daphne_, and two species of -_Berberis_, were the most common. A few straggling trees of _Pinus -excelsa_, which grew on the northern face of the low hill called -Solomon's Throne, were the only pines which I saw in any part of the -open valley. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[16] This juniper has a very extended range in altitude, being common -in the drier parts of the Himalaya at elevations of 12-13,000 feet, -and in some parts of Tibet, where it meets with a higher summer -temperature, even as high as 14-15,000 feet. It is the _Juniperus -excelsa_ of Wallich, and, so far as the point can be decided by dried -specimens, seems identical with specimens in the Hookerian Herbarium, -collected in Karabagh and Sakitschiwan by Szowitz, and communicated to -Sir W. J. Hooker by Fischer. The Taurian specimens of _J. excelsa_ -from Bieberstein are, however, a good deal different, and are perhaps -only a form of _J. Sabina_. - -[17] In Moorcroft's time, this place was a small village. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - - Environs of Kashmir -- City lake -- Gardens of Shalimar and - Dilawer Khan -- Pampur -- Avantipura -- Platforms of lacustrine - clay -- Mountain of Wasterwan -- Ancient city -- Clay, with - shells and fragments of pottery -- Ancient temple imbedded in - clay -- Lakes caused by subsidence -- Islamabad -- Shahabad -- - Vegetation -- Vernag -- Banahal Pass -- Valley of Banahal -- - Tropical vegetation -- Pass above Chenab Valley -- Nasmon -- - _Jhula_, or Swing-bridge -- Balota -- Ladhe ke Dhar -- Katti -- - Fort of Landar -- Mir -- Kirmichi -- Tertiary sandstones -- - Dhuns -- Seda -- Jamu. - - -During my stay in Kashmir, besides the necessary ceremonial of -complimentary visits, my chief occupation was visiting the principal -places in the vicinity. From my residence in the Sheikh Bagh I had -easy access to the river, as well as to the canal by which it -communicates with the lake. A broad road, three-quarters of a mile in -length, shaded on both sides by very fine poplar-trees, runs from the -eastern end of the town, parallel to this canal, as far as the hill -called the Takht, at the foot of which is situated the passage by -which the lake discharges its waters into the canal. The weather was -very favourable, the spring rains having terminated a day or two -before my arrival. The Kashmiris are accomplished boatmen, a great -part of the population living upon the water; and as most of the -conspicuous objects around the town are only accessible by water, I -gave pretty constant employment to a boat's crew whom I hired during -my stay. - - [Sidenote: LAKE OF KASHMIR. - _April, 1848._] - -My first visit was to the lake, and to the celebrated gardens on its -northern shore, which were the delight of the emperors who made -Kashmir their retreat from the heat and cares of Delhi and Lahore. The -southern part of the lake is very shallow, and I sailed along narrow -channels, which separated large patches of tall reeds, among which a -very narrow-leaved _Typha_ and an _Arundo_ were the commonest plants. -Three or four species of _Potamogeton_ were abundant in the lake, just -coming into flower, but most of the water-plants were only beginning -to vegetate. I saw three or four flowers of a water-lily (_Nymphaea -alba_), and could just recognize _Villarsia nymphaeoides_, _Menyanthes -trifoliata_, and _Trapa_, all of which had been recorded by previous -travellers as natives of Kashmir. I looked anxiously for _Nelumbium_, -but saw no signs of it, except the withered capsules of the previous -year, many of which I observed floating on the lake. - - [Sidenote: GARDENS OF KASHMIR. - _April, 1848._] - -The gardens of Shalimar and of Dilawer Khan rise in a succession of -terraces from the margin of the lake. They are laid out in a stiff -formal style, straight walks crossing one another at right angles, and -are irrigated by means of straight water-courses, branching from a -long canal which passes down the centre, through a succession of ponds -well built in masonry, and provided with artificial fountains, which -are made to play on festivals and holidays. Pavilions of fine marble -occupy the intersections of the principal walks. Magnificent -plane-trees form the chief ornament of these gardens, which are now -much neglected; straggling bushes and a wilderness of weeds occupying -all the less conspicuous parts, while the main avenues alone are kept -a little neat. - -Although the chief beauty of the valley of Kashmir is undoubtedly the -magnificent girdle of snowy mountains by which it is surrounded, the -orchards and gardens, which are still numerous in the neighbourhood of -the capital, are charming spots, and the more so from the contrast -which they present with the barrenness of the surrounding country, and -the absolute ugliness of the swamps in the centre of the valley. Nor -should it be forgotten, when we compare the accounts given by early -travellers with the impressions made upon us by the present appearance -of the valley, that Kashmir is no longer in the same state as it was -in the days of the emperors; a long continuance of misrule, under a -succession of governors, whose only interest it has been to extract as -much revenue as possible from the unfortunate inhabitants, having -produced the only conceivable result, in abandoned cultivation, a -diminished revenue, and an impoverished people. - -On the 2nd of May I left the town of Kashmir, taking the route by the -Banahal pass, towards Jamu and the plains of India. As my road lay for -several days' journey along the course of the Jelam (or Behat, as it -is always called in Kashmir), I engaged boats for the transport of my -servants and baggage as far as Islamabad, travelling myself, however, -generally by land and on foot, in order to see the country. My first -halting-place was Pampur, seven miles from the town of Kashmir. After -traversing the magnificent avenue of poplars, which runs north-west -from the town, the road winds round the base of the Takht, the eastern -face of which is only separated from the Jelam by a low swampy tract, -a few hundred yards in breadth. East of the Takht a succession of -rugged trap hills skirt the road, but beyond these the more distant -mountains are evidently stratified. The road was grassy and quite -level, and passed through much cultivation, the young wheat and barley -being dripping with a heavy dew which had fallen during the night. A -scarlet poppy and _Adonis_ were common weeds among the corn. - - [Sidenote: AVANTIPURA. - _May, 1848._] - -Next day I travelled to Avantipura, seven miles further. The -lacustrine formations, which had made their appearance on the bank of -the river a little west of Pampur, continued to occur more or less -constantly as we proceeded eastward, and the road traversed for some -miles an elevated plain, quite bare of trees, and only partially -cultivated, while the remainder was covered with grass. The surface of -this plain was eroded by wide transverse valleys, formed by little -streams which ran towards the Jelam: these were flat, and well -cultivated, some of the wheat being already in ear. On the highest -parts of the platform the cultivation of saffron is carried on, in -beds four or five feet square, separated by deep ditches or furrows -from one another. The plant, which flowers in autumn, was now in full -leaf. - - [Sidenote: ASCENT OF WASTERWAN. - _May, 1848._] - -Behind Avantipura lies a high mountain, called Wasterwan, rising to a -height of 10,000 feet above the sea by the determination of -Jacquemont, or 4700 feet above the plain. It projects forward in an -almost isolated manner, though it is connected by a narrow ridge -behind with the general mass of the range on the north side of the -valley. On the 4th of May I ascended to the summit of this mountain, -which I found to be entirely formed of trap, partly homogeneous, and -partly amygdaloidal. Several gigantic _Umbelliferae_, already in full -flower, were abundant in the lower parts of the open valley by which I -ascended. One of these was _Prangos pabularia_, which formed dense -thickets four or five feet high. From this open valley I got upon a -sharp ridge, grassy below but very rocky above, along which I -proceeded almost to the top; but being stopped by a precipice, I was -obliged to enter a narrow rocky ravine, by ascending which I managed -to gain the summit, which was grassy and rounded, and covered with a -few patches of snow. On the northern face of the hill snow still lay -in great quantity. The view from the top was very fine, the day being -in every respect favourable: the greater part of the valley of Kashmir -was seen spread out far below, and a complete circle of snowy -mountains bounded the horizon. The mountains to the north were seen to -be distinctly stratified. - -The commonest plants on the ascent were a beautiful rose-coloured -_Oxytropis_, and a tulip (_T. stellata_), the flowers of which, when -fully expanded, spread out like a star. A few trees of _Pinus excelsa_ -were seen on the upper part of the ridge; and in a hollow close to the -top there were about a dozen yew-trees. On the summit, though the -vegetation was not generally alpine, most of the plants of the middle -zone extending to the very top, there were many pretty little spring -flowers, which did not extend far down. A _Primula_, _Pedicularis_, -_Gentiana_, _Leontopodium_, _Corydalis_, and _Callianthemum_, were all -in flower. On the northern slope of the mountain, a wood of deciduous -trees, still bare of leaves, commenced a few yards below the summit. -At first the trees were all birch, but lower down a cherry and maple -were mixed with it; the former with young leaves, and just-formed -racemes; the latter only recognizable by the last year's leaves, which -strewed the ground. A few horse-chesnut trees were also seen near the -top. - - [Sidenote: ANCIENT CITY OF AVANTIPURA. - _May, 1848._] - -The neighbourhood of the village of Avantipura is one of the most -interesting places in which the lacustrine strata of the Kashmir -valley can be studied, as there is distinct evidence of the existence -in that place of deposits much more recent than those which extend -over the whole plain, and which were therefore formed when the valley -was occupied by a large lake. Avantipura was formerly the site of a -very large town, the capital, I believe, of the kingdom; built in the -shape of an amphitheatre in a deep semicircular bay, enclosed by two -low spurs, which project from the mountain Wasterwan, which rises -immediately behind. - -The ruins of the ancient town are still visible, consisting of heaps -of stones, some of immense size, indicative of large buildings, but -none of them showing the slightest traces by which the shape or -structure of the edifices could be determined. These ruins extend all -round the deep recess in the mountains, and terminate below quite -abruptly, without any apparent cause, in a perfectly horizontal line -along the mountain-side. The mountain behind is an isolated peak, -furrowed by numerous ravines, which are dry except immediately after -rain. The place would therefore appear singularly inappropriate as the -site of a large city, were there not, I think, sufficient evidence -that a lake existed in front of the town, the surface of which was on -a level with the horizontal line by which the ruins are abruptly -terminated. - - [Sidenote: CLAY, WITH BROKEN POTTERY. - _May, 1848._] - -The ruins of the ancient city stand upon the lacustrine clay of the -Kashmir plain, and are therefore posterior in age to the period when -the valley was occupied by one large lake. Immediately in front of the -ancient ruins, between them and the small modern village of -Avantipura, which is situated on the banks of the Jelam, there occur -beds of fine brown-coloured clay, containing in great quantity -fragments of pottery, with here and there small pieces of charcoal and -bone. In one place on the bank of a small ravine, which then probably -carried a streamlet into the lake, I found the clay to contain, mixed -with the broken pottery, numerous shells, some fresh-water and some -land species, and all the same as are common at the present day in the -river Jelam, or on the grassy hill-sides in the valley. The place -where these shells occur is fifty or sixty feet above the river. - -The appearance of this evidently very modern deposit is exactly that -which would no doubt be exhibited, were the present lake close to the -city of Kashmir dried up, and a section of its bed exposed. This lake -contains abundance of shells, and in the neighbourhood of the town it -is made the receptacle of refuse of every kind, broken pottery being -particularly plentiful. In shallow places in the river, close to the -town of Bijbehara, a similar deposit is accumulating, valves of a -_Cyrena_ being found to some depth in the fine mud, mixed with broken -pots, charcoal, bones, and other refuse. - - [Sidenote: TEMPLE IMBEDDED. - IN LACUSTRINE CLAY. - _May, 1848._] - -The most remarkable fact connected with this very recent lacustrine -deposit is, that the ruins of an ancient temple exist on the plain -above the Jelam, a little west of the modern village, partially buried -in the clay. The upper parts of two temples, resembling in all -respects the ruins on the elevated platform at Martand, near -Islamabad, stand on the open plain, not far from the river, but -perhaps twenty feet above its level, and certainly far below the level -to which the clay containing pottery rises on the hill-sides. One of -the temples is quite in ruins, the immense blocks of which it is built -being piled confusedly on one another. The beautiful colonnade -(exactly like that at Martand) by which it is surrounded, is evidently -quite uninjured in any way; but it is entirely buried under the -lacustrine clay, except a very small portion, consisting of three -pillars, which were exposed by Major Cunningham in 1847. These three -pillars may be seen in a cavity under the level of the present surface -of the ground, and the clay in which they were imbedded contains -fragments of pottery in profusion. - -If these temples (the date of which I believe is approximately known -to antiquarians) were contemporaneous with the ancient town, they must -have been buried in the lacustrine silt at some period not very long -subsequent to their erection, if I am right in supposing a lake to -have existed at the same time with the town. Probably, therefore, -they are anterior in age to the town, as they are imbedded in such -masses of pottery as could only have been accumulated in the -neighbourhood of a very dense population. Their present appearance, I -think, helps to explain the nature and origin of the many lakes or -marshy depressions which occur in all parts of the valley. It appears -evident that at Avantipura, at some period subsequent to the building -of the temples, a subsidence of the ground must have taken place -during one of the many earthquakes which are well known to have -convulsed the Kashmir valley. This subsidence, which must have been -partial, and not co-extensive with the valley, converted the ground on -which the temples stood into a lake. A fresh subsidence, or the -gradual wearing away of the incoherent clay strata lower down the -river, must at last have drained the little lake, and left the country -round Avantipura in the state in which we now see it. Even now a marsh -partly under water during the spring months extends from Avantipura -for several miles up the river. - -The occurrence of repeated partial subsidences in various parts of the -Kashmir plain appears to me the only way in which the general -appearance of the country can be explained. The abrupt, broad, and -shallow depressions between the different platforms are seemingly much -too extensive to have been formed by the trifling streamlets which now -run along them, without the assistance of volcanic action. The lakes, -too, are deeper than the present level of the river, a circumstance -only explicable in an alluvial country on some such supposition; and -as it is well known that violent earthquakes have at intervals -convulsed this valley for many centuries, this mode of explaining the -phenomena becomes highly probable. - - [Sidenote: BIJBEHARA. - _May, 1848._] - - [Sidenote: ISLAMABAD. - _May, 1848._] - -On the 5th of May I continued my journey to Islamabad, which is about -eleven miles from Avantipura. The peak of Wasterwan is the termination -of a long mountain ridge, which separates two large valleys from one -another. Immediately to the eastward, therefore, the mountains recede -from the river, and the road traverses a marshy tract, a great part of -which, from the late heavy rains, was still under water, while the -remainder was laid out in fields, prepared for the cultivation of -rice. Further on, cliffs of lacustrine clay again rose perpendicularly -from the river. Several streams joined the Jelam from both sides, some -of them deep and sluggish, with straight banks like canals, while -others were almost as large as the main stream, and broad and shallow, -with a sandy bed and gently flowing current. Near Bijbehara, a -considerable village, with many timber-built houses and a substantial -bridge of deodar, the banks are beautifully wooded with shady trees. -Above this village the Jelam is much smaller, often shallow, and the -banks lower, though still eight or ten feet above the water, and not -swampy, but either fringed with willow and mulberry trees, or bare and -covered with fields of green corn, or of rape now in full flower. The -bridge of Islamabad, which is the limit of navigation, is nearly a -mile from the town, which is a considerable place, the next in -importance to the capital, though very much smaller. It lies on low -ground close by the river, but immediately behind it a long -promontory of the lacustrine formation stretches back for several -miles, rising abruptly out of the finely cultivated and well-wooded -valley on the left, in steep, rugged cliffs, which are worn into -irregular ravines by the action of rain. These formations attain here -a thickness of at least 150 feet, and well deserve the particular -attention of the geologist. The ancient temple of Martand, the most -perfect of its class of ruins in the valley, is built on the upper and -back part of this platform. - -Leaving Islamabad, I crossed immediately one branch of the Jelam, -which descends from the west. It had already lost the tranquil -character of the stream lower down. There were pebbles in its bed, and -it had a more rapid current. After crossing this stream, the country -was for some distance quite flat, and entirely covered with -rice-fields, now bare; some of them had been ploughed, but most were -still just as they had been left after harvest. They were traversed by -numerous ditches or canals for irrigation, in all of which a -proportion of fresh-water shells, chiefly _Lymnaeae_, were seen. Further -on, the appearance of the country began to change: there were still -plenty of rice-fields, but they rose in steps one above another, and -the water in the irrigation canals flowed rapidly over pebbly beds. -Crossing another branch of the Jelam, which had a broad channel full -of large boulders, but shallow and easily fordable, the road began -gradually to ascend a low range of hills covered with grass and bushes -where it was dry, but still laid out in rice-fields wherever water was -procurable. These hills, which are the termination of a long range -which descends from the snow-clad mountains at the east end of the -valley, are composed of a very hard limestone, the strata of which are -much bent, sinuated, and fractured. On the south side of this ridge is -the valley of Shahabad, which is watered by the principal branch of -the Jelam. It contains numerous villages, surrounded with fine -orchards, and its rice-fields are arranged in terraces. Water being -plentiful, the whole valley is cultivated with rice, and the district -appears to be one of the richest in Kashmir. - - [Sidenote: SHAHABAD. - _May, 1848._] - -The general character of the vegetation continues the same as further -west, and the more advanced season enabled me to recognize a few -common Himalayan plants. The scandent white rose (_R. Brunonis_) was -one of these, also _Lonicera diversifolia_ and a shrubby _Indigofera_. -I also observed _Viola serpens_, _Thymus Serpyllum_, _Lactuca -dissecta_, and _Fragaria Indica_. Among the rice-fields several plains -plants occurred, such as _Potentilla supina_, _Convolvulus arvensis_, -_Mazus rugosus_, _Salvia plebeia_, and _Marsilea quadrifolia_. Nor -were the plants of a Tibetan climate altogether wanting, for _Rosa -Webbiana_ was everywhere common, and a species of _Myricaria_ grew -plentifully among the boulders on the banks of all the streams. - - [Sidenote: FOUNTAIN OF VERNAG. - _May, 1848._] - -From Shahabad I made, on the 7th, a short march to Vernag, a -celebrated fountain near the bottom of the Banahal pass. Crossing the -river, the road lay up the open valley of the Jelam, still among -rice-fields, rising step by step behind one another, as the valley -sloped upwards. Vernag lies close to the mouth of a little lateral -valley, up which our further course lay. The fountain, which is built -of marble, is large, contains many fish, and supplies a considerable -stream. It is the reputed source of the Behat or Jelam, but the main -branch of that river descends from the mountains a good way further to -the south-west. The hills on both sides of the Shahabad valley are of -limestone, the strike of which seemed to be west-south-west, or nearly -in the direction of the valley. It is very much indurated, and its -colour is bluish-grey; it has all the appearance of having been much -altered by heat. The dip appeared different on the opposite sides of -the valley: on the north it was east of north, on the other side -southerly; the inclination of the beds varied much, and they were -often very much distorted. I did not see any eruption of igneous rock -on any part of the day's journey. - -On the hills above Vernag there was a good deal of brushwood, -consisting chiefly of _Fothergilla involucrata_, two species of -_Viburnum_, _Cotoneaster_, _Lonicera_, and a few trees of _Pinus -excelsa_, yew, and deodar. The opposite hills were bare and grassy. In -the forests of Kashmir (as was first pointed out by Dr. Falconer) we -do not find the oak, _Andromeda_, and _Rhododendron_, which are so -abundant at similar elevations in the outer Himalaya. The appearance -of the woods is, therefore, remarkably different, as these trees, -which, in the temperate zone of the mountains near the plains, -constitute almost all the forest, give the woods there a peculiar -character. - - [Sidenote: BANAHAL PASS. - _May, 1848._] - -On the 8th of May I passed from the valley of Kashmir into the basin -of the Chenab, crossing the Banahal pass, the summit of which is not -more than 10,000 feet above the sea: it is a very narrow ridge, -separating two deep valleys. Starting through rice-fields, and -passing at the upper limit of cultivation a few fields of barley and -rape, I soon entered brushwood, the same as on the hills above Vernag. -In the ravines on the left hand, snow descended below 7000 feet. -Ascending rapidly on a ridge, the brushwood gave place to a fine wood -of maple, horse-chesnut, cherry, hazel, and elm, all just bursting -into leaf. The dip of the limestone rocks was exceedingly variable, at -one time southerly, at another northerly, but the strike was, I -believe, the same as the day before. The ascent continuing rapid, the -shady side of the ridge was soon covered with snow; but the road kept -on the southern exposure, which was sometimes bare of forest. Birch at -last appeared among the other trees, and, as the elevation increased, -it began to predominate. About the same time, the limestone gave place -to a slaty rock, which was almost immediately followed by an -amygdaloid, which continued to the summit. Both the slate and the -limestone appeared to have been upheaved by the igneous rock, and I -thought the slate seemed inferior to the limestone. - -On the upper part of the ascent the birch gradually became more and -more stunted; it was here almost the only tree, with the exception of -a few specimens of _Picea Webbiana_, at the limit of forest a little -below the summit. Here the hills were bare and rocky; but the forest -did not cease on account of elevation, because on the opposite hill, -which had a northern exposure, a shady wood, chiefly consisting of -pines, rose to a level considerably higher than that of the pass, -which was a depression in the ridge, considerably overtopped by the -hills on both sides. The crest of the pass was undulating, and -covered with green-sward, among which a few spring plants were in -flower; these were a _Corydalis_, an _Anemone_, and _Primula -denticulata_. A large patch of snow occupied the northern slope, just -below the top. - -The view from the summit would have been magnificent had the day been -more favourable; but a thick haze rested over the more distant parts -of the valley of Kashmir, as well as over the southern mountains in -the direction of the plains of India. The southern slope of the range -on which I stood was bare, scarcely even a bush being visible; and the -Banahal valley, nearly four thousand feet below, appeared as a -perfectly level plain, covered with rice-fields and scattered -villages, marked by groves of trees. On the descent I followed a very -steep rocky ridge. About half-way down, the amygdaloid was replaced by -metamorphic slate, and for the remainder of the descent the rocks were -alternations of slate, very hard conglomerate, and quartz rock. The -dip of these strata was very variable, and on the face of several -spurs, at a little distance, sections were exposed, exhibiting -enormous flexures. I saw no limestone on the southern face of the -pass, except in the valley of Banahal, where there was a good deal of -a horizontally stratified limestone, very different in appearance from -that on the other side, which, as it was confined to the bottom of the -valley, and was there very local, appeared to be of much more recent -origin. - - [Sidenote: BANAHAL VALLEY. - _May, 1848._] - -After joining the Banahal river, the descent became more gradual. At -first, the valley was almost level and quite covered with rice-fields, -all under water. The villagers were busy ploughing, both bullocks and -men knee-deep in soft mud. Further on, the valley contracted, and -cultivation only occurred at intervals. In the narrower parts, the -stream was fringed with trees, but the hill-sides were still quite -bare. Round the villages there were very fine trees, chiefly walnut, -horse-chesnut, and elms, with the ordinary fruit-trees; but the plane -and black poplar do not occur, nor are any vines cultivated in the -valley. The winter is said to be quite as severe as in Kashmir; and -the elevation, so far as I could determine it by the boiling-point of -water, is a little greater, the lower villages (in one of which I -encamped) being about 5500 feet, while the highest fields are about -6000 feet. In the woods, _Fothergilla_, cherry, sycamore, and -horse-chesnut were common, just as in Kashmir. The season was much -further advanced than on the north side of the pass, all these trees -being fully in leaf, and the horse-chesnut in flower. The greater part -of the vegetation was identical with that of Kashmir, but I saw many -more species, probably only from the more advanced state of the -season. The _Zizyphus_ and rose (_R. Webbiana_) of Kashmir were still -common, and the white poplar was wild along the banks of the stream. I -did not, however, see _Daphne_ or _Myricaria_. In shady lateral -ravines an oak was frequent, the more interesting as I had seen none -in Kashmir; it was _Q. floribunda_, a species of the middle zone of -the outer Himalaya, which usually occurs at higher levels than _Q. -incana_, and lower than _Q. semecarpifolia_. - -Though the river of Banahal is a tributary of the Chenab, yet the -district has always been considered as a dependency of Kashmir, from -which it is only a short day's journey distant, while for several -days in descending towards the Chenab, the country is almost -uninhabited. Halting one day at Banahal to change my porters, I made -three marches to Nasmon, on the right bank of the Chenab, following -the course of the Banahal river during the first and part of the -second march, but afterwards leaving it, on account of its increasing -ruggedness, to cross the range on the left hand by a pass about 8000 -feet above the sea, which overhangs the valley of the Chenab. The -bounding spurs which hem in the Banahal valley descend almost -perpendicularly upon the Chenab, and dip at last very abruptly to that -river. At first, large masses of snow were visible at the sources of -all the lateral valleys, but lower down the elevation was not -sufficient, and the hills were bare. After leaving the last village of -Banahal, the bottom of the valley was for some time level and covered -with fine forest, consisting chiefly of magnificent trees of _Celtis_, -elm, and alder; the others were two species of Acer, _Fraxinus_, -_Morus_, _Populus ciliata_, and a willow. _Fothergilla_ now grew to a -small tree, and _Marlea_ made its appearance, the first indication of -an approach to a hot climate. Soon, the banks of the river became -rocky, and left no passage, so that the road ascended on the right -bank, and lay at a considerable elevation on the hill-sides, looking -down upon a richly wooded and often rocky glen. The hills were steep -and generally bare, but the ravines were often well wooded. _Pinus -excelsa_ occurred occasionally; _Quercus floribunda_ was common, and -_Q. lanata_ made its appearance. - -Before leaving the Banahal river, I had got down to about 4000 feet, -meeting latterly with some familiar plants of the warmer zone: _Pinus -longifolia_ formed dry woods, _Cedrela Toona_, a fig, _Albizzia -mollis_, and last of all, _Dalbergia Sissoo_. Still, most of the -plants of the upper part of the valley accompanied me throughout; even -the hoary oak had not disappeared, and the general appearance of the -vegetation was very different from what it would have been at the same -elevation further east, the plants of a hot climate being chiefly such -as delight in a dry heat, and are capable of enduring a considerable -amount of winter cold, provided the summer temperature be sufficiently -elevated. It was evident that the temperature was considerably lower -than it would have been at the same height in the Sutlej valley, and I -drew the same inference with regard to the humidity, from the -appearance of a number of dry-climate plants; for instance, a yellow -spinous _Astragalus_, a _Dianthus_, and _Eremurus_, an Asphodeleous -genus common in Kunawar, and other dry valleys of the Himalaya. - - [Sidenote: PASS ABOVE NASMON. - _May, 1848._] - -In the ascent of the lateral ravine, towards the pass above Nasmon, I -encountered, for the first time, _Rhododendron arboreum_ and -_Andromeda ovalifolia_, the two trees which, with the hoary oak, form -the mass of the Simla woods. The forest was now very fine, as I was on -the northern slope of the range. On the upper part of the ridge by -which I ascended, there was a grove of fine deodar-trees, and in the -bottom of the dell a shady wood of horse-chesnut and sycamore. I had -now entered a zone in which the flora was quite similar to that of -Simla; _Fothergilla_ being the only tree I observed, which is not -common in that district. And it was curious that it was on the -northern and most shady, as well as most humid exposure, that this -identity of flora became first remarkable, and that the same trees -which at Simla form the forests of the drier slopes and more exposed -situations, grew in this valley low down on the hill-sides, in the -most sheltered spots. - - [Sidenote: VEGETATION. - _May, 1848._] - -The ascent towards the ridge was latterly steep, with a good deal of -silver fir and deodar. The trees rose to the very top of the northern -slope, but, as usual, the summit was bare and grassy, though the tops -of the trees were actually higher than the crest of the ridge, and -obscured the view to the north. As the elevation was only 8000 feet, -there was no peculiarity of vegetation, all the plants being those of -the middle zone, except the silver fir, which descended to a lower -level than it usually does in the Simla hills. There was some -cultivation of wheat and barley within a very short distance of the -summit, which overlooked the valley of the Chenab; and as the day was -fortunately clear, there was a very fine view. The ravine through -which the river flowed appeared everywhere rugged, more especially -towards the plains, where a succession of steep rocky hills were seen, -the nearest of which surrounded the mouth of the Banahal river. Across -the Chenab, a high range, beautifully wooded, ran parallel to the -river, rising into a snowy peak nearly opposite to me. This peak, -which concealed all view of the plains beyond, lay on my road to Jamu, -and was about 9000 feet in height. - - [Sidenote: BRIDGE OVER THE CHENAB. - _May, 1848._] - -The descent to Nasmon, which is only 2700 feet above the level of the -sea, was very steep. At first it led along the face of a bare hill, -but soon entered a shady ravine, filled with alder, oak, walnut, and -_Celtis_, but without any of the superb horse-chesnuts which had been -so abundant in the humid valleys on the northern face of the range; -nor was there any _Rhododendron_. Crossing a considerable stream, the -road ascended through fine forest to the crest of a ridge, beyond -which there was a long and steep descent of at least 1500 feet, to the -village of Nasmon, on which tropical vegetation made its appearance -very abruptly. _Pinus longifolia_ grew scattered along the sides of -this hill, and _Daphne_, pomegranate, the olive of the Sutlej valley, -_Vitex Negundo_, _Colebrookea_, _Rottlera_, _Sissoo_, _Adhatoda -Vasica_, a thorny _Celastrus_, _Acacia modesta_ and _Lebbek_, and -_Bauhinia variegata_, made their appearance in succession, in the -order in which I have named them. Most of these are the same as the -shrubby forms common in the Sutlej valley at Rampur; but the -_Celastrus_ and _Acacia modesta_ are plants of the plains of the -western Punjab, and do not extend so far west as that river. The range -parallel to the Chenab on the north, which I had just crossed, has -probably a granitic axis, for boulders of granite were common on the -upper part of the ascent on both sides of the pass, though I did not -anywhere see that rock _in situ_. On both sides the first rock exposed -was a fine-grained gneiss, with large crystals of felspar. Lower down, -on the north face, I observed mica-slate, with garnets; and in the bed -of the Banahal river ordinary clay-slate occurred. - - [Sidenote: NASMON. - _May, 1848._] - -Nasmon is a very large but scattered village, with much cultivation. -It lies on a high platform of alluvium, considerably above the bed of -the river. Plane, orange, apricot, and pear trees grew in the -gardens, with _Melia Azedarach_, and a few trees of the European -cypress (_C. sempervirens_), bearing apparently ripe fruit. The day -was oppressively warm, the thermometer rising above 85 deg. in the -shade. - -On the 13th of May, I crossed the Chenab by a bridge about a mile -above Nasmon. The descent to the bank of the river was gradual, and -very bare. Rocks of a black clay-slate and of conglomerate, in nearly -vertical strata, formed the bed of the river, which was as large as -the Sutlej at Rampur, and very much swollen and muddy. The bridge is -the simplest form of _jhula_, a single set of ropes, from which a -wooden seat is suspended, which is pulled from side to side by means -of a rope, worked from the rocks on either side of the river. The -banks of the river were adorned with a profusion of bushes of _Nerium -odorum_, in full flower, and highly ornamental. The vegetation along -the river exhibited the same curious contrast of tropical and -temperate forms, which I have already described as characteristic of -the dry valleys of the interior of the Himalaya, at elevations between -two and four thousand feet; and the tropical plants were so similar to -those which I observed on the Sutlej, that I need not particularize -them. There was no forest in any part of the valley near the river, -but a few trees of _Pinus longifolia_ grew scattered on the bank; and -on the stony ground which skirted the stream, there was a low jungle -of the same tropical shrubs as had occurred on the lower part of the -descent the day before. I saw also _Zizyphus nummularia_, a shrub -which is eminently characteristic of a dry climate, being common in -the most desert and rainless districts of the Punjab. The shrubby -temperate forms were not numerous, being chiefly _Rosa Brunonis_, and -the Himalayan pear, _Lonicera diversifolia_, _Myrsine bifaria_, and -_Jasminum revolutum_, all plants which have a very wide range in the -Himalaya. - - [Sidenote: WILD OLIVES AND POMEGRANATES. - _May, 1848._] - -Passing through the bush jungle which skirted the river, I entered a -large tract of almost level cultivated land, covered with fields of -barley, ripe and partly cut. One or two plantain-trees, and some -buffaloes, were signs that we were still in a very hot region. -Crossing a considerable stream, the road began to ascend rapidly on a -narrow ridge. Passing some farm-houses, surrounded by fields, I -entered a scattered wood of wild olive-trees (_Olea cuspidata_), mixed -with _Zizyphus_ and wild pomegranate. The young shoots and panicles of -the olive were abundantly covered with a white floccose glutinous -matter, the source of which I could not exactly determine; but I could -see no trace of any insects by which it could have been formed, so -that it was perhaps a natural exudation from the tree. Small woods of -_Pinus longifolia_ occurred at intervals, almost alone, for few plants -seem to thrive under its shade. At 4000 feet, while the olive and -pomegranate were still abundant, _Quercus lanata_ appeared. At 4500 -feet, which was about the upper limit of the olive, I re-entered a -cultivated district, disposed in terraces on the slopes of the hills. -The barley was quite ripe, and being cut, but the wheat, though in -full ear, was still green. There were also a few fields of the opium -poppy in full flower, and of safflower (_Carthamus tinctorius_), which -was not nearly so far advanced. - -I encamped at the village of Balota, elevated 5000 feet. Round the -village were some very fine table-topped deodars, perhaps the relics -of a former forest, though more likely planted by the villagers. The -hills on all sides were richly cultivated, as far up as 6000 feet, -above which elevation fine forest commenced; and the snowy top of the -mountain behind, which I had seen from the pass of the 12th, was -visible rising behind the forest. During the whole of the ascent from -the Chenab, the rock was a coarse-grained sandstone, in highly -inclined strata, generally of a reddish-brown colour, the surface of -which rapidly passes into a state of decay. - - [Sidenote: LADHE KE DHAR. - _May, 1848._] - -The range of mountains to the south of the Chenab, by which that river -is separated from the basin of the Tawi or river of Jamu, still lay -between me and the plains of India. On the 14th of May, I crossed a -spur from this range, descending into a valley watered by a tributary -of the Chenab. This ridge, which is called Ladhe ke Dhar, rises a -little above 9000 feet, that being the elevation at which the road -crosses it. After leaving the cultivated lands of Balota, the ascent, -which was steady, lay through fine brushwood and stunted oaks. On the -banks of the stream, which occupied the centre of the valley by which -I ascended, sycamore, horse-chesnut, and cherry, were abundant. On the -slopes there were a few trees of _Pinus excelsa_ and _Picea_, but the -forest was not dense. About 7000 feet, on the north-western face of a -spur, there was much cultivation of wheat and barley, hardly yet in -ear. Here there was a fine view in the direction of the upper valley -of the Chenab, of rugged mountains, scarcely wooded on the slope -exposed to view, rising behind one another, the more distant still -heavily snowed. Higher up, the forest was chiefly formed of the -holly-leaved oak, but the latter part of the ascent was through a dark -forest of silver fir, intermixed with a few fine yews. The underwood -here was chiefly _Viburnum nervosum_, still in flower, though its -leaves were almost fully developed. On emerging from this gloomy -forest, in the upper part of which there was a thin sprinkling of -snow, I found myself on the crest of the range, which was bare and -rounded. Snow lay in large patches, and had evidently been till very -recently continuous over the whole top, as vegetation was just -commencing, and few plants were in flower. _Primula denticulata_ was -common, as well as a little gentian, which extended on both sides at -least 2000 feet lower; the only alpine plant was the little -_Callianthemum_ which I had found some days before on the summit of -Wasterwan in Kashmir. The distant view was unfortunately quite -obscured by haze, so that I could not see, as I had expected, the -plains of India. - - [Sidenote: KATTI. - _May, 1848._] - -In descending the southern face of this mountain, the road at once -entered a forest of silver fir, in the upper part of which I saw one -tree of _Quercus semecarpifolia_, a species which I had not met with -on the Kashmir passes, or anywhere since leaving the Sutlej. About -8000 feet, the pines were replaced by the holly-leaved oak, forming -open woods, in the glades of which patches of cultivation soon -occurred; I encamped at about 7000 feet, at the village of Katti. -During the day the sandstone rock occurred uninterruptedly, partly, as -the day before, of a reddish-brown colour, partly grey, or nearly -white. On the descent large angular fragments of this rock were -everywhere scattered over the surface, almost always more or less -imbedded in the soil: these had somewhat the appearance of a former -moraine, but the surface was so much covered with wood, and the -boulders were so much buried, that I could not trace their arrangement -in a satisfactory manner. - - [Sidenote: LANDAR. - _May, 1848._] - -Next morning I continued the descent, which was rapid, so that I soon -arrived at tropical vegetation. There was but little forest, except in -ravines, and the heat soon became very great. About three miles from -Katti I passed the fort of Landar, built on an almost isolated cliff, -overhanging the ravine; and a little further on I descended abruptly -to a small stream, running towards the Chenab, the elevation of whose -bed was about 3000 feet. The descent, which was almost precipitous, -led down the face of a mass of clay, in some respects like the -alluvial deposits so common in Tibet. Similar masses of alluvium, all -table-topped, and very steep, and much worn by ravines, had occurred -throughout the whole of the descent from Katti. A few pines grew on -this steep bank, and all the shrubs which I had found on the banks of -the Chenab at Nasmon were again met with. After crossing this stream, -the bed of which was filled with large water-worn boulders, I again -ascended to about 5000 feet, chiefly among cultivation, and encamped -at _Mir_, a small village close to the crest of the main range south -of the Chenab, the elevation of which was now very inconsiderable. - - [Sidenote: OPEN VALLEYS OF THE OUTER HIMALAYA. - _May, 1848._] - -Next day, a gentle ascent of half an hour brought me to the crest of -this range. The mountain slopes were bare and grassy, but in the -ravines there was now and then some brushwood. _Andromeda ovalifolia_ -and _Rhododendron arboreum_ were both noticed; and, much to my -surprise, I observed at intervals a few trees of _Fothergilla_, for I -had not expected to find this Kashmir tree so close to the plains, and -in a district the flora of which was so completely that of the Simla -hills. On the summit of the pass, which was not more than 6000 feet, I -found a beautiful gentian (_G. Kurroo_ of Royle) and a yellow spinous -_Astragalus_, seemingly the same species which I had found at Nasmon, -on the Chenab. It was curious to find a representative of the -spiny-petioled group of this genus in so hot a climate and so near the -plains; for in the rainy parts of the mountains, and in the more humid -parts of the Indian plain, the genus is almost wanting, and this -particular section entirely so. - -From the summit I descended at once through a pine-wood to the bottom -of a valley, the course of which I followed throughout the day in a -southerly direction. It gradually widened as I advanced; villages -became frequent, and were surrounded by extensive cultivation, and all -temperate vegetation disappeared. I encamped at the village of -Kirmichi, where the valley which I was following appeared to expand -into an open plain of some width. Here oranges and mulberries were -cultivated in gardens, and the toon and mango, pipal and banyan -(_Ficus religiosa_ and _Indica_) were planted in groves round the -houses. - -On the 17th of May, I continued my journey towards the plains of the -Punjab. An open, somewhat undulating valley lay before me, appearing -to stretch from east to west, and to be bounded by two ranges of -hills which had the same direction. Trikota Debi, a curious -three-peaked hill, the last culminating point of the range separating -the Chenab from the Tawi, rose some miles to the westward. To the -eastward the valley of the Tawi was open as far as Ramnagar, which was -distant about twenty miles. In crossing this open plain, or _dhun_, I -nearly followed the course of a little stream which had excavated for -itself a deep channel in the soft sandstone of which the plain was -composed. This rock was very different in appearance from the red or -grey sandstone which had accompanied us from Balota; it was pure -white, and almost horizontally stratified, while that was always -highly inclined. During the latter part of my journey of the 10th I -nowhere saw rock _in situ_, so that I had no opportunity of -ascertaining the contact of these two formations, which are probably -of very different epochs, the sandstone of the open plain being -certainly the Sewalik tertiary formation, while the red sandstone of -the higher mountains, which in the total absence of all organic -remains is as yet of uncertain age, is perhaps the same as the -gypsiferous and saliferous sandstones which skirt a great part of the -western Himalaya. - -One or two pine-trees, and some bushes of _Euphorbia pentagona_, were -almost the only features in the vegetation which distinguished this -open valley from the plains of India. On shady rocks along the stream -three or four ferns were common; the oleander also grew near water; a -dwarf date-palm occupied drier spots; and I saw a few trees of _Cassia -fistula_. Crossing a broad shallow river which flowed to the eastward -at the southern boundary of this _dhun_, in a depression faced by -cliffs of sandstone, I entered among low hills covered with scattered -trees of _Pinus longifolia_. This plant appears to grow luxuriantly on -hot dry hills; the trees did not attain a great size, but appeared -vigorous and healthy, with thick trunks and gnarled branches, exactly -like the Scotch fir, except in the great length of the leaves, which -are pendulous from the ends of the branches. - - [Sidenote: SANDSTONE RANGES. - _May, 1848._] - -On the 18th, I crossed a sandstone range, in which the strata -exhibited an anticlinal axis, dipping towards the plain on both sides. -The ascent was easy, and the summit was not above the limit of -tropical vegetation, as a banyan-tree grew on the top. The descent was -much steeper and considerably longer, the valley to the south being a -good deal lower. The road was good, being in the steeper parts paved -with large flat stones, while in the more rocky parts the sandstone -was cut into steps. A flat and well cultivated valley lay to the south -of this range, in the centre of which flowed a river, in a wide -channel several hundred feet below the level of the plain: it was very -shallow, and was crossed by stepping-stones. Another hilly tract -followed, covered with straggling bush jungle, and on the upper part -with pine-forest: this was also of sandstone, very soft, and excavated -by the various little streams which traversed it, into narrow and deep -ravines. Even foot-paths, by constant use, were sunk four or five feet -deep in the soft rock. The dip of this range was gentle, towards the -plains of India. - - [Sidenote: JAMU. - _May, 1848._] - -I encamped on the 18th at Seda, under the shade of a superb -banyan-tree, in a hollow in this sandstone range, and next day -continued my journey to Jamu. Emerging from the hills after a mile or -two, I entered a third valley, and followed the course of the little -stream by which it was watered, to its junction with the Tawi, along -which I travelled about four miles; to the town of Jamu, which is -built on the outermost range of hills, at the point where the river -Tawi finally quits the mountains. These hills rise very gently from -the plains, their southern slope forming a long inclined plane, -densely covered with a jungle of low thorny trees. The same sort of -jungle usually skirts their base to a distance of two or three miles, -or as far as the alluvial soil of the level country which lies beyond -is covered with stones and shingle. It is principally composed of -_Acacia modesta_ and _Catechu_, and of two species of _Zizyphus_. The -northern or inner face of this range of hills is very steep, often -quite precipitous; and where they overhang the Tawi, they terminate -abruptly in a line of cliffs facing the river. A similar range, but a -good deal lower, descends from the eastward towards Jamu, and, like -the other, presents a series of vertical cliffs covered with brushwood -towards the river. The town occupies the gentle slope which faces the -plains; it is a straggling and dirty place, but with some very good -houses. The principal building is the residence of Maharaja Gulab -Sing; at the time of my visit occupied by his eldest son. It is -situated on the edge of the cliff, overhanging the river, and commands -a fine view of the open valley of the Tawi below, and of the mountain -ranges to the north and east, the more distant of which were still -tipped with snow. - -The outermost range of hills, which does not rise to any great -elevation, consists entirely of loose conglomerate coarsely -stratified, the beds dipping very gently towards the plains. The -boulders of which it is composed are waterworn, and very various in -composition, but all referable to the interior ranges; a few thin beds -of sand and of a clay resembling pipe-clay, are interposed between the -strata of conglomerate. - -The very curious country through which I had been travelling since the -16th, had so much the appearance of a succession of valleys parallel -to the plains, and separated by long ranges of hills, that it was -difficult to avoid taking up that impression, which, notwithstanding, -I believe to be an erroneous one. The gentle slope of the different -tributaries which join the Tawi from the right and left, tends to keep -out of sight the longitudinal ranges parallel to that river, from -which the lateral ramifications proceed. When we obtain a detailed -survey of the district, it will be found that the lateral valleys on -each side of the Tawi do not correspond in direction, and are not -quite opposite to one another, and that the apparent uniformity is -caused by the great width of their valleys, when compared with the -elevation of the bounding ranges. The Sewalik sandstone here attains a -width of at least thirty miles, which is very much more than is found -further west. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - - Leave Jamu to return to Tibet -- Lake of Sirohi Sar -- - Vegetation of lower hills -- _Dodonaea_ -- Ramnagar -- Garta -- - Dadu, on a tributary of the Chenab -- Camp at 10,000 feet -- - Badarwar -- Padri pass -- Descend a tributary of the Ravi -- - and ascend another towards the north -- Sach _Joth_, or pass -- - Snow-beds -- Camp in Chenab valley. - - -On my arrival in Kashmir, I had forwarded an application to the Indian -Government, requesting permission to return to Tibet, for the purpose -of visiting the mountains north of Nubra, which, from the advanced -state of the season, I had been unable to do the previous year. Soon -after reaching Jamu, I received intimation that the Governor-General, -Lord Dalhousie, had been pleased to accede to my request. I had -already determined, if permitted to return to Le, to take the route by -Zanskar, which, though much frequented by the natives of the country, -was quite unknown to European travellers; but as the season was far -advanced, I chose a road through the higher hills, instead of taking -that leading directly to Chamba, which would have obliged me to travel -for at least a week through the hot valleys of the outer ranges. - - [Sidenote: LAKE OF SIROHI SAR. - _May, 1848._] - -I left Jamu on the morning of the 23rd of May. After crossing the -Tawi by a ferry immediately below the town, my road lay for three -miles up the left bank of that river, along an open sandy plain, only -very partially cultivated. I then turned to the right, and entered the -low hills which skirted the plain on that side. The road generally -followed the course of the ravines, which have been excavated out of -the soft sandstone by the numerous tributaries which descend to join -the Tawi. These streams are all of small size, with gravelly or sandy -beds, and are separated by low ridges of some breadth, faced generally -by perpendicular cliffs. An undulating country of this nature occupies -the whole of the space which intervenes between the outer range of -hills and that next to it, a distance, by the road along which I -travelled, of about twelve miles. This second range is a branch given -off by an axis, whose direction is nearly east and west. The road -ascended to it by a very steep rocky path, after surmounting which I -found myself on a considerable tract of nearly level ground, partly -occupied by a pretty little lake, with grassy banks. On the banks of -this lake, which is called Sirohi Sar, and is rather less than half a -mile in length, I encamped on the 24th of May, in a grove of very fine -mango-trees. The depth of the lake did not appear great, its margins -being for a considerable distance very shallow, and producing an -abundance of reeds and water-plants, among which the sacred -_Nelumbium_, with its gay flowers, was conspicuous. The elevation of -the lake, as deduced from the boiling-point of water, I found to be -2200 feet. It occupies a depression in the top of the ridge, being -surmounted on both sides by low ranges of hills, rising only to the -height of a few hundred feet. At the east end, a low flat plain, -interrupted only by a few regular rocky knolls, seemed to indicate -that the size of the lake had formerly been more considerable than at -present. - - [Sidenote: VEGETATION OF SANDSTONE HILLS. - _May, 1848._] - -The vegetation of the country between Jamu and Sirohi Sar was entirely -of a tropical character. The rocky hills were in many places covered -with thinly scattered pines, all of small size, and generally with -much-contorted trunks, but apparently healthy and vigorous. In the -cultivated grounds the plants were identical with those of the plains, -but, as is usual in all hilly countries, the barren tracts produced a -flora of a different character. _Nerium odorum_ was abundant on the -banks of streams, and I met with _Cassia fistula_, _Punica_, species -of _Rhus_ and _Casearia_, as well as the curious _Euphorbia -pentagona_, and now and then the beautiful _Bauhinia Vahlii_. _Acacia -modesta_ and a _Zizyphus_ were the most common trees. The lake -produced a great variety of water-plants, but except an _Alisma_ and -_Dysophylla_, both of which were new to me, the species seemed all -natives of the plains. - -On the 25th of May, I proceeded along the side of the ridge in an -easterly direction, passing several small flat-bottomed depressions, -apparently the sites at a former period of small lakes, similar to -that from which I had commenced my march. The road was rocky and -rugged, and gradually rose several hundred feet to the crest of the -ridge. Pine-trees were generally plentiful. On reaching the top, -shortly after daybreak, a fine wide undulating valley was seen below, -bounded on the north at the distance of about ten miles by a third -range of mountains, and traversed by several streams, which had -excavated for themselves deep perpendicular-sided ravines in the -sandstone strata. All these streams had a westerly course to join the -Tawi, which, issuing from a deep valley behind the third range, -crossed the open plain in a south-west direction. - - [Sidenote: SANDSTONE RANGES. - _May, 1848._] - -Leaving the ridge, the road descended gradually to the plain, and -after crossing a deep ravine, with precipitous walls, continued -through a fine level country to the village of Thalaura, about a mile -from the third range of hills. The sandstone frequently contained a -few waterworn pebbles scattered through it; and a bed of coarse -conglomerate, with an indurated matrix, capped the cliff above this -ravine. Some strata of indurated clay and soft slate also alternated, -but rarely, with the sandstone. The plain was well cultivated, being -chiefly laid out in rice-fields; and the people were all busy -ploughing, sowing rice, and harrowing with a log of wood, drawn by -bullocks and kept down by the weight of a man. - -On the earlier rocky part of the road, the vegetation was much the -same as the day before. _Dodonaea_ was common, as it is in most parts -of this hilly tract, never, however, rising out of the tropical belt. -I do not know how far to the eastward of Jamu this plant extends; but -as it does not seem to occur to the east of the Sutlej, and probably -stops much sooner[18], it appears to prefer a rather dry climate, and -will, I think, be found limited to the drier portion of the Peninsula, -from which it probably extends through Central India, and along the -hilly country west of Sind. On the open plain the pines entirely -disappeared, and the aspect of the vegetation was entirely that of the -plains of India. - -From Thalaura I marched, on the 26th of May, to Ramnagar, crossing the -third range of hills, the ascent of which was at first very steep and -rocky, over a made road, paved with large stones, in many places much -out of repair. This range was also sandstone, dipping to the north at -a gentle angle; some strata of indurated clay occurred between the -beds of sandstone. These hills were precipitous to the south, and -sloped gently towards the north, in the direction of the dip. The tree -_Euphorbia_, which, with its stiff fleshy branches springing in -verticils of five from the stem, forms a striking feature in the -vegetation of the lower hills, was common on the ascent, and the -yellow spinous _Astragalus_, which I had observed between the Chenab -and Jamu a fortnight before, was frequent on both sides of this ridge; -but even at the top, except one species of _Indigofera_, no plants -indicating elevation were met with: on this account I omitted to -determine the height of the range by the boiling-point of water, but -comparing its elevation with that of Ramnagar, which was in sight, I -estimated that it might be about 3600 feet. To the north lay another -valley, considerably more rugged than that crossed the day before, and -evidently much more highly inclined, as its eastern termination was -not far distant. This valley was traversed by the principal branch of -the Tawi, the source of which is in the mountains east of Ramnagar. - - [Sidenote: RAMNAGAR. - _May, 1848._] - -The descent from this range was very gradual, the road running -obliquely to the eastward, among scattered pine-trees, over bare -sandstone rocks, till it reached the bank of a small stream separated -from the Tawi by a low range of hills. During the descent, a number of -plants of Himalayan forms made their appearance, which had not -occurred before: these were a berberry, _Rubus flavus_, and _Myrsine -bifaria_. _Olea cuspidata_ was seen lower down, and a species of alder -grew in shady ravines along the edge of the stream. In the bottom of -the valley, the mixture of the forms of the middle and lower zones was -curious and interesting. _Pinus longifolia_ occurred with _Phoenix -sylvestris_, alder with _Rondeletia_ and _Rottlera_, pear with -_Sissoo_, and _Fragaria Indica_ and _Micromeria_ with _Trichodesma_ -and _Solanum Jacquini_. At the same time, it was evident that in this -dry stony valley the tropical species, which formed the majority, were -more at home than the stragglers which had descended from above. - -After ascending for a short distance along the banks of the little -stream, the road crossed it, and after a short steep ascent from the -right bank, the remainder of the day's journey was nearly level, along -the sides of hills, or over a high table-land to Ramnagar, a small -town and fort, formerly the residence of Rajah Suchet Sing, since -whose death the place has been rapidly falling to decay, most of the -shops of its well-built bazaar being now empty. There were in the -neighbourhood one or two large gardens, in which the trees and plants -were nearly all Indian, _Sissoo_ and _Melia Azedarach_ being the most -common. A single plane-tree was scarcely an exception; for though -undoubtedly more at home at greater elevations, the plane (like the -poplar and many of the fruit-trees of temperate climes) does not -refuse to grow even in the plains, as is proved by the occurrence of a -number of trees of it of considerable size and apparently healthy in -gardens at Lahore. - - [Sidenote: GARTA. - _May, 1848._] - -Leaving Ramnagar on the morning of the 27th, I continued to ascend the -valley of the Tawi for about three miles, the road running along the -sides of the hills among rich cultivation at a considerable height -above the stream. It then descended somewhat abruptly to the river, -and soon crossed to the right bank, from which a steep ascent -commenced at once, and continued, with one or two interruptions of -level cultivated ground, to the end of the day's journey. The ascent -had throughout a southern exposure, and was in consequence generally -bare of trees, and dry and grassy. Much cultivated land was met with, -wherever the ground was sufficiently level to admit of it. I encamped -at a small village, or rather cluster of farmhouses, called Garta, at -a height of about 5800 feet. From the bare grassy nature of the ascent -and its hot sunny exposure, the number of species of plants which -occurred was very limited, and the change of vegetation much less -marked than in better-wooded regions of these mountains. A few oaks -(_Q. lanata_) made their appearance about half-way up, or perhaps at -4500 feet. - -During this day's journey, I believe that I passed the point of -contact of the tertiary sandstone with the more ancient rock, for on -the ascent after crossing the river, the strata were very highly -inclined, and often bent into large curves. The rock was also more -indurated, and different in colour and appearance from that of the -outer hills. I did not, however, observe the place where the change -took place. - - [Sidenote: PATA. - _May, 1848._] - -Next day, the ascent continued equally steep and bare as the day -before, and there was still much cultivation, wherever the surface was -sufficiently level for the purpose, or could be made so by means of -terracing. During the preceding day's march, the fields of wheat and -barley had been for some time cut, but here, though generally ripe, -they were still standing. On attaining an elevation of about 7000 -feet, the steep spur which I had been ascending joined the main ridge, -and the road, turning to the east, entered a thick forest of small -oak-trees (_Q. lanata_) through which it continued, alternately -descending and ascending a little, as it entered the recesses or -advanced along the projecting ridges. The greatest height attained may -have been about 8000 feet, and the summit of the range, which was -frequently visible, did not seem to be above 1000 feet higher. After -about three miles of forest, the hills again became bare, and -continued so till the end of the march, which terminated by an abrupt -descent of 600 or 700 feet to a ravine, and an equally steep ascent to -the village of Pata, which was elevated about 7500 feet. Throughout -the day, the vegetation, both in the forest and on the open tracts, -was identical with that of the Simla hills. The forest consisted of -oak, _Rhododendron_, and _Andromeda_. Pines were visible at the very -top of the ridge, but did not cross to the southern exposure: they -appeared to be _Picea Webbiana_ (_Pindrow_). The village at which I -encamped was of considerable size, with extensive wheat cultivation, -very luxuriant and in full ear, but still quite green. Many trees of -the glabrous holly-leaved oak were scattered among the fields, which, -from the lateral branches having been lopped off by the villagers, -rose to a great height with an erect poplar-like trunk, bearing only a -small tuft of branches at the top, in a manner very foreign to the -usual habit of the tree. - -On the 29th of May I crossed the range along which I had travelled the -previous day, and descended into a valley watered by a tributary of -the Chenab, running towards the north-west. The ascent, which was bare -and grassy, amounted only to about 1000 feet in perpendicular height. -Close to the top, a few trees of _Picea_ made their appearance, while -I was still on the south face of the ridge, and on gaining the crest -of the pass, I found that the northern slope was occupied by a fine -forest of the same tree. As the range was not sufficiently elevated to -produce any really alpine plants, the vegetation presented little -worthy of note. _Viburnum nervosum_ was the commonest shrub, and an -_Anemone_, a _Ranunculus_, the common _Gypsophila_ and _Trifolium -repens_ were the herbs which predominated at the top. - - [Sidenote: VALLEY OF DADU. - _May, 1848._] - -The road descended rapidly through fine forest. The sombre silver fir -was, after a short descent, mixed with plenty of horse-chesnut and -sycamore, and of the glabrous-leaved oak. Lower down, deodar and -_Abies Smithiana_ also appeared, and on arriving in the valley, the -forest gave place to cultivated fields, with only a few oak-trees -scattered among them. The road now ascended the valley, which was -tolerably open and well cultivated. The stream ran through a deep -ravine, with steep, well-wooded, often rocky banks, far below the -level of the cultivation. I encamped at an elevation of about 6800 -feet, at a village called Dadu, or Doda, situated on the edge of a -small open plain, covered with luxuriant crops of wheat. - -Near the village, and along the edges of the cultivation, were -numerous apricot-trees of large size; and a willow, apparently the -same which occurs in Kashmir (_S. alba_) was commonly planted. The -general appearance of the place was very much that of the villages in -lower Kunawar; and I was much interested to find that although the -greater part of the vegetation was the same as is common in the outer -ranges of the mountains, a few plants indicative of a drier climate -were to be seen. I was particularly surprised to find that _Quercus -lanata_, _Rhododendron arboreum_, and _Andromeda ovalifolia_, three -trees which are everywhere most abundant in the outer ranges of the -Himalaya in the temperate zone, had entirely disappeared. The Kashmir -_Fothergilla_ was not uncommon, and I noted at least four or five -herbaceous plants, which I had first met with in that valley or in -Kunawar. - -On the northern face of this range, between Pata and Dadu, the -sandstone, which had continued since I left the valley of the Tawi, -was replaced by a succession of metamorphic slates, sometimes very -micaceous. In the valley of Dadu, boulders of gneiss, with crystals of -felspar from one to three inches in length, were common, but the rock -did not occur _in situ_. - -The range of mountains bounding the valley on the south, did not -appear to rise anywhere to a greater height than between 9000 and -10,000 feet, and where I crossed it, was not, I should think, higher -than 8500. Immediately to the east of this low pass, however, it began -to rise rapidly, and at the head of the valley lay a high snowy -mountain, evidently a projecting peak of a long range descending from -the north-east, and forming the boundary between the basins of the -Chenab and the Ravi. This range, which in most places must be upwards -of 11,000 feet, and which in some probably rises to 14,000, must, I -think, to some extent check the progress of the masses of clouds -during the monsoon, and therefore tend to diminish the quantity of -rain, particularly as the rain-clouds come from the eastward, on which -account the lower altitude of the ridge to the south-west is of less -importance. - -Halting at Dadu on the 30th of May, my road on the 31st lay up the -valley towards the snowy range to the eastward. Cultivation did not -continue beyond the village; and after a steep, somewhat rocky ascent -and descent over a bare spur, I followed the course of the stream as -nearly as the precipitous nature of its banks would permit, through a -forest of sycamore, walnut, alder, horse-chesnut, and holly-leaved -oak. Pines also were abundant, of the four common species: namely, -deodar, spruce, silver fir, and _Pinus excelsa_. After following the -course of the river for about a mile, the road crossed a large lateral -tributary descending from the right, and ascended a steep bare spur -between it and the main stream for perhaps 500 feet, after which it -ran for some distance through fields of wheat still green, at first at -a considerable distance above the stream, the bed of which, however, -rose so rapidly that a very short descent brought me again to its -banks. I then re-entered a beautiful forest, principally pine, in -which the _Pindrow_ was now the most common tree, bearing in abundance -its erect purple cones. As the road rose rapidly, the vegetation soon -began to change: _Syringa Emodi_, a currant, and other plants of the -sub-alpine zone, making their appearance. The most common shrubby -plants were _Viburnum nervosum_ and _Spiraea Lindleyana_, both of which -occurred in vast quantity. For perhaps a mile and a half, the valley -was extremely beautiful; the torrent being rocky and rapid, and the -forest very fine. The road then crossed the stream by a good wooden -bridge, and a steep ascent commenced. As the forest was confined to -the bottom of the valley, I soon emerged on dry grassy slopes. The -precipitous nature of the banks rendered it necessary to ascend nearly -1000 feet, after which the road was again level along the dry mountain -slope facing the south. The bed of the stream rose very rapidly, so -that the road soon re-approached it; and when nearly on a level with -it, I again entered forest, in which _Quercus semecarpifolia_, the -alpine oak of Himalaya, was the prevailing tree. After about a mile, -having attained an elevation of 10,000 feet, I encamped on an open -grassy spot in the forest. The ravines facing the north had for some -time been full of snow, but I had got close to camp before any -appeared in those on the right bank, along which the road lay. A -snowy peak, the upper part of which was high above the level of trees, -lay to the south-east. - - [Sidenote: ASCENT TOWARDS PASS. - _May, 1848._] - -In the lower part of the ascent, the rock was clay-slate; but near my -camp it was succeeded by the same gneiss, with large crystals of -felspar, which I had found (in boulders) around Dadu. In general -appearance, this gneiss was very similar to that observed on the -mountains north of Nasmon, on the Chenab; and as these two places have -nearly the same relative position as the usual line of strike in the -north-western Himalaya, it is very probable that the rock is the same -in both. - -On the morning of the 1st of June, I continued to follow the course of -the stream, ascending now very gently. The valley was open, and the -road lay over undulating grassy ground, the forest having receded to -some distance on both sides. Round my camp I had noticed very little -in the vegetation different from what was common one or two thousand -feet lower; but almost immediately after starting, I found myself -among numerous bushes of _Rhododendron campanulatum_ in full flower, -and many other alpine plants appeared very shortly afterwards: of -these, perhaps the most lovely was the elegant _Primula rosea_, which -was extremely plentiful in hollow marshy spots from which snow had -recently melted. - - [Sidenote: PASS SOUTH OF BADARWAR - _June, 1848._] - -The ascent continued exceedingly gentle till close to the end, when, -turning suddenly to the left into a pine-clad ravine, a few steps -brought me to the crest of the ridge over which my road ran,--a -lateral spur from the great snowy mass, which (as is often the case) -was a good deal lower where it branched off than at a greater -distance from the main range. After gaining the crest of the ridge, I -followed it for a few hundred yards previous to commencing the -descent. I had unfortunately somewhat rashly concluded, the day -before, that the ascent during the day would be very trifling, and -therefore did not carry with me the means of ascertaining the -elevation of the pass; I believe, however, that it a little exceeded -11,000 feet. It was still in the forest zone. The trees were mostly -the alpine oak, with a few scattered individuals of _Pinus excelsa_. -At a short distance, on the more shady slope, and still higher than -the pass, _Picea_ was plentiful. The highest level of trees only rose -a few hundred feet above me, and the lofty snowy peak which lay to the -southward, attaining a height of probably little under 14,000 feet, -was quite bare. - - [Sidenote: BADARWAR. - _June, 1848._] - -I reached the summit of the ridge between nine and ten A.M., at which -time a dense mass of heavy clouds filled the whole of the valley -below, while the sky above was perfectly clear. Vivid flashes of -lightning were seen, accompanied by loud thunder, and the clouds were -in violent commotion, being driven about by violent gusts of wind; but -in less than half an hour they had entirely disappeared, disclosing a -most magnificent view, bounded only by the grand snowy range beyond -the Chenab, stretching in both directions as far as the eye could -reach. Much nearer lay a second range of snowy mountains, evidently -that which runs parallel to the Chenab on the south. Still nearer were -other ranges of mountains, which, from the elevation at which I -stood, looked like gently undulating hills. Immediately below, lay -the rich and fertile valley of Badarwar, to which the descent was -extremely rapid, down the face of a projecting spur, densely covered -for the upper half of the way with forest. At the top of the pass, -there were here and there, on slopes facing the north, large patches -of snow, especially under the shade of trees, but on the descent it -appeared only in the most shady ravines. As the elevation diminished, -the same change in the forest was observed as during the ascent. The -alpine oak and spruce gave place to horse-chesnut, sycamore, and -holly-leaved oak, with deodar and spruce. Lower down, cultivation -appeared, and the road, lying on the southern slope of the spin, was -generally bare and grassy, with only a few scattered deodar-trees of -small size. At the base of the descent, clay-slate rocks replaced the -gneiss. - -The town of Badarwar is of considerable size, containing, I should -think, not less than from three to four hundred houses, all, however, -small and without any indication of wealth. It lies at the elevation -of 5800 feet, in the upper part of a valley watered by a tributary of -the Chenab, from which it is distant, according to Vigne, twelve or -fourteen miles. Round the town the valley is two or three miles in -width, and completely covered with fields, rising in terraces one -above another. Some rice is cultivated, but millet and Indian corn, -neither of which were yet sown, are, I was informed, the principal -produce. - -The vegetation of the valley of Badarwar was hardly at all different -from that of the one which I had just left, and the few new forms -which occurred were for the most part Kashmir species. _Quercus -lanata_, and the trees usually associated with it, did not occur; but -_Fothergilla_ was plentiful in the woods on the hill-sides, and in -open exposed sunny places a Kashmir _Daphne_ and _Zizyphus_ were -common: both of these species, however, are natives of the Sutlej -valley. In the shady ravines a species of _Philadelphus_, and the -_Nima_ of Hamilton, were met with. Vines were cultivated near the -town, as well as a few trees of _Populus nigra_, and a rough -small-leaved elm, which grew to a gigantic size. - -From Badarwar two roads were open to me, by either of which I could -reach Chatargarh on the Chenab, from which place there is a road into -Zanskar. One of these follows the course of the Badarwar valley to its -junction with the Chenab, and ascends that river by Kishtwar; the -other crosses the mountains to the eastward, so as to get into the -valley of the Ravi, and to join the road which leads from Chamba to -Zanskar. Of these I selected the latter, which appeared to present the -advantages of being less known, of leading through a more elevated -country, and also (as I was led to believe) of saving several days. - - [Sidenote: PADRI PASS. - _June, 1848._] - -I started from Badarwar on the morning of the 3rd of June, and -proceeded up the valley in a south-easterly direction, towards the -Padri pass, a depression in the range which separates the districts -drained by the Chenab from those whose waters run towards the Ravi. At -first the road lay through cultivation. The fields of barley were -ripe, those of wheat still green, and considerably more backward than -at the same height in valleys more distant from the snow. The -elevation of the valley increased gently but steadily, and its -breadth gradually diminished as I advanced, the fields becoming -reduced to a narrow strip along the bank of the stream, and then -ceasing altogether. The road lay on the right bank, and was generally -open, but the opposite slopes and ravines were often prettily wooded. -After three miles the road began to ascend the hill-sides on the north -of the valley, for about a mile gently, but afterwards more steeply. -The hill-sides were bare, but on the opposite side of the valley there -was a fine forest; and as soon as the road had attained the crest of -the ridge or spur, the same dense forest was observed to cover the -whole of its steep northern face, stopping abruptly at the top. As the -elevation increased, the trees and herbaceous vegetation exhibited the -same gradual change which I had noted on the ascent two days before, -and I met with very few species which I had not collected at that -time. In the shady woods on the northern slope of the ridge, I found -the little Kashmir _Hepatica_, another instance of the extension to -the eastward of plants characteristic of that valley. Near the top -_Thermopsis barbata_ was plentiful, in full flower, on open stony -banks. The ascent continued steep to the top of the pass, the height -of which was 10,000 feet. The top was nearly level for some distance, -and was covered with large patches of snow. The continuation of the -range to the north was undulating and grassy, and the hills of very -moderate elevation above the level of the pass. To the southward they -rose abruptly to a considerable height, and the ravines were filled -with forest. I encamped on a grassy plain close to the top. The -morning had been cloudy, and after eleven A.M. it rained smartly till -evening; the temperature at sunset was 47-1/2 deg. - - [Sidenote: LANGERA. - _June, 1848._] - -Next morning, before commencing the descent, I ascended a ridge on the -mountains to the south, to the height of about 1000 feet above the -pass. The snow had evidently only just melted from the greater part of -the surface; it still lay in large patches under the trees, and the -spring plants were just bursting into flower. The forest, as is -usually the case at that height, was principally the alpine oak. A -rose, willow, currant, cherry, _Lonicera_, and _Viburnum nervosum_ -were bursting into leaf, and _Rhododendron campanulatum_ was abundant -and in full flower. The greater part of the herbaceous vegetation -consisted of _Primula denticulata_, a yellow _Corydalis_, and species -of _Thermopsis_, _Anemone_, _Caltha_, _Onosma_, _Potentilla_, -_Valeriana_, _Trillium_, and _Gentiana_. I continued to ascend to the -limit of herbaceous vegetation, stopping only where the ground was -uninterruptedly covered with snow. The uppermost level of trees was -still at least 500 feet above me. In descending I followed the course -of a ravine full of snow, the sides of which were covered by a dense -forest of silver fir. - -After reaching the direct road from the pass, which I had quitted to -ascend the hills in the morning, there was a short ascent over a low -spur, and then a long and very steep descent, to the bottom of a deep -rocky ravine, so narrow and sheltered from the sun's rays, that the -stream was still covered with a great thickness of snow. Over this I -crossed to the north side of the valley, down which the road ran for -the remainder of the march, descending at first with great rapidity, -but on the latter half much more gently. There was plenty of fine -forest, but, as usual, it was for the most part confined to the south -side of the valley. The road lay along grassy slopes, sometimes steep -and rocky, at other times, where there was any extent of tolerably -level ground, covered knee-deep with a rank herbage of dock, -_Polygona_, thistles, and a variety of other plants not yet in flower. -It was in general at a considerable height above the bottom of the -valley, which was deep and gloomy, and filled with snow during a great -part of the way. I encamped at a village called Langera, at the height -of about 7600 feet, and was surprised to observe large patches of snow -still lying on the banks of the stream, at least three hundred feet -below me. - - [Sidenote: DEGHI. - _June, 1848._] - -On the 5th of June, my road again lay on the left side of the valley, -and usually along the hill-sides at some height above the stream, to -which it descended only once or twice. The valley was very pretty, -being generally deep and more or less rocky, and on the south side -well wooded. For the first three miles, large patches of snow were -seen now and then in the most shady parts, more than once covering -over the stream. The forest presented a good deal of variety. Except -_Picea_, all the common pines occurred, as well as horse-chesnut, -cherry, elm, _Celtis_, _Populus ciliata_, and holly-leaved oak. -_Fothergilla_ was very common all along, and on the latter half of the -march _Quercus lanata_ and _Andromeda ovalifolia_ made their -appearance. The occurrence of these trees I regarded as a sure -indication that the rains were somewhat more heavy than on the west -side of the pass, and as a confirmation of the view I had taken when -in Badarwar, that the climate of that valley was considerably -modified by the occurrence of a high and partially snowy range to the -eastward. Throughout the day's journey there was a good deal of -cultivation, always considerably above the stream; and at the village -of Deghi, at which I encamped, at about 5800 feet, the fields of wheat -were being cut, clearly showing that the climate was much milder on -the east side of the pass than at the same elevation in Badarwar, -where they had been still quite green two days before. - -On the 6th of June, I again followed the course of the valley, at a -considerable height on the steep but well-cultivated hill-sides -overlooking a deep and pretty glen. The slopes along which the road -ran were bare, or covered with scattered brushwood, trees only -occurring in ravines, but the opposite bank was usually well wooded. I -encamped at a small village called Buju (just below 5000 feet), -considerably higher than the bottom of the valley. The vegetation was -in most respects (except the occurrence of _Fothergilla_, which was -plentiful) what is usual in the neighbourhood of Simla, at similar -elevations. Several species of the sub-tropical belt occurred, mixed -with the ordinary plants of the middle zone, such as _Marlea_, -_Albizzia mollis_, _Olea cuspidata_, _Xanthoxylon_, and others, and in -the neighbourhood of Buju _Pinus longifolia_ was common on the south -side of the valley. - -From Badarwar to the summit of the Padri pass, and throughout the -descent, clay-slate had been the prevailing rock. It varied much in -appearance, and latterly it alternated with a conglomerate, and was -often very fragile, splitting into thin shaly layers. Near the -village of Dewar, a hard bluish limestone occurred in considerable -quantity, close to the river. - - [Sidenote: DISTRICT OF CHAMBA. - _June, 1848._] - -The general direction of my journey, while descending this valley, had -been south-east, the elevation of the mountains on my left hand having -been too great to permit me to turn to the north. On this march, -however, about three miles from its termination, at a village called -Dewar, I left the road to Chamba, which there crosses the stream and -proceeds direct over low hills to the Ravi, while the valley (and my -road) turned suddenly to the north-east. A little below my camp at -Buju, the river resumed its former direction, and, uniting itself with -a large stream descending from the northward, took a southerly course, -to join the Ravi. - - [Sidenote: VALLEY NORTH OF CHAMBA. - _June, 1848._] - -Along the valley, which descended from the north, ran the road from -Chamba to Chatargarh on the Chenab, and on the 7th I proceeded in that -direction. The two streams, at their junction, flowed through an -extremely deep rocky ravine, so that I had several fatiguing ascents -and descents before I succeeded in passing into the valley which I -wished to ascend. I was, however, gratified, at the highest part of -the road, where I turned for the first time fairly towards the north, -by a superb view of the snowy range, towards which I was now -travelling. On the 8th and 10th of June (having halted on the 9th) I -continued to ascend the valley, encamping on the latter day at 8000 -feet. During both days, many parts of the road were very rocky and -difficult, with frequent steep ascents. At other times, when it was -more level, very long detours were necessary, to pass deep lateral -ravines. The valley was in general open, and the hill-sides only -sparingly wooded, though at intervals along the stream there was a -fine and dense forest of oaks, horse-chesnut, laurels, and _Celtis_. -The ranges of mountains on both sides were tipped with snow, and from -my camp of the 10th the snowy range in front appeared so close, that I -could scarcely give credence to the assurances of my guides that I was -still a good day's journey from its base. - -Since I had left Jamu, the weather had been very uniform. The mornings -were generally fine, with a cloudless sky and little or no wind; -towards the afternoon, or if not then, certainly in the evening or -during the night, clouds collected, and it rained heavily. This was of -daily occurrence; sometimes the rain lasted for several hours, but -before morning the sky was always serene. The atmosphere was hazy, as -is usually the case in the Himalaya during the dry season, before the -accession of the rains. - - [Sidenote: ALPINE VEGETATION. - _June, 1848._] - -On the 11th, I continued to ascend the valley. At the commencement of -the march, the hills were bare and open, and the vegetation was still -entirely that of the middle zone. There was a good deal of -cultivation, and the wheat was still green. After crossing several -ravines, the road began to ascend rapidly through a wood of small -trees of holly-leaved oak, interspersed with numerous small patches of -cultivation. Among the corn, _Adonis aestivalis_, and a number of other -common Kashmir weeds, were abundant, and apricot-trees were commonly -planted. By degrees, other trees were mingled with the oaks, and the -forest became very dense, with luxuriant undergrowth of _Indigoferae_, -_Spiraea Lindleyana_, and _Philadelphus_, and a vine was common, -climbing up the trunks of the trees. Numerous open glades, covered -with a luxuriant herbaceous vegetation of dock and other rank plants, -were met with in the forest, which, though not so beautiful, a good -deal resembled that of Mahasu, near Simla. On the opposite and shady -side of the valley, the forest seemed to be chiefly composed of pines. -As the elevation increased, silver fir and alpine oak began to appear, -and soon became the only trees in the forest. The ravines were now all -full of snow, the oaks were still in flower, and there was little or -no vegetation under their shade, except in swampy places, where a -bright yellow _Caltha_ and a pink _Dentaria_ were in full flower. I -encamped at 10,600 feet, on an open grassy spot overlooking a deep -ravine full of snow, which lay between me and the snowy range in -front. - -On emerging from the forest, which extended close to my camp, I found -myself surrounded by a truly alpine vegetation. _Rhododendron -campanulatum_, which is certainly, when _en masse_ and in full flower, -the pride of our northern Indian mountains in early spring, was in -vast abundance and great beauty. The hills around were covered with -birch; _Rhododendron lepidotum_, _Gaultheria trichocarpa_, _Deutzia -corymbosa_, willows, and many other alpine shrubs, covered the rocks, -and the moist grassy sward of the open spots was adorned with the -brilliant flowers of _Primula denticulata_, _Corydalis Govaniana_, -_Gagea_, _Caltha_, and other plants. The sky was brilliantly clear, -the very heavy rain of the preceding day having, for the time, quite -removed the usual haze, and the view from my tent was superb. The last -village in the valley was many miles behind, and no cultivation was -anywhere in sight. The opposite spurs, which rose, like that on which -my tent was pitched, abruptly from the snowy ravine, were beautifully -wooded, up to the limit of forest, while all above was covered with -snow. - - [Sidenote: ASCENT TOWARDS - SACH PASS. - _June, 1848._] - -On the 12th of June, I crossed the snowy range into the valley of the -Chenab. At starting, the road lay through forest, which covered the -precipitous face of the rocky hill overhanging the deep ravine above -which I had encamped. After crossing the ravine, which was full of -snow, the road ascended a bare steep slope, which was swampy and -covered with _Caltha_ and _Primulae_. Every other part of the face of -the hill was occupied by a dense jungle of shrubs, almost impenetrable -from the prostrate position which their branches had taken from the -pressure of the winter's snow. Very stunted bushes of _Quercus -semecarpifolia_ constituted the greater part of this shrubby jungle. -With it grew _Rhododendron campanulatum_, a cherry, and a birch, whose -silvery trunks rose conspicuous above all the others. This dense -covering of shrubs being confined to the lower part of the slope, the -road soon rose above its level, and continued obliquely along the face -of the bare grassy hill, rising very gently, and by degrees -approaching the line of snow. I observed that the line of the highest -level of trees varied much according to the exposure, being more -elevated on the shady side than on slopes exposed to the sun. The snow -level, as might have been expected, was extremely indefinite, varying -with the degree of inclination of the surface, with the absence or -presence of trees, and especially with the exposure. On the slope -facing the south, it was about 12,000 feet, while on that opposite it -descended among the trees several hundred feet lower. Close to the -snow, among rocks and in swampy places, the alpine vegetation was -extremely luxuriant and beautiful. - -After skirting the snow for perhaps half a mile, I descended a little -to cross a ravine, and immediately after began to ascend rapidly over -snow, which was hard and firm, so that it was traversed without -difficulty. Throughout the whole ascent, there were at intervals steep -slopes and masses of rock bare of snow, and even on the smallest of -these spots vegetation was making rapid progress, under the -encouragement of a powerful sun and abundant moisture. The plants -observed were all alpine: among the number were several _Primulae_, and -species of _Draba_, _Potentilla_, _Sibbaldia_, _Ranunculus_, and -_Pedicularis_. The ascent continued steady to the top of the pass, -which was a mass of bare rock, quite free of snow, and elevated 14,800 -feet. The pass (the name of which is _Sach Joth_) was a deep -depression in the crest of the range, which rose on both sides to a -considerable height. The ridge was a mass of black slate rock, in -highly inclined strata, on which no snow lay, and which absorbed so -much heat from the sun, that a number of minute plants were not only -vegetating but in full flower. _Primula minutissima_ and a yellow -_Draba_ were common, and a little _Ranunculus_ and _Potentilla_, with -one moss and a species of lichen, also occurred more sparingly. The -view from the pass was extensive to the southward, but to the north -entirely intercepted by lofty precipitous ridges, distant not more -than a mile. The morning had been beautiful, but before I reached the -summit, a high wind had sprung up from the south, drifting heavy -watery clouds over the crest, from which there were slight showers of -hail. - - [Sidenote: DESCENT INTO THE - VALLEY OF THE CHENAB. - _June, 1848._] - -The descent on the north side was over snow, commencing a few feet -from the rocky crest of the pass. After the first few hundred yards, -the snow-bed was very steep, and perhaps covered a small glacier. -Further on, the mountains on both sides closed in so as to form a -narrow valley, the course of which I followed for many miles, before I -could find a bare spot upon which to encamp. The valley was bounded on -both sides by exceedingly steep rocky mountains, sometimes quite -precipitous, which soon became bare of snow. After descending rapidly -for a considerable time, patches of juniper appeared on the -hill-sides, succeeded by birch, and soon after by a few pines, which, -from their shape, were, I believe, silver fir. A little lower, pines -became frequent wherever the mountain-sides were not absolutely -precipitous; _Picea_ and _Pinus_ excelsa were first recognized, and a -little lower down _Abies Smithiana_; deodar did not appear till I had -nearly reached the end of the day's journey. I encamped at 8500 feet, -on the first available bare spot, among a few pine-trees. - -From the summit of the pass till within a few hundred yards of my -encampment, snow was continuous in the valley along which I descended, -covering the stream and the whole of the level portion of the valley -for many miles after it had melted from the steep sloping hills on -both sides, on which vegetation was already making rapid progress. -This snow-bed was not in the least icy, but consisted of pure snow, -much compressed and often dirty. Its slope followed that of the -valley, and its surface was quite smooth till close to its -termination, where it was broken up into fragments by the fall of -portions into the stream below. The greater permanence of snow in -valleys and ravines than on mountain slopes seems to be due to its -accumulation there during the winter to a great depth by avalanches -from both sides. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[18] I have been told by Dr. Jameson that he has met with it in the -Kangra hills, but that he has never seen it in Mandi. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - - Marked change in the Vegetation -- Bridge over Chenab -- - Pargwal -- Description of Chenab valley -- Asdhari -- - Chatargarh -- Road turns up valley of Butna -- Vegetation of - Chenab valley -- Chishot -- Snow-beds -- Camp at 10,500 feet -- - Ancient moraines -- Glacier -- Camp at 11,500 feet -- Rapid - ascent along glacier -- Camp on moraine, at 14,600 feet -- - Change of weather -- Ascent towards pass over glacier -- Cross - Umasi La -- Descent -- Immense glacier -- Encamp in Tibet, at - 13,800 feet -- Open valley of Zanskar -- Padum -- Great change - of climate -- and in vegetation. - - -As a great part of my baggage and some of my servants did not reach -camp till after dark, in the evening of the 12th of May, I halted on -the 13th. I was encamped in a very narrow valley, on both sides of -which lofty mountains rose very abruptly. The spurs which projected -into this ravine were all of very peculiar configuration, their -northern face being uniformly quite precipitous, while to the south, -though still steep, they were green and sloping. I ascended on the -southern slope of the spur, nearest to my tent, to a height of perhaps -1500 feet, without obtaining any extensive view of the valley of the -Chenab, though I afterwards found that I was not more than two miles -in a direct line from that river, but that the rocky mountains right -and left, retaining their elevation till they were close to it, -completely interrupted the view in every direction, except directly -down the ravine, where a small portion of the snow-topped mountains -beyond the river was visible. - - [Sidenote: VEGETATION OF CHENAB VALLEY. - _June, 1848._] - -From the great elevation of the mountains which I had just crossed, I -was prepared to find a marked change in the aspect of the vegetation, -and I was not disappointed. The steep slopes were covered with a most -luxuriant herbage, above two feet in height. A tall panicled _Rheum_ -was very common, and numerous _Umbelliferae_, _Silene inflata_, -_Geranium_, and _Pteris aquilina_ were abundant. The most remarkable -plant, however, from the extreme quantity in which it occurred, was an -Asphodelaceous plant (_Eremurus_, Bieb.), the long scapes of which, -from four to five feet in height, covered the hill-sides in countless -myriads. These scapes were clothed, for nearly half their length, with -a profusion of elegant white flowers, very slightly tinged with a pale -yellowish green. I met, during the day, with most of the -characteristic plants of the Kunawar flora; as instances, I may -mention _Ephedra_, _Dictamnus_, _Rosa Webbiana_, _Dianthus_, and -_Scutellaria orientalis_. The arboreous vegetation was much the same -as on the other side of the pass. The right side of the ravine was -well clothed with pines, of all the four ordinary species; the left -side was usually bare, the northern faces of the spurs, which are -generally wooded, being too precipitous, but in the hollows there were -a few small clumps of trees, principally pine, walnut, and sycamore. - - [Sidenote: VALLEY OF CHENAB - _June, 1848._] - -On the 14th of June I resumed my journey. The ravine in front was -pronounced by my guides impracticable, and, as I afterwards saw, not -without reason, as it gained the Chenab by running down an almost -precipitous rocky slope between 1200 and 1500 feet in height. The road -ascended the steep hills to the right rather abruptly, inclining to -the north at the same time, till it gradually wound round the northern -angle of the mountain range which formed the side of the ravine, when -I found myself looking down on the valley of the Chenab from a height -of about 3000 feet above the bed of the river. Unfortunately the day -was foggy, with a light drizzling rain, or no doubt the view would -have been magnificent. After rounding this rocky angle, the road ran -parallel to the Chenab, but in a direction contrary to its course, and -continued to rise very gently among shady forests, with scattered -patches of snow. I conjectured at the time that an immediate descent -was prevented by precipices below; and I afterwards ascertained from -the opposite side of the river that such was the case. After about a -mile and a half an extremely abrupt descent commenced, at first -through dense forest, but afterwards among numerous fields and -scattered houses, constituting a large village between 8000 and 9000 -feet in elevation. Fruit-trees were abundant, principally walnut, of -which there were many magnificent trees. The crops of wheat were not -yet in ear. - - [Sidenote: PARGWAL - _June, 1848._] - -Below the village lands the road entered a forest of deodar, and -continued to descend rapidly. The deodars continued nearly to the -river, a few hundred feet only at the lowest part being covered with -high brushwood, principally consisting of _Fothergilla_. The Chenab -(or Chandrabhaga, as it is always called in the mountains) is a -noble-looking, rapid stream, running through a deep rocky channel. It -is crossed at a considerable height above the water by a good and -substantial wooden bridge, from which the course of the valley could -be seen both up and down, to a considerable distance; and in both -directions the river flows between lofty ranges of mountains, -generally very rocky and precipitous, and often finely wooded. I did -not determine the elevation of the bed of the river, but believe that -it may safely be stated to be about 7000 feet. After crossing the -Chenab the road ascended very abruptly to the village of Pargwal, in -which I encamped, at an elevation of about 8500 feet. On the lower -part of the ascent the forest was much more luxuriant than on the -opposite side, and than it usually is on slopes facing the south: this -was caused by the great depth and narrowness of the ravine through -which the river flowed. - -This day's march was rendered unpleasant by rain, which commenced -about seven A.M., and continued to fall steadily till near sunset; the -sky being completely overcast, and the day nearly calm. It was, -however, very gentle, so that the quantity which fell during the day -was beyond a doubt much less than would have fallen with constant rain -for an equal length of time in the outer ranges of mountains, where no -snowy range is interposed to stop the rain-clouds. It did not rain -again while I continued in the valley; still one day's experience -would of itself be quite insufficient to warrant any conclusion, were -it not that the inhabitants describe the climate as tolerably dry. -Their account is, that the rains continue lightly at intervals for -about a month from the middle of June, after which they cease -entirely. I have already pointed out that the climate of lower Kunawar -is precisely the same in character, and these two valleys are equally -similar in situation with respect to the mountain ranges. - - [Sidenote: DESCRIPTION OF - CHENAB VALLEY. - _June, 1848._] - -I had reached the Chenab at a point a good deal higher up than -Chatargarh, from which place the most frequented road into the Zanskar -valley turns to the north. There is, I believe, another pass a good -deal more to the eastward, the road to which leaves the Chenab not far -from the place where I crossed it; but I was informed that it is at -all times extremely difficult, and that the season was still too early -to attempt it. I therefore proceeded, on the 15th and 16th of June, -down the right bank of the Chenab, through an exceedingly mountainous -country, and generally at a great height above the stream, but with -frequent descents to cross lateral torrents. The mountains to the -north were generally crested with snow, and dipped very abruptly to -the river. The north-west face of each ridge was invariably -precipitous, so that all the descents along the road were abrupt, -rocky, and difficult. Many villages were met with in the valley, and -much cultivation usually high up on the sides of the mountains. -Poplars (_P. nigra_ and _alba_) and apricots were commonly planted, -but the favourite fruit-tree seemed to be the walnut. I did not see -any vines cultivated. On both days the scenery was extremely fine, -varying with every turn of the valley; at times the view from the top -of the scarped precipices, which were frequent, was of the grandest -possible description. The south side of the valley, where not -absolutely precipitous, was covered with forest, most frequently of -pine; and on the north side, on which the road lay, though the upper -parts were often bare and grassy, or only covered with brushwood, yet -the banks of the river were usually well wooded, and all the ravines, -which were deep and shady, were filled with a dense forest of deodar, -horse-chesnut, hazel, sycamore, birch, and _Fothergilla_, with many -other trees. _Pinus Gerardiana_, which may be looked upon as more -characteristic of a moderately dry climate than any other tree, -inasmuch as it will not flourish where the rains are at all heavy, was -extremely common. On the 16th a great part of the road lay through an -extensive wood, of a species of oak (_Q. Ilex_), which I had only -before seen in Kunawar, where it is not uncommon. - -On the 15th I encamped at the village of Asdhari, at an elevation of -8800 feet, and nearly 2000 feet above the river. On the 16th my -halting-place was Shol, a large village close to the Chenab, with an -extensive tract of cultivation, quite bare of trees, except a few -cherries. The elevation of my tent was here about 6900 feet: it was -not more than fifty feet above the river. Opposite the village, on the -south bank of the river, under a cliff which screened it from the rays -of the sun, there was a very large patch of snow. - - [Sidenote: CHATARGARH. - _June, 1848._] - -The early part of my march of the 17th was still along the Chenab, -through fine shady forest, for about three miles, rising to the height -of about 1000 feet, and again descending close to the water's edge. -The road then continued nearly on a level with the stream, and became -very rocky and difficult, planks of wood or rough bridges being laid -in some places from rock to rock to effect a passage. Below this -narrow rocky part of the channel the valley widened out on the north -side into an open sandy plain, watered by a large tributary stream, -descending from the north. Close to this stream lay the small fort of -Chatargarh, the residence of the Thannadar of the valley, and of a -small garrison of soldiers. The Butna, which here joins the Chenab, -and up which my road lay, is a large impetuous stream. I crossed it a -short way above the fort, by a good bridge, and, following its right -bank for about two miles through oak forest, encamped at the village -of Liundi. - -The flora of the valley of the Chenab, as far as my road lay along it, -continued to agree in most respects with that of Kunawar. As I -descended the river, there were some indications of an approach to the -vegetation of the outer Himalaya; but the number of species belonging -to that flora which appeared was not great. A _Zizyphus_ common in the -lower Sutlej and in Kashmir, the common pomegranate, and a shrubby -_Desmodium_, were those noted. This gradual transition in the -character of the vegetation occurs equally in Kunawar; and as both the -Sutlej and the Chenab commence their course in an arid climate, and -enter the plains under the full influence of the rains, it is quite in -accordance with what might be expected to happen. The change is in -both valleys extremely gradual, and appears to be directly -proportional to the diminished elevation of the mountains which run -parallel to the rivers on the south.[19] - - [Sidenote: BUTNA VALLEY. - _June, 1848._] - -On the 18th of June my road again lay up the valley of the Butna, -usually close to the stream, partly through bare country, with -scattered bushes of _Zizyphus_ and _Daphne_, but mostly through very -beautiful forest of oak, alder, horse-chesnut, and ash. The river -varied much in character; but for the most part it flowed with great -rapidity over a rocky channel, and in one place formed a cataract of -some size. More than once, however, and always above the most rapid -parts, it was tranquil, though still swift, and flowed between -gravelly islands. The hills on both sides were steep and lofty, and -after the first two miles, patches of snow occurred in every ravine. I -passed several villages and a good deal of cultivation, and encamped -at Chishot, at about 8200 feet above the level of the sea. - - [Sidenote: ASCENT OF - BUTNA VALLEY. - _June, 1848._] - -Next day, at starting, the road lay through pine-forests for about two -miles, the elevation rapidly increasing. At about that distance, there -was a very long rapid or cataract, with a fall of several hundred feet -within a space of 150 or 200 yards. At the lower end of the rapid, the -river disappeared under a snow-bed, which formed an arch across it -from bank to bank. Above, the stream was wide and tranquil, and the -pine-forest ceasing, the road entered an open valley, with much -cultivation around the village of Himor. Along the water-courses by -which the lands of this village were irrigated, there was a good deal -of swampy ground, in which grew _Parnassia_, _Polygonum viviparum_, an -_Orchis_ not unlike _O. latifolia_, a _Triglochin_, and some -_Carices_, all Kunawar species. Beyond the village, the valley -continued open and bare, but was very rocky, and covered with large -boulders. There was no wood, except in the ravines, which were -occupied by groves of poplar (_P. ciliata_) and walnut; a few trees of -the same and of birch being scattered over the hill-sides. No oak or -Gerard's pine was seen during the day. The herbaceous vegetation on -the open sunny banks was very luxuriant, and the species were mostly -the same as I have recorded in a similar situation, and at the same -elevation, on the 13th, after descending from the Sach pass. I must -except the _Eremurus_, then so abundant, which was here entirely -wanting. There were also a few novelties. Large tracts were covered -with a tall fern (_Pteris aquilina_?). After passing through the -cultivated lands of a second village, and crossing some snow-beds, the -road entered a wood of stunted deodars, and, turning to the left, -proceeded up the more northerly of two ravines, into which the valley -here divided. That to the south, which in direction was a continuation -of the valley, was filled with forest, but the one up which the road -turned was steep and stony, and contained only a few scattered trees -of birch, hazel, and poplar. After a march of about eight miles, I -encamped on an open level spot, where there were a few fields, and one -or two huts, at present uninhabited, at an elevation of 10,500 feet. - - [Sidenote: VIEW OF THE GLACIER. - _June, 1848._] - -On the 20th, I proceeded further up the same valley, ascending gently -but steadily. The valley was open and bounded on both sides by steep -rocky mountains, those on the right partially wooded with birch, on -the other side quite bare. Behind, beyond the point from which I had -the day before turned abruptly to the left, rose a lofty snowy peak, -very steep and rocky; in front, only a very small portion of the snowy -range which I was rapidly approaching could be seen. The stream was -for the most part covered with snow, and the road crossed numerous -snow-beds. At first, the hill-sides were rounded and covered with -vegetation, but very soon the road became rocky, and was covered as -yesterday with enormous boulders, evidently indicative of a former -glacier. These were all gneiss, which rock also occurred _in situ_, as -had been the case ever since I had left Chatargarh, where it replaced -the clay-slate, which had been common on the banks of the Chenab. -After walking for about two miles among these huge masses of rock, I -suddenly emerged into open country, and, after descending a few feet, -entered a level plain, nearly two miles in length and at least half a -mile in width, partly covered with snow stretching down from the -ravines on each side. This plain appeared to have been at one time the -bed of a small lake; and as its lower end was crossed by an evident -moraine, it seems probable that a glacier had at some former period -crossed the valley and dammed up the channel of the stream. Small -groves of willow of two distinct species, one twelve to fifteen feet -high, the other not above two or three, were scattered over this -plain. The surface, where free from snow, was usually grassy, and near -the lower end very swampy. The snow had evidently very recently -covered the whole surface, as few plants were yet in flower, except a -bright blue gentian in the marshy parts, and a viscid _Cerastium_ on -the gravel. A species of rhubarb was abundant on the banks surrounding -this plain, and its acid leaf-stalks were eagerly eaten by the men who -carried my luggage. The road traversed the whole length of this level -tract, and, at its upper end, crossed two low ridges of boulders, -evidently moraines. Beyond these lay another plain, much more barren -and desolate-looking than the previous one, the greater part being -still covered with snow. Those parts from which the snow had melted -were gravelly, with scarce a vestige of vegetation. I encamped on the -last bare spot of this plain, close to extensive snow-beds, from below -which the stream flowed, and about a mile from the end of a large -glacier which filled up the end of the valley, but was cut off -abruptly at the commencement of the open plain. The elevation of my -tent was 11,400 feet. The plain on which I was encamped was surrounded -on all sides by lofty mountains, all extremely steep and rugged. Those -to the south and east were covered with snow to the very base, but to -the north little or no snow was visible, the hills close at hand -rising so abruptly that they entirely excluded the view of the ranges -behind. The southern slopes from the base to the height of about 1000 -feet were covered with birch-trees, still quite leafless, except a few -on the edge of the plain, which were beginning to throw out buds, the -snow having melted round their roots. - -On the 21st of June I continued my journey over the snow-bed close to -which I had encamped, in the direction of the end of the glacier. -While still several hundred yards distant from it, the road turned -abruptly to the left, ascending a very steep stony hill, which formed -the side of a lateral ravine descending from the north. When I had -ascended a few hundred feet, I obtained an excellent view of the -glacier which occupied the valley below. Its surface, from the great -slope of the valley, was extremely irregular, and to all appearance -quite impassable, from the numerous fissures which traversed it in -every direction, and the irregular pinnacles of ice which rose above -its surface. It was terminated abruptly by a perpendicular cliff, -which projected more in the centre than on the sides, and was much and -deeply fissured both horizontally and perpendicularly. The glacier was -in parts covered with masses of boulders and gravel, on which lay a -sprinkling of snow in small patches. The lateral moraines were well -marked, being much higher than the surface of the glacier, and -separated by a deep fissure from the rocky wall of the valley. -Immediately in front of the termination of the glacier, the surface of -the plain was free from snow; numerous boulders of large size were -scattered over it, and large masses of ice, evidently fragments of the -glacier, lay among them. - - [Sidenote: ASCENT TOWARDS - BARDAR PASS. - _June, 1848._] - -The ascent of the lateral ravine continued steep, sometimes over rock, -often over what appeared to be an ancient moraine, and now and then -over grassy sward, adorned with numerous alpine plants in full flower. -Among these was a little _Iris_, which I had seen the day before in -fruit, _Podophyllum_, _Fritillaria_, and a pretty rose-coloured -_Pedicularis_. There were a few stunted bushes of birch on the first -part of the ascent, but they were soon left behind. After ascending -about 1500 feet, I passed a singular-looking little circular plain, -perhaps half a mile in diameter, still covered with snow. The road lay -on the left of this plain over a hill of boulders. It now ascended -very rapidly, and soon reached another glacier, the termination of -which was extremely oblique, being prolonged much further on the right -or south-east side of the ravine than on the other. The slope of the -valley was so extremely abrupt, that the surface of the glacier was -fissured in a most extraordinary manner; and it was still partially -covered with snow. The road ascended over the moraine which lay -between the glacier and the wall of the valley, generally at a great -height above the level of the ice. In the crevices of the stones one -or two plants still lingered: _Primula minutissima_ was in flower, and -a little _Sedum_ and a dwarf willow (_S. repens_, L.) were beginning -to expand their buds. My day's march amounted to about five miles, and -I encamped upon the moraine on a level piece of ground just large -enough to hold my tent, and close to the glacier. The temperature of -boiling water indicated an elevation of about 14,600 feet. All around -was snow and ice, except one steep sloping bank facing the south, on -the most sheltered corner of which my baggage porters established -themselves. On this bank vegetation had already made considerable -progress: at least a dozen species were in flower, of which the most -abundant were a rose-coloured _Polygonum_, a _Potentilla_, and -_Ranunculus_, and, most abundant of all, a beautiful blue -_Gymnandra_. - -The surface of the glacier opposite to my tent was much covered with -debris, and many large boulders were imbedded in the ice, which was -very much fissured, rising into sharp pinnacles. As the day advanced, -it was traversed by numerous rills of water, and the sound of falling -stones was heard in every direction. - -I had hitherto been extremely fortunate in weather, considering the -season; but just at sunset, a few light clouds having first appeared -in the south horizon, the sky became suddenly overcast, and light snow -began to fall. Very little fell during the night, but at daybreak on -the 22nd of June, just as I was preparing to start, it began to snow -rather heavily. I had unfortunately no choice but to proceed. The -place in which I was encamped was not at all adapted for a -resting-place during a heavy fall of snow; and arrangements had -already been made for the relief of the baggage porters who had come -with me, by a party of Zanskaries at the top of the pass on this day. - - [Sidenote: LARGE GLACIER. - _June, 1848._] - -The first part of the ascent lay up the moraine parallel to the -glacier, and was extremely steep for nearly 1000 feet of perpendicular -elevation, up to the top of the very abrupt ravine in which I had been -encamped. Beyond this, the valley widened considerably; and as its -slope was now very gentle, the glacier was quite smooth, and the path -lay over its surface, which was covered by a considerable layer (five -or six inches) of last winter's snow, as well as by a sprinkling of -that which had fallen during the night. The ice was a good deal -fissured, but in general the fissures were not more than a few inches -in width; a few only were as much as two feet. The road continued for -two or three miles over the surface of the glacier, which gradually -widened out as I advanced. Its upper part was expanded into an icy -plain of great width, bounded by a semicircular arch of precipitous -rocks, except where three ravines descended into it, down which three -narrow glaciers flowed to contribute a supply of ice to the vast mass -in the bay. On the smooth ice below, central moraines were very -visible, and could be distinctly traced to the rocks by which the -three smaller glaciers were separated. A great part of these central -moraines were covered with snow; but now and then an immense detached -boulder of gneiss was seen, supported by a column of clear blue ice, -veined with horizontal white bands, by which it was raised high above -the surface of the glacier, and the snow which covered it. - - [Sidenote: SUMMIT OF PASS. - _June, 1848._] - -The three branches which united to form this grand sea of ice were -very steep, and consequently much fissured and fractured. The road lay -up that to the right, ascending by the moraine to the left of the -glacier, the surface of the ice being quite impracticable. This -ascent, which I estimated at the time to amount to at least 1000 feet, -was exceedingly steep and laborious, as beneath a thin layer of fresh -snow it was covered with hard frozen snow, on which the footing was -quite insecure. On attaining the summit of this steep ascent, I found -the surface of the glacier much more smooth, the inclination of the -bed of the ravine having suddenly changed; it was now, however, -covered with a layer of snow several feet thick, which probably tended -to render small inequalities of surface unobservable. I was now in a -wide valley or basin, the rocky hills on both sides rising -precipitously to a height of from 200 to 1000 feet above the level of -the snow. After perhaps two miles of gradual ascent, these rocky walls -gradually closing in united in a semicircle in front, and the road -passed through a gorge or fissure in the ridge, to the crest of which -the snow-bed had gradually sloped up. This fissure, which was not -more than two feet in width, was the pass, but when I reached it, -snow was falling so thickly that I could not see ten yards in any -direction. I therefore remained only long enough to ascertain that the -boiling-point of water was 180.3 deg., indicating an elevation of at -least 18,000 feet. - -The commencement of the descent was very rapid down a narrow gorge, -into which the fissure at the top widened by degrees. The fresh snow, -which had fallen to the depth of at least a foot, was quite soft and -yielding, so that great caution was required. After four or five -hundred yards, the slope became more gradual and the ravine -considerably wider. The road was now evidently over the surface of a -glacier. The mountains on both sides were extremely rocky, rugged, and -precipitous. Each lateral ravine brought an additional stream of ice -to swell that in the central one; and on each lateral glacier there -was a moraine which had to be crossed. Further on, the slope again -increasing, the road left the surface of the glacier, and ascended the -moraine by its side. This was at first covered with deep snow, both -old and fresh; but as I advanced I found the old snow only in patches, -but covered with a layer of new. At last I reached a point at which -the snow melted as it fell, and not long after the glacier stopped -abruptly, a considerable stream issuing from beneath the -perpendicular wall by which it terminated. - - [Sidenote: IMMENSE GLACIER. - _June, 1848._] - -Beyond the end of the glacier the valley continued very steep. It was -several hundred feet across, and covered with loose stones of various -sizes, over which the stream ran in a wide shallow channel. Lower -down, the bed of the rivulet became contracted and rocky, and I -crossed to its right bank over a natural bridge consisting of one -large stone, ten or twelve feet long, which had fallen so as to lie -across the rocky channel. Advancing a few paces beyond this bridge, I -suddenly found myself at the end of the ravine, and overlooking a wide -valley many hundred feet below, filled by an enormous glacier -descending from the left. This glacier was completely covered with a -mass of debris, which entirely concealed the ice, and from its -enormous dimensions must have had a very distant source. I had no -means at the time of determining with accuracy either its width or -depth, nor do I find any estimate of it (except in superlatives) in my -notes made on the spot; I cannot, therefore, at this distance of time, -venture to give any exact dimensions: I can only say that it much -exceeded in size any that I have before or since had an opportunity of -seeing. - -It was just at the termination of the upper ravine that the first -traces of vegetation were observed: till reaching this point the rocks -and gravel had been quite bare. The first plant observed was _Primula -minutissima_; the only other in flower was a large purple-coloured -_Crucifera_ (a species of _Parrya_), but leaves of several others were -beginning to expand. - - [Sidenote: ZANSKAR. - _June, 1848._] - -The road did not descend at once into the large valley, but, turning -abruptly to the right, ran parallel to the glacier but high above it -on the rocky mountain-side, for nearly a mile, gradually descending so -as to reach the bottom of the valley just as the glacier ended. The -valley beyond its termination was wide and stony, and I encamped among -a number of very large boulders about half a mile further on. The -elevation of my camp was 13,800 feet, so that I had descended upwards -of 4000 feet from the top of the pass. I found that the inhabitants on -the two sides of the pass knew it by different names, those of Padar, -on the south, calling it the Bardar pass, while to the Zanskaries it -is known as Umasi La. - -The morning of the 23rd of June was bright and clear, but intensely -frosty. The valley in which I was encamped was enclosed by lofty -mountains covered with much snow, though on the level ground there -were only a few patches. The road lay down the valley, which soon -became narrow and stony, and the descent somewhat rapid. The ground -was at first quite bare, and devoid of any sort of vegetation, except -here and there on the bank of the stream, where, close to the water's -edge, a small patch of green was occasionally to be seen. The -narrowest parts of the ravine were occupied by large snow-beds, -entirely covering the rivulet, but at intervals the valley widened out -into a gravelly plain. After about a mile, some vegetation began to -appear, and after four or five miles it became plentiful. The banks of -the stream, in the wide and gravelly parts, were fringed with dwarf -willows just bursting into leaf. _Primula minutissima_ was plentiful -in the crevices of the stones, and I met with many plants scattered -about, of which none but the very earliest were yet in flower. Two or -three species only could be identified with the plants of the Indian -side of the pass; the majority were quite different. _Lithospermum -Euchromon_ of Royle, and the _Parrya_ first seen the day before, were -among the commonest species; several other _Cruciferae_ were also seen, -as well as a _Gentiana_, one or two _Astragali_, a species of -_Meconopsis_, a small _Gagea_, _Ephedra_, and _Nepeta glutinosa_. -Species of _Artemisia_, _Cynoglossum_ and other _Boragineae_, of -_Polygonum_ and _Rheum_, though not in flower, were recognizable, but -the greater number of plants were only beginning to vegetate. As I -descended, a few shrubs of _Lonicera hispida_ and of _Rosa Webbiana_ -(the Tibet rose) were met with, but all very stunted. - - [Sidenote: VALLEY OF ZANSKAR. - _June, 1848._] - -The valley continued to descend, and the snow soon receded to some -distance up the mountain-sides. At last I came to a single habitation, -a little monastery inhabited by one Lama, and built under the -precipitous rocks on the left side of the valley. A very small patch -of cultivation lay on the bank of the stream just below it; the corn -was not more than two or three inches high. A little further on, the -road suddenly turned into a much larger and more open valley, watered -by a considerable stream, which ran through a wide, open, gravelly -channel, from which long and very slightly inclined gravelly slopes -extended on both sides to the base of the mountains. The stream proved -to be the western branch of the Zanskar river. To the north-westward -of the point where I entered its valley, its upward course was visible -for eight or ten miles, all the way through an open gravelly plain. -Several villages and a good deal of cultivation were seen in that -direction, on the slopes descending from the mountains. - -My road lay to the eastward down the valley, partly through cultivated -lands, partly over barren gravelly or stony plains, and often over -grassy meadows on the banks of the river. Wheat, barley, and peas were -the crops cultivated, all only a few inches in height. Round the -fields and on the banks of the water-courses a luxuriant herbage was -beginning to spring up, which contrasted strongly with the sterility -of the stony plains. The fields were quite flat and generally -unenclosed, the valley being too level to require terracing; small -canals conducted water for irrigation to every field. The villages -were all small and bare, and during the day I saw only a single -tree--a small poplar--in a garden or enclosure at one of the last -villages through which I passed, before halting for the day. I -encamped, after a march of at least twelve miles, near the village of -Markim, on a fine grassy plain close to the river, the banks of which -were lined by a few bushes of _Myricaria_ and _Hippophae_. The -elevation of my tent was 12,100 feet. - -In the valley of the Chenab the prevailing rock had everywhere been -clay-slate, but where I turned up the valley of the Butna it was -replaced by gneiss, which continued to form the whole mountain-mass on -both sides of the Umasi pass, so far as I could infer the nature of -their structure from the boulders brought down by glaciers. On the -earlier part of this day's journey, the gneiss gave place again to -mica-slate and clay-slate; but in the wide valley, where no rock was -seen _in situ_, the boulders were all composed of gneiss, and had -probably, therefore, been transported from the upper part of the -mountains. - - [Sidenote: PADUM. - _June, 1848._] - -On the 24th of June I continued my journey to Padum, which is -considered the capital of Zanskar. My road lay still east, down a -wide, open plain. The mountains on the north side of the valley were -not to appearance very lofty, and were merely tipped with snow; those -to the south were much higher and had a great deal of snow, which, -however, did not come within perhaps 1500 feet of the plain. There was -no snow in the plain itself, which had a width of from two to four -miles. Cultivated tracts were frequent, occurring wherever water was -easily procurable for irrigation, but the greater part of the surface -was dry, barren, and stony, producing scarcely any herbage. The river -ran through a wide, gravelly bed, and was divided into numerous -channels. It was often fringed with low jungle of _Myricaria_ and -_Hippophae_, two shrubs which, though not entirely confined to Tibet, -are most abundant in every part of that country up to nearly 14,000 -feet, in the gravelly beds of streams. In some places the banks of the -stream were very low and swampy, and covered with turf. About half-way -down the plain the different branches of the river united into one, -which ran with a swift impetuous current over the boulders which -formed its bed, the melting of the snow on the mountains having -brought down a very large body of water. At this point it was crossed -by a rope-bridge, leading to a large village on the left bank. A -little further on I passed through a considerable village, with -extensive cultivated lands, and a large well-built monastery, in -which, I believe, Csoma de Koros resided while in Zanskar. The road -then made a considerable detour to the south, to the base of the -mountains, to reach a bridge over a lateral stream now so much swollen -as to be unfordable. After crossing this stream by a good wooden -bridge, the road entered an open grassy plain sloping imperceptibly -from the mountains towards the river, at the south-east angle of which -lay the town or village of Padum. - -Padum, which was at one time the principal place in Zanskar, is, -though now much decayed, still considered as such, probably both from -its central situation and from the garrison of Gulab Singh's troops -being established near it. It is built on a low hill lying at the -south-east corner of a wide open plain which surrounds the junction of -two large streams which here unite to form the Zanskar river. Of -these, one descending from the south runs through a rocky and barren -country, which contains, I was informed, but few and small villages. -It is that to which Moorcroft, who crossed it near its source, has -given the name of Zanskar; and as it appears to the eye the larger -stream of the two, it will probably be found entitled to retain the -name, although the district watered by the western branch, which runs -gently through an open country, is much more fertile and populous. The -junction of these two streams takes place four or five miles north of -Padum. The plain is partly low and partly a platform nearly a hundred -feet above the level of the rivers. - - [Sidenote: CLIMATE OF ZANSKAR. - _June, 1848._] - -Entirely secluded by lofty ranges of snowy mountains from the approach -of any moisture-bringing winds, the valley of Zanskar has an -absolutely Tibetan climate. Tree vegetation is entirely wanting, and -the mountains and plains are dry, barren, and desolate. At the same -time, from the dryness of the summer, the powerful influence of the -sun induces here, as elsewhere in Tibet, a much milder climate than -prevails at an equal elevation within the influence of the periodical -rains, for in no part of the Indian portion of the mountains does any -cultivated valley exist at an elevation of 12,000 feet above the level -of the sea. The extent of open country is more considerable in this -portion of the Zanskar valley than elsewhere in the basin of the -Indus. Villages also are frequent, particularly in the lower part, and -the cultivated lands of many of them are extensive. The alluvial -platforms are of great extent, and so nearly level, that no terracing -is required for purposes of irrigation. On this account, and from the -total want of fences, the appearance of the plain is remarkable, and -very different from that usual around Tibetan villages. At the period -of my visit, the crops were only a few inches in height, and the whole -population were busy in the fields, irrigating them and keeping out -straggling cattle. The inhabitants, in appearance, manners, and mode -of life, are the same as those of Ladak; their language and religion -too are the same, as far as I could learn. - - [Sidenote: VEGETATION OF ZANSKAR. - _June, 1848._] - -The change of climate was, as a matter of course, accompanied by an -almost total change of vegetation, which had assumed entirely the -Tibetan character. Scarcely more than a fourth, on a rough estimate, -of the species observed, were the same as grew on the Indian side of -the pass. Of these, a very few were cosmopolitan or widely-diffused -plants. Such were _Thymus Serpyllum_, _Plantago Asiatica_, -_Taraxacum_, _Veronica biloba_, _Medicago lupulina_, and _Polygonum -aviculare_ or a closely-allied species. The greater number were -species of the dry climate, which, from being capable of bearing a -certain quantity of moisture, vegetate also in the first valleys on -the opposite side of the pass, though quite incapable of living under -the full influence of the rains: as instances, I may mention _Rosa -Webbiana_, _Myricaria_, _Hippophae_, _Ephedra_, _Aquilegia -Moorcroftiana_, and several _Astragali_. - -Excluding both these classes, more than two-thirds of the plants were -entirely different from those which flourish on the Indian side. The -season was early spring, so that a great part of the vegetation was -still dormant, but it was making rapid strides under the influence of -a powerful sun, particularly in the neighbourhood of the town of -Padum, which appeared to be the warmest nook in the valley. The dry, -barren tracts, which constitute the greater part of the surface, -produced numerous, generally dwarf species of _Boragineae_ and -_Cruciferae_. Three _Potentillae_ were common, one of them _P. -anserina_. Near the river there was a more luxuriant vegetation. Rank -species of _Heracleum_, _Astragalus_, _Scrophularia_, _Matthiola_, and -_Eurotia_ were coming into flower under the shelter of walls and -bushes. In richer soil a species of _Hyoscyamus_, with pale yellow -trumpet-shaped flowers (_Belenia_ of Decaisne), was common, while -around the fields grew species of _Geranium_, _Cynoglossum_, _Nepeta_, -and _Astragalus_. Except a little _Poa_, no grasses were yet in -flower, but several small _Cyperaceae_ formed dense patches of turf. -The meadows close to the edge of the river were invariably swampy, and -had a peculiar vegetation of their own, consisting of two species of -_Triglochin_, a white-flowered _Taraxacum_, a little _Primula_, -_Ranunculus Cymbalaria_, and _Glaux_, with _Hippuris_ and -_Utricularia_ in the pools of water. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[19] A species of vine was very common in the forests, climbing to a -great height on the trees, which very closely resembled the common -cultivated vine, from which it is not, I think, specifically distinct. -At the same time, my specimens are scarcely distinguishable from -_Vitis Indica_, L., a species of the plains of India, not uncommon in -hot jungles, even at a considerable distance from the foot of the -mountains. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - - Rope bridge across Zanskar river -- Tongde -- Zangla -- Road - leaves Zanskar river -- Takti La -- Nira -- Bridge over Zanskar - river -- Singhi La -- Phutaksha -- Wandla -- Lama Yuru -- Cross - Indus river -- Kalatze -- Nurla -- Saspola -- Nimo -- Le -- - Pass north of Le -- Small glacier -- Kardong -- Kalsar -- - Vegetation -- Diskit -- Passage of Shayuk river -- Upper Nubra - -- Vegetation of Nubra -- Hot spring at Panamik. - - - [Sidenote: TONGDE. - _June, 1848._] - -I remained at Padum two days, to make inquiries as to the road and -arrangements for porters and supplies. On the 27th of June, I -commenced my journey towards the Indus. The road lay down the valley -of Zanskar, crossing the eastern branch of that river opposite the -town of Padum, by a rather insecure-looking rope-bridge, high above -the stream, which was deep, rapid, and muddy. The rope, as is usual in -Tibet, was formed of willow twigs. After crossing this bridge, I -followed the right bank of the stream in a north-easterly direction, -principally over dry, desert, stony plains, considerably elevated -above the river. These high banks were composed of fine clay, which -was occasionally quite pure, but more frequently contained numerous -fragments of a black slate rock. These were especially abundant where -lateral ravines descended from the mountains, while in the -intervening spaces the clay was comparatively free of them. The same -black slate cropped out _in situ_ in several places along the bank of -the river; and from the numerous boulders everywhere scattered over -the surface of the platform, it appeared to be the prevailing rock in -the mountains on the right. The platforms usually terminated abruptly, -being either scarped or sloping very steeply towards the river. A -strip of low, wet, grassy ground, which was more or less covered with -_Hippophae_ jungle, was generally interposed between the cliffs and -the river. When this was absent, the steep slopes were barren till -close to the water's edge. On the left bank of the river, after the -first two miles, the table-land sank, an extensive low plain forming a -tongue of land between the two branches. On this low land, close to -the eastern river, and about two miles from the town of Padum, lay the -fort occupied by the military force of the valley: a small square, -with four round bastions. After marching nine or ten miles, I encamped -at a small village called Tongde, among undulating clay hills, by -which the view of the river and valley was excluded. Nearly opposite, -a mile or two below the junction of the two rivers, was Karsha, at -present the largest town in Zanskar: it lies in a ravine at a -considerable distance from the river, and, from the steepness of the -slope on which it is built, presents rather an imposing appearance. -The level tract intervening between the town and the river was covered -with cultivation. - - [Sidenote: ZANGLA. - _June, 1848._] - -On the 28th, I continued along the valley, but in a more northerly -direction than the day before. The lofty snowy range to the south-west -was now finely seen, forming a semicircle of rocky peaks behind -Padum. The road lay again over dry plains, partly stony, partly hard -clay; even the banks of the river were dry and stony, without a -vestige of turf. The only species worthy of note which occurred during -the day, in addition to the plants common on these barren tracts, was -_Oxytropis chiliophylla_: it was very scarce at the beginning of the -march, but before I had reached half-way it had become so abundant -that at a distance the ground appeared of a bright red colour, from -the immense abundance of its flowers. Several villages were passed on -the road, and two considerable streams, both of which had excavated -deep ravines in the loose conglomerate of which the plateau was -formed. On the latter part of the march, the mountains which formed -the right side of the valley approached close to the river, leaving no -passage along the bank, so that the road made a short steep ascent -over loose shingly debris and rocky ground, and continued for more -than a mile along the face of the ridge. After that distance, it -descended to a grassy, saline, very swampy plain, close to the river. -I encamped at the village of Zangla, which lies at the base of the -mountains, on the upper part of a steep stony slope, extending down to -the river. - -The alluvial platforms during this day's journey were generally of -great thickness. This was especially the case around Tongde, where the -clay formation formed considerable hills; and on the latter part of -the march, where the mountains advanced nearly to the stream. Here -high banks of clay were accumulated on the ridges, and were -frequently, as in many other parts of Tibet, worn into fantastic -shapes by the melting of the snow. Near Zangla, too, detached masses -were seen clinging to the sides of the mountains, at considerable -heights, in positions which indicated great denudation. - - [Sidenote: THE ROAD LEAVES - THE VALLEY OF ZANSKAR. - _June, 1848._] - -The result of my inquiries at Padum had been, that the lower part of -the course of the Zanskar river (which I had hoped I might be able to -follow to its junction with the Indus) was so rocky and difficult as -to be impracticable, and that at the present season, when the torrents -were all swollen by the melting snow, the only practicable road to the -Indus lay through the mountains, at a distance from the river. I was -now approaching the point where the road entered the mountains, and -could already see that the fine open valley through which I had been -travelling was soon to have an end. At Zangla it had become sensibly -narrower, and the mountains on both sides, still tipped with snow, -were extremely rocky and rugged. - -The earlier part of the march of the 29th of June was still parallel -to the river, partly over table-land, at other times through a dense -jungle of _Hippophae_, which covered its low banks, as well as several -islands in its channel. After about four miles, the road turned -suddenly to the right, and, leaving the valley altogether, commenced a -rapid ascent on the steep slope of the mountain. From the point at -which the road turned off, the Zanskar valley ahead could be seen to -narrow rapidly, by the closing-in of the mountains. A turn in its -direction, at the distance of four or five miles, hid the further -course of the river from view, but the steep scarped mountains, which -seemed to rise almost perpendicularly from its bed, left no doubt of -the difficult nature of the country through which it ran. - -The first part of the ascent was very steep and bare. A prickly -_Statice_, in dense round tufts, made its appearance after the first -few hundred feet, accompanied by another very common Tibetan plant, -which had not been met with in the open plain, a species of _Cicer_, -described by Bentham as _C. microphyllum_, if indeed the Siberian _C. -Soongaricum_ be not the same species. This plant is remarkable, not -only for a very viscid exudation, but also for its peculiar strong -aromatic and pungent odour, which, except that it is very much more -powerful, a good deal resembles that of its cultivated congener _C. -arietinum_, the well-known _gram_ of Upper India. It also recalls to -mind the smell of the common black currant, which, however, is more -aromatic and less pungent and acidulous. On the lower part of the -ascent the prevailing rock was limestone, of a dark bluish-grey -colour, extremely hard, containing many white veins and crystals of -calcareous spar; it closely resembled the limestone of the Hangarang -pass, and, like it, alternated with hornstone and cherty quartz rock, -and with finely laminated slates. - - [Sidenote: MOUNTAINS ON RIGHT BANK - OF ZANSKAR RIVER. - _June, 1848._] - -On leaving the bare slope, the road entered a narrow ravine, and -continued to ascend rapidly along the bank of the streamlet which -trickled down it. The ravine was full of loose angular stones, and had -on both sides high rocky precipices of limestone and slate. Close to -the little rivulet, a willow, a _Lonicera_, and a rose grew in great -plenty among the loose stones, forming a dense bushy mass of green, -six or eight feet high, which contrasted strongly with the barrenness -of the shingle remote from the water, and of the rocky walls on either -side. The ascent was rapid, and ere long, as the elevation increased, -the shrubby vegetation disappeared, and the only plants which grew -among the loose fragments of slate were a few small alpine species: -_Anemone_, _Corydalis_, _Thermopsis_, and _Androsace_, were the genera -to which these hardy plants belonged. In the crevices of the rocks, a -large fleshy-leaved saxifrage, of the subgenus _Bergenia_, was common: -it was a different species from either of the two hitherto described -from India, as well as from _S. crassifolia_ of Siberia, and was -particularly interesting as a connecting link between these two -floras. Further on, the ascent became more gentle; a few small patches -of snow were passed, and soon after, the road ascended a very steep -and shingly slope after the north side of the ravine, to the crest of -a ridge, the elevation of which I estimated at about 15,500 feet. - -The top of the ridge was rounded, and had more soil, and, as a -consequence, more vegetation, than the stony dell below. Several -plants of the valley reappeared, particularly _Lithospermum Euchromon_ -and a species of _Cynoglossum_, both of which seem to have a wide -range in altitude. A few new species of _Cruciferae_ and _Astragalus_ -were obtained on the ridge. There was a very good and extensive view -to the north, of mountain behind mountain, all bare and desolate; but -in every other direction ridges close at hand intercepted the view. -The most distant ridge had much snow on it, and appeared very -elevated: I supposed it to be that between the Zanskar river and the -Indus. After leaving the ridge, the road gradually descended towards -the north, down a ravine full of fragments of slate: the hills on both -sides were low and rounded. On the descent, _Caragana versicolor_, the -_Dama_ of the Tibetans, occurred very plentifully; it is, however, in -general, much less common in the north-west parts of Tibet than -further to the south, where it is very luxuriant. Following the course -of the ravine, after a considerable distance, I observed bushes of -willow and _Lonicera_ to appear in the dry channel, and almost -immediately afterwards a little water was found trickling down it, so -that I was enabled to encamp, after rather a fatiguing march, at an -elevation of about 13,700 feet. - - [Sidenote: NARROW RAVINE. - _June, 1848._] - -Next day I continued to descend the ravine. The hills were now -considerably higher and more rugged than in the upper part, and were -faced by cliffs of a clayey conglomerate, partly soft, but often -indurated. A rapidly decaying yellowish slate, in highly inclined -strata, was seen occasionally in the bed of the river. The stream was, -as usual, fringed by willow and _Lonicera_; and a species of poplar, -forming a small tree, occurred frequently. There was scarcely a single -vestige of vegetation on the mountain-sides. After descending about -two miles, I reached a large ravine, the slope of which was much more -gradual. The banks were still composed of clay conglomerate, which -rose in lofty precipices on both sides; after about three miles, -however, this disappeared, and the ravine became very narrow and -rocky. The road was now very rugged, ascending high on the -mountain-side, and then descending to cross the stream. The limestone -cliffs, which here approached within ten or twelve feet of one -another, were marked with horizontal undulating grooves, perhaps -indicative of the former existence of a glacier in this spot. As I -advanced, after crossing to the right bank of the stream, the road -became still more rocky and difficult, till at last the ravine in -front became quite impracticable. I now turned suddenly to the right, -and entered a narrow passage with perpendicular walls of rock, down -which ran a very small streamlet. In this dark shady dell, which was -so narrow that the light of the sun could not possibly reach the -bottom, there were several large patches of snow. The ascent was at -first rapid, but after a mile and a half the slope became more gradual -and the ravine considerably wider. The usual shrubs then appeared on -the water's edge, close to which I encamped, after a march of perhaps -nine miles, at about 13,600 feet, very nearly the same elevation as -the place from which I had started in the morning, and in an equally -desert situation. The whole march was exceedingly barren, and without -any cultivation or village. A few small bushes of juniper (_J. -excelsa_) were met with about half-way, for the first time during my -present journey. - - [Sidenote: TAKTI PASS. - _June, 1848._] - -On the 1st of July, I continued the ascent of the ravine, which was -still extremely barren and stony, except in the immediate vicinity of -the stream, where the usual vegetation of willow and _Lonicera_ -continued plentiful. A few birch-trees were seen on the road-side. -After following the ravine for nearly two miles, I reached a point at -which it divided into two branches. The luggage porters took that to -the right, which was said to be easier, but longer, while my guide led -me to the left, up a steep ravine, which, after a few hundred yards, -contracted to a mere fissure three to six feet in width, with very -lofty rocky walls, and full of loose shingle. In several places, large -masses of hard smooth ice had to be passed, which, from the steepness -of the slope, proved no easy task, and would certainly have been -almost an impossibility for loaded men. After passing through this -fissure, which, as usual, opened out in its upper part, the road -turned to the left up a long steep shingly hill-side, to the top of -the ridge, which was rounded. While in the ravine I saw no plants; but -on the shingly ascent a number of alpine species made their -appearance. One of the first was an _Anemone_, but by far the most -abundant was a yellow species of _Thermopsis_, which was in full -flower, and seemed to thrive best among loose stones. A small -_Veronica_, with bright blue flowers, occurred several times on the -ascent. - -The pass over this ridge is called Takti La. Its elevation was, -according to my observation of the boiling-point of water, 16,360 -feet. The mountains to the right and left, rising perhaps 1500 feet -higher than the pass, obstructed all view. Behind, the landscape was -shut in by a lofty snowy mountain, not a mile off; and in front, part -of the same snowy range which I had observed from the ridge two days -before, was visible. There was a good deal of vegetation at the top, -which was in part swampy round a small spring, where probably the snow -had only recently melted. The plants were all alpine: _Biebersteinia -odora_, a well-known North Asiatic form, was very common, with -several _Ranunculaceae_ and _Cruciferae_, and one or two species of -_Polygonum_. - - [Sidenote: NIRA. - _July, 1848._] - -On the steep shingly ascent which faced the south, I had met with no -snow till close to the top, when I saw a few very small patches. On -leaving the top of the pass, the road continued to run along the side -of the mountain on the left hand, nearly level for about a mile. As I -got more fully on the north face, I found snow lying in large patches, -which were melting rapidly; and when fairly on the northern slope, I -found that, though very steep, it was covered by a continuous bed of -snow from the very crest down to about 15,500 feet, as near as I could -guess. The view to the north, which, from the pass itself, had been -very limited, was now extensive. The range in front was everywhere -tipped with snow, and the road up to its crest, with the pass by which -I was to cross it, were distinctly visible. Between this range and -that on which I stood was interposed the deep ravine of the Zanskar -river, the course of which could be traced for a long way, though from -the precipitous rocks through which it ran, the stream itself could -not be seen. - -I find it extremely difficult to describe in an adequate manner the -extreme desolation of the most barren parts of Tibet, where no -luxuriant forest or bright green herbage softens the nakedness of the -mountains, but everywhere the same precipices, heaps of rocks, and -barren monotonous deserts meet the eye. The prospect now before me was -certainly most wonderful. I had nowhere before seen a country so -utterly waste. At the great elevation on which I stood I completely -overlooked the valley, and the two or three villages which I -afterwards found to exist were either seen as mere spots, or concealed -by ranges of hills. Directly in front, across the Zanskar river, a -rocky precipice, worn and furrowed in every direction, and broken into -sharp pinnacles, rose to the height of at least 2000 feet, overhanging -a deep ravine, while to the right and left mountain was heaped upon -mountain in inextricable confusion, large patches of snow crowning the -highest parts. - -From the edge of the snow I descended rapidly to the village of Nira. -On the earlier part of the descent, the ground was soft and miry from -the recent melting of the snow, which still lay in the more shady -parts in large patches. A bright yellow _Ranunculus_, with numerous -petals, and the pretty _Lloydia serotina_ were plentiful close to the -snow. Further down, the road was extremely stony, and the descent very -abrupt, but towards the end I followed the course of a small -streamlet, the margins of which were skirted by a belt not more than a -foot in width of vividly green turf. The village of Nira, in which I -encamped, was 12,900 feet above the level of the sea: its cultivated -lands were extensive, and both in the village and on the hills around, -juniper-trees of considerable size were common. - - [Sidenote: CROSS ZANSKAR RIVER. - _July, 1848._] - - [Sidenote: YULCHUNG. - _July, 1848._] - -On the 2nd of July I crossed the Zanskar river to the village of -Yulchung (13,700 feet). At Nira, besides the usual crops of barley, -there was a good deal of buckwheat, which was just above ground. The -fields were bordered, as usual, by a rank vegetation. A _Nepeta_, very -like _N. Sibthorpiana_, was quite new to me, and a tall erect -_Wahlenbergia_, with very large pale greenish-blue flowers, and -coarse, somewhat fetid leaves, was very abundant, just coming into -flower; the rest of the plants observed were the same as in the upper -part of Zanskar. The stream which ran by the village had in some -places spread out into a marshy meadow, in which a large pink-flowered -_Cardamine_ or _Dentaria_ occurred plentifully, with _Orchis -latifolia_? a white _Juncus_, and many common plants. - -Below the village the descent was bare and stony, and extremely abrupt -the whole way down to the river; the Tibetan rose was in full flower -on the road-side. The river did not come into sight till it was close -at hand, the bottom of the ravine through which it flowed being narrow -and rocky. A common wooden bridge, without side-rails, forty or fifty -feet above the surface of the water, was thrown over at the narrowest -part, where the stream was hemmed in by high rocky walls, and was, I -think, not more than forty feet broad. The current was rapid, and the -water much discoloured. The course of the river at the bridge was -easterly, but below, after a slight bend to the south of east, the -valley seemed to take a more northerly direction, and above the bridge -it came from the south-west. The banks of the river did not seem to be -at all practicable, and I was informed that it was only when the river -was frozen that travellers could proceed down it to Le. Accounts -differed much as to the length of time required for the journey, and I -could not discover that any of my party had ever travelled it, so that -I presume the route is not very much frequented. - -Immediately after crossing the river, a long, steep, utterly barren -ascent commenced over stones and shingle. A deep ravine, with a small -stream at the bottom, lay to the right of the road, beyond which were -the lofty rugged precipices which had been so conspicuous from the -heights the day before. At about 13,000 feet I gained the summit of a -projecting ridge, which rose, a little to the right, into a rocky -peak, and then sank abruptly down to the ravine. The road then dipped -into a hollow filled with large boulders and fragments of rock, -perhaps of glacial origin, and rose again more gradually to a second -ridge, in the hollow beyond which lay the village at which I had -determined to encamp, its lowest houses overhanging the deep ravine on -the right. The elevation not being materially different from that of -Nira, the plants of the cultivated grounds were the same. _Potentilla -anserina_ was very plentiful, and remarkably luxuriant. - -The rocks during the ascent were chiefly a very hard but very brittle -quartz or schist, alternating with loose crumbly slates, and a little -limestone. I diverged a little from the direct road, to visit an iron -mine, and to see the process of smelting. The ore was yellow ochre, -occurring in a breccia-looking conglomerate situated on the flanks of -a steep narrow ravine. There were two smelting furnaces, built of -stone, of a conical shape, three feet in height, and about six inches -in diameter at the top. The fuel employed was charcoal, and no flux -was mixed with the ore. - - [Sidenote: SINGHI PASS. - _July, 1848._] - -On the 3rd of July, I crossed Singhi La, the pass which I had seen so -distinctly on the 1st. The ascent commenced at once from the village -of Yulchung, over dry rounded hills, at the same time receding -considerably from the deep ravine on the right. No rock _in situ_ was -visible on the earlier part of the ascent, the hills being entirely -covered with coarse gravel and small stones, among which a spinous -_Astragalus_ and a species of _Polygonum_ were the predominant plants; -a glabrous _Artemisia_, a little _Euphorbia_, and the prickly -_Statice_, were also frequent. After about 1000 feet of ascent, plants -of the alpine zone began to appear. Afterwards the ascent was more -gentle, over similar ground, till I attained an elevation of about -15,000 feet; at which height the road was for some distance nearly -level, winding round a deep bay or hollow in the mountains, with high -hills rising on the left hand, and the deep ravine still on the right. -Several small streams were crossed, and many alpine plants seen, all -familiar to me, except a species of rhubarb, which grew among the -shingle in considerable quantity, and which is probably an undescribed -species. - -After completing the circuit of the deep bay, the ascent recommenced, -but was not at all rapid, till within a few hundred yards of the top, -when a short steep pull occurred. On the latter part of the ascent, -from the loose, stony nature of the soil, vegetation was very scanty; -and at the top, which was rounded, there was absolutely none. The -elevation was 16,500 feet. Several large patches of snow occurred on -the south side when close to the top, but not continuously. The view -was extensive to the south, embracing a considerable portion of the -great snowy range north of the Chenab, which, from the great elevation -of the spot on which I stood, as well as of the intermediate ranges, -and from the much smaller quantity of snow on its northern face, -looked much less imposing than it does when viewed from the Indian -side. Right and left were huge rocky peaks, and in front the view was -obstructed by mountains close at hand, except to the north-west, in -which direction a long gently-sloping valley was visible, running -between two steep ridges, along which, I was informed, the next day's -journey lay. From the top of the pass I attempted to form an estimate -of the height of the neighbouring ranges, taking the quantity of snow -as a guide, and it appeared to me that they were in general between 19 -and 20,000 feet, a few isolated peaks only exceeding that altitude. -Such guesses, however, are necessarily extremely vague. - -Quartzy rock, slate, and limestone, alternated during the ascent; and -near the summit of the pass the limestone evidently contained organic -remains, perhaps coralline, though the traces were not sufficiently -distinct to enable me to decide the point. The fossils were not -observed _in situ_, but the angular fragments in which they occurred -did not appear to have been transported from any distance. - -On the north side of the pass a snow-bed commenced at the very crest, -down which the descent was very steep for a few hundred yards. The -snow was very soft, and was rapidly melting, but it possibly covered a -permanent mass of ice, as it terminated abruptly, and the valley at -its base was wide and but little inclined, with only a few patches of -snow. The ground near the snow was swampy, owing to the rapid thaw. -Here a little sweet-scented _Primula_ was abundant, with one or two -more alpine plants. The road followed the course of a wide arid -valley, descending very gently. Two species of rhubarb were common, -and a dwarf willow fringed the margins of the stream. - - [Sidenote: PHUTAKSHA. - _July, 1848._] - -As I advanced, the valley gradually narrowed, and on the right high -precipitous rocks ere long overhung the stream, so that I crossed to -the left bank, and, instead of keeping on the bottom of the valley, -proceeded horizontally along the hill-sides. A little further on, the -stream, which had hitherto had a north-west course, turned suddenly to -the north, and entered an extremely narrow rocky ravine, which to all -appearance was quite impassable. Here the road turned abruptly to the -left, and ascended to cross a low ridge. On attaining the summit an -open valley was seen 1000 feet below, which at its lower extremity -contracted into a fissure precisely similar to that just described; -and as the two ravines were only separated by a narrow rocky ridge, -which rose to the north into a high cliff, there can be no doubt that -the two streams joined a mile or two below. Descending gradually into -the valley, I encamped at the village of Phutaksha, at an elevation of -about 14,300 feet. - - [Sidenote: LACUSTRINE CLAY. - _July, 1848._] - -Notwithstanding its great elevation, the valley of Phutaksha was -partially cultivated. The fields formed a narrow belt parallel to the -stream, along which they extended almost up to 15,000 feet, but the -crops were scanty. The wild plants of the borders of the cultivated -land were the same as those common in Zanskar, and grew with great -luxuriance along the margins of the irrigation streamlets. Alluvial -boulder clay was common in the valley; and I saw also a great deal of -the fine cream-coloured clay, which I have elsewhere noticed as being -probably of lacustrine origin. The occurrence of this clay at an -elevation of upwards of 14,000 feet is rather uncommon, and here, as -well as elsewhere, appears to be accompanied by such a conformation of -the mountains as to render the former existence of a small lake -probable. Below Phutaksha, as I have already observed, the ravine of -the little stream is exceedingly narrow and rocky, and as likely as -any other part of Tibet to have been blocked up by alluvial deposits -so as to form a lake. - -On the 4th of July my road lay up the valley. The banks of the little -stream were lined with most beautiful green turf, producing all the -characteristic plants already mentioned. I took the right-hand branch -of two which here united, and, on looking up the other, observed that -the snow-line on the northern slope of the mountains, at its head, was -very considerably above the level at which I stood; its height, where -lowest, seemed to be about 16,000 feet. In one small side-ravine there -was an incipient glacier. After leaving the cultivated lands the -valley became extremely stony and barren, fragments of a brittle -limestone rock being everywhere scattered about. The vegetation -changing to that of the alpine zone, several new species of -_Astragalus_ and _Phaca_ were collected. Following the streamlet -almost to its source, the road afterwards ascended to the top of a -steep ridge, elevated probably a little more than 16,000 feet; this -ridge was rocky, or covered with shingle of a dark slate, which had -succeeded to the limestone. The yellow _Thermopsis_ was almost the -only plant which grew on the summit, from which I had a fine view of -the pass crossed the day before, and of the range of mountains I had -left; but to the north there was no distant view, the valley bending -abruptly to the right. - - [Sidenote: HANUPATA. - _July, 1848._] - -From the top of the pass I descended rapidly along a deep valley, -generally at some height above the stream, to the village of Hanupata, -elevated 13,100 feet. This valley was throughout barren and stony, and -became very narrow in the lower part. _Dama_ was very plentiful, but -otherwise there was little novelty in the vegetation, except along the -bank of the stream in its upper part, where I made a rich collection -of small alpine species. A large-flowered _Aster_, a white -_Pyrethrum_, and a little _Pedicularis_, were the new species -obtained. In the lower part of the valley willow and _Lonicera_ as -usual appeared; and when close to Hanupata, I met with a shrubby -species of _Labiatae_ (perhaps a _Ballota_) which is an extremely -common plant in the valley of the Indus from 7000 to 14,000 feet, but -seems never to occur far from that river. - - [Sidenote: WANDLA RAVINE. - _July, 1848._] - -On the 5th of July I proceeded down the same valley to Wandla, a -distance of about eleven miles. The fields of Hanupata occupied only a -narrow strip along the bank of the stream, the sides of the valley -being steep and rocky. The crops were much further advanced than any I -had hitherto seen; the barley in particular was very luxuriant, and -one field was already in ear. Along the margins of the field there was -the same rank herbage as usually occurs in similar situations. Lucerne -and melilot, both seemingly the common European species, were very -plentiful. Poplars and willows were cultivated; and I observed some -large juniper-trees. Beyond the cultivation the valley became very -narrow. The bed and banks of the stream were gravelly, and on the -latter grew a dense thicket of _Myricaria_, _Hippophae_, willow, and -rose. After two or three miles there was not left space even for -these, the mountains coming so close together that in many places -there was not room to pass between them and the water. The current was -too rapid for fording, so that it repeatedly became necessary to -ascend to a considerable height in order to effect a passage. One of -these ascents was not much less than 1000 feet perpendicular, up a -narrow lateral ravine, and then over a very steep bank of loose -shingle, descending again with great abruptness to the water's edge. -The road also crossed the stream several times. - -In one place I observed a very remarkable natural tunnel, where the -stream flowed below a solid mass of conglomerate rock, which formed an -arch obliquely across it. The conglomerate was exceedingly hard, and -rested on both sides on very soft friable slate, by the excavation of -which, by the action of the stream, the tunnel appeared to have been -formed. The original channel of the stream was still visible six or -eight feet higher than its present level a little to the right. The -ravine continued narrow and rocky for nearly seven miles, but during -the last two of these the road lay high upon the mountain-side, and -was tolerably level and good. Near the end the valley became wider, -and several small patches of cultivation appeared, with a few -apricot-trees; and a double yellow rose was planted near some of the -houses. The last mile of the day's journey was entirely through very -rich and luxuriant cultivation, which was further advanced than any I -had yet seen. - - [Sidenote: WANDLA. - _July, 1848._] - -The elevation of Wandla is only 11,000 feet, and the heat of the sun -was very oppressive. On the latter part of the march, many plants of -the Indus valley which were familiar to me from my journey of the year -before, but which I had not seen during my present visit to Tibet, -made their appearance. _Echinops_ and _Nepeta floccosa_, _Mulgedium -Tataricum_, a large and handsome yellow _Corydalis_, _Capparis_, and -numerous _Chenopodiaceae_ were abundant. The leaves of _Tussilago -Farfara_ were common along the water-courses; in the corn-fields a -little viscid _Cerastium_ (_Lepyrodiclis_) was only too plentiful. By -far the most conspicuous plant was the rose (_R. Webbiana_), which, in -the rich and well-watered soil of the cultivated plain, grew most -luxuriantly, forming dense almost spherical bushes, many of which were -at least fifteen feet high, as much in diameter, and bushy down to the -ground. They were now in full bloom, and the foliage was almost -entirely concealed by the profusion of bright red flowers. - -I was obliged to remain a day at Wandla, owing to the serious illness -of one of my servants, who, though a native of a mountainous country, -had suffered much more on the high passes than any of the inhabitants -of the plains of India, and was now so much exhausted as to be unable -to move. On the 7th, however, I proceeded towards the Indus, not a -little glad to be at last within a day's journey of that river, as I -was considerably later than I had originally calculated, not having -made allowance for the very rugged nature of the country between -Zanskar and Le. - - [Sidenote: LAMAYURU. - _July, 1848._] - -The valley of Wandla, I was informed, contracted again into a rocky -ravine a very little way below the village. This ravine was not quite -impracticable, but the stream had to be forded very frequently; and as -it was at least four feet deep, I was recommended to follow another -route, a little more circuitous, but free of difficulty. For the first -mile I proceeded up an open valley, which joined at a right angle from -the west that which I had descended on the 5th. I then turned to the -right up a very sterile ravine, with much saline efflorescence; in a -few places a small streamlet trickled among the stones, but for the -first part the channel was quite dry, the water filtering underneath -the gravel. The sides of the ravine were bare and shingly and without -vegetation, except at the entrance, where a _Corydalis_, thistle, and -one or two other plants occurred sparingly. On the most stony parts -_Gueldenstaedtia cuneata_, Benth., was common, and here and there in the -gravelly channel was a bush of _Myricaria_ (not _M. elegans_, but a -smaller and much less handsome species). After a gentle ascent of -about two miles, I gained the head of the ravine, and crossing a stony -ridge not high enough for alpine plants, descended another valley on -its north side, which, though at first if possible more barren than -the ascent, soon became somewhat green with willow-bushes and the -ordinary plants. After descending perhaps a thousand feet, I reached -an extensive tract of cultivation, just above which, in another -ravine, lay the village and monastery of Lamayuru, of which a -circumstantial account has been given by Moorcroft[20]. At this place, -I joined the road from Kashmir by Dras to Ladak, which has been -repeatedly traversed by European travellers, and is particularly -described in Moorcroft's Travels. - - [Sidenote: INDUS VALLEY. - _July, 1848._] - - [Sidenote: KALATZE. - _July, 1848._] - -Below this village the valley contracted, and was for some distance -full of immense masses of lacustrine clay; lower down it became a -narrow rocky ravine. The road descended with great rapidity till I -reached the Wandla stream, which I had left in the morning; it was -afterwards less steep, following the banks of that river through a -winding rocky valley to its junction with the Indus, which was not -seen till close at hand. The valley of the Indus, where I entered it, -was very barren, with bare rugged mountains on both sides. A stony -platform of alluvial conglomerate usually intervened between the -mountains and the river, over which my road lay for about three miles -up the river, to a good wooden bridge, defended on the north side by a -small, very indifferent fort. By this bridge I crossed to the right -side of the river, and a mile further on reached the village of -Kalatze (or Kalsi, as it is commonly pronounced), at which I encamped. - -In the lower part of the Wandla ravine, the clay-slate rock became -much indurated, and alternated with a very hard conglomerate, the -matrix of which had a semi-fused appearance, while the pebbles which -it contained were all rounded. This rock is very similar to, and -probably identical with, that of the Giah ravine north of the Tunglung -pass, and of the upper Indus. A modern conglomerate, with an indurated -sandy and calcareous matrix, in horizontal beds, rested unconformably -upon the more ancient rock, but afforded no indications by which I -could form an opinion of its exact age. - - [Sidenote: VEGETATION OF VALLEY OF INDUS. - _July, 1848._] - -The elevation of my tent at Kalatze I made to be 10,400 feet; but I -was encamped at the highest part of the village, and the bed of the -river was not much above 10,000 feet. The cultivated lands, which are -very extensive, lie on the top of a thick platform of alluvium, -through which the river has excavated a deep broad channel. The lands -of the village slope gradually from the base of the mountain to the -edge of the cliff overhanging the river, and the fields are made into -level terraces by walls of stones from three to six feet in height. -Numerous streams of water are conducted through the fields for -irrigation, upon which cultivation in Tibet entirely depends. The -crops had an appearance of great luxuriance: they consisted of wheat -and barley (both in full ear, the latter even beginning to turn -yellow), buckwheat, peas, and oil-seed (_Brassica Napus_). Fruit-trees -were abundant, chiefly apricots; but there was no deficiency of -apples, pears, walnuts, and mulberries. Along the water-courses and on -the edges of the fields grew plenty of wild plants, many the same as -occur everywhere in Tibet, but, from the diminished elevation, -numerous novelties were observed. A _Clematis_, with dingy -brownish-orange flowers, straggled over bushes; a shrubby _Ballota_ -and a _Perowskia_ covered the walls; _Iris_, _Capsella_, _Veronica -biloba_ and _agrestis_, _Lamium amplexicaule_, _Mentha_, _Potentillae_, -_Plantago Asiatica_, _Thalictrum_, and numerous other plants grew -along the water-courses; while in the fields among the corn the weeds -were much the same as are common in Europe and in the plains of India -in the cold season; _Vaccaria_, _Silene conoidea_, _Stellaria media_, -_Malva rotundifolia_, and _Convolvulus arvensis_ being plentiful. - - [Sidenote: NURLA. - _July, 1848._] - -On the 8th of July, I marched to Nurla[21], about eight miles up the -valley of the Indus. After leaving Kalatze, the whole day's journey -was quite barren, the road usually lying on the top of an alluvial -platform. Just beyond Kalatze, a large stream had cut a deep ravine -through the platform, showing it to be composed of large incoherent -water-worn stones, mixed with gravel and clay. The mountains on both -sides were steep, rocky, and bare. The vegetation on these platforms -was scanty: _Boragineae_ and _Chenopodiaceae_ were the two prominent -orders; _Nepeta floccosa_, a little _Hyoscyamus_, _Gueldenstaedtia_, a -large and handsome _Corydalis_, a _Matthiola_, and several -_Astragali_, _Cruciferae_, and _Artemisiae_, were also prevalent. Of -grasses, _Stipa_ was the most common, but several sub-tropical forms -were observed, which were interesting and somewhat unexpected. A -species of _Cymbopogon_, and an _Andropogon_ allied to _A. Ischaemum_, -grew among rocks close to the river. In similar places I met with two -species of _Vincetoxicum_, one a twiner, and the other erect; -_Tribulus_, too, was common on the most barren spots. At Nurla, the -cultivated lands are very extensive: the crops and fruit-trees as at -Kalatze; some of the barley was nearly ripe. The common bean seemed a -good deal cultivated, usually intermixed with wheat; _Lathyrus -sativus_ was also a common crop[22]. - -Behind the village of Kalatze, rounded hills of moderate elevation -were capped with incoherent beds of sand and boulders of considerable -thickness, horizontally stratified; similar beds, sometimes indurated -into a soft sandstone rock, occurred at intervals throughout the day. -Boulders of granite were abundant in the alluvium and on the surface -of the platforms, derived, I believe, from the axis of the chain -separating the Indus from the Shayuk. These transported masses of -granite were not observed anywhere between lower Zanskar and the -Indus; it may therefore, I think, be inferred that the superficial -alluvium (which, where the two occur together, generally covers the -lacustrine clays) has been deposited since the present river system -was in full operation, and is not, as I at one time conjectured, -analogous to the drifts of Europe. The ancient rocks between Kalatze -and Nurla were alternations of friable slate with indurated -conglomerate and grey sandstone. - - [Sidenote: SASPOLA. - _July, 1848._] - -Between Nurla and Saspola, to which place (eleven miles) I marched on -the 9th, the valley of the Indus was narrower than before, as well as -more rocky. The rock was chiefly grey sandstone. The road frequently -ascended to some height in places where the banks of the river were -too rugged to permit a passage. On the 10th of June I proceeded to -Nimo, ten miles further. At Saspola the road leaves the banks of the -Indus, to ascend a barren valley, among hills of loose conglomerate. -At first, the banks of the little stream were green and turfy; but -after about a mile I entered a dry stony ravine, along the bed of -which the road gradually ascended. The rocks were clay-slate, -conglomerate, and sandstone, and all the hills were capped with modern -alluvial clay conglomerate. Granite boulders occurred abundantly, and -marks of the action of water were seen on the rocks far above the -reach of the present streams. At the summit, which must have been -nearly 1000 feet above the Indus, I emerged suddenly upon a wide and -open gravelly plain. To the right, a number of low hills concealed the -course of the Indus; to the left, the mountain range had receded to -some distance, and could be seen to be here and there tipped with -snow. The road lay for several miles over this barren plain, which was -entirely alluvial, descending afterwards very abruptly into a deep -flat-bottomed hollow, excavated out of the soft conglomerate by a -considerable stream. In this hollow, quite concealed till close at -hand, was the village of Bazgo, with a long narrow strip of -cultivation along the margin of its stream. Following the course of -this valley till near the Indus, I then ascended its left bank, and -emerged upon another extensive alluvial platform, high above the -river, but parallel to it. At the east end of this platform was the -village of Nimo, the termination of my day's journey. - - [Sidenote: NIMO. - _July, 1848._] - -From this place my journey of the 12th brought me to Le, about twelve -miles. About a mile above Nimo the Indus is joined by the Zanskar -river. The valley where the two rivers unite is very rocky and -precipitous, and bends a long way to the south. The road to Le does -not follow the river, but ascends among gravelly ravines behind the -village, and emerges on a wide open plain, which, as on the previous -march, is interposed between the northern range of mountains and the -present channel of the Indus. The height of this plain above the river -was at least 1000 feet; it was lowest in the centre, sloping up not -only towards the mountains to the north, but to a range of -round-topped hills of moderate elevation, which overhung the valley of -the Indus, sinking on their south face very abruptly down to the -river. The higher mountains were chiefly granite, with a few -interposed beds of slate dipping at a high angle. The granite -exhibited the usual tendency of that rock to decay in spheres, or -rather in irregular-shaped masses with rounded angles. - -In proceeding along this plain, the road at first rose almost -imperceptibly, but after two miles I reached the highest part of it, -from which it sloped down towards the east. From this point the course -of the Indus in front of Le, and to the south-east for many miles, was -finely seen. The river runs through a wide valley, but the range of -mountains to the north sends down many rugged spurs, which, in the -shape of low rocky hills, advance close to the river. On the south or -left bank, on the contrary, a wide, open, gently-sloping plain extends -to a considerable distance. From the highest level of the plain a long -gradual descent brought me to the Indus, to which it was necessary to -descend in order to get round one of the spurs just referred to. It is -here a tranquil but somewhat rapid stream, divided into several -branches by gravelly islands, generally swampy, and covered with low -_Hippophae_ scrub. The size of the river was very much less than it -had been below the junction of the river of Zanskar, the latter -appearing to contribute considerably more than half the amount of -water. At the point of the low spur lay the village of Pitak, on an -isolated hill, surrounded by extensive deposits of cream-coloured -lacustrine clay. From this village there is a gradual ascent of about -four miles to the town of Le, which is built on a low hill at the -upper corner of a wide open valley. - - [Sidenote: PITAK. - _July, 1848._] - -The bed of the Indus at Pitak, below Le, has an elevation of about -10,500 feet above the level of the sea, but the town is at least 1300 -feet higher. Its sheltered situation, in a hollow surrounded by hills, -and facing the south, compensates to a certain extent for this -increase of elevation; still the crops are very much inferior to those -on the banks of the Indus. There are but few trees, the apricot being -the only fruit-tree cultivated, and it does not seem to thrive. Water -is plentiful in the valley, and is conveyed through the cultivated -lands in deeply-cut canals or trenches, faced with walls of stone. -Natural meadows of tall grasses, intermixed with luxuriant lucerne and -melilot, are common along the banks of the river, especially above the -town. - - [Sidenote: LE. - _July, 1848._] - -The vegetation in the vicinity of Le scarcely differed from that of -the Indus at Kalatze. The most abundant families of plants were -_Chenopodiaceae_, _Labiatae_, and _Artemisiae_, which covered the barren -and stony tracts; the _Boragineae_, so abundant throughout Tibet in -early spring, had already quite dried up and disappeared. In the -meadows tall species of _Thalictrum_, _Silene_, and _Heracleum_, were -coming into flower, and in swamps _Veronica Beccabunga_ and -_Anagallis_, _Limosella_, and a yellow _Pedicularis_, were the most -abundant plants. - -At Le I had the pleasure of meeting Captain Strachey, who had spent -the winter there, and had returned shortly before my arrival, from an -exploring journey to the eastward. After a week's stay I set out for -Nubra on the 19th of July, crossing the lofty chain separating the two -rivers by the pass directly north of Le, which, during the summer -months, presents no difficulty, and is therefore preferred as being -the most direct. The pass is distinctly visible from the town of Le, -to which it appears very close, though the distance is at least ten or -twelve miles. I did not attempt to cross it the first day, but -encamped as far up on the southern face as I conveniently could, so as -to reach the top early in the morning. At starting, the road lay for -about three miles through an open valley, partly cultivated, and with -a good deal of swampy ground. Higher up, the valley contracted into a -barren ravine, with a narrow strip of green along the margin of the -stream. About half-way, the road left the bottom of the valley, and -for the remainder of the march I proceeded along the bare side of the -mountain, ascending very rapidly. There was a striking change in the -vegetation as the height increased. On the lower slopes _Cicer_ and -_Statice_ were abundant, with several _Astragali_; on the latter part -of the ascent many alpine plants were observed, belonging to the -genera _Corydalis_, _Elsholtzia_, _Potentilla_, and _Draba_. A very -small violet was extremely plentiful in the crevices of the rocks, and -among stones, after I had reached 15,000 feet. I encamped at about -15,700 feet, on a level piece of ground, a few hundred feet above the -bottom of the valley. - - [Sidenote: PASS NORTH OF LE. - _July, 1848._] - -On the 20th I crossed the pass, starting about sunrise. The morning -was intensely frosty, and the stones and vegetation near the water -were encrusted with ice. The path lay close to the stream, ascending -somewhat rapidly among the green turf which grew along its margin, in -which I found many little alpine plants, among which, a large-flowered -_Aster_ and a small poppy with still unexpanded flowers were the most -conspicuous. The last part of the ascent was extremely steep, among -immense angular granite boulders, with here and there a little snow in -the crevices. Here a most elegant sweet-scented species of _Primula_ -was common, so firmly fixed in the frozen mud, that I could with -difficulty procure a specimen. Except in very small patches, there was -no snow till within two hundred yards of the top of the ascent, for -which distance it was continuous, but very soft, and evidently melting -rapidly. The crest of the pass was a narrow ridge of large spheres of -granite, seemingly quite detached from one another, but which had -probably been formed on the spot they now occupied by the peculiar -decay characteristic of that rock. - -The continuation of the ridge on both sides was for some distance -very little more elevated than the pass itself, the height of which -was 17,700 feet. To the south, the view was very extensive, embracing -a great extent of snowy mountains, with numerous lofty peaks, as well -as a part of the Indus valley, and the town of Le, immediately below; -to the north it was much more limited, as hills close at hand -completely excluded all distant view, except directly in front, where -one snowy peak could be seen a long way off, evidently beyond the -Shayuk. - -On the north side of the pass snow commenced at the very top, and -continued for at least 1200 feet of perpendicular height. The descent -for this distance was extremely steep, over a snow-bed, which appeared -to cover an incipient glacier. About 1200 feet below the top I came to -a small oval-shaped lake, completely frozen over; a little higher up I -had passed a small bare piece of rock projecting through the snow, and -perhaps thirty feet long, on which the beautiful blue-flowered _Nepeta -multibracteata_, Benth., had already put forth its flowers. Beyond the -frozen lake the descent became at once much more gentle, and was -partially free of snow. The path lay over a vast accumulation of -angular stones, which appeared to have fallen from the rocks above. -Many parts of the valley were swampy, evidently from recently melted -snow, and in such places the _Primula_, noticed on the ascent, -occurred in great abundance, its scapes rising to the height of six to -eight inches, and bearing large globes of deep rose-coloured flowers. -Among the loose stones _Nepeta multibracteata_ was common. About three -miles from the top I passed the end of an exceedingly well-marked -moraine, which must have been deposited by a glacier at a time when, -from increased cold, these masses of ice stretched down much further -than they do at present. The remainder of the descent was again more -abrupt, but very bare, stony, and uninteresting. A single tree of -_Juniperus excelsa_ grew in one of the ravines, and below 14,000 feet -a species of berberry, with very small leaves, was common on dry stony -ground. I encamped at the small village of Kardong, at 13,500 feet. -The cultivation round this village was on a level plain without any -terracing. - - [Illustration: Metamorphic rocks. Alluvium. Stream. Alluvium. - Metamorphic rocks.] - - [Sidenote: KARDONG. - _July, 1848._] - - [Sidenote: ALLUVIAL PLATFORMS. - _July, 1848._] - -On the 21st I proceeded to Karsar, a village on the bank of the Shayuk -river, distant about nine miles. A few hundred feet above the village -of Kardong the alluvial boulder clay had begun to occur in the valley, -and around the village, which occupied the end of a lateral ravine, it -was already very thick. From Kardong to the Shayuk this alluvium -continued in great quantity, forming elevated platforms, sloping very -gently from the mountains, and faced by steep, often quite -perpendicular cliffs. Where lateral ravines joined the main valley -the alluvium was deeply excavated by the little streams which -traversed them, and the road descended abruptly by steep and curiously -winding paths down the cliffs of clay, and among piles of boulders, to -re-ascend to the platform beyond the stream. Such a ravine, of great -depth, occurred just below Kardong. After crossing it the road lay -over the surface of the clay platform, which was nearly level, and -consequently at an increasing height above the bottom of the Kardong -valley, which rapidly diminished in elevation. This platform was -extremely barren, and quite devoid of water. Here and there isolated -rocky masses rose up through the alluvium. The rock was peculiar, -being very hard, and, as it were, porphyritic, with a black, -basaltic-looking matrix, quite homogeneous, in which numerous white -specks were diffused. In hand specimens and boulders, and even on a -near view of the hills, this rock appeared quite an igneous rock, but -when an extensive section was exposed, it could be seen to be -distinctly stratified. - - [Sidenote: KARSAR. - _July, 1848._] - -When within a short distance of the Shayuk valley, though still high -above it, the road turned to the left, and, leaving the alluvial -platform, proceeded among rugged rocky hills, in a direction parallel -to that river, at the same time descending somewhat rapidly to a -platform of modern lacustrine clay and conglomerate, which filled up -the whole of a deep recess in the mountains facing the Shayuk, to a -thickness of at least 1000 feet. The village of Karsar, at which I -encamped, lies in a deep ravine, excavated out of the clay formation -by a considerable stream, on both sides of which, for nearly a mile, -there is a belt of cultivation, very narrow where the stream issues -from the mountains, but gradually widening as it descends. Owing to -the sheltered situation, from the great height of the cliffs of clay -on both sides, the crops were exceedingly luxuriant, and fruit-trees -were plentiful, principally apples and apricots. Some very fine -walnut-trees also occurred. - -From the same cause the herbaceous vegetation was particularly rich, -and I met with many species which were new to me. The banks of the -stream, from the point where it issued from among the mountains, were -everywhere bordered by large bushes of _Myricaria elegans_, now -adorned with masses of sweet-scented rose-coloured flowers. In the -lower part of the village-lands there were shady plantations of poplar -and willow, which seemed to be occasionally irrigated, in order that -they might produce a rich natural pasture. In these groves _Euphrasia -officinalis_, species of _Gentiana_, _Ranunculus_, _Potentilla_, and -_Carum_ grew most luxuriantly; a tall but very small-flowered -_Pedicularis_ was also very common. No less than three species of -_Orchideae_ occurred, a family which more than any other dislikes -dryness: these were _Orchis latifolia_, an _Epipactis_, and an -_Herminium_. Many of the weeds of the cultivated fields were also new -and interesting: a _Hypecoum_, an _Elsholtzia_, and some species of -_Polygonum_, were those I particularly noted. - - [Sidenote: LACUSTRINE DEPOSIT. - _July, 1848._] - -The lacustrine formation of Karsar consists mostly of very pure white -clay, horizontally stratified; but at the lower end of the ravine, -where it is about to expand into the open plain of the Shayuk, a -tolerably solid but still very friable sandstone, the strata of which -were also quite horizontal, occurred under the clay. I saw no -fossils, but when the clay is examined with care, they will probably -be occasionally detected. At all events, as this clay formation is at -least a thousand feet thick, if we take into consideration the open -nature of the whole valley of Nubra, there can be no doubt that it -must have been deposited from the same waters with the very similar -clay which I found at Tertse, in lower Nubra, in October, 1847, and -that it is therefore lacustrine. If this be admitted, it seems -impossible to escape from the conclusion, that the deposits in the -Kardong valley, (of which I have given an imaginary section in page -398,) though different in appearance, belong to the same lake. Now, -these attain an elevation of 13,500 feet and upwards, as they commence -above Kardong: the level of the surface of the Nubra lake can -therefore hardly have been less than 14,000 feet; so that it must have -extended up the Tanktse valley, almost as far as the low pass by which -that district is separated from the Pangong lake. - - [Sidenote: DISKIT. - _July, 1848._] - -From Karsar, I marched on the 25th of July, down the valley of the -Shayuk, to Diskit. The earlier part of the road, after ascending -abruptly out of the Karsar ravine, lay over the clay platform, which -was perfectly flat; but after about four miles, it descended nearly to -the level of the river, whose wide gravelly plain now extended on the -south side to the very foot of the mountains, the lacustrine beds -having been entirely removed. The plain was traversed by several small -streamlets, apparently derived in a great measure from the river, the -water of which seemed to sink among the gravel and sand of its bed, -and to spring up again at a distance from the main channel. One of -these streams ran at the extreme edge of the plain, close under the -cliffs, which here rose almost precipitously to a great height. Its -banks were very saline, and in the neighbourhood of Diskit a great -part of the plain was encrusted with soda. - -The cultivated lands of the village, which is of considerable size, -lie on a sloping bank, rising rather steeply out of the plain. Many -apricot-trees grow among the houses, some of which were large enough -to afford a shade under which a tent could be pitched. The vegetation -was in general the same as at Karsar, but a white-flowered _Allium_ -was new, as well as a species of _Chloris_, which was abundant in the -pastures. A very small _Cyperus_, which grew in the water-courses, -appeared to be a dwarf state of a species common in the plains of -India, and, with the _Chloris_, which is a tropical grass, was -interesting as an indication of the considerable heat of the summer -climate in the valley of the Shayuk, notwithstanding its great -elevation. - - [Sidenote: PASSAGE OF SHAYUK RIVER. - _July, 1848._] - -The village of Diskit is almost exactly opposite the place where the -Nubra river joins the Shayuk from the northward. In October, 1847, I -had crossed the Shayuk five or six miles above Karsar, and descended -along its right bank, but during the hot months this route is not -practicable, as there are no bridges, and the river is too deep to be -forded anywhere except just at its junction with that of Nubra, where -the wide gravelly plain of the Shayuk expands to its greatest -diameter, and the river is divided into numerous branches. - -The greater part of the 26th of July was occupied by the passage of -the Shayuk, which was both tedious and difficult, the river being now -nearly at its greatest height. The first branch was nearly two miles -from Diskit, the intervening gravelly plain being partly swampy, with -a few bushes of _Hippophae_, _Tamarix_, and _Myricaria_. There were -four large branches to be crossed, besides several of smaller size. -Nearly a mile of sand separated the last large branch from the -remainder, and the ford was a most intricate one, each branch being -crossed obliquely and at a different point from the adjacent ones. The -united breadth of all the streams could not, I think, have been less -than half a mile. The velocity of the water was so great, that though -the depth nowhere, I think, exceeded three and a half feet, and was -more usually about two and a half, people on foot appeared to have the -utmost difficulty in retaining their footing, and the loaded men had -to be supported by one or two without loads on each side. In the more -difficult parts, two men placed themselves on each side of my horse's -head, to guide him in the proper road, and two more at each stirrup to -give him support in case of need. When in the centre of the current, -where, from the necessity of keeping my eye on the horse's motions, I -had to look at the water, I found it impossible to avoid a feeling of -giddiness, and an impression that horse and rider were being hurried -upwards with extreme velocity in a direction contrary to the stream. -These very rapid portions, however, were never more than ten or twenty -yards broad; the remainder was more moderate and shallower. - - [Sidenote: LYAKJUNG. - _July, 1848._] - -After safely effecting the passage with all my party and baggage, I -proceeded about a mile over loose sand, and encamped at the village of -Lyakjung, situated at the border of the low plain of the river, at the -point of union of the two valleys. The Shayuk valley is visible from -this place as far as the large village of Hundar, about ten miles, the -river running throughout that distance through a wide gravelly plain, -but with high rocky mountains on both sides. - - [Sidenote: VALLEY OF NUBRA. - _July, 1848._] - -From the 27th of July till the 9th of August, I remained in the valley -of Nubra, the necessary preparations for my further journey, which was -to be entirely through an uninhabited country, requiring considerable -time. During this interval, I moved from place to place in the valley, -which is well inhabited and rather pretty. The river is in the hot -months very large and rapid, and has its origin, no doubt, in the -great snowy mountains to the north. I crossed it twice a little above -the town of Chirasa, and found its current quite as strong as that of -the Shayuk, and in many places as deep, but its breadth was -considerably less. In one of the channels, a lad, carrying a light -bundle, was carried away by the stream, and rolled over repeatedly in -the water, after being separated from his load, before he was picked -up by a number of men who hastened to his assistance. The difficulty -of crossing was much increased by numerous quicksands, which made it -necessary to proceed by a tortuous path, and which were evidently very -liable to shift, as the guides proceeded very cautiously, and more -than once abandoned a ford on finding the footing insecure. - -The general appearance of the valley of Nubra is very agreeable, and -superior to that of any other part of Tibet at the same elevation. The -villages are well wooded, with orchards of apricot-trees, and with -poplars and willows, which are either planted in rows, or scattered -irregularly in meadows on the skirts of the cultivated lands: the -willows, when not pollarded, attain a large size, and afford an ample -shade. The fields are carefully enclosed with walls, or hedges of -_Hippophae_, or with a fence of the dead branches of that plant. Green -and shady lanes, bordered by high _Hippophae_ hedges, full of -_Clematis_ and rose-bushes, lead through the village lands. The crops -are chiefly wheat and barley, with a few fields of millet (_Panicum -miliaceum_), buckwheat, and rape. There is also much pasture, -particularly along the little streams, and in fields near the river, -which are often swampy. - -The beauty of the cultivated tracts is much enhanced by the utter -sterility of the drier parts of the plain, which are either gravelly -or stony, and utterly barren, except that occasionally from some -peculiarity of soil or position there is a considerable extent of -clayey soil not low enough to be swampy, but not remote from water, -covered with short turf much encrusted with soda. These grassy plains -are more common in the upper part of the district, and are perhaps -connected with springs containing carbonate of soda in solution[23]. - - [Sidenote: VEGETATION OF NUBRA. - _August, 1848._] - -Except from the more advanced period of the season, the flora of -Nubra differed but little from that of Le. Species of _Artemisia_, -_Labiatae_, and _Chenopodiaceae_, were now in full flower on the more -desert and stony tracts, in which a shrubby _Lycium_ (which is not -found on the Indus) was also common. _Chenopodiaceae_ had become -extremely plentiful, and belonged to many different genera: shrubby -species of _Eurotia_ and _Caroxylon_ were common, but the greater -number were herbaceous, and belonged to the genera _Chenopodium_, -_Ambrina_, _Salsola_, _Echinopsilon_, and Corispermum. A species of -thistle grew on barren soil, particularly where the ground was saline; -on the salt soil, _Glaux_, a little _Crucifera_, and a _Polygonum_ -were the most abundant plants. _Mulgedium Tataricum_, a _Galium_ (very -like _G. Aparine_), and a scandent species of _Vincetoxicum_, were -frequent in hedges; and species of _Mentha_, _Erodium_, _Epilobium_, -_Lepidium_, and _Matthiola_, all common plants at Le, being now in -full flower, attracted notice more than at an earlier period. A very -tall species of grass (_Melica?_) in large and elegant tufts, often -six feet high, was one of the most ornamental plants in the valley; -while as uncommon forms I may enumerate a prickly _Sophora_, -_Orobanche_, _Parietaria_, and in ponds a little _Utricularia_, -closely resembling a European species. - -A small-leaved elm, which is common near Tagar, is apparently -wild,--at least it is not acknowledged by the inhabitants as a -cultivated tree. I have not observed this tree elsewhere in Tibet, but -Mr. Vigne mentions that he met with an elm in the mountains between -Shigar and Khapalu. It appears to be the same with a species common in -the forests of the lower valleys of Kashmir. - - [Sidenote: HOT SPRINGS. - _August, 1848._] - -About a mile from the large village of Panamik are the hot springs -formerly visited by Moorcroft. They are two in number, and spring from -the rocky mountain-side, about a hundred yards from the edge of the -plain. The temperature of the water in the spring which I tried was -170.5 deg. It was faintly sulphurous both in taste and smell, but not -perceptibly saline, and deposited a thick calcareous incrustation on -everything within its reach. - -To the south of Panamik the rocks of Nubra are chiefly black slate, -but transported blocks of granite are everywhere common, and at that -village the latter rock descends to the level of the river, and -continues to form the whole mass of the mountains on the left side of -the valley as far as I continued along it. On the right side there -were indications of stratification on the steep sides of the -mountains, and, from the colour, the rock there appeared to be partly -granite and partly metamorphic slate. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[20] Travels, vol. ii. p. 11. - -[21] Written, I believe, _Snurla_, as Le is written _Sle_, and Nimo, -_Snimo_, the initial letter being in all three mute. Many similar -instances might be given, silent initial letters occurring very -commonly in the written language of Tibet. It admits of much doubt -whether the best mode of spelling be according to the pronunciation, -or as the words are written: I have preferred the former, as less -likely to mislead. - -[22] I do not know whether or not to attribute to this plant a -remarkable disease which, on my return down the Indus in September, I -found in the village of Saspola. At least thirty people in that -village, of all ages from a full-grown man to an infant, and of both -sexes indifferently, had been attacked with paralysis within the last -two years. The palsy was confined to the lower extremities, and -differed much in degree. The sufferers were in other respects the most -healthy and good-looking portion of the inhabitants. The people -themselves were quite at a loss to assign a cause for this -extraordinary affection, and, except in some article of diet, I was -unable to think of any. - -[23] This view has been suggested to me by Dr. R. D. Thomson, who has -paid much attention to the chemical contents of springs, and is at -present engaged in examining the saline matters which I brought with -me from Tibet. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - - Start for Karakoram -- Steep ascent out of Nubra valley -- Meet - a party of Merchants from Yarkand -- View from summit of pass - -- Rapid torrent -- Large glacier -- Steep moraines -- Alpine - vegetation -- Numerous glaciers -- Lakes -- Glacier on crest of - Sassar pass -- Sassar -- Cross Shayuk river -- Murgai -- - Limestone rocks -- Ascend Murgai Valley to 16,800 feet -- - Singular limestone formation -- Open plain above 17,000 feet -- - Re-cross Shayuk river -- Karakoram pass -- Return to Sassar -- - Glaciers of Sassar -- Return to Le -- Start for Kashmir -- - Lamayura -- Phatu pass -- Kanji river -- Namika pass -- Molbil - Pashkyum -- Kargil -- Dras -- Zoji pass -- Kashmir -- Lahore -- - Completion of journey. - - -Having at last completed the preparations necessary for a journey of -twenty days through uninhabited regions, I started on the 9th of -August from the village of Taksha. My first day's journey lay up the -Nubra valley, which continued wide, though the alluvial platforms were -destitute of cultivation, and quite barren. In several places (always -opposite to ravines) they were covered with enormous boulders, which -had all the appearance of having been brought to the position they -occupied by glaciers. Two small villages were seen, both on the west -bank of the river. Four miles from Taksha I crossed, by a good wooden -bridge, a large stream which descended from the mountains on my right -hand through an exceedingly rocky gorge. After seven miles and -a half, I found that I had reached the point at which the road -followed by the merchants in travelling from Le to Yarkand leaves the -valley of Nubra. It was too late in the day to attempt the ascent of -the ridge to the right; I therefore encamped in a grove of willows, -which formed a belt along the margin of a stream whose bed was now -quite dry, its scanty supply of water having been diverted into an -artificial channel for the irrigation of a couple of fields of -indifferent barley not far off. - - [Illustration: SKETCH MAP of Route from =NUBRA TO KARAKORAM=. - _by Dr. T. Thomson._] - -In the valley of Nubra, beyond this encamping ground, which is known -by the name of Changlung, there are, I believe, only three small -villages, the most distant of which appeared to be not more than five -or six miles off. In the direction of the valley, which was still -north-north-west, very lofty mountains were visible at no great -distance, all with snowy tops, and generally with heavy snow-beds and -glaciers in their hollows; and according to the statement of my -guides, the river at the distance of less than two days' journey -issues from beneath a glacier, by which all passage is stopped[24]. - - [Sidenote: ASCENT OUT OF NUBRA VALLEY. - _August, 1848._] - -On the 10th of August I started at daybreak, immediately commencing -the ascent of the mountain range which enclosed the valley on the -east. The mountain was exceedingly steep, indeed almost precipitous, -and the road proceeded in a zigzag direction over bare granite rock, -with scarce a vestige of vegetation. During the ascent I had a good -view of the valley, and of the mountain range which bounded it on the -south-west; large patches of snow lay on its peaks, and here and there -I saw a small glacier in its ravines. The upper part of the valleys by -which these mountains were furrowed had a very moderate slope, but -from about 14,000 feet down to the bottom they were extremely abrupt. - - [Sidenote: YARKAND MERCHANTS. - _August, 1848._] - -After about 3500 feet of extremely laborious climbing, I arrived at a -small level plain, perhaps two hundred yards long and forty or fifty -wide, evidently much frequented as a resting-place by travellers, a -small pool of water being the inducement. I here met a party of -merchants on their way from Yarkand to Le. Their goods were conveyed -by ponies, apparently much exhausted by their long journey through -desert country. I had noticed, on the way up the mountain, that the -road was lined by numerous skeletons and scattered bones of horses; I -had also seen one or two of the same animals recently dead, and the -appearance of these loaded ponies enabled me to understand the cause -of the great mortality. Many of the unfortunate animals appeared -scarcely to have strength to accomplish the few miles of descent which -still intervened between them and plenty of food. The main reliance of -the merchants for the support of their horses is on corn carried with -them, to which there must be a limit, otherwise they would carry -nothing but their own food. - - [Sidenote: SUMMIT OF PASS. - _August, 1848._] - -From this halting-place the remainder of the ascent was less abrupt, -though still steep and extremely stony. There was, however, a little -more vegetation than on the lower part, where the barren rocks, except -at the very base, produced scarcely anything but _Ephedra_, a dwarf -species of _Rhamnus_, and tufts of the hardy _Statice_. Higher up, -several species of _Astragalus_ and _Artemisia_ were plentiful, with -_Lithospermum euchromon_, _Dracocephalum heterophyllum_, and several -_Chenopodiaceae_ and grasses. The top of the ridge had an elevation of -15,300 feet, but from its extreme aridity and rockiness, and its -consequent elevated temperature, no alpine plants occurred. On -reaching the top I was able to see something of the road before me, -regarding which I had previously had little information, except in -accounts of its extreme difficulty. These I had been inclined to -consider exaggerated, but the prospect before me was undoubtedly far -from tempting. Immediately below lay a narrow stony valley, to which, -from the spot on which I stood, the descent was almost perpendicular. -Opposite to me there was a range of mountains higher than that on -which I stood, with here and there a patch of snow. The valley below -me was partly occupied by a mass of loose alluvial conglomerate, -through which the stream had excavated a deep ravine; its direction -was south-south-west, and there could be no doubt that the stream -which I had crossed the day before, about half-way, was that which -drained the valley upon which I now looked down. On the top of the -alluvial platform, on the opposite side, there was a narrow strip of -green, indicating a small patch of cultivation, without, however, any -habitation, the crop being apparently left to its fate till ready for -the reaper. In every other direction, stones and snow were alone -visible. - - [Sidenote: BARREN VALLEY. - _August, 1848._] - -I descended obliquely into the valley, so as to reach it about a mile -and a half higher up than the spot from which it was first visible. -The descent was very laborious, a great part of it being covered with -loose gravel or coarse sand, produced by the disintegration of the -granite rocks. There was rather more vegetation than on the opposite -face, and I collected a number of plants which I had not recently met -with; a _Nepeta_, _Scrophularia_, _Cicer_, and _Heracleum_, and two -shrubby _Potentillae_, were the commonest species. One of the species -of _Potentilla_ (_P. discolor_ of Jacquemont) was remarkable for -exciting violent sneezing when touched or shaken; this curious -property seemed to be owing to a very fine dust which covered the -under surface of the leaves. - -After reaching the surface of the alluvial platform overhanging the -stream, about half a mile of gentle ascent among large stones brought -me, after a journey of ten miles, to my encamping ground. This was a -level spot, close to a lateral torrent, which had its source in a -snow-bed in the mountains on the left, and was rushing in a most -impetuous milk-white torrent over immense boulders, to unite itself to -the main stream. The elevation of my camp was about 14,000 feet. - -On the morning of the 11th, at starting, I crossed the torrent close -to camp. Although much less considerable than it had been the previous -afternoon, still, from its great rapidity and the number of boulders -in its bed, the crossing was not accomplished without difficulty by -the laden animals, who carried the greater part of my baggage. I -crossed it myself by leaping from boulder to boulder, which would have -been quite impossible in the afternoon of the previous day, when it -was swollen by the action of the sun upon the snow. The road lay up -the valley parallel to the river, among a most extraordinary -accumulation of granite boulders of all sizes, from one to ten feet in -diameter, piled upon one another in vast heaps, and evidently -transported by a former glacier. After about half a mile, I crossed -the river by a wooden bridge of two or three beams, which must have -been brought from Nubra for the purpose, as no timber of any sort -grows in the valley. The stream was very rapid and muddy. A mile -further, a torrent descending from the mountains on the right was -crossed, and soon after I got upon the bank of the main stream, now -more tranquil and fordable. The road for the remainder of the march -lay along its left bank, over boulders and gravel, ascending now and -then a little way on steep sloping banks, entirely composed of -transported materials. I encamped on a level, somewhat grassy spot of -ground, which was evidently commonly used as a halting-place, having -travelled only four and a half miles, an unnecessarily short day's -work. I had throughout my journey had considerable difficulty in -fixing the marches at proper lengths, the inhabitants having no -measure of distance but the day's journey. In the present instance, my -tent was pitched, and most of the party had commenced to cook, or were -dispersed to collect fuel, long before my arrival, so that I was -obliged to rest content for the day. - - [Sidenote: GLACIER. - _August, 1848._] - -The course travelled during the day had been north-north-east, but I -had evidently arrived nearly as far as was practicable in that -direction, for about half a mile in front was the bluff end of a very -large glacier, filling up the continuation of the valley. This -glacier, which was nearly half a mile wide, was covered almost -entirely with stones and earth, very little of its surface being -visible, and the dirty black colour of its terminating cliff showing -how much soil had been mixed up with it in its progress. The elevation -of my tent was about 14,500 feet, and the termination of the glacier -may have been 250 feet higher. All around the mountains were very -lofty, their tops covered with snow, which nowhere came within 2000 -feet at least of the valley, even on northern exposures. Granite was -everywhere the prevailing rock, but on the higher mountain slopes, -which were often precipitous, it was much intermixed with a dark rock, -probably clay-slate. - - [Sidenote: ALPINE NETTLE. - _August, 1848._] - -During the day I had scarcely seen any vegetation, except when close -to the edge of the stream. Among the boulders and on the bare stony -ground there was frequently not a vestige of herbage. Near one of the -ravines I found the white shrubby _Potentilla_, along with an -exceedingly pretty prostrate plant, with bright rose-coloured flowers, -belonging to the order of _Compositae_: it was a species of the genus -_Allardia_, described by M. Decaisne from the collections of -Jacquemont, by whom it was found in Piti. One of the very few alpine -plants which I saw during the day was a little gentian, common among -the turf close to my tent. Round camp a species of nettle was -plentiful, seemingly, like others of the genus, attracted by the -nitrogenous nature of the soil of an encamping ground much frequented -by shepherds with their flocks. The sting of this nettle, though -rather faint, was quite perceptible. It was decidedly an alpine plant, -which is rather uncommon, not only in the genus, but the order to -which it belongs. - -The journey of the 12th of August commenced by a steep ascent into a -lateral valley descending from the eastward. The hill-side up which I -climbed (apparently the bluff termination of an ancient moraine) was -very stony and dry. When a sufficient elevation above my encampment -had been gained, I obtained a commanding view of the glacier which -occupied the continuation of the main valley. It was nearly straight, -and, as I believe, at least five or six miles long; distances, -however, are so difficult to estimate on snow, that this must be -regarded as a mere guess. The inclination of its surface was -considerable; but, while the distance remained doubtful, no just -estimate of the height of the ridge from which it descended could be -made. On each side, two or three lateral glaciers, descending from the -mountains by which it was enclosed, contributed to increase its size, -all loaded with heaps of stones, which had at the lower end of the -central glacier so accumulated as completely to cover its whole -surface. - - [Sidenote: MORAINES. - _August, 1848._] - -After 800 or 1000 feet of ascent I found that I had attained the level -of the lateral valley, along which the road ran, and that the -remainder of the way was much more gentle, but exceedingly fatiguing, -from its excessive roughness, and from the great elevation, which made -the slightest exertion difficult. On both sides were high ranges of -mountains, which had much snow on their summits, and in one or two -ravines there was a small snow-bed or incipient glacier, but the -distance from the crest of the ridge not being great, no glacier of -any length was formed. On the left hand, the mountains were steeper -and higher than those on the right, and several bulky glaciers on -very steep slopes occupied their ravines. None of these entered the -valley along which my road lay, but their moraines often projected to -its very centre, forming immense piles of angular fragments of rocks, -which attained, in more than one place, a height of several hundred -feet, and indicated that the glaciers had at some former period -advanced much further than they now do. The main valley was itself -everywhere covered with boulders; in some places large blocks, ten to -twenty feet in diameter, were arranged at moderate distances from one -another, but more frequently the fragments were all small. - - [Sidenote: SASSAR PASS. - _August, 1848._] - -After the first steep ascent, the slope of the valley was uniformly -gentle, except when a steep-sided moraine had to be passed. Latterly a -few small patches of snow occurred in the valley. I encamped at 16,600 -feet, on a level grassy spot of ground close to a small circular plain -resembling the bed of a lake, and still partially covered with snow. -The snow level on the mountains to the south had approached within -less than one hundred feet of the level of the plain. Though the -distance travelled during the day was only six miles, I felt a good -deal fatigued, and suffered much from headache, caused by the -rarefaction of the air. - -From the great quantity of snow on the mountains all around, there had -been throughout the day an abundance of moisture, and vegetation was -in consequence much more plentiful than usual. The plants were all -alpine, and being mostly diminutive, had to be sought in the crevices -of rocks, and among the stones which everywhere abounded. The banks of -the stream were frequently grassy, and there was a great deal of -marshy ground. Most of the plants obtained were in full flower, and -the colours were in general very bright, and sufficiently varied. By -far the greater part belonged to the same genera which prevail on -European mountains, such as _Draba_, _Saxifraga_, _Sibbaldia_, -_Potentilla_, _Ranunculus_, _Papaver_, _Pedicularis_, _Cerastium_, -_Leontopodium_, and _Saussurea_. The most remarkable forms were three -species of _Allardia_, several _Astragali_, a one-flowered _Lychnis_, -_Delphinium Brunonianum_, and a _Ligularia_. The alpine nettle was -common on many parts of the road, chiefly near places frequented by -the shepherds as halting-places. - -Next day at starting I proceeded along the edge of the small plain -close to which I had been encamped. On the right hand was an ancient -moraine, which prevented me from seeing the road in advance. At the -upper end of the plain I found a small streamlet running parallel to -the moraine; and about a mile from camp I reached the end of a small -glacier, from which the streamlet had its origin. Crossing the latter, -which was still partially frozen, I ascended in a deep hollow between -the left side of the glacier and the moraine. The icy mass had not yet -begun to thaw, the temperature being still below freezing. After half -a mile I ascended on the surface of the ice, and as soon as I did so, -was enabled to see that the glacier had its origin in a ravine on the -south, and entered the main valley almost opposite to me. The great -body of the ice took a westerly direction, forming the glacier along -which I had been travelling; but a portion formed a cliff to the -eastward, which dipped abruptly into a small, apparently deep lake. At -the distance of perhaps five hundred yards there was another glacier, -which descended from a valley in the northern range of mountains, and, -like the one on which I stood, presented a perpendicular wall to the -little lake. Right and left of the lake were enormous piles of -boulders, occupying the interval between its margin and the mountains, -or rather filling up a portion of the space which it would otherwise -have occupied. Into this very singular hollow I descended, on a steep -icy slope, and passing along the northern margin of the lake, ascended -on the glacier beyond; as before, between the ice and moraine. - -On reaching the surface of the second glacier, I found that a similar -but smaller depression lay beyond it to the east, in which also there -was a small lake, with another mass of ice beyond it. This third -glacier also came from the north, and was a much more formidable mass -than those which had already been crossed. It was very steep, and was -covered with snow, which was beginning to thaw more than was -convenient. When at the highest part, I found that though apparently -nearly level, it sloped downwards sensibly, though very slightly for -nearly half a mile, in an easterly direction. It was evident that I -had now reached the highest part of the ascent, and that the crest of -the pass was covered by this glacier. I did not make any observation -to determine its altitude, but the ascent from camp was very moderate, -not, I think, exceeding a thousand feet. Assuming this estimate to be -correct, the height of the pass would be about 17,600 feet, which I -believe will prove not far from the truth. - -On so icy an ascent vegetation could not be expected to be plentiful; -still, even in the depressions between the glaciers, the crevices -among the boulders produced a few plants, mostly the same as those -observed the day before, but three species of _Saussurea_ were the -most common of all. Before arriving at the first glacier, the -beautiful _Primula_ collected on the pass above Le was met with in -great abundance. - - [Sidenote: SASSAR. - _August, 1848._] - -For about half a mile, as I have said, the slope of the glacier was -just perceptible; beyond that distance the descent was abrupt. On -reaching the end of the level portion, I obtained an excellent view to -the eastward, in which direction a wide valley was seen at a distance -of several miles. Through this valley, from left to right, ran a -considerable river, which proved to be the Shayuk. Beyond the river, -rocky mountains were seen, apparently nearly as high as those near at -hand, and perfectly barren. In descending from the pass, I soon left -the surface of the ice, which, as soon as the slope became abrupt, was -too rugged to be walked over. I then got upon the moraine; about -half-way down, the glacier, which had latterly been almost entirely -covered with debris, came to an end, but a moraine continued a long -way down, and the remainder of the descent was very stony. I encamped -at about 15,400 feet on a dry gravelly plain, close to the broad -valley of the Shayuk, but at least 500 feet above it. To the right, in -a very deep ravine, was a small stream, on the banks of which were -patches of snow. The name of the ground on which I encamped, which is -a usual halting-place, was Sassar, and the Turki merchants call the -pass also by the same name. - - [Sidenote: PLAIN OF SHAYUK RIVER. - _August, 1848._] - -From Sassar not more than three or four miles of the upward course of -the river were visible, but within that distance three glaciers were -in sight. Two of these stopped short of the valley, while the third, -which was at the most distant point visible, appeared to descend to -the river. An enormous precipice, which must have been at least 3000 -feet in height, rose on the opposite side of the valley beyond the -glaciers. Downward the valley of the Shayuk was seen for nearly ten -miles, as a wide gravelly plain, with high rugged mountains on both -sides. - -On the morning after my arrival at Sassar, it was snowing slightly at -daybreak, and continued to do so till near noon. The snow melted -almost immediately on the level ground, but on the mountain-sides it -lay all day, down as low as the level of my tent. The afternoon was -dull and stormy, but no more snow fell. This unfavourable weather was -of less consequence, because I had determined to halt in order to make -fresh arrangements for my baggage, being advised not to take any -cattle beyond Sassar, the roads in advance being very bad. I -afterwards found that they were gravelly, which is more injurious than -even rock to the unprotected feet of the Tibetan bullock. - -The gravelly sloping hills round my encampment were covered with -abundance of vegetation, but few of the species were alpine, and -almost all were familiar to me. A species of _Allium_, with purple -flowers and broad strap-shaped leaves, was the most plentiful of all. -_Thermopsis_ was frequent, in fruit; other common plants were species -of _Artemisia_, _Cynoglossum_, _Cicer_, and _Dracocephalum_. The only -new species were a very handsome dark purple _Nepeta_, which grew in -large tufts among loose shingle, and a tall _Saussurea_, by far the -largest species of the genus which I had found in Tibet, but I believe -one of those described from Jacquemont's collections. A species of -_Rheum_ occurred occasionally on dry stony places, but it was the same -which I had found several times before. - -On the 15th of August I resumed my journey. The morning was misty, -with a few flakes of snow at intervals, and the sky remained overcast -all day, with high squalls of wind. My road lay across the Shayuk, but -I found it necessary to ascend about half a mile on the high bank -before I reached a place where it was possible to descend to its -gravelly plain, which was more than half a mile wide, and quite -destitute of any kind of vegetation. The river was running in several -channels, with an average depth of about a foot and a half; in one -place only it was as much as two feet. The current ran with -considerable rapidity. - -On the opposite side of the plain of the Shayuk, I entered an -extremely narrow ravine, bounded by precipices of black slate, down -which ran a small stream, which crossed at every turn of the ravine -from one side to the other, generally close to the rocky wall, and had -to be forded a great number of times. After a mile and a half, the -road, suddenly quitting the ravine, turned to the right, and ascended -by a steep pathway to a wide, very gently rising plain, bounded on -both sides by snowy mountains. This plain was partly grassy, but -mostly composed of hard dry clay. In a few spots where snow appeared -recently to have lain, the clay was soft and treacherous, sinking -under the feet. About a mile's walk over this plain brought me to the -highest part of it, beyond which it began to slope to the eastward, at -first very gently but afterwards more rapidly. Many large isolated -boulders were observed on its surface. It was curious to observe that -the gravel produced by the disintegration of the mountains (chiefly, I -suppose, by snow-slips in winter) differed in colour on the two sides -of the valley, and that the line of demarcation followed very closely -the centre of the valley. The northern mountains, being granitic, -produced a hard quartzy gravel, while those to the south, which were -schistose, contributed a dark-coloured gravel of sharp slaty -fragments. On the lower part of the descent, a small rivulet made its -appearance in the centre of the plain, and I encamped, after nine and -a half miles, close to an open valley of considerable size, whose -course seemed to be south-east. - - [Sidenote: MURGAI. - _August, 1848._] - -This encamping-ground is called by the Turki merchants Murgai, by the -Tibetans, Murgo-Chumik; the former name being probably a corruption of -the latter. It was the last place at which I was to expect a -sufficiency of fuel, or even, with rare exceptions, of grass for my -horse, which, though not often used, I was unwilling to leave behind, -lest I should by any accident be disabled from walking. The -temperature of boiling water here indicated an elevation of about -15,100 feet, but as the weather was stormy and threatening, this was -probably several hundred feet more than the truth. A number of springs -appeared to break out of the ground close to my tent, where there was -a considerable extent of boggy pasture, much greener than is usual at -so great an elevation. A few bushes of _Myricaria elegans_ were the -only shrubs, but tufts of _Artemisia_ and _Eurotia_ were sufficiently -plentiful to produce an abundance of fuel. In the boggy meadow, a -pretty little species of _Primula_ was very abundant; the other plants -observed were a white _Pedicularis_, two species of _Triglochin_, and -some _Carices_ and grasses. - -The morning of the 16th of August was bright and beautiful, the clouds -having been entirely dissipated during the night. The wide valley near -which I was encamped descended, as I was informed, to the Shayuk, -which it was said to join through a rocky gorge eight or ten miles -lower down than Sassar. Along its course the merchants are in the -habit of ascending at the season when the valley of the Shayuk is -followed all the way from Nubra, which is only practicable in early -spring and late in the autumn, at which times that river is fordable -throughout. It is a fortunate circumstance for the trade that there is -thus a choice of routes, for at these seasons the Sassar pass must be -in a great measure blocked up with snow. - - [Sidenote: ASCENT OF - MURGAI VALLEY. - _August, 1848._] - -On my arrival at Murgai, I had observed that the mountains to the -north were very precipitous, and had been puzzled to decide what -direction the road might take. On starting, however, I found that it -lay along the upward course of the stream which watered the valley -before me, and which here issued from the mountains through a very -narrow ravine with high precipices on both sides. At first I ascended -to the top of a platform of conglomerate which lay at the base of the -mountains. The ground was strewed with fragments of limestone, -evidently derived from the mountains above; and about half a mile from -camp I passed a calcareous spring which had deposited large quantities -of tufa throughout the whole of the space between its source and the -face of the precipice which overhung the river: the thickness of the -incrustation was, in front of the cliff, from six to eight feet. A -little further on, the road descended abruptly to the stream, and, -after crossing it several times within a few hundred yards, ascended -equally abruptly the steep stony slopes on its left bank, at a point -where its course, which had previously been nearly north, turned -rather suddenly to the eastward. On emerging from the ravine, two -small glaciers came in sight almost directly opposite, in branches of -a narrow and very deep gorge, which descended from the mountains to -the north nearly in the original direction of the ravine. The road -ascended to the height of at least 1000 feet, and then proceeded along -the steep slopes, alternately ascending and descending over very stony -ground, occasionally covered with loose limestone shingle. The stream -was visible below, running through a narrow rocky fissure. - -After about a mile and a half, the road again descended to the river, -now a little wider, with a gravelly channel. Here I found that there -were two roads. One of these, for loaded animals, ascended steeply on -the north side, to the height of nearly 1000 feet, and again descended -very abruptly. The other was in the bed of the stream, which was -partially filled up with huge blocks of rock. The stream being almost -dry, I took the lower road, which for pedestrians was only -objectionable from its great roughness, and because it was necessary -to cross the rivulet occasionally. After about a quarter of a mile, -the ravine suddenly opened out into a gravelly plain nearly half a -mile in width, traversed by numerous branches of the little stream: -these were now almost dry, owing to the cloudy weather of the last few -days having in a great measure stopped the melting of the glaciers by -which they were supplied. Along this open plain I continued for nearly -five miles. In one place only it contracted again for a few hundred -yards into a gorge full of huge rocky masses heaped one on another, by -which it was apparently quite blocked up; this however was avoided by -a slight ascent among angular limestone fragments. On descending into -the plain again, I observed a very small patch of grassy ground on a -bank a few feet above the level of the stream, the only herbage seen -during the day. About a mile further on I encamped, after a march of -nine miles, on the south side of the plain, on a dry bank elevated -four or five feet above its gravelly bed. There was a sudden change in -the direction of the valley just at my encamping-ground, its further -course being in a direction west of north. The elevation of my tent -was very nearly 16,000 feet. - -High, rugged, precipitous mountains, with snowy tops, rose on both -sides of the road during the whole of this day's journey. The rock -throughout the day was limestone, a few thin layers of slate excepted. -It varied much in colour, but was generally very dark and highly -crystalline, and often contained large masses of white calcareous -spar. It was distinctly stratified, and occasionally exhibited -obscure traces of what might be fossils, but which were too indistinct -to be relied upon. The principal mass of snow seen was nearly due -south of my encampment, but this was probably owing to the northerly -exposure of the mountains on that side. The vegetation observed during -the day was scanty in the extreme; _Eurotia_, a _Saussurea_ with very -viscid leaves, _Oxytropis chiliophylla_, and _Biebersteinia odora_ -being almost the only plants on the stony slopes and shingle during -the first half of the way. On the gravelly plain there was no -vegetation at all, but on its margins a few scattered plants were -occasionally to be found, a _Pyrethrum_ and two or three _Cruciferae_ -being the species noted. The most remarkable plant observed during the -day was a species of _Alsine_ in dense hemispherical tufts, a foot or -more in diameter. This plant (the moss of Moorcroft's visit to Garu, -and of other travellers in and on the borders of Tibet) is a common -Tibetan plant at very great elevations, 16,000 feet being perhaps not -far from its lowest level[25]. - -On the 17th my road lay entirely along the gravelly plain in a -direction always considerably to the west of north. The plain -gradually narrowed as I advanced, and came to an end by contracting -into a rocky ravine, just as I halted for the day. The mountains on -the left were still very lofty; one glacier was seen on that side. On -the right the mountains were lower and quite without snow, but -extremely rugged and rocky. The slope of the valley was scarcely -perceptible, but I found at the end of my day's journey, which -amounted to twelve miles, that I had risen above 700 feet, the height -of my encampment being a little more than 16,700 feet. The day was -bright and sunny, and the stream, which, in the morning was quite -insignificant, not three feet wide and scarcely ankle-deep, had -increased much by the afternoon, and had become of a dirty red colour. -It was twenty feet wide, and a foot and a half deep, where I crossed -it just before halting. The vegetation was still more scanty than the -day before, though most of the plants then noted were again seen -occasionally. Small tufts of a little _Stipa_ were not uncommon, -constituting almost the only food for cattle, as patches of green -grass, a few feet in diameter, were only seen twice during the day. -Two very small _Saussureae_ formed dense tufted masses on the surface -of the ground, and a little rose-coloured _Astragalus_ spread itself -prostrate over the gravel; indeed, this mode of growth seemed to be -characteristic either of the climate or soil, as I found, though -rarely, a species of _Myricaria_, with short thick wiry branches lying -flat on the ground and spreading into patches a yard in diameter. - - [Sidenote: REMARKABLE LIMESTONE. - _August, 1848._] - -Not far from the point where the direction of the valley changed so -suddenly, the blue or greyish massive but brittle limestone of the -higher mountains gave place to a rock of a very different appearance. -This was also a limestone, perfectly white, or with a very faint -yellowish or greyish tinge, and either quite amorphous, with a -saccharine texture, and often honeycombed, or composed of a congeries -of very minute crystals. Occasionally, but rarely, rolled pebbles -were seen in it. No traces of stratification were anywhere -discoverable, in which respect it differed very strikingly from the -limestone of the previous day, in which lines of stratification, much -contorted, were well seen in many sections exposed at different -heights. This remarkable limestone formed the rock on both sides of -the gravelly plain during the greater part of the day's journey. In -one place only metamorphic slate was seen below it, dipping at a high -angle to the north-east. The limestone was extremely brittle, and the -cliffs terminated above in sharp pinnacles of the most fantastic -shapes, while at the base they were covered with heaps of angular -debris[26]. A coarse conglomerate replaced the limestone during the -last mile previous to my encamping. - - [Sidenote: ELEVATED PLAIN OF KARAKORAM. - _August, 1848._] - -On the 18th of August, after following for a few hundred yards the -course of the stream through a narrow rocky gorge, the road turned -abruptly to the right, up a dry stony ravine, ascending rather -rapidly. The coarse conglomerate of the lower part of this ravine was -succeeded by a coarse sandstone, and that again by an incoherent -alluvial conglomerate with a clayey matrix. After a short distance, -the ravine widened out into a narrow, gravelly, moderately steep -valley, with low rounded hills on either side. By degrees, as I -increased my elevation, superb snowy mountains came in sight to the -south-west, and on attaining the top of the ascent an open, gravelly, -somewhat undulating plain lay before me, while behind a grand snowy -range was seen in perfection, forming apparently a continuous chain, -with a direction from south-east to north-west. The snow was to the -eye perfectly continuous in both directions as far as the mountains -were visible, and appeared everywhere to lie on the mountain-sides to -three and four thousand feet below their tops. As I had passed through -this apparent chain of mountains without rising above 16,000 feet, the -continuity of the snowy mass was of course a deception. Many very -lofty peaks rose above the others at intervals. The height of the more -distant ones I could not venture to estimate, but I felt at the time -fully convinced that a very high peak, just opposite to me, and -distant, according to bearings taken afterwards, about ten miles (in a -direct line) from the edge of the plain, was 6000 or 7000 feet higher -than the ground on which I stood, or at least 24,000 feet above the -level of the sea. I do not wish that any great degree of confidence -should be placed on this estimate, but I think it right that I should -state my impression at the time, formed without any wish to -exaggerate. - -The stream along which I had ascended during the two last days lay in -a deep ravine far below the level of the plain. Its source was -evidently not far distant, and it issued no doubt from a large glacier -at the head of the gorge, though the slight upward slope of the plain -to the west prevented me from seeing its precise origin. In a -northerly direction the plain appeared to extend for six or seven -miles, and beyond it lay several ranges of mountains running from east -to west, but only very moderately patched with snow. Eastward the -plain diminished slightly in elevation for four or five miles, at -which distance there was a low range of hills, and immediately at -their foot a small stream apparently running to the northward. Beyond -these low hills were a number of lofty black peaks to the northward of -the great mass of snow, on the further side of which the country -probably dips to the eastward in the direction of Khoten. Every one of -my guides positively denied the existence of any road in that -direction; afraid, perhaps, that I might attempt to proceed by it; for -I learned afterwards, on my return to Le, from a merchant of Yarkand, -that there was an unfrequented path by which Khoten might be reached, -if the Chinese authorities were willing to permit it to be used. - -My road lay across the open plain in a direction very little west of -north. The surface of the ground was covered with a few boulders and -many small pebbles, for the most part rolled, and very various in -composition; granite, greenstones of many sorts, amygdaloid, -limestone, and different-coloured slates, being all seen. Many of -these were encrusted with a calcareous concretion, and the whole plain -had the appearance of having formerly been the bed of a lake. -Skeletons and scattered bones of horses indicated with great exactness -the road across this arid tract, which seemed to be almost destitute -of either animal life or vegetation. The only living beings seen were -a few ravens, a hoopoe, and a small bird somewhat like a sparrow. -Tufts of the moss-like _Alsine_, referred to on the 17th, were the -only vegetation, except in the bed of a little rivulet near the middle -of the plain, which produced a few specimens of _Saussurea_ and -_Sibbaldia_. This streamlet rose in a large patch of snow about half -a mile to the westward, and ran towards the east, turning afterwards -nearly due north along the foot of a low range of hills mentioned -above. The elevation of its bed, which was the lowest part of the -table-land in the direction in which I crossed it, was 17,300 feet, -and the lowest part of the plain was immediately under the low hills -to the eastward, where it probably was about 17,000 feet. - -There was no snow on the plain, except one patch close to its highest -part, in which the little rivulet had its source, and a very few -remnants on the shady side of a low undulating ridge, which crosses it -near its northern border. After about five miles, having been -ascending very gradually since leaving the banks of the stream, I -passed through an opening between two low gravelly hills, and found -myself looking down upon a wide valley, into which I descended very -gradually along a dry ravine. Passing a small patch of swampy, grassy -ground, at which I left my horse with a servant till my return, as -there was no food for him further on, I arrived, about two miles from -the point at which the valley just came in sight, at a small river -about thirty feet wide and ankle-deep, running from east to west. -According to the information of my guides, this was the river which -runs past Sassar,--in fact, the Shayuk. None of them had followed its -course, but they assured me that there was no doubt of the accuracy of -their statement, which indeed is confirmed by the fact (which I -mention on the authority of Yarkand merchants) that formerly -travellers used to ascend the Shayuk from Sassar, in order to reach -the Karakoram pass, instead of pursuing the circuitous route by which -I travelled; but that about ten or twelve years ago the glaciers above -Sassar descended so low as entirely to prevent any one passing in that -direction, for which reason it became necessary to adopt a new -road[27]. - - [Sidenote: SHAYUK RIVER. - _August, 1848._] - -The course of the Shayuk was visible for several miles, running nearly -due west. Beyond that distance, it disappeared among rocky hills. -Fording the river, I ascended a steep bank, to get upon a stony -platform, over which I proceeded in a northerly direction, gradually -approaching a small stream which came from the north to join the -Shayuk. Passing a low rounded hill to the right, I descended after -about two miles into the ravine excavated by this little stream, and, -crossing it, encamped under low limestone rocks on its right bank -after a march of twelve miles. I did not ascertain the elevation of -this halting-ground, but, from the result of an experiment made at a -place which appeared nearly midway (in point of elevation) between it -and the bed of the Shayuk, where I got a boiling-point, indicating an -elevation of 17,000 feet, I estimate the bed of the river at 16,800 -feet, and my encamping-ground of the 18th at 17,200 feet. The plain -all round seemed destitute of vegetation, so that, as on the two last -days, there was a great scarcity of fuel, which had to be collected -from a distance of many miles; and consisted only of the roots of a -small bushy _Artemisia_ or _Tanacetum_, which rose three or four -inches above the ground. During these three days, I suffered very -considerably from the effects of the rarefaction of the air, being -never free from a dull headache, which was increased on the slightest -exertion. - - [Sidenote: KARAKORAM PASS. - _August, 1848._] - -On the 19th of August, leaving my tent standing, I started to visit -the Karakoram pass, the limit of my journey to the northward. The -country round my halting-place was open, except to the north, where a -stream descended through a narrow valley from a range of hills, the -highest part of which was apparently about 3000 feet above me. All the -rivers had formed for themselves depressions in the platform of gravel -which was spread over the plain. At first I kept on the south bank of -the river close to which I had halted, but about a mile from camp I -crossed a large tributary which descended from the south-west, and -soon after, turning round the rocky termination of a low range of -hills, entered a narrow valley which came from a little west of -north-west. At the foot of the rocky point of the range were three -very small huts, built against the rock as a place of shelter for -travellers, in case of stormy or snowy weather; and bones of horses -were here scattered about the plain in greater profusion than usual. - - [Sidenote: VEGETATION OF KARAKORAM - _August, 1848._] - -I ascended this valley for about six miles: its width varied from 200 -yards to about half a mile, gradually widening as I ascended. The -slope was throughout gentle. An accumulation of alluvium frequently -formed broad and gently sloping banks, which were cut into cliffs by -the river. Now and then large tracts covered with glacial boulders -were passed over; and several small streams were crossed, descending -from the northern mountains through narrow ravines. About eight miles -from my starting-point the road left the bank of the stream, and began -to ascend obliquely and gradually on the sides of the hills. The -course of the valley beyond where I left it continued unaltered, -sloping gently up to a large snow-bed, which covered the side of a -long sloping ridge four or five miles off. After a mile, I turned -suddenly to the right, and, ascending very steeply over fragments of -rock for four or five hundred yards, I found myself on the top of the -Karakoram pass--a rounded ridge connecting two hills which rose -somewhat abruptly to the height of perhaps 1000 feet above me. The -height of the pass was 18,200 feet, the boiling-point of water being -180.8 deg., and the temperature of the air about 50 deg. Towards the -north, much to my disappointment, there was no distant view. On that -side the descent was steep for about 500 yards, beyond which distance -a small streamlet occupied the middle of a very gently sloping valley, -which curved gradually to the left, and disappeared behind a stony ridge -at the distance of half a mile. The hills opposite to me were very -abrupt, and rose a little higher than the pass; they were quite -without snow, nor was there any on the pass itself, though large -patches lay on the shoulder of the hill to the right. To the south, on -the opposite side of the valley which I had ascended, the mountains, -which were sufficiently high to exclude entirely all view of the lofty -snowy mountain seen the day before, were round-topped and covered with -snow. Vegetation was entirely wanting on the top of the pass, but the -loose shingle with which it was covered was unfavourable to the growth -of plants, otherwise, no doubt, lichens at least would have been -seen. Large ravens were circling about overhead, apparently quite -unaffected by the rarity of the atmosphere, as they seemed to fly with -just as much ease as at the level of the sea. - -The great extent of the modern alluvial deposit concealed in a great -measure the ancient rocks. At my encampment a ridge of very hard -limestone, dipping at a high angle, skirted the stream. Further up the -valley a hard slate occurred, and in another place a dark blue slate, -containing much iron pyrites, and crumbling rapidly when exposed to -the atmosphere. Fragments of this rock were scattered over the plain -in all states of decay. On the crest of the pass the rock _in situ_ -was limestone, showing obscure traces of fossils, but too indistinct -to be determined; the shingle, which was scattered over the ridge, was -chiefly a brittle black clay-slate. - -On my return no plants were met with till I had almost reached the -bank of the stream. The first species which occurred was a small -purple-flowered _Crucifera_ (_Parrya exscapa_ of Meyer). Throughout -the day the number of flowering plants observed was seventeen, of -which three were grasses, three _Saussureae_, and two _Cruciferae_; -there was also one species of each of the following genera, _Aster_, -_Nepeta_, _Gymnandra_, _Sedum_, _Lychnis_, _Potentilla_, and _Phaca_; -the dense-tufted _Alsine_, and a shrubby _Artemisia_ with yellow -flowers, complete the number. The only animals seen, besides ravens, -were a bird about the size of a sparrow, a bright metallic-coloured -carrion-fly, and a small dusky butterfly. Returning by the same road, -I arrived at my tent a little after sunset, the distance from the top -of the pass being about ten miles. - - [Sidenote: MURGAI RIVER. - _August, 1848._] - -While travelling at these great elevations the weather was uniformly -serene and beautiful. There was but little wind, and the sky was -bright and cloudless. At night the cold was severe, and the edges of -the streams were in the morning always frozen. On my return towards -Sassar I found that the bright sunny weather which had continued since -the 16th, had made a great alteration in the state of the stream in -the wide gravelly valley along which the road ran. It was now -impetuous and muddy, increasing considerably towards the afternoon, -when it ran in several channels, which were not always easily -fordable. In some places the gravel was throughout the whole width of -the plain saturated with water, and gave way under the feet, so that -it became necessary to ascend on the stony sloping banks on one side -or other, instead of following the centre of the valley. At Murgai, on -the evening of the 23rd of August, just after sunset, I felt three -slight shocks of an earthquake. On that day the weather again became -dull, and on the morning of the 24th there was a slight fall of snow -for about an hour. - -The remarkable open plain to the south of the Karakoram pass occupies -a deep concavity in the great chain of the Kouenlun, which there -appears to form a curve, the convexity of which looks northward. The -main range to the eastward was distinctly visible, forming a range of -snowless, but certainly very lofty, black peaks beyond the sources of -the most eastern branch of the Shayuk; while the heavily-snowed -mountains, the summits of which were seen further east, were probably -also a part of the axis of the chain, which apparently bends round the -sources of the river of Khoten, or of some stream draining the -northern flanks of the Kouenlun. To the westward, no peaks rose behind -the snowy ridge which terminated the western branch of the Shayuk a -little west of the Karakoram pass, beyond which the surface probably -dips, while the axis of the Kouenlun bends to the southward, towards -the glaciers of the Nubra river. - - [Sidenote: SNOW LEVEL. - _August, 1848._] - -In crossing the open plain on my return towards Sassar, I had the -splendid snowy peaks to the south-west always in view, and was able to -form a tolerable estimate of their appearance and elevation. The range -was very heavily snowed, and from the lateness of the season but -little additional thaw could be expected. What seemed the highest peak -was very near, and its position could be determined by bearings with -little risk of error. It rose abruptly in the midst of a great mass of -snow, which filled the hollows and slopes of the range all around. The -surface of the plain over which I was travelling sloped very gently up -to the westward, and partly concealed the lower edge of the perpetual -snow on the mountains behind, the limit of which was, I think, between -17,500 and 18,000 feet. To the northward and eastward the snow-line -was certainly much higher. Here and there, where there was shade, -there were patches below 18,000 feet, but even up to 20,000 feet there -was no continuous snow. As the source of the snow-fall on these -mountains is no doubt the Indian Ocean to the south-west, the gradual -rise of the snow-level in advancing north-east, and the occurrence of -the highest peaks, and of the greatest mass of snow on branches of -the chain, and not on its main axis, are quite in accordance with what -is usually the case throughout every part of the Himalaya. - -The occurrence of a nearly level plain, six or eight miles in -diameter, with a mean elevation of not less than 17,300 feet, is -certainly very remarkable. The ridge or watershed of the plain -appeared to me parallel to the deep ravine, excavated by the stream -along which I had travelled on the 17th of August, and at no great -distance from it, as the descent was abrupt. All the northern and -western part of this level tract was composed of loosely cohering -matters, and was possibly of lacustrine origin; but a much more -accurate acquaintance with the outline, structure, and elevation of -the plain will be necessary before any certain conclusion can be drawn -as to its age or origin. - - [Sidenote: GLACIERS OF SASSAR. - _August, 1848._] - -Before leaving Sassar, I visited the glaciers which descend into the -valley of the Shayuk, a little to the north of that place. The path at -first lay along the high platform on which I was encamped, which was -precipitous towards the Shayuk; it afterwards descended to the level -of the river, close to which I travelled for some distance over -enormous boulders. The bluff ends of two glaciers were seen high above -at the top of the precipitous alluvial bank, and after a walk of -upwards of three miles, I arrived at a most superb glacier, which, -descending a broad and deep valley in the mountains, and latterly in -the alluvial platform, entered the bed of the Shayuk at the bottom of -a deep bend, and fairly crossed the river, which flowed out below the -ice. On the opposite side of the river, the mountains were -precipitous a few hundred feet from the water's edge, but the stream -of ice did not extend to the foot of the precipice, but stopped a very -few feet up the opposite bank. I could of course only see the position -of the ice at the edge of the glacier: how far it extended in the -centre I could not tell. - -The glacier was extremely rugged, being covered with huge sharp -pinnacles of ice, and I was obliged to ascend a long way parallel to -its side before I could find a place where it could be crossed. Near -its lower extremity it rose high above the surface of the plain, and -sloped rapidly down to the river: its sides were there scarped and -inaccessible, but higher up it lay in a deep hollow in the alluvial -conglomerate. A moment's reflection showed how impossible it was for -clay and boulders to resist the friction of such an enormous mass; -still I was much pleased to observe the glacier buried, as it were, in -a groove of its own forming, from the light which was thereby thrown -on the origin of the many broad, shallow, flat-bottomed valleys which -occasionally occur in the modern alluvial and lacustrine formations in -all parts of Tibet, as for instance at Karsar in Nubra, and at Bazgo -below Le. An ancient moraine, deposited at a period when the glacier -must have been much more bulky than it now is, skirted the edge of the -high bank of alluvium, and prevented the ice from being seen till -close at hand, and then only by mounting on the top of the pile of -boulders. Down this moraine, which on the face towards the glacier was -extremely steep and perhaps sixty feet high, I descended to the -surface of the present moraine. The descent required great caution, -many of the blocks being loose and easily displaced. When I had -reached the surface of the glacier, the passage was not difficult. -About a quarter of its width on each side was occupied by blocks of -stone; the centre was almost entirely ice, extremely irregular, and -here and there a little fissured. The pathway, which was only marked -by the footsteps of two men whom I had sent the day before to select a -place for crossing, at one time ascended to the top of a ridge of ice, -at another descended into a deep hollow. At the time I crossed (about -eleven A.M.) numerous streams of water had begun to flow in furrows on -the surface of the ice. The whole width was close upon half a mile, -and on the north side I ascended a steep moraine similar to that which -I had previously descended. - -From the top of the bank on which the moraine rested, a second glacier -came in sight at the distance of a mile. My exploring party reported -that they had been unable to find a point at which this glacier could -be crossed, and as from the appearance of the mountains behind I felt -certain that after crossing it I should only arrive at a third, I did -not long persevere in trying to find a passage, but descended to its -extremity in order to see whether or not I could walk round it, as it -did not appear to enter the water. At the bottom of the valley it -spread out in a fan-shaped manner to the width of at least a mile; -perhaps indeed much more, for as I failed in getting round it, I was -unable to ascertain precisely. At its south-east corner, where it was -nearly a hundred yards from the river, a considerable stream, white -with suspended mud, was rushing out from beneath an arched vault of -ice, even before sunrise. To avoid fording this icy stream, the -margins of which were thickly frozen, I crossed with a good deal of -difficulty an angle of the end of the glacier. On its surface I found -several small moraines, which had sunk down into grooves ten or -fifteen feet deep, and had therefore been invisible from outside. -Further progress on the ice was stopped by cliffs which were not -accessible without ladders, so that I had to descend to the bank of -the Shayuk. I walked along between the ice and the river, till my -advance was stopped by the glacier fairly projecting into the water in -such a manner that I could not see anything of what lay beyond. The -icy wall being quite inaccessible, I could not get upon the surface of -the glacier to attempt to advance in that way, nor could I ford the -river, which was very deep. - -The terminal cliff of the glacier varied in height from fifteen to -thirty feet, and a talus of large stones lay in front, evidently -deposited by it. Indeed, while I was there I saw several small stones -which projected from the face of the cliff, drop out by the melting of -the ice in which they were imbedded. Many cavities were seen in the -ice, from which large stones must have dropped out no longer ago than -the day before, and the stones which corresponded in size to them were -seen lying close at hand. Before I left the front of the glacier, the -heat of the sun having become considerable, rapid thaw had commenced; -rills of water trickled down its face in every direction, and the -sound of falling stones was to be heard on all sides. Now and then a -report as loud as that of a cannon was heard, caused, as I supposed, -by the fall of a very large boulder from one of the smaller glaciers, -which stopped abruptly at the top of the high cliff of alluvium. - -Before quitting finally these magnificent glaciers, I ascended to a -height on the mountain-side in order to see whether or not there was -any lake in sight corresponding to that laid down, from information, -by Mr. Vigne as Nubra or Khundan Chu. The mountains were very steep -and stony, and were covered above 16,000 feet with snow, which had -fallen in a storm a few days before; I did not, therefore, get up to -any great elevation, probably not beyond 16,500 feet, but at that -height I could see nothing of the river beyond the second glacier, -though its course through the mountains could be traced distinctly -enough. It is, however, highly improbable that any permanent lake -exists. Such could, I think, only be formed by the stoppage of the -river by a glacier, an obstruction which could only be temporary, and -would inevitably be followed by a terrific inundation, such as is -known repeatedly to have devastated the valley of the Shayuk. - - [Sidenote: RETURN TO LE. - _August, 1848._] - -It had been my original intention, on my return from Karakoram, to -follow the course of the Shayuk all the way from Sassar to Nubra, but -on my return to the former place after visiting the pass, I found that -there was no probability of the road along the river being practicable -for at least three weeks, the depth of the stream, which requires -frequently to be forded, being still much too great; I was therefore -reluctantly compelled to return by the same route as that by which I -had reached Sassar. Early in September, I found the crops in Nubra -ripe, the barley being mostly cut; buckwheat and a few fields of -millet, however, were still quite green. The Shayuk had very -considerably diminished in size: one branch which in July had been -three feet deep was quite dry on the 6th of September. On the 11th of -that month I crossed the pass above Le, the state of which was a good -deal altered. The little lake, which on the 20th of July was still -frozen over, was now free of ice, nor was there any snow, except a -very few small patches, below the steep snow-bank on the northern -side. The snow, which had covered this steep descent, had melted away, -exposing a mass of ice, which was not crossed without a good deal of -difficulty and some little risk. Loaded cattle were unable to get to -the top of the pass till the afternoon. The snow on the south face had -almost entirely gone. - -I reached Le just in time to escape some very unsettled weather, -during which snow fell on the mountains down to about 13,000 feet. -This was ushered in by very high wind, blowing in gusts from all -points of the compass. Heavy clouds formed, but always high: on the -14th there was a good deal of thunder, and during the following night -a smart shower of rain, which lasted about an hour. - -The inhabitants were busy with the operations of harvest. A coarse -knife or rude sickle was employed to cut the wheat and barley as close -to the ground as possible; they were then tied into large bundles, -each sufficient for one load, which were carried (usually by women) to -the threshing-floors, not without considerable loss, from the ripeness -of the ears and the great bulk of the loads, which were rubbed against -every obstacle, particularly the narrow walls of the pathways between -the fields. The grain was trodden out of the ear by cattle and asses, -all muzzled, on small threshing-floors made of clay beaten hard. It -was then winnowed, by being gently shaken out of flat vessels held as -high as possible above the ground. - -On the 15th of September I left Le for Kashmir. For five days my route -was the same as that by which I had travelled in July. On the fourth -day I reached Kalatze on the Indus, and on the 19th of September I -encamped at the village of Lama-Yuru, close to which the road from -Zanskar joins that along which I proposed to travel towards Dras. In -the valley of the Indus a great part of the vegetation was already -destroyed by the night frosts; _Chenopodiaceae_ were now the most -numerous family, and these were rapidly ripening their seeds. In the -narrow ravine of the Wandla river, on the ascent to Lama-Yuru, I found -a few plants indicative of lower and hotter regions than those in -which I had lately been travelling: a little wiry _Lactuca_ with -decurrent leaves, a spathulate-leaved _Statice_, and a small -_Hyoscyamus_, all plants of the neighbourhood of Iskardo, were those -which I noted. - - [Sidenote: PHATU PASS. - _September, 1848._] - -On the 20th of September I crossed the Phatu pass, stated by Moorcroft -to be 14,000 feet above the sea, but which Major Cunningham has -ascertained to be only about 13,500 feet. The discrepancy is probably -owing to some error in Moorcroft's manuscripts, from which the -elevations given in his work were calculated by Professor Wilson. In -the neighbourhood of Lama-Yuru lacustrine clay occurs in great -abundance, and the ascent to the summit of this pass was gentle, up a -gravelly valley, which was full of alluvium, almost to the very -summit. The pass did not nearly attain the elevation requisite for -alpine vegetation, still the flora was a good deal altered; two -large-flowered thistles, _Caragana versicolor_, and several species of -_Umbelliferae_ were observed, none of which had occurred in the hills -to the north of the Indus; the prickly _Statice_ was also common, but -the _Chenopodiaceae_ of the Indus valley had entirely disappeared. The -descent along the Kanji river to Karbu, at which I encamped, was long -and gradual, down a wide valley skirted by gently sloping hills, -which, at some distance on the left, rose into high mountains, but on -the right attained only a moderate elevation, the Indus being at no -great distance. Alluvium occurred throughout the descent, latterly -indurated into a coarse conglomerate. - - [Sidenote: NAMIKA PASS. - _September, 1848._] - -From Karbu I marched on the 21st to Molbil, crossing the Namika pass. -The previous night had been very threatening, with violent wind, and -at daybreak all the hills around were covered with snow; it was still -snowing slightly, but none lay in the valley, and before nine o'clock -it cleared, and the remainder of the forenoon was tolerably fine. For -two miles I followed the banks of the Kanji river; afterwards the road -turned to the left to ascend a clayey valley, to the rounded summit of -a ridge separating that river from the Pashkyum on the left. The pass -has been determined by Major Cunningham, who crossed it in October, -1847, to be 12,900 feet above the sea. The descent was long, but not -rapid after the first mile. The upper part was desert, but lower down -villages were frequent and cultivation extensive. At first the rocks -were clay-slate, but these were replaced in the lower part by a hard -limestone; alluvium was everywhere plentiful, forming, near Molbil, -table-topped platforms of indurated conglomerate, horizontally -stratified, and faced towards the stream by scarped cliffs. The -afternoon was again stormy, and a good deal of rain fell during the -night. - - [Sidenote: PASHKYUM. - _September, 1848._] - -Next day I made a long march to Pashkyum, following the course of the -river of that name. The descent was very gradual, and the road varied -much in character, the valley being sometimes open, at other times -narrow and rocky. The villages increased in numbers as the elevation -diminished, and latterly for several miles cultivation was continuous. -Pashkyum is not more than 8600 feet above the sea, and accordingly the -season was much less advanced than it had been three and four thousand -feet higher, the weather being much milder, and the summer heat no -doubt much more considerable than in the neighbourhood of Le. The -crops had long been cut, except the buckwheat, the fields of which -were however quite ripe; the plants were being plucked up by the roots -and laid down separately in the fields to dry, previous to removal to -the threshing-floor. - -A remarkable change had taken place in the appearance of the country -during this day's journey. The banks of the river were frequently -shaded with immense willows, and the trees of the cultivated lands -were numerous and of great size. Many new forms of plants were also -seen, though the general character of the flora was unaltered. Shrubby -_Artemisiae_ were extremely plentiful, and the _Perowskia_, _Ballota_, -_Echinops_, and _Iris_ of the Indus valley were very abundant. The new -plants were all species of Kashmir or Iskardo, such as _Verbascum -Thapsus_, _Lappa_, _Valeriana_, _Swertia_, and _Gentiana -Moorcroftiana_. _Trifolium repens_ and _fragiferum_ grew in the -pastures close to the river, and tropical species of _Setaria_ and -_Amaranthus_ were common weeds in the corn-fields. - - [Sidenote: SINGULAR SANDSTONE FORMATION. - _September, 1848._] - -In the immediate neighbourhood of Pashkyum the rocks consist of -coarse-grained grey or white sandstones, often containing small -water-worn pebbles, and alternating with dark crumbling pyritiferous -shales. These rocks, which dip to the east or south-east, at an angle -of not more than 15 deg., rise on the north side of the valley to the -summit of a long sloping ridge, which appears to overhang the Indus. -As these sandstones and shales contained, so far as I could observe, -no fossils, their age is a matter of complete uncertainty. They were -quite independent of the modern lacustrine formation, patches of -which, perfectly horizontally stratified, and therefore unconformable -to the other, were seen in several places resting on the sandstone. -These sandstones perhaps reach as far as the Indus, but I was not able -to determine how far they extended to the southward, in which -direction high and rugged mountains, now covered with snow, skirted -the valley at a distance of a few miles. - - [Sidenote: KARGIL. - _September, 1848._] - -On the 23rd of September, I followed the Pashkyum river to its -junction with that of Dras. Crossing, at starting, to the left bank of -the river, the road lay for a mile through cultivated lands; it then -ascended to a platform of alluvium, which blocked up the valley, while -the river disappeared in a narrow ravine far to the right. Five miles -from Pashkyum, I descended very abruptly from this elevated plain, to -the village of Kargil, where the Pashkyum river is joined by a large -stream from Suru, called by Moorcroft the Kartse; which I crossed by a -good wooden bridge, close to a small fort, occupied by a Thannadar -with a small party of soldiers. The cultivated lands of Kargil, which -is elevated about 8300 feet, are extensive and well wooded; but -immediately below, the valley becomes narrow and rocky, and continues -so for more than a mile, till the stream joins the Dras river. Nearly -due south of Kargil the stratified rocks of the mountains are replaced -by igneous rocks, and the point of contact of the two is well marked -on the precipitous face of a lofty peak. At first the igneous rock was -dark and resembling greenstone, but it soon changed to granite, which, -as I had observed in April, occurs everywhere in the valley of Dras, -below Karbu. - -I encamped on the right bank of the Dras river, about a mile above the -village of Hardas. Henceforward my route was the same as I had -travelled in April. On the 24th I travelled to Tashgong, and on the -25th I arrived at Dras. In most parts of the valley I found a great -deal of alluvium, but I saw none of the fine clay which is -characteristic of the purely lacustrine strata above the village of -Bilergu, where I had observed it in April. Gravelly conglomerate was -everywhere the prevailing form,--sometimes indurated, but generally -soft and shingly. Most of these deposits were unstratified, but -distinct stratification was far from uncommon. The alluvium often -capped low hills in the open valley many hundred feet above the bed of -the river, and it was observed at frequent intervals in every part of -the valley, from the junction of the Pashkyum river to Dras itself. - - [Sidenote: ALLUVIUM OF DRAS. - _September, 1848._] - -The great extent and remarkable forms of alluvium which I had seen in -the district through which I had travelled, between Kalatze and Dras, -induced me to note with care the position and composition of the -alluvial beds of the Dras valley. The known low elevation of the Zoji -pass, between Dras and Kashmir, which is only 11,300 feet above the -sea, made the great extent and continuity of these deposits very -remarkable, and with difficulty explicable, unless on the supposition -of the existence of a series of lakes separated from one another by -extensive accumulations of alluvium, now to a great extent removed by -denudation. The lacustrine clays of lower Dras, about Ulding, appear -continuous with those of the Indus valley about Tarkata, but the clays -of Pashkyum, which are separated from them by a very thick mass of -alluvium, which occupies that part of the Dras and Pashkyum rivers -immediately above the junction of the two, may have been deposited in -an isolated lake. Further east again, at Lamayuru, there are beds of -pure clay as high as the summit of the Zoji pass, so that the alluvial -beds of the upper part of the Phatu ridge must have separated the lake -in which these were deposited from the more western waters, which (it -may be conjectured) at the same time covered the whole of the valley -of Molbil and Pashkyum. - -The vegetation of Dras was still very Tibetan, but transitional forms -were becoming frequent. The _Chenopodiaceae_ (except _Eurotia_) had all -disappeared, but _Artemisiae_ and _Umbelliferae_ were very abundant. The -new forms were all Kashmirian, and indicated a considerable increase -of humidity: a small white-flowered balsam was observed not far from -Hardas, and _Prunella_, _Thymus Serpyllum_, an _Achillea_, _Senecio_, -_Galium_, and _Silene inflata_ were all seen below the fort of Dras. -At that place the harvest was but just over; indeed, a field or two of -wheat were still uncut. - - [Sidenote: MATEN. - _September, 1848._] - -On the 26th of September, I marched to Maten, along a road which, in -April, had been entirely covered with deep snow. Part of the road was -rocky, but in general the valley was open. During this day's journey, -a very great change took place in the vegetation. Hitherto, Kashmirian -plants had been the exception, the greater part of the species being -Tibetan; to-day the reverse was the case, most of the plants seen -being those common in the comparatively moist climate of Kunawar, or -species new to me, but belonging to families or genera which inhabit a -more humid climate than Tibet. Groves of dwarf willows lined the banks -of the stream, and nearly sixty species of plants not observed in -Tibet were collected during the day. _Vitis_, _Aconitum_, _Hypericum_, -_Vernonia_, a prickly juniper, _Convallaria_, and _Tulipa_, may be -selected as illustrative of the greatness of the change, which was -particularly interesting from its suddenness. Numerous Tibetan forms -no doubt still lingered, but principally such as extend into Kashmir. -At Maten the barley was still uncut, notwithstanding that it is -upwards of a thousand feet lower than Le, at which place harvest was -nearly over at the time of my departure. - - [Sidenote: ZOJI PASS. - _September, 1848._] - -There can be no doubt that the sudden alteration in the character of -the vegetation is due to the great depression in the chain separating -Tibet from Kashmir, at the Zoji pass, which is far below the usual -level of the lowest parts of these mountains. The access of a great -amount of humidity, which would have been condensed if the -moisture-bringing winds had been obliged to pass over a lofty chain, -makes the autumn partially rainy, and frequently cloudy, thereby -diminishing the action of the sun's rays, and lowering the mean -temperature of the summer. - -On the 27th of September, I crossed the pass of Zoji La, which had now -a very different aspect from that which it had presented in April. -From Maten the road lay up a wide open valley with a scarcely -perceptible ascent, generally along the edge of a small stream, but -occasionally on the slope of the hill-sides. The valley was flat and -often swampy; but the mountains on both sides, more particularly on -the left, were high and abrupt, not unfrequently precipitous. On that -side there were in most of the ravines large patches of snow, and in -one there was a fine glacier, which stopped abruptly within a hundred -yards of the main valley. Latterly a few patches of snow lay even in -the open valley. The vegetation was almost entirely Kashmirian, not -more than six or seven out of about 110 species being otherwise; the -hill-sides were covered with brushwood, at first of willow and prickly -juniper, but latterly principally of birch. - -Five or six miles from Maten, the main branch of the stream was found -to descend from a narrow ravine on the left, at the head of which -there was perhaps a glacier. In the valley along which the road lay, -there was scarcely any water in the bed of the stream, and about a -mile further on, without any increase in the inclination, I came to a -large patch of dirty snow, beyond which there was a very evident slope -to the southward. The boiling-point of water here indicated an -elevation of 11,300 feet. A few hundred yards further, I arrived at a -large pond (it could hardly be called a lake), into which a very small -rill of water was trickling from the north, while from the opposite -end a stream ran towards the south. This little lake was not, as I had -expected, on the crest of the pass, but undoubtedly on the Kashmirian -side of it. - - [Sidenote: BALTAL. - _September, 1848._] - -Beyond the lake, the descent became steep, and the valley contracted -into a rocky ravine, full of snow, under which the little stream -disappeared. The road was at first on the left side of the valley, but -crossed on the snow at the commencement of the contracted part, and -ascended rather abruptly a steep hill on the right through a very -pretty grove of birch. The top of this steep ascent is usually -considered by travellers as the pass, and is the place to which the -name Zoji La properly belongs. The point of separation of the waters -must of course, for geographical purposes, be considered as the actual -pass, but this ridge, which, if not actually higher, is at all events -on a level with it, and has in addition a steep ascent on both sides, -has not unnaturally had that honour assigned to it. On reaching the -shoulder of the ridge, the valley of Baltal came in sight, presenting, -in the words of Moorcroft, "as if by magic, a striking contrast in its -brown mountains and dark forests of tall pines to the bare rocks and -few stunted willows to which we had so long been accustomed." The -sight of a forest is certainly a great source of gratification to a -traveller who has been long in Tibet; but the pleasing effect of the -view from the Zoji pass is not owing merely to contrast; as the -traveller looks down upon the bed of Sind river, more than 2000 feet -below, and the forest in the valley is not too dense, but interspersed -with open glades, while beyond rise high mountains tipped with snow. I -do not think that I have anywhere in the Himalaya seen a more -beautiful scene than that which then lay before me; but the effect was -enhanced by the recollection of the appearance of the same spot in -April, when the whole landscape was covered with snow, and I descended -from the summit of the pass on a snow-bank which filled up the now -inaccessible ravine, on account of which I was obliged to make a long -detour. The descent was extremely abrupt, through a pretty wood, down -to a log hut built for the accommodation of travellers a few hundred -yards from the river, at an elevation of 9,200 feet. - -The flora of the Sind valley at Baltal was very rich: the forest -consisted chiefly of pine, poplar (_P. ciliata_), birch, and sycamore, -intermixed with underwood of _Ribes_, _Berberis_, _Viburnum_, -_Lonicera_, and _Salix_. The herbaceous vegetation had all that -excessive luxuriance which characterizes the subalpine forests of the -Himalaya at the end of the rainy season. Gigantic _Compositae_, -_Labiatae_, _Ranunculaceae_, and _Umbelliferae_ were the prevailing -forms. There were several large patches of snow in the bed of the -lateral torrent which descended from Zoji La, as low down as the log -hut; and it was not a little curious to observe, that in spots from -which the snow had only recently melted, the willows were just -beginning to expand their buds, and the cherry, rhubarb, _Thalictrum_, -_Anemone_, _Fragaria_, and other plants of early spring, were in full -flower. - - [Sidenote: KASHMIR. - _October, 1848._] - -In descending the Sind valley towards Kashmir, my route was the same -by which I had travelled in April. The mountains on the left were -extremely precipitous and heavily snowed, and in a ravine a little -below Sonamarg a glacier descended almost to 9000 feet. The lower part -of the valley was one sheet of cultivation, chiefly of rice, which was -almost ripe. In the neighbourhood of Kashmir, where I arrived on the -5th of October, the season of vegetation was almost at an end; species -of _Nepeta_, _Eryngium_, _Daucus_, _Centaurea_, _Carpesium_, and -several _Artemisiae_ being the most remarkable of the herbaceous plants -remaining. In the lake there were vast groves of _Nelumbium_ leaves, -but the flowers and fruit were both past; _Salvinia_ was everywhere -floating in great abundance; while the other aquatic plants were -species of _Bidens_, _Stachys_, _Mentha_, _Scutellaria_, _Hippuris_, -and _Typha_, all European or closely resembling European forms. - -Besides rice, which constitutes the staple crop of the valley, the -principal grains cultivated in autumn appeared to be different kinds -of millet, and a good deal of maize; Indian species of _Phaseolus_ -also were common, now nearly ripe. The wheat and barley, which are -much earlier, were already above ground. I saw a few fields of -_Sesamum_ (the _Til_ of India), and in drier spots a good deal of -cotton, which was being picked by hand, but appeared a poor stunted -crop, much neglected. - -On the high platforms between Pampur and Avantipura the saffron was in -flower, and its young leaves were just shooting up. This crop seems a -very remunerative one to the Raja, who retains the monopoly in his own -hands, compelling the cultivators to sell the produce to him at a -fixed price. The bulbs are allowed to remain in the ground throughout -the year, and continue in vigour for eight or ten years, after which -the produce diminishes so much in quantity that the beds are broken -up, and the bulbs separated and replanted. The flowers are picked -towards the end of October, and carried into the town of Kashmir, -where the stigmas are extracted. - -Another very important product of Kashmir is hemp, which grows -spontaneously along the banks of the river, forming dense thickets -often twelve and fifteen feet in height, and almost impenetrable. It -is only used in the manufacture of an intoxicating drink, and for -smoking; and the plant is preserved entire, in store-houses, in the -town of Kashmir, till required for consumption. - -From Kashmir I proceeded towards the plains of the Punjab by the same -route by which I had travelled in May. During my absence in Tibet, the -second Sikh war had broken out, and as it was then at its height, it -was not easy to reach the British territories. I was therefore -detained a good while, first in Kashmir, and afterwards at Jamu, and -did not reach Lahore till the 16th of December. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[24] Two months later, Captain Strachey ascended the Nubra valley till -stopped by this glacier, which appears to be on a still more gigantic -scale than those of the Shayuk to the eastward. - -[25] Excellent specimens of this singular alpine plant, each tuft of -which must, I think, represent the growth of centuries, may be seen in -the Museum of the Royal Gardens at Kew, collected by Dr. Hooker in -Eastern Tibet. - -[26] I have no conjecture to offer regarding the age or nature of this -very remarkable rock. - -[27] The itinerary of Mir Izzet Ullah shows that at the time of his -journey from Le to Yarkand the direct road up the Shayuk was still -open. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - - General description of Tibet -- Systems of mountains -- - Trans-Sutlej Himalaya -- Cis-Sutlej Himalaya -- Kouenlun -- Four - Passes across Kouenlun -- Boundaries of Western Tibet -- Height - of its mountain ranges and passes -- Climate of Tibet -- Clouds - -- Winds -- Snow-fall -- Glaciers -- Their former greater - extension -- Elevation to which they descend -- Snow-level -- - Geology -- Lacustrine clay and alluvium. - - -The elevated country of Central Asia, situated to the north of the -lofty snowy mountains which encircle India from Kashmir to Assam, is -familiarly known to Europeans by the name of Thibet or Tubet,--most -properly, I believe, Tibet. This name is also commonly employed by the -Mohammedan nations to the north and west to designate the same -country, but is not, so far as I am aware, known in the language of -the Tibetans themselves, among whom different portions of the country -are usually known by different names. - - [Sidenote: BOUNDARIES OF TIBET.] - -The whole of Tibet (as far as our present very limited knowledge of -the south-east portion enables an opinion to be formed) appears to be -characterized by great uniformity of climate and productions, and -perhaps also of natural features, on which account it appears -convenient to retain the name for the whole country, although, as has -already been pointed out by Baron Humboldt[28], it is naturally -separable into two grand divisions. One of these, the waters of which -collect to join the Sanpu, which in India becomes the Brahmaputra, is -still scarcely known; the other, drained principally by the Indus and -its tributaries, has been repeatedly visited by European travellers. -The line of separation between these two portions lies a little to the -east of the great lakes[29], from the neighbourhood of which the -country must gradually slope in both directions towards the sea. - -If the whole of western Tibet formed (as it does, according to the -popular opinion on the subject of the countries to the north of the -Himalaya) an extensive plain bounded on the south by the great chain -of the Himalaya, and on the north by the lofty mountains of Kouenlun, -it would be an easy task to define its limits. This is, however, so -far from being the case, that the greater part of the surface of the -country is traversed in all directions by ranges of mountains in every -respect similar to the Himalaya, of which in fact those south of the -Indus are ramifications, while those on the north are branches of the -snowy chain of Kouenlun. - -If, again, the Himalaya formed an uninterrupted chain along the -southern border of Tibet, broken only by the passage of the Indus at -one extremity and by that of the Brahmaputra at the other, the -mountainous nature of the interior would be no obstacle to the -existence of a clear and distinct boundary. Unfortunately, however, -for simplicity of definition, no such chain exists. A line of high -snowy peaks may doubtless be traced in a direction nearly parallel to -the plains of India, but these are separated from one another by deep -ravines, along which flow large and rapid rivers, and therefore afford -no tangible line of demarcation between the two countries. - - [Sidenote: TRANS-SUTLEJ HIMALAYA.] - -Between the river Indus and the plains of north-west India is -interposed a mountain tract which has a breadth of about 150 miles in -linear distance. This tract is everywhere (with one exception) -extremely rugged and mountainous, nor is it at all an easy task to -convey an idea of the extreme complication of the ramifications of the -numerous ranges of which it consists. No wide plain (Kashmir alone -excepted) is interposed between these ranges, so that the only -feasible mode of division which appears to be applicable to them is -afforded by the course of the different rivers which traverse them in -various directions. If these be taken as a guide, the mountains will -be found to resolve themselves into two great systems connected to the -eastward, but otherwise independent of, though nearly parallel to, one -another. - -From the sources of the west branch of the Chenab or Chandrabhaga -river, a range of very great elevation runs in a north-west direction -as far as Kashmir, and, after reaching the north-east corner of that -valley, assumes a more westerly direction so as to encircle the whole -of its north side, bending at the same time gradually towards the -south. This chain forms the line of separation between the waters of -the Indus and those of the Chenab and Jelam. To the eastward of the -Baralacha Pass it ramifies to a considerable extent, its different -branches including between them several depressions quite unconnected -with the general drainage of the country, and surrounded on all sides -by ranges of hills which prevent any exit of their waters. The -principal of these depressions is that of lake Chumoreri; another is -occupied by the little salt lake first visited by Trebeck, and called -by him Thogji[30]. - - [Sidenote: SALT LAKES.] - -All these depressions, though at present unconnected with any of the -river systems, have evidently at some former period been so. -Chumoreri, as I am informed by Major Cunningham, is even now very -slightly saline, though scarcely perceptibly so to the taste. It has -evidently had an outlet at its southern extremity, where it is only -separated from the valley of the Parang river by a very low range of -hills which was crossed in 1846 by Mr. Agnew, and more recently by -Captain H. Strachey. The outlet of the little salt lake of Thogji has -evidently been near its north end, and its waters, previous to the -change in the state of the country which interrupted their exit, in -all probability flowed into that tributary of the Zanskar river which -runs to the eastward of the Lachalang pass, and which is marked in the -map accompanying Moorcroft's Travels as the Sumghiel. Major -Cunningham, who travelled in 1846 by the same route as that previously -followed by Moorcroft, informs me that no obstacle intervenes to -prevent the waters of the lake taking that direction in case of their -being raised in the lake itself to a height of two or three hundred -feet above their present level. - -If we consider the basins of these two lakes to be referable to the -systems of drainage to which they appear to have formerly belonged, -though now separated from them by accidental alterations of level, the -course of the mountain chain which I am endeavouring to trace must be -considered to run between the two. This is in fact the position of the -loftiest part of the chain, which, skirting the north and east sides -of Chumoreri, is thence continued in a south-east direction, forming -that lofty but little-known range which separates the valley of the -Sutlej from that of the Indus. This chain was crossed by Moorcroft on -his visit to Garu, and appears to extend uninterruptedly as far as -Kailas to the north of lake Manasarawar. - -The mountain chain which lies to the south of the river Sutlej may -also be considered to have its origin in the lofty country adjoining -the lakes, but a little to the south and east of them. This chain, -which separates the valley of the Sutlej from that of the Ganges and -its tributaries (including the Jumna), sinks at last into the plains -of India a little to the south of the town of Nahan. - - [Sidenote: CIS-SUTLEJ HIMALAYA.] - -The course of this chain has been admirably described by Captain -Herbert in his Geological Report of the Himalaya[31], a paper which -contains exceedingly accurate general views of the mountains between -the Sutlej and Jumna. He was quite unacquainted with the details of -the mountains north of the former river, and therefore could not form -any idea of their arrangement. Captain Herbert calls the chain south -of the Sutlej the Indo-Gangetic chain, a very inappropriate name, for -which, however, it is difficult to substitute a better. Perhaps the -name of Cis-Sutlej Himalaya, though not exactly classical, is the best -that can be devised, and if so, the chain which, commencing in Kailas, -separates the waters of the Sutlej from those of the Indus, may not -improperly be designated the Trans-Sutlej Himalaya[32]. - -To these two great chains the whole of the mountains between the Indus -and the plains may be referred. Both are of very great elevation, in -the eastern half of their course more especially, but that north of -the Sutlej is much less covered with snow than the other. This is -owing to the moisture-bringing winds, which are entirely derived from -the Indian side, being stopped by the chain to the south; and in fact, -as soon as the elevation of the latter is so far diminished that it -ceases to be covered with perpetual snow, the more northerly chain, -without any increase of elevation, becomes much more snowy, so as to -merit the appellation of great snowy range, a term which, more to the -eastward, is applied to the mountains south of the Sutlej. As several -of the principal ramifications of the northern chain attain an -elevation not at all inferior to that of the axis from which they are -derived, they produce a similar effect upon the climate of the ranges -to the north of them, being themselves covered with vast masses of -snow, while the mountains which they shelter are in a great measure -bare. - - [Sidenote: KOUENLUN.] - -The northern boundary of Tibet is formed by the great chain north of -the Indus, to which Humboldt, following Chinese geographers, has given -the name of Kouenlun. Our knowledge of the appearance and course of -this chain of mountains, by which Tibet is separated from Yarkand and -Khoten, is so extremely limited that, except as to its general -direction, very little can be said regarding it. The only conclusion -which can be drawn from the scanty notices of it by travellers is, -that it must be of extreme height and covered with perpetual snow. -Many of the principal ramifications which it sends down towards the -Indus are very elevated, and immense glaciers descend in their -valleys, so that, except in a very few places, the main chain cannot -be seen from the valley of the Shayuk, the mountains in the immediate -vicinity of that river in general obstructing the view. - - [Sidenote: PASSES ACROSS KOUENLUN.] - -I am not aware of more than four places in which passes exist across -the Kouenlun. The most westerly of these, called in Balti the pass of -the Muztagh, lies at the source of the right branch of the Shigar -river, a stream which joins the Indus opposite the town of Iskardo. -The road over this pass to Yarkand was formerly frequented by -merchants, but has for many years been disused, the reason assigned -being the danger of plunder by the hordes of robbers beyond. As -described to me by persons who had crossed it, the snow is reached -after ten days' journey from Iskardo, and continues during three -marches. It is said to be quite impracticable for horses, from which -it may, I think, be inferred that there are numerous glaciers. - -The second pass is that marked in Vigne's map as the Alibransa pass, -at the head of a considerable tributary which joins the Shayuk river -opposite Khapalu. The enormous glacier over which this road runs, by -which, in conjunction with the lateness of the season, Mr. Vigne's -attempts to cross the pass were frustrated, has been well described by -that traveller[33]. I did not, while in Tibet, meet with any one who -had crossed it, and I was assured by the inhabitants of Nubra that -they were not acquainted with any road from the upper part of their -valley, either towards Khapalu or towards Yarkand. - -The third pass, and the only one now frequented, is that of the -Karakoram, an extremely easy though very elevated one. The most -easterly pass of which I find any notice occurs on the road between -Ruduk and Khoten; it is mentioned by Moorcroft[34], but without any -account of the nature of the road, or the elevation of the mountains. - -To the westward of Karakoram, the direction of the Kouenlun is -seemingly as nearly as possible parallel to the Indus, but to the east -of that pass nothing certain is known regarding it. In Humboldt's map -it is laid down as running nearly from west to east, on the authority -of Chinese geographical works. Its course is unquestionably to the -north of the Pangong lake, but till it has been explored by European -travellers its direction must, I think, be regarded as involved in -much doubt. Another lofty range, however, unquestionably runs parallel -to the Indus from south-east to north-west. This range, which is -continuous with that by which the Indus and Shayuk rivers are -separated, terminates (or more properly originates) in the still -almost unknown mass of mountains which lies to the north of lake -Manasarawar. Between this chain and the Kouenlun is situated a tract -of country of unknown extent, which seems to be made up of a number of -isolated lake-basins quite unconnected, not only with one another, but -with the general drainage of the country by which they are surrounded. - - [Sidenote: PANGONG LAKE.] - -If we except the basin of the Pangong lake, into which Moorcroft and -Trebeck descended after crossing the range of mountains parallel to -the Indus, every part of this country must be viewed as a _terra -incognita_. It cannot, I think, be doubted, from the description of -the Pangong lake given by Moorcroft and Trebeck, that the basin in -which it rests had originally an outlet at its north-west extremity, -discharging itself along the valley of Tanktse into the Shayuk. The -country to the eastward is so totally unknown, that it is impossible -to conjecture whether the little lake-basins of which it is said to -consist, discharge themselves towards the Pangong lake, or southward -into the Indus. - - [Sidenote: BOUNDARIES OF TIBET.] - -Western Tibet, then, is a highly mountainous country, lying on both -sides of the river Indus, with its longer axis directed like that -river from south-east to north-west. It is bounded on the north-east -by the Kouenlun chain of mountains, by which it is separated from the -basin of Yarkand. On the south-east its boundary is formed by the -ridge which separates the waters of the Indus from those of the Sanpu. -To the north-west and south-west its boundaries are somewhat -arbitrary, unless the political division of the country be had -recourse to, which, depending on accidental circumstances entirely -unconnected with physical geography or natural productions, is so -liable to change, that its adoption would be extremely inconvenient. -The best mode of drawing a line of separation between India and Tibet, -in those parts where mountain chains are not available for the -purpose, appears to consist in regarding the latter to commence only -at the point where the aridity of the climate is too great to support -forests of trees, or any coniferous tree except juniper. - -As limited by these boundaries, West Tibet includes the whole of the -valley of the Indus and its tributaries, down to about 6000 feet above -the level of the sea, a considerable portion of the upper course of -the Sutlej down to between 9000 and 10,000 feet, and small portions of -the upper course of the Chenab, of the Ganges (Jahnavi), and of the -Gogra. - - [Sidenote: MOUNTAIN RANGES.] - -Every part of Tibet is traversed by ranges of mountains which have -their origin either in the Kouenlun on the north, or in the -trans-Sutlej Himalaya on the south. These mountain ranges are -generally extremely rocky and rugged, but as a general rule it may be -said that they are less so in the upper part of the course of the -different rivers, than in their lower parts. This rule applies not -only to the Indus and to the Sutlej, but with scarcely an exception to -all the tributaries of these rivers. There are no extensive open -plains in any part of the country, the only level portions being in -the valleys of the rivers, the width of which is usually not more than -one or two miles, and very seldom exceeds five miles. - -To this general description of the surface of the country I have met -with no exception in those parts of Tibet which I have had an -opportunity of examining. I have not, however, had an opportunity of -seeing the extreme south-west portion, my knowledge of the course of -the Indus not extending further up than Hanle[35]. - -The height of the mountain ranges which traverse West Tibet is in all -parts pretty much the same, and, as a consequence, the depth of the -valleys in the lower portion of the course of the Indus and of all its -tributaries is very much greater than near the sources of these -rivers. In the higher valleys therefore the mountains are apparently -much less lofty; they are also frequently rounded and sloping, or at -all events less rocky and precipitous than lower down, though to this -there are many exceptions. - - [Sidenote: ELEVATION OF PASSES.] - -The elevation of the passes in a mountainous region represents in -general the height of the lowest part of the chain. In the mountain -ranges of Tibet the average height of the ridges does not exceed from -1000 to 2000 feet above the passes, many of which indeed are scarcely -at all lower than the highest crest of the ridge in which they are -situated. I believe that in estimating the principal ranges of -mountains at 19,000 feet, and the minor ranges at from 17,000 to -18,000 feet, I approximate very closely to the truth. This estimate -applies to all parts of the country, the height of the ranges being -remarkably uniform; but peaks occur at intervals in every one of the -principal mountain ranges, which considerably exceed the elevation -just stated, rising very generally (so far as can be judged by the eye -from known heights of 17,000 and 18,000 feet) to twenty-one or -twenty-two thousand feet; some peaks appearing to exceed even this. - -It is generally supposed that the great peaks of the Himalaya on the -southern border of Tibet are much more lofty than the mountains of the -interior of that country. I do not think, however, that the facts of -the case are such as to warrant this assumption. West of the Sutlej, -in which district only the mountains of Tibet may be said to be at all -known, many peaks of the interior of that country are probably much -more lofty than any of those near the plains of India, and if -inaccessibility is to be any criterion, the chain of the Kouenlun is -beyond a doubt a much more elevated mass than any part of the Western -Himalaya. Of Tibet east of the Sutlej little is known, except that -between Ruduk and Lassa no road into the interior of Asia appears to -exist. - - [Sidenote: CLIMATE.] - -The climate of Tibet is in every part extremely arid, because it is -surrounded almost entirely by ranges of mountains so elevated that the -rarefied air which passes over them can contain only a very small -proportion of aqueous vapour. Along the Indus, indeed, no mountain -chains are interposed to obstruct the passage of moist air, but the -lower course of that river lies entirely in a comparatively dry -climate, so that the winds which blow over the plains of Sind and the -lower mountains of Eastern Affghanistan cannot convey any excess of -moisture to lower Tibet. In the few Tibetan valleys which, like that -of the Sutlej, are traversed by rivers debouching on the plains of -India in a rainy climate, the quantity of moist air which they can -receive being limited to that which proceeds directly up the valley, -the upward current, even when saturated with moisture at the -commencement, being gradually rarefied by the increasing elevation of -the river-bed, and meeting with descending currents of cold air in its -course, it very early deposits its moisture, first in the form of -light showers, afterwards of fog and mist, and in its further progress -is just as dry as the air in the more interior parts of the country. - - [Sidenote: RAIN-FALL.] - -It will probably be long before lengthened registers of meteorological -phenomena will be obtained from all the different stages between India -and the central parts of Tibet, so as satisfactorily to establish the -gradual transition of climate. Till such shall be the case, the best -evidence from which to deduce the fact of the alteration of climate, -is afforded by the gradual change in the vegetation of the country as -one advances towards the interior. Direct observation will probably at -some future period fix the point in the outer Himalaya, at which the -quantity of rain--always greater, _caeteris paribus_, among mountains -than in level countries--is a maximum. I believe that in the Western -Himalaya the greatest quantity of rain will be found to fall on -mountains elevated from seven to nine thousand feet. Ranges of -mountains which attain an elevation of from ten to eleven thousand -feet have already (in the Western Himalaya) a very sensible effect in -diminishing the quantity of moisture, as indicated by the vegetation; -and when the mountain chains became sufficiently elevated to be capped -by perpetual snow, they condense a very great proportion of the -moisture of the air-currents which pass over them. - -To a traveller who penetrates directly to the Tibetan interior from -the plains of India, the change of climate is perceptible to the -senses; most markedly so of course if his journey occurs during the -Indian rainy season. Even during the rains, however, the -irregularities which everywhere occur in the fall of rain prevent the -gradations of climate from being ascertained during a journey with the -precision which a lengthened series of observations would permit; but -the phenomena of vegetable life, which are dependent on the average -seasons, are not affected by accidental irregularities, and therefore -form an unerring guide. - - [Sidenote: CLOUDS.] - -Though the climate of the whole of Western Tibet may, in general, be -characterized as extremely dry, it is by no means cloudless. The -winter months in particular are often very cloudy, and a good deal of -snow falls. During the summer the sky is either bright and clear, or -overcast with very light clouds. These clouds, usually cirrhi, are in -general elevated and extremely thin. The cirrhus, when it remains for -any length of time, changes or increases into a uniform hazy stratum, -which covers the whole sky; more rarely, and perhaps only by an -optical deception, it is seen under the form of stratus. Cumuli are -very uncommon. After several dull days the clouds generally -accumulate, descend lower in the atmosphere, and rest on the mountain; -as a few drops of rain fall in the valleys, the clouds disappear, and -the highest peaks are seen to have received a slight sprinkling of -snow, which is soon melted by the rays of the sun. It is only very -rarely that the quantity of rain exceeds a few drops, or merits the -appellation of a shower. The few occasions on which I have observed -any fall of rain, at all deserving of being called by that name, have -mostly been in early spring or in the latter part of autumn. - - [Sidenote: TEMPERATURE.] - -When the sky is clear, the sun, in all parts of Tibet, even at great -elevations, but especially in the valleys at and below ten and eleven -thousand feet, is extremely powerful. The shade temperature depends, -of course, in a great measure on the elevation above the level of the -sea, but also on the situation, exposure, and many other accidental -circumstances. In the lower part of the Indus valley, at elevations of -seven and eight thousand feet, it is said to be frequently very -high[36], the clear dry atmosphere allowing the full influence of the -sun to be exerted on the bare, often black rocks. Even as far up as -11,000 feet, in narrow valleys, the heat is often great in the middle -of the day, but the more open plains are generally very temperate in -the shade, and the nights and mornings are always cool. - -On the tops of the lower passes, and in the alpine valleys, the -temperature of the nights and mornings is, in clear weather, very much -depressed by radiation, so that the mornings, except when the sky is -overcast, are intensely frosty, at elevations of 15,000 and 16,000 -feet, or far below the level of perpetual snow. This is the case even -in the month of August, which is the hottest of the year. The shade -temperature at these high elevations rarely rises very high, even when -the heat of the sun is oppressive, as it is moderated by the action of -the violent winds which so generally prevail. - -The periods of cloudy sky, which now and then alternate with the -bright sunshine, which is the prevailing weather, are in the alpine -regions extremely cold. The stratum of cloud, at first high in the -atmosphere, gradually lowers itself, and the traveller is enveloped in -a frozen mist, followed most commonly during the night by a fall of -snow. The quantity of snow which falls is very small, seldom, so far -as I have seen, more than an inch or two in depth, and it speedily -disappears as soon as the clouds have been dissipated and the sky -resumes its usual serenity. - - [Sidenote: WINDS.] - -The whole of Western Tibet is subject to extremely violent winds, the -course and direction of which could only be satisfactorily studied by -a resident. From the great depth of the valleys, the wind in general -follows their course, blowing at one time up them, at other times -down. In unsettled weather the direction is extremely variable, often -changing repeatedly in the course of the day, but in clear settled -weather the direction of the wind is, during the day at least, more -frequently up the valleys than in the contrary direction. I have not -observed any constancy in the course of the wind on the passes, on -which it would be principally important to be acquainted with it, but -it probably varies in direction according to the period of the day, so -that a traveller, whose time does not permit him to delay to register -the changes as they occur, is not likely to be able to discover any -general law. - -The Tibetan wind, in the ordinary state of the atmosphere, commences -after the sun has nearly attained the meridian, the mornings being in -general quite calm. It increases in violence during the afternoon, -sometimes till after sunset, ceasing to blow after dark, or at all -events before midnight. This wind seems to be pretty constant over the -whole country, from the upper Sutlej as far west as Rondu; and as a -very similar wind blows in the valleys of Affghanistan, which have an -identical summer climate in respect of moisture, it must, I presume, -be caused by the influence of the sun, in heating the barren rocky -plains and hills. - -During periods of cloud, and throughout the winter, the wind is much -less regular in its direction, as well as in the periods during which -it blows. It frequently changes its direction very abruptly. About the -equinoxes, or at the commencement and end of winter, at which times -there seems to be generally a good deal of unsettled weather, it blows -for some days with extreme violence. In March, 1848, at Iskardo, for -several nights the wind almost amounted to a hurricane; its direction -was from the south, or directly across the mountains. This was very -commonly the case at Iskardo, in unsettled weather, during the winter, -but never when the days were bright and cloudless. - - [Sidenote: SNOW-FALL.] - -The amount of snow-fall varies much, diminishing as we advance into -the interior of the country, but being always much greater on the -mountains than in the valleys at their feet. In the outer Himalaya, -the amount at equal distances from the plains diminishes as we advance -westward, but in the Kouenlun, where the source of moisture lies to -the westward, the snow-fall diminishes rapidly from west to east. The -same is the case in the valley of the Indus, where the amount of -winter's snow, except in the most westerly parts, is quite -insignificant. - -It is probably owing to the absence of cumular clouds, and to the -general uniform expansion of the condensed vapours over the whole sky, -that the outward manifestations of electricity--thunderstorms--are of -very rare occurrence in Tibet. I find only one instance of a -thunderstorm recorded as having been observed while I was in a Tibetan -climate. This was at Le, in September, 1848, at which time there was a -good deal of cloudy weather for several days. From the extreme dryness -of the air, electricity is evolved with great facility by friction: -all articles of woollen clothing, blankets, and even the hair, emit -sparks when rubbed in the dark. I have even observed this to be the -case at the elevation of 15,500 feet, in cloudy weather, when snow was -falling. - - [Sidenote: GLACIERS.] - -In every part of the Himalaya, and of Western Tibet, wherever the -mountains attain a sufficient elevation to be covered with perpetual -snow, glaciers are to be found. The occurrence of glacial ice is a -sufficient indication of the existence of snow of more than one year's -duration, and (setting aside trifling cases of masses of ice in deep -and sunless ravines, which, indeed, are not an exception, as they have -no motion,) it may be laid down as a general law, that every glacier -has its origin in perpetual snow. - -The converse of this proposition does not seem to be so universal. We -have the high authority of Humboldt for the fact, that no glaciers -occur in the Andes of tropical America, from the equator to 19 deg. north -latitude. Nor is it, I think, possible that the existence of glaciers -should have escaped his notice, did they occur of such dimensions as -would be indicated by the solitary and doubtful instance mentioned by -M. Boussingault, to which Humboldt refers[37], which is stated to have -been seen at the same elevation as the town of Quito, or more than -5500 feet below the level of perpetual snow in that region of the -Andes. The cause of the non-existence of masses of moving ice, in -connection with the perpetual snow of the American tropics, must -apparently be sought in the extreme uniformity of the seasons, and in -the small quantity of snow which falls at any time of the year. - -In every region of the earth, so far as is known to me, where the mean -temperatures of summer and winter are very different, or where the -climate is what is called excessive, perpetual snow produces glaciers. -These rivers of ice, as they have most appropriately been called, vary -very much in size and appearance. In the lofty chains of the cis- and -trans-Sutlej Himalaya, and of the Kouenlun, whose peaks rise to a very -great height, and collect in winter enormous depths of snow, they are -of great length. In the central parts of Tibet, which are often lower, -and even in their loftiest parts are less snowy than the bounding -chains, the glaciers are of inferior dimensions, often of that kind -which I have called incipient, where the snow-bed is at once cut off -abruptly in an ice cliff, which can hardly be said to be in motion, or -rather whose motion must be almost entirely from above downwards. - -The general appearance of an Indian glacier seems in every respect to -accord with those of Switzerland and of other parts of the temperate -zone. It is only of late years, indeed, that they have been generally -recognized in the Himalaya; but it must not be forgotten that it is -only recently that the researches of modern investigators, and in -particular the delightful work of Forbes, have familiarized the -untravelled world with their appearance, and more especially with the -fact and cause of their motion. It has also, singularly enough, long -been the custom to look upon the Himalaya as a tropical range of -mountains, in which it was, as a matter of course, regarded as -impossible that glaciers could exist[38]. - -The upper end or origin of a glacier seems commonly to be in an -enormous snow-bed, occupying the whole space included by an -amphitheatre of snowy peaks. The snow-slips and accumulations by which -the snow-bed is added to during winter, must to a great extent remain -concealed from human eyes; and in summer, when these icy fields are -accessible, they are generally, I believe I may say always, covered by -a thick layer of snow, which assists at the same time that it conceals -the process by which the snow is converted into ice. - -I have never measured the dimensions of any of the great glaciers of -the Himalaya, nor is it easy to ascertain the length of any of them -even approximately, as they are seldom traversed by roads, and are -usually bent so that only a small part of their course can be seen. -Many of them must considerably exceed ten miles in length; I have seen -several which were more than half a mile broad; and the depth of the -icy mass frequently amounts to hundreds of feet. - -The appearance of the surface of a glacier seems to depend almost -entirely on the inclination of its bed. Where the slope is gentle the -surface is nearly uniformly smooth, or at most only slightly fissured. -I have not had occasion to observe any fissures of more than a foot -or two in width, so that, though often very deep, they are crossed -without difficulty. In describing the icy surface as smooth, it is -necessary to mention that such is only the case in the upper part of -the glacier, where the moraines are small or only lateral. Whenever -the surface supports rocky fragments in great quantity, it is -extremely unequal till such time as the whole superficies becomes -covered with stones, when the melting being uniform, the surface again -becomes tolerably even. - -On steeply inclined planes the glacier is traversed in every direction -by enormous fissures, between which the surface is very irregular, -rising into sharp icy pinnacles of the most fantastic shape and -appearance. More than once I have seen extremely steeply sloping -glaciers, which were terminated abruptly by a lofty precipice, at the -bottom of which huge piles of boulders and occasional icy fragments -sufficiently indicated the forward motion of the ice; at other times, -the slope of the valley in which the glacier lies again becoming -gentle, the ice ceases to be fissured and rugged, and is capable of -being walked on without difficulty. - -Moraines, which, on the larger glaciers and among mountains of easily -decaying rocks, are of astonishing dimensions, form the margins of -each glacier, and also occur longitudinally on different parts of -their surface, increasing in number as the glacier advances, till at -last the different series whose origin can long be traced to the -different ramifications of the glacier, become blended into one. The -nature, origin, and aspect of the moraines, the mode of melting of the -ice beneath them, and the isolated pinnacles of ice which support -large solitary boulders, agree so entirely with descriptions of -glaciers in other parts of the world, that it is unnecessary to dwell -upon them. The large glaciers are often a good deal lower in their -central parts than where they are covered by a bulky moraine; and a -curious ravine-like hollow, between the moraine and the bare ice, -which makes the former appear as if entirely disconnected from the -glacier, is of very common occurrence. There is, however, also very -often an ancient moraine, not now resting on ice, which runs parallel -to the glacier, and seems to indicate its former greater extent. - - [Sidenote: FORMER GREATER - EXTENSION OF GLACIERS.] - -In every part of the Tibetan mountains, and in very many parts of the -Indian Himalaya, I have thought that I could recognize unmistakeable -proofs of all the valleys having been formerly occupied by glaciers at -much lower levels than at present. At first sight it seems rather -improbable, that in sub-tropical latitudes the present extension of -perpetual snow should at any former period have been exceeded; but it -would not be difficult to show that the mean temperature, and -particularly the mean summer temperature, is very much higher in the -Western Himalaya and Tibet than it might fairly be expected to be in -such a latitude. In fact, in the more humid climate of Eastern Bengal, -though at least four degrees nearer to the equator, the mean summer -temperature at equal elevations in the mountains is probably -considerably lower than in the mountains of North-west India, and the -snow-level is certainly lower. It is fair, therefore, to conclude, -looking back to a period when the sea washed the base of the Himalaya -in the upper part of the Punjab, that at that period a very different -state of atmospheric circumstances prevailed from that which we find -at the present time. - -Wherever I have seen glaciers in Tibet or the mountains of India, I -have been able to trace their moraines to a level very considerably -lower than their present termination; and when I find in those ranges -of the Himalaya which do not at present attain a sufficient elevation -to be covered with perpetual snow, series of angular blocks, evidently -transported, because different from the rocks which occur _in situ_, -and, so far as I can judge, exactly analogous in position to the -moraines of present glaciers, I feel myself warranted in concluding -that they are of glacial origin, and find it necessary to look about -for causes which should render it probable that the snow-level should -have formerly been lower than it is at present. In the rainy districts -of the Himalaya, where forest covers the slopes of the hills, it is -difficult to fix the lowest limits at which evident moraines occur, -but in many places I have seen them at least three thousand feet lower -than the terminations of the present glaciers. In the valley of the -Indus, accumulations of boulders, which I believe to be moraines, -occur in Rondu as low as 6000 feet. - -Glaciers, as is well known, terminate inferiorly at the point where -the waste by melting in any given time begins to exceed in amount the -mass of solid ice which is in the same space of time pushed forward by -the _vis a tergo_. In the mountains of Tibet the elevation of this -point is very different in different places. It seems to depend -principally on the mass of the glacier, as large glaciers invariably -descend much lower than those of smaller size; the inclination of the -bed has perhaps also some influence in determining the matter. - -In comparing the glaciers of the Tibetan Himalaya with those on the -Indian face of the same mountains, it will be found that, _caeteris -paribus_, glaciers descend much lower on the Indian side, or in a -moist climate, than in the dry and arid Tibetan climate. It is indeed -impossible to ascertain with certainty that any two glaciers are of -equal size, but it appears to me sufficiently accurate to compare the -main glaciers on the opposite sides of the same pass. In the Umasi -pass, which is situated in the main chain of the trans-Sutlej -Himalaya, all the circumstances seem favourable for comparison. On the -south side of this pass the principal glacier terminates at about -11,500 feet, while on the north side a much more massive glacier comes -to an end abruptly at 14,000 feet. The difference then, on opposite -sides of the same pass, where the pass coincides with the line of -transition of climate, amounts to 2500 feet. - -That I am justified in ascribing the cause of this difference to the -change of climate appears from the fact, that in the interior of -Tibet, where no such change is observed in crossing even very lofty -passes, there is frequently a glacier on the north declivity when none -exists on the south. This is the case, for instance, on the Parang -pass, and on the pass immediately north of Le. It may therefore be -inferred, that when glaciers occur on both sides of a pass, that on -the northern exposure will, unless there be a marked alteration of -climate, invariably descend lower than that on the south side. I have -not had an opportunity of seeing glaciers on both sides of any pass -in the most external ranges of the Himalaya, but I have been informed -that in the range south of the Chenab river, glaciers frequently occur -on the north sides of the passes, while none exist towards the south. -If this were to be found universally the case, it would be an -additional proof that the lower descent of glaciers on the south or -Indian side of the mountain chain is an exceptional occurrence. - - [Sidenote: GLACIERS OF KOUENLUN.] - -The glaciers of the southern slope of the Kouenlun appear, from the -descriptions of travellers, to be on a still more gigantic scale than -those of the Himalaya. Five mountain ranges of great height, separated -from one another by rivers of great size, descend from the axis of -that chain towards the Indus and Shayuk, and attain so great an -elevation, that, with scarcely an exception, there is no passage from -one of these lateral valleys to another. All these ranges rise far -above the line of perpetual snow, and in their valleys enormous -glaciers descend to a level which is gradually lower as we advance -westward in the direction of the source of the rain- and snow-fall. -The range east of the Shayuk has comparatively few and small glaciers, -but to the west of that river the glaciers of Sassar terminate at -about 15,000 feet. A little further west, a glacier, overhanging the -valley of Nubra, terminates at 14,700 feet, and the great glacier of -Nubra was found, by Captain Strachey, to terminate at 13,000 feet. In -the range between Nubra and the Machulu again there are vast glaciers, -but their height has not been determined, nor do we know precisely to -what level those of the Shigar valley descend; though it is evident, -from their proximity to the main valley, and their small distance -from Shigar, which is not more than 7200 feet above the level of the -sea, that they must descend very low, perhaps to 10,000 feet. In the -valley of Gilgit, I am informed by Mr. Winterbottom, the glaciers -descend as low as 8000 feet. - - [Sidenote: LEVEL OF - PERPETUAL SNOW.] - -In the mountains further east than the Shayuk it would appear that the -snow-fall is so very small that the level of perpetual snow recedes to -an enormous height. This has been found to be the case on the passes -north of the Pangong lake, many of which were crossed by Captain H. -Strachey. The great height of the mountains without snow, east of the -Karakoram pass, confirms the fact; and it is probable, so rapidly does -the snow-level rise in advancing eastward, that if we could penetrate -a very short distance beyond the eastern extremity of the Pangong -lake, an absolutely dry country might be reached, in which rain or -snow never falls. - -So much error has unfortunately taken place regarding the height above -which the mountains of North-west India are covered with perpetual -snow, that it appears necessary that travellers should put upon record -the results of their observations, however limited. It is for this -reason, and not because I expect to throw much additional light on the -subject, that the following remarks are hazarded. The recent paper of -Captain R. Strachey[39] has furnished facts which had hitherto been -wanting, while the theoretical considerations which have been laid -down by Humboldt are so accurate and comprehensive, that the -undoubted mistake into which he has fallen is the more to be -regretted. - -The Indian and Tibetan Himalaya, west of Nipal, lies entirely within -the temperate zone, and from that circumstance has its year divided -into summer and winter. The periodical rains, which it is well known -are principally confined to the outermost parts of the mountains, -being derived from the Bay of Bengal, are excessive in the easternmost -part of the chain, and gradually diminish as we advance westward; -there is no reason, however, to believe that the winter monsoon, which -is particularly dwelt upon by Captain Strachey in the valuable paper -to which I have had occasion to refer, is so. Probably indeed it is -the reverse, though I have no detailed observations to refer to in -corroboration of this opinion; I may however recall to mind, that the -winter is the season of heavy snow, and the spring of heavy rain, -throughout the north of Affghanistan, and that in the Punjab frequent -cloudy weather and rain occurs during the cold season, while in the -plains of India the weather seems to become at that period less -unsettled as we advance eastward. - -The quantity of rain which falls during the summer in the outer -Himalaya has necessarily a very material influence on the sun's action -during the time in which he has most power, and therefore on the mean -temperature of the summer months, which at corresponding elevations, -notwithstanding the northing of the chain as we advance from east to -west, must be higher to the westward. In the interior or Tibetan -portion of the Himalaya, this difference is not observed, the climate -being the same, or nearly so, from east to west of the region under -consideration. - - [Sidenote: WINTER, THE SEASON OF SNOW.] - -In the most western part of the Himalaya, in Kashmir and Balti, the -winter's fall of snow commences about the beginning of December, and -continues on the highest ranges nearly to the beginning of May. The -supply of moisture from which the snow is condensed is evidently -derived from the Indian seas, and I suppose principally from the -south-west, that being the general direction from which I observed -snow-storms to arrive at Iskardo. The fall of snow must therefore, -equally with that of rain in the rainy season, be greatest in the -outermost (snowy) ranges, and very much less in all those in the -interior. In the lower parts of Tibet on the Indus the snow-fall -during winter is very considerable, though during summer the climate -is as dry as elsewhere in Tibet. This difference seems to be explained -by the westerly point from which the winter's wind blows, and by the -much greater moisture of the atmosphere at that season over -Affghanistan and Sind, so that the south-west wind advances loaded -with vapour up the valley of the Indus. The increase of elevation in -the bed of that river of course causes all the excess of moisture to -be deposited without penetrating to any great distance, so that the -more eastern parts of the country are not affected by this cause. - -The snowy season in the highest mountains is probably in every part of -the range very much the same. On the low outer ranges, which do not -attain the height of perpetual snow, it is gradually lessened in -duration as the elevation diminishes, ceasing entirely, in average -years, at about 4000 feet. When the winter is at an end, the -influence of a powerful sun and gradually increasing temperature is at -once brought to bear on the mass of snow which has fallen; on the -inner ranges where the summer is dry, this action proceeds -uninterruptedly till the commencement of the next winter, but on the -outermost snowy ranges it is modified by the access of the rainy -season. - - [Sidenote: MELTING OF SNOW IN SUMMER.] - -On the outer ranges of the Himalaya, the crests of which rise to -between five and ten thousand feet, the powerful sun soon dissipates -all snow. It is in the inner ranges, which rise nearly to the height -of perpetual snow, and where the river-beds are from six to eight -thousand feet above the level of the sea, that the snow remains for a -great length of time. When the valleys are open, the plain on the -banks of the stream becomes first of all bare of snow, then the banks -which face the south, and lastly the northern slopes. It is not so, -however, in the deep narrow valleys and ravines through which the -Himalayan rivers generally flow. In these the bottom of the glen is so -much sheltered from the sun that a dense mass of snow, the result of -accumulation from the avalanches of the winter, remains for a very -long time after both slopes are quite bare of snow. These _snow-beds_ -have nothing of the nature of a glacier in them, but are simply firm, -hard snow. I have, in the month of June, descended along one of them -from 13,000 feet (above which height there was perhaps a glacier -beneath), to 8500 feet, a distance of seven miles without a break. It -was entirely confined to the bottom of the ravine, both banks being -throughout all that distance free of snow, and often covered with a -most luxuriant herbage. - - [Sidenote: SNOW-BEDS IN RAVINES.] - -Similar snow-beds are to be seen in every ravine which is not too wide -to be choked up by snow in winter. Their occurrence so universally is -probably in a great measure the reason why glaciers were not -recognized in our Indian mountains till so recent a period. These beds -being so clearly transitory in existence, it was assumed that all -masses of snow and ice were equally so. A visit to one of the great -glaciers at the end of autumn would of course at once have indicated -the dissimilarity. - -In many narrow ravines remains of these snow-beds may be seen at -surprisingly low elevations throughout the year, their permanence -depending much more on the amount of the winter's fall of snow, and of -the accumulation in that particular locality, than upon the mean or -summer temperature of the place. At Baltal, in the upper part of the -Sind valley in Kashmir, the little stream which descends from the Zoji -pass was still arched over by a bed of snow several feet thick, in the -end of September, at an elevation of not more than 9500 feet. This was -not, as might have been expected, in a very shady spot, but fully -exposed to the action of the sun; it was, however, in a place where -the fall of snow during winter is very great. - -The causes which are enumerated by Baron Humboldt as affecting the -snow-level are numerous, but several are of only local effect. Two in -addition to the latitude seem more important than the others, namely, -the amount of fall during winter, and the amount of solar heat during -summer. Captain R. Strachey regards the diminished amount of the -winter's fall of snow as the main cause of the greater height of the -snow-line in the interior of the Himalaya, but I feel disposed to -believe that both causes co-operate equally to produce the effect. - - [Sidenote: LEVEL OF PERPETUAL SNOW.] - -Captain R. Strachey has estimated (from the mean of several -observations) the snow-level on the southern slope of the cis-Sutlej -Himalaya at 15,500 feet. This elevation is, no doubt, as near as -possible correct. Captain Herbert, in his geological report, had fixed -upon 15,000 feet, which is a little too low even in the district of -Basehir, to which his estimate, I believe, refers. In the trans-Sutlej -Himalaya, from the diminished amount of summer cloudy weather, the -snow-level is probably a little higher, but we are not yet in -possession of any accurate determinations of heights in that range in -those parts which are in close contact with the plains of India. Two -of its ramifications are extremely well adapted for determining the -height of perpetual snow. First, the Chumba range, which, as has been -pointed out to me by Major Cunningham, is barely snow-tipped -throughout the year; and second, the Pir Panjal range south of -Kashmir, the northern slopes of which have perpetual snow and -glaciers, while on the south side the snow has entirely melted before -the end of summer. The elevation of the Pir Panjal has not been -determined with accuracy, the heights given by Baron Huegel and by Mr. -Vigne being estimated from their measurement of the pass over which -they crossed[40]. - - [Sidenote: SNOW-LEVEL IN TIBET.] - -In the interior of north-west Tibet every principal range attains the -elevation of perpetual snow, but only a few peaks rise much above it. -There is therefore no very great mass of snow during the summer months -to lower the temperature of the air, and consequently circumstances -are the most favourable possible for the elevation of the snow-line to -an extreme degree; a dry, stony, desert, treeless country, violent -winds, clear sky, and powerful sun, being all combined. In the most -central part of the country, the Lanak pass, near Hanle, and the Sabu -pass, near Le, both elevated as nearly as possible 18,000 feet, are -without perpetual snow, but the Parang pass, between 18,400 and 18,600 -feet, has a glacier on its north face, and therefore exceeds in -elevation the snow-line. The snow-level in central Tibet must -therefore be sought between these heights, but nearer that of the -Parang pass, which has no perpetual snow towards the south: it is, -therefore, certainly not below 18,000 feet. - -In the Kouenlun, on the northern border of Tibet, where the mountains -are again much more elevated, the snow-level descends no lower. Even -on the 19th and 20th of August, the mass of snow, which was on the -northern face of its highest peaks continuous down from 20,000 feet -and upwards, did not descend below 17,500 feet, and the open level -plain of the upper Shayuk had at that height only trifling patches of -snow. On the Karakoram pass (18,200 feet) there were only large -patches of snow, the south face of the ridge being quite bare for some -distance in both directions. - - [Sidenote: LEVEL ON OPPOSITE SIDES OF PASSES.] - -The _vexata quaestio_ of the difference of the level at which snow lies -on the north and south slopes of the Himalaya, affords a singular -instance of misconception. Enunciated originally in an obscure and -somewhat incorrect form, when little was known of the structure of the -inner part of the chain, the fact has been repeatedly contradicted by -those who thought they found it contrary to their experience. Both -parties were to a certain extent right. On each individual range the -snow-level will at all times be found lower on the north face than on -the south, except when the range which we are crossing happens to -coincide with a very marked and abrupt change of climate, which will -only be the case when it is extremely elevated. When this is the case, -the proposition, otherwise true of the mountains _en masse_, or the -inner ranges compared with the outer, becomes applicable to a -particular range. This is probably the case in the very pass in Kamaon -(I know not which it was) from which the law was first inferred. It is -certainly so in the great passes north of the Chenab, where, on the -Indian face, I found in June snow at 11,500 feet, while on the north -side, only twenty miles distant, it had already receded beyond 15,000 -feet. - -From the rapid nature of my journey, and the great number of objects -to which I was obliged to devote my attention, the geological -observations which I was enabled to make were much more imperfect than -I could have wished. It appeared, however, desirable, hurried as they -were, to enumerate them, for the purpose of drawing the attention of -future travellers to the subject; and for the same reason I shall here -recapitulate the general conclusions which appear to result from the -facts observed. - - [Sidenote: GEOLOGY OF TIBET.] - -The greater part of Tibet consists of plutonic and metamorphic rocks; -and from the gigantic scale on which the sections are exposed, and the -general bareness of the mountains, which enables their structure to be -seen, that country probably presents the finest field in which these -classes of rocks could be studied. Granite occurs in great abundance, -sending immense veins in all directions into the metamorphic rocks, -which are seen to be everywhere upheaved and dislocated by the -injected mass. In the immediate vicinity of the plutonic masses, all -traces of the direction of the strata of the superposed rocks are -lost; but elsewhere, with every variety of dip, it is very generally -found that the stratified rocks strike in a direction which varies -between north-west and south-east, and north-north-west and -south-south-east. As all my observations were made roughly and -unconnectedly, and without my discovering this identity till after my -return to India, the strike is probably very uniform throughout a -great extent of country. - -It is not a little remarkable that a belt twenty miles wide, in the -direction of this line of strike, drawn from Iskardo to the Niti pass, -would cover every place south of the Indus in which limestone has been -observed in Tibet. It would pass through Molbil on the Pashkyum river, -the limestone districts of Zanskar, and the Lachalang pass, where -limestone was found by Gerard. It would also cover Piti, Hangarang, -and Bekhar, all well-known limestone tracts. Of course the limestones -of Nubra and the Karakoram on the one hand, and of Kashmir on the -other, cannot in any way be connected with this line. - -The sandstones, slates, and conglomerates, which so closely resemble -in appearance those rocks which in Europe are chiefly members of the -old red sandstone and greywacke series, appear to assume also the same -direction. I bring forward these coincidences of direction only as a -remarkable fact, worthy of investigation, without attaching any great -weight to them, as more careful observation may show that they are -merely accidental, and that rocks of very different ages exist among -the limestones and associated rocks of the northern Himalaya. - - [Sidenote: ALLUVIAL AND LACUSTRINE DEPOSIT.] - -The great extent and development of a very modern alluvium-like -formation, composed of great masses of clay with boulders, and -occasionally of very fine laminated clay, constitutes one of the most -remarkable and striking features of Western Tibet. In every part -through which I have travelled, and at all elevations, except on the -highest passes, I have found these deposits in greater or less -quantity. In their most common state they consist of loose earthy or -clayey unstratified masses, containing boulders either angular or -rounded. Very fine clay, distinctly and horizontally stratified, is -also common; sandstone and hardened conglomerate are more rare, but -also occur occasionally. - -That some of these beds are of lacustrine origin, the occurrence of -fresh-water shells appears to prove very clearly; and though here and -there small portions may be terrestrial and of glacial origin, it -cannot, I think, be doubted that the great mass of the boulder clay -was deposited under water. - -In the structure of Scotland at the present day we have a state of -circumstances which appears to me capable of throwing much light on -the nature of these deposits. We find there a series of narrow arms of -the sea, stretching far into the land, and separated by rugged and -generally steep ranges of metamorphic or plutonic rocks. They are all -more or less silted up by sedimentary matter, and near their mouths, -especially where, as is often the case, they are much contracted, we -generally find a bar, shallower than the remainder. At various -elevations above the sea-level again there is a series of fresh-water -lakes, differing little in aspect from the arms of the sea. We find -also in many parts of the Highlands of Scotland long valleys, nearly -level, which are filled with incoherent sedimentary deposits, and -bounded like the lochs by steep mountains. If these were formerly arms -of the sea, which by the elevation of the land have been converted -into dry land, then the fresh-water lakes probably occupy those parts -of the narrow channels which were originally deepest, or which, being -wider than the rest, have remained unoccupied by sedimentary matter at -the time of the elevation. In conformity with this view we find that -at the lower end of these lakes the mountains generally approach very -close to one another. - -If we were to suppose the gradual elevation of Scotland to continue -till the mountains attained an elevation equal to that of the -Himalaya, it is evident that a continued series of marine sedimentary -deposits would extend from the summit to the sea-level, unless removed -by the action of streams or other ordinary causes. Some of the -valleys would be of considerable width, and would contain marine -fossils in great abundance; but in the narrower mountain valleys the -gravel and boulders would be quite destitute of fossils. Here and -there fresh-water formations of partial extent would occur, but they -would be separated from one another by large tracts filled with marine -beds. The gradual elevation of the land would bring to bear upon these -incoherent strata the powerful action of running water, which would -remove portion after portion, till at last deep valleys would be -excavated, and small patches only of the gravel and clay would remain -where the action of the streams was least powerful. Such I conceive to -be the present state of Tibet, but a much more detailed investigation -of that remarkable country would be necessary, before this view can be -regarded in any other light than an hypothesis. - -The causes by which the metamorphic rocks, which must have been -brought into their present remarkable state at a great depth in the -interior of the globe, acquired their present configuration of -mountain and valley, form a question on which I am not now prepared to -enter. One continued process of elevation seems inadequate to produce -the observed effects; but however numerous the alternations of -elevation and depression may have been, it is evident that the -alluvial deposits at present existing must all be referable to the -last period of elevation, as such incoherent strata could not -withstand the continued action of the sea. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[28] Asie Centrale, vol. i. p. 14. - -[29] Manasarawar and Rawan Rhad. - -[30] Moorcroft's Travels, vol. ii. pp. 47-50. - -[31] Journal of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta, 1842, No. 126. -Captain Herbert, who had travelled a great deal in the Himalaya, was -the first to point out the impropriety of regarding these mountains as -a single chain parallel to the plains of India. Jacquemont also -arrived at the same conclusion, as will be seen from the following -extract from his journal:--"Le langage de la geographie descriptive -est theorique; c'est une grande faute si les theories qu'il rappelle -sans cesse sont denuees de fondement. Ainsi l'on dit que le Setludje -_coupe_ la chaine centrale de l'Himalaya, que sa vallee est creusee au -travers, etc., etc., et l'on donne a penser par la que cette chaine -auparavant etait continue et que c'est par un effort des eaux que s'y -est faite cette large trouee, comme si les montagnes avaient du se -former primitivement avec une continuite non interrompue" (vol. ii. p. -201); and again (at p. 269), "Le Setludje coule donc non au nord de -l'Himalaya, mais entre deux chaines a peu pres egalement elevees." - -[32] Captain R. Strachey, in his paper on the snow-level, proposes to -call the more western part of the Cis-Sutlej Himalaya the Busehir -range, a name which, though exceedingly appropriate to the portion to -which he applies it, is not adapted for extension to the more eastern -part. - -[33] Travels in Kashmir, etc., vol. ii. p. 382. - -[34] Travels, vol. i. p. 361. - -[35] That Tibet is not an extensive plain, according to the usual -idea, has already been pointed out by Humboldt (Asie Centrale, vol. i. -p. 12). Chinese geographers, according to him, describe all parts of -Tibet as more or less mountainous; the eastern portion of West Tibet -(Gnari) as least so. Captain H. Strachey, in his account of his visit -to lake Manasarawar, says expressly that "the surface of Gnari is for -the most part extremely mountainous." In the lower Tibetan course of -the Sutlej, the recent discoveries of Captain Strachey show that an -alluvial table-land of considerable extent exists, intersected by deep -ravines. - -[36] See some observations of the thermometer recorded by Mr. Vigne, -at Iskardo, Khapalu, etc. - -[37] Asie Centrale, vol. iii. p. 22. - -[38] In the Map No. 65 of the Survey of the Western Himalaya, by -Captains Hodgson and Herbert, the glacier of Gangutri is marked "Great -snow-bed _or glacier_;" but whether this indication of a knowledge of -the true nature of the mass is due to the surveyors or to the maker of -the map in England, I have no means at present of ascertaining. - -[39] On the Snow-level in the Himalaya, in the Journal of the Asiatic -Society of Calcutta. - -[40] The thermometric results obtained by these two travellers do not -agree with one another. M. Huegel's thermometer indicated 6300 feet for -the elevation of Kashmir, a result which is known from the barometric -observations of Jacquemont to be 1000 feet in excess. Mr. Vigne's -thermometer, when tested by Moorcroft's barometric results at Le, errs -considerably in the opposite direction. In neither case do I know the -mode of calculation employed, the results only being given. - - - - -INDEX. - - - Abadan, 209. - - Adenocaulon Himalaicum, 47. - - Agricultural processes at Iskardo, 259. - - " " Le, 443. - - Alibransa pass, 463. - - Alluvial deposits of Chango, 112. - - " " Chorbat, 206. - - " " Dankar, 125. - - " " Dras valley, 448. - - " " Indus below Le, 391. - - " " Karakoram, 433, 438. - - " " Kardong, 398. - - " " Kyuri, 117. - - " " Landar valley, 309. - - " " Lio, 107. - - " " Molbil, 446. - - " " Nubra, 196. - - " " Phatu pass, 445. - - " " Phutaksha, 382. - - " " Piti valley, 122. - - " " Rondu, 254. - - " " Shayuk valley, 190. - - " " Shigar valley, 262. - - " " Sungnam, 97. - - " " Tibet, 491. - - " " Tolti, 232. - - " " Zanskar, 369. - - Alsine, tufted, 426. - - Asdhari, 347. - - Avalanches in Dras, 265. - - " " Kashmir, 271. - - " " Rondu, 253. - - - Badarwar, 329. - - Balanophora, 47. - - Ballota, 306. - - Baltal, 269, 452. - - Banahal pass, 297. - - " valley, 299. - - Bardar pass, 355. - - Basehir, 51. - - Baspa river, 75. - - Berberry of Tibet, 211. - - Bijbehara, 294. - - Bilergu, 265. - - Boghdan, 204. - - Borax plain of Pugha, 166. - - Borendo pass, 75. - - Braghar, 213. - - Buddhist edifices at Le, 183. - - " temple at Nako, 109. - - Buju, 334. - - Burang pass, 75. - - Butna river, 348. - - - Caper, wild, of Sutlej valley, 88. - - Caragana versicolor, 99, 156. - - Cedrus Deodara, 19. - - Celtis, 282. - - Chakor, or painted partridge, 261. - - Chamba, 335. - - Changlung, 409. - - Changar, 113. - - Chango, 112. - - Changrang pass, 113. - - Changrezing, 113. - - Chashut, 181. - - Chatargarh, 348. - - " district, 346. - - Chegaon, 69. - - Chenab valley, 301, 345. - - Chinese frontier, direction of, 143. - - " " stoppage on, 116. - - Chini, 78. - - Chirasa, 196. - - Chishot, 349. - - Chloris, species of, in Nubra, 402. - - Chorbat, 204. - - Christolea, 114, 144. - - Chulungka, 207. - - Chumoreri, 140, 459. - - Cicer microphyllum, 371. - - Climate of Dras, 450. - - " Chatargarh, 345. - - " Iskardo in winter, 243. - - " Kashmir, 282. - - " Kunawar, 71. - - " Le in September, 443. - - " Pashkyum, 446. - - " Piti, 128. - - " Simla, 21. - - " Tibet, 468. - - " Zanskar, 363. - - Confervae in Pugha hot-springs, 164. - - Crambe, 103. - - Cupressus torulosa, 31. - - Currant, black, 115. - - " Tibetan, 104. - - Cyanite, 84, 111. - - Cyclas, fossil, 172. - - Cyperus, a species, in Nubra, 402. - - Cyrena, 292. - - - Dadu, 324. - - Dama, 99. - - Dankar, 125. - - Datisca, 58. - - Deghi, 334. - - Deodar, 19. - - Dewar, 335. - - Digar, 189. - - Diskit, 401. - - Doda, 324. - - Dodonaea, 318. - - Dras valley, 234, 264, 449. - - " village and fort, 238, 267. - - - Elaeagnus, 195, 242. - - Elm of Nubra, 406. - - Ephedra, 94. - - Eremurus, 343. - - Euphorbia pentagona, 6. - - - Fagu, 35. - - Fish in Hanle lake, 152. - - " Pugha stream, 164. - - Floods of Shayuk, 200. - - Fothergilla involucrata, 274. - - - Gagangir, 272. - - Gagar river, 2. - - Gambar river, 11, 12. - - Ganderbal, 275. - - Gangan, 274. - - Gaora, 58. - - Garta, 321. - - Garys pass, 278. - - Gentiana Moorcroftiana, 126. - - Geology of Tibet, 490. - - Gerard's pine, 70, 73, 74. - - Giah, 176. - - Giri river, 36. - - Giu river, 118. - - Glacier of Butna valley, 352. - - " Nubra mountains, 413. - - " Parang pass, 136. - - " pass north of Le, 397. - - " Sassar, 438. - - " Sassar pass, 417. - - " Umasi pass, north face, 357. - - " " south face, 354. - - " Zoji pass, 451. - - Glaciers of Himalaya, 474. - - " Kouenlun, 481. - - Gol, 224. - - Gold-washing in Khapalu, 212. - - Gond, 273. - - Granite in Chorbat, 207. - - Greenstone near Hanle, 149. - - - Hangarang district, 96. - - " pass, 100. - - Hango, 102. - - Hanle, 152. - - Hanle river, 155. - - Hanu pass, 208. - - Hanupata, 384. - - Hardas, 237, 265. - - Haripur, 12. - - Harvest at Le, 443. - - Hattu, ascent of, 41. - - Hemp in Kashmir, 455. - - Himalaya, appearance of, from plains, 2. - - " arrangement of ranges of, 458. - - " Cis-Sutlej, 459. - - " Trans-Sutlej, 458. - - Himor, 349. - - Hippophae conferta, 59. - - " forest of Nubra, 195. - - " of Tibet, 212. - - Hordeum Aegiceras, 102. - - Hot-springs of Panamik, 407. - - " Pugha, 164. - - Huling, 119. - - Hundar, 199. - - Hydrangea, scandent, 47. - - Hyoscyamus niger, 77. - - - Indus river, at Iskardo, 217. - - " at Upshi, 178. - - " frozen over, 241. - - " junction with Shayuk, 214. - - " north of Hanle, 158. - - Iron-mine in Zanskar, 379. - - Iskardo, 216. - - " winter at, 243. - - Islamabad, 294. - - - Jako, 17. - - " view from, 23. - - Jamu, 313. - - Junipers of Kunawar, 83. - - Juniperus excelsa, 254. - - - Kalatze, 388. - - Kalka, 4. - - Kamar, 250. - - Kanam, 94. - - Kanji river, 445. - - Karakoram pass, 433. - - " plain, 428, 436. - - Karbu, in Dras, 238, 266. - - " in Pashkyum, 445. - - Kardong, 398. - - Kargil, 448. - - Karsar, 399. - - Karsha, 368. - - Kartash, 231. - - Kartse river, 448. - - Kashbir, 79. - - Kashmir, 277, 454. - - Katti, 308. - - Kepu, 50. - - Khapalu, 211. - - " plain of, 209. - - Khoten, road to, from Karakoram, 430. - - Khundan Chu, 442. - - Ki, 131. - - Kiang or wild horse, 141. - - Kibar, 131. - - Kiris, 213. - - Kirmichi, 310. - - Koardu, 249. - - Kotgarh, 48. - - Kouenlun, 436, 462. - - Kulzum pass, 127. - - Kunawar, 62. - - Kunes, 213. - - Kuru, in Balti, 213. - - " in Nubra, 201. - - Kussowlee, 5. - - Kyuri, 117. - - - Lacustrine clay of Avantipura, 290. - - " " Chango, 111. - - " " Gol, 225. - - " " Iskardo, 220, 223. - - " " Kamar, 250. - - " " Karsar, 400. - - " " Kashmir, 279. - - " " Kiris, 214. - - " " Kuru, in Nubra, 201. - - " " Kyuri, 117. - - " " Lipa, 88. - - " " lower Dras, 236. - - " " lower Nubra, 198. - - " " Phutaksha, 382. - - " " Thogji lake, 170. - - " " Zanskar, 367. - - Ladhe ke Dhar, 307. - - Lake of Kashmir, 281. - - " salt, of Thogji, 170. - - Lakes, glacial, of Sassar pass, 417. - - Lamayuru, 387, 444. - - Lanak pass, 146. - - Landar, 309. - - Langera, 333. - - Lara, 127. - - Lari, 119. - - Lazgung pass, 188. - - Le, 182, 393, 443. - - Lecanora miniata, 136. - - Limestone of Hangarang, 100. - - " Karakoram, 427. - - " " pass, 435. - - " Murgai, 425. - - " Piti, 124. - - " Shahabad, 297. - - " Zanskar, 371. - - Lio, 105. - - Lipa, 87. - - Liundi, 348. - - Lyakjung, 197, 404. - - Lycium, 211. - - Lymnaea, fossil, at Iskardo, 220. - - " " at Thogji lake, 170. - - " " in Nubra, 198. - - " " in Piti, 117. - - - Machulu river, 209. - - Mahasu ridge, 31. - - Markanda river, 2. - - Markim, 361. - - Marsilang, 181. - - Maten, 267, 450. - - Mattiana, 36. - - Melia Azedarach, 59. - - Mir, 309. - - Miru, in Kunawar, 70. - - " Tibet, 178. - - Molbil, 445. - - Murgai, 422. - - " river, ascent of, 423. - - Muztagh pass, 462. - - Myricaria trees, 162. - - - Nachar, 64. - - Nagkanda, 41. - - Nako, 108. - - Namika pass, 445. - - Nar, 215. - - Nasmon, 304. - - Natural bridge in Piti, 116. - - Natural tunnel, 385. - - Nettle, alpine, 414. - - Nimo, 392. - - Nira, 377. - - Nirt, 51. - - Nostoc, 145. - - Nubra, 192, 404. - - " Chu, 442. - - " lower, 198. - - Nurla, 390. - - - Oak, evergreen, 73. - - Olive, wild, 306. - - Orchideae of Nubra, 400. - - Oxybaphus Himalayanus, 60. - - Oxytropis chiliophylla, 369. - - - Padri pass, 330. - - Padum, 363. - - Pain Dras, 267. - - Pampur, 288. - - Panamik, 407. - - " hot-springs, 407. - - Pangi, 79. - - Pangong lake, 464. - - Paralysis, curious cases of, 391. - - Parang pass, 135. - - " river, lower course of, 113. - - " " upper course of, 138. - - Pargwal, 345. - - Parkuta, 229. - - Partridge, painted, 261. - - Pashkyum, 446. - - Pass above Changlung in Nubra, 410. - - " Dadu, 327. - - " Mir, 309. - - " Nasmon, 302. - - " Pata, 323. - - Pass north of Le, 395, 443. - - " " Ruduk, 463. - - Passes across Kouenlun, 462. - - " of Tibet, elevation of, 467. - - Pata, 322. - - Peganum Harmala, 212. - - Perowskia, 178. - - Perpetual snow, 482. - - " in outer Himalaya, 487. - - " in Tibet, 488. - - " on opposite sides of passes, 489. - - Phatu pass, 444. - - Phutaksha, 382. - - Picea Webbiana, 86. - - Pin river, 126. - - Pindrow, 86. - - Pinus excelsa in Rondu, 257. - - " Gerardiana, 70, 73, 74. - - " longifolia, 18. - - Pitak, 394. - - Piti, 128. - - " river, 106. - - Planorbis, fossil, 117, 170, 198, 220. - - Pok, 124. - - Poplars of Indus valley, 180. - - Populus alba, 95, 207. - - " balsamifera, 177. - - " Euphratica, 191. - - Porgyul, 101, 110. - - Potato cultivation, 34. - - Potentilla discolor, 412. - - Prangos, 240, 266. - - Pranu, 207. - - Pugha, borax plain, 166. - - " hot springs, 164. - - " ravine, 162. - - " sulphur-mine, 168. - - Pulokanka pass, 170. - - - Quercus Ilex, 73, 347. - - Quinoa, 49. - - - Raldang, 80. - - Ramnagar, 320. - - Rampur, 54. - - Rangrig, 127. - - Ribes glandulosum, 104. - - Rocks of Banahal pass, 298. - - " Butna valley, 361. - - " Chorbat, 207. - - " Dadu, 324. - - " Giah ravine, 179. - - " Hangarang, 100. - - " Karakoram pass, 435. - - " " plain, 427. - - " Kargil, 448. - - " Kashmir, 280, 297. - - " Kunawar, 81. - - " lower Shayuk, 214. - - " Murgai valley, 425. - - " Nubra, 407. - - " Pashkyum, 447. - - " Pugha, 165. - - " Rondu, 257. - - " Simla, 27. - - " Singhi pass, 381. - - " Sungnam, 99. - - " Tawi valley, 311. - - " Umasi pass, 361. - - " Wandla ravine, 388. - - " Waris ravine, 203. - - " Zanskar, 361, 371. - - Rogi, 73. - - Rondu, 248. - - Rope-bridge of Kartash, 242. - - " Nasmon, 305. - - " Padum, 367. - - " Rampur, 54. - - " Rondu, 255. - - Rosa Webbiana, 386. - - Rose, yellow, 385. - - Rukchin valley, 172. - - Runang pass, 92. - - Ruskalan river, 94. - - - Sabathu, 11. - - Sabu, 188. - - Sach pass, 338. - - Saffron cultivation, 288, 455. - - Sairi, 16. - - Salt lake of Thogji, 170. - - Sandstone, modern, of Iskardo, 221. - - " " Karsar, 400. - - " " Tarkata, 234. - - " of Pashkyum, 447. - - " tertiary of Jamu hills, 311, 312. - - Saspola, 391. - - Sassar, 420. - - Sassar pass, 417. - - Seda, 312. - - Serahan, 60. - - Shahabad, 296. - - Shali, 31, 32. - - Shalimar, 286. - - Shayuk river, in Chorbat, 205. - - " " Karakoram, 431. - - " " Khapalu, 209. - - " " Nubra, 193, 403. - - " " Sassar, 419. - - " " its junction with Indus, 214. - - Shialkar, 112. - - Shigar valley, 262. - - Shol, 347. - - Siksa, 204. - - Sildang river, 64. - - Simla, 16. - - Sind river, 270. - - Singhi pass, 379. - - Sirohi Sar, 316. - - Snow-fall in Tibet, 473. - - Soda, efflorescence, in Nubra, 195. - - " " Piti, 128. - - Sonamarg, 271. - - Statice, prickly, 204. - - Suliman range, 3. - - Sulphur-mine of Pugha, 168. - - Sungnam, 94. - - Surmu, 210. - - Suru, 448. - - Sutlej river at Rampur, 51. - - " " Wangtu, 66. - - " " its diurnal fluctuations, 54. - - - Taksha, 408. - - Takti pass, 375. - - Tarkata, 233. - - Tawi river, 313. - - Temple buried in lacustrine clay, 292. - - Tertse, 197. - - Thalaura, 318. - - Thawar, 254. - - Theog, 37. - - Thogji lake, 170, 459. - - Tibet, general description of, 456. - - Tirit, 197. - - Tolti, 230. - - Tongde, 368. - - Tranda, 61. - - Trikota Debi, 310. - - Tsatti, 192. - - Tunglung pass, 175. - - Turgu, 223. - - Turtuk, 207. - - Tussilago Farfara, 263. - - - Ulding Thung, 236. - - Umasi pass, 355. - - Unmaru, 197. - - Upshi, 179. - - Urdi, 229. - - - Vegetation of Badarwar, 329. - - " Baltal, 453. - - " Banahal, 301. - - " Chatargarh, 348. - - " Chenab valley, 304, 342. - - " Dadu, 324. - - " Dras, 449. - - " Gambar valley, 13. - - " Hangarang pass, 101. - - " Hattu, 43. - - " Indus valley below Le, 390. - - " Jamu hills, 317. - - " Kalka, 4. - - " Karakoram, 435. - - " Karsar in Nubra, 400. - - " Kashmir, 283, 296, 454. - - " Kotgarh, 47, 50. - - " Kunawar, 72, 76. - - " Kussowlee, 6, 7. - - " Le, 395. - - " Mahasu, 31. - - " Nubra, 406. - - " Pashkyum, 446. - - " Phatu pass, 445. - - " Ramnagar valley, 320. - - " Rondu, 258. - - " Runang pass, 92. - - " Sassar, 420. - - " Sassar pass, 416. - - " Simla, 18. - - " Sind valley, 272. - - " Sutlej valley at Rampur, 53. - - " " " Wangtu, 67. - - " Werang pass, 85. - - " Zanskar, alpine, 359. - - " " northern passes, 375, 377, 380. - - " " valley, 365, 371. - - " Zoji pass, 451. - - Vernag, 296. - - Vines of Parkuta, 229. - - " Turtuk, 207. - - " wild, of Butna valley, 348. - - Vineyards of Kunawar, 78. - - " Sungnam, 94. - - - Wandla, 386. - - Wangtu Bridge, 66. - - Waris, 202. - - Wasterwan, 288. - - Waterfall at Wangtu, 68. - - " frozen, in Dras, 241. - - Werang pass, 84. - - Willows of Tibet, 180. - - Winds of Tibet, 472. - - Winter at Iskardo, 243. - - Wulur lake, 282. - - - Yarkand merchants, 410. - - " road to, from Iskardo, 263. - - Yulchung, 379. - - - Zangla, 369. - - Zannichellia, 164. - - Zanskar, 358, 363. - - Zobo, 91. - - Zoji pass, 267, 451. - - Zungsam river, 113. - - - JOHN EDWARD TAYLOR, PRINTER, - LITTLE QUEEN STREET, LINCOLN'S INN FIELDS. - - - - - THE - RHODODENDRONS - OF - SIKKIM-HIMALAYA; - - Being an Account, Botanical and Geographical, of the _Rhododendrons_ - recently discovered in the Province of Sikkim, on the Eastern - Himalaya Mountains. - - BY - JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER, M.D., R.N., F.R.S., F.L.S. - EDITED BY SIR W. J. HOOKER, K.H., D.C.L., F.R.S.A. - - Imp. folio. Thirty Plates. L3 16_s._ coloured. - - "In this work we have the first results of Dr. Hooker's botanical - mission to India. The announcement is calculated to startle some of - our readers when they know that it was only last January twelvemonths - that the Doctor arrived in Calcutta. That he should have ascended the - Himalaya, discovered a number of plants, and that they should be - published in England in an almost UNEQUALLED STYLE OF MAGNIFICENT - ILLUSTRATION, in less than eighteen months, is one of the marvels of - our time."--_Athenaeum._ - - "A most beautiful example of fine drawing and skilful colouring, while - the letter-press furnished by the talented author possesses very high - interest. Of the species of _Rhododendron_ which he has found in his - adventurous journey, some are quite unrivalled in magnificence of - appearance. We recommend the district to the nurseryman. Whoever could - bring home plenty of seeds of these plants would require no better - foundation for a little fortune."--_Gardeners' Chronicle._ - - - _Also, by the same Author_, - - 1. FLORA OF NEW ZEALAND. - - Parts I., II., and III. Twenty Plates. Price 21_s._ plain; L1 11_s._ - 6_d._ coloured. To be completed in Five Parts. - - 2. THE BOTANY OF THE ANTARCTIC VOYAGE. - - Two Hundred Plates. 2 vols, royal 4to, cloth. L7 10_s._ plain; L10 - 15_s._ coloured. - - - LONDON: - - REEVE AND CO., HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN. - - - - - LIST OF WORKS - PRINCIPALLY ON - NATURAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE, - PUBLISHED BY - REEVE AND CO., - 5, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN. - - - - -BOTANY. - - - THE VICTORIA REGIA. By Sir W. J. HOOKER, F.R.S. In elephant - folio. Illustrated on a large scale by W. Fitch. 31_s._ 6_d._ - - The work on the Royal Water Lily contains four plates of very - large size, expensively coloured, illustrative of the different - stages of flowering and fruiting, with analyses of structure, - as follows:-- - - 1. A view of the entire plant, flower, fruit, and leaves, on - the water. - - 2. A flower _of the natural size_ in progress of expanding, - together with as much of the enormous foliage as the broad - dimensions of the paper will admit. - - 3. A fully expanded flower _of the natural size_, with foliage, - &c. - - 4. A vertical section of the fully developed flower, with - various dissections and analyses. - - "Although many works have been devoted to the illustration and - description of the _Victoria regia_, it seemed still to want - one which, whilst it gave an accurate botanical description of - the plant, should at the same time show the natural size of its - gigantic flowers. This object has been aimed at by the combined - labours of Sir W. Hooker and Mr. Fitch, and with distinguished - success. The illustrations are everything that could be desired - in the shape of botanical drawings. They are accurate, and they - are beautiful."--_Athenaeum._ - - - THE RHODODENDRONS OF SIKKIM-HIMALAYA. With drawings and - descriptions made on the spot. By J. D. HOOKER, M.D., F.R.S. - Edited by Sir W. J. HOOKER, D.C.L., F.R.S. In handsome imperial - folio, with thirty coloured plates. Price 3_l._ 11_s._ - - "In this work we have the first results of Dr. Hooker's - botanical mission to India. The announcement is calculated to - startle some of our readers when they know that it was only - last January twelvemonths that the Doctor arrived in Calcutta. - That he should have ascended the Himalaya, discovered a number - of plants, and that they should be published in England in an - almost UNEQUALLED STYLE OF MAGNIFICENT ILLUSTRATION, in less - than eighteen months--is one of the marvels of our - time."--_Athenaeum._ - - "A most beautiful example of fine drawing and skilful - colouring, while the letter-press furnished by the talented - author possesses very high interest. Of the species of - Rhododendron which he has found in his adventurous journey, - some are quite unrivalled in magnificence of - appearance."--_Gardeners' Chronicle._ - - - SANDERS'S PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE CULTURE OF THE VINE. With - plates. 8vo. 5_s._ - - "Mr. Assheton Smith's place at Tedworth has long possessed a - great English reputation for the excellence of its fruit and - vegetables: one is continually hearing in society of the - extraordinary abundance and perfection of its produce at - seasons when common gardens are empty, and the great world - seems to have arrived at the conclusion that the kitchen - gardening and forcing there are nowhere excelled. We have, - therefore, examined with no common interest the work before us, - for it will be strange indeed, if a man who can act so - skilfully as Mr. Sanders should be unable to offer advice of - corresponding value. We have not been disappointed. Mr. - Sanders's directions are as plain as words can make them; and, - we will add, as judicious as his long experience had led us to - expect. After a careful perusal of his little treatise, we find - nothing to object to, and much to praise."--_Gardeners' - Chronicle._ - - "A clever, well-written, and nicely illustrated horticultural - pamphlet, telling us all we want to know on the - subject."--_Guardian._ - - - PHYCOLOGIA BRITANNICA; or, History of the British Sea-weeds; - containing coloured figures, and descriptions, of all the - species of Algae inhabiting the shores of the British Islands. - By WILLIAM HENRY HARVEY, M.D., M.R.I.A., Keeper of the - Herbarium of the University of Dublin, and Professor of Botany - to the Dublin Society. The price of the work, complete, - strongly bound in cloth, is as follows:- - - In three vols, royal 8vo, arranged in the } L7 12 6 - order of publication } - - In four vols, royal 8vo, arranged systematically} L7 17 6 - according to the Synopsis } - - _A few Copies have been printed on large paper._ - - "The 'History of British Sea-weeds' we can most faithfully - recommend for its scientific, its pictorial, and its popular - value; the professed botanist will find it a work of the - highest character, whilst those who desire merely to know the - names and history of the lovely plants which they gather on the - sea-shore, will find in it the faithful portraiture of every - one of them."--_Annals and Magazine of Natural History._ - - "The drawings are beautifully executed by the author himself on - stone, the dissections carefully prepared, and the whole - account of the species drawn up in such a way as cannot fail to - be instructive, even to those who are well acquainted with the - subject. The greater part of our more common Algae have never - been illustrated in a manner agreeable to the present state of - Algology."--_Gardeners' Chronicle._ - - - POPULAR HISTORY OF BRITISH SEA-WEEDS, comprising all the Marine - Plants. By the Rev. DAVID LANDSBOROUGH, A.L.S., Member of the - Wernerian Society of Edinburgh. With twenty coloured plates by - Fitch. _Second Edition._ Royal 16mo. 10_s._ 6_d._ - - "The book is as well executed as it is well timed. The - descriptions are scientific as well as popular, and the plates - are clear and explicit. Not only the forms, but the uses of - Algae, are minutely described. It is a worthy SEA-SIDE - COMPANION--a handbook for every occasional or permanent - resident on the sea-shore."--_Economist._ - - "Those who wish to make themselves acquainted with British - Sea-weeds, cannot do better than begin with this elegantly - illustrated manual."--_Globe._ - - "This elegant work, though intended for beginners, is well - worthy the perusal of those advanced in the science."--_Morning - Herald._ - - - A CENTURY OF ORCHIDACEOUS PLANTS, selected from those most - worthy of cultivation figured in Curtis's Botanical Magazine, - with coloured figures and dissections, chiefly executed by Mr. - FITCH; the descriptions (entirely re-written) by Sir WILLIAM J. - HOOKER, F.R.S. With an introduction on the culture of - Orchidaceae generally, and on the treatment of each genus; by - JOHN C. LYONS, Esq. Royal 4to, containing one hundred coloured - plates. Price _Five Guineas_. - - "In the exquisite illustrations to this splendid volume full - justice has been rendered to the oddly formed and often - brilliantly coloured flowers of this curious and interesting - tribe of plants."--_Westminster and Foreign Quarterly Review._ - - "A very acceptable addition to our knowledge of the Orchis - tribe. The plates are beautifully executed, and have been - selected with great care. Each species has a brief character - attached, and to each genus botanical and practical - observations, from the pen of Sir William Hooker, are prefixed. - The work is enriched with a prefatory memoir by Mr. Lyons, full - of sound judgment and experience, on the most approved method - of growing Orchids."--_Literary Gazette._ - - - POPULAR HISTORY OF BRITISH FERNS, comprising all the Species. - By THOMAS MOORE. With twenty coloured plates by Fitch. Royal - 16mo, cloth. 10_s._ 6_d._ - - "Mr. Moore's 'Popular History of British Ferns' forms one of - the numerous elegant and instructive books by which Messrs. - Reeve and Co. have endeavoured to popularize the study of - Natural History. In the volume before us, Mr. Moore gives a - clear account of the British Ferns, with directions for their - cultivation; accompanied by numerous coloured plates neatly - illustrated, and preceded by a general introduction on the - natural character of this graceful class of - plants."--_Spectator._ - - "We have rarely, if ever, seen a publication relating to plants - where the object aimed at is more fully accomplished than in - this elegant volume."--_Hooker's Journal._ - - "A prettily got-up book, and fit for a drawing-room - table."--_The Friend._ - - - THE BRITISH DESMIDIEAE; or, Fresh-Water Algae. By JOHN RALFS, - M.R.C.S., Honorary Member of the Penzance Nat. Hist. Society. - The Drawings by EDWARD JENNER, A.L.S. Royal 8vo, thirty-five - coloured plates. Price 36_s._ cloth. - - - NEREIS AUSTRALIS; or, Illustrations of the Algae of the Southern - Ocean. By Professor HARVEY, M.D., M.R.I.A. To be completed in - Four Parts, each containing twenty-five coloured plates, imp. - 8vo. Price 1_l._ 1_s._ Parts I. and II. recently published. - - - "Of this most important contribution to our knowledge of exotic - Algae, we know not if we can pay it a higher compliment than by - saying it is worthy of the author. It should be observed that - the work is not a selection of certain species, but an arranged - system of all that is known of Australian Algae, accompanied by - figures of the new and rare ones, especially of those most - remarkable for beauty of form and colour."--_London Journal of - Botany._ - - - CURTIS'S BOTANICAL MAGAZINE (commenced in 1786); Continued by - Sir WILLIAM JACKSON HOOKER, K.H., D.C.L., &c., Director of the - Royal Gardens of Kew. - - *** Published in monthly numbers, each containing six plates, - price 3_s._ 6_d._ coloured; and in annual volumes, price 42_s._ - - - HOOKER'S JOURNAL OF BOTANY and KEW GARDENS MISCELLANY. Edited - by Sir WILLIAM JACKSON HOOKER. - - - This Botanical Journal, in addition to original papers by - Eminent Botanists, contains the Botanical News of the month, - Communications from Botanical Travellers, Notices of New Books, - &c. - - *** In monthly numbers, with a plate, price 2_s._ - - - ICONES PLANTARUM; or, Figures, with brief descriptive - characters and remarks, of new and rare Plants. Published - monthly, with eight plates. Price 2_s._ 6_d._ - - - (_Under the Authority of the Lords Commissioners of the - Admiralty._) - - FLORA ANTARCTICA; or, Botany of the Antarctic Voyage of H.M. - Discovery Ships _Erebus_ and _Terror_, during the years - 1839-1843, under the command of Capt. Sir James Clark Ross, - R.N., F.R.S. By JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER, M.D., R.N., F.R.S., &c., - Botanist to the Expedition. In two vols. royal 4to, cloth, - containing 200 plates. Price 10_l._ 15_s._ coloured; 7_l._ - 10_s._ plain. - - "The descriptions of the plants in this work are carefully - drawn up, and much interesting matter, critical, explanatory, - and historical, is added in the form of notes. The drawings of - the plants are admirably executed by Mr. Fitch; and we know of - no productions from his pencil, or, in fact, any botanical - illustrations at all, that are superior in faithful - representation and botanical correctness."--_Athenaeum._ - - - CRYPTOGAMIA ANTARCTICA; or, Cryptogamic Botany of the Antarctic - Voyage of H. M. Ships _Erebus_ and _Terror_. By JOSEPH DALTON - HOOKER, M.D., F.R.S., &c. Royal 4to, cloth, containing 74 - plates. Price 4_l._ 4_s._ coloured; 2_l._ 17_s._ plain. - - - THE ESCULENT FUNGUSES OF ENGLAND; a treatise on their History, - Uses, Structure, Nutritious Properties, Mode of Cooking, - Preserving, &c. By the Rev. Dr. BADHAM. Super-royal 8vo, cloth, - coloured plates. 21_s._ - - "The English are not a fungus-eating nation; and though we do - not eat frogs like our neighbours, we are rather celebrated for - our love of another of the reptilian family--turtle. There is - no reason why we should eschew frogs and relish turtle; still - less is there for our eating one or two of the numerous edible - funguses which our island produces, and condemning all the - rest. To draw attention to this fact, and to supply an accurate - account, with a correct delineation, of the esculent species of - this family in Great Britain, are the objects of the book - before us. Such a work was a desideratum in this country, and - it has been well supplied by Dr. Badham; with his beautiful - drawings of the various edible fungi in his hand the collector - can scarcely make a mistake. The majority of those which grow - in our meadows, and in the decaying wood of our orchards and - forests, are unfit for food; and the value of Dr. Badham's book - consists in the fact, that it enables us to distinguish from - these such as may be eaten with impunity."--_Athenaeum._ - - - ILLUSTRATIONS OF BRITISH MYCOLOGY; containing Figures and - Descriptions of the Funguses of interest and novelty indigenous - to Britain. _First Series._ By Mrs. HUSSEY. 4to, cloth gilt, - with ninety beautifully coloured drawings. Price 7_l._ 12_s._ - 6_d._ - - "This talented lady and her sister were in the first instance - induced to draw some of the more striking Fungi, merely as - picturesque objects. Their collection of drawings at length - became important from their number and accuracy, and a long - continued study of the nutritive properties of Fungi has - induced the former to lay the results of her investigations - before the public, under the form of illustrations of the more - useful and interesting species. The figures are so faithful - that there can be no difficulty in at once determining with - certainty the objects they are intended to represent; and the - observations will be found of much interest to the general - reader."--_Gardeners' Chronicle._ - - "This is an elegant and interesting book: it would be an - ornament to the drawing-room table; but it must not, therefore, - be supposed that the value of the work is not intrinsic, for a - great deal of new and valuable matter accompanies the plates, - which are not fancy sketches, but so individualized and - life-like, that to mistake any species seems impossible. The - accessories of each are significant of site, soil, and season - of growth, so that the botanist may study with advantage what - the artist may inspect with admiration."--_Morning Post._ - - - ILLUSTRATIONS OF BRITISH MYCOLOGY; containing Figures and - Descriptions of the Funguses of interest and novelty indigenous - to Britain. _Second Series._ By Mrs. HUSSEY. Publishing in - Monthly Parts, coloured drawings, price 5_s._ - - - VOICES FROM THE WOODLANDS; or, History of Forest Trees, - Lichens, Mosses, and Ferns. By MARY ROBERTS. Elegantly bound. - With twenty coloured Plates of Forest Scenery, by FITCH. Royal - 16mo. 10_s._ 6_d._ - - "This work includes a wide range of genera, from the lichen to - the oak, and by way of giving variety to a subject so - commonplace, the several plants are supposed to tell their own - stories, and describe their own family - peculiarities."--_Atlas._ - - "The fair authoress of this pretty volume has shown more than - the usual good taste of her sex in the selection of her mode of - conveying to the young interesting instruction upon pleasing - topics. She bids them join in a ramble through the sylvan - wilds, and at her command the fragile lichen, the gnarled oak, - the towering beech, the graceful chestnut, and the waving - poplar discourse eloquently, and tell their respective - histories and uses."--_Britannia._ - - - POPULAR FIELD BOTANY; containing a familiar and technical - description of the plants most common to the British Isles, - adapted to the study of either the Artificial or Natural - Systems. By AGNES CATLOW. _Second Edition._ Arranged in twelve - chapters, each being the Botanical lesson for the month. - Containing twenty coloured plates of figures. Royal 16mo. - 10_s._ 6_d._ - - "The design of this work is to furnish young persons with a - Self-instructor in Botany, enabling them with little difficulty - to discover the scientific names of the common plants they may - find in their country rambles, to which are appended a few - facts respecting their uses, habits, &c. The plants are classed - in months, the illustrations are nicely coloured, and the book - is altogether an elegant, as well as useful - present."--_Illustrated London News._ - - - THE TOURIST'S FLORA. A Descriptive Catalogue of the Flowering - Plants and Ferns of the British Islands, France, Germany, - Switzerland, and Italy. By JOSEPH WOODS, F.A.S, F.L.S, F.G.S. - 8vo. 18_s._ - - "The appearance of this book has been long expected by us; and - we can justly state that it has quite fulfilled all our - expectations, and will support the high reputation of its - author. Mr. Woods is known to have spent many years in - collecting and arranging the materials for the present work, - with a view to which he has, we believe, visited all the most - interesting localities mentioned in it. This amount of labour, - combined with extensive botanical knowledge, has enabled him to - produce a volume such as few, if any other, botanists were - capable of writing."--_Annals of Natural History._ - - - - -ZOOLOGY. - - - (_Under the Authority of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty._) - - ZOOLOGY OF THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. SAMARANG. Edited by ARTHUR - ADAMS, F.L.S, Assistant-Surgeon, R.N, attached to the - Expedition. - - VERTEBRATA. By _John Edward Gray_, F.R.S., Keeper of the - Zoological Department of the British Museum. - - FISHES. By Sir JOHN RICHARDSON, M.D., F.R.S. - - MOLLUSCA. By the EDITOR and LOVELL REEVE, F.L.S. Including the - anatomy of the _Spirula_, by Prof. OWEN, F.R.S. - - CRUSTACEA. By the EDITOR and ADAM WHITE, F.L.S. - - *** Complete in one handsome royal 4to volume, - containing 55 plates. Price, strongly bound in cloth, 3_l._ - 10_s._ - - - THE BIRDS OF IRELAND. By WILLIAM THOMPSON, Esq., President of - the Natural History and Philosophical Society of Belfast. Vol. - I., price 16_s._ cloth. Vol. II, price 12_s._ Vol. III., price - 16_s._, 8vo, cloth. - - "Our readers, if once they get hold of this work, will not - readily lay it down; for while habits are dwelt upon in a - manner so amusing that we have known extracts to be read aloud - to a delighted circle of children, it contains the precise - information which the ornithologist demands, and brings forward - topics both of popular and scientific interest, such as the - geographical distribution of species, the causes which seem to - operate on their increase and decrease, their migrations, their - uses to man, the occasional injuries they inflict, and the - important benefits they confer. It is a STANDARD WORK, and will - rank with those of our first ornithologists."--_Dublin - Quarterly Journal of Medical Science._ - - - CONTRIBUTIONS TO ORNITHOLOGY. By SIR WILLIAM JARDINE, Bart., - F.R.S.E., F.L.S., &c. - - The "CONTRIBUTIONS" are devoted to the various departments of - Ornithology. They are published at intervals in Parts, and form - an annual Volume, illustrated by numerous coloured and - uncoloured Plates, Woodcuts, &c. - - The Series for 1848, containing ten Plates, price 9_s._ - - The Series for 1849, containing twenty-four Plates, price 21_s._ - - The Series for 1850, containing twenty-one Plates, Vignettes, and - Woodcuts, price 21_s._ - - The Series for 1851, containing fourteen Plates, price 18_s._ - - - THE DODO AND ITS KINDRED; or, the History, Affinities, and - Osteology of the DODO, SOLITAIRE, and other extinct birds of - the islands Mauritius, Rodriguez, and Bourbon. By H. E. - STRICKLAND, Esq., M.A., F.R.G.S., F.G.S., President of the - Ashmolean Society, and A. G. MELVILLE, M.D., M.R.C.S. Royal - quarto, with eighteen plates and numerous wood-illustrations. - Price 21_s._ - - "The labour expended on this book, and the beautiful manner in - which it is got up, render it a work of great interest to the - naturalist. * * It is a model of how such subjects should be - treated. We know of few more elaborate and careful pieces of - comparative anatomy than is given of the head and foot by Dr. - Melville. The dissection is accompanied by lithographic plates, - creditable alike to the Artist and the Printer."--_Athenaeum._ - - - POPULAR BRITISH ORNITHOLOGY; comprising a familiar and - technical description of the Birds of the British Isles. By P. - H. Gosse, Author of 'The Ocean,' 'The Birds of Jamaica,' &c. In - twelve chapters, each being the Ornithological lesson for the - month. In one vol. royal 16mo, with twenty plates of figures. - Price 10_s._ 6_d._ coloured. - - "To render the subject of ornithology clear, and its study - attractive, has been the great aim of the author of this - beautiful little volume.... It is embellished by upwards of 70 - figures of British birds beautifully coloured."--_Morning - Herald._ - - "This was a book much wanted, and will prove a boon of no - common value, containing, as it does, the names, descriptions, - and habits of all the British birds. It is handsomely got - up."--_Mirror._ - - - CONCHOLOGIA ICONICA; or, Figures and Descriptions of the Shells - of Molluscous Animals, with critical remarks on their synonyms, - affinities, and circumstances of habitation. By LOVELL REEVE, - F.L.S. - - *** Demy 4to. Published monthly, in Parts, each containing - eight plates. Price 10_s._ - - - SOLD ALSO IN MONOGRAPHS: - - L _s._ _d._ - Achatina 1 9 0 - Achatinella 0 8 0 - Arca 1 1 6 - Artemis 0 13 0 - Buccinum 0 18 0 - Bulimus 5 12 0 - Bullia 0 5 6 - Cardita 0 11 6 - Cardium 1 8 0 - Cassidaria 0 1 6 - Cassis 0 15 6 - Chama 0 11 6 - Chiton 2 2 0 - Chitonellus 0 1 6 - Conus 3 0 0 - Corbula 0 6 6 - Crassatella 0 4 0 - Cypraea 1 14 0 - Cypricardia 0 3 0 - Delphinula 0 6 6 - Dolium 0 10 6 - Eburna 0 1 6 - Fasciolaria 0 9 0 - Ficula 0 1 6 - Fissurella 1 0 6 - Fusus 1 6 6 - Glauconome 0 1 6 - Haliotis 1 1 0 - Harpa 0 5 6 - Hemipecten 0 1 6 - Ianthina 0 3 0 - Isocardia 0 1 6 - Lucina 0 14 0 - Mangelia 0 10 6 - Mesalia} - Eglisia} 0 1 6 - Mitra 2 10 0 - Monoceros 0 5 6 - Murex 2 5 6 - Myadora 0 1 6 - Oliva 1 18 0 - Oniscia 0 1 6 - Paludomus 0 4 0 - Partula 0 5 6 - Pectunculus 0 11 6 - Phorus 0 4 0 - Pleurotoma 2 10 6 - Pterocera 0 8 0 - Purpura 0 17 0 - Pyrula 0 11 6 - Ranella 0 10 6 - Ricinula 0 8 0 - Rostellaria 0 4 6 - Strombus 1 4 6 - Struthiolaria 0 1 6 - Turbinella 0 17 0 - Triton 1 5 6 - Turbo 0 17 0 - Turritella 0 14 6 - Voluta 1 8 0 - - _The genus_ HELIX _is in course of publication._ - - -SOLD ALSO IN VOLUMES: - - VOL. I. CONUS - PLEUROTOMA - CRASSATELLA - PHORUS - PECTUNCULUS - CARDITA - DELPHINULA - CYPRICARDIA - HARPA - - [_122 Plates, price 7l. 16s. 6d. half-bound._] - - VOL. II. CORBULA - ARCA - TRITON - GLAUCONOME - MYADORA - RANELLA - MITRA - CARDIUM - ISOCARDIA - - [_114 Plates, price 7l. 6s. 6d. half-bound._] - - VOL. III. MUREX - CYPRAEA - HALIOTIS - MANGELIA - PURPURA - RICINULA - MONOCEROS - BULLIA - BUCCINUM - - [_129 Plates, price 8l. 5s. 6d. half-bound._] - - VOL. IV. CHAMA - CHITON - CHITONELLUS - FICULA - PYRULA - TURBINELLA - FASCIOLARIA - FUSUS - PALUDOMUS - TURBO - - [_110 Plates, price 7l. 1s. 6d. half-bound._] - - VOL. V. BULIMUS - ACHATINA - DOLIUM - CASSIS - TURRITELLA - MESALIA - EGLISIA - ONISCIA - CASSIDARIA - EBURNA - - [_147 Plates, price 9l. 7s. 6d. half-bound._] - - VOL. VI. VOLUTA - FISSURELLA - PARTULA - ACHATINELLA - ARTEMIS - LUCINA - HEMIPECTEN - OLIVA - STROMBUS - PTEROCERA - ROSTELLARIA - STRUTHIOLARIA - - [_129 Plates, price 8l. 5s. 6d. half-bound._] - - The figures are drawn and lithographed by Mr. G. B. SOWERBY, - Junr., of the _natural size_, from specimens chiefly in the - collection of Mr. Cuming. - - "This great work is intended to embrace a complete description - and illustration of the shells of molluscous animals, and, so - far as we have seen, it is not such as to disappoint the large - expectations that have been formed respecting it. The figures - of the shells are all of full size; in the descriptions a - careful analysis is given of the labours of others; and the - author has apparently spared no pains to make the work a - standard authority on the subject of which it - treats."--_Athenaeum._ - - - CONCHOLOGIA SYSTEMATICA; or, Complete System of Conchology, - illustrated with 300 plates of upwards of 1500 figures of - Shells. By LOVELL REEVE, F.L.S. - - "The text is both interesting and instructive; many of the - plates have appeared before in Mr. Sowerby's works, but from - the great expense of collecting them, and the miscellaneous - manner of their publication, many persons will no doubt gladly - avail themselves of this select and classified portion, which - also contains many original figures."--_Athenaeum._ - - *** In two quarto volumes, cloth. Price 10_l._ coloured; 6_l._ - plain. - - - ELEMENTS OF CONCHOLOGY; or, Introduction to the Natural History - of Shells and their animals. By LOVELL REEVE, F.L.S. Parts I. - to X., price 3_s._ 6_d._ each. - - "The work before us is designed to promote a more philosophical - spirit of inquiry into the nature and origin of - Shells."--_Ecclesiastical Review._ - - - CONCHOLOGIST'S NOMENCLATOR; or, Catalogue of recent species of - Shells, with their authorities, synonyms, and references to - works where figured or described. By AGNES CATLOW, assisted by - LOVELL REEVE, F.L.S. - - *** In sheets for labels, 20_s._ Cloth, 21_s._ Half-bound, - interleaved, 25_s._ - - - CONCHYLIA DITHYRA INSULARUM BRITANNICARUM. The Bivalve Shells - of the British Isles, systematically arranged. By WILLIAM - TURTON, M.D. Reprinted verbatim from the original edition. The - illustrations, printed from the original copper-plates, are - distinguished for their accurate detail. Twenty coloured - plates. Price 2_l._ 10_s._ - - - POPULAR HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA; or, Shells and their Animal - Inhabitants. By MARY ROBERTS. Royal 16mo, with twenty coloured - plates by Wing. Price 10_s._ 6_d._ - - "This little volume forms another of the excellent series of - illustrated works on various departments of Natural History, - for which the public is indebted to Mr. Reeve.... When we add, - that the plates contain no fewer than ninety figures of shells, - with their animal inhabitants, all of them well, and several - admirably, executed, and that the text is written throughout in - a readable and even elegant style, with such digression in - poetry and prose as serve to relieve its scientific details, we - think that we have said enough to justify the favourable - opinion we have expressed."--_British and Foreign - Medico-Chirurgical Review._ - - - CURTIS'S BRITISH ENTOMOLOGY, being Illustrations and - Descriptions of the Genera of Insects found in Great Britain - and Ireland, comprising coloured figures, from nature, of the - most rare and beautiful species, and, in many instances, of the - plants upon which they are found. By JOHN CURTIS, F.L.S. - - The 'British Entomology' was originally brought out in Monthly - Numbers, size royal 8vo, at 4_s._ 6_d._, each containing four - coloured plates with text. It was commenced in 1824, and - completed in 1840, in 193 Numbers, forming 16 volumes, price - L43 16_s._ - - The work is now offered new, and in the best condition:-- - - Price to Subscribers for complete copies in sixteen volumes L21. - Price of the new issue, and of odd Numbers 3_s._ 6_d._ per No. - - *** Vols. I. and II. of the New Issue are now ready for - delivery. - - - INSECTA BRITANNICA. DIPTERA. By F. WALKER, Esq. F.L.S. Vol. I. - Illustrated with plates. Price 25_s._ - - - EPISODES OF INSECT LIFE. Three vols., crown 8vo, with 108 - illustrations. Price 2_l._ 8_s._, elegantly bound in fancy - cloth. Coloured and bound extra, gilt back, sides, and edges, - 3_l._ 3_s._ - - *** Each volume, containing thirty-six illustrations, is - complete in itself, and sold separately. Price 16_s._ plain, - 21_s._ coloured. - - "The book includes solid instruction as well as genial and - captivating mirth. The scientific knowledge of the writer is - thoroughly reliable."--_Examiner._ - - "The letterpress is interspersed with vignettes clearly and - cleverly engraved on stone: and the whole pile of Natural - History--fable, poetry, theory, and fact--is stuck over with - quaint apophthegms and shrewd maxims, deduced for the benefit - of man from the contemplation of such tiny monitors as gnats - and moths. Altogether the book is a curious and interesting - one--quaint and clever, genial and well-informed."--_Morning - Chronicle._ - - - POPULAR BRITISH ENTOMOLOGY, comprising a familiar and technical - description of the Insects most common to the British Isles. By - MARIA E. CATLOW. In twelve chapters, each being the - Entomological lesson for the month. In one vol. royal 16mo, - with sixteen coloured plates of figures. Price 10_s._ 6_d._ - - "Judiciously executed, with excellent figures of the commoner - species, for the use of young beginners."--_Annual Address of - the President of the Entomological Society._ - - "Miss Catlow's 'Popular British Entomology' contains an - introductory chapter or two on classification, which are - followed by brief generic and specific descriptions in English - of above 200 of the commoner British species, together with - accurate figures of about 70 of those described; and will be - quite a treasure to anyone just commencing the study of this - fascinating science."--_Westminster and Foreign Quarterly - Review._ - - - POPULAR HISTORY OF MAMMALIA. By ADAM WHITE, F.L.S., Assistant - in the Zoological Department of the British Museum. With - sixteen coloured Plates of Quadrupeds, &c. by B. WATERHOUSE - HAWKINS, F.L.S. Royal 16mo. 10_s._ 6_d._ - - "The present increase of our stores of anecdotal matter - respecting every kind of animal has been used with much tact by - Mr. White, who has a terse chatty way of putting down his - reflections, mingled with that easy familiarity which every one - accustomed daily to zoological pursuits is sure to attain. The - book is profusely illustrated."--_Atlas._ - - - THE BRITISH PALAEOZOIC FOSSILS, added by Professor Sedgwick to - the Woodwardian Museum. By Professor M'COY. In royal 4to, with - numerous Plates. - - Part I., containing the Radiata and Articulata, is now ready. 16_s._ - - Part II., containing the Lower Palaeozoic Mollusca, is in the press. - - - THOUGHTS ON A PEBBLE; or, a First Lesson in Geology. By Dr. - MANTELL, F.R.S. _Eighth Edition_, considerably enlarged. With - four coloured plates, twenty-seven woodcuts, and a Portrait of - the Author. Square 12mo. 5_s._ - - "I have just procured a little work for my young pupils, a most - delightful introduction, entitled 'Thoughts on a Pebble, or a - First Lesson in Geology,' by Dr. Mantell, and I must request - you to read it; for although it does not consist of more than - thirty pages [increased in the present edition to upwards of a - hundred] it will expand to your view a new world that will - astonish and delight you."--_Philosophy in Sport._ - - - - -MISCELLANEOUS. - - - ELEMENTARY PHYSICS; an Introduction to the Study of Natural - Philosophy. By ROBERT HUNT, Professor of Mechanical Science at - the Government School of Mines, Author of 'Poetry of Science,' - 'Researches on Light,' and 'Handbook to the Great Exhibition.' - Illustrated with a coloured frontispiece, and 217 vignettes and - wood engravings. Fcap. 8vo, cloth. 10_s._ 6_d._ - - CONTENTS. - - Chapter I. General Properties of Ponderable Matter. - " II. General Laws of Motion. - " III. Laws of Slightly Elastic Fluids. - " IV. Laws of Elastic Fluids. - Chapter V. Sonorous Movement of Bodies. - " VI. Primary Phenomena of Electricity. - " VII. Heat, or Caloric. - " VIII. Light and Actinism. - - "As a really elementary treatise on the whole work of Physical - Science, we know none to compare with it, and it is, therefore, - admirably adapted for the wants of the student; whilst, on the - other hand, it may be read and looked through with profit and - interest by those who have long mastered the general truths it - embodies, and for the many novel illustrations and applications - of these which it contains."--_British and Foreign - Medico-Chirurgical Review._ - - - POPULAR MINERALOGY; a Familiar account of Minerals and their - Uses. By HENRY SOWERBY. Royal 16mo, with plates of figures. - 10_s._ 6_d._ - - "Mr. Sowerby has endeavoured to throw around his subject every - attraction. His work is fully and carefully illustrated with - coloured plates."--_Spectator._ - - - PANTHEA, THE SPIRIT OF NATURE. By ROBERT HUNT, Author of 'The - Poetry of Science.' One vol. 8vo, cloth. 10_s._ 6_d._ - - "A work of very peculiar character, in which Philosophy and - Poetry are finely blended, and where great truths and noble - sentiments are expressed in language full of beauty and - eloquence."--_North British Review._ - - "Ample opportunities are afforded for conveying scientific - information in a popular form, and these have been liberally - and well embraced by the author."--_Athenaeum._ - - "There is, throughout, the closeness of matter and eloquence of - style which distinguished the 'Poetry of - Science.'"--_Spectator._ - - - THE POETRY OF SCIENCE; or, Studies of the Physical Phenomena of - Nature. By ROBERT HUNT, Author of 'Panthea,' and 'Researches on - Light.' _Second Edition._ Revised. With an Index. One vol. 8vo, - cloth. 12_s._ - - "A truly scientific work, which has the character of poetry - only in so far as truth is poetical, and may be regarded as a - popular treatise on Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, and Geology, - similar in its nature and object to the 'Kosmos' of - Humboldt."--_North British Review._ - - - ILLUSTRATIONS of the WISDOM and BENEVOLENCE of the DEITY, as - manifested in Nature. By H. EDWARDS, LL.D. Cloth, 2_s._ 6_d._ - - "A little excursion in the track of Paley and the broad road of - the Bridgewater Treatises. Animals, Atmosphere, Organic Matter, - Light, and Electricity are the natural elements out of which - the author deduces his pious lessons, leading to a First Cause - in wonder, admiration, and worship."--_Literary Gazette._ - - - DROPS OF WATER; their marvellous and beautiful Inhabitants - displayed by the Microscope. By AGNES CATLOW. Square 12mo, with - coloured plates. 7_s._ 6_d._ - - "In this little book, illustrated with plates scarcely inferior - to those of the well-known Ehrenberg, we have the wonders of - the microscope revealed in the history of a drop of water. Miss - Catlow's pleasing works on botany, &c., are all well known, and - we can assure our readers that in this little history of - infusorial animals and plants of a drop of water she has added - much to her well-deserved reputation. The style in which it is - got up renders it worthy of companionship with the choicest - ornaments of the library table."--_Liverpool Standard._ - - "A pleasant introduction to microscopic studies, having - reference in particular to the animalcules or infusoria, as - they are now more commonly called, which inhabit water and - other liquids. The little volume before us contains a goodly - body of information touching the infusorial world, with some - clearly and sensibly written information as to the species of - water, and the seasons, in which certain varieties are to be - found."--_Atlas._ - - "'Drops of Water' is an introduction to one of Nature's - inexhaustible sources of wonder and delight, performed in a - very efficient and satisfactory manner.... As a specimen of - typography, it is of a superior character; and the plates are - indicative of no small degree of artistic skill as well as - science."--_Observer._ - - "An elegant little book, both in the getting up and its - literature.... The text is accompanied by coloured plates, that - exhibit the most remarkable creatures of the watery - world."--_Spectator._ - - "Of the manner in which this work is executed, we can say that, - like Miss Catlow's previous productions on Natural History, it - displays an accurate acquaintance with the subject, and a keen - delight in the contemplation of the objects to which it is - devoted. As far as the living beings which inhabit 'Drops of - Water' are concerned, we know of no better introduction to the - use of the microscope than the present volume."--_Athenaeum._ - - - INSTINCT AND REASON. By ALFRED SMEE, F.R.S., Author of - 'Electro-Biology.' One vol. 8vo. With coloured Plates by Wing, - and Woodcuts. 18_s._ - - "Mr. Smee's facts are extremely valuable. His work, moreover, - is one of the most vivid interest. Entertainment and - instruction are here combined in a very high degree; and the - coloured plates add essentially to its value."--_Britannia._ - - "Mr. Smee is the inventor of a convenient and elegant voltaic - battery, and his experiments on the physical process of nervous - excitation are curious and ingenious. We give the author credit - for his powers of patient observation, and ingeniously devised - experiment."--_Athenaeum._ - - "Mr. Smee has done good service to the cause of rational - philosophy."--_Lancet._ - - - (_Under the Authority of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty._) - - NARRATIVE OF THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. SAMARANG, during the years - 1843-46. By Capt. Sir EDWARD BELCHER, C.B, F.R.A.S. and G.S, - Commander of the Expedition, With a Popular Summary of the - Natural History of the islands visited, by ARTHUR ADAMS, F.L.S. - In two vols. 8vo, with thirty-five charts, coloured plates, and - etchings. Price 36_s._ cloth. - - "These volumes give the official and authorized account of the - surveying voyage of the Samarang in the Eastern Archipelago and - Northern Seas of China and Japan. Besides much geographical and - practical information, Capt. Belcher's Narrative contains a - close and mature view of the ministers and monarchs of those - distant regions. Quelpart and the Korean Archipelago are new - ground."--_Examiner._ - - - TRAVELS IN THE INTERIOR OF BRAZIL; principally through the - Northern Provinces and the Gold and Diamond Districts, during - the years 1836-41. By the late GEORGE GARDNER, M.D, F.L.S, - Superintendent of the Royal Botanic Gardens of Ceylon. _Second - and cheaper Edition._ With a Map of the Author's Route and View - of the Organ Mountains. Price 12_s._ cloth; 18_s._ bound. - - "When camping out on the mountain-top or in the wilderness; - roughing it in his long journeys through the interior; - observing the very singular mode of life there presented to his - notice; describing the curious characters that fell under his - observation, the arts or substitutes for arts of the people, - and the natural productions of the country--these Travels are - full of attraction. The book, like the country it describes, is - full of new matter."--_Spectator._ - - The narrative of his varied adventures forms not only to the - enthusiastic botanist, but to the general reader, an - exceedingly entertaining and also instructive book, from the - new view which it gives of the society of Brazil--particularly - in its less known provinces."--_Tait's Edinburgh Magazine._ - - "This volume is from the pen of an able naturalist, whose heart - is in his occupation.... Some of the regions he visited have - seldom been trodden by Europeans--never by Englishmen; so that - his observations derive value from the novelty of the matter to - which they relate."--_Athenaeum._ - - "Mr. Gardner's volume, bearing the inimitable impress of - candour and good faith, as of the competency of the author for - the task he undertook, is not more valuable to the man of - science than interesting to the general - reader."--_Ecclesiastical Review._ - - - THE PLANETARY AND STELLAR UNIVERSE. By ROBERT JAMES MANN. With - fifty astronomical Diagrams and Maps of the Circumpolar - Constellations. Fcap. cloth. 5_s._ - - "A brief abstract of the discoveries of Newton, clearly - explained and elegantly illustrated."--_Westminster and Foreign - Quarterly Review._ - - - - -NEW WORKS - -TO BE - -PUBLISHED IN MAY AND JUNE. - - 1. PARKS AND PLEASURE GROUNDS; or, Practical Notes on Country - Residences, Villas, Public Parks, and Gardens. By CHARLES J. H. - SMITH, Landscape Gardener. - - 2. TALPA; or, THE CHRONICLE OF A CLAY FARM: an Agricultural - Fragment. By C. W. H. With Illustrations by GEORGE CRUIKSHANK. - - 3. POPULAR HISTORY OF BRITISH ZOOPHYTES. By the Rev. Dr. - LANDSBOROUGH. With Coloured Plates. - - 4. POPULAR SCRIPTURE ZOOLOGY; or, History of the Animals mentioned - in the Bible. By MARIA CATLOW. With Coloured Plates. - - 5. WESTERN HIMALAYA AND TIBET; the Narrative of a Journey through - the Mountains of Northern India, during the Years 1847-8. By - THOMAS THOMSON, M.D. - - 6. FLORA OF NEW ZEALAND. By Dr. J. D. HOOKER, F.R.S. With Coloured - Plates. - - 7. FLORA OF WESTERN ESKIMAUX-LAND, including the Sound to Point - Barrow, and the adjacent Islands. By BERTHOLD SEEMANN. With - Plates. - - [_Now ready, price 10s._] - - -Printed by J. E. Taylor, Little Queen-street, Lincoln's-inn-fields. - - - - - * * * * * * - - - - -Transcriber's note: - - Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the original document have - been preserved. Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. - - On page 30, text appears to be missing from the phrase: "the ridge - continues in a * direction". - - On page 342, 12th of May is probably a typo for 12th of June. - - On page 393, the phrase "was finely seen" should perhaps be "was - finally seen". - - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WESTERN HIMALAYA AND TIBET*** - - -******* This file should be named 42146.txt or 42146.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/2/1/4/42146 - - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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