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diff --git a/42146-0.txt b/42146-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fe3d8d2 --- /dev/null +++ b/42146-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,17004 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42146 *** + +Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this + file which includes the original illustrations. + See 42146-h.htm or 42146-h.zip: + (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42146/42146-h/42146-h.htm) + or + (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42146/42146-h.zip) + + + Images of the original pages are available through + Internet Archive. See + http://archive.org/details/westernhimalayat00thom + + +Transcriber's note: + + Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). + + Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=). + + + + + +[Illustration: ISKARDO. +_From the South._ + +_Pl. I._ + +J. W. del. W. L. Walton, Lithog. +Printed by Hullmandel & Walton.] + + +WESTERN HIMALAYA AND TIBET; + +A Narrative of a Journey Through the Mountains of Northern India, +During the Years 1847-8. + +by + +THOMAS THOMSON, M.D., F.L.S., + +Assistant Surgeon Bengal Army. + + + + + + + +London: +Reeve and Co., Henrietta Street, Covent Garden. +1852. + +Printed by +John Edward Taylor, Little Queen Street, +Lincoln's Inn Fields. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +On the termination of my journey in Tibet, I submitted to the Indian +Government a detailed report of my observations in that country. It +was my original intention to request the permission of the Court of +Directors to publish this report in the form in which it was drawn up; +but after my return to England, this plan was, at the suggestion of +friends, abandoned for that now followed. + +At the time of my appointment to the Tibet Mission, my attention had +not been specially directed to the Himalaya, but I have since had many +opportunities of studying that chain of mountains. My first definite +impressions of Himalayan geography were received from my +fellow-travellers, Major Cunningham and Captain Henry Strachey. The +latter gentleman had just completed one of the most adventurous +journeys ever made in the Himalaya; and Major Cunningham's knowledge +of the geography of Northern India is so accurate and extensive, that +the delay in the publication of his map, although caused by the +devotion of his leisure time to other branches of research, is a +subject of deep regret to all who know its value. More recently I have +had the good fortune to travel in the Eastern Himalaya with Dr. +Hooker, and it was a source of great gratification to me, when we met, +to find that in studying these mountains at opposite extremities of +the chain, the results at which we had arrived were almost identical. + +My botanical collections, which were very extensive, have as yet been +only roughly assorted, and the names of plants given in the present +work are chiefly derived from a careful comparison of specimens with +the Hookerian Herbarium at Kew,--a collection which, as is well known +to Botanists, both from its extent and from the liberality with which +it is thrown open to students of that science, occupies in this +country the place of a national collection. + +The heights of places given in the work have been derived from very +various sources. Those in the earlier part are chiefly from the +extremely accurate observations of the Gerards; for others I have to +thank my fellow-travellers; but the greater number are calculated from +my own observations of the boiling-point of water, and do not +therefore pretend to great accuracy. Still the thermometer which I +used (by Dollond) was a very good one, and comparisons with barometric +observations, or with known heights, have given such results as +satisfy me that at considerable elevations it may be depended upon to +within three or four hundred feet as an extreme error. + +The orthography of oriental proper names is a question of great +difficulty, and grave objections may be urged against any system which +has been proposed. If each European nation represents the sound of the +vowels and variable consonants after the mode which prevails in its +own language, then proper names must be translated, as it were, when +rendered from one of these languages into another; whereas, if the +mode of spelling the names remain fixed, then the value of the letters +must be different in the majority of the languages from that which +usually prevails. For purely popular purposes the former method would +probably be the most judicious; and the English language has peculiar +facilities for rendering oriental sounds, in consequence of its +possessing the open sound of _u_, as in _but_, which is wanting in +other European languages, though so common in Arabic, Persian, and +Hindee, and all cognate tongues. + +A uniform mode of spelling, however, has so many advantages, that I +have been induced to give it a preference; but it will be seen that in +a few instances, where the popular mode of spelling has become +familiar, and as it were a portion of the English language, as in the +words Punjab, Jumna, Sutlej, Kussowlee, and a few others, I have not +had courage to carry out the rule. + +For the plates which accompany the work I have to thank Mr. +Winterbottom, who very kindly permitted me to select from a series of +sketches those which I thought most suitable. This was not an easy +task; but in the two views of the neighbourhood of Iskardo I found so +faithful a representation of the extremely rugged scenery of the +Tibetan mountains, contrasted with the level plain of Iskardo, and the +lacustrine strata of the neighbourhood, that no more desirable +illustrations for a journey in Tibet could be conceived. The little +vignette, too, though it does not represent any part of the country +through which I travelled, is precisely similar to many ravines in +Rondu, and serves to show that the Gilgit valley is quite the same in +general appearance with that district. I was more particularly +desirous of introducing this sketch, from the very faithful +representation it contains of the alluvial platforms which skirt the +streams in every part of Tibet. + +The map is founded principally upon Mr. Arrowsmith's large map, and +his name is its best guarantee. The districts round the Pangong lake +are taken from a sketch given to me by Captain H. Strachey, and the +whole of the eastern part has been revised by him. A great part of the +course of the Shayuk has been laid in by Mr. Arrowsmith from my own +rough survey, while the little-known district between Jamu and +Zanskar, which I was not competent to survey, has been rendered as +nearly as possible from the notes which I had made of the length and +direction of my marches. + +The sketch of the district between Nubra and the Karakoram pass, which +will, I hope, be found useful as an illustration of that part of my +journey, has been prepared for me by Dr. Hooker, from a rough draft of +my survey, assisted by verbal explanations. + +In conclusion, I have to add, that for the correction of the press, +during which process many asperities by which the manuscript was +disfigured have disappeared, I have to thank my kind friends, Dr. and +Mrs. Hooker. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + CHAPTER I. + + Page + + Appointment to a Mission about to proceed to Tibet -- Leave + Firozpur for Simla -- Approach to the Mountains -- Appearance + of Himalaya from Plains of India -- Kalka -- Ascent to + Kussowlee -- Vegetation of Plainward Face -- Origin of + Kussowlee Ridge -- Climate and Vegetation of Kussowlee -- + Aspect of inner ranges -- Road from Kussowlee to Simla -- + Sabathu -- Cross Gambar River -- Haripur -- Tropical Vegetation + of Basin of Gambar -- Steep Ascent to Simla -- its extent and + situation -- its Vegetation -- Oak-forest -- Pines -- Flora of + Spring Months -- of Rainy Season -- View from Peak of Jako -- + Structure of Mountain Ranges 1 + + + CHAPTER II. + + Leave Simla -- Mahasu Ridge -- Pine Forest -- Summit of Mahasu + -- Vegetation of Northern Slope -- Fagu -- Theog -- Mattiana -- + Cultivated Valley -- Nagkanda -- Ascent of Hattu -- Forest of + Pine and Oak -- Vegetation of Summit -- View from top of + Mountain -- Plainward slopes bare of forest, while those facing + the interior are well wooded -- Cultivation at 9500 feet -- + Descent from Nagkanda towards Sutlej -- Damp shady Ravine + densely wooded -- Kotgarh -- Cultivation -- Rapid Descent -- + Change of Climate -- Tropical Vegetation -- Rampur -- + Swing-bridge -- Diurnal fluctuations in level of River -- Gaora + -- Serahan -- Tranda -- Western boundary of Kunawar 29 + + + CHAPTER III. + + Sildang river -- Fine grove of Deodars -- Nachar -- Fruit-trees + -- Vine seen for first time -- Boundaries of Kulu and Kunawar + -- Cross Sutlej at Wangtu bridge -- Vegetation of bare rocky + valley -- Waterfall -- Chegaon -- _Pinus Gerardiana_ -- Miru -- + Absence of rain -- Alteration of vegetation -- _Quercus Ilex_ + -- Rogi -- Willow and Poplar -- Chini -- Cultivated Plain -- + Kashbir -- Pangi -- Camp at upper level of trees -- Junipers -- + Werang Pass -- Alpine Vegetation -- Birch and _Rhododendron_ -- + Granite Boulders -- Lipa -- Alluvial Deposits -- Encamp at + 12,500 feet -- Runang Pass -- Vegetation very scanty -- Stunted + Forest -- Sungnam 63 + + + CHAPTER IV. + + Hangarang ridge separates Kunawar from Piti -- Ascent to + Hangarang Pass -- Alluvial deposit -- Steep ascent -- View of + valley -- Limestone rocks -- _Caragana versicolor_, or _Dama_ + -- Camp at 14,000 feet -- Top of pass -- View from pass -- + Vegetation of summit -- Descent to Hango -- Cultivation round + the village -- Luxuriant wild plants -- Road to Lio -- _Crambe_ + -- Ravine of Piti river -- Lio -- Bridge over Piti river -- + Ascent to Nako -- Nako -- Cultivation of the village -- + Buddhist temple -- Transported blocks -- Chango -- Changar -- + Stopped by villagers on Chinese frontier -- Natural bridge -- + Kyuri -- Alluvium -- Clay deposit with shells -- Lari -- + Ramifications of mountain ranges -- Alluvial platforms -- Pok + -- Dankar -- Lara -- Rangrig -- Upper part of Piti -- Climate + -- Saline exudations 96 + + + CHAPTER V. + + Leave valley of Piti river -- Kibar -- Cultivation above 14,000 + feet -- Vegetation of mountains -- Rocky gorge -- Encampment at + 17,000 feet -- Parang Pass -- Snow-bed and glacier -- First + plants at 16,500 feet -- Parang valley -- Gorge leading to + Chumoreri Lake -- Kiang, or wild horse -- Chumurti -- + Remarkable grassy plain -- Lanak Pass -- Granite boulders -- + Plants above 18,000 feet -- Undulating hilly country -- Hanle + plain -- Vegetation -- Monastery of Hanle 130 + + + CHAPTER VI. + + Descend Hanle river -- Unsettled weather -- Encamp on banks of + Indus -- Upper course of Indus -- Pugha ravine -- Forest of + Myricaria trees -- Borax plain -- Hot springs -- Borax lakes of + Eastern Tibet -- Sulphur mine -- Pulokanka Pass -- Salt lake -- + Lacustrine clays with shells -- Ancient water-mark -- Rupchu -- + Tunglung Pass -- Fall of snow -- Alluvial conglomerate -- Giah + -- Narrow ravine -- Miru -- Upshi -- Indus valley -- Marsilang + -- Richly cultivated plain of Chashut -- Bridge over Indus -- + Le -- Buddhist edifices 155 + + + CHAPTER VII. + + Departure from Le -- Sabu valley -- Pass between Le and Nubra + -- Snow -- Encamp at 15,500 feet -- Digar -- Valley of Shayuk + -- Alluvium -- _Populus Euphratica_ -- Tsatti -- Nubra river -- + District of Nubra -- Villages -- Irrigation -- Saline soil -- + Isolated rocks -- Chirasa -- Panamik -- Lower Nubra -- + Platforms of Alluvium -- Traces of a great flood -- Unmaru -- + Kuru -- Great contraction of valley -- Mountain pass of Waris + -- Boghdan ravine -- Chorbat -- Mahommedan population -- + Villages -- Outburst of granite -- Siksa -- Khapalu -- Open + plain of Khapalu -- Junction of Shayuk and Indus -- Nar -- + Iskardo plain -- Description of Iskardo -- Aqueduct -- Fort -- + Lacustrine clay formation -- Vegetation 187 + + + CHAPTER VIII. + + Leave Iskardo in the direction of Kashmir -- First march + through snow to Turgu -- Lacustrine clay -- it extends into + narrow valleys beyond Nar -- Gol -- Junction of Indus and + Shayuk -- Parkuta -- Tolti -- Kartash -- Extensive lacustrine + deposits -- Tarkata -- Road turns up the Dras river -- Ulding + Thung -- Fall of snow -- Hardas -- Karbu -- Continued snow -- + Dras -- Find pass in front shut by deep snow -- Obliged to + return to Iskardo -- Rafts and rope-bridges on Indus -- + _Elæagnus_ and Apricot apparently wild -- Winter at Iskardo 223 + + + CHAPTER IX. + + Leave Iskardo for Rondu -- Insurrection in Gilgit -- Koardu -- + Kamar -- Enter narrow part of Indus valley -- Difficult road -- + Range of mountains south of Indus -- Description of Rondu -- + Thawar -- Avalanches -- Alluvium -- Swing-bridge -- Villages -- + Juniper -- _Pinus excelsa_ -- Rocks -- Vegetation -- Return to + Iskardo -- Agriculture of Balti -- Game of Chaugan -- Chakor + hunting -- Shigar valley -- Journey towards Kashmir -- Dras + valley -- Karbu -- Dras fort -- Maten -- Cross pass into + Kashmir -- Baltal -- Valley of Sind river -- Sonamarg -- + Gagangir -- Gond -- Gangan -- Ganderbal -- Enter main valley of + Kashmir -- Town of Kashmir -- Description of Kashmir -- + Lacustrine formation -- Trap hills -- Lake -- Climate -- + Vegetation 248 + + + CHAPTER X. + + Environs of Kashmir -- City lake -- Gardens of Shalimar and + Dilawer Khan -- Pampur -- Avantipura -- Platforms of lacustrine + clay -- Mountain of Wasterwan -- Ancient city -- Clay, with + shells and fragments of pottery -- Ancient temple imbedded in + clay -- Lakes caused by subsidence -- Islamabad -- Shahabad -- + Vegetation -- Vernag -- Banahal Pass -- Valley of Banahal -- + Tropical vegetation -- Pass above Chenab Valley -- Nasmon -- + _Jhula_, or Swing-bridge -- Balota -- Ladhe ke Dhar -- Katti -- + Fort of Landar -- Mir -- Kirmichi -- Tertiary sandstones -- + Dhuns -- Seda -- Jamu 285 + + + CHAPTER XI. + + Leave Jamu to return to Tibet -- Lake of Sirohi Sar -- + Vegetation of lower hills -- _Dodonæa_ -- Ramnagar -- Garta -- + Dadu, on a tributary of the Chenab -- Camp at 10,000 feet -- + Badarwar -- Padri pass -- Descend a tributary of the Ravi -- + and ascend another towards the north -- Sach _Joth_, or pass -- + Snow-beds -- Camp in Chenab valley 315 + + + CHAPTER XII. + + Marked change in the Vegetation -- Bridge over Chenab -- + Pargwal -- Description of Chenab valley -- Asdhari -- + Chatargarh -- Road turns up valley of Butna -- Vegetation of + Chenab valley -- Chishot -- Snow-beds -- Camp at 10,500 feet -- + Ancient moraines -- Glacier -- Camp at 11,500 feet -- Rapid + ascent along glacier -- Camp on moraine, at 14,600 feet -- + Change of weather -- Ascent towards pass over glacier -- Cross + Umasi La -- Descent -- Immense glacier -- Encamp in Tibet, at + 13,800 feet -- Open valley of Zanskar -- Padum -- Great change + of climate -- and in vegetation 342 + + + CHAPTER XIII. + + Rope bridge across Zanskar river -- Tongde -- Zangla -- Road + leaves Zanskar river -- Takti La -- Nira -- Bridge over Zanskar + river -- Singhi La -- Phutaksha -- Wandla -- Lama Yuru -- Cross + Indus river -- Kalatze -- Nurla -- Saspola -- Nimo -- Le -- + Pass north of Le -- Small glacier -- Kardong -- Kalsar -- + Vegetation -- Diskit -- Passage of Shayuk river -- Upper Nubra + -- Vegetation of Nubra -- Hot spring at Panamik 367 + + + CHAPTER XIV. + + Start for Karakoram -- Steep ascent out of Nubra valley -- Meet + a party of Merchants from Yarkand -- View from summit of pass + -- Rapid torrent -- Large glacier -- Steep moraines -- Alpine + vegetation -- Numerous glaciers -- Lakes -- Glacier on crest of + Sassar pass -- Sassar -- Cross Shayuk river -- Murgai -- + Limestone rocks -- Ascend Murgai Valley to 16,800 feet -- + Singular limestone formation -- Open plain above 17,000 feet -- + Re-cross Shayuk river -- Karakoram pass -- Return to Sassar -- + Glaciers of Sassar -- Return to Le -- Start for Kashmir -- + Lamayuru -- Phatu pass -- Kanji river -- Namika pass -- Molbil + -- Pashkyum -- Kargil -- Dras -- Zoji pass -- Kashmir -- Lahore + -- Completion of journey 408 + + + CHAPTER XV. + + General description of Tibet -- Systems of mountains -- + Trans-Sutlej Himalaya -- Cis-Sutlej Himalaya -- Kouenlun -- + Four passes across Kouenlun -- Boundaries of Western Tibet -- + Height of its mountain ranges and passes -- Climate of Tibet -- + Clouds -- Winds -- Snow-fall -- Glaciers -- their former + greater extension -- Elevation to which they descend -- + Snow-level -- Geology -- Lacustrine clay and alluvium 456 + + + + + [Illustration: MAP of the MOUNTAINS OF NORTHERN INDIA. _to illustrate_ + Dr. Thomson's Travels in Western Himalaya _and_ Tibet. + + _Dr. Thomson's Route is coloured Red._ + Drawn & Engraved by John Arrowsmith.] + + + + +WESTERN HIMALAYA + +AND + +TIBET. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + + Appointment to a Mission about to proceed to Tibet -- Leave + Firozpur for Simla -- Approach to the Mountains -- Appearance + of Himalaya from Plains of India -- Kalka -- Ascent to + Kussowlee -- Vegetation of Plainward Face -- Origin of + Kussowlee Ridge -- Climate and Vegetation of Kussowlee -- + Aspect of inner ranges -- Road from Kussowlee to Simla -- + Sabathu -- Cross Gambar River -- Haripur -- Tropical Vegetation + of Basin of Gambar -- Steep Ascent to Simla -- its extent and + situation -- its Vegetation -- Oak-forest -- Pines -- Flora of + Spring Months -- of Rainy Season -- View from Peak of Jako -- + Structure of Mountain Ranges. + + +In the month of May, 1847, while with my Regiment at Firozpur on the +south bank of the Sutlej, I received intimation that Lord Hardinge, at +that time Governor-General of India, had appointed me a member of a +mission which he had determined to despatch across the Himalaya +Mountains into Tibet; and I was directed to proceed without delay to +Simla, from which place the mission was to start, as soon as the +necessary arrangements could be completed. + +I left Firozpur on the evening of the 20th of May, and travelling only +at night, on account of the extreme heat, I arrived at the foot of +the hills, on the morning of the 24th. The greater part of the road +was through a perfectly level country, and nearly parallel to the +Sutlej, but without following its sinuosities. During a part of the +last night's journey, I travelled among low hills, partly composed of +loose sand and boulders, partly of clay and sandstone. The road enters +this tract by an open valley, bounded on both sides by hills, which on +the left are low and rounded. On the right they are scarped towards +the plains, as well as towards the valley up which I travelled, and +the strata of which they are composed, dip towards the Himalaya. The +valley is traversed by a little stream descending from the mountains, +one of the tributaries of the Gagar or Markanda, that remarkable +river, which runs in a south-west direction, as if about to join the +Indus, but ultimately loses itself in the sands of the Bikanir desert. + + [Sidenote: APPEARANCE OF HIMALAYA + FROM THE PLAINS OF INDIA. + _May, 1847._] + +When viewed from the plains of India, at a distance sufficient to +enable the spectator to see the most elevated part of the chain, the +Himalaya appear to form several distinct parallel ranges on the +horizon, rising in succession one behind another. The most distant of +these is covered with perpetual snow, while the other two, usually +called the middle and outer ranges, have the usual blue-grey tint of +distant mountains. From very great distances in the plains, the most +remote of these three apparent ranges is alone visible; and as the +traveller advances towards the base of the mountains, the others rise +in succession above the horizon. + +The optical deception, in consequence of which, masses of mountains of +every configuration resolve themselves into ranges perpendicular to +the line of sight, as soon as the eye is so far removed that the +outline of the different parts becomes indistinct, has given to our +maps many mountain-chains, which a nearer inspection proves to have no +existence. As a good instance of this, I may mention the Suliman +range, west of the Indus, which, though laid down in all our maps as a +mountain belt, parallel to and skirting the plain country, behind +which no mountains at all are represented, evidently consists of a +series of ranges, almost perpendicular to the Indus, and separated +from one another by considerable rivers. The sources of these rivers +lie far back, and the north and south axis from which they spring, +separates all the tributaries of the Indus from a succession of +streams, which run in a south-westerly direction, and appear to +terminate, without reaching the sea, in the low and flat country of +Seistan and western Beluchistan. + +At distances of between sixty and thirty miles from the base of the +Himalaya, the three parallel chains are well seen. On a nearer +approach, the lower and outer mountains by degrees become more +distinct, and subtend a greater angle, so as at last to conceal the +more distant portions of the chain. At the same time, the uniformity +of outline by which they had been characterized, insensibly +disappears. Ridges become visible in the face presented to the eye, +which, as the traveller continues to advance, become developed into +projecting spurs, separated from the general mass by wide valleys, +previously quite undistinguishable. On a still nearer approach, the +elevation continuing to increase, the extent of range embraced by the +eye is gradually lessened, till at last, when we arrive at the base of +the mountains, a single valley with its bounding ranges of low hills +is alone visible, the giant masses, so conspicuous from a greater +distance, being no longer to be seen. + +The low sandy or sandstone hills, which form the outskirts of the +Himalaya, are not, on the road from Firozpur to Simla, anywhere of +greater elevation than a few hundred feet. A few miles beyond the +entrance, the valley, which has a considerable slope, widens as it +approaches the more lofty mountains, and the sandstone cliffs are +replaced by rounded hills, probably of a more ancient rock, covered +with soil and vegetation. + + [Sidenote: KALKA. + _May, 1847._] + +At the very base of the steep mountains is situated the village of +Kalka, at which, as it is the termination of palankin travelling, +travellers in general stop, to arrange for the continuance of their +journey. Situated close to the source of the little stream which I had +been following since I had entered the hilly country, and surrounded +on all sides by low hills, Kalka has an elevation of perhaps 2000 feet +above the level of the sea, or 1000 feet above the plain on the +outside of the sandstone hills. + +The general aspect of the low hills around Kalka is barren and +uninviting; it was especially so at the season of my visit, when the +great heat had scorched the herbaceous vegetation, and all nature had +a burnt-up appearance. The subtropical valleys are not here, as +farther to the east along the base of the mountains, filled with dense +forest. They are in general bare, a few scattered trees only appearing +here and there. In the level part of the valley, at the very entrance, +where the soil was still of some depth, _Acacia Arabica_ and _Butea +frondosa_, the most prevailing trees of the plains beyond, were +frequent; but the stony water-courses contained little but a bamboo, +and the hill-sides were covered with scattered bushes of the more +ordinary shrubs of the plains of Northern India, and presented few +features of interest. + + [Sidenote: ASCENT TO KUSSOWLEE. + _May, 1847._] + +Immediately on leaving Kalka, a long and steep ascent commenced, +continuing for about ten miles, to the military post of Kussowlee, +which occupies the crest of the ridge overlooking the Kalka valley, +and can be seen throughout the greater part of the ascent, overhanging +the winding road, which has been constructed along the side of the +mountain. The elevation of Kussowlee is about 6500 feet, an altitude +at which the climate in the Himalaya is perfectly temperate, so that +during the ascent a traveller from the plains of India meets with a +complete change of climate, a change, too, which in the month of May, +the period of my visit, is particularly grateful, the heat below being +most oppressive and disagreeable. + +As the elevation increases, the view from the road becomes more +extensive. The low ranges of hills to the south and west, which had +obstructed the view, are by degrees overtopped, and the plains beyond +become visible. Soon after leaving Kalka the road crosses a low ridge, +and enters a receding bay, or steeply sloping valley beyond, at the +upper extremity of which, all along the crest, are seen the houses of +Kussowlee. Winding round this valley, and continuing to rise, the +stream in its centre is crossed about midway, and the ascent +continues on the spur which forms its western boundary. This ridge is +crossed close to the point where it is given off by the main range, +and the road, winding round its most projecting part, enters a +fir-wood, and, turning back very abruptly in an opposite direction, +proceeds eastward along the northern face of the Kussowlee range. + + [Sidenote: VEGETATION. + _May, 1847._] + +The plainward face of this range, along which the road from Kalka +ascends, is quite devoid of forest. The lower part is covered with +scattered jungle, to use a most expressive Indian word, of small +shrubs, almost all of forms common in the plains. _Carissa_ and +_Adhatoda_ are the most common, with _Rottlera tinctoria_, a plant +which does not extend far into the plains, and a scandent leguminous +shrub, apparently a species of _Mucuna_. Around the few houses which +occur on the ascent, the bamboo occurs planted, as well as the mango, +and other common cultivated trees of the Indian plains. At an +elevation of about 4000 feet, an alteration in the vegetation begins +to be perceptible. The thin jungle of plain shrubs disappears, the few +shrubs which still occur, are generally scattered bushes of +_Hamiltonia_, _Nyctanthes_, _Prinsepia_, _Scutellaria_, and _Rubus_, +but the slopes are usually bare and grassy. Ferns and mosses appear in +the crevices of the rocks, and the first individuals of those species +which predominate in the temperate zone, are found in shady spots +where they are sheltered from the sun. At the same elevation +_Euphorbia pentagona_ makes its appearance. This tree, which is +confined to the hottest and driest slopes of the Himalaya, is +remarkable for its peculiar shape, its thick fleshy five-angled +branches, and its milky juice. It is nowhere to be met with in the +plains of Upper India, but is common throughout the subtropical belt +of the Himalaya from Kamaon westward. + + [Sidenote: ORIGIN OF KUSSOWLEE RIDGE. + _May, 1847._] + +A glance at the map will serve to show that the great Himalayan +mountain range, dividing the waters of the Sutlej from those of the +Jumna, holds a nearly due east and west course in its middle part, but +that at its western extremity it bends round to the south, and +terminates in the Indian plain, not far from the town of Nahan, and +that (among many others) the Kussowlee ridge is a branch from it, +running in a north-westerly direction, and separating the waters of +the more western branch of the Gambar, from the small tributaries of +the Gagar, which find their way to the plains on the left hand. + +The ridge upon which the station of Kussowlee is built, nowhere +attains an elevation exceeding 7000 feet. It is very narrow, and often +rocky and precipitous immediately below the crest on the plainward +face, which dips very suddenly. The inner slope is somewhat less +abrupt, and is covered from the summit to perhaps 1000 feet below it, +with an open forest of a species of fir (_Pinus longifolia_), which, +in general appearance and mode of growth, much resembles the Scotch +fir, but is distinguished by the very great length of its leaves. The +barracks for the troops and the houses of the residents are scattered +over the northern slope, or perched on the narrow summit of the ridge. + +The shrubby and herbaceous vegetation which occurs scattered among the +fir-wood, is so markedly different from that which prevails at the +base of the mountains, and during the greater part of the ascent, that +the traveller appears suddenly transported into a new world. Instead +of those tribes of the vegetable kingdom which abound in the torrid +zone, all the forms which now meet the eye are characteristic of a +temperate climate. The moderate elevation of the range, and its +proximity to the plains, tend to lessen the rapidity of the diminution +of temperature; and as the greater part of the ascent lies on a bare +sunny slope, the tropical flora extends towards the summit, much +farther than it does on ranges which rise higher, and are clothed with +shady forest. During the ascent, therefore, the traveller, though +often struck with the appearance of new forms, is still accompanied by +many species familiar to him as natives of tropical jungles, but on +passing to the northern face of the spur, the temperate region is at +once entered, and most of the tropical forms disappear. + + [Sidenote: VIEW FROM KUSSOWLEE. + _May, 1847._] + +As soon as the crest of the first slope of the Himalaya has been +gained, the eye is naturally directed towards the mountains beyond, in +order to ascertain their appearance and position, when viewed at a +diminished distance and from so much more considerable an elevation +than had previously been the case. Nor will the view from Kussowlee in +favourable weather disappoint the traveller who is desirous of meeting +with beautiful scenery. Immediately to the north lies a deep ravine, +and beyond a single ridge is the wide valley of the Gambar, with +numerous mountain spurs, which, from their comparatively lower level, +are not prominently brought into view. To the south-east the main +range dips abruptly to a level, nearly 1000 feet below what it attains +in the station of Kussowlee itself, but again rises into the finely +wooded hill on which has recently been built the Lawrence Asylum. +Still further to the south are deep dells, with bare and rugged slaty +mountains, scarcely at all wooded. In the months of May and June, when +the atmosphere is generally extremely hazy, the prospect is limited to +the ranges more immediately in the vicinity; but occasionally even in +these months, as well as in the dry intervals of the rainy season, and +during the delightful autumn weather which follows the termination of +the rains, a much more distant prospect is opened, stretching far up +the valley of the Sutlej, to the snow-clad peaks which, on either +hand, hem in that river. + +In the direction of the plains of India, the view is also very +remarkable. The Kussowlee ridge so completely overtops the hills which +intervene between it and the level country, that from its summit they +interfere very little with the commanding view of the interminable +flat which, like the ocean, stretches as far as vision extends. In the +usual state of the atmosphere, especially in the hot season, a dense +haze overhangs the plains, and entirely obscures their more distant +parts; but in the cold season, as well as at day-break in summer, and +especially after heavy rains, the misty vapours are entirely +dissipated, and distant objects are defined with extreme precision. + +Perhaps the most striking, because the most unexpected part of the +view of the inner Himalaya, from Kussowlee, lies in the great depth of +the valleys in the interior, and the distance of the next elevated +range, of which the appearance of the mountains from the plains of +India affords no indication. The extreme narrowness of the ridge, and +the suddenness of the descent on both sides, is also very remarkable, +and has, as already remarked, a very sensible effect on the climate, +the heat of the lower mass being conveyed upwards, while the small +extent of the knife-edge-like ridge, which rises above 6000 feet, +exposes a minimum surface to the refrigerating influences of a +rarefied atmosphere. + + [Sidenote: ROAD TO SIMLA. + _May, 1847._] + +The distance from Kussowlee to Simla is by the road about thirty +miles, though in a direct line the two places are not much more than +half that distance apart. The road descends from Kussowlee almost to +the level of the plains, crossing the Gambar at an elevation of a +little less than 3000 feet, and ascends to Simla by following the +ridge which runs parallel to that river on its right bank, the source +of the Gambar being immediately below Simla. It would indeed be +possible to reach Simla, by following the crest of the ridge, without +descending at all into the valley of the river; but for this purpose +it would be necessary to follow the Kussowlee ridge so far to the +southward, in order to reach its junction with the main range, that +the length of the journey would be very much greater than that now +followed. The road, therefore, only keeps the ridge for a very short +distance, or as far as the "col," or lower part immediately north of +Kussowlee, which is quite bare of trees. It then turns abruptly to the +left, descending on the north face of a spur, at first in a winding +manner, afterwards for a short distance along a shady ravine, and +finally through a good deal of cultivation, at an elevation of between +4000 and 5000 feet, to a considerable stream which runs towards the +north to join the Gambar. The greatest part of the descent is bare of +trees, except along the banks of the little stream, which are covered +with a belt of wood. The cultivated lands are extensive, occupying a +flattish terraced slope, such as is of very general occurrence in the +mountains, the fields being adapted for the growth of rain crops, +principally of rice, with a few fields of ginger and cardamoms. + + [Sidenote: SABATHU. + _May, 1847._] + +After reaching the stream just mentioned, which is crossed by a ford, +a suspension bridge, for which the piers are partly built, having +never been erected, the road continues to descend parallel to it +towards the north, passing under the military station of Sabathu, +which, at the elevation of 4200 feet, occupies the crest of the ridge +immediately to the east of the little river, a very short distance +before its junction with the Gambar. + +After passing Sabathu the road turns to the right, round the +projecting ridge of the range, and descends rapidly to the valley of +the Gambar river, which is crossed by a good suspension bridge at an +elevation of 2700 feet above the level of the sea. It then ascends by +a steep and laborious path to Haripur, a small village about 500 feet +above the bed of the river. The Gambar river, where the road crosses +it, flows through a narrow rocky ravine, somewhat picturesque, but +quite devoid of trees. This, however, is not the general character of +the river-bed, which is frequently wide, with a broad gravelly +channel, and sloping though often rather steep mountains on either +side. There is occasionally even a strip of flat land, capable of +cultivation along the banks; and where such is the case, the water of +the river is carried off in artificial channels, for the purpose of +irrigation. + +After attaining the crest of the ridge, and passing through the +village of Haripur, the road follows the ridge parallel to the river +Gambar, nearly all the way to Simla, not always on the very crest or +top, which would entail a great many unnecessary ascents and descents, +but generally a little on one side or other of the hill, as +circumstances may render most convenient; at one time ascending rather +steeply, but more generally rather gently as far as Sairi, the last +stage on the way to Simla, beyond which the road is pretty level, +nearly to the bottom of the mountain on which Simla stands. + +The valley of the river Gambar may be regarded as an excellent +specimen of a smaller Himalayan river, draining a large extent of +country, and discharging its waters independently into the plains, +though not, like the first-class rivers, deriving its origin from the +snowy mountains. The southern border of the basin of the Gambar, is of +course the main chain of the South Sutlej Himalaya; and the whole of +the country between the Jutog spur, which leaves that chain at Simla, +and the Kussowlee ridge, the origin of which I have already detailed, +is drained by the Gambar and its tributaries. This includes an extent +of country of not less than 1000 square miles, the bounding ranges of +which have, throughout the greater part of their extent, an elevation +varying from 8000 to about 6000 feet. Both the Kussowlee and Jutog +ranges dip at last rather abruptly, so that it is only during a very +short distance that they are below the last-mentioned elevation. This +elevation, which is quite temperate, is however by no means that of +the whole superficies of the basin, the bed of the river having, at +its _débouchure_ into the Sutlej, an elevation of not more than 2000 +feet, and rising very gently till near its source immediately below +Simla. The lateral ridges, which traverse the basin in every +direction, are in general less elevated; not exceeding 5000 feet in +their upper part, and sinking to 3000 or even lower, so that the mean +elevation of the whole basin cannot be estimated, I should think, +higher than 3500 feet. + + [Sidenote: BASIN OF GAMBAR + VEGETATION. + _May, 1847._] + +Such being the case, it is not surprising that the general appearance +of the vegetation should be tropical, and closely approximate to that +of the low hills on the very exterior of the Himalaya. This is in +general the case. The hills, which are generally grassy, and, though +steep and frequently stony, rarely rocky or precipitous, are quite +devoid of forest, or even brushwood, except in a few shady nooks with +a northern exposure, and favourably situated with respect to moisture; +the shrubby vegetation being thin and scattered. This total want of +forest, is unquestionably caused by the dryness of the climate during +the greater part of the year, which is to a certain degree increased +beyond what it would otherwise be, by the proximity of the surrounding +mountain ranges, to which a large proportion of the rain-clouds are no +doubt attracted. + +In the shady ravines north of Kussowlee, where there is the greatest +approach to forest, a species of laurel is the most conspicuous tree. +On the more exposed hills, _Falconeria insignis_ and _Euphorbia +pentagona_ occur, scattered as small trees, and one small wood of +_Ægle marmelos_ is passed close to the village of Haripur. The most +common shrubs are _Adhatoda Vasica_, _Carissa_, and _Zizyphus +Jujuba_, species universal in the plains of upper India; _Colebrookea +oppositifolia_, _Grislea_, _Bergera_, _Roylea_ and _Boehmeria +nivea_, all species which are throughout the north-west Himalaya, +characteristic of the lower and drier parts of the outer ranges. Two +Labiate shrubs, _Plectranthus rugosus_ and _Meriandra strobilifera_, +are particularly abundant on the slopes between Haripur and Sairi, and +strongly mark the aridity of the climate. + +The herbaceous vegetation, being principally of annual growth, +approaches still more closely to the plains types. At the season of my +journey in May, the extreme drought had dried up almost all the +smaller plants, but during, and immediately after the rainy season the +herbage is very luxuriant. The steep slopes are then covered with a +uniform herbage of tall grasses, which is in many places cut and +preserved for hay, by the inhabitants of the scattered villages in the +valleys. The most prevailing grasses are a tall sweet-scented +_Cymbopogon_ and _Heteropogon contortus_. A species of _Kalanchoë_, a +large and conspicuous plant, with thick fleshy leaves, is very common, +and the superb _Gloriosa_ or _Methonica_ is by no means rare. + +On the highest ridges in the valley, at elevations of 5000 feet and +upwards, there are frequent approaches to the temperate flora, the +shady slopes on northern exposures being frequently covered with small +patches of brushwood, containing species of _Berberis_, _Rubus_, +_Spiræa_, etc., and numerous herbaceous species, of forms common at +Simla. These, however, are quite exceptional, though no doubt with a +very little more humidity the shrubby vegetation would rapidly extend, +and under its shelter many small plants would be able to grow, which +are now, when they attempt to vegetate, destroyed by the scorching +heat of the sun. + +It must also not be forgotten, that notwithstanding the general +tendency to a tropical flora, the natural result of the low elevation +and great aridity of these hills, a portion of the vegetation even at +the lowest levels consists of plants of European forms, such as +characterize the temperate vegetation of the Himalaya. I do not here +refer to what may be called the cold-weather vegetation of the plains +of north-western India, at which season, the temperature of the air +approaching to that of the summer of the temperate zone, a +considerable number of European plants make their appearance in +corn-fields and along the banks of water-courses; as, for example, +_Veronica Anagallis_ and _agrestis_, _Anagallis_, _Medicago_, +_Melilotus_, _Potentilla supina_, _Juncus bufonius_, _Arenaria +serpyllifolia_, _Heliotropium Europæum_, and many others. These +naturally occur at the same season, in the low valleys among the +hills, in similar situations. The circumstance to which I desire to +advert, is the occurrence at very low levels among the mountains, +during the hot and rainy seasons, of species belonging to genera +characteristic of temperate climates, and which therefore are the +prevailing forms at considerable elevations on the Himalaya. As +instances, I may adduce the occurrence in the valley of the Gambar, at +elevations not exceeding 3000 feet, of species of _Thalictrum_, +_Fragaria_, _Rosa_, _Rubus_, _Berberis_, &c., &c. This remarkable fact +has been ascribed by Jacquemont[1] to the obscure influence of the +mountains; and as the genera just enumerated never occur in the +plains of Upper India, it appears evident that the mountainous nature +of the country must be viewed as an essential element in the reasons +for their descent. These, with some others which also occur at low +levels in the Himalaya, appear to be in all parts of the continent of +India those genera of temperate climates, which descend to the lowest +altitudes. Some of them were found by Dr. Hooker on Parasnâth, a hill +in upper Behar, the elevation of which does not exceed 4000 feet; and +they are all natives of moderate elevations on the Nilgherries and in +Ceylon, as well as on the Khasya mountains in eastern Bengal. + + [Sidenote: ASCENT TO SIMLA. + _May, 1847._] + + [Sidenote: SIMLA. + _May, 1847._] + +The ridge which runs from Haripur to Sairi, parallel to the river +Gambar, is a branch from the Jutog spur, nearly north of Simla, a +ridge which is given off by the main South Sutlej chain in Simla +itself, and which runs directly north to the Sutlej river. The road, +after following this ridge till within a few miles of Simla, leaves it +on the left hand, to descend into a small stony ravine; after crossing +which it mounts abruptly a very steep spur, ascending at least 1500 +feet to gain the crest of the ridge, and enter Simla at its +north-western extremity. + +The hill station of Simla, which was originally selected as a +sanatarium, or suitable residence for the servants of Government, or +other Europeans, whose health had been impaired by disease, or by too +long residence in a tropical climate, has of late years, in +consequence of the political state of north-western India, and of the +increasing number of retired officers, and of gentlemen unconnected +with the public service, who have made it their residence, become a +place of great importance. Besides an extensive bazaar or collection +of shops, which may now almost be designated a small native town, +Simla contains nearly 400 houses, scattered along the crest of +different mountain ranges. Its situation is a most favourable one, on +the main range of mountains south of the Sutlej river, at a point +where a massive peak rises to a height of 8100 feet, and on the +nearest part of the ridge to the plains of India, which is +sufficiently elevated, well wooded, and situated favourably with +regard to water. The greater part of the station is built on the main +range, partly surrounding the peak of Jako, and partly on the ridge +running north from it, at an elevation of about 7000 feet, as far as a +smaller culminating point of the range, which is by the inhabitants +named Prospect Point. At this point the main range turns sharply to +the west, and the station is continued for nearly a mile on a spur +which runs towards the north, passing through the station of Jutog. +From the scattered position of the houses, the extent of Simla is much +more considerable than the bare statement of the number of houses +might lead one to suppose. The northern ridge extends almost four +miles, and the circuit of Jako, by the principal road, which is from +500 to 1000 feet below the summit, measures five miles. + +In consequence of the sudden elevation of the mountain range at the +place where Simla has been built, there is a most complete and +surprising change in the vegetation and general appearance of the +scenery. During the last ascent on the road from the plains this is +sufficiently perceptible, although from the great ravages which the +proximity of so large a population has made in the oak woods, only a +few stunted bushes are now left on the southern exposure. Between the +plains and Simla the hills are totally devoid of trees, but +immediately on gaining the top of the ridge on which the station is +built, we enter a fine forest, which covers all the broader parts of +the range, especially the slopes which have a northern aspect, +stretching down on these in many places to the bottom of the valleys, +fully 2000 feet. + + [Sidenote: OAK FOREST. + _May, 1847._] + + [Sidenote: PINES OF SIMLA. + _May, 1847._] + +The nature of the forest varies a good deal with the exposure and with +the quality of the soil. By far the greater part consists of an oak +and a rhododendron, both small evergreen trees, rarely exceeding +thirty or forty feet, with wide-spreading arms and rugged twisted +branches. A species of _Andromeda_ is also very common, and a holly, +an _Euonymus_, _Rhamnus_, and _Benthamia_, are the other more common +trees, if we except the _Coniferæ_, of which four species occur. Of +these, _Pinus longifolia_ is common at the western or lower extremity +of the station, and prevails, to the exclusion of any other tree, on +the dry sunny spurs which run towards the south, at elevations from +7000 to 5000 feet. This species is, of all the Indian pines known to +me (except its near ally _P. Khasyana_), that which is capable of +enduring the most heat, and at the same time the greatest variation in +amount of moisture; as it is found at elevations of not more than 1000 +feet above the level of the sea, equally in the hot humid valleys of +Sikkim, where it enjoys a perpetual vapour-bath, and on the dry +sandstone hills of the upper Punjab, on which rain hardly ever falls. +It is only, however, at low elevations, where the mean temperature is +high, that it is capable of supporting a great amount of humidity, +for in the damp climates of the Himalaya it is entirely wanting, +except in the deepest valleys; and even in the drier districts it is +always observed to select the sunnier, and therefore warmer exposures. +Its upper limit is usually about 7000 feet above the level of the sea, +though on Jako at Simla a few stunted trees rise as high as 7700 feet. + +_Pinus excelsa_ is also a very common species at Simla, particularly +on the southern face of Mount Jako, which is the highest part of the +ridge. _Abies Smithiana_, the third coniferous tree, is exceedingly +rare, a few trees only occurring in a shady ravine facing the west; +while the deodar, the fourth species, is common on the southern and +western slopes of Jako, above 7000 feet; and again in shady groves at +the bottom of the valleys on both sides of the ridge, as low as 5000 +feet. This beautiful tree, the cedar of the Indian mountains, seems +limited to the western half of the Himalayan range, extending from the +most westerly part of Nipal, as far as the mountains of Affghanistan. +It was first described by Roxburgh from specimens sent to him from +Kamaon, at a time when the western Himalaya was almost inaccessible to +Europeans, under the name by which it is known to the inhabitants of +that province, as well as in Kashmir. It is, however, singularly +enough, not known by that name in the Simla hills, where it is called +_Kélu_; another conifer, _Cupressus torulosa_, a rare tree in the +district, having usurped the name, as well as the sacred character, of +deodar. + +In the thick woods of Simla, a large white monkey, the _Langúr_ of the +natives, is very common. These animals move about in large flocks, in +which may be seen individuals of all sizes and ages, and seldom remain +more than a few hours in one place. They are in constant motion, +leaping from bough to bough and from tree to tree, chattering +constantly; and, notwithstanding their great size, are in general +harmless, though ready enough to defend themselves if assailed. + +The forest extends in parts close up to the peak of Jako, which has an +elevation of 8130 feet. The very summit, however, which is a short +flat ridge, and a considerable part of the east and south face, are +bare and grassy, or covered with scattered shrubs. The more common +shrubby forms of the vegetation of the temperate zone, are _Salix_, +_Rosa_, _Rubus_, _Lonicera_, _Viburnum_, _Berberis_, _Indigofera_, and +_Prinsepia_, all, except the two last, quite European. _Indigofera_ +forms a remarkable exception, and one well worthy of note, as the +genus is a very tropical one, although its shrubby species are +particularly abundant throughout the whole of the western Himalaya. +These shrubby species, however, constitute a particular section of the +genus, very distinct in habit, and in the large size and bright colour +of the flower, from the more ordinary forms, and they are confined to +the drier parts of the mountains, being quite wanting in the humid +climate of Darjeeling and Khasya, and almost entirely so in the +mountains of the Peninsula. + + [Sidenote: VEGETATION OF THE SPRING MONTHS. + _May, 1847._] + +The herbaceous vegetation of the spring months quite corresponds, in +the temperate nature of its forms, with what has been found to be the +case with the trees and shrubs; but during the rainy season, as has +been well pointed out by Dr. Royle in his valuable essay on the +distribution of Himalayan plants, this is much less markedly the case. +At the commencement of spring, in April (for March is still too cold +for much vegetation), the weather being generally bright, though with +occasional heavy showers, the earliest flowers are species of _Viola_, +_Fragaria_, _Geranium_, _Veronica_, _Valeriana_, and dandelion. From +April, as summer advances, the temperature gradually rises, till +towards the end of June, when the rainy season commences. These months +are generally dry, and if no rain falls the heat is sometimes +considerable, the thermometer rising as high as 80° in the shade. +Still the flora is almost entirely temperate, the early spring plants +being succeeded by many others of European families, principally +_Ranunculaceæ_, _Rosaceæ_, _Labiatæ_, _Stellatæ_, _Polygonaceæ_, +_Epilobiaceæ_, _Primulaceæ_, etc. I can scarcely enumerate a single +spring flowering plant which does not belong to an European family, +unless _Arum_ be an exception, which it can hardly be considered, the +flowers only being displayed during May and June, while the leaves do +not make their appearance until after the rainy season has commenced. +Few species are, however, identical with those of Europe, except +_Stellaria media_, _Cerastium vulgatum_, _Taraxacum officinale_, +_Verbascum Thapsus_, _Thymus Serpyllum_, and _Poa annua_. + + [Sidenote: FLORA OF RAINY SEASON. + _July, 1847._] + + [Sidenote: PEAK OF JAKO. + _July, 1847._] + +The rainy season generally commences about the 20th of June, or +between that date and the end of the month, and continues till the +middle or end of September, with occasional intermissions, rarely +exceeding a week at a time. During the rains the atmosphere is +exceedingly moist, dense fogs usually prevailing when rain does not +fall. The rain-fall is probably more considerable at Simla than in +the lower ranges, which are nearer the plains, for it has been +observed that ranges of 7-8000 feet (which are generally for this +reason well wooded), attract much moisture, and the peak of Jako and +other parts of Simla are frequently observed from the stations of +Sabathu and Kussowlee, to be covered with dense clouds or mist, at +times when at the latter places the weather is bright and clear. + +The commencement of the rainy season is the signal in the mountains, +as it is very universally throughout India, wherever that season is +well marked, for the appearance of a very vigorous and luxuriant +growth of plants of annual growth, the seeds (or rootstocks) of which +had been lying dormant in the soil awaiting the access of heavy rain. +At Simla, as elsewhere in the temperate region of the Himalaya, we +find at this season numerous species of Balsams, _Acanthaceæ_, +_Orchideæ_, and _Labiatæ_, several Gentians and _Cichoraceæ_, a great +many grasses and _Cyperaceæ_, and species of _Parnassia_, _Drosera_, +_Pedicularis_, _Roscoea_, _Dipsacus_, _Thalictrum_, _Urtica_, etc., +etc. Some of these are quite European genera, while others, as +_Roscoea_, are interesting as belonging to orders whose maxima occur +in very humid climates. The _Labiatæ_ of the rainy season are mostly +species of _Plectranthus_ and _Elsholtzia_, both quite Indian genera, +and very extensively distributed in mountainous districts. Balsams are +quite an Indian order, and they seem everywhere, as has already been +remarked by Dr. Royle and by Dr. Wight, to abound in humid shady +places, either in dense forest or on the stony banks of mountain +streams, in the drier districts only during the rainy season, but in +more humid countries more or less throughout the year. The _Orchideæ_ +of Simla are entirely terrestrial, the dryness and cold of the winter +months being greater than are compatible with the occurrence of +epiphytical species of this natural order, and for the same reason, I +presume, _Melastomaceæ_, so abundant in the Eastern Himalaya, are +quite wanting. + +Among the many advantages of situation by which Simla is +characterized, one of the most fortunate is its position on a part of +the mountain range which lies transversely to the ordinary direction +of the chain, so that the view towards the plains of India, as well as +up the Sutlej valley, is very much more extensive than would be +obtained, had the station been situated in a less favourable position. +This advantage is further enhanced by the sudden rise in elevation of +the chain, which enables a resident at Simla to overlook in the +direction of the plains the continuation of the range which would +otherwise obstruct the view. Towards the interior of the mountains, +this advantage is not possessed by Simla; for the ridge of Mahasu, +which rises 1000 feet higher than the peak of Jako, obscures at least +half of the snowy range, the view being limited in that direction to +the course of the valley of the Sutlej, and to the mountains north of +that river. + + [Sidenote: VIEW FROM THE + PEAK OF JAKO. + _July, 1847._] + +With all these advantages of situation, the view from the peak of Jako +is one of the most agreeable and diversified, which occur in any part +of the Himalaya; although, from the rather too level top of the +mountain, and the intrusion of the forest almost to the very summit, +the whole panorama cannot be embraced at once. Immediately under the +eye are the numerous spurs and ridges covered with scattered houses, +and the deep ravines which terminate the steep slopes below the +station; towards the plains, the whole valley of the Gambar is seen, +with the stations of Sabathu and Kussowlee, the church and esplanade +of the former appearing low down almost within a stone's throw, while +the brilliant white of the houses of Kussowlee, more nearly on a level +with the eye, sparkle in the sunbeams. The ridge of Kussowlee in one +place excludes the view of the plains, but to the right they may be +seen stretching away in the distance, and only recognizable at last by +the track of the Sutlej river, which, from the very remarkable curve +close to its exit from the mountains, may be traced as far as vision +can extend, a distance of 116 miles[2]. To the north a valley +stretches from Simla as far as the Sutlej river, distant about fifteen +miles, so direct that the greater part of it is seen, though the river +itself is concealed. East of north a long partially wooded ridge, +about four miles distant at its nearest point, running parallel to the +valley just mentioned, excludes the view of the nearer part of the +Sutlej valley; but the lofty ranges north of that river, covered with +dense forest, and backed by masses of brilliant snow, close in the +view in that direction. Due east lies the Mahasu ridge, covered on the +Simla slopes with a dense forest of deodar; and to the south, across +the valley of the Giri, towards which numerous rugged ridges run, is +the mountain called the Chor, the highest peak of the range which +separates the Giri from the Tons, the crest of which is upwards of +12,000 feet in height. + +From the peak of Jako, the serpentine course of the range, which +prevails universally throughout the Himalaya, may be well traced, as +the eye of the spectator, following the direct course of the ridge, +can observe numerous turns in its course, each of which, from the +great foreshortening, appears much more abrupt than it really is. At +each curve the range rises into a peak, while the intermediate +portions are lower and excavated into "cols" or passes. In the +concavity of each bend of the range is situated the head of a valley, +numerous small spurs dividing the different ravines which unite to +form it; while on the convex side, from the high portion of the ridge, +is given off a branch of the range, forming a separation between two +adjacent valleys, each of which occupies a concavity in the main range +of mountain. + +On my arrival at Simla on the 25th of May, I found that Major A. +Cunningham, of the Bengal Engineers, and Captain Henry Strachey, of +the 66th Regiment N.I., were to be my fellow-travellers, the former +having been appointed the head of the mission. As Captain Strachey had +to travel from Dinapore, it was evident that some time would elapse +before he would arrive at Simla, nor was it till the beginning of +August that the completion of the necessary preliminaries rendered it +possible for us to commence our journey. I took advantage of this +delay to make myself as far as possible acquainted with the physical +features and vegetation of the surrounding country, though the +necessary preparations for the approaching journey occupied a good +deal of time, and the commencement of the rainy season rendered +travelling difficult, and even out-of-door exercise unpleasant. I have +already attempted to convey an idea of the general physical aspect of +the scenery, which, after a short residence has made one familiar with +the structure of the ridges, appears very simple. Situated on the +dividing range, by which the waters of the Giri, a tributary of the +Jumna, on the left, are separated from those of the tributaries of the +Sutlej on the right, the spectator looks into two of the immense +basins into which the Himalaya is divided by transverse ranges running +parallel to the great rivers; and after a short time he finds that the +chaos of mountains, which at first perplexed the eye and confused the +mind, gradually resolves itself into a definite shape, each ridge +being capable of being referred to its parent, and that in its turn to +a branch of the main chain. From his commanding position he can also +see that the main range is generally more elevated than its branches, +and that each chain, by a succession of sudden sinkings, diminishes in +elevation, each peak being lower than its predecessor. Nowhere in the +wide tract of country visible is there the least approach to a system +of parallel ridges, such as is indicated by the distant view of these +mountains. On the contrary, it is seen that the great ranges are, +though very irregularly, perpendicular to the general direction of the +mountain mass, and that it is only the shorter spurs which have a +general uniformity of direction. + + [Sidenote: STRUCTURE OF THE + MOUNTAIN RANGES. + _July, 1847._] + +Nor could I find in the structure of the mountains around Simla any +confirmation of the view entertained by Humboldt of the sudden +elevation of the Himalaya out of a vast fissure in the external crust +of the earth. However plausible such a view might appear when the +Himalaya is contemplated as a whole (on a map), without any portion of +its extent being under the eye, I found it, on the spot, quite +impossible to conceive in what way, after such a sudden elevation, any +power in the least analogous to existing forces could have excavated +out of the solid rock those numerous valleys, so various in direction, +so rugged in outline, and so vast in dimensions, which now furrow the +mountain mass. + +On the contrary, the conclusion has been forced upon me that these +mountains have emerged extremely gradually from an ocean, of the +existence of which, at very various levels, the most evident traces +are, I think, discoverable. The present configuration of the surface +must, I do not doubt, have been given to it during periods of rest, or +of very slow elevation, the action of the sea upon submerged rocks +being so very superficial that no denudation takes place at any great +depth. During the period of emergence of the Himalaya, from the great +length of the present valleys, which extend between parallel ranges +far into the interior, the coast must have borne a strong resemblance +to that of Norway at the present day, numerous promontories projecting +far into the sea, and separated from one another by narrow and deep +bays. + + [Sidenote: GEOLOGY.] + +The geological structure of the Himalaya between Simla and the plains +is not easily discovered by the cursory observer. The general basis of +the mountains is clay-slate, occasionally very micaceous, passing +into a coarse sandstone, but here and there limestone occurs +interstratified. The dip is extremely variable, and the rocks, +whatever their age, are evidently highly metamorphosed. The tertiary +formations, so well illustrated by Falconer and Cautley, extend all +along the base of the mountains, and penetrate in some places far into +the valleys, for certain rocks in the neighbourhood of Sabathu have +been indicated by Major Vicary, which appear to be of the same age, or +perhaps of a still older tertiary epoch. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] Voyage, etc., vol. ii. p. 6. + +[2] In this I allow 800 feet for the height of Loodiana above the +level of the sea. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + + Leave Simla -- Mahasu Ridge -- Pine Forest -- Summit of Mahasu + -- Vegetation of Northern Slope -- Fagu -- Theog -- Mattiana -- + Cultivated Valley -- Nagkanda -- Ascent of Hattu -- Forest of + Pine and Oak -- Vegetation of Summit -- View from top of + Mountain -- Plainward slopes bare of forest, while those facing + the interior are well wooded -- Cultivation at 9500 feet -- + Descent from Nagkanda towards Sutlej -- Damp shady Ravine + densely wooded -- Kotgarh -- Cultivation -- Rapid Descent -- + Change of Climate -- Tropical Vegetation -- Rampur -- + Swing-bridge -- Diurnal fluctuations in level of River -- Gaora + -- Serahan -- Tranda -- Western boundary of Kunawar. + + +On the 2nd of August, 1847, every necessary preparation having been +completed, and the officers of the mission having received the +instructions of the Governor-General to proceed to Ladakh, and thence +to take severally such direction as they should consider most +conducive to the increase of our knowledge of these countries, Major +Cunningham, Captain Strachey, and myself left Simla. + + [Sidenote: DEPARTURE FROM SIMLA. + _August, 1847._] + +The route selected as most eligible, in order to reach Hangarang and +Piti, to which we had been instructed in the first place to proceed, +lay up the course of the Sutlej river, through Kunawar. The advanced +period of the season, at which almost constant rain might be +expected, rendered the river route, on which at most stages tolerable +shelter is obtainable, preferable to that by the Pabar valley, and the +Bruang (or Borendo) pass, which otherwise we should have preferred, +from its passing through a more elevated tract of country. + +From Simla the first day's journey towards the interior of the +mountains is usually to Fagu, a distance of fourteen miles. Here, and +for several stages farther, as far as the road lies through British +territory, there are houses (bungalows, as they are termed in India) +provided by Government for the accommodation of travellers, upon the +payment of a small fixed sum per diem. Though often in bad repair, and +therefore very uncomfortable in rainy weather, these houses (which +occur also between Simla and the plains) are a very great convenience, +as they enable tourists to dispense with the carriage of tents. + +The difficulty of making a start, from the small number of porters +procurable for our baggage, was so great that it was some time after +dark before I reached the Fagu bungalow, in the midst of an extremely +heavy fall of rain, which had commenced about sunset, after a fair +though lowering day. The road from Simla to Fagu follows throughout +the course of the main range, not always on the very crest of the +ridge, but seldom at any great distance from it. After passing round +the peak of Jako, it turns northward, and descends abruptly about 500 +feet, to a low part of the ridge, elevated about 6800 feet, and quite +bare of trees, the micaceous slaty rock being in many places exposed. +The ridge continues in a direction for nearly four miles, varying +very little in level, only one short and rather steep ascent +occurring to a peak where a spur branches off to the south, beyond +which the road again slightly descends. About half-a-mile to the north +of this little ridge, on the slope of the hill below the road, there +is a small cluster of trees of _Cupressus torulosa_, a species of +cypress, one of the rarer conifers of the Himalaya; the most favourite +situation of which seems to be on very steep mountains in the +interior, at elevations of from seven to nine thousand feet. It was +found abundantly by Major Madden[3] on Shali, a peak twenty miles east +of Simla, and it appears to extend thence west as far as Simla, where +it occurs in several places on hot, dry, and very bare rocky hills, as +low as six thousand feet. + +About four miles from Simla, a sudden increase in the elevation of the +range takes place, and at the same time it turns abruptly towards the +south-east. The road ascends the steep face of the ridge, in a series +of zigzags, rather steeply, with a deep ravine on either hand, that to +the right bare, while on the left there is first a thicket of rose and +willow bushes, and further on an oak-wood, of a species (_Quercus +floribunda_ of Wallich) different from that common at Simla, and +indicative of greater elevation, though here growing with +_Rhododendron_ and _Andromeda_, common Simla trees. When near the top +of the ascent, the road bends rapidly to the right, keeping on the +south face of the ridge, and passing under but close to a small house, +built on the very crest of the ridge, at an elevation of about 8000 +feet. Close to this bungalow, which occupies a most excellent site, +forest commences, and the road runs for a mile through fine trees of +deodar and spruce (_Abies Smithiana_), generally on the very crest of +the ridge, looking down towards the east into a deep and broad valley. +Right across this valley, north-east, rises the remarkable peak of +Shali, a bold rocky mass sloping gently to the south, while to the +north, which seems to overhang the Sutlej valley, it is cut off very +abruptly. This highly beautiful mountain, the termination of a +northerly spur, given off close to Mattiana, is hardly visible from +Simla, its top only being seen from some of the more northerly houses. + + [Sidenote: MAHASU RIDGE. + _August, 1847._] + +From an elevation of about 8000 feet at its north-west end, the Mahasu +ridge rises, at first gradually, to at least 9000 feet, and as it is +throughout well wooded, the road along it is extremely beautiful. On +the earlier part of the ridge, the forest consists chiefly of pine, +_P. excelsa_ and _Abies Smithiana_ being abundant, and more especially +the deodar, which, on the slope facing the west, may be seen in the +greatest profusion, thousands of young trees springing up in dense +masses, on the slopes which have been bared by the axe, or still more +destructively by the fires of the hill-men. + +After about five miles of what, in the Himalaya, may be called +tolerably level road, another sudden ascent follows, the road +inclining rather to the northern slope of the mountain, and entering a +dense forest of large massive pines, intermixed with two species of +sycamore, and a fine cherry, which relieve the otherwise too gloomy +foliage of the coniferous trees. A magnificent climbing vine, which +attaches itself to the tallest trees, rising in light green coils +round their trunks, and falling in graceful festoons from the +branches high over head, adds much to the elegance of the scene, and +renders it, in the expressive words of Griffith, who was familiar with +the rich vegetation of the humid forests of the Eastern Himalaya, the +only true Himalayan forest of the western mountains. + + [Sidenote: SUMMIT OF MAHASU. + _August, 1847._] + +On this ascent the road rises to about 9000 feet, the crest of the +Mahasu ridge being, according to Captain Herbert, 9200 feet. The large +size and dense shade of the trees, and the abundance of _Abies +Smithiana_, of the sycamore, and of the gigantic vine, give the forest +a totally different appearance from that of Simla, and the undergrowth +presents also a considerable amount of novelty; a species of currant, +a fine _Spiræa_, _Indigofera atropurpurea_, and fine species of _Rosa_ +and _Rubus_, forming thickets under the tall trees. This forest, +indeed, from its dense shade, and great humidity, exhibits a much +greater contrast to the ordinary temperate vegetation of the Himalaya, +than is usually observed below 9000 feet, at which elevation the upper +temperate, or subalpine vegetation, begins fairly to predominate over +that which is prevalent from 5000 to 9000 feet. + +On reaching the summit of the steep ascent, the road again gains the +crest of the ridge, which consists of a succession of rounded knolls, +covered with grass, and quite bare of trees, the forest rising almost, +but not quite, to the top. On the very summit of one of the first of +these knolls, is a small wooden shrine or temple, of a form common in +the hills; the top of a mountain, or the summit of any very steep +ascent, being usually selected as a proper spot for the erection of a +sacred building by Indian mountaineers, in whose superstition every +hill and grove is tenanted by supernatural beings. + + [Sidenote: POTATO CULTIVATION. + _August, 1847._] + +The steep ascent on the northern shoulder of Mahasu, from 8000 feet, +and even lower, to above 9000 feet, is the great seat of the potato +cultivation in the neighbourhood of Simla. The steepest slopes seem to +be preferred for this purpose, if they have only a sufficiency of +soil, which is very light, loose, and stony. The undergrowth of shrubs +is cleared away entirely on the spot where potatoes are planted, but +the pine forest is only partially thinned, the tall straight trunks +allowing of a free circulation of air below, while the thick branches +above afford the amount of shade requisite for the crop. The potatoes +are planted in rows in May; and, early in June, when the plants have +attained a height of a few inches, the soil is earthed up round their +stems in low ridges. The rains commence in the latter part of June, +and during their continuance nothing is done to the crop, beyond +keeping it clear of weeds. The steepness of the slope seems to afford +a sufficient drainage to prevent any injury from the great rain-fall +and constant humidity. The growth of the plants is exceedingly +luxuriant, the foliage being tall and bushy. By the middle of October, +or after the close of the rains, the potatoes are dug and ready for +market, supplying not only the station of Simla, but being despatched +in great quantities to the plains of India, where the potato is only +cultivated as a winter crop, and where, therefore, during the cold +months, none are otherwise procurable. + +On the very summit of the Mahasu ridge, there are a few trees of +_Quercus semicarpifolia_, the alpine oak of the western Himalaya, an +European-looking and partially deciduous species, and of _Picea +Webbiana_, or _Pindrow_, the silver fir of the Indian mountains, a +dark sombre-looking pine, abundant in the forests of the interior. +These trees may be adopted as the characteristics of the subalpine +zone, in every part of which, from 9000 to about 12,000 feet, which is +the highest limit of tree vegetation in the Western Himalaya, they +abound. On Mahasu they are entirely confined to the crest of the +ridge, and form no part of the forest below. + + [Sidenote: FAGU. + _August, 1847._] + +The descent from the top of Mahasu to the Fagu bungalow, is at first +abrupt, the road leaving the ridge to enter the forest on the northern +face, and winding down, after a few hundred yards of bare stony slope, +among dense forest, among which it continues for a couple of miles, +rising at last rather steeply to the crest of the ridge at the point +where it resumes a northerly direction. Here the bungalow of Fagu has +been built, at an elevation of 8200 feet, at the very base of the +steep mountain ridge behind, which rises abruptly, to a height of six +or seven hundred feet. The bungalow faces the north-east, and commands +a most superb view of the snowy range beyond the Sutlej, with +occasional glimpses of the Jumno-Gangetic snows on the right hand. + +On my arrival at Fagu, in the midst of a pelting fall of rain, I found +the bungalow already occupied by my fellow-travellers, and before a +bright and comfortable fire I soon forgot the discomfort of my wet +ride, which indeed was not to be complained of, as it was only what +might fairly have been expected in the middle of the rainy season. +The confusion among our baggage, however, was so great, from its +arriving irregularly and being set down hurriedly by the drenched +porters, anxious to escape as soon as possible to shelter, that it was +not without difficulty I procured the necessary change of clothing. + +The morning of the 3rd of August was densely foggy, but without rain, +and it was unanimously decided that it would be advisable to push on +to the next stage, Mattiana, a distance of fifteen miles. Our +anticipations of fair weather were unfortunately disappointed, for it +began to rain heavily before ten o'clock, and continued to do so with +little intermission till nearly two, when it cleared, and the +remainder of the day was fine. + + [Sidenote: GIRI VALLEY. + _August, 1847._] + +The whole day's journey lay along the ridge, which scarcely fell below +7500 feet, and nowhere rose above 9000 feet. Fagu is situated +immediately above the valley of the river Giri, a large mountain +stream, the most western tributary of the Jumna. A road across the +Jumnetic valleys to Massuri descends abruptly towards that river, +descending more than 5000 feet in little more than five miles, and +crossing the river by a bridge at an elevation of 3000 feet. The +mountains to the right, which dip into the valley of the Giri, are +bare of forest, with a good deal of cultivation in small terraced +fields on the steep sunny slopes, while scattered houses, scarcely +collected into villages, are seen here and there among the fields. On +the left hand, again, the deep valley which runs towards the Sutlej is +full of forest, not rising however to the ridge, which is bare, or +lined only with scattered jungle of _Indigofera_, _Desmodium_, +_Spiræa_, roses, and brambles. It seems to be a constant rule that +the depressions of the ridges are bare and open, while the more +elevated portions are covered with forest. Probably the cause of this +is the greater humidity of the higher slopes, which attract the +rain-clouds, while the lower ranges are dry. The currents of air which +sweep up the valleys may also in part be the cause of the bareness of +the ridges opposite their summits. + + [Sidenote: THEOG. + _August, 1847._] + +At Theog, nearly eight miles from Fagu, there is a fort belonging to a +Rana, or hill chieftain, and a small village, with a good many fields. +The cultivation at this great elevation, for the fields reach to at +least 8000 feet, is principally of barley, which is sown in early +spring, and reaped in the beginning or middle of June, according to +the season. Beyond Theog the road rises a little, and is covered with +brushwood on the left hand, but bare on the right. The highest part of +the road is about two miles beyond Theog, and has an elevation of +about 9000 feet. The northern face of this hill is prettily wooded +with the holly-leaved oak, and covered with numerous large angular +boulders, whose origin is rather difficult to explain. After passing +this little hill the ridge sweeps round to the left in a semicircle, +ascending very gradually and gently to a low ridge, from the crest of +which the bungalow of Mattiana comes into sight, at a distance of +nearly two miles, the whole of which is a gentle descent. The latter +part of the road has a direction nearly due north, and the bungalow is +situated in a very commanding position on the top of a little +eminence, a quarter of a mile from the village, which occupies the +slope of the hill facing the south-east, at a considerably lower +level. The hills on both sides of the bungalow, which has an +elevation of 8200 feet, are extremely steep, and descend at least 2000 +feet. The valley on the left, tributary to the Sutlej, is well wooded, +but that on the right is rather bare, with only a little wood here and +there in the ravines, and on the more shady exposures. + + [Sidenote: MATTIANA. + _August, 1847._] + +The slopes below Mattiana are covered with numerous scattered houses +and a good deal of cultivation. A little rice is grown during the +rains, but the principal crops are barley and some wheat, sown in +spring and reaped before the commencement of the rains. The opium +poppy, also a spring crop, is cultivated to some extent in the lower +part of the valley. It is sown in early spring, and the opium is +gathered in June. + +On the morning of the 4th of August we resumed our journey, proceeding +as far as Nagkanda, about thirteen miles. Nagkanda, like Mattiana and +Fagu, lies exactly on the crest of the main range, south of the +Sutlej, and it is possible to proceed to it by a footpath along the +ridge. The ascent, however, immediately north of Mattiana, where the +ridge rises suddenly to nearly 10,000 feet, is so steep, rocky, and +difficult, that it is quite impassable for horses, and so nearly for +loaded men, that a more easy, though somewhat longer road is always +preferred. I have more than once walked from Nagkanda to Mattiana by +the upper road, and found it quite easy on foot, and so very beautiful +as to be well worth a visit. The ascent from Mattiana is exceedingly +steep, and facing nearly due south, very bare, stony, and barren; but +when the higher portion of the ridge has been gained, the remainder of +the road lies through beautiful forest, with much fine scenery--the +earlier part steep and rocky, the remainder nearly level, till the +last descent, and generally on the north face of the range. + + [Sidenote: VALLEY BEFORE MATTIANA. + _August, 1847._] + +On our present journey, however, we took the usual road, which +descends from Mattiana to the valley immediately on the east, crosses +it, and passes over a long spur on its eastern side, into another +valley, the head of which is immediately below Nagkanda, to which +place the road ascends, at last very steeply. The ravine immediately +below Mattiana is crossed at an elevation probably a little above 6000 +feet, as the trees of the temperate region, such as the holly-leaved +and woolly oak, _Andromeda_, and _Rhododendron_, continue to the very +bottom of the descent; and _Pinus excelsa_ is common on the eastern +slope, a little way above the stream, which descends very abruptly, +like all the hill torrents near their sources, along a rocky channel, +filled with large boulders. On the banks of the little stream there +were a few trees of an _Acacia_, common in the lower forests, which +Mr. Bentham considers a hairy variety of the _Albizzia Julibrissin_ of +western Asia. I observed also a Laurel, an Olive, _Rhus_, and the +common Toon (_Cedrela Toona_), all indicative of the commencement of a +subtropical vegetation, which no doubt must be abundant on its banks a +very few miles further down. Few of the plants observed in the valley +were different from those common around Simla; a species of +_Caragana_, a Leguminous genus abundant in Siberia, and in the +interior and more dry parts of the Himalaya, was perhaps the most +interesting. + +The ascent from the ravine was well wooded in its lower part with oak +and pine. A few trees of a very handsome poplar (_P. ciliata_), a tall +widely-branching large-leaved tree, occurred in its lower part, as did +also _Benthamia fragifera_, and a yew, apparently undistinguishable +from the common European species. The upper part of the ascent was +bare and grassy. The spur is a steep one, descending rapidly from the +main range, and the road winding round its shoulder does not ascend +beyond 7000 feet, but as soon as it has gained the eastern face +continues nearly level, gradually approaching the centre of the +valley, and winding along the hill-sides among numerous villages. The +slopes are generally bare; here and there in the hollows or recesses +along the lateral streamlets there is some very fine forest. + + [Sidenote: CULTIVATED VALLEY. + _August, 1847._] + +The appearance of this valley is considerably different from that of +any of those nearer to the plains. The population is considerable, and +collected into villages, some of which occupy the lower part of the +valley, and are surrounded by a good deal of cultivation and numerous +walnut and apricot trees, the latter of which are said, in autumn, +frequently to tempt the bears from the forest, to indulge in what to +them is a grateful feast. The ripening of the apricot in a valley, +among forest, at an elevation of 7000 feet, indicates an undoubted +diminution of the rain-fall. Very little change, however, is +observable in the wild vegetation till the upper part of the last +steep ascent, when a number of species make their appearance which are +strangers to the more external ranges. A species of hazel, as a tree, +and _Lappa_, _Achillea_, _Leonurus_, _Cheiranthus_, and _Rumex +acetosa_, as herbaceous plants, may be mentioned as instances, as +also a lax-paniculate _Polygonum_, with elegant panicles of white +honey-scented flowers. + + [Sidenote: NAGKANDA. + _August, 1847._] + +Nagkanda bungalow, elevated 9300 feet above the level of the sea, is +situated on a depression of the main range, where it has a direction +from west to east. The ridge to the west, towards Mattiana, is +elevated little more than 10,000 feet, while to the east rises the +peak of Hattu to a height of 10,674 feet, by the determination of the +trigonometrical survey. Here the range has approached nearer to the +Sutlej, now distant only about twelve miles, than at any point since +leaving Simla. The valley of the Sutlej being only 3000 feet above the +level of the sea, while the mountains directly opposite rise to 12,000 +feet, the scenery is of the grandest description. The river itself is +nowhere visible, the descent being so abrupt at the bottom that the +intervening spurs entirely conceal it. + +The northern slope of the ridge on which Nagkanda stands, is occupied +by a very deep valley, bounded by two long spurs, which run towards +the Sutlej. The whole of this valley is occupied by dense forest, a +great part of which is pine, especially on the upper part of the deep +receding bay which runs up nearly to the top of Hattu, the sides of +which are covered with a dense sombre forest of _Picea Webbiana_ +(Pindrow). + + [Sidenote: ASCENT OF HATTU. + _August, 1847._] + +On the 5th of August, a portion of our baggage, which had been left at +Fagu two days before, from a deficiency of porters, not having arrived +at Nagkanda, it became necessary to halt, in order to give it a chance +of reaching us. The day was fortunately fine, and we availed ourselves +of the opportunity to ascend Hattu, Captain Strachey taking with him +his barometers, to verify their accuracy by the trigonometrically +determined height of this mountain, which was one of the stations of +the Himalayan survey by Captain Herbert. As the top of the mountain is +only about 1500 feet above the Nagkanda bungalow, and the distance is +nearly five miles, the ascent is an easy one. The first mile is nearly +level, and bare of wood on the ridge, though the forest on both sides +rises within a few feet of the crest, which is bordered by brushwood. +As soon as the ascent commences, the ridge becomes covered with +forest, at first principally pine, spruce and silver fir (_Picea_) +being the principal species. Yew is also very common, forming a fine +tall tree, and the few non-coniferous trees are chiefly the alpine +oak, sycamore, and cherry. The road, which at first ascends a western +spur, by degrees winds round to the face of the mountain, and finally +ascends to the summit from the east. The wood on the upper part is +entirely oak, and more open than the pine forest lower down. The top +of the mountain is steep and bare towards the east, for about five +hundred feet, with precipitous rocks thirty or forty feet high towards +the west, below which the slope is exceedingly steep and rocky in that +direction. + +The continuation of the main range towards the east is at first lower +than the peak of Hattu some 600 or 700 feet, but rises again to +another peak within a mile. A long spur or ridge to the south-west is, +however, for nearly two miles, within a few feet of the same height as +the summit of Hattu, and rises at about that distance into a point, +which probably rather exceeds it. It then sinks rapidly towards the +Giri river, the most easterly branch of which has its source in the +ravine on the eastern face. + + [Sidenote: TOP OF HATTU. + _August, 1847._] + +On the top of Hattu there are the remains of a square building, with +very thick walls, I believe of native origin, and intended as a sort +of fort, which, however, from the want of water, must have been quite +untenable. It is now in ruins, its interior being filled with a +wilderness of hemp, nettles, _Galium Aparine_, dock and other coarse +plants. The grassy slopes of the summit are covered with a luxuriant +herbage of _Potentillæ_, _Labiatæ_, _Gentianaceæ_, _Epilobium_, +_Polygonum_, and _Anemone_, while a few stunted bushes of _Quercus +semicarpifolia_, a simple-leaved _Pyrus_, and a willow, are the only +shrubby vegetation. The forest, however, rises close to the base of +the cliffs on the western face, and contains all the species common on +the ascent of the mountain, the vegetation of the summit being in no +respect peculiar, not even in early spring exhibiting any truly alpine +plant. The mountain bamboo, a graceful small species of _Arundinaria_, +which is extremely abundant in the woods of the upper temperate and +subalpine zones, adorns the rocky hollows close to the summit. + + [Sidenote: VIEW FROM HATTU. + _August, 1847._] + +In every direction except south, and along the ridge to the east, the +view from the top of Hattu is very extensive, as it overlooks all the +peaks in the immediate vicinity. To the north the mountains of Kulu, +which separate the valley of the Sutlej from that of the Beas, and +from the upper Chenab, are most beautifully seen, their peaks rising +above one another from west to east, till they enter the region of +perpetual snow. Towards the plains, in clear weather, the view must +be superb; but in that direction there is so generally a hazy state of +the atmosphere, that though I have ascended Hattu four times, I have +never been fortunate enough to obtain a favourable day. + +In looking back from the summit of Hattu towards Simla and the plains, +it may be observed that the country is well wooded, though when viewed +from Simla or the heights of Mahasu the same mountains had appeared +almost bare. This diversity in the aspect of the country, according to +the direction from which it is seen, is due to the ridges being well +wooded on one face, and bare of trees on the other. The plainward face +is never, except under very exceptional circumstances, at all wooded, +while the northern and eastern slopes are generally covered with +forest. Probably the more direct influence of the sun, and the action +of the strong winds which generally blow up the valleys towards the +interior of the mountains, act in concurrence in drying the +atmosphere, and checking the growth of trees on the southern and +western faces of the ridges. + +The shrubby and herbaceous vegetation of Hattu is exceedingly +luxuriant. The more open glades of the forest are filled with an +undergrowth of tall balsams, annual-stemmed _Acanthaceæ_, _Dipsacus_, +_Compositæ_ (among which the beautiful _Calimeris_ is very abundant), +while in the drier pine-forest a graceful little bamboo occurs, often +to the exclusion of every other plant. It grows in dense tufts, eight +or ten or even twelve feet high, the diameter of the stem not +exceeding a quarter of an inch. The currant of the Mahasu ridge is +also common, with many of the same shrubs which are there abundant. +The ridge close to Nagkanda is much drier, and has fewer peculiar +plants; the resemblance to the Simla flora being there very +remarkable. + + [Sidenote: CULTIVATION. + _August, 1847._] + +On the southern slopes of this ridge, at elevations equal to that of +Nagkanda bungalow, and even higher, in some places as high as 9500 +feet, there are considerable patches of cultivation. Barley is +probably the spring crop, but during the rains a good deal of +buckwheat is cultivated. This plant will not thrive in the very humid +regions, and is therefore indicative of a drier climate than that of +Simla; indeed, even the occurrence of cultivation at such an +elevation, during the rainy season, satisfactorily proves the +existence of a more moderate rain-fall and greater warmth than on the +peaks nearer the plains, as for instance on the Mahasu ridge, on +which, except the potato, no cultivation whatever is attempted during +the rains, though there are a few fields of wheat or barley in one +spot as high as 8000 feet. + + [Sidenote: DESCENT TOWARDS THE SUTLEJ. + _August, 1847._] + + [Sidenote: SHADY RAVINE. + _August, 1847._] + +Our missing loads having arrived at Nagkanda on the evening of the 5th +of August, we resumed our journey on the morning of the 6th, marching +to Kotgarh, ten miles. At Nagkanda we finally left the main range, and +began to descend towards the valley of the Sutlej, following, at the +commencement of our journey, a spur which runs from immediately west +of the bungalow directly towards the river. After about four miles we +quitted this spur to descend into the valley on the right, after +crossing which we ascended to Kotgarh, situated on a long spur +descending from the peak of Hattu. The early part of the descent was +very abrupt, through a forest of large pines, principally _P. +excelsa_ and spruce (_Abies Smithiana_). Some trees of the latter +measured upwards of seventeen feet in circumference. Sycamore and +cherry were also common in the forest, and a good many trees of +_Corylus lacera_, the hazel of the north-west Himalaya, were observed. +The trees were festooned with the gigantic vine already noticed in the +Mahasu forest. After the first two hundred feet of descent, the forest +was less dense, and chiefly pine. _Rhododendron arboreum_ commenced +about 1000 feet below Nagkanda, and was soon followed by the +holly-leaved oak, and a little lower by _Q. incana_, the common hoary +oak of Simla; and by the time we had got down to 7000 feet, the +vegetation was quite similar to that of Simla. At a little below this +elevation, the road leaves the crest of the ridge, which may be seen +to continue in a northerly direction, partly bare and partly +pine-clad, and descends rapidly to the bottom of the deep ravine on +the right. Soon after leaving the ridge we entered thick forest, and +at the bottom of the ravine two considerable streams are crossed +within a very short distance of one another, at an elevation of about +5500 feet, the lowest level to which we descended during the day's +journey. Along the banks of these streams, which have a considerable +inclination of bed, the forest is very dense and shady. Few of the +trees are coniferous, nor do oaks in this part of the Himalaya select +such moist localities. _Lauraceæ_ of several kinds, the horse-chesnut, +alder, and hornbeam (_Carpinus viminea_), with Toon and _Celtis_, are +the prevailing trees. + +The streams which the road here crosses descend from different parts +of the ridge of Nagkanda. They occupy the bottom of deep ravines, and +are in their whole course densely wooded. These ravines are, in their +upper part especially, extremely steep and rocky, often with +precipitous walls, and scarcely practicable even on foot. The +denseness of the forest is principally due to their northern exposure, +and to the consequent more equable temperature and greater humidity. +They contain many trees not previously observed on the journey from +Simla, though all of them, I believe even the horse-chesnut, occur in +the very similar steep rocky ravines below Fagu. The alder is a common +tree at 4-5000 feet in the north-western Himalaya, always in valleys +and on the banks of streams. + +In this shady forest I collected a considerable number of plants which +do not occur at Simla. A scandent _Hydrangea_, the loosely-adhering +bark of which separates in long rolls like that of the birch, and is +used as a substitute for paper, was seen twining round the trunks of +trees. I observed also a fine _Calanthe_, and abundance of +_Adenocaulon_, a remarkable genus of _Compositæ_, which, till Mr. +Edgeworth discovered a species in the Himalaya, was only known as a +native of South America. In the thickest part of the forest in this +ravine, I was also fortunate enough to meet with a few specimens of +_Balanophora_, which here probably attains its western limit. All +these plants are abundant forms in the most humid parts of Nepal and +Sikkim, and their presence may, I think, be regarded as indicative of +a more equable temperature throughout the year than prevails in the +more open parts of the Sutlej Himalaya. The range of mountains on +which Nagkanda stands certainly intercepts a great deal of moisture +during the rainy season, and therefore makes the valleys on its +northern aspect less humid at that period of the year. This would +appear to be more than counterbalanced by the effect of the dense +forest in keeping up moisture and preventing radiation during winter, +for the cold and dryness of that season seem to have a much greater +effect in determining the cessation of the forms characteristic of the +eastern Himalaya, than the diminished rain-fall during the three +months of the rainy season. + + [Sidenote: KOTGARH. + _August, 1847._] + +After crossing the stream at the bottom of the valley, the road +advances in a northerly direction, at first gradually ascending +through fine shady woods, but afterwards, turning to the right, +mounting rapidly by very abrupt zigzags, up a bare dry hill-side, to +the Kotgarh ridge. Here we took up our quarters for the night, in a +house the property of Captain P. Gerard, a little above the village of +Kotgarh, at an elevation of about 7000 feet, in a fine grove of _Pinus +excelsa_. + +Kotgarh, a large village, and the seat of an establishment of +missionaries, was at one time a military post, and is interesting to +the Himalayan traveller, from the fact of the detachment here +stationed having been long commanded by one of the brothers Gerard, +whose labours in these mountains, geographical and meteorological, are +so well known. It has, however, long been abandoned as a military +station, the peaceable state of the hill population rendering it +unnecessary to keep a garrison in these mountains. + + [Sidenote: CULTIVATION. + _August, 1847._] + +Captain Gerard's house, in which we spent the night, is elevated +several hundred feet above the upper part of the village of Kotgarh, +which occupies the steep face of the ridge directly overlooking the +valley of the Sutlej. One reach of the river is visible from the front +of the house, and the deep roar of the rapid stream was distinctly +audible, notwithstanding that we were still 4000 feet above it. On the +morning of the 7th of August we resumed our journey, descending +abruptly through the village of Kotgarh to the Sutlej. At first the +pine-forest which surrounded our night quarters, accompanied us down +the steep hill-side. It was intermixed with a few scattered deodars; +and the shrubby and herbaceous vegetation was in all its features +identical with that of Simla. Soon, however, the descent was on a bare +hill-side, and after reaching the village, the road, inclining to the +right or east, kept nearly level for about a mile, passing through +much cultivation, in terraced fields on the slopes. The crops were +_Kodon_ (_Eleusine Coracana_) and a cylindrical-headed _Panicum_, both +grains commonly cultivated in the plains of India. There were also +many fields of _Amaranthus_ and _Chenopodium_. The first of these is +occasionally cultivated in all parts of the hills, its bright red +inflorescence, in autumn, tinging with flame the bare mountain slopes. +The _Chenopodium_ was new to me as a cultivated grain, and is +particularly interesting from its analogy with the Quinoa of South +America. It is entirely a rain crop, and grows very luxuriantly, +rising to a height of six or eight feet, with a perfectly straight +stout very succulent green stem, and large deltoid leaves, either pale +green or of a reddish tinge, and covered with grey mealiness. The +seeds, which are extremely small, are produced in great abundance on +all the upper part of the plant, and are ripe in September. + + [Sidenote: DESCENT TO THE SUTLEJ. + _August, 1847._] + +For about a mile after leaving the village of Kotgarh, the descent was +trifling, but the remainder of the road to the Sutlej was very steep, +so that the change in the vegetation was sudden, commencing just at +the point where _Quercus incana_ disappeared; before which few plants +indicating heat occurred. The want of wood, no doubt, assisted the +rapidity of the change, for the heat soon became considerable. In the +course of the descent, I noted all the new forms as they occurred; but +the exact order in which each individual species makes its appearance, +depends so much upon accidental and unimportant circumstances, and is +so likely to be affected by errors of observation, unless many series +are obtained in different aspects of the same slope, that it would +lead to no advantage to enumerate the species as they were met with. +Nearly 1000 feet above the bed of the river, or at an elevation of +about 4000 feet, the vegetation had become quite subtropical, species +of _Mollugo_, _Polanisia_, _Corchorus_, _Leucas_, _Euphorbia_, +_Microrhynchus_, and the ordinary grasses and _Cyperaceæ_ of the +plains, being the common weeds. The descent continued very abrupt, the +heat increasing rapidly, till the road reached the bank of the Sutlej, +at the village of Kepu, which occupies a flat piece of land +overhanging the river. + + [Sidenote: VALLEY OF THE SUTLEJ. + _August, 1847._] + +Having commenced our day's journey before daybreak, in order to +complete the march before the extreme heat had commenced, we stopped +here to breakfast, under the shade of a fine mango-tree. The +neighbourhood of the village was well cultivated, with extensive +rice-fields and a fine grove of tropical trees--mango, _Ficus Indica_ +and _religiosa_, _Melia Azedarach_ and _Azadirachta_, _Grewia_, +oranges, and plantains. Our late residence in a cool climate made us +feel the heat much, though the temperature at nine in the morning was +not much more than 80°. After breakfast, we continued our journey up +the valley, to Nirt or Nirat, a distance of six or seven miles, and +next day we reached Rampur, the capital of Basehir, twelve miles +further, and still in the Sutlej valley. + +The district of Basehir is an independent hill state, governed by a +rajah, whose dominion also extends over Kunawar; it commences a very +little north of Kotgarh, and occupies the south side of the river +Sutlej and the mountain slopes above it, as far east as the confines +of Kunawar. The valley of the Sutlej, in the western part of Basehir, +from Rampur downwards, has an elevation of little more than 3000 feet, +Rampur (140 feet above the bed of the river) being 3400 feet above the +level of the sea[4]. The river, at the season of our journey, which +was the height of the rains, at which time it is at its largest, is an +impetuous torrent, of great size, but very variable in breadth, +foaming along over a stony bed, with generally very precipitous rocky +banks, and filled with large boulders. During the rainy season it is +extremely muddy, almost milky, and deposits in tranquil parts of its +course a considerable amount of white mud. The valley is generally +very narrow, with steep bare hills on either side, quite devoid of +trees and covered only with a few scattered bushes and long coarse +grass. In the bays or recesses on the mountain-sides, between the +terminations of the rocky spurs which descend to the river, the valley +is often filled with a hard conglomerate rock, the cement of which is +calcareous, evidently (geologically) of very recent origin. These +patches of conglomerate are flat-topped, and often scarped towards the +river, and are frequently 200 feet and more in thickness. They differ +in degree of consolidation only from ordinary alluvial deposit, so +that they appear to owe their preservation from the denuding effects +of river action, to the calcareous matter, which has cemented the +pebbles and sand into a solid rock. + + [Sidenote: VEGETATION. + _August, 1847._] + +The road follows throughout the course of the river, rising sometimes +200-300 feet, to pass over rocky spurs; at other times it lies on the +surface of the boulder conglomerate, and more rarely close to the +river. Here and there is a small village, with a few rice-fields, but +the greater part of the valley is utterly sterile. Like the valleys of +the outer Himalaya, that of the Sutlej here exhibits a curious mixture +of the ordinary vegetation of the plains, with forms which point out +the mountainous nature of the country. The whole flora is strongly +characteristic of a dry soil and an arid climate. The mountain ranges +to the west and south, no doubt, intercept a good deal of rain; and +the lofty mountains, 10-12,000 feet in height, which, on the right and +left, rise rapidly from the river, appropriate to themselves a great +part of the moisture which reaches the valley. We may, therefore, in +the absence of direct meteorological observations, infer, from the +physical structure of the valley, and from the nature of its +vegetation, that its climate is drier than that of the valleys at the +base of the Himalaya. + +The Sutlej valley cannot, of course, be properly compared with the +base of the mountains farther east, where luxuriant forest covers all +the slopes; but when contrasted with the Pinjor valley, or the low +hills above Kalka, it is only on a careful comparison that a +difference is to be observed, and then, perhaps, more by the absence +of forms abundant in them than by any marked addition of new ones. The +ordinary shrubs of the Sutlej, at 3000 feet, are _Adhatoda Vasica_, +_Carissa edulis_, _Colebrookea_, _Rottlera tinctoria_, and some +species of _Boehmeria_, all characteristic of the outer hills, and +the two first common plains plants. The remarkable _Euphorbia +pentagona_ is also common. _Butea_, _Ægle_, and _Moringa_ do not +occur, nor are there any bamboos. _Flacourtia sepiaria_, _Capparis +sepiaria_, and _Calotropis_, which are three of the commonest plants +of the plains, were also not observed. A large white-flowered caper +(_Capparis obovata_, Royle) and a glabrous _Zizyphus_ were the most +remarkable new forms. The herbaceous vegetation differed scarcely at +all from that of the plains, consisting chiefly of species which, +during the rainy season, spring up in the lightest and driest soils. + +Mountain plants were only occasional, and mostly such as at Simla +descend on the dry grassy slopes into the valleys: a berberry and +bramble (_Rubus flavus_), _Plectranthus rugosus_, which is a grey and +dusty-looking shrub, _Melissa umbrosa_, _Micromeria biflora_, a little +_Geranium_, _Ajuga parviflora_, a _Galium_, _Senecio_, _Aplotaxis +candicans_, and one or two _Umbelliferæ_. They did not, however, +amount to a twentieth part of the whole vegetation, and the aspect of +the flora was quite subtropical. A little _Eriophorum_, which is +everywhere common in arid places at the base of the Himalaya, from +Assam to the Indus, was frequent in the crevices of the rocks. Ferns +were very scarce, only two or three being observed. + + [Sidenote: RAMPUR. + _August, 1847._] + +The town of Rampur is a considerable place, on a small level tract of +ground, about a hundred feet above the bed of the river Sutlej, which +it overhangs. The houses are substantially built, in the form of a +square, with an open space in the centre; they are mostly one-storied, +and have steeply-sloping slated roofs. The town has a good deal of +trade with Tibet, principally in shawl wool, and is the seat of a +small manufacture of white soft shawl-cloths. The river is here +crossed by a rope suspension-bridge, of a kind very common in the +lower valleys, which has often been described. It consists of nine +stout ropes, which are stretched from one side of the river to the +other. The width of the Sutlej at the bridge, according to Captain +Gerard, by whom it was measured, is 211 feet. + +During our stay at Rampur, Major Cunningham directed my attention to +the alteration of the level of the river at different periods of the +day, from the variable amount of solar action on the snows by which it +is fed. This effect he had noticed on his former visit to the +mountains, and we had frequent opportunities of observing it during +our journey. At Rampur the diurnal variation was not less than three +or four feet, the maximum being, I believe, during the night or early +in the morning. In the immediate vicinity of snow, the streams are +highest in the afternoon, but as the distance increases the period of +greatest height becomes by degrees later and later. + +Except on our two first days' journey, we had been extremely fortunate +in weather since leaving Simla. The day of the 8th was very cloudy and +oppressive, and the 9th, on which we remained stationary at Rampur to +make arrangements with the Rajah for our further progress through +Basehir and Kunawar, was rainy throughout. The rain, however, was +light, and did not prevent the Rajah from visiting us in the +afternoon, impelled, I suppose, by a desire to see our apparatus and +arrangements for travelling. We were lodged in an excellent +upper-roomed house of his, overhanging the Sutlej, and not far from +his own residence, which lies at the east end of the town, and +externally is quite without beauty, presenting to view nothing but a +mass of dead walls. The Rajah seldom remains during the hot season at +Rampur, as he has a second residence at Serahan, twenty miles up the +river, and 7000 feet above the level of the sea, in which he usually +spends the summer, though during 1847, for some reason or other, he +remained during the greater part of the year at Rampur. + + [Sidenote: ANCIENT RIVER-CHANNEL. + _August, 1847._] + +On the morning of the 18th of August we resumed our journey. Our +direction still lay up the valley of the Sutlej, and for the first +three miles the road kept parallel to the river, ascending +occasionally a few hundred feet to cross spurs, when the immediate +margin of the Sutlej was too rocky and precipitous to allow of a +passage. This was not unfrequently the case, and after a few miles +the river-bank became so rugged and difficult, that the road left it, +to ascend a long ridge, descending from the mountain range to the +south. The early part of the road, from the many views of the river +rushing over its rocky bed, often among immense boulders, and from the +general boldness of the mountain scenery, was, though bare of forest, +very striking. Frequently the road overhung the river, which ran +through a narrow rocky ravine many hundred feet below. At other times, +it lay over the surface of the flat platforms which occupied the +valley, and in several places curious excavations were noticed on the +rocky surface, as if the river had formerly flowed over higher levels. +One of these ancient channels was so very remarkable, that it could +not be overlooked. The rocky banks on either side were at least a +hundred feet apart, and the large water-worn boulders, with occasional +rugged pointed rocks which filled the bed, conveyed unmistakeably the +conviction that we were walking over an ancient river-bed, though the +elevation could not be less than 150 feet above the present level of +the river. + + [Sidenote: ASCENT TOWARDS GAORA. + _August, 1847._] + +Three miles from Rampur the road began to ascend a long spur in a +south-east direction. After we had ascended a few hundred feet, the +course of the river could be seen on the left among precipitous rocks, +quite impracticable. The ascent was through a well-cultivated tract, +the base of the hill and lower slopes being covered with fields of +rice, still only a few inches high. The road ascended rapidly, through +villages with numerous fruit-trees. At first, the vegetation continued +the same as in the valley, and the hills were bare, except close to +the village. Within a thousand feet of the base, the cultivation +ceased, and the road entered a wood of scattered firs, mixed after a +little with the common oak (_Q. incana_). At about 5000 feet the steep +lateral spur joined the ridge, and the road turned to the eastward, +and continued along the steep sides of the ridge, which overhang the +valley of the river 2000 feet below. The Sutlej was well seen, running +among bare rocky hills, the pine-wood being confined to the upper +parts of the steep slopes. + +Had we continued our course along this ridge, it would in time have +conducted us to the crest of the main range south of the Sutlej, the +same which we had left at Nagkanda to descend into the Sutlej valley. +It would have been necessary for this purpose to ascend to a height of +between 12,000 and 13,000 feet, and to proceed to a considerable +distance south; our object, however, being to keep along the river as +nearly as possible, it would not have suited our purpose to ascend so +far, and the road only left the banks of the Sutlej on account of the +difficult nature of the ground in the bottom of the valley. We found, +therefore, after continuing a mile or two on the steep slope of the +ridge, that the road again began to descend, not exactly towards the +Sutlej, but to the bottom of the ravine or dell, by which the spur on +which we had ascended was separated from that next in succession to +it. + + [Sidenote: GAORA. + _August, 1847._] + +As far as the beginning of the descent the hill-side had been bare, or +only clothed with scattered pine-wood, but as soon as the eastern +slope was gained, and the descent commenced, the slopes became well +wooded with _Rhododendron_ and Oak. The descent was probably not more +than 1000 feet, perhaps scarcely so much, as the ravine sloped very +abruptly to the Sutlej; on the lower part of the descent, and on the +bank of the stream, the wood was principally alder, and a few +subtropical grasses and _Cyperaceæ_ marked the commencement of the +vegetation of the lower region, while a valerian, a _Hieracium_, a +species of _Datisca_, and an _Arundo_ or allied grass, were the new +species of plants observed; of these, perhaps the _Datisca_ alone +markedly indicated an approach to the interior Himalaya. After +crossing the ravine the road ascended abruptly up a well-wooded slope, +on the northern face of a steep spur, to the village of Gaora, at +which, for the first time since leaving Simla, we encamped, no house +being available for our accommodation. The morning had been fair, +though dull, but soon after our arrival at Gaora it began to rain, and +continued to do so all the afternoon. + +Gaora is situated, according to Captain Gerard, about 3000 feet above +Rampur; but from the appearance of the vegetation, and a comparison +with known heights on both hands, we estimated the elevation of our +encampment to be not more than 5500 feet, so that probably Captain +Gerard's observations refer to some more elevated point. + + [Sidenote: MANGLÂD VALLEY. + _August, 1847._] + +On resuming our journey on the morning of the 11th of August, we +continued the ascent of the spur on which the village of Gaora is +situated, which is well wooded with the ordinary trees of the +temperate zone of the Himalaya. There were a few rice-fields on the +hill-side on cleared places above 6000 feet, and some orange-trees in +the villages at about the same elevation; from both of which facts, +more sun-heat and less rain during summer may be inferred, than in +similar elevations on the outer Himalaya, where neither rice nor +oranges occur so high. A little way higher up, the forest changed its +character, the holly-leaved oak, the deodar, and the spruce, being the +common trees, among which the road continued for four or five miles, +without much change of level, when the forest ceased, and the road, +after continuing for a short time at about the same level, descended +abruptly to the ravine of the Manglâd river, a considerable stream, +now swollen into a furious torrent, which rushed with impetuosity down +its steep rocky bed. A great part of the descent was bare, over +crumbling mica-slate rocks. + +The vegetation in the bottom of the glen showed, as on former +occasions, indications of a low elevation, but presented no novelty, +except in the occurrence of _Melia Azedarach_, apparently wild. I have +occasionally noticed this tree in the interior of the Himalaya, always +at an elevation of between 4000 and 5000 feet, and invariably in the +drier valleys of the mountains, but it is so commonly cultivated in +India, that its occurrence can scarcely be regarded as a proof of its +being indigenous, especially if we consider that it is a rare +circumstance to find it in even an apparently wild state. I do not, +however, know that it has a greater claim to be considered a native of +any part of the world. + + [Sidenote: SERAHAN. + _August, 1847._] + +The ascent on the east side was long, steep, and fatiguing, up +well-wooded slopes. At about 6000 feet, a single tree of _Hippophaë +conferta_, with nearly ripe fruit, was observed near a spring, and a +few hundred feet higher the road gained the ridge, and continued for a +mile and a half of very gentle ascent, on a broad, nearly level +mountain-side, to Serahan, through beautiful forest of oak and pine. +Serahan, the summer residence of the Basehir Rajah, is pleasantly +situated at an elevation of 7000 feet above the level of the sea, on +the northern slope of the mountain range, surrounded on all sides by +pine-forest. The village is small, and occupies the lower margin of an +open glade of considerable extent, on which there is a good deal of +cultivation, of the same plants as I have noted at Kotgarh. The latter +part of our march had been through heavy rain, which continued all the +evening, and the greater part of the night, but we were fortunate +enough to find an empty house, capable of sheltering our servants and +baggage, as well as ourselves. + +Besides the _Hippophaë_, which I noted on the ascent from Manglâd, +several plants appeared on this day's journey, which served to +chronicle a gradual alteration in the flora, notwithstanding that the +forest-trees and general character continued generally the same. Of +these, the most interesting, by far, was a plant discovered by Mr. +Edgeworth, in the same tract of country, and by him described as +_Oxybaphus Himalayanus_, a species of a genus otherwise entirely South +American. It is a rank-growing, coarse, herbaceous plant, with tumid +joints, and a straggling dichotomous habit, and has small pink or +rose-coloured flowers, covered with a viscid exudation. It grows in +open pastures and in waste places near villages, and is an abundant +species throughout the Kunawar valley. + + [Sidenote: TRANDA. + _August, 1847._] + +On the morning of the 12th of August we marched to Tranda, along the +mountain-side, winding a little with its sinuations, and occasionally +descending to cross the little streamlets which furrow its side, and +separate the lateral ridges from one another. The road lay through +beautiful forest, and as the day was fine we obtained at intervals a +succession of superb views, of the deep and well-wooded valleys below, +and the rugged mountains north of the Sutlej. The forest-trees were +still the hoary and holly-leaved oak, with deodar and spruce, though +in the more shady woods along the streams, the horse-chesnut, and a +fine glaucous-leaved laurel, were common. The shrubby and herbaceous +vegetation was in general character the same as in the denser woods of +Simla, the new species being still quite exceptional. + +It soon became necessary to descend, in order to gain a place on the +next range in succession to the eastward, so as not to leave the river +at too great a distance. Forest continued to the bottom of the +descent, which showed no signs of tropical vegetation, and was +therefore not to so low a level as those of previous days. The +remainder of the day's journey consisted of a succession of ascents +and descents, mostly long and fatiguing, with occasionally half a mile +nearly level. Many of the steeper parts were very rocky and rugged, so +difficult that artificial steps were required to make them +practicable, and even with their aid a horse could scarcely pass. The +greater part of the road lay through forest, and two considerable +streams were crossed besides the one on the early part of the march. +From the last of these a long and very laborious ascent led to the +crest of the Tranda ridge, on the very top of which we halted for the +night in a log hut, built for the accommodation of travellers, in the +midst of a fine forest of deodar-trees. + +The Tranda ridge has, till near its termination, an elevation of +upwards of 8000 feet, and projects boldly forward towards the Sutlej, +dipping at last extremely abruptly to the river. The Sutlej is here +thrown to the north, in a sharp bend, and runs through a deep gloomy +ravine. This ridge, therefore, more lofty and abrupt than any farther +west, is considered as the commencement of Kunawar; and the valley to +the eastward, as far as the Wangtu bridge, is generally called Lower +Kunawar, to distinguish it from the upper and drier parts of that +district. The rise of the bed of the river is so gradual, that the +transition of climate takes place at first by almost insensible +gradations; but as soon as the spurs retain a height of 8000 feet till +close to the Sutlej, they exercise a powerful influence upon the +climate, and the vegetation and physical aspect of the country change +with great rapidity. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[3] Journal of Agr. Hort. Soc. Calc. vol. iv. + +[4] Gerard's 'Koonawur,' Appendix, Table 3. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + + Sildang river -- Fine grove of Deodars -- Nachar -- Fruit-trees + -- Vine seen for first time -- Boundaries of Kulu and Kunawar + -- Cross Sutlej at Wangtu bridge -- Vegetation of bare rocky + valley -- Waterfall -- Chegaon -- _Pinus Gerardiana_ -- Miru -- + Absence of rain -- Alteration of vegetation -- _Quercus Ilex_ + -- Rogi -- Willow and Poplar -- Chini -- Cultivated Plain -- + Kashbir -- Pangi -- Camp at upper level of trees -- Junipers -- + Werang Pass -- Alpine Vegetation -- Birch and _Rhododendron_ -- + Granite Boulders -- Lipa -- Alluvial Deposits -- Encamp at + 12,500 feet -- Runang Pass -- Vegetation very scanty -- Stunted + Forest -- Sungnam. + + + [Sidenote: SILDANG VALLEY. + _August, 1847._] + +The night we spent at Tranda was stormy, with thunder and heavy +showers of rain, but the morning of the 13th was bright and beautiful, +enabling us to see from our elevated position on the ridge, a single +snow-peak, far to the eastward, in Kunawar. At the commencement of the +day's march, the road receded from the Sutlej into a deep mountain +bay, densely wooded with deodar and pine (_Pinus excelsa_). A few +trees only of spruce and horse-chesnut occurred. After a mile, passing +round a projecting spur, a fine view was obtained of the river Sutlej +at the bottom of a deep ravine, and of the mountain range north of the +river, now in several places covered with heavy snow. A little farther +on, the road descended very abruptly along the face of rugged and +precipitous rocks, to the valley of the Sildang river, a large stream +which was crossed in two branches by two very indifferent wooden +bridges. The Sildang valley, at the point where the road crosses it, +has been stated by Gerard to be elevated 5800 feet above the level of +the sea. It is a larger stream than any of those yet crossed since +leaving Rampur, and its ravine is beautifully wooded. The ascent to +the east was gentle, through woods of oak and pine, and after rising a +few hundred feet, the road continued nearly level for some miles, with +the Sutlej in sight below. A large village was passed on the latter +part of the march, with many temples evidently of old date, and +situated in a grove of very large deodar-trees, several of which were +upwards of twenty feet in circumference. One large tree with a +flattened trunk, as if formed by the union of two, measured, at five +feet from the base, thirty-five and a-half feet round. This grove was +evidently of great age, and probably consisted of old trees, at the +time the village was founded, and the temples were built under its +sacred shade. + +Nachar, at which we took up our quarters for the night, is a very +large village, by far the most considerable yet passed, with many good +houses, much cultivated land, and great numbers of fine fruit-trees. +Walnuts, peaches, apricots, and mulberries, were all common; and I saw +one grape-vine, which bore a good many bunches of fruit. The crops +cultivated were chiefly millet and buckwheat, with a good many fields +of _Amaranthus_ and _Chenopodium_. The fruit-trees were evidently, +from their numbers and luxuriance, a very valuable part of the +possessions of the inhabitants; and it was very interesting to meet +with the vine, though only in small quantity, and evidently not yet in +a thoroughly suitable climate. The elevation of the village, which +occupied a great extent of the hill-side sloping down towards the +Sutlej, now close at hand, was nearly 7000 feet. + + [Sidenote: EASTERN BOUNDARY OF KULU. + _August, 1847._] + +Nearly opposite Nachar, the district of Kunawar, which had hitherto +been confined to the south bank of the Sutlej, extends to both sides +of the river; the province of Kulu, which had hitherto occupied the +northern bank, being bounded on the east by the mountain-chain which +separates the waters of the Beas river from those of the Piti, a +tributary of the Sutlej. By this very lofty chain, the villages on the +north side of the Sutlej, to the east of the point now reached, are +entirely cut off from the valley of the Beas, and naturally become +connected with the district immediately opposite to them, with which +alone they have an easy communication. Kulu, till the campaign of +1846, had belonged to the Punjab; but one of the results of the Sikh +war, in that year, was the transfer of that district to British rule, +so that the Sutlej, in its lower course, no longer served as a +boundary between hostile states. In Kunawar, the north side of the +river is the most important, because it is more populous and fertile +than the south, not only from its more favourable exposure, but +because the chain to the south of the Sutlej continues to increase in +elevation as it proceeds eastward, while that on the north becomes +gradually lower as it advances towards the confluence of the Sutlej +and Piti rivers. + + [Sidenote: DESCENT TOWARDS THE SUTLEJ. + _August, 1847._] + +For this reason the main road or highway through Kunawar crosses to +the right bank of the Sutlej, a short way above Nachar. At starting, +therefore, on the morning of the 14th of August, we began to descend +towards the river. For about a mile and a half the descent was very +gentle, through a good deal of cultivation. There were many +fruit-trees, but very little natural wood; a few horse-chesnut trees +were observed, and occasionally a scattered deodar, spruce, or pine. +On the earlier part of the road the pines were _P. excelsa_, but lower +down that tree gave place to _P. longifolia_. After a mile and a half, +the descent became more rapid, over a rocky and bad road, which +continued to the bridge, distant three miles from Nachar. On the bare, +arid, and rocky hills between Nachar and the river, several very +striking novelties were observed in the vegetation; but as the road +had for several days been at a higher level, and generally among dense +forest, it is not improbable that many of these new plants may occur +on the lower parts of the hills, in the immediate vicinity of the +river, further to the westward. The new species were in all about six +in number, of which three--two species of _Daphne_ and an olive--were +very abundant, and therefore prominent features in the appearance of +the country. + + [Sidenote: WANGTU BRIDGE. + _August, 1847._] + +At the point where the bridge has been thrown across, the river Sutlej +has an elevation, by the determination of Captain Gerard, of 5200 feet +above the level of the sea. Its bed and the banks on both sides are +very rocky and bare, and the width of the stream not more than seventy +feet. The bridge is of that kind called by the mountaineers _sanga_, +which means a wooden bridge or bridge of planks, contrasted with +_jhula_, a rope-bridge. On the left bank the pier of the bridge is +formed by an isolated rock, separated from the rocky banks by an +ancient bed of the river, now quite dry, but worn smooth by the action +of the current. This former channel is stated by Gerard to have been +blocked up by a fall of rocks from above; previous to which +occurrence, the isolated rock must have stood as an island in the +centre of the stream. The construction of the bridge is singular, but +simple, and only adapted for very little traffic. Six stout trunks of +trees are laid alongside of one another on the pier, so that the end +towards the river is a little higher than the other; above these are +placed in succession two similar layers of trunks, each projecting +several feet beyond the one below it, and the whole of these are kept +in position by a substantial stone building, through which the roadway +runs. A similar structure on the opposite bank narrows the distance to +be spanned, at the same time that it affords support to the central +portion of the bridge, which consists of two strong pine-trees fifty +feet in length, placed about two feet apart, and supporting stout +cross planking. The whole forms a bridge quite strong enough to +support foot-passengers or lightly laden horses, the only purpose for +which it is required. + + [Sidenote: WATERFALL. + _August, 1847._] + +In spite of the considerable elevation which the Sutlej valley had now +acquired, a number of plants of tropical character occurred in the +neighbourhood of the Wangtu bridge. These were mostly common grasses +and _Cyperaceæ_, _Polycarpæa corymbosa_, _Achyranthes aspera_, and a +few other species, all common mountain-plants at low elevations, which +here, from the great heat caused by the lessened rain and the +concentration of the sun's rays, at the bottom of a deep bare valley, +surmounted on both sides by mountains 10,000 feet above its level, +enjoy a congenial climate. They are, however, confined to the most +exposed places, and to the lower levels only. A few rugged pine-trees +are scattered on the steep rocks, both _Pinus excelsa_, which does not +descend quite to the base of the hills, and _Pinus longifolia_, which +has here reached nearly its eastern limits, the elevation of the +river-bed soon becoming greater than that at which it will grow. Close +to the Wangtu bridge, on the right bank, a considerable stream joins +the Sutlej from the north, and is crossed by the road not far from its +junction with the great river. The lower part of this tributary +exhibits a succession of fine rapids and a waterfall, now much swollen +by the melting of the snow; and which, notwithstanding the want of +trees and consequent bareness of the accessories, formed a picture +such as often greets the eye of the traveller in the alpine districts +of Himalaya, but which no amount of repetition renders less grand and +magnificent. Captain Gerard has, in his little 'Tour in Kunawar,' +described this torrent in strong language, which showed that he felt +the beauty of the scene. For this he has been condemned by Jacquemont, +who sneeringly says that he describes it "comme si c'était le +Niagara," an expression which induced me to turn on the spot to +Gerard's book, so that I can testify to the accuracy and absence of +exaggeration of his description. + +After crossing this stream, the road ascends the spur which runs +parallel to it, to an elevation of about 1000 feet above the Sutlej, +but only to descend again to its banks, the ascent being caused by +the impracticable nature of the rocky banks of the river. The spur was +bare of trees, but with scattered brushwood, in which the olive and +white _Daphne_, observed on the descent from Nachar, still abounded, +with several other novelties, among which a _Clematis_, _Silene_, +_Stellaria_, and _Selaginella_, all previously-described Kunawar +species, were the most remarkable. Several of the grasses of the +plains of India, such as a _Panicum_ (perhaps _P. paludosum_), +_Eleusine Indica_, and _Heteropogon contortus_, occurred on the hot +dry pastures among the rocks, up to above 6000 feet. The rock was +everywhere gneiss, but varied much in appearance and texture, and +contained many granite veins. + + [Sidenote: CHEGAON. + _August, 1847._] + +After regaining the river, the road ran along its bank, or on low +spurs not more than a few hundred feet above it, through a dry +treeless tract, till about two miles from the end of the day's +journey, when a long steep ascent led to Chegaon, a large village +situated on a stream with steep rocky banks, the houses as usual being +surrounded with fruit-trees. Here we encamped after a march of at +least fourteen miles, at an elevation of 7000 feet above the level of +the sea, or nearly 1800 feet above the valley of the Sutlej. + + [Sidenote: GERARD'S PINE. + _August, 1847._] + +Next day our journey was a short one, not more than five and a half +miles, to the village of Miru. It began by a rapid ascent for two +miles to the crest of the ridge, advancing all the time towards the +Sutlej, which wound round the base of the steep spur 2000 feet below. +The ascent was bare (as the slopes facing the west generally are), and +the hill-side almost precipitous; but as soon as the crest of the +ridge, at an elevation of about 8000 feet, had been gained, scattered +trees appeared of a species not previously seen. This was _P. +Gerardiana_, the pine of Kunawar and the other dry regions of the +Western Himalaya, from the back parts of Garhwal (where it has been +seen by Dr. Jameson) to the valleys of the Upper Chenab. The first +trees met with were small, and in appearance quite distinct from _P. +longifolia_ and _excelsa_, being more compact, with much shorter +leaves and a very peculiar bark, falling off in large patches, so as +to leave the trunk nearly smooth. + + [Sidenote: MIRU. + _August, 1847._] + +Beyond the crest of the ridge, from which the view into the Sutlej +valley, and towards the mountains across the river, was superb, the +road on the east slope again receded from the river, entering an +oak-wood, through which it continued nearly level for more than a +mile, but soon began to descend slightly towards the stream, which ran +at the bottom of a deep ravine, down to which the road plunged +abruptly, to ascend again as steeply on the other side; after which a +steep ascent of upwards of a mile led to Miru, a large village in +which we encamped, at an elevation of 8500 feet. + +At this delightful elevation, in a climate where the periodical rains +of the Himalaya are scarcely felt, embosomed in extensive orchards of +luxuriant fruit-trees, and facing the south, so that it has the full +benefit of the sun's rays to mature its grain-crops, Miru is one of +the most delightful villages of Kunawar, being rivalled only by Rogi +and Chini, beyond which the climate becomes too arid for beauty. The +crops at Miru, both of grain and fruit, were most luxuriant, and the +vine thrives to perfection. The principal vineyards, however, are +lower down, at elevations of between 6000 and 7000 feet, at which +level the sun has more power in autumn to ripen the grape. + +The scenery around Miru is indescribably beautiful, as it almost +overhangs the Sutlej 3000 feet below, while beyond the river the +mountain-slopes are densely wooded, yet often rocky and with every +variation of form. A single peak, still streaked with snow, but too +steep for much to lie, rises almost due opposite; behind which the +summits of the chain south of the Sutlej rise to an elevation of +upwards of 18,000 feet. + +At Miru we found that we had completely left the rainy region of the +mountains, and henceforward the weather continued beautiful. The +change had been very gradual. At Serahan we had heavy rain; a rainy +night at Tranda was succeeded by a brilliant day, till the afternoon, +when it rained smartly for an hour. The next day was again fine, and +at Miru, though the afternoon was cloudy, and a heavy storm was +visible among the mountains across the Sutlej, only a few drops of +rain fell. The transition from a rainy to a dry climate had thus been +apparently very sudden, four days having brought us from Serahan, +where the periodical rains were falling heavily, to a place at which +there were only light showers. This was in part, of course, accident. +Fine weather may, perhaps, have set-in in the interval in all parts of +the mountains. In very rainy seasons, when the rain-fall in the outer +Himalaya is considerably above the mean, heavy showers extend into +Kunawar, at least as far as Chini; and careful meteorological +observations would probably show that the transition of climate is a +very gradual one, the snowy mountains and the great spurs which run +towards the Sutlej collecting and condensing, as they increase in +elevation, more and more of the moisture which is brought by the +south-east winds from the Bay of Bengal. + + [Sidenote: VEGETATION OF KUNAWAR. + _August, 1847._] + +Jacquemont, in the valuable journal of his tour in India, which has +been published by the French Government, has observed that the passage +of the ridge between Chegaon and Miru may be considered as producing a +marked change in the vegetation. This change, as we have seen during +our journey up the Sutlej, had long been going on, though very +gradually and almost insensibly. Several circumstances combine to make +the transition appear at this point more sudden than a careful +calculation of the number of new species will prove to be the case. It +is the first wooded ridge on the north side of the Sutlej over which +the road passes, and it rises higher than any other part of the route +east of Nagkanda. A considerable effect is also produced by several +new arboreous or shrubby species making their appearance, as well as +by the fact that the new forms, which day by day have insensibly been +increasing in number, have at last begun to form a prominent feature +in the country. + +I find among my notes a list of all the species of plants which came +under my observation during the walk from Chegaon to Miru. Their +number is rather above 150 species, of which number about 120 are +common Simla plants. Of the remaining thirty, eleven were quite new to +me, ten had occurred only the day before, and nine had been common +for some days past. These numbers convey a very different idea of the +amount of change from that produced at the time, but the latter must +be admitted to be very fallacious, the eye of the botanist being so +naturally attracted by novelty, to the utter disregard of what is +common, that it is difficult to preserve the degree of attention +requisite to observe properly. + + [Sidenote: QUERCUS ILEX. + _August, 1847._] + +_Pinus Gerardiana_ produces a very large cone, containing, like the +stone-pine of Europe, eatable nuts, of an elongated oblong form, +which, when roasted like chesnuts, are agreeable to the taste, though +with a little flavour of turpentine. This tree has been repeatedly +tried in the rainy districts of the Himalaya, but will not succeed, a +dry climate being essential to it. Besides Gerard's pine, a new +species of oak was the most conspicuous tree, forming a thick dry wood +on western exposures. This oak, the only species of the genus which +grows in the interior of Kunawar, is the _Quercus Ilex_. The specimens +which I collected quite agree with the European plant, and belong to +that form of the evergreen oak, which has been called _Q. Ballota_. +The same tree is common in some parts of Affghanistan, where it is +called _Balút_. A small graceful ash was also common, and species of +_Stellaria_, _Lychnis_, _Dianthus_, _Herniaria_, _Cruciferæ_, +_Senecio_, and _Valeriana_, which, with several _Chenopodiaceæ_ and +_Artemisiæ_, were the new species observed. + + [Sidenote: VIEW OF THE SUTLEJ. + _August, 1847._] + +On the morning of the 16th of August, we proceeded to Rogi, eight and +a half miles. On leaving Miru the road at first ascended gradually +through a pretty wood of deodar and Gerard's pine. The common +pear-tree of the Himalaya, and many of the more ordinary Simla +shrubs, species of _Desmodium_, _Indigofera_, _Spiræa_, _Buddleia_, +and _Plectranthus_, were common under the shade of the pine-forest. As +the elevation increased, the trees gradually diminished in number, and +the road continued to rise along the side of a rocky hill, with only a +few scattered deodars. A very pretty reach of the Sutlej now came into +sight. The river was broader than usual, and seemed to flow with a +gentle stream along an even bed, without interruption from rocks. +Opposite the junction of the Miru tributary, which was in sight at the +end of the reach, the Sutlej was particularly wide, and its channel +was divided into several branches, which enclosed a number of gravelly +islands, immediately beyond which the stream again contracted in +width, and resumed its usual rocky character. + +From the top of the steep ascent, which must have exceeded 9000 feet +in elevation, the road continued along the side of the hill, without +much change of level. The slopes were nearly bare, a few trees of the +deodar and Gerard's pine only occurring occasionally. The latter tree +was more common, and larger than the day before. It is a compact small +tree, with much-twisted ascending branches, and a mottled grey bark, +quite smooth from the decortication of the outer layers. It bore +abundance of large pendulous cones, the size of a small pine-apple, +still quite green. + + [Sidenote: BURANG PASS. + _August, 1847._] + +A little more than two miles from Miru, the road descended to pass a +stream, which was crossed in two branches. Immediately afterwards +another long ascent commenced, at first steep and bare, with a western +exposure, then more gradual through an open wood of deodar and _Pinus +excelsa_. The highest elevation attained was almost 11,000 feet, and +close to the summit a most superb view was seen to the south. The +valley of the Sutlej was not in sight, but the whole course of the +Baspa, except its junction with the Sutlej, and a great extent of fine +snowy range beyond, were beautifully seen. The Burang or Borendo pass, +elevated 16,000 feet, which leads from the Baspa valley to the upper +part of the Pabar or Tons river, a branch of the Jumna, was very +conspicuous, with many large patches of grey dirty-looking snow on the +hills near it, but its summit seemingly bare. At the highest elevation +attained the face of the hill was a mass of precipitous rocks. A fine +peak, which had long been visible across the Sutlej, was now almost +opposite. This mountain, the termination of the range to the east of +the Baspa river, when viewed from the west and north-west, has the +appearance of a vast precipice, rocky and bare of trees, commencing +within little more than a thousand feet of the Sutlej. The north-east +face, which comes into view for the first time from the heights above +Miru, is covered throughout with magnificent forest, rising to an +elevation considerably higher than that at which I stood. + + [Sidenote: VEGETATION. + _August, 1847._] + +The elevation we had now attained was higher than any previous part of +our journey, being 200 feet above the peak of Hattu. A cold westerly +wind was blowing up the valley of the Sutlej, evidently bringing a +good deal of moisture along with it, for thin wreaths of mist were +occasionally condensed, for a few minutes obscuring the distant view, +and then melting again into transparent vapour. The vegetation was +less different from that below, than I had expected, and much more +luxuriant than I could have supposed, with nothing of an alpine +character. Many of the species were identical with those of Nagkanda +and the crest of Hattu; but there was no bamboo, nor any of the +_Acanthaceæ_, so common in the more shady and humid forest further +east. Balsams, however, were abundant and large, _Potentillæ_, _Salvia +nubicola_, and _Nepetæ_, _Polygona_, _Achilleæ_, _Gnaphalia_, and +several species of _Pedicularis_ and _Ophelia_, formed a thick and +rank growth. The most remarkable forms observed were Astragaline, of +which several species, one a spinous _Caragana_, were abundant. A +pretty little _Veronica_ and _Bupleurum_, and several new +_Cichoraceæ_, were also collected, as well as an _Orobanche_, +parasitical upon the roots of the common thyme (_Thymus Serpyllum_). + + [Sidenote: ROGI. + _August, 1847._] + +From the crest, the remainder of the road consists of a succession of +short ascents and descents, along the face of a very rocky hill, till +within a mile of Rogi, when it descends very abruptly down the side of +a rugged ravine to that village, which, though elevated 9000 feet, +lies low down on the mountain-side, and has the appearance of being in +a hollow. At Rogi we found the grapes quite ripe, and extremely +abundant, but all from vineyards at lower levels. The commonest grape +is globular, and of a deep, nearly black colour; but many varieties +are cultivated. The apricots were also ripe, and had been gathered +from the trees. The flat tops of the houses were now covered with +them, drying in the sun. They are split up the middle and dried, the +stones being taken out. In this state they keep well, and form a +considerable article of export to India. Peach and walnut trees are +also common at Rogi, and I saw a few apple-trees. A species of willow, +which, in shape of leaf and general appearance, closely resembles a +common English willow (_Salix alba_), is commonly planted along with a +glabrous poplar, a small, rather spreading tree, which is frequent +throughout Tibet, and seems to be the balsam poplar of Siberia and +North America. The English henbane (_Hyoscyamus niger_) abounds in +waste places. This also is a common Tibetan plant, and extends into +the drier valleys of the Himalaya, such as Kunawar and Kashmir, but +not into the outer mountains, where the periodical rains are heavy. + +On the 17th of August we proceeded to Pangi, nine miles farther, +passing on the road the village of Chini, the largest inhabited place +and most fertile tract of Kunawar, of which it may therefore be +considered the capital. From Rogi we had to make a considerable ascent +to regain the road, that village lying lower than the direct route +from Miru. The ascent lay first through the cultivated lands of the +village, and afterwards through open wood. After regaining the road, +the ascent continued through a gloomy forest of large deodar-trees for +about a mile, terminating at about 10,000 feet of elevation, at which +height, turning round a corner on the crest of the ridge, we found +ourselves on the upper part of a precipitous cliff, which descends +sheer down to the Sutlej. Unfortunately the morning was very misty, a +dense fog, condensed from the steadily blowing west wind, enveloping +everything, till after ten o'clock, by which time we had long passed +the precipitous part of the road. We were told, however, that the +cliff was absolutely impracticable below, and, indeed, even where we +passed, no little engineering skill was displayed, as the road led +along the face of an absolute precipice, on ledges scarcely three feet +broad, or just as often over wooden planking, supported at intervals +by large upright pieces of timber, whose resting-places were invisible +in the dense mist by which we were surrounded. + + [Sidenote: CHINI. + _August, 1847._] + +As soon as this rocky projection was passed, the road descended +rapidly, but over good level ground for half a mile, through a forest +of deodar, in which some of the trees were of large size, one of them +measuring nineteen feet eight inches in circumference. At the bottom +of this descent, after passing a projecting rocky ridge, the village +of Chini came in sight, straggling along the side of a sloping hill. +Chini occupies the most level, and therefore the most fertile, valley +in Kunawar. The village is prettily situated among deodar-trees, while +below, and on either side of it, the slopes are disposed in a +succession of terraces, some of them of considerable extent, richly +cultivated with wheat, barley, and buckwheat. Through this fertile +tract, the road was quite level, winding among the stone enclosures of +the fields, and often bordered on both sides by grassy pastures, or +patches of beautiful green turf, where the little rills, which served +to irrigate the fields, had overflowed their banks, and converted the +flat land into swampy meadows. Near Chini, we passed a single vineyard +of small extent, at an elevation of 7000 feet, the fruit still quite +unripe, though for several days we had been plentifully supplied with +ripe grapes from the lower vineyards. The vines are supported by +erect poles, about four feet high, placed about three feet apart, and +connected by horizontal ones laid across them, on which the vines +twine. + + [Sidenote: KASHBIR. + _August, 1847._] + +A little further we passed the small village of Kashbir, consisting of +two or three houses only; beyond which a pleasant forest of deodar and +Gerard's pine was entered, quite dry, and almost devoid of +undergrowth; a few bushes of _Daphne_, occasionally a small ash-tree, +two or three stunted oaks, and quantities of withered grass and +dried-up _Artemisia_, being the only plants observed. Everything +looked arid, notwithstanding the eastern exposure, and showed +strikingly the rapid change of climate which was taking place. Some of +the trees of _Pinus Gerardiana_, which seemed to thrive more in this +arid wood than further west, were between fifty and sixty feet in +height, and one of the largest of them which I noticed was nearly +twelve feet in circumference. Through this forest the road continued +nearly level, till it reached a ravine, on the opposite bank of which +was situated the village of Pangi. A very steep descent of half a mile +brought us to the stream; and an ascent of more than a mile, in the +course of which we rose about 1000 feet vertically, terminated the +day's journey. Pangi is a large village, 9000 feet above the level of +the sea, with much cultivation and magnificent orchards of apricots, +peaches, and walnuts. + + [Sidenote: PANGI. + _August, 1847._] + +From Chegaon to Pangi we had passed through the finest and most +fertile part of Kunawar, which is, however, by no means confined to +the north bank of the Sutlej; many large villages having been seen on +the opposite side of the valley, with almost as much cultivation as +those through which we had passed. The communication across the Sutlej +is kept up by paths which lead through the lower cultivation and +vineyards to the bank of the river, which is spanned in several places +by rope-bridges, one of which only, we saw at a distance. During these +three days' journey, the weather was most beautiful, and we could +never sufficiently admire the ever-changing beauties of the scenery, +which, probably, for variety and magnificence, is nowhere surpassed. +The great peak of Raldang, a culminating point of the south Sutlej +Himalaya, lies nearly opposite to Chini, and, from a great part of the +Kunawar valley, is a prominent feature from almost every point of +view. It forms a rugged rocky mass, and the ravines on its slopes are +filled with large masses of snow, the lowest beds at this season of a +dirty grey colour, and evidently still rapidly receding under the +influence of the powerful autumn sun. No glaciers were anywhere in +sight. + +We were now about to enter upon a very troublesome part of our +journey, the crossing of the various ridges which are given off by the +mountain range north of the Sutlej, at the great bend of that river +where it is joined by the almost equally large Piti river, from the +north. These long ranges, given off by an axis 18,000 feet in height, +slope at first gently towards these rivers, but at last dip extremely +abruptly into the enormous ravine, at the bottom of which the Piti and +Sutlej rivers run. Occasionally a rugged and difficult footpath may be +found to lead among these precipices, by frequent steep ascents and +descents, at no great distance above the river. These paths are always +most laborious, and often very dangerous, and the usual road into the +valley of the Piti river leads across the higher part of all these +ridges, where they are no longer precipitous, but slope at a gentle +inclination. + + [Sidenote: ROCKS OF KUNAWAR. + _August, 1847._] + +During the journey from Simla, I had been able to acquire very little +information regarding the geology of the valley of the Sutlej; the +quantity of forest, and the rapidity with which we travelled, being +unfavourable to the determination of the nature of the rocks. In the +earlier part of our journey argillaceous schist, often highly +micaceous, predominated. In Kunawar, from Wangtu eastward, gneiss and +mica-schist were almost the only rocks which I observed. These +appeared to alternate again and again as we advanced, but I obtained +no certainty regarding their relative position. Veins of granite +occurred occasionally in the gneiss, especially at Wangtu, and +probably, from the number of boulders, the axis of the range north of +the Sutlej is composed of granite. + +Behind Pangi is the Werang ridge, crossed by the pass of that name at +a point where its height is 13,200 feet above the sea. This ridge, as +will be seen by the map, separates the valley east of Pangi from that +of Lipa, the next in succession to the eastward, through which a large +tributary flows to join the Sutlej. From Pangi to Lipa, the distance, +though considerable, is not too much for an active man to accomplish +in one day. It would, however, have been a very long march, allowing +of no delay on the way, or on the top of the pass. We therefore +divided the distance into two days' journey, ascending on the 18th of +August to the upper limit of tree vegetation on the west side of the +ridge, and leaving the remainder of the ascent and the whole descent +for the next day. + + [Sidenote: ASCENT TOWARDS + THE WERANG PASS. + _August, 1847._] + +At daybreak we were on foot, preparing for the ascent. The morning +was, as usual for some days past, thickly foggy, and a heavy dew had +fallen during the night. At starting we ascended gently through a dry +pine-wood, towards the face of the mountain ridge of which Pangi +occupies the western slope. This ridge, like that above Rogi, on the +previous day's journey, is very precipitous towards the Sutlej; and +the road leads among rocks, and sometimes over planks of wood, +ascending gradually as we advanced. After about a mile and a half, +rounding the most projecting part of the ridge, we began to recede +from the Sutlej on the eastern slope of the range, along the western +side of a beautifully wooded open valley, at the bottom of which ran a +large rapid stream, evidently descending from snow. Without descending +at all, we continued to advance for a mile and a half through fine +forest, till we nearly met the stream, which we crossed after a slight +abrupt descent. Immediately after crossing, a steep fatiguing ascent +of not less than three miles commenced, continuing, with scarcely any +intermission, till we reached the spot selected for our encampment, +inclining all the way in the direction of the course of the stream, +and therefore towards the Sutlej; so that when we stopped, we almost +overlooked that river, and had a fine view of the peak of Raldang, +covered with a dazzling coat of fresh snow. + +The forest at the base of this ascent was principally composed of +deodar and Gerard's pine. The former continued abundant till within a +quarter of a mile of the top, when it suddenly disappeared. _Pinus +Gerardiana_ gradually diminished in number during the ascent, and at +last disappeared about the same time as the deodar. _Pinus excelsa_ +was not seen at the bottom, and was scarce on the earlier part of the +ascent, but became more abundant as we increased our elevation, and +was the only tree seen round our encampment. At this point the trees +were straggling and distant, but very tall and luxuriant, being well +sheltered by rocks. Above our encampment, which was, according to +Captain Strachey's barometer, 11,800 feet, there were only a very few +stunted trees on a rocky ridge behind. Excepting in the occurrence of +a few new species of _Astragalus_ and _Artemisia_, now quite typical +forms, the vegetation during the greater part of the ascent was the +same as on the higher levels east of Miru, and it was only above +11,000 feet that any considerable change was observed. Here three +species of juniper made their appearance, all stunted bushes, though +one of them was _J. excelsa_, which, in more favourable circumstances, +grows to a small tree. The second species was _J. squamosa_, a +depressed shrub, with rigid twisted branches, and the third was +undistinguishable from the common juniper of Europe. A thorny species +of _Ribes_, very like the common gooseberry, a strongly scented +Labiate, _Dictamnus Himalayanus_, several _Compositæ_, one of which +was a large-flowered thistle, and European-looking _Junci_ and +grasses, were all observed above 11,000 feet. A beautiful Rose (_R. +Webbiana_) was common all the way from the stream. + +During the ascent, after crossing the ravine, the rock was throughout +gneiss, passing sometimes into a curious dark slaty rock. It was +often very fine-grained; and in one place a granite vein was observed, +entirely without stratification, and about a foot thick. Throughout +the ascent the surface was strewed with erratic blocks of granite, +evidently transported from a distance. + +The slope below our camp, for several hundred feet, was cultivated +with barley, but the crops were indifferent. Lower down, the +mountain-side was too steep to admit of tillage. There were no houses, +the fields being the property of the inhabitants of a village a long +way below, to the east of Pangi. + +The morning of the 19th, before sunrise, was a good deal clearer than +the two last had been, but mist began to collect soon after sunrise, +and did not entirely disappear for about two hours. Immediately after +starting, the last trees of _Pinus excelsa_ were left behind, and the +ascent to the crest of the pass was gentle, over rough stony ground, +covered with tufts of juniper, a shrubby _Artemisia_, and _Pteris +aquilina_. The pass, which has an elevation of 13,200 feet, occupies a +low part of the ridge, the slope to the left descending gently, but +rising again into a sharp rocky peak, five or six hundred feet higher. +The crest of the pass is a vast mass of loose rocks, and the slopes of +the hill on the right are likewise covered with a mass of fragments. +These angular boulders are all granite, none of which occurs _in +situ_; the rocks throughout the ascent, so far as I could observe, +being gneiss and mica-slate, the latter in one place containing large +crystals of cyanite in great abundance. + +In the crevices of the loose stones which covered the pass, a very +luxuriant vegetation was found; the same plants grew on the hill to +the right, and were especially abundant among its rocky recesses. The +forms were, for the first time on our journey, quite alpine, very few +of the plants being even shrubby, while the great majority were small +herbs. A willow, a very small _Rhododendron_, and _Andromeda +fastigiata_, were almost the only shrubby plants, and the majority of +forms were those common on the Alps of Europe, and comprised species +of _Astragalus_, _Stellaria_, _Anemone_, _Ranunculus_, _Meconopsis_, +_Saxifraga_, _Sedum_, several _Umbelliferæ_, _Pedicularis_, +_Gentiana_, _Gnaphalium_, _Dolomiæa_, _Saussurea_, _Artemisia_, +_Ligularia_, _Morina_, _Galium_, _Valeriana_, and many others. I added +to my collection in all about thirty new species in a very short time. +I had, however, never before been at so great an elevation in the +Himalaya, so that almost every plant I met was new to me. + +The view from the top of the pass was only remarkable for its +barrenness. In the direction we had ascended, the prospect was not +striking; and to the north-east, the valley in advance and hills +beyond were almost bare, scattered bushes and very little forest being +visible. The wind blew over the pass from the Indian side, and +continued throughout the day to blow on our backs strongly as we +descended. + + [Sidenote: DESCENT FROM + THE WERANG PASS. + _August, 1847._] + +From the crest of the pass, the descent to Lipa was long and steep, +the distance being about five miles. At about 500 feet or rather more +(of perpendicular height) below the pass, the first tree, a large +birch, stood quite alone, with a stout erect trunk. A little further +down, a small grove of the same trees was passed, in which every +individual had its trunk bent in the direction of the slope, probably +by the weight of the winter's snow. No birches had been seen on the +south face of the pass, nor did the dwarf _Rhododendron_ and little +_Andromeda_ appear till the summit had been gained, though they were +abundant on the northern face. _Rhododendron campanulatum_ was the +next plant observed, forming bushes four or five feet in height, and +growing in large green patches, along with the willow, which I had +found on the top, and the same rose common on the southern side. About +1200 feet below the summit, that is, about 12,000 feet above the sea, +pine-trees commenced--_Pinus excelsa_ and _Picea_ making their +appearance together, the deodar not till a considerably lower level +had been reached. The trees of silver fir were small, with smaller and +shorter leaves than the common tree of the forests in the outer +Himalaya, and were therefore the true _Picea Webbiana_ of Royle, the +more common long-leaved form being the _Picea Pindrow_ of that +author[5]. + +At an elevation of 11,000 feet, at a rough estimate, we passed the +first deodars, and at the same height cultivation commenced. The first +fields were wheat, now nearly ripe. With the cultivation many plants +of lower elevation began to appear, which had disappeared on the upper +part of the mountain, but many were missed which had been common, and +the general aspect of the vegetation was strikingly altered, the +diminution affecting at once the number, the abundance, and the +luxuriance of the plants. Juniper was frequent till some time after +the first corn-fields were passed, and Gerard's pine was common on the +lower part of the descent. Throughout the whole distance from the +crest to the Lipa stream, the road lay along a ravine, which was very +rough and uneven, and covered with numerous and often very large +boulders of granite[6] scattered irregularly over the surface of the +valley. Towards the end of the day's march, we reached the Lipa +stream, which was of large size; and we continued along its right +bank, through a dry fir-wood, till close to the village, when we +crossed by a substantial wooden bridge to enter Lipa, which is situate +on a flattish piece of ground on the left bank of the stream, and very +little above its level. It is a small village, with some cultivation, +and a rather odd-looking little temple, close to which are two fine +trees of _Juniperus excelsa_, the sacred juniper of the Kunawarees +and Tibetans. We were accommodated with a room close to the temple, +which afforded us sufficiently comfortable quarters. + +At the back of the village a thick bank of alluvial clay was observed +resting on the rocks behind, and vast masses of the same extended up +the valley for a considerable distance. This was the first occurrence +of a very common feature of Tibetan valleys, so common as to be almost +universal; and as I shall have many opportunities of referring to it +again, and shall find it necessary to try to give some explanation, or +rather to attempt some conjectures as to its cause, I shall only here +pause to observe that the first time of its occurrence coincided with +the first entrance into an extremely dry climate; the passage of the +Werang ridge having effected a greater change in the aspect of the +country than had been seen during very many previous days--the change +from luxuriant forest, not indeed to treelessness, but to thin and +stunted woods. + + [Sidenote: LIPA. + _August, 1847._] + +In the valley of Lipa I met with a species of caper, apparently the +same which I had collected at Rampur on the Sutlej, on hot rocky +places close to the river, but which had not been met with in the +intermediate parts of the journey. This little prickly shrub I +afterwards found to be a common Tibetan plant, which (like most of its +tribe) prefers the hottest and driest exposures, expanding its large +white blossoms on dry stony ground, or among rocks where hardly any +other plant will vegetate. + +Lipa is situated at no great distance from the Sutlej, at an elevation +of 8000 feet above the level of the sea. The next range to the +eastward is that of Runang, separating the Lipa valley from that of +the Ruskalan, on which is situated the village of Sungnam. As in the +former instance, we divided the passage into two days' journey, +encamping on the 20th of August at an elevation of 12,500 feet. The +road began to ascend as soon as we left Lipa. At first we took the +direction of the stream, gradually rising along the face of a rocky +hill composed of a dark clay-slate, which had now taken the place of +the gneiss of the lower part of the Sutlej; but turning to the left, +to ascend the ridge, as soon as its crest had been gained. The surface +was everywhere barren and dried up. A few scattered pine trees +occurred at intervals, but nothing approaching to forest, and the +parched stony ground was quite destitute of any covering of turf or of +herbaceous vegetation in sufficient quantity to attract the notice of +the general observer. The ascent on the ridge was steep and +uninterrupted; but as the general direction of the day's journey was +down the range, or towards the Sutlej, we had to pass from one ridge +to the next in succession, across the ravine by which the two were +separated. Here the road was nearly level, and took a long curve in +the receding hollow of the hill, turning round a belt of green which +occupied the middle of the hollow. + +On the left hand, above the road, there was not a trace of verdure in +the ravine; but just below the road a small spring burst out from the +stony ground. For three or four yards the banks of the little +streamlet were quite bare, but at about that distance from its source +they were fringed with luxuriant marsh plants, _Veronica Beccabunga_ +and _Anagallis_, rushes, and several kinds of grasses, which gradually +increased in abundance. Within a hundred yards of its origin a +thicket of willows bordered the stream, and a rich vegetation grew +under their shade. From this it would appear that the barrenness of +the country cannot be ascribed to any fault of temperature or of +altitude, but solely to the deficiency of moisture. + + [Sidenote: ASCENT TOWARDS + THE RUNANG PASS. + _August, 1847._] + +On the next ridge beyond this little green spot, the ascent continued +steep, over loose shingly soil, among scattered trees of deodar, and +occasionally a fine tree of _Pinus Gerardiana_; a spinous +_Astragalus_, and several species of _Artemisia_, formed almost all +the scanty vegetation. Higher up there was, in one place, a good view +of the Sutlej to the south-east, with a very lofty snowy mountain +beyond. A little further on, the pines ceased to grow, and no tree but +juniper was seen, the vegetation becoming more and more wretched in +appearance, though the same _Astragalus_ and _Artemisiæ_ predominated. +Above 12,000 feet, two or three alpine species made their appearance; +these were a _Polygonum_, a _Mulgedium_, and a little shrubby +_Potentilla_. Except these, however, not one of the numerous alpine +forms observed on the Werang pass two days before were to be seen. + +We encamped at an elevation of 12,500 feet on the north-east slope of +the ridge, overhanging a deep wide valley, in which there were several +patches of cultivation still green, at an elevation which I estimated +at about 1000 feet below the level of our tents. By this wide valley, +(in the lower part of which, on its east side, is the village of +Kanam,) we were still separated from the central range on which the +Runang pass is situated. The hills all round had a desolate aspect. +They were rounded in outline, and appeared quite smooth and destitute +of herbage, excepting large dark-green patches of juniper, by which +they were mottled. A single stunted tree of _Pinus excelsa_ stood +within a short distance of our encampment, and four or five hundred +feet lower was a small grove, apparently of birch. During the +afternoon a furious west wind blew without intermission. The morning +had been quite calm, but before noon the wind had begun to blow, and +gradually increased in violence till late in the afternoon; after dark +it became calm. + +The next morning was clear, with scarcely any wind, but the mountains +above us were partly shrouded in mist. For the first time during our +journey we had _Zobos_ furnished for the conveyance of our tents. +These animals, which are mules between a Yak bull and Indian cow, are +intermediate between the two, having most of the peculiarities by +which the Yak is distinguished, though in a much less degree. Their +colour varies much,--black, white, and iron-grey being all common. +They have coarse long shaggy hair, much shorter than in the Yak, a +stout rounded body, and the tail has a small tuft at the end, quite +similar in miniature to that of the Yak. These mules are exceedingly +common in Upper Kunawar and Hangarang, and are much preferred as +beasts of burden to the Yak, being more docile, and less sensitive to +climatic influences. + + [Sidenote: THE RUNANG PASS. + _August, 1847._] + +The first half-mile of the ascent to the pass was very gentle, till we +passed round the hollow of the valley which lay below our encampment. +The hill-sides were covered with stones, among which grew a few tufts +of thyme, a large-leaved saxifrage, a yellow _Scorzonera_, a curious +_Polygonum_, and an _Oxyria_, the same in appearance with that of the +Alps of Europe. Two or three little rills of water trickled across the +road, but their margins had no trace of green. The remainder of the +ascent was more rapid, but nowhere fatiguing, and I reached the top +about 9 A.M. Nothing can be conceived more dreary and bare than the +aspect of the pass and the mountains all around. The hills, which at a +distance appeared smooth and rounded, were now seen to be covered with +loose stones piled upon one another, in the crevices of which a few +plants found an attachment for their roots. The elevation was about +14,500 feet, but there was no appearance of snow. To the north-east a +wide and straight valley ran from the crest, at the end of which, far +below and perhaps eight miles off, was seen the village of Sungnam, +beyond which another lofty range of equally rounded mountains, +apparently smooth, ran parallel to that on which I stood. On this +range, at a level, to the eye sensibly the same as that of the Runang +pass, an evident track indicated the pass of Hangarang, over which lay +the continuation of our journey. + + [Sidenote: VEGETATION. + _August, 1847._] + +I spent a considerable time on the top of the pass, and by close +searching, in the crevices of the stones, especially on the hill which +rose to the south-east, I succeeded in collecting a considerable +number of species of plants, though very much fewer than on the Werang +pass two days before. From our morning's camp to the top of the pass +the whole number of species which I met with was only forty-six, not +half of which were observed on the summit. The number gathered on the +former pass was nearly three times as great. It must not be +forgotten, however, in comparing the two ranges, that the Werang pass +is 1300 feet lower than that of Runang, and ought therefore, +independent of climate, to be more productive. The species which were +observed for the first time on the summit of the Runang pass were not +more than six, and were all forms which I have since found to be +abundant throughout the higher parts of Tibet. A little willow, +creeping among the stones, and scarcely more luxuriant than _Salix +herbacea_, was the only shrubby plant. The others were _Oxytropis +chiliophylla_, _Biebersteinia odora_, a _Draba_, _Lamium rhomboideum_ +of Bentham, and a species of rhubarb, of which I found only a few +leaves and one or two panicles, from which the ripe fruit had nearly +fallen away. + +The descent from the pass to Sungnam was even more barren and desolate +than the other side. The valley was open and almost straight, and the +slope gradual. Till nearly half-way not a drop of water occurred on +the road, and for miles almost the only vegetation on the hill-sides +was an erect branched _Polygonum_, never more than a foot in height. +At an elevation of about 10,000 feet, a few deodars occurred, all +miserably stunted in height, though often with trunks of considerable +diameter. Gerard's pine, and the ash of Tibet, also appeared a little +lower, but in very small numbers. During the greater part of the +descent, the white houses of Sungnam were in sight, to all appearance +at the end of the valley down which we were proceeding; but when near +the bottom, we discovered that we were still separated from them by a +wide and level plain, that of the Ruskalan river. On the opposite +side of this plain, on the side of a hill just sufficiently high to +terminate the vista down the valley by which we descended from the +pass, stands the town of Sungnam; while the cultivated lands, which +form a wide belt, scarcely higher than the level of the river, were +entirely out of sight till we arrived close to the precipitous bank +parallel to the river. Here the descent was abrupt to the bed of the +Ruskalan. The bank was alluvial, with enormous boulders, and was +covered with tufts of _Ephedra_, a remarkable leafless plant with +rod-like branches, which is abundant in every part of northern Tibet, +especially in the driest and hottest exposures. It extends also +occasionally into the partially rainy district, being found in Kunawar +nearly as far west as the bridge of Wangtu. + + [Sidenote: SUNGNAM. + _August, 1847._] + +Sungnam is one of the principal places of Kunawar, dividing with +Kanam, which we did not visit, the claim to be the principal seat in +the Sutlej valley of the Buddhist religion. It contains numerous +temples and monasteries, with also a considerable industrial +population. Cultivation occupies a great part of the valley, and +extends up the course of the stream to a considerable distance. The +level tract along the river has in many places a breadth of nearly a +quarter of a mile, and the town occupies a ridge on the mountain side, +to which a gently-sloping road leads from the bridge by which we +crossed the Ruskalan. + +The elevation of Sungnam above the level of the sea is 9000 feet. +Still the vine thrives well, the steep slopes facing the river being +covered with vineyards: the grapes were not yet ripe. The principal +fruit-trees are apricots and apples. Willows and poplars are also +frequent in the village; a new species of the latter being for the +first time observed, with leaves white and downy underneath, which +appears in no way to differ from _Populus alba_, the common white +poplar of Europe. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[5] I have carefully compared, since my return to England, a great +many specimens of the Himalayan _Picea_, and am sorry to be obliged to +dissent from the opinion of their distinctness, which has been +expressed by many excellent observers. Great variations occur in +length of leaf, which is either green on both sides, or very glaucous +below. All have notched leaves, but the notch varies much in depth and +form. There are also differences in the form of the cones and the +shape of the scales. The long green-leaved state is that of the moist +Himalaya; in the driest regions the very short glaucous-leaved form +occurs. There are, however, among the specimens collected by Wallich, +Strachey, and myself, so many intermediate forms of leaf, that I feel +satisfied that all must be considered states of one species, varying, +like most _Coniferæ_, with climate and other accidental circumstances. + +[6] I have now no doubt that the whole of this descent was over an +ancient glacier moraine, but I was not at the time familiar with +glaciers or their moraines by personal experience; and though on this +and other similar occasions my notes show that I was much puzzled by +the numerous transported blocks, the idea of this explanation did not +suggest itself to me till I had an opportunity of seeing the +connection of such phenomena with actual moraines. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + + Hangarang ridge separates Kunawar from Piti -- Ascent to + Hangarang Pass -- Alluvial deposit -- Steep ascent -- View of + valley -- Limestone rocks -- _Caragana versicolor_, or _Dama_ + -- Camp at 14,000 feet -- Top of pass -- View from pass -- + Vegetation of summit -- Descent to Hango -- Cultivation round + the village -- Luxuriant wild plants -- Road to Lio -- _Crambe_ + -- Ravine of Piti river -- Lio -- Bridge over Piti river -- + Ascent to Nako -- Nako -- Cultivation of the village -- + Buddhist temple -- Transported blocks -- Chango -- Changar -- + Stopped by villagers on Chinese frontier -- Natural bridge -- + Kyuri -- Alluvium -- Clay deposit with shells -- Lari -- + Ramifications of mountain ranges -- Alluvial platforms -- Pok + -- Dankar -- Lara -- Rangrig -- Upper part of Piti -- Climate + -- Saline exudations + + +The Hangarang ridge, as we may conveniently call that mountain range +on which the pass of Hangarang is situated, forms the boundary between +the districts of Kunawar and Hangarang. As this range terminates at or +close to the point where the Sutlej is joined by the Piti river, this +division is geographically convenient. It has also a marked physical +signification, forming the absolute limit of the deodar and Gerard's +pine; and indeed, if we except the juniper, of all tree vegetation. + +On the 22nd of August, our party left Sungnam to ascend towards the +Hangarang pass, encamping, as on the two previous occasions, on the +upper part of the ascent, so as to get to the summit of the pass at +an early hour next day. Our road lay up a narrow ravine, through which +a small stream descended from the vicinity of the Hangarang pass, to +join the Ruskalan immediately below Sungnam. We followed for a long +time the course of this rivulet, so that the ascent was by no means +fatiguing. A very few stunted deodars, and a single tree of _Pinus +Gerardiana_, were the only trees met with. A little shrubby vegetation +was now and then seen, consisting of an ash, rose, _Colutea_, +_Lonicera_, and _Spiræa_. The banks of the ravine were everywhere +composed of a conglomerate of angular stones, in general imbedded in +soft clay, though the matrix was not unfrequently calcareous, and in +several places even composed of crystalline carbonate of lime. + + [Sidenote: BEDS OF CONGLOMERATE. + _August, 1847._] + +The hard calcareous conglomerates are, I think, of different origin +from the clayey ones. Indeed, I was induced to believe from what I saw +in the neighbourhood of Sungnam, and occasionally in other districts +(as I shall have again occasion to notice), that the calcareous +conglomerates, which only occur in the neighbourhood of the limestone +formation, and therefore where calcareous springs are common, are +formed by the infiltration of water containing lime among beds of +loose shingle which have accumulated along the base of the steep +hills. These calcareous conglomerates are quite local, never very +extensive, and are often covered with an incrustation of lime, showing +the continued existence of the calcareous springs, by the action of +which I suppose them to have been formed. + + [Sidenote: ALLUVIAL CONGLOMERATE. + _August, 1847._] + +The clay beds, on the other hand, are continuous and uniform in +appearance. They vary much in thickness, but are on the whole much +thicker and more remarkable in the upper part of the ravine, where (on +the east side) a mass of clay, not less than five or six hundred feet +in thickness, has accumulated, forming steep sloping or quite +perpendicular banks, which at the top are worn away into pinnacles, +and excavated into deep grooves and hollows, I presume by the action +of melting snow. The fragments of rock which it contained were all +angular, or at most a very little worn at the edges. + +Five or six miles from Sungnam, the road left the course of the +ravine, and began rapidly to ascend the steep spur which bounded it on +the left. At first we followed a fissure in the clay conglomerate, +which still had a thickness of nearly two hundred feet. Above, the +ridge was rocky and very steep. When we had attained a sufficient +height to overlook the valley by which we had ascended from Sungnam, I +was able to estimate better than while in the ravine, the extent of +the clay deposit. It was now seen to occupy both sides of the valley, +and to be pretty equally diffused throughout, but certainly thicker on +the left or eastern side,--in the upper part at least, for low down, +just behind Sungnam, it capped a round sloping hill of considerable +elevation to the right of the little streamlet and of the road. The +valley did not narrow at the lower extremity, where it debouched into +that of the Ruskalan, so much as to give any reason for supposing that +it could have been closed by a barrier, so as to form a lake. Indeed, +the absolute elevation of the conglomerate was so great at the upper +end of the valley, that it would be necessary to suppose a barrier +several thousand feet above the bed of the Ruskalan to produce such an +effect. The greater thickness of the conglomerate in the upper part of +the ravine, and the almost complete angularity of the fragments, were +equally opposed to such a view. Nor was I able to form any probable +conjecture as to the mode in which these accumulations had been +formed. + + [Sidenote: ROCKS OF HANGARANG. + _August, 1847._] + +In the earlier part of the day's journey, the rock, where exposed, was +invariably clay-slate, not different in appearance from that which, +commencing at Lipa, had been observed on every part of the Runang +ridge. It dipped generally at a high angle, but was often much +contorted. In the upper part of the ravine, thick beds of a hard +cherty quartz rock alternated with the slate; and in the course of the +last steep ascent, at an elevation of about 13,500 feet, the first +limestone was observed. It was of a dark blue colour, very hard, +coarsely stratified, and much veined with white calcareous spar. It +seemed to dip at a high angle towards the north-east. + +The ridge by which we ascended was quite bare of trees and exceedingly +barren, producing very little vegetation of any sort, and no novelty, +till we had almost attained an elevation of 14,000 feet. We then +observed bushes of a species of _Caragana_ (_C. versicolor_), the +_Dama_ of the Tibetans, a very curious stunted shrub, which is very +extensively distributed at elevations which no other woody plants +attain, and which, therefore, is much prized and extensively used as +fuel. I had not met with it before, nor does it appear to extend at +all into the wooded region of the Himalaya. We encamped on a flat +piece of ground at 14,000 feet. Notwithstanding the elevation, the +heat of the sun was very great during the day, but the evening and +night were extremely cold. + + [Sidenote: HANGARANG PASS. + _August, 1847._] + +Early next morning a short steep ascent of about 800 feet brought us +to the top of the pass, which has an elevation of 14,800 feet above +the sea. The _Dama_, in green patches from two to four feet in +diameter, was abundant till near the summit. The pass occupies a +hollow in the ridge, which rises considerably on both sides. To the +north-west, on the northern exposure, there was at a short distance +one small patch of snow, from which the pass and surrounding mountains +were otherwise quite free. No remarkable difficulty of breathing was +experienced by any of the party, except immediately after any +exertion. The ascent was latterly so steep, that it was necessary to +stop frequently to take breath, and the pulse was found to be very +considerably accelerated when counted immediately after walking. There +was, however, a great difference according to the individual; in one +case it rose as high as 136; but a few minutes' rest restored it +nearly to the usual standard. + +At the crest of the pass, the rock was a hard bluish-grey limestone, +traversed in every direction by numerous crystalline veins. I ascended +the hill to the south-east, to an elevation of nearly 16,000 feet, +which was within a few hundred feet of the summit. At that height it +was composed of a mass of loose fragments of black slate, perfectly +moveable, and so steep, that it was difficult to progress in an upward +direction. Vegetation had almost disappeared; more, however, from the +moveable shingly soil than from the elevation attained, for wherever a +solid rock peeped out, straggling plants still lingered; the rhubarb, +_Biebersteinia_, a minute saxifrage, and a yellow lichen, were the +species which attained the greatest altitude. + +The view from the summit of the pass, and the steep hill above it, was +extensive, but very desolate. In the direction of our previous +journey, the rounded outline of the Runang range bounded the view, but +in front a much wider and more diversified extent of country was +embraced. To the eastward, the lofty mountain of Porgyul was seen +almost to its base; its upper part a magnificent mass of snow, the +summit being upwards of 22,000 feet in height. To the north of +Porgyul, where the valley of the Piti river allowed the distant +mountains to be seen, a succession of ranges rose one beyond another, +the furthest evidently at a great distance, and covered with heavy +snow[7]. + +The vegetation at the summit of the ridge was even more scanty than on +the Runang pass. There was, however, more novelty in species than I +had met with there. A grass, several saxifrages, _Potentillæ_ and +_Seda_, a little _Thermopsis_, an _Anemone_, and a beautiful +_Delphinium_ (_D. Brunonianum_, Royle), were the new species observed; +and these, I believe, (as was indeed to be expected from the +minuteness with which the country had been investigated by Dr. +Royle's collectors,) were all previously described species. + + [Sidenote: HANGO. + _August, 1847._] + +From the pass the descent was pretty steep all the way to Hango, a +small village, elevated 11,500 feet. The road lay on the side of a +ravine, keeping the hills on the left hand, and the channel of the +stream on the right. The _Dama_, which had disappeared at the summit, +was again plentiful on the northern slope; and a shrubby species of +_Potentilla_, quite new to me, was exceedingly common. Otherwise, +little change was visible. The road was good, but the hills were dry +and stony. + +The village of Hango, notwithstanding its great elevation, has a +considerable extent of cultivation, though I think the corn was less +luxuriant than at lower levels. The wheat was still green, and rather +scanty, a good deal of a wild oat (perhaps _Avena fatua_) being mixed +with it; but the barley was stronger and more productive. There was +also a number of fields of _Hordeum Ægiceras_, that curious awnless +monstrous barley, which seems peculiar to the higher regions of Tibet, +where it is very frequently cultivated. This grain was much further +advanced than the wheat, being nearly ripe. The arable lands of Hango +are nearly destitute of trees, a few willows being the only arboreous +vegetation. They are abundantly supplied with water, circulating in +copious rills among the different fields, which are disposed in +terraces one above another, faced by walls about three feet in height. +On the margins of the cultivation, stimulated by the moisture derived +from the irrigation, there was a very abundant growth of shrubs, and +of luxuriant herbaceous plants. The gooseberry, _Hippophaë_, and rose, +were the shrubs, and several large _Umbelliferæ_, one of which was +closely allied to the _Assafoetida_, a tall _Thalictrum_, a +yellow-flowered _Medicago_, _Verbascum Thapsus_, two species of +thistle, the common henbane, dock, mint, _Plantago_, and various +species of _Artemisia_, were the most common herbaceous plants. + + [Sidenote: HANGO VALLEY. + _August, 1847._] + +On the 24th of August we proceeded to Lio, a village on the right or +west bank of the Piti river. The road crosses the small stream which +runs past Hango, a little below the village, and gradually ascends the +slope of the hill on its left bank. Close to the stream there is a +bank of clayey alluvium, with stones, and traces of it may be seen at +intervals for some distance down the valley, but it is nowhere of any +great thickness. The hill along which the road lay was composed of a +cherty sandstone of a light-blue colour, often nearly white; in +fragments, and especially when pulverized, it was quite so; and being +extremely brittle, the slopes were covered with fine white dust, the +glare of which, in the bright sunshine, was very unpleasant. On this +gravelly ascent the vegetation was equally scanty, and much the same +in character as at moderate elevations on the two previous days; a +large thistle, species of _Artemisia_, _Chenopodiaceæ_, and a spinous +_Astragalus_, being the most abundant plants. + +The road continued to ascend gently for about half a mile, rapidly +increasing its height above the stream, which had a considerable +slope. The next two miles were tolerably level, over a good but stony +road, at an elevation a little under 12,000 feet. A species of +_Crambe_, with a long fusiform root, smelling somewhat like a turnip, +was common along this part of the road. The young leaves of this +plant are used by the Tibetans as a pot-herb, and are said to be +well-flavoured. A species of currant (_R. glandulosum_), with viscid, +glandular, very aromatic-smelling leaves, was also met with; its +fruit, now ripe, had a sweetish taste, but no flavour. It is a common +Tibetan species, extending on the Indus as low down as 6500 feet. + + [Sidenote: THE PITI RIVER. + _August, 1847._] + +An abrupt descent followed, of not less than seven or eight hundred +feet, into a wide steeply-sloping valley, descending from the north to +join that of Hango. On the surface of this hollow, the road passed +among a multitude of large angular boulders of limestone, irregularly +scattered over the surface. This limestone was much like that of the +Hangarang pass, and as it nowhere occurred _in situ_ on the road, the +boulders must have come from the hills on the upper part of the +lateral ravine. A small spring of water and a solitary willow marked +the centre of the valley, beyond which the road again ascended +slightly, till on rounding a corner, the Piti river came into view, at +the bottom of a most remarkable rocky ravine. Full in front, just +beyond the river, was a scarped rock of great height; it was of a dark +grey colour, and was traversed in every direction by immense white +veins. Round this precipice, which seemed to project beyond the +general mass, the river swept in a deep curve, of which the convexity +was towards me. + +The mountains on the right bank of the river, which formed the +termination of the range on which I stood, seemed not less steep than +those opposite, for the road, instead of passing round them without +change of level, rose rapidly as it turned to the left, till it had +attained an elevation of at least 12,000 feet, at which height it +wound among precipitous rocks of hard dark slate, covered with bushes +of _Ephedra_, and scattered trees of _Juniperus excelsa_. When fairly +round the rocky projecting range, the village of Lio was discovered +more than 2000 feet below, in a narrow ravine, on the bank of a small +stream descending from the north-west, and close to its junction with +the Piti river. The descent was very abrupt, in a rocky ravine among +large boulders, partly of slate, partly of granite. This rock occurred +in thick veins in the clay-slate, most abundantly on the lower part of +the precipices which rose on the left hand during the descent. + + [Sidenote: LIO. + _August, 1847._] + +Lio, at an elevation of 9600 feet above the sea, is a considerable +village, with a large tract of cultivation, disposed in terraces from +three to six feet above one another. The crops of wheat and barley had +been all cut, but there were many fields of buckwheat in full flower, +and of millet (_Panicum miliaceum_) still quite green. Numerous +apricot-trees, from which the fruit had long been gathered, were +interspersed among the cultivated lands. Surrounded on all sides by +very precipitous mountains, which reflect the sun's rays, Lio appears +to enjoy a great amount of heat, and the weeds which bordered the +corn-fields were rank and abundant, and included many species which +had not been seen at the higher villages. _Salvia glutinosa_, almost +the only remaining Simla plant, burdock, sow-thistle, lucerne, and +melilot, were the commonest weeds. A little _Cuscuta_ was common on +these latter. No tree of any kind occurred in the valley, nor on the +slopes on either side. Elevation could not be the cause of this, the +height being much lower than the line of upper limit of tree +vegetation in the outer Himalaya, and the temperature of the valley, +as was evident from the kinds of grain cultivated, very much greater +than it would have been at the same level, in the more rainy climates +nearer the plains of India. + +The ravine through which the Lio stream runs is narrow and rocky, and +contains a great number of transported blocks of various sizes, +scattered irregularly over the surface. Close to the village there is +a curious isolated rock, separated by the stream from the mountain +mass with which it has evidently once been connected. + + [Sidenote: CROSS THE PITI RIVER. + _August, 1847._] + +On the 25th of August we crossed the Piti river, a little above Lio, +and ascended to the village of Nako, on a very steep ridge, which +descended from the great mountain Porgyul. After leaving the +cultivated lands of Lio, which extend for half a mile from the upper +part of the village, we ascended the right bank of the Piti river for +nearly a mile, to a bridge, by which it is crossed. The river ran here +in an extremely narrow ravine, precipitous mountains rising on either +side. Its banks were steep, and covered with loose shingle, the +_débris_ of the precipices above. The stream is of considerable size, +but much inferior to the Sutlej where we had last observed it close at +hand, though I believe it is nearly as large as that river, at the +point of junction of the two. The Piti runs in this part of its course +with great rapidity, and is probably of considerable depth. + + [Sidenote: ASCENT TO NAKO. + _August, 1847._] + +The bridge was situated at a bend of the river, where the rocky banks +contract more than usual. It was similar in structure to that over the +Sutlej at Wangtu, but much smaller, and in so dilapidated a state, +that it could scarcely be expected to last another year. The ascent to +Nako was throughout steep, the difference of elevation being about +2500 feet, and the distance not more than two miles and a half. When +at a sufficient height above the narrow dell in which the Piti runs, a +good view was obtained of the mountains by which we were surrounded, +which rose on all sides in rugged precipices. The steepness of the +cliffs allowed their geological structure to be well seen. The +fundamental rock, wherever I saw it, appeared to be clay-slate, +sometimes passing into chert or quartzy sandstone. This basal rock was +everywhere traversed by innumerable veins of quartz and granite, which +exhibited no signs of parallelism, but ramified in every direction. +These veins were often of great thickness. Not unfrequently, indeed, +the mass of granite much exceeded the slaty beds between which it was +interposed; but its connection with other veins of more moderate size +rendered it evident that it had been injected into the slate. + +Behind the village of Lio a thick deposit of alluvial clay was +discernible, which seemed to suggest the idea of the valley having +formerly been a lake; and at no place where I had seen these clayey +accumulations was this hypothesis so plausible, for the precipices +south of the junction of the Lio stream, rose almost perpendicularly +for more than 1000 feet above the Piti river, and approached so close +to one another, that their disruption was at least a possible +contingency. + +The slopes, as we ascended, were covered with boulders of granite in +countless profusion, and the vegetation was extremely scanty, +_Ephedra_ being the most abundant plant observed. On the upper part of +the ascent the road crossed a little streamlet, which was conducted in +an artificial channel to irrigate a few fields of wheat. The margins +of this little stream, and a belt a few feet in width on both sides, +where the ground was swampy, were covered with a dense thicket of +_Hippophaë_ and rose-bushes, among which grew thickly and luxuriantly +a scandent _Clematis_, and _Rubia cordifolia_, mint, dock, and +thistles. The number of species altogether was scarcely more than a +dozen, but the brilliant green formed so delightful a contrast with +the prevailing monotony, that what in a more fertile country would +have been passed as a mere thicket of thorns, to my eyes appeared a +most beautiful grove of graceful shrubs; and I lingered in the swampy +ground, till I had traversed it repeatedly in every direction, and +completely exhausted the flora. + + [Sidenote: NAKO. + _August, 1847._] + +Nako is a smaller village than Lio, and from its elevation (12,000 +feet) has no fruit-trees; but at the base of the cultivation, which is +extensive, there was a copse of willows and poplars. The predominant +crop was barley, now quite ripe, and being cut; the species was the +common one, not _H. Ægiceras_, but the ears were very short, and the +return must, I should think, have been very small. There was abundance +of water, which ran in every direction through the fields. The little +streamlets had a narrow belt of green on their margins, consisting of +small grasses, several gentians, and _Potentillæ_, one of which I +could not distinguish from _P. anserina_, a _Polygonum_ very like _P. +viviparum_, and, most remarkable of all, a small orchideous plant, +which seemed to be a species of _Herminium_. + + [Sidenote: BUDDHIST TEMPLES. + _August, 1847._] + +At Nako, we had a most satisfactory proof of the little estimation in +which the lamas, or priests of the Buddhist religion, hold their +religious buildings, the apartments furnished to us in the village +being the different parts of the temple, surrounded with full-sized +figures of the different incarnations of Buddha, in sitting posture, +each with his hands in the position which is conventionally used to +indicate the individual. The remarkable forms and system of the +Buddhist religion, as practised in Kunawar and Ladak, have been so +often and accurately described, that it would be useless for me to +attempt to give any account of what I could, from want of previous +knowledge, very imperfectly understand, and from my other occupations +scarcely at all inquire into. The gradual transition, in ascending the +Sutlej, from Hinduism to Buddhism, is very remarkable, and not the +less so because it is accompanied by an equally gradual change in the +physical aspect of the inhabitants, the Hindus of the lower Sutlej +appearing to pass by insensible gradations as we advance from village +to village, till at last we arrive at a pure Tartar population. The +people of upper Piti have quite the Tartar physiognomy, the small +stature and stout build of the inhabitants of Ladak, to whom also they +closely approximate in dress. To what extent mere climatic influences +may cause these differences, and how far they depend on an +intermixture of races, I do not pretend to decide. It is impossible, +however, to avoid being struck by the coincidence between these +physical and moral changes in the human race, and the gradual +alteration in the forms of the vegetable world, which are observable +as we advance from a wet to a dry climate. + + [Sidenote: PORGYUL + _August, 1847._] + +From Nako we proceeded, on the 26th of August, nearly due north, to +Chango, about ten miles up the Piti valley. Nako is situated on the +shoulder of the great mountain Porgyul, which rises to a height of +10,000 feet above that village, and Chango is at the very extremity of +a long spur given off by that mountain further east: it is therefore +separated from the Nako spur by a valley of considerable size, which +descends abruptly towards the Piti river. Our road lay in a long sweep +round the deep bay formed by this valley, at an elevation not lower +than that of Nako, crossing in the most receding part a foaming +torrent which descends from the perpetual snows of the mountain +behind. Half a mile from Nako, and scarcely lower than that place, is +a patch of cultivation, watered, as I was surprised to find, by a +conduit brought more than a mile along the side of the hill from the +stream which occupies the mid-valley; the water of which was collected +into several ponds, one above another, in which it was kept in reserve +till required for irrigation. The crops cultivated were buckwheat and +a species of _Brassica_, both in flower. A number of poplars and +willows were planted along the stream, but no fruit-trees. + + [Sidenote: ANGULAR BOULDERS. + _August, 1847._] + +Beyond this cultivated tract, the road, till we reached Chango, was +entirely barren. For several miles we continued to pass through a most +extraordinary accumulation of transported blocks, scattered +irregularly on the gently sloping sides of the mountains. They +covered a very large area, and occurred in such almost incredible +profusion, that the road seemed to lie in a hollow among fragments of +rock on all sides. They were all angular; and at so considerable an +elevation as 12,000 feet, I have now no hesitation in referring them +to glacier action. The rock _in situ_ was clay-slate, with copious +granite veins, and the boulders were in general the same. In one +place, however, a dark mica-slate, with large crystals of cyanite, was +the predominating rock of the erratic blocks, which no doubt might +have been traced to its source in the ravine above, as I nowhere saw +it _in situ_ during the day. + +After passing the torrent which occupies the centre of the valley, the +road very gradually approaches the Piti river, from which it had at +first receded considerably. We could now observe that the mountains +which overhung the river in this part of its course were much less +precipitous, and the valley wider and more open, than around Lio. +Alluvial beds of great thickness everywhere rested on the ancient +rocks, assuming the most diversified forms, but in general thicker and +higher on the sides of the hills, at some distance from the river, +than in the centre of the valley. About a mile and a half from Chango, +the road began to descend rather rapidly along a dry water-course +filled with huge boulders. It then crossed a stream, which had cut for +itself a very deep channel through the alluvial conglomerate, and +ascended slightly to the village of Chango. Close to the last stream +was a bed of very fine clay, which had a thickness of at least +twenty-five feet, and did not appear to contain any stones, pebbles, +or fragments of rock. This clay had quite a different appearance from +the alluvial conglomerate, which covered it, without appearing to pass +into it. It occurred extensively in several places in the +neighbourhood of Chango, and had entirely the appearance of having +been deposited in a very tranquil lake, while the alluvium which +rested upon it, and, therefore, was of more recent formation, +contained so many fragments of rock, all seemingly angular, that its +origin could scarcely be assigned to deposition under water, unless +under some very peculiar circumstances. + + [Sidenote: CHANGO. + _August, 1847._] + +Chango is situated in the middle of an open, nearly level tract of +considerable size, which slopes very gently towards the Piti river. +The cultivation is extensive, water being more than usually abundant, +so that much of the ground is swampy from its waste, and covered with +tufts of a small _Iris_ and a species of _Equisetum_. The barley had +been all cut, as well as the beans, which are here grown to some +extent. Buckwheat and rape-seed (a species of _Brassica_) were still +in flower, and the millet quite green. Apricot-trees were still +common, though the elevation of Chango is about 10,500 feet. The +village lies nearly opposite to Shialkar, but separated from it by the +Piti river, which, at the bridge of that place, is elevated exactly +10,000 feet above the level of the sea. + + [Sidenote: ZUNGSAM RIVER. + _August, 1847._] + +A little way above Shialkar and Chango, two very considerable rivers +unite to form the Piti river. The larger of these, descending from the +north-west, is known by the same name. The other, which flows from the +north-east, may be called the Parang river, by which name it is known +in the upper part of its course; lower down, it seems to be usually +called Zungsam. The direct road from Hangarang to the Indus lies up +this river, which unfortunately flows for several days' journey +through districts which are included within the Chinese frontier. It +was our wish to proceed by the most expeditious route, and at the same +time that nearest the line of boundary, to Hanle. It was, therefore, +our object to effect, if possible, a passage up the Zungsam river, +though, as we knew that Captain Gerard and M. Jacquemont had both been +stopped upon the frontier, we had no reason to anticipate any more +favourable result. + +We therefore took, on leaving Chango, a north-easterly direction, +proceeding, on the 27th of August, to a village on the left bank of +the Parang or Zungsam river, called Changar, the same place which, by +Gerard and Jacquemont, is named Changrezing. Leaving the cultivated +lands of Chango, and crossing the stream which skirts the plain, we +immediately commenced a steep zigzag ascent over a barren shingly +road, to the heights which overhang the village to the north-east. +After a very fatiguing climb of not less than 1300 feet, we attained +the summit of the ridge, and advanced along it for some distance +without much change of level, but still gradually ascending among +low-topped gravelly hills. A very steep ascent followed to the summit +of the pass, which was called Changrang La[8], and could not be much +under 13,000 feet. The whole ascent was extremely barren, the arid +slopes producing a minimum of vegetation. A fleshy Cruciferous plant, +with a strong pungent taste not unlike horse-radish (_Christolea_ of +Decaisne in Jacquemont), a fine _Nepeta_ (_N. floccosa_, Benth.), and +a little _Stipa_, were the only novelties; and these, with the +_Ephedra_, a little _Lactuca_, an aromatic species of _Chenopodium_ +(_C. Botrys_), the Tibetan _Euphorbia_, and a shrubby white-flowered +spinous _Astragalus_, were almost all the plants observed. + + [Sidenote: CHANGAR. + _August, 1847._] + +From the summit of the pass, the road descended abruptly into a deep +ravine, which originated in a snowy mountain to the south. At the +bottom of this ravine, between rocky precipitous banks, ran a +considerable torrent, which was crossed by a very frail wooden bridge. +Immediately after crossing, the road began to ascend rapidly, rising +to an elevation only a few hundred feet lower than the pass from which +we had descended, after which, half a mile of nearly level road +brought us to our camp at Changar, a small village on a stony hill, of +which only one house seemed habitable. A few fields of barley, not yet +ripe, separated our tents from the village; these were irrigated by a +small streamlet, whose source was a spring on the rocky hill-side a +few hundred yards off, shaded by a few rose-bushes and a small clump +of juniper-trees. + +We remained one day stationary at Changar, to complete some +arrangements which were required previous to our leaving the district +of Hangarang; and on the 29th we proceeded to ascend the valley of the +Zungsam river, intending, if no obstacles were offered, to follow its +course and the regular road to Hanle; but in case of obstruction, +which there was every reason to apprehend, to adopt the plan which had +been already followed both by Gerard and Jacquemont, of crossing the +river, encamping on its north bank, and proceeding in a westerly +direction along the course of the Piti river to the Parang pass, in +which direction we could effect a passage to Hanle without the +necessity of entering on the territories under Chinese control. + + [Sidenote: BLACK CURRANT. + _August, 1847._] + +Our road, for about three miles, was undulating, with rather a +tendency to descend, but without any abrupt change of level. It lay +along the gently sloping side of the ridge, and crossed a good many +little ravines. To the right was the crest of the ridge; to the left, +the valley of the Zungsam river, which was nearly 2000 feet below, the +slope being very precipitous. In many of the ravines, where there was +a stream of water, there was a dense jungle of shrubs, which +contrasted strongly with the barrenness of the hills. A willow, rose, +_Lonicera_, a shrubby _Astragalus_, an _Artemisia_, a _Potentilla_ of +large size, and a black currant, closely resembling that of our +gardens, were the principal shrubs; and the herbaceous vegetation was +the same as in similar places since entering the Tibetan region. The +currant, which occurred here for the first time, was quite a new +species: its ripe fruit was quite black, and had the size and flavour +of the common black currant, with, however, a considerable degree of +acidity. + +About three miles from Changar, an abrupt descent led from the +platform on which we had been travelling, to the level of the banks of +the river, more than 1000 feet lower. The path by which we descended +was steep, rocky, and difficult. The rock was still clay-slate, with +granite veins. The granite in general very much exceeded in quantity +the rock into which it had been injected, as was well seen on several +precipitous cliffs along the course of the stream, in which the +stratification of the slaty rock and the ramifications of the granite +could be examined in detail. The banks of the river were adorned with +a species of _Myricaria_, a small tree, with very delicate graceful +foliage and beautiful rose-coloured flowers. + + [Sidenote: CHINESE FRONTIER. + _August, 1847._] + +On reaching the small streamlet which forms the frontier of the +Chinese dominions, we found, as indeed we expected, that there was no +intention of permitting us to proceed by the direct road to Hanle; and +all arguments to induce a compliance with our wish proving +ineffectual, we agreed to take the route up the Piti river by Dankar, +and were then permitted to proceed about a mile, to the village of +Kyuri, where we encamped for the day. I have now no doubt that if we +had resolutely advanced, no serious opposition to our progress would +have been made; but our instructions were so precise that we should +not have been justified in using the smallest degree of force, or +incurring any risk of a collision. + +To reach Kyuri[9], we crossed the Zungsam river by a very remarkable +natural bridge, composed of an enormous block of granite, which has in +some way been placed across the stream, at a spot where it is much +contracted in width, flowing in a deep rocky fissure from fifteen to +twenty-five feet in width, evidently of great depth. At this point a +considerable number of boulders of large size are piled on both banks, +of which the one that spans the channel is eighty-five feet in length +and probably not less than forty in width and twenty in depth; it is +placed obliquely across the stream, its left or southern extremity +being lower, and inclined at so considerable an angle that the passage +is one of some difficulty for horses and loaded cattle, though for +men, with ordinary care, it is quite easy. The higher end is so much +elevated above the surface on which it rests, that a rudely +constructed stair of stones is necessary to enable travellers to +descend. + + [Sidenote: KYURI. + _August, 1847._] + +Our encamping ground at Kyuri was on a gently sloping barren plain, +seven or eight hundred feet above the valley of the Zungsam, and was +reached by a short steep ascent from the bridge. There was no +cultivation; but about a mile to the east, a long sloping tract of +alluvium interposed between the mountains and the river was covered +with green fields, though it had only two houses and not a single +tree. Alluvium abounded in every direction, forming steep sloping +banks, often much worn away by running water, and occasionally from +two to three hundred feet in thickness. The plain on which we were +encamped was also of recent origin; it consisted of a fine clay, +curiously worn into cliffs and narrow ridges. A few layers of fine +sand were included in the clay, and by a careful search I found three +or four small fresh-water shells in the clay, belonging to at least +two species--one a _Lymnæa_, the other a _Planorbis_. The shells were, +however, very scarce, and all found near one spot, nor did any other +portion of the deposit seem fossiliferous. The clay was in front of +and below our encampment, and was covered by coarse alluvial +conglomerate. + + [Sidenote: THE ROAD REJOINS + THE PITI VALLEY. + _August, 1847._] + +The road up the valley of the Parang river being tabooed to us by the +jealousy of the Chinese Government, it became necessary to make a very +considerable _détour_, no practicable road being known in the +mountains north of Piti, between that which we were thus prevented +from following, and the Parang pass, to reach which we had to make +five or six marches up the Piti river before turning to the north. On +leaving Kyuri, on the 30th of August, we ascended gently on a bare +gravelly hill for several hundred feet, and then proceeded for two +miles to the westward, along the steep side of the mountain. The road +was rocky and very barren, the caper and an _Astragalus_ being almost +the only plants seen. We then descended rapidly, so as to reach the +bank of the Piti river, at the place where it makes its great bend and +assumes a southerly direction. Here it is joined by the Giu (Gumdo of +Jacquemont), a considerable stream, which has its source in the lofty +and inaccessible range to the north. This torrent had excavated a deep +channel in the alluvial beds, which were composed of alternations of +coarse incoherent conglomerate and fine clay. In this ravine, which +sheltered them from the bleak winds of the more exposed slopes, I +found a luxuriant growth of shrubs; of which the commonest forms were +the rose, ash, _Colutea_, _Rhamnus_, _Myricaria_, _Capparis_, +_Ephedra_, and _Artemisiæ_. As soon as the stream was passed, a steep +ascent commenced, but the luxuriant vegetation at once disappeared, +and the road was as barren, dusty, and stony as usual. We ascended +only to descend again, and encamped on a small level spot forty or +fifty feet above the Piti river, destitute of cultivation or +inhabitants, but known to the people of the district by the name of +Huling. + +On our next day's journey, the country at first presented the same +general character. The mountains along the road were lofty and rugged, +and sloped steeply to the river. A mass of alluvial deposit generally +rested on their bases, and the road lay at no great distance above the +river, rising a few hundred feet to pass over the spurs, and again +descending on their western sides. The steep slopes were in several +places covered with an incrustation of hard angular breccia, with a +calcareous matrix, the origin of which I conceive to have been the +same as that of the breccia noticed in the vicinity of Sungnam. Across +the river there was a considerable tract of level ground, covered with +cultivation surrounding a small village, with a few poplar and willow +trees; but the left bank, on which we travelled, was entirely barren. +Nearly opposite this village, the bank of the river becoming steep and +precipitous, we ascended about a thousand feet, and continued at that +elevation till the difficulty was passed, after which we returned to +the river-side. At this elevation two or three springs broke out on +the steep face of the hill, and, trickling down among the rocks below, +promoted the growth of a few willows and rose-bushes, and a small +thicket of _Hippophaë_. Round the springs the ground was covered with +a slight saline exudation. + + [Sidenote: LARI. + _August, 1847._] + +The village of Lari, at which we encamped, is elevated 11,200 feet. It +occupies a large extent of alluvial surface, sloping at a very small +angle from the base of the mountains to the river, at a place where a +stream issued from among the mountains. The cultivated lands are +extensive, but very bare of trees when compared with the villages in +Kunawar, or even in Hangarang. One apricot-tree only could be seen in +the village lands, but there were still a few willows and poplars. The +flora of the cultivated tracts had not altered. The little _Iris_, +first seen at Chango, was very common, and the gentians, _Potentillæ_, +_Astragali_, and other small plants, were the same as had been common +since crossing the Hangarang pass; the season, however, was so far +advanced, that much of the luxuriant vegetation had withered away. The +crops of wheat and barley were quite ripe, and had been partly cut; +but a few fields of millet were still green. + + [Sidenote: MOUNTAINS OF PITI. + _August, 1847._] + +In the neighbourhood of Lari, the Piti valley is considerably more +open than lower down. It had, indeed, been gradually expanding since +we joined it at Lio. The mountains now recede considerably from the +river, a long sloping surface of alluvium being interposed, which is +at one time largely developed on the north side of the river, in which +case the southern spur generally projects. A little further on, the +northern mountains send down a projecting spur, and an open tract is +seen to the south. The mountains behind the alluvial platforms rise +very abruptly, and present towards the plain, steep, almost +perpendicular slopes, which, from the peculiar nature of the rock, a +very fragile slate, are covered by a steeply-sloping mass of _débris_ +almost to the top. This talus, indeed, on some of the cliffs behind +Lari, seems to rise to the very summit of the ridges. + +It is not easy to convey an idea in words of the mode in which these +mountains are arranged, unless it is recollected that it is an +universal rule that all mountains are ramifications of an axis, giving +off branches on both sides, and that each branch is again divided in a +similar manner, till the ultimate divisions are arrived at. All +mountainous districts are in this respect similar to one another, and +differ principally in the proportion borne by the altitude to the +superficial extent of the ranges of which they are composed. An +examination of the map will show that the axis of the range which lies +north of the Piti valley, passes through the Parang pass, and in fact +occupies the midway between the Piti and Parang rivers, terminating in +the great bend of the latter, to the east of its junction with the +Piti. The whole of this range is of great altitude, and it seems to +rise in elevation to the eastward, no passage being known further east +than the Parang pass. The primary branches of this chain, descending +towards the Piti valley, are separated by considerable tributaries +which discharge themselves into that river. In general, these lateral +streams have, in the lower part of their course, very rugged rocky +channels, but they rise rapidly, and, at a distance of a few miles +from the main river, their ravines expand into open valleys, three or +four thousand feet above its level. The ramifications of the primary +branches are, as might be expected, in their upper part concealed +among the mountains, but those near their termination abut upon the +main valley, in a series of ridges separated by little streamlets. We +have, therefore, as we ascend the Piti river, not a wall of mountain, +parallel to its course, but a succession of ridges, more or less +perpendicular to it, all descending from a great elevation, and +rapidly diminishing in height. The result is necessarily a great +degree of irregularity, the width of the alluvial belt varying much, +while the direction of the ridges, and of the cliffs by which they are +bounded, is constantly changing. + + [Sidenote: ALLUVIAL PLATFORMS. + _September, 1847._] + +Leaving Lari on the 1st of September, we continued our journey up the +Piti valley. The road lay partly on the platforms of alluvial +conglomerate, and partly over the steep shingly talus which rested on +the hills where they were not separated by alluvium from the river. +One alluvial plain, about two miles from Lari, was well cultivated +with the usual crops, the barley being quite ripe, the wheat very +nearly so, the oil-seed and buckwheat out of flower, and the millet, +of which there were only a few fields, still green. The platforms of +alluvium have, in general, an irregularly triangular form, the base +resting on the river, the apex at the termination of a mountain +ravine, down which a stream runs. This stream, instead of bisecting +the platform, usually runs in a hollow channel on one side or other +between the mountains and the alluvium, and is, where practicable, +carried off in small artificial conduits for the purposes of +irrigation. The platforms always slope gently from their apex to the +river, and they are generally cut off in a cliff at the lower end. +These cliffs always show marks of stratification, sensibly parallel to +the river, and the pebbles which the alluvium contains, are (and have +been for the last two days) usually rounded. + +I ought not to omit to mention, that I use the word _alluvium_ merely +as a convenient mode of expression, without meaning to convey an idea +of the mode in which these beds originate. No equally suitable word +suggests itself, and the phenomena occur so frequently, that it is +necessary to have some short expression by which to describe them. The +origin of these alluvia is certainly very puzzling. At first sight, in +any particular spot, the most natural suggestion is, that they have +been deposited under water, and probably therefore in a lake. Their +occurrence day after day, notwithstanding the greatest changes of +altitude, their enormous thickness in many places, and the peculiar +position in which they occur, soon dispel this idea, and throw the +observer into a maze of doubt and difficulty, at last leading him to +the conclusion, that no one cause is sufficient to explain the highly +variable phenomena which he observes, and that a lengthened series of +patient observations will be necessary before the subject can be +understood. These observations have yet to be supplied, but I believe +I shall best serve future observers, by detailing as fully as possible +the points which attracted my attention, without attempting for the +present to speculate upon the causes of the phenomena. The suggestions +which I have to offer to the reader, will be best understood when I +have detailed all the facts upon which they are founded. + +It is especially necessary to distinguish between three forms of +alluvium, all of which have already occurred in Piti. These are, +first, the fine clay; secondly, the platforms, such as I have +described in the last paragraph; and thirdly, the enormous masses, +which are without any definite limits, and do not seem referable to +any present valley system. + + [Sidenote: POK. + _September, 1847._] + +We encamped at Pok, a large village nearly nine miles from Lari. Here +we found again an extensive alluvial platform, covered with much +cultivation; and on the mountain ravine above the village there was a +considerable grove of young juniper-trees. A week or two before, I +should have considered them as scattered trees; now they had quite the +appearance of a forest, so bare had the country been since crossing +Hangarang. + +West of Pok, our journey of the 2nd of September was over the alluvial +platform, which continued for two miles beyond the cultivation of the +village, gradually contracting in width by the encroachment of +successive spurs, which at last advanced close to the river. The road +now ascended by a short steep path on the mountain-side, to a higher +level. At the base of this ascent there were a great many angular +masses of limestone, evidently transported from the valleys behind. +These fragments were very numerous, and many of them of great size. +They continued abundant during a great part of the day, but no +limestone was seen _in situ_. I have not preserved any record of the +exact position of these angular fragments with regard to the valleys +behind, but I have little doubt that they will be found to be of +glacial origin, such being certainly the case in many other similar +instances. The limestone was very compact, of a blue or grey colour, +and many of the fragments were almost full of coralline remains. I +collected many fossiliferous specimens, which were afterwards +despatched from Hanle to Simla by a messenger, on whom we thought we +could rely, but they never reached their destination[10]. + + [Sidenote: DANKAR. + _September, 1847._] + +We encamped at Dankar, after travelling ten miles. This place is the +principal village of the Piti valley, and is 13,000 feet above the +level of the sea. The valley of the Piti is here very wide, and +divided into numerous channels, which are separated by low gravelly +islands, the whole width of the river being not less than half a mile. +Here the alluvium is very highly developed, lying in patches on the +face of the steep hills. The village of Dankar, though 1000 feet above +the river, occupies both sides of a steep ridge entirely composed of +alluvium. Nor is this its utmost limit; for several hundred feet above +the houses, similar alluvial masses occur. These beds are not, +however, continuous from these great elevations, down to the level of +the river: they rest, on the contrary, on the ancient rocks, which are +here very steep, and the clay may be seen in isolated projecting +masses, capping the most prominent ridges[11]. + + [Sidenote: RANGRIG. + _September, 1847._] + +The village of Dankar is built on arid barren soil, but the cultivated +lands stretch from about the level of the village almost to the river, +on a very steep slope. Thickets of _Hippophaë_ were scattered among +the cultivation, where the ground was swampy; and notwithstanding the +great altitude, the exposure being favourable, the crops seemed good, +and the wild plants were more luxuriant than usual. One of the new +species observed was a pretty gentian (_G. Moorcroftiana_, Wall.), +interesting as having been one of the few plants sent from the Tibetan +country by the unfortunate traveller whose name it bears. It is also a +common species in the valley of Dras, in which, perhaps, Mr. +Moorcroft's specimens were collected, unless, indeed, they were +obtained in Piti by Mr. Trebeck, during his journey to that valley +from Ladak. + +Leaving Dankar on the morning of the 3rd of September, we ascended the +heights behind the village to the side of the main ridge behind, along +which we proceeded without change of level. The mountain was almost +precipitous, and extremely barren, but commanded a fine view of the +open flat plain of the Piti river, descending from the north-west; and +of the course of the Pin, a large tributary which descends from the +south-west, at the source of which there is a pass, by which it is +possible to descend upon the Sutlej at Wangtu. The mountain range +interposed between the Sutlej and Piti valleys was, from the elevation +at which we now stood, seen to great advantage. These mountains are, +indeed, in the terse words of Jacquemont, "d'une affreuse stérilité;" +yet, in their varied outline, massive forms, and snow-sprinkled +summits, there is no doubt a degree of grandeur, which produces a +powerful impression. + +At about a mile and a half from Dankar, during which we had, with the +ridge, gradually approached the river, the road began to descend, and +we at last reached the bank of the river, close to which, and +sometimes even on its gravelly bed, we continued for several miles. +Where the banks were lowest, and the gravel was moist, there were +thickets of low shrubs, _Hippophaë_, _Myricaria_, _Ribes_, and willow; +elsewhere, the gravel was barren and unproductive. We encamped at +Lara, a village nine miles from Dankar, at which there were only two +poplar trees, and a very small extent of arable ground. The wheat was +ripe and very luxuriant, the ears being large and well filled. + +On the 4th of September, we continued our progress up the Piti valley, +which had quite the same aspect as on the day before, encamping on the +left bank of the river, opposite to the village of Rangrig, on a +desert spot among limestone rocks, at an elevation of 12,300 feet. +Here we had attained our furthest limit in a north-westerly direction, +our road now turning to the right, and ascending a considerable valley +towards the Parang pass, in a direction which promised much novelty +and interest, as it had only been traversed by one traveller, the +unfortunate Trebeck, who, in the year 1822, travelled from Le to +Dankar by this route. The further course of the Piti river, which, as +we learn from Moorcroft's travels, was visited in 1822 by Captain +Mercer, was afterwards surveyed by Captain Broome. It communicates +with Lahul, which is the upper part of the valley of the Chandrabhaga +or Chenab river, by the Kulzum pass, a depression in that great branch +of the trans-Sutlej Himalaya, by which the waters of the Sutlej and +its tributaries on the east, are separated from those of the Chenab +and Beas. + +During our journey through the district of Piti, the weather had been +almost uniformly dry and serene, though we were now in the very height +of the Indian rainy season. The only exception occurred while we were +encamped at Changar, on the lower part of the Parang river, about the +29th of August, when the sky was for two days very cloudy, and on one +night it rained gently for nearly half an hour. The clouds were, +however, high, and never dense, and the unsettled state of the +atmosphere was of very short continuance. While it lasted, it was +accompanied by violent wind, very irregular in direction. + + [Sidenote: SALINE INCRUSTATIONS. + _September, 1847._] + +In every part of Piti we found the margins of springs, and the grassy +turf which grew on low swampy spots along the river, covered with a +saline incrustation, in the form of a dry efflorescence, which +encrusted the blades of grass. It appeared to be confined to the +vicinity of water, the barren rocky tracts being destitute of it. This +saline matter, as elsewhere in Tibet, consists of sesquicarbonate of +soda, and, as a consequence of the abundance of that alkali, +soda-producing plants were common, especially _Chenopodiaceæ_, among +which the common _Salsola Kali_ was very abundant. + + [Sidenote: PITI. + _September, 1847._] + +The district of Piti, which was formerly almost independent, but paid +tribute to, or exchanged presents with, all the Tibetan countries in +its neighbourhood, namely, with Garu, Ladak, and Lahul, as well as +with Kunawar, followed in 1846 the fortunes of Lahul in being +transferred to British rule. It is a very thinly populated valley, the +villages being small and distant, and the arable tracts of no great +extent. The mountains on its southern border, by which it is separated +from Kunawar, are so very elevated that they entirely intercept all +access of humidity from the districts to the northward of them, and +render the climate entirely rainless. The houses are in consequence +very generally built of unburnt bricks, made of the fine lacustrine +clay so common in the valleys, and their flat roofs are thickly +covered with a layer of the same material. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[7] The distant snowy mountains seen from the top of the Hangarang +pass are probably those due north of Zungsam and east of the Parang +pass, which Major Cunningham, from some angles obtained on our +journey, estimated (I believe, but quote from memory) at nearly 24,000 +feet. + +[8] La, in Western Tibet, seems to mean always a _pass_. To the +eastward it is often translated _mountain_. + +[9] Jacquemont writes this name _Khiri_. I follow the orthography +which I find in my notes made at the time. + +[10] This limestone will, I believe, turn out to be the counterpart of +the limestones of Silurian age, which form one of the most interesting +results of the labours of Captain R. Strachey, in Kumaon and Garhwal. + +[11] A very excellent sketch of the fort and village of Dankar, by Mr. +Trebeck, is given in Moorcroft's Travels, in which the appearance and +position of the alluvial masses is well represented. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + + Leave Valley of Piti river -- Kibar -- Cultivation above 14,000 + feet -- Vegetation of mountains -- Rocky gorge -- Encampment at + 17,000 feet -- Parang Pass -- Snow-bed and glacier -- First + plants at 16,500 feet -- Parang valley -- Gorge leading to + Chumoreri Lake -- Kiang, or wild horse -- Chumurti -- + Remarkable grassy plain -- Lanak Pass -- Granite boulders -- + Plants above 18,000 feet -- Undulating hilly country -- Hanle + plain -- Vegetation -- Monastery of Hanle. + + +Our last occupation in the valley of the Piti river was to make the +necessary arrangements for the transport of our baggage through the +deserts which were to be traversed before we should again arrive at +inhabited tracts. The principal part of our effects were carried by +men, but our party was so large that it was not easy to provide +porters for the necessary amount of food during a journey of a week in +an uninhabited country. A motley group of ponies, asses, and yaks +therefore formed part of the train which accompanied us into the +desert country between Piti and the Indus. + +Three miles north-west of our encamping ground opposite Rangrig, we +left the Piti river on the morning of the 5th of September, turning up +the valley of a considerable stream which here joined the main river. +The platform of alluvium on which we had been travelling continued +for about half a mile up the lateral valley, and was covered with +large boulders of angular fragments. The rock was limestone, the same +as had occurred everywhere since leaving Lara. A little village called +Ki, and a large monastery, situated on a curious, seemingly isolated, +conical hill above the village, were passed on the right hand. Soon +after, the ascent became rapid on a steep ridge to the east of the +stream, and the Piti valley was completely shut out from view as we +got in among the mountains. The ridge by which we ascended was barren +and stony, and produced little vegetation. A curious broad-leaved +_Allium_ was the only novelty. We continued to ascend along the stream +till we reached the village of Kibar, at which we encamped, at an +elevation of 13,800 feet, in a narrow valley surrounded on all sides +by lofty mountains. + + [Sidenote: KIBAR. + _September, 1847._] + +Kibar is rather a pleasing-looking village, remarkable for its houses +being all built of stone, instead of the mud or unburnt brick so +commonly used in the valley of Piti. It is situated on the summit of a +limestone rock, on the right bank of the stream. Our tents were on a +patch of green-sward on the opposite bank, separated from the village +by a deep ravine. Crossing this on the morning of the 6th, we ascended +the slope of the hill above the village, among cultivation which rose +on the hill-side fully 300 feet higher. Except one field of oil-seed, +the crops were all barley, which was ripe, and partly cut: it was +apparently very poor, being thin and deficient in ear. After leaving +the cultivation, we continued to ascend on the ridge, till we attained +an elevation of nearly 15,000 feet, at which height the road wound +round the sides of hills, without any considerable change of level, +for two or three miles. It was still early morning, and the air was +very frosty. Every little rill was covered with a thick coating of +ice, and some small swamps which we passed were crisp with frost. + + [Sidenote: VEGETATION. + _September, 1847._] + +Notwithstanding the considerable elevation, I noticed but little in +the vegetation different from that common in Piti. The forms were by +no means so alpine as on the passes between Kunawar and Hangarang, +though the elevation was greater than on any of these. It was probably +owing to the aridity of the climate that the flora, at elevations of +15,000 feet, instead of being composed of delicate alpine plants, was +much the same as it had been 4000 feet lower. The rose, the common +_Rhamnus_ of Piti, a little shrubby _Potentilla_, a spinous +_Astragalus_, and several _Artemisiæ_, were the common shrubs, and two +species of rhubarb grew abundantly on the dry hills above Kibar. The +_Dama_, which shuns the level country, the _Allium_ first observed the +day before, and _Lamium rhomboideum_ of the Hangarang pass, were +almost the only striking plants observed; all the others were those of +the ordinary flora of the dry hills and gravelly plains of the Piti +valley. It is necessary, of course, in comparing this vegetation with +that of the passes, to recollect that we were here in a valley, on +slopes surrounded on all sides by lofty ridges, not on the summit of a +range overlooking everything around, or only surpassed a very little +by the continuation of the same ridge; so that the temperature of the +summer months must be considerably higher than on the more exposed +though less elevated passes. + + [Sidenote: ROCKY GORGE. + _September, 1847._] + +Further on, the road descended rapidly to the stream, which flowed in +a rocky gorge, through which we held our course for three miles. A few +willows, and stunted shrubs of _Myricaria_, occurred on the descent, +and the willow was found occasionally on the banks of the stream in +the gorge, which was enclosed by high and steep limestone rocks on +both sides. These gradually contracted as we advanced, but again +expanded at the point where we encamped, which was close to the bank +of the stream. The ravine being now more open, we could see the hills +to better advantage, and were struck with astonishment at the +desolation by which we were surrounded. We were, in truth, in a +wilderness of rocks, which to the south closed together, so as to shut +in the ravine by which we had ascended. High walls of cliffs rose on +either hand to an elevation of at least 1500 feet, displaying a +natural section of a multitude of strata, which seemed to be repeated +again and again in a succession of beds of limestone and slate. The +elevation of our encampment was 14,800 feet. + +On the 7th of September, the wish of our guides and porters according +with our own, we did not cross the Parang pass, which was still five +miles distant, and nearly 4000 feet above us, but contented ourselves +by ascending to the highest water, perhaps 1500 feet below the summit. +We ascended on a steep shingly ridge to the right of the stream where +we had passed the night. Tufts of _Lamium rhomboideum_ grew among the +loose shingle, but no other plant seemed to vegetate in such an +ungenial soil. When we had passed from the shingle, which was confined +to the base of the ascent, the ridge was dry and gravelly, with tufts +of _Dama_ and of a species of nettle. Above 16,500 feet, the spur was +rocky and uneven, and some alpine vegetation was observed, for which I +conjecture that the melting of the snow had probably supplied +moisture, as lower down the sterility had been complete. About fifteen +species were collected, two _Potentillæ_, _Biebersteinia odora_, a +_Lychnis_, a little tufted saxifrage, and species of _Nepeta_, +_Artemisia_, _Gnaphalium_, _Saussurea_, _Allardia_, _Polygonum_, +_Rheum_, _Blitum_, one grass, and a fern. Three or four lichens grew +on the stones, and I obtained one specimen of a moss without +fructification. The _Allardia_, a pretty little rose-coloured flower, +with an agreeable smell, was the only new species; all the others were +already familiar to me. They grew in the crevices of the rocks, in +extremely small quantity, struggling as it were for existence against +the unfavourable circumstances to which they were exposed. + + [Sidenote: ASCENT TOWARDS + THE PARANG PASS. + _September, 1847._] + +A stony ravine, elevated about 17,000 feet, was the place selected for +our encampment. A small stream, supplied by a patch of snow a little +way above, trickled down under the angular gravel. The ascent had been +extremely fatiguing, because almost without intermission, and we were +glad of rest on reaching that elevation. During the day, however, I +ascended a ridge of rugged rocks, which rose above our tents to a +height of more than 500 feet, being desirous of ascertaining to what +elevation I should find vegetation. An _Alsine_ was common among the +gravel, with two small plants which were not in a determinable state; +and on the rocks, to the highest level to which I succeeded in +ascending (probably 17,600 feet), the little _Allardia_ continued to +occur occasionally. The ridge afforded a good view of the mountains +round. The range to the north, which we had still to cross, lay in a +semicircle behind; to the east was the continuation of the ridge by +which we ascended; and a deep hollow lay to the west. Rugged rock +everywhere met the view. The slates which alternated with the +limestone were so very brittle that they everywhere formed piles of +angular fragments, which filled all the hollows, and formed a sloping +talus against every precipice. The view was one not to be forgotten, +its desolation far surpassing any conception of waste and utter +barrenness which I could have formed. + +During the whole day I was never free from a dull headache, evidently +caused by the great elevation. Rest relieved it, but the least +exertion brought it back again. It continued all evening, as long as I +was awake, and still remained in the morning of the 8th, when I rose +soon after daybreak to prepare for the journey. A few paces took us +beyond the shingly ravine in which we had been encamped, and the +remainder of the ascent was throughout over loose angular fragments, +the _débris_ of the cliffs on the right. Under the latter we passed, +winding round the side of the semicircular bay, till we got to about +its centre, when the ascent became excessively steep and toilsome. The +exertion of raising the body was very fatiguing, and the last few +hundred yards were only accomplished after many pauses. A few large +patches of snow lay in hollows along the road; but up to the very +crest of the pass there was no trace of perpetual snow, nor even any +continuous snow-bed. + + [Sidenote: THE PARANG PASS. + _September, 1847._] + +The summit of the Parang pass is a narrow ridge, covered with large +blocks of stone. To the north lay a large field of snow, sloping +downwards at a very gentle angle. In this direction the view was +limited within two miles by steep rugged mountains, which closed in on +both sides. To the right and left also, the pass was overlooked by +ridges close at hand. The only direction in which a distant view was +obtained was south, where the mountains beyond the Piti river were +beautifully seen: from the great elevation at which we stood, their +summits were everywhere in view; their elevation was surprisingly +uniform, and the whole range was capped with snow. The mountains close +at hand presented much the same appearance as I had seen from the +rocks above our encampment the day before. + + [Sidenote: GLACIER. + _September, 1847._] + +I reached the summit of the pass, which has an elevation of 18,500 +feet, at a quarter before eight in the morning. At that time the +temperature was 28°; and a cold southerly wind blew with considerable +violence, making us seek the shelter of the blocks which lay around. A +small red lichen, (_Lecanora miniata_,) on the fragments of rock, was +the only vegetable production I observed. After an hour's rest, we +commenced the descent over the snow-bed, proceeding towards a gap +which was visible in the mountains. The snow was hard frozen, and +crisp under the feet. Descending steadily without any fatigue, we were +soon evidently on a snow-covered glacier. A few fissures were passed, +but mostly not above a few inches wide, and none that we could not +with ease step over, the widest not exceeding two feet. At a distance +of about a mile and a half from the crest, the mountains, which on +both sides surrounded the snow-bed in the form of a circle, had so +much approached to one another, that they formed a narrow valley, +down which the snowy mass continued in the form of a rugged glacier. +We now left the surface of the ice, and proceeded along the stony side +of the ravine, with the glacier on our left hand, and steep limestone +rocks on our right. Blocks of limestone strewed our path as we +descended, and numerous small fragments of the same rock covered the +edge of the glacier. + +About three miles from the summit of the pass the glacier terminated +abruptly in a bluff precipice, the height of which was more than 100 +feet. Little rills of water were, at the time we passed (9½ A.M.), +trickling from every part of the surface, and a small streamlet ran +along the edge of the glacier under an arch of ice. The structure was +here very evident: broad white bands, and narrower ones of a dirty +colour, from the earthy matter which they had absorbed, ran parallel +to the slope of the ravine, the arches or loops (so well explained by +Professor Forbes in his delightful work on the glaciers of the Alps) +being drawn out to a great length. + +At the termination of the glacier, we descended from the steep +mountain-side, along which we had hitherto travelled, to the flat +plain, the continuation of the surface on which the glacier rested. On +this descent the first vegetation appeared at an elevation of about +16,500 feet. Two small grasses, _Biebersteinia odora_, a _Lychnis_, +and a little villous _Astragalus_, were the plants observed: they grew +in the crevices of the rock, and scarcely rose above the ground. None +of the species were different from those collected in the mountains of +Piti. + + [Sidenote: THE PARANG VALLEY. + ITS VEGETATION. + _September, 1847._] + +When we had reached the middle of the valley, so as to be exactly in +face of the glacier, we found that a large stream issued from a +vaulted cavity at its termination. For some hundred feet the stream +ran among large masses of ice, as if the glacier had very recently +extended further, and had melted away irregularly, leaving these +masses standing. Leaving the glacier, we still followed the valley, +which was confined on both sides by steep cliffs. We kept close to the +stream, walking over its gravelly bed, and I collected a few more +plants as I descended; none, however, new to me. A little _Nepeta_, +four species of _Potentilla_, a _Gnaphalium_, several grasses and +_Carices_, and a very small fern, were the species. About three miles +from the end of the glacier we found our tents pitched on a small +plain, connected with a lateral ravine, and covered with tufts of +_Dama_, and a little species of _Alsine_ in flat tufts, which was +quite new to me. The elevation of our encampment was 16,000 feet. + +We followed the course of the valley into which we had thus descended, +for three days, without meeting with any inhabitants, and through so +uniform a country, that it is unnecessary to detail each day's +journey. Rugged and rocky mountains, of moderate elevation, +principally limestone, bounded the view on both sides. In front we +seldom saw more than a few miles; and behind, the view was in general +equally limited, though occasionally we could see, up a lateral +valley, the peak of a snowy mountain. The valley was almost invariably +wide and level, once or twice only interrupted by projecting ridges of +low rocks advancing to its centre. Low platforms of alluvium, like +those of Piti, occupied the wider parts, their upper angles resting +(as in Piti) on the opening of lateral ravines, while their bases were +cut into cliffs by the stream. + +During these three days we descended from 16,000 to about 14,800 feet. +The surrounding mountains were quite barren and desolate. The gravelly +plains were covered with tufts of _Dama_ and of the curious tufted +_Alsine_, which formed dense flattened hassock-like masses, of +considerable size. The soil was very saline, and as we descended it +gradually became more so. In the earlier part of the descent, the +alpine forms were the same as those to the south of the Parang pass, +and the plants were few in number and much scattered. Lower down, +however, more novelty was met with. A little willow was the first +shrubby plant, and was followed by _Ephedra_, _Myricaria_, and +_Hippophaë_, all much stunted. Still lower there were large patches of +green-sward along the stream, generally swampy, and always covered +with a saline incrustation. _Artemisiæ_, _Astragali_, _Gentianæ_, and +_Potentillæ_, were the commonest forms, with a number of saline +plants, chiefly _Chenopodiaceæ_, which abounded on the lowest spots. + +On the 11th, the last of these three days, the vegetation had quite +lost its alpine character, notwithstanding that the elevation was +still 15,000 feet. No _Biebersteinia_ was seen, and the little species +of _Potentilla_, _Alsine_, _Saxifraga_, _Cruciferæ_, and _Parnassia_, +were no longer met with. The large _Hyoscyamus_ of Piti (_Belenia_ of +Decaisne) had made its appearance, with tall _Artemisiæ_, a +_Clematis_, a rank-growing _Corydalis_, _Cicer Soongaricum_, and other +plants in no way alpine. I was much surprised to observe so complete +a change in so moderate a descent, and very much interested to find +that the alpine flora had so completely disappeared. I regret that I +am as yet unable to give my results in more perfect form, the +necessary comparison and determination of the species collected still +remaining to be done. + + [Sidenote: CHUMORERI. + _September, 1847._] + +During our descent we had gradually taken a more easterly course, and +on the 11th our direction was nearly due east. On this day we passed +the gorge in the mountains, up which the road turns to the Chumoreri +lake, by which Mr. Trebeck had travelled to and from Ladakh. This +would have been our most direct route to Le, but we were desirous of +visiting the more eastern districts, so as to reach the Indus as soon +as possible. The mountains in this gorge suddenly lowered; a wide +gravelly plain sloped gently up to a low ridge, which did not appear +to rise higher than two or three hundred feet above the level of the +Parang river. Beyond this ridge, on the assurance of our guides, +confirmed by Major Cunningham, who had on a former occasion travelled +along the Chumoreri lake as far as its southern extremity, lies the +lake, without any more considerable elevation separating it from the +Parang river. + +It is much to be regretted that the late period of the season, and the +other important objects which we had to accomplish, should have +prevented us from crossing this narrow neck of land. It would probably +have thrown much light upon the question of the origin and nature of +the salt lakes, which are, as is well known, scattered over Tibet, +Central Asia, and Siberia. The Chumoreri lake has certainly no outlet, +but from the nature of the surrounding mountains, everywhere steep +and lofty, there can be no doubt that at one period its waters were +discharged at its south end by the narrow valley which we saw from the +south side of the Parang river[12]. An accurate determination of the +height of the separating ridge above the present surface of the lake, +a careful examination of the configuration of the surface at its +southern end, and an analysis of the water, which is described as +sufficiently brackish to be unpleasant though not absolutely +undrinkable, would certainly enable conclusions to be drawn as to the +nature of the cause which has lowered the level of the waters of the +lake, and so put an end to its discharge. + + [Sidenote: WILD HORSE. + _September, 1847._] + +In the plain which sloped gently upwards from the Parang river towards +the Chumoreri lake, we saw for the first time a Kiang, or wild horse, +but at too great a distance to enable his shape and appearance to be +distinctly made out; and the river, which was interposed between us, +prevented our approaching nearer. We afterwards frequently saw these +animals, but from their extreme wariness, and the open nature of the +country, we were never fortunate enough, notwithstanding repeated +trials, to get within gunshot distance of them. They appear to abound +at elevations between 14,000 and 16,000 feet, on the open undulating +tracts on the summits of the mountain ranges, and to avoid valleys and +rocky districts, where they would be liable to surprise. + + [Sidenote: THE PARANG VALLEY. + _September, 1847._] + +To the eastward of the former outlet of the lake, the valley of the +Parang river was more contracted than it had been in any previous part +of its course. Rocky hills, projecting from the southern mountains, +advanced so close to the river, that no passage was practicable along +their base, and the road several times ascended several hundred feet +to cross these ridges. This obstruction was, however, but temporary, +lasting only for a few miles, beyond which the valley expanded into a +very wide plain, extending for five or six miles in an easterly +direction, by about half that distance from north to south. The +borders of this wide expanse were very low platforms, almost +horizontal, and not more than from six to ten feet above the river. +The middle portion was a plain of gravel, scarcely higher than the +level of the stream, and evidently occasionally submerged. Here the +river bends rapidly round towards the south-east. The district at +which we had now arrived is called Chumurti, and about eight or ten +miles to the east of our encampment on the 11th of September, is a +village or assemblage of tents called Chumur, from which we obtained a +supply of porters, to relieve the party who had accompanied us from +Piti. Here also, in accordance with the instructions we had received +on leaving Simla, Captain Strachey left us, with the intention of +following the course of the Parang river, as far as he conveniently +could, and then turning to the left across one of the passes of the +great trans-Sutlej chain to the Indus. Major Cunningham and myself, on +the other hand, proposed to proceed by the direct, and equally +unknown, route to Hanle, and thence to visit the Indus, and proceed to +Le. + + [Sidenote: THE PARANG RIVER. + _September, 1847._] + +The Parang river, whose source is in the mountains immediately north +of the Parang pass, has, as we have seen, at first a northerly +direction, but gradually bends more and more to the eastward and +southward, and finally has a nearly south-west course, where it joins +the Piti river, nearly opposite Shialkar. Its source, as well as its +confluence with the Piti river, are within the British territory; but +the most important, because the most populous, part of its course lies +within the Chinese border. The boundary of the Chinese district runs +nearly from north-east to south-west, passing a little to the west of +Rodok, and crossing the Indus at the village of Chibra, where Mr. +Trebeck was stopped in his attempt to penetrate up the Indus; thence a +little south of Haule, and across the course of the Parang river. It +then bends more towards the south, and again crosses the Parang at the +point where we were stopped in the end of August, whence its direction +is nearly due south as far as Nilang, on the Jahnavi branch of the +Ganges. + +The Parang river being a tributary of the Sutlej, by crossing the +great chain at the Parang pass we had not reached the Indus valley, +but had descended into a lateral valley still connected with the +drainage of the Sutlej. The great line of watershed between the Indus +and Sutlej lay still before us. This chain, which is the prolongation +of Kailas, must be called the trans-Sutlej Himalaya, unless the name +Himalaya be restricted to the chain south of the Sutlej, in which case +the mountains of Lahul, Kishtawar, and Kashmir, would lose their claim +to that appellation. + + [Sidenote: ASCENT TOWARDS + LANAK PASS. + _September, 1847._] + +Towards this chain, which we were to cross by the Lanak pass, we +commenced our journey on the morning of the 12th of September. Our +road lay across the Parang river, which flowed in several channels +among the wide expanse of gravel which here formed its bed. The +morning was bitterly cold, and the water almost icy, to the great +discomfort of our porters. The largest stream was perhaps twenty-five +feet wide and two and a half deep, with a moderately rapid current. +After crossing the river we took a northerly direction, leaving the +valley or plain of the Parang river, and ascending an open, almost +level valley, bounded by low hills. The mountains on the left, which +were interposed between our route and the Chumoreri lake, were the +most rugged in sight. In the centre of the plain was the channel of a +stream, very shingly, but without water, along which, or on alluvial +banks only a few feet higher, we gradually advanced. The level of our +camp on the Parang river had been 14,800 feet; and from this we were +now gradually but imperceptibly rising. The hills on either hand were +rounded and low, but increased in height as we receded from the Parang +river. The soil was very barren, and showed many indications of salt. +Scattered plants of _Salsola_ were common, with _Christolea_, a pretty +Cruciferous plant, with purple flowers and fleshy wedge-shaped leaves, +tasting strongly of horse-radish, which has been described by Decaisne +from specimens collected by Jacquemont in Piti. A little white +_Alyssum_, which I had not previously met with, was also very common. + +Four miles from the Parang river we reached a flat grassy plain of +considerable extent, with deep black soil, in which meandered a very +slowly running stream, perhaps twelve feet wide, which seemed to have +an outlet by an open valley on our right, and to join the Parang some +miles to the east of where we left it. A great part of this plain was +swampy, the turf rising in little knolls, but round the edges and in +all the higher parts it was covered with a thick incrustation of white +efflorescent salt. To the north and east, low gently-sloping hills as +barren as ever rose from the edge of the green plain; and in the +north-east corner, close to the foot of the hills, a large fountain, +discharging copiously clear tasteless cold water, was evidently the +source of the stream which flowed over the plain. The grassy turf +produced a considerable number of plants, not a few of which were new +to me. An _Umbellifera_, an _Aster_ with large purple flowers, a +_Saussurea_, and two species of _Pedicularis_, one with white, the +other with yellow flowers, were very common, as were also a species of +_Triglochin_, a white _Juncus_, several _Carices_, and three or four +very beautiful grasses. In the shallow water of the pools scattered +over the plain, a species of alga was common, floating without +attachment. It was a broad foliaceous green plant, and has been +determined by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley to be a species of _Nostoc_, +closely allied to, if not identical with _N. commune_, a species which +occurs in all parts of the globe. + +After crossing this plain, and stopping to rest by the fountain, we +began to ascend the long slopes of the hills, partly on a level ridge, +partly along the wide sloping valleys by which the low hills were +separated. Both hills and plain were frightfully arid, the aspect of +the country being of an uniform grey colour; and coarse gravel, with +scattered stones of larger size, everywhere covered the surface. The +ascent was very inconsiderable till towards the end of the day's +journey. The distance travelled was about ten miles, and we encamped +at about 15,800 feet, on the left bank of a small stream which +descended from the north, the borders of which were swampy and covered +with green turf, in which the common plants of the country occurred, +such as little gentians, _Ranunculi_, _Parnassia_, several _Polygona_ +and _Potentillæ_, _Carices_, and grasses. On the west bank of the +stream was a low ridge of clay-slate rocks, while on the right and in +the valley was a heap of granite boulders; no doubt an ancient +moraine, for the fragments were piled on one another to a great +height, and rose far above the stream as well as the ordinary level of +the plain. + + [Sidenote: LANAK PASS. + _September, 1847._] + +On the 13th of September we crossed the Lanak pass, which lay before +us at a distance of about five miles. From our encampment the +mountains appeared easy of access and rounded in outline, and we +commenced the ascent by a nearly level walk across the gravelly plain. +After a mile and a half we rejoined the stream, and kept along it for +a little way. Its banks were green with a narrow belt of turf; and the +bed was often rocky, the rock being still clay-slate, notwithstanding +the granite boulders everywhere scattered about. The edges of the +stream were frozen, spiculæ of thin ice adhering to the herbage. The +vegetation was quite alpine, the elevation being certainly above +16,000 feet. A _Delphinium_, which seemed the same as the _D. +Brunonianum_ of the Hangarang pass, a little yellow saxifrage, and a +white-flowered species of the same genus, which I believe to be the +Scottish alpine _S. cernua_, an entire-leaved yellow _Ranunculus_, a +_Pedicularis_ with purple flowers, and some grasses, were the most +remarkable plants observed. + +After a mile, we left the ravine and ascended to the open +gently-sloping ground on its left, still rising sensibly as we +advanced. The surface was, as usual, dry and gravelly, and _Oxytropis +chiliophylla_ and a little _Stipa_ were almost the only plants. We +continued nearly parallel to the ravine, and crossed it again a little +further on. It was now dry, and its steep stony banks were covered +with bushes of _Dama_. Still gradually ascending, we crossed the same +ravine a third time, where its bed was upwards of 17,000 feet. There +was again no water visible, but the ground was still moist, the +streamlet probably, as is very general in these arid regions, +trickling under the surface among the loose gravel. The little alpine +nettle, which I had first found on the northern spurs of Porgyul, near +Changar, and again on the southern face of the Parang pass, was here +common, as were two species of _Alsine_, which formed dense tufts. A +little saxifrage and the _Delphinium_ were also still observed, but +all the other plants had disappeared. + +Leaving the ravine for the last time, we continued the ascent, which +became steeper as we advanced. A rounded ridge lay to our right hand, +and we rose nearer and nearer to its crest. Fragments of granite, +piled on one another in increasing numbers, covered the steep slopes. +Rock _in situ_ was only to be seen in one place; it was still +clay-slate, containing a good deal of mica. The top of the pass was +nearly level for several hundred yards, and covered with boulders, +principally of granite, but a few of quartz and of a trappean rock, +quite black and homogeneous. The outline of the mountains was +generally rounded, and they rose gradually in both directions above +the pass, which had an elevation of 18,100 feet. The view, both +towards the direction in which we had come and that in which we were +proceeding, was rather extensive, but from the prevailing uniformity +of outline and colour it was more striking than beautiful. There were +no trees or villages, no variation of surface greater than an +occasional grey rock, but everywhere the same dreary sterile +uniformity. Nothing could be seen of Lake Chumoreri, which lies at +least fifteen miles westward, and is surrounded by mountains, +everywhere (except in the direction of the former outlet) higher than +that on which we stood. + +The occurrence of great accumulations of boulders, of a rock different +from that which occurs _in situ_ on the very summit of the pass, was +quite conformable to what I had observed on some of the passes between +Kunawar and Hangarang. It was not, however, on this account the less +puzzling, nor was it till I crossed the Sassar pass, in August, 1848, +that I could at all conceive in what way it was to be explained. On +this pass, as I shall afterwards relate in detail, a glacier occupies +the crest of the pass, descending from higher mountains to the north, +and presenting a bluff termination in two directions. + +On the summit of the pass I collected specimens of three phenogamous +plants, probably nourished by a recently melted patch of snow; for +though there was none on the pass itself, nor on the descent on +either side, a steep mountain, half a mile to the right, in a due +northern exposure, was still covered with snow to at least five +hundred feet below the level of the pass. The small quantity of snow +seen in the distant view was very remarkable, and the more so as there +was no indication of diminished elevation; ridge rising beyond ridge, +and peak behind peak, to the utmost limits of view. The three plants +which were observed were a little _Arenaria_ or _Stellaria_, and two +Cruciferous plants, one of which only was in fruit. A red lichen, the +same as that seen on the Parang pass, covered the stones. + +The descent from the Lanak pass was at first gentle, but very soon +became steep, to the bottom of a valley in which a small stream of +water was running, derived, I suppose, from some small snow-beds in a +lateral ravine out of sight, for it almost immediately disappeared +under the gravel. Soon after leaving the crest of the pass, we came +upon clay-slate rock finely laminated, and dipping south-south-west at +a high angle. The valley by which we descended gradually contracted +into a rocky ravine, at last very narrow, with high precipitous walls, +and full of large boulders. We encamped for the night at its junction +with a large stream descending in a rocky dell from the west. Around +our camp, on both sides of the stream, there was an outbreak of +greenstone, which had upheaved the clay-slate rocks. + +On the 14th of September we proceeded along the stream close to which +we had encamped the day before. High mountains, whose summits could +not be seen from the bottom of the narrow ravine, rose on both sides. +The rock on both banks was clay-slate, much altered by heat, often +very hard, and with numerous quartz veins; no more greenstone was +observed. The stream, copious when we started, gradually disappeared +as the ravine widened, and water soon lay only in pools along the +gravelly bed. Boulders of granite were abundant all along. After three +miles the ravine opened into a wide gravelly plain, skirted by rounded +hills of considerable elevation, to which the alluvial platforms +sloped very gently on both sides. _Christolea_, a little shrubby +_Artemisia_, and a small _Stipa_, were the plants which grew among the +gravel. + + [Sidenote: UNDULATING COUNTRY. + _September, 1847._] + +After about a mile and a half, the direction of the plain trending to +the south more than was suited to our purpose, we turned to the left, +to cross the ridge which ran parallel to it on the north-east. A long +gravelly plain, sloping almost imperceptibly upwards, led us to the +summit of the ridge, which was not more than two or three hundred feet +above the plain we had left. From this pass, for such it was, though +an insignificant one, an open valley, skirted on both sides by low +rounded hills, ran to the north-east for nearly five miles. The +appearance of the country was very remarkable. The hills were all very +gentle in slope, and quite rounded in outline, so that the surface was +almost undulating. It required reflection on the fact that we were +traversing a tract in which the bottoms of the valleys were from +15,000 to 15,500 feet above the level of the sea, to make us aware of +the very mountainous nature of the country we were passing through, +which was, if any part of Tibet (which I have seen) may be so called, +the _Table Land_ north of the Himalaya. The height of the mountains, +too, was in fact greater than we had at first been inclined to +believe, the gentleness of the slopes making us think the ridges +nearer than they really were, and therefore leading to a false +estimate of their height. In general they were from 1000 to 2000 feet +in height, and their summits therefore from 16,000 to 17,000 feet +above the level of the sea. + + [Sidenote: OPEN VALLEYS. + _September, 1847._] + +The open valley along which we now proceeded was remarkable in another +point of view. It was quite waterless, and seemed hemmed in on both +sides by hills, so that its drainage must take place in the direction +of its long axis; at least, no lateral depression could be perceived +on either side. About a mile from its eastern end, this plain was +lower than in any other part. We had been descending along it from +west to east, and we could see that beyond that point it rose gently +to the eastward. The surface of the lowest part was covered with a +hard shining white clay, without any of the fine gravel which abounded +elsewhere. A few tufts of an _Eurotia_ were the only plant which it +produced. It was evident that the winter snows which fall on this +isolated spot, when melted in summer, finding no exit, form a small +lake, till they completely disappear by evaporation. + + [Sidenote: HANLE PLAIN, + ITS VEGETATION. + _September, 1847._] + +After crossing this low clayey tract, we ascended gently for nearly a +mile in an easterly direction, when the valley terminated very +abruptly and unexpectedly in a precipitous descent of four or five +hundred feet, the clay-slate rocks emerging suddenly from beneath the +gravel at the very edge of the precipice. The road descended in a +narrow gorge, which had apparently been worn by aqueous action in the +almost perpendicular cliff. On emerging from this gorge, we found +ourselves on the border of a very extensive perfectly level tract, +seemingly surrounded by hills, and approaching in shape to a circle, +though its outline, from projecting ranges of hills, was very +irregular. The margins of this plain were dry and gravelly; the +centre, as seen from a distance, was green, but in many places +encrusted with a saline efflorescence. + +Skirting this plain, which lay on our right, while ranges of hills, +separated by wide gravelly valleys, occupied the left, we reached +Hanle, a Buddhist monastery inhabited by about twenty lamas, built on +the summit of a steep hill which rises abruptly out of the plain. We +encamped in a ravine at the foot of the hill on which the monastery is +built, in which the tents of the wandering population are erected when +they bring their flocks into this neighbourhood. + +The plain of Hanle, which is not, I think, less than six or eight +miles in diameter, resembles very much that curious flat tract which +we passed on the 12th of September, on the south side of the Lanak +pass; it is, however, much larger in dimensions. Several streams, very +tortuous and sluggish, wind over its surface. These were frequently +three feet or more in depth, and contained multitudes of small fish, +usually about six inches in length, but growing to eight or ten inches +at least. They were a species of carp. We tried to eat them, but, +though sweet and well-tasted, the bones were so numerous and +troublesome that we relinquished the attempt. We were much interested +at the occurrence of fish at an elevation of 14,300 feet, a height at +which, _à priori_, it would scarcely have been expected that they +would have existed. + +The surface of the plain was very saline, and, where not swampy, +covered with coarse grasses and _Cyperaceæ_. It was very uneven, +hummocks or knolls being scattered over the surface, which made +walking very difficult. These, I presume, were caused by the gradual +growth of plants, which, in process of time, formed heaps in spots not +covered by water during the melting of the snow in spring. In some +parts there were extensive patches of _Dama_. A species of _Elymus_ +and a _Blysmus_ were very abundant. The ground in the vicinity of the +streams was swampy, and the coarse grasses of the drier parts were +replaced by little _Potentillæ_, _Glaux maritima_, _Taraxacum_, +_Aster_, and a number of Chenopodiaceous plants. In the running waters +a _Potamogeton_ and _Ranunculus aquatilis_ were plentiful. The +streams, which must, I believe, as in the case of the plain of the +12th, principally derive their supply from springs which break out on +the edge of the flat country, all converge to a point at the +north-east end of the plain, and, uniting into one, continue their +course down an open valley in a northerly direction towards the Indus. + +As no section of the bed of this remarkable plain is anywhere to be +seen, it is not possible to form an estimate of the depth of its boggy +soil, or of the nature of the subjacent deposit. It can scarcely be +doubted that it has at one time been a lake, which has been gradually +silted up; but it is not easy to conjecture the length of time which +has elapsed since it became dry land, in the absence of any knowledge +of the nature and contents of the deposits which occur beneath the +surface. As an outlet for the waters of the plain exists to the +northward, we may infer that the waters of the lake were always fresh. + +We remained two days at Hanle, to effect a change of porters, a matter +which cannot be accomplished in a hurry in an almost uninhabited +country, without unnecessary hardships on individuals. There is no +settled population except the monks or lamas; a few stone huts without +roofs, which were scattered about the foot of the rock, having no +tenants. To the east of the monastery, on the border of the plain, +watered by an artificial channel brought with considerable labour from +the river, we observed two or three small fields. The grain, which was +barley, had been cut and carried away, so that harvest at Hanle was +over. The view from the top of the monastery was extensive, as we +overlooked the whole plain to the south, and the valley of the Hanle +river on the east. The mountains were highest to the east, where a +very lofty, steep, and irregular range, with a good deal of snow in +some places, separated Hanle from the Indus. To the south and west, +the mountains, though high, were rounded. + +The rock on which the monastery is built is wholly igneous, but varies +from a coarse-grained granite, rapidly decaying, to a dark-coloured +greenstone, with large crystals scattered through it. Close to the +foot of the hill, the clay-slate was in a few places visible, +considerably altered by igneous action, as was to be expected from its +proximity to the greenstone. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[12] I state these facts on the authority of Major Cunningham. Captain +H. Strachey visited this district in 1848, and will, I hope, soon make +public his observations. He has ascertained that the surface of the +lake is 15,200 feet above the level of the sea. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + + Descend Hanle river -- Unsettled weather -- Encamp on banks of + Indus -- Upper course of Indus -- Pugha ravine -- Forest of + Myricaria-trees -- Borax plain -- Hot springs -- Borax lakes of + Eastern Tibet -- Sulphur mine -- Pulokanka Pass -- Salt lake -- + Lacustrine clays with shells -- Ancient water-mark -- Rupchu -- + Tunglung Pass -- Fall of snow -- Alluvial conglomerate -- Giah + -- Narrow ravine -- Miru -- Upshi -- Indus valley -- Marsilang + -- Richly cultivated plain of Chashut -- Bridge over Indus -- + Le -- Buddhist edifices. + + +On the 17th of September we left Hanle, _en route_ to Le. Our road lay +down the left bank of the river by which the waters of the lake-plain +are discharged into the Indus. The valley through which it flowed was +open and level, and its slope imperceptible. On the left lay a low +range of hills, an irregular mass increasing much in width, as well as +in height, as we proceeded northwards, the Hanle extremity being the +termination where it slopes into the plain. On the right, a very lofty +range, some of the peaks of which were certainly not less than 21,000 +feet in elevation, ran parallel to our course, separating the open +valley of the Hanle river from the Indus. + + [Sidenote: HANLE RIVER. + _September, 1847._] + +The width of the valley varied from one to three miles. The stream was +very winding, crossing from side to side, and often pressing the road +close to the spurs of the range on the left. The range on this side +was principally clay-slate, with occasional outbreaks of trap, which +had in many places converted the stratified rock into a hard red or +green jasper. From the immediate proximity of the igneous rock the +stratified masses were very much contorted, and no regular dip was +observable. + +Saline efflorescence occurred everywhere in great quantity in the +vicinity of the stream; as a consequence, Chenopodiaceous plants were +more than usually abundant, and I collected at least three species of +that family which I had not previously observed. The banks of the +stream were everywhere bordered by a belt of green herbage, more or +less broad, in which the usual species of _Ranunculus_, _Gentiana_, +_Pedicularis_, _Juncus_, _Cyperaceæ_, and grasses were common. _Glaux +maritima_ also occurred abundantly. Two other European plants were +found in the swamps along the course of the river, which were very +interesting as a proof of the extremely European nature of the flora: +these were _Hippuris vulgaris_ and _Limosella lacustris_. Towards the +end of the day's journey, _Caragana versicolor_ (_Dama_) became very +common, covering a large extent of surface, and growing to a much +greater size than I had ever before seen, with an upright stem nearly +six feet in height. I could scarcely persuade myself that the species +was the same as the little depressed shrubs which grew on the passes +further south. Two species of _Myricaria_, both of which I had seen in +Piti, also reappeared during the day, so that we were evidently +approaching a lower level and more genial climate. + +Banks of alluvial conglomerate occurred on the sides of the valley, +in the spaces between the projecting spurs of the range on the left +hand, on the latter part of the day. The beds were distinctly +stratified and very sandy, more or less full of rounded stones, and +often passing into pure sand, which was interstratified with the +coarser beds. The day was very cloudy and threatening, and a few drops +of rain fell for the first time since the 29th of August, the weather +during the whole of that interval having been brilliant and quite dry. +We encamped eleven miles from Hanle, on a gravelly plain close to the +river. + +Dining the night the weather did not improve, but continued very +cloudy, and on the morning of the 18th the mountains on the right side +of the valley were covered with snow, down to within 1500 feet of the +plain. The wind blew strongly from the northward, and the day, which +was still very cloudy, was bitterly cold, and, to our feelings, +extremely uncomfortable. We continued to follow the course of the +Hanle river, passing over long gravel flats, which alternated with +turfy saline meadows. Several low spurs from the mountains on the +left, which projected far into the plain, making the river bend much +to the right, were crossed as we proceeded. About ten miles from our +morning's camp, we left the course of the river, which turned to the +right and entered a rocky mountain gorge, while our road kept its +northerly direction. An open valley led us to the crest of a low ridge +of trap and slate, from which a very long stony monotonous valley +descended to an extensive plain covered with fine mud and saline +exudation, on which the only vegetation was a few tufts of _Suæda_ and +coarse grass. Crossing this plain, on which the dry clay was in many +places deeply cracked and fissured, as if it had till within a short +time been under water, or at least swampy, we encamped, at an +elevation of 13,800 feet, on the banks of the Indus, here a muddy +torpid stream, without any apparent current, about four feet deep and +twenty or twenty-five feet wide. There was, however, another channel, +separated from that on which we were encamped by a small island. + + [Sidenote: RIVER INDUS. + _September, 1847._] + +So sluggish was the stream at the point where we joined it, that we +were for a long time uncertain in which direction the current was +flowing; and though we were prepared to find the Indus at the end of +our day's journey, the river on whose banks we were encamped was so +much less than our anticipations, that we were very unwilling to be +convinced that we had really arrived at the great river, to which we +had so long looked forward as one of the most interesting objects of +our journey. The island in the centre of the channel was a bank of +very fine sand or mud, on which large flocks of wild-fowl were +resting; it was very little elevated above the surface of the water, +which must frequently, I should think, rise sufficiently to cover it. +The bank on which we were encamped, though rather higher, was not more +than four feet above the water; it was quite vertical, and composed of +fine clay, without any intermixture of stones or gravel. + + [Sidenote: UPPER COURSE OF THE INDUS. + _September, 1847._] + +The course of the river Indus, from its source to Le, has hitherto +been less known than any other part in Tibet; but as Captain Strachey, +a month or two after our visit, descended along it from the Chinese +frontier, as far as Le, the unknown portion is now very much reduced. +It rises in the mountains north of the lakes of Mansarawer and Rawan +Rhad, and runs in general towards the north-east. Moorcroft has +described its appearance at Garu or Gartop, where it is a very +insignificant stream; but the intervening country is so little known, +except by native report, that we can scarcely be said to have an exact +knowledge of the upper part of its course. There is in some maps an +eastern branch laid down, but of that we have no definite information. +From the arid and snowless nature of the country through which it must +flow, it is probably a very small stream, but its length may be +considerable. + +Immediately above the open plain in which we joined the Indus, it +would appear to have a very rocky and rugged channel. Such, at least, +was the description given to us by our guides of the lower course of +the Hanle river, which we left only a few miles before it joined the +Indus; and as the mountains to the south-west appeared to close in +very abruptly within a very short distance of our encampment, we could +not doubt that the open and level plain which we found in this portion +of the river's course was of limited extent, and quite an exceptional +feature in the character of the country through which the Indus flows. +From the great elevation and abrupt slope of the range which runs +parallel to the Hanle river on the east, there can be no doubt that +the spurs which it sends down on its north-east slope, towards the +Indus, must be bold and rocky; and though the hills on the left bank +of the Hanle river are much less elevated, yet they rise as they +advance to the eastward. The descent of this river too, though very +gentle in the upper part of its course, while its valley is broad, is +probably very abrupt in the last few miles, where its channel is rocky +and its ravine narrow. The elevation of its junction with the Indus +is, I believe, about 13,800 feet above the level of the sea. + + [Sidenote: INDUS VALLEY. + _September, 1847._] + +On the 19th of September our road lay in a westerly direction down the +Indus. The weather was still extremely unsettled, the sky being cloudy +and a violent north or north-west wind continuing to blow in frequent +gusts. No rain, however, fell. The plain gradually narrowed as we +advanced, and the mountains on the left approached by degrees close to +the river. Low grassy plains, covered with a saline incrustation, +quite dry, and without any brushwood or tall herbaceous vegetation, +skirted the river, the course of which we followed very closely. +Indeed, notwithstanding the considerable diminution of altitude, the +aspect of the valley of the Indus was more dreary and barren than we +had for some days been accustomed to. The rocky spurs were quite bare; +and even on the level tracts no vegetation was seen, excepting on the +very lowest banks, which were moistened by the river. This utter +sterility was no doubt due to the absence of lateral rivulets, the +hills which rose on our left hand being stony and steep, and not +rising to a sufficient elevation to be covered with perpetual snow, or +to accumulate and retain snow-beds in their ravines till a late period +of the year. + +The rock on the left-hand mountains during the day was quite different +from any that had hitherto occurred, being a conglomerate, with +rounded stones of various sizes, many of them granite. The matrix was +of a very dark colour, and generally extremely hard; more rarely it +was a coarse sand, crumbling to pieces. This conglomerate was +everywhere stratified, the beds dipping to the south-west, at an angle +of about forty-five degrees. During the day the river varied much in +width, being seldom less than twenty-five yards, and sometimes as much +as eighty. The stream was generally very gentle, not exceeding two +miles an hour, except in a few rapids, and the river was in most +places fordable. We encamped on the left bank, in a place where it was +shallow and wide. + +On the 20th of September we continued at first to follow the left bank +of the Indus, which gradually assumed a more northerly direction. The +mountains on both sides approached much more closely to the river than +they had done the day before, and those on the right continued +extremely lofty. The river now flowed more rapidly, and was often +wider and more shallow; one rapid was not less than 150 yards in +width. Banks of alluvial clayey conglomerate were usually interposed +between the mountains and the river, forming cliffs which attained not +unfrequently an elevation of fifty feet. These were separated by +projecting spurs, over which the road passed wherever they advanced so +close to the centre of the valley as to prevent a passage along the +level plain. Some small streamlets were crossed during the day, and in +consequence the vegetation was at times more varied, and at the same +time more luxuriant, than it had been the day before. A few bushes of +_Myricaria_ were seen on the bank of the river; and in the lateral +ravines the ordinary shrubs and herbaceous vegetation were common. +The only new plant was a species of _Labiatæ_, a coarse-growing +under-shrub, probably a species of _Ballota_. + + [Sidenote: PUGHA RAVINE. + _September, 1847._] + +The hard conglomerate of the day before did not again occur, various +forms of clay-slate being the prevailing rock. The steep slopes were, +however, very frequently covered with a talus of angular fragments, +which obscured the structure of the lower portions of the mountains, +at the same time that it revealed the nature of the higher strata, +which would otherwise have been inaccessible. Red and green jaspery +rocks, very hard and brittle, were abundant, with various forms of +greenstone, at times closely resembling syenite. These were evidently +the same rocks as had been met with in the neighbourhood of Hanle, and +along the river for some way below that town. Their recurrence here, +therefore, tended to confirm what had for some time appeared to me to +be the prevailing strike of these formations, namely, from S.S.E. to +N.N.W. + +After following the course of the Indus for about eight miles, we +turned abruptly to the left, ascending a narrow gorge, in which a +considerable stream flowed from the south-west. The slope was, from +the first, considerable, and the course of the ravine very winding. +Steep rocky cliffs rose precipitously on both sides, and generally +approached so close to one another that their tops could not be seen. +The channel of the stream was at first stony and quite bare, but after +a mile bushes of the _Myricaria_ became common, fringing the stream, +but nowhere growing at any distance from it. These gradually increased +in size and abundance, and at our camping place, three miles from the +commencement of the ravine, they were generally small trees, many of +them not less than fifteen feet in height, with stout erect trunks +five or six inches in diameter. + +The morning of the 21st of September was bright and clear, and +intensely frosty, the unsettled weather which had continued since our +leaving Hanle having quite disappeared. Our road still lay up the +gorge, which had quite the same appearance as on the previous day. +High precipices, or very steep banks, hemmed in the stream on both +sides. Small trees of _Myricaria_ still continued abundant in the +immediate vicinity of the water; elsewhere, all was as desolate as +ever. Some of these trees were not less than a foot in diameter; the +trunk was generally very short, often branching within a foot of the +base. At intervals there was a good deal of alluvium, partly in the +shape of coarse conglomerate, partly a fine micaceous sand, filling up +the recesses at the bends of the ravine. After three miles, the ravine +suddenly expanded into a narrow plain, the surface of which was +irregularly undulating, and completely encrusted with salt. As this +plain was interesting in consequence of the production of borax, we +encamped on the bank of the little stream about a mile from the end of +the gorge, and remained stationary the next day in order to examine +the nature of the locality in which the borax is found. + + [Sidenote: HOT SPRINGS. + _September, 1847._] + +As the day's journey was a very short one, we arrived at the salt +plain by eight o'clock A.M. The air was still quite frosty. While our +tents were being pitched on a dry bank a little way above the stream, +we proceeded to its bank, and were not a little surprised to find the +water quite tepid, notwithstanding the extreme cold of the air. On +procuring a thermometer, it was found to have a temperature of 69°. +Advancing up the stream, we found that numerous hot springs rose on +its banks, and sometimes under the water. The hottest of these had a +temperature of 174°. From these springs gas was copiously evolved, +smelling strongly of sulphur; and in their immediate neighbourhood the +water of the little river had a faintly sulphurous taste, though +elsewhere it was quite pure and good. The stream, which was perhaps +twenty feet wide, was usually rather deep. Dense masses of aquatic +weeds, chiefly species of _Zannichellia_ and _Potamogeton_, grew in +the water, and along the margins their dead stems, mixed with mud, +formed immense banks, scarcely strong enough to bear the weight of a +man, and yet seemingly quite solid. A small crustaceous animal was +common among the weeds, but though I searched with care I could find +no shells. The stream was full of fish, which swarmed among the weeds, +and darted backwards and forwards in the tepid water in immense +shoals. They were generally about six inches in length, and appeared +to my inexperienced eye to belong to two or three species, all +different from those which had been seen at Hanle. In the hottest +water of the hot springs I collected three species of _Conferva_. + + [Sidenote: MYRICARIA TREES. + _September, 1847._] + +The existence of the tree _Myricaria_ in the gorges between Pugha and +the Indus, which had appeared to us at the time very remarkable, was +fully explained by the occurrence of the hot springs, and the +consequent high temperature of the water of the stream, and was +peculiarly interesting as an illustration of the influence of +temperature upon vegetation. It may fairly be considered, I think, as +a proof, that arboreous vegetation does not cease at great elevations +in consequence of the rarefaction of the air, but only on account of +the diminution of temperature which usually accompanies increased +elevation. The trees of _Myricaria_, it must be observed, came +abruptly to an end with the ravine, none occurring on the open plain. +We cannot suppose that the trifling increased elevation caused their +disappearance; it seems probable that the narrow walls of the gorge, +by concentrating the heat, prevented its escape, and that, therefore, +the temperature was more elevated than in the open plain, where the +action of winds and free radiation combined to lower it. The +occurrence of fish in the water of Pugha, at an elevation of nearly +15,500 feet above the level of the sea, is also very remarkable, and +still more strikingly demonstrative of the same fact, inasmuch as it +would certainly not have been very surprising that air at that +elevation should, from its rarity, be insufficient for the support of +life in animals breathing by gills. + +At the gorge, where the narrow ravine expands into the lake plain of +Pugha, the rock is clay-slate, but the hills which skirt the open +plain are micaceous schist, varying much in appearance, often with +large crystals of garnet, and crumbling rapidly to decay. On the +surface of the plain lay many scattered boulders of a peculiar kind of +granite, evidently transported from a considerable distance along the +stream; and in all the central parts of the plain, a very remarkable +conglomerate in horizontal strata, consisting of angular fragments of +the surrounding rocks, cemented together by calcareous matter, was +observed. + + [Sidenote: BORAX PLAIN. + _September, 1847._] + +The whole of the plain is covered, to the depth of several feet at +least, with white salt, principally borax, which is obtained in a +tolerably pure state by digging, the superficial layer, which contains +a little mixture of other saline matters, being rejected. There is at +present little export of borax from Pugha, the demand for the salt in +Upper India being very limited, and the export to Europe almost at an +end. + + [Sidenote: BORAX LAKES OF TIBET. + _September, 1847._] + +It has long been known that borax is produced naturally in different +parts of Tibet, and the salt imported thence into India was at one +time the principal source of supply of the European market. I am not +aware that any of the places in which the borax is met with had +previously been visited by any European traveller, but the nature of +the localities in which it occurs has been the subject of frequent +inquiry, and several more or less detailed accounts have been made +public. These differ considerably from one another, and no description +that I have met with accords with that of the Pugha valley. Mr. +Saunders[13] describes (from hearsay) the borax lake north of Jigatzi +as twenty miles in circumference, and says that the borax is dug from +its margins, the deeper and more central parts producing common salt. +From the account of Mr. Blane[14], who describes, from the information +of the natives, the borax district north of Lucknow, and, therefore, +in the more western part of the course of the Sanpu, it would appear +that the lake there contains boracic acid, and that the borax is +artificially prepared by saturating the sesquicarbonate of soda, +which is so universally produced on the surface of Tibet, with the +acid. At least, the statement that the production of borax is +dependent on the amount of soda, leads to this conclusion. The whole +description, however, (as is, indeed, to be expected in a native +account of a chemical process,) is very obscure, and not to be +depended upon. Mr. Saunders does not notice any hot springs in the +neighbourhood of the borax; but in the more western district described +by Mr. Blane, hot springs seem to accompany the borax lake as at +Pugha. + +It is not impossible that the three districts in which the occurrence +of borax has been noticed, which are only a very small portion of +those which exist, may represent three stages of one and the same +phenomenon. The boracic acid lake may, by the gradual influx of soda, +be gradually converted into borax, which, from its great insolubility, +will be deposited as it is formed. On the drainage or drying-up of +such a lake, a borax plain, similar to that of Pugha, would be left +behind[15]. + +From Pugha, two roads towards Le were open to us. We might either +return to the Indus, and follow the valley of that river throughout, +or proceed by a more direct route across the mountains to join the +road from Lake Chumoreri to Le, by which Mr. Trebeck had travelled on +his way to Piti. As we knew that the Indus route would be surveyed by +Captain Strachey, who was desirous of following the course of the +river as far as practicable, we preferred the more mountainous road, +and, therefore, on leaving our encampment at Pugha, on the morning of +the 23rd of September, we continued to ascend the valley of the little +stream, on the banks of which we had been encamped. For the first two +miles the plain was nearly level, and similar in character to what has +just been described, hot springs being observed at intervals. + + [Sidenote: SULPHUR MINE. + _September, 1847._] + +Two miles from our encampment, we stopped and examined the spot whence +sulphur is obtained, at the base of the mountain slope on the north +side of the valley. Ascending a few feet over a loose talus of +shingle, which skirted the bottom of the hill, we found two narrow +caverns in the slaty rock, apparently natural, or only a little +widened by art, roughly circular, and less than three feet in diameter +at the mouth. One of these caverns continued a long way inwards, +nearly horizontally, but it contracted considerably in diameter, and +was so dark that we could not penetrate far. The rock was principally +gypsum, interstratified with very friable mica-slate. Sometimes the +gypsum was amorphous and powdery, at other times in needles two or +three inches long, perpendicular to the strata of slate. The sulphur +was in small quantities, scattered among the gypsum, and was more +abundant in the lower beds. It was frequently in very perfect +crystals, not, however, of any great size. + +The air which issued from these funnel-shaped apertures was very +sensibly warm, and had a strongly sulphurous odour. Unfortunately, we +had not anticipated the necessity for observing the temperature, which +was not by any means oppressive, and was only remarkable in contrast +with the extreme cold of the external air. + +In the neighbourhood of the sulphur-pits, the hot springs along the +course of the stream were very numerous, evolving much gas. A little +higher they ceased altogether, and the upper part of the plain was +without any springs, as was evident from the quantity of ice by which +it was covered. For more than a mile it was a dead level, and very +swampy; but afterwards the valley became gently sloping and gravelly, +the little stream being often hidden under the pebbles. Large boulders +of the same granite which we had observed the day before, were +scattered over the surface. The vegetation in this valley was +extremely scanty, a few scattered tufts of _Dama_, and some shrubby +_Artemisiæ_, were occasionally seen, but the herbaceous vegetation had +been almost entirely destroyed by the intense morning frosts, which +had for some time been of daily occurrence. On the latter part of the +day's journey the rock on the mountain-side changed from mica-slate to +gneiss, of which very lofty scarped cliffs rose abruptly on the right +hand. We encamped on a level spot, after ten miles of almost +imperceptible ascent. + +Next morning we continued to ascend the valley, which was now very +rugged, from masses of boulders, which were heaped one on another to a +very great thickness. The stream had cut for itself a narrow channel, +nearly a hundred feet in depth, the walls of which were entirely +composed of huge incoherent masses of rock, all more or less angular. +A walk of three miles brought us to the crest of the pass, which was +nearly level and grassy for about a mile; its elevation was about +16,500 feet. The pass (Pulokanka La) is a very deep depression in the +axis of the chain, which runs parallel to the left bank of the Indus, +separating the waters tributary to that river from those which join +the Zanskar river, some of the feeders of the latter springing from +the valleys on the western slopes of these mountains. The hills right +and left of the pass rise very boldly into rugged masses, contrasting +strongly with the level plain which constitutes the pass, in which the +watershed is scarcely perceptible. + + [Sidenote: SALT LAKE. + _September, 1847._] + +From the pass the descent was considerably more abrupt than the ascent +had been. The valley to the right was bare and stony, watered by a +small streamlet, which had, as on the eastern face of the pass, cut a +deep channel for itself among boulders. On descending, we turned +gradually to the right, and a lake by degrees came in view, towards +the southern extremity of which the road advanced over undulating +hills of fine clay, full of fresh-water shells, almost entirely of one +species of _Lymnæa_, of which the specimens were extremely numerous. +This lake is the Thogji Chumo of Mr. Trebeck, who travelled along it +on his journey from Le to Piti. + + [Sidenote: FOSSILIFEROUS CLAYS. + _September, 1847._] + +I was much surprised, and not a little pleased, to find that the +clay-beds contained fossils; as, except on one occasion in Piti, where +I found one or two specimens of a small _Planorbis_, I had in vain +sought in the clayey beds for any trace of organized beings. Here, +however, shells were in prodigious abundance, and as the species was a +large one, they were very conspicuous. The clay formation was +horizontally stratified, and quite impalpable. The uppermost beds +were at least a hundred feet above the level of the lake; and as the +valley by which we descended was in its lower part almost horizontal, +the lacustrine beds extended to a considerable distance from the lake, +forming a slightly undulating surface, over which the road ran. + +After reaching the banks of the lake, the road kept its eastern shore +throughout its whole length, which was about three miles, and we +encamped close to its north end, on the edge of a level salt plain. +Our elevation was about 15,500 feet. The margins of the lake, which +was intensely saline, were generally very shallow, and its banks often +swampy, and covered with saline plants, especially _Chenopodiaceæ_; a +species of _Suæda_, with cylindrical fleshy leaves, was especially +abundant, growing in the soft mud close to the banks of the lake. A +_Blysmus_, several grasses, and _Ranunculus Cymbalaria_ were also +common along the banks of the lake. No shells could be seen in the +water. The surrounding hills were not very lofty, but often rose +abruptly several hundred feet, and were in general rugged and rocky. +At the height of perhaps 150 feet above the lake, a weathered mark +could be traced on the face of the mountains, wherever they were +rocky, everywhere quite horizontal. This was most conspicuous from a +distance, and became indistinct on a near approach. It appeared to +indicate, as I shall hereafter show, the level of the surface of the +lake at some former period. + +On the morning of the 25th of September, our day's journey commenced +by rounding the north end of the lake, keeping at some distance from +its margin to avoid swamp. For about two miles from the northern end, +the ground continued almost level, and contained great masses of the +lacustrine clay quite horizontally stratified, and very little higher +than the surface of the water, but here quite without shells. A wide +valley, rising gently towards the north, lay beyond this level plain; +but our road, passing across the end of the lake, ascended another +valley, which ran in a north-west direction from its north-west +corner. The slope of this valley was very gentle. It was bounded by +low undulating or rocky hills, on which, where the surface was +suitable, the same remarkable water-mark could be traced continuously, +and still, to all appearance, quite horizontal. The centre of the +valley was occupied by clay, at first non-fossiliferous, but a little +further on containing a great abundance of shells, the same as in the +bed seen the day before. A few specimens of a very small bivalve, +seemingly a species of _Cyclas_, were also met with; but they were so +very rare, that they bore an infinitesimally small proportion to the +_Lymnæa_. + + [Sidenote: ANCIENT WATER-MARK. + _September, 1847._] + + [Sidenote: FORMER OUTLET OF LAKE. + _September, 1847._] + +For several miles the ancient water-mark could be traced along the +sides of the hills, appearing to descend gradually, as the valley +slightly rose in elevation. Beds of clay continued to occupy the +middle of the valley nearly as long as the water-mark remained +visible. At last it disappeared where a depression on the left, +leading to the valley of Rukchin, seemed to indicate the former +drainage of the lake, at a time when its waters occupied a much higher +level, and contained in a living state the large mollusca of which the +shelly coverings still remain in such vast abundance in the clay. As +it was at the very edge of the lacustrine clay formation that the +shells were so abundant, while the masses of clay in the vicinity of +our encampment of the 25th, at the north-east extremity of the lake, +were without any, it would appear that the species was quite littoral, +while in the more central parts fine mud was deposited, without +shells. The outlet was indicated to me by Major Cunningham, who in a +previous journey had travelled along a part of the Rukchin valley in +descending from the Lachalang pass towards the salt lake. As it may +fairly be inferred that the lake was quite fresh at the time when it +was inhabited by _Lymnææ_ and _Cyclades_, it is satisfactory to know +that so very small an increase of the height of the surface of the +water, as about 150 feet, would be sufficient to admit of its +discharging its waters along the course of an open valley into one of +the tributaries of the Zanskar river. + +Our road, after passing the ravine on the left, along which I suppose +the discharge of the lake at its original level to have been effected, +turned still more towards the north, and ascending an open valley to +the right, crossed a low _col_, or pass, and descended into a small +basin surrounded by hills, which was evidently at some former period +the bed of a small lake, for it was filled with pure fine clay, in +which, however, I could not observe any shells. From this plain we +passed into another open valley, up which we ascended in a northerly +direction for five or six miles, encamping where the mountains on both +sides began to close in a circle. Throughout the day we had been +gradually but very gently ascending, and the height of our encampment +was probably about 16,500 feet. We were about two miles from the +Tunglung pass, a depression in the range parallel to the Indus, the +same ridge which we had crossed before descending to the salt lake. +The axis of the range had been very near us on the right hand since we +had crossed it on the 24th, and had sent down a succession of spurs, +separated by wide valleys, along which we had been travelling. These +separating ridges appeared usually to rise to an elevation of from one +to two thousand feet above the nearly level valleys which lay at their +bases, and were, though often rocky, less remarkably so than in many +previous parts of our journey. + + [Sidenote: ASCENT TOWARDS + TUNGLUNG PASS. + _September, 1847._] + +The elevated country surrounding the sources of the Parang and Hanle +rivers, and those of the more eastern branches of the Zanskar, as well +as that encircling Lake Chumoreri, constitutes as near an approach to +what Humboldt has denominated a knot (_noeud_) of mountains, as any +part of the Himalaya which I have visited; not that I conceive there +is any reason to suppose that we have in this part of the chain an +intersection of two mountain masses of different ages, to which cause +the distinguished geographer is disposed to assign those aggregations +of mountains which he has so designated. There is, however, as +indicated by the origin of so many considerable streams in a confined +area, an extensive tract of highly elevated land, in which the valleys +have a very gentle slope, while the surrounding mountains are not much +elevated above them. The whole tract is nevertheless eminently +mountainous, if contrasted, not with the still more rugged districts +by which it is on every side surrounded, but with the hilly districts +of less alpine countries. + +In the elevated district which we had been traversing since crossing +the Parang pass, there is little or no cultivation, a field or two at +Hanle and at the monastery on the banks of Lake Chumoreri (as I am +informed by Major Cunningham) being the only exceptions. The district, +however, is much frequented by a nomade population of shepherds, who, +living in tents, move about with their flocks as the abundance of food +or their own caprice may lead them. Clusters of black tents were now +and then seen by us at intervals, especially in Rupchu, by which name +the districts round the salt lake are known to the wandering +inhabitants. + +During the whole of the 25th of September, a furious north wind had +continued to blow, accompanied by a cloudy sky, and all the +indications of extremely unsettled weather, such as had been met with +in the neighbourhood of Hanle only a week before. It was evident that, +as winter approached, these periods of disturbance recurred more and +more frequently. This time the fury of the blast increased as the day +advanced, and after dark the cold in our tents was very severe. About +10 P.M. it began to snow slightly, and at daybreak on the 26th the +ground was covered with snow to a depth of between two and three +inches. As we had a prospect of arriving in milder regions by +diminishing our elevation during the day, we hastened our departure as +much as possible. A mile and a half of level ground brought us +directly under the pass, the ascent to which was at last very steep. +The road was very stony and rugged, but everything being covered with +snow a good deal deeper than on the open plain on which we had +encamped, we did not linger at the summit. The wind still blew +strongly from the north, driving in our faces the still falling snow, +and opposing our progress towards the crest, which was very rocky, +being composed of a mass of hard stratified quartz. The elevation of +the summit was about 17,500 feet. + + [Sidenote: TUNGLUNG PASS. + _September, 1847._] + +The descent from the pass was very rapid. After a few paces, we were +in a narrow and steep ravine, in which we continued to descend very +abruptly, without obtaining any view of the surrounding country. Three +miles from the summit, at perhaps 2000 feet lower level, snow ceased +to lie on the ground, but it continued to fall lightly till the +afternoon. Large rounded tufts of an Alsinaceous plant were common on +the upper part of the descent, conspicuous under the snow. Lower down, +the remains of species of _Corydalis_ and _Saussurea_ were +discoverable in crevices of the rocks, the only remains of the alpine +vegetation. The rock on both sides was clay-slate. + +Continuing to descend rapidly, the ravine widened a little, and became +filled with a most extensive development of alluvial conglomerate, +forming thick masses, worn into pinnacles and fantastic shapes, like +the similar deposits above Sungnam in Kunawar. This was particularly +conspicuous where a lateral valley joined that along which we +descended, a flat-topped promontory of alluvium there projecting far +beyond the primitive rocks. + + [Sidenote: GIAH. + _September, 1847._] + +After a descent of about 4000 feet of perpendicular height, we arrived +at Giah, elevated 13,400 feet above the sea, not a little glad to be +among houses, in a more temperate region than it had been for some +time our lot to travel in. We took up our quarters in the upper room +of a two-storied house, which had been prepared for our reception, +and willingly agreed to halt a day in order to give time for +arrangements, for a change of porters, and a rest to our servants and +guides. Giah will be recollected, by those acquainted with Moorcroft's +travels, as the place where he entered the Tibetan country, and where +he was for some time kept in considerable uncertainty as to the nature +of the reception he would meet with. Since that time the supremacy of +the Sikhs has entirely changed the state of the country; and though +the king (Gylpo) of Giah still exists, he does not even exercise a +nominal sovereignty, but lives a pensioner on the Sikh government, +without power and with a very limited income. + +The influence of the Sikhs has, however, produced little change in the +character of the people, as their occupation of the country, except in +Le itself, and at one or two military posts, is entirely nominal, and +only maintained by the moral influence of their known superiority in +resources and military skill. The gumpa, or monastery, as in +Moorcroft's time, crowns a rocky hill on the right bank of the Giah +stream, while the town, or more properly village, on the left bank, is +built on the steep alluvial banks high above the stream. There was a +considerable extent of cultivation round the village, barley and peas +being the chief crops; both had been cut, but were still lying in +small heaps in the fields. Notwithstanding the great elevation, a +number of poplar-trees, of the large cordate-leaved species (which +seems identical with _P. balsamifera_), occur in the village, several +of which attain a considerable size. + + [Sidenote: GIAH RAVINE. + _September, 1847._] + +On the morning of the 28th of September we resumed our journey +towards Le. By crossing the Tunglung pass, we had again gained the +eastern slope of the ridge dividing the waters of the Zanskar from +those of the Indus. The Giah stream flows towards the latter river +with a north-easterly course, and two marches of little more than +seven miles each, brought us to the banks of the Indus at a village +called Upshi. For the first mile after leaving Giah, the valley was +somewhat open, with steep banks of alluvial conglomerate; it then +contracted rather suddenly into a narrow ravine, with steep rocky +walls, composed of highly inclined strata of conglomerate and +sandstone. Owing to the diminished elevation, the vegetation was +considerably more recognizable than it had been for the last week, and +several shrubby plants were seen which had long been absent. _Ephedra_ +was common in the crevices of the rocks, and the Tibetan rose and a +small shrubby _Lonicera_ grew on the gravelly banks of the little +stream. + + [Sidenote: REMARKABLE GORGE. + _September, 1847._] + +At Miru, a considerable village where we encamped, the valley expanded +into a little plain, filled as usual with alluvium, and covered with +cultivation. A few poplar-trees occurred in the village. The ravine +contracted immediately below this place, and was, if possible, more +narrow and rocky than the day before, as the little stream had to be +crossed not less than four or five times in as many miles, on small +wooden bridges of rough planks. A very beautiful Labiate shrub, a +species of _Perowskia_, with bright blue flowers, which I afterwards +found very abundant in the Indus valley from 12,000 to 8000 feet, was +here met with for the first time. Close to its junction with the +Indus, the ravine expanded into an open plain, well covered with +houses and enclosures, with scattered poplar and willow trees, as well +as a few apricots, and traversed by canals of irrigation conducted +from the little Giah rivulet. The Indus is here not more than forty +feet wide, flowing swiftly over large boulders, and quite unfordable. + +Throughout the whole course of this very remarkable gorge by which we +descended from Giah, the rock continued to be conglomerate, +alternating with strata of sandstone and of a very friable slate. The +conglomerate was extremely hard, and generally of a dark brown colour. +The matrix, which had often a semi-vitrified appearance, was not less +hard than the enclosed stones, which were all rounded and very various +in size and composition, jasper rock, granite, and quartz being all +seen. The sandstone which accompanied the conglomerate varied much in +colour, various shades of red, brown, and green being predominant. It +was also extremely hard. These strata, which were highly inclined, +often nearly vertical, were in general well marked, in consequence of +the beds of hard sandstone and conglomerate being thrown out in relief +by the more rapid decay of the soft slates with which they alternated. +The dip was everywhere very variable, and several very distinct +sections were displayed, where it was evident that the strata were +curved and sinuated. The curves observed were convex below; the strike +of the strata was nearly perpendicular to the general direction of the +ravine, or from north-west to south-east. + + [Sidenote: INDUS VALLEY. + _September, 1847._] + +From Upshi, our course lay down the Indus valley in a direction west +of north. The width of the Indus, which was a rapid stream, varied +from thirty or forty to a hundred feet. Platforms of alluvium, almost +level-topped, and often attaining a thickness of a hundred feet, were +interposed between the river and the mountains, which, still composed +of highly inclined strata of conglomerate and its associated rocks, +advanced in a succession of spurs towards the centre of the valley. +These platforms were quite bare of vegetation, a few tufts of a +prickly _Echinops_ being the only plant worthy of note which I +observed. No villages were passed till we reached Marsilang, at which +we encamped after a journey of about ten miles. Here there was very +extensive cultivation on the surface of the platform, on both sides of +a deep ravine, cut in the alluvium by a considerable stream, which +descended from the west. The plantations of willow and poplar were +very luxuriant. The willows were planted in rows, and were frequently +pollarded, their twigs being in great demand for baskets and other +useful purposes in so treeless a country. When allowed to grow their +full size, they spread much, and attain a length of upwards of thirty +feet. The cultivated willows of Tibet are mostly European forms; +_Salix fragilis_ and _S. alba_ are the most common. The poplars are of +two sorts: one a spreading tree with large cordate leaves, which was +first seen in Upper Kunawar, and is common in all the Tibetan +villages, up to the highest limit of tree cultivation; it is quite +identical with _Populus balsamifera_, which I cannot distinguish in +the herbarium from _P. laurifolia_, of Ledebour. The other, which I +had not before seen in Tibet, was a tall, erect, and slender tree, +with much darker foliage and smaller leaves; it seems, so far as my +specimens enable me to decide, to be the common black poplar (_P. +nigra_) of Europe. + + [Sidenote: MARSILANG. + _September, 1847._] + +At Marsilang the Indus is crossed by a good wooden bridge, thirty-four +paces in length, which enables its inhabitants to communicate with the +large villages and extensive cultivated tracts on the east bank of the +river. As soon as we left the cultivated lands of Marsilang, on the +morning of the 1st of October, we found ourselves again on a platform +of alluvium; but after a few miles we reached another village, with +extensive cultivation, and on the latter part of the day's journey +passed through a succession of villages separated by gradually shorter +intervals of unprofitable and barren land. These cultivated tracts +were everywhere well irrigated; indeed, every spot, where irrigation +was easy of execution, seemed to be under cultivation. Each village +had its plantation of poplars and willows, not, however, so plentiful +as at Marsilang. The grain had everywhere been cut and housed, the +operations of harvest being seemingly quite at an end. The whole of +this richly-cultivated district is called Chashut. + +Our journey of the 2nd of October was for about six miles through an +uninterrupted tract of cultivation, very little elevated above the +level of the river, the alluvial platforms being here of +inconsiderable thickness. The direction of the valley was also much +more westerly, and the mountains on both sides had receded +considerably from the river, leaving an open plain of five or six +miles in width. Numerous irrigation channels intersected the fields, +which gradually, as we proceeded, united one to another, till at last +they all combined into one large and deep canal, by which the +superfluous waters were conveyed to the Indus. Crossing this canal, we +reached the river, which we crossed by a bridge twenty-five paces in +length. A few houses, and a small patch of cultivation, lay on the +right bank of the river, immediately beyond the bridge, but no extent +of fertile country; low spurs of rocky hills descending from the +north, close down upon the Indus. After crossing the bridge we turned +up a wide and gravelly valley between two of these ridges, the course +of which we followed, ascending very gradually among large boulders, +strewed over the surface, for about three miles. We then turned +abruptly to the left, through a narrow ravine in the low granitic +hills by which the valley was on that side bounded. Emerging from +this, we entered a quite similar and parallel valley, and obtained our +first view of the town of Le, covering the top and slopes of a steep +hill by which the valley was apparently terminated, about two miles +beyond the point at which we entered it. + + [Sidenote: LE. + _September, 1847._] + +Le, the capital of the province of Ladak, and the most important +place, and only town, of Western Tibet, is situated about three miles +from the Indus, in the upper part of an open valley, which rises +gradually as it recedes from the river, so that the town is rather +more than 1200 feet above its level, or about 11,800 feet above the +sea. The town occupies the slope, and surrounds the base of a low +spur, on the left or east side of the valley, while the centre and +right side are occupied by extensive tracts of cultivation, the fields +rising in terraces one above another, and watered by little rills +drawn from a stream which descends in the centre of the valley. The +aspect of the town, which is very peculiar, is faithfully represented +in the frontispiece to the second volume of Moorcroft's Travels, from +a sketch by Mr. Trebeck. + +In the neighbourhood of the town there are several small enclosures, +planted with poplar and willow trees, in one of which we pitched our +tents. These plantations were all young, a very fine garden of old +trees having been, it was said, destroyed at the time of the Sikh +invasion. The governor of Ladak, a deputy of Maharaja Gulab Singh, the +ruler of Kashmir, to whom the rule of Ladak has devolved as a +dependency of the latter country, resides in the town; but the +detachment of troops, amounting to about 150 men, who form the +military garrison of the place, occupy a small square fort on the west +side of the valley, about a mile from the town of Le. + +The peculiarities of the Buddhist religion, as practised in Tibet, +which are everywhere conspicuous in all parts of Ladak, are especially +remarkable in the capital. The principal monasteries in the +neighbourhood of Le are at some distance from the town in the vicinity +of villages both up and down the Indus; but religious edifices, of the +many kinds which are everywhere so common in Tibet, are seen all round +Le in great numbers. Along the road by which we approached the town, +there is a very long building, of the kind called _Mané_, extending +for more than half a mile. It consists of two parallel walls, twelve +or fifteen feet apart, and nearly six feet high, the intervals between +which are filled up with stones and rubbish, and the whole covered +with a sloping roof, which rises at a gentle angle to the central +ridge, midway between the two walls. On the roof are laid large slabs +of slate, every one of which is covered with Tibetan letters, or more +rarely with a rude drawing of a temple. The words on these stones are +(I believe, invariably) a repetition of the mystical Buddhist prayer, +from one of the words of which these curious, and apparently useless, +erections take their name. The Mane seems one of the most +indispensable accompaniments of a Tibetan village, and they may +occasionally be seen even in desert tracts; so that the amount of +labour which has been expended in their construction must have been +very great, some of the largest containing many millions of +repetitions of the words _Om Mane Padme Hom_. In the smaller villages +they are often very inferior in size, sometimes not more than twenty +or thirty feet in length, and three feet high. Every traveller has +constant occasion to notice that in passing these walls the Tibetans +always leave them on the right hand, considering it both wrong and +unlucky to do otherwise; those proceeding in contrary directions +therefore take opposite sides. + + [Sidenote: RELIGIOUS EDIFICES + OF TIBET. + _September, 1847._] + +Equally conspicuous in the environs of Le are the urn-like buildings, +called Chokten or Chosten, which are, I believe, erected over the +ashes of Lamas, or priests, and are, therefore, in a country where a +third or fourth part of the male population adopt a monastic life, +particularly abundant. Long rows of these, consisting of twenty or +more urns of various sizes, may often be seen in conspicuous places +above the villages, forming, from the brilliant whitewash with which +they are covered when new, very prominent objects. Many of those near +Le are of large size, and ornamented with rude paintings of dragons +and other mythological animals of uncouth form. + +The religion of Tibet, from the remarkable nature of its institutions +and ceremonies, has of late years attracted much attention; but as, +from the hurried nature of my journey, I had no opportunity of +acquiring any information regarding it which has not already been made +public, it is not necessary for me to dwell upon it at any length. +Throughout the whole of Western Tibet, the monasteries are very poor, +in comparison with those in the neighbourhood of Lassa, of which we +read such gorgeous descriptions; all their wealth in silver and gold +having been plundered by the Sikhs, during their short possession of +the country as far east as Garu and Taklakhar. Still the number of +Lamas does not seem to have much diminished, though they are more +dependent upon the cultivation of the soil than in Eastern Tibet, +where some of the monasteries are said to contain thousands of +priests. + + [Sidenote: LE. + _September, 1847._] + +The town of Le is said to contain about 3000 inhabitants. Many of the +houses are very high, the former residence of the king containing +seven stories. They are usually built of unburnt brick, formed from +the fine lacustrine clay of the neighbourhood. The Sikh Thannadar has +lately built for himself a house of stone, but he found it necessary +to bring lime from Nubra, a distance of nearly forty miles, none being +procurable so near in the valley of the Indus. The timber used in the +construction of the houses is all poplar or willow, both of which are +found to last a very long time in the arid climate of Tibet. The beams +are laid perhaps two feet apart, and covered sometimes with small +planking, but more generally with brushwood, over which is laid a +thick coating of clay, so as to form a flat roof, to which there is +usually access by a small stair or ladder. + +The mountain ranges which bound the valley in which the town of Le is +situated, though not lofty, are very generally rocky and inaccessible. +They consist partly of distinctly stratified gneiss, but principally +of a fine white granite, which decays with great rapidity, and +contains many irregular nodules of an iron grey colour, much finer in +the grain than the rest. The width of the fertile plain of Chashut, +over which I made the last two marches down the Indus, had prevented +me from ascertaining the nature of the rocks on the mountains to the +left, so that I cannot fix the exact point where the granitic eruption +comes in contact with the slates and conglomerates of the Giah ravine. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[13] Turner's Tibet, p. 406. + +[14] Phil. Tr. 1787, p. 297. + +[15] I have made over all my specimens of the borax and other saline +products of Tibet to Dr. R. D. Thomson, of Glasgow, who is at present +engaged in examining them. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + + Departure from Le -- Sabu Valley -- Pass between Le and Nubra + -- Snow -- Encamp at 15,500 feet -- Digar -- Valley of Shayuk + -- Alluvium -- _Populus Euphratica_ -- Tsatti -- Nubra river -- + District of Nubra -- Villages -- Irrigation -- Saline soil -- + Isolated rocks -- Chirasa -- Panamik -- Lower Nubra -- + Platforms of Alluvium -- Traces of a great flood -- Unmaru -- + Kuru -- Great contraction of valley -- Mountain pass of Waris + -- Boghdan ravine -- Chorbat -- Mahommedan population -- + Villages -- Outburst of granite -- Siksa -- Khapalu -- Open + plain of Khapalu -- Junction of Shayuk and Indus -- Nar -- + Iskardo plain -- Description of Iskardo -- Aqueduct -- Fort -- + Lacustrine clay formation -- Vegetation. + + +While we were at Le there was a good deal of unsettled weather, and +two very slight falls of snow. On the 9th of October we had an +opportunity of observing an eclipse of the sun, which was welcomed by +the inhabitants of the town with a most discordant beating of drums, +intended to frighten away the demons who had taken possession of the +sun. After a week's halt, Major Cunningham and myself started in +different directions; Major Cunningham following the course of the +Indus, and proceeding by Dras to Kashmir, while I crossed the range of +mountains to the north into the valley of the Shayuk, and descended +along that river to its junction with the Indus. The mountain range +which separates these two rivers barely rises into the region of +perpetual snow, a very few peaks only retaining any snow throughout +the year. It is therefore crossed by passes at the head of each +valley; but the pass nearest to Le having a small but very steep +glacier on its northern face, is difficult and dangerous in autumn, +after the snow has entirely melted from the surface of the ice. I was, +therefore, recommended to cross into Nubra, by a pass a few miles +further east, at the head of the valley of Sabu, which is separated +from that in which the town of Le lies, by a steep ridge of granite +hills. + + [Sidenote: SABU VALLEY. + _October, 1847._] + +I left Le on the morning of the 11th of October. The road to the Sabu +valley enters the granite range close to the town, ascending a narrow +stony valley in an easterly direction, and crossing by a short steep +ascent a depression in the ridge, to descend into a narrow ravine +which has a south-east course into the Sabu valley, up which the road +led. The hills were very stony and bare, or covered with the large +_Echinops_ of the Indus valley, of which the heads of fruit were +falling to pieces. I encamped for the night in the valley of Sabu, +which is very like that of Le, with pretty extensive cultivation, but +few trees. + + [Sidenote: LAZGUNG PASS. + _October, 1847._] + +Next day I crossed the pass. The ascent was very long and fatiguing, +and, from the lateness of the season, very uninteresting. A cold bleak +wind blew from the north in strong gusts, and the sky was overcast +with light clouds. The valley contracted into a rocky ravine before +the road left it to ascend rapidly the steep mountain-sides, which +were covered with masses of boulders, heaped together in great +confusion. The upper part of the ascent, which was very steep, was +covered with snow, which lay on the loose stones of the crest to the +depth of about a foot. It was late in the evening before I reached the +top of the pass, the distance being much greater than I had been led +to anticipate. The elevation of the summit, by the observations of +Captain Strachey, is about 18,300 feet. + +On the north face of the pass snow lay thickly for two miles or rather +more, and more scantily for a mile further. As evening had begun to +close before I reached the summit, I hurried my descent as much as +possible. Fortunately, a great part of my baggage porters were in +advance, but it had been for some time quite dark before I reached a +spot sufficiently free of snow to be suitable for an encampment. The +night was intensely cold, the sky being clear; and next morning, at +half-past six o'clock, the thermometer stood at 15°. At the same time +I found that water boiled at 184°, indicating an elevation of upwards +of 15,500 feet. + +In the morning I made a short march to the village of Digar, which I +ought to have reached the day before, had not the darkness prevented +me. The distance was not more than four miles, and the descent about +2500 feet, Digar being rather more than 13,000 feet above the level of +the sea. The general direction of the valley in which I was encamped +was north-east, and it was surrounded on all sides by extremely rugged +mountains, now much covered with snow, down to about 14,000 feet. +Throughout the descent, vast piles of boulders, heaped one on another, +and forming steep banks, evidently moraines, occupied the flanks of +the valley. The village of Digar, though small, and possessing only +two small trees, had a considerable extent of cultivation, and seemed +prosperous. It was situated on the left side of the valley, or rather +on the slope of the mountains on that side opposite a lateral ravine, +from which a stream of boulders had at one time descended. The centre +of the valley was much lower, being excavated out of the alluvium +which had once filled the whole. + + [Sidenote: VALLEY OF SHAYUK. + _October, 1847._] + +On the morning of the 14th of October, I descended to the valley of +the Shayuk, making a march of fifteen miles to the village of Tsatti, +on the right bank of that river. The road skirted the steep stony +hills on the left side of the valley, parallel to the Digar stream, +for about two miles, descending rapidly, but still high above the +bottom of the dell. The Digar ravine, before reaching the Shayuk, +joined a wider one which descends from the south-east, and the united +valley has a nearly due north direction. As the road turned by degrees +to the left, round a spur of the mountains, the Shayuk valley came in +sight, 1500 feet below. It was of considerable width, and very stony, +barren, and desolate. Mountains of black slate, very lofty and rugged, +in many places too steep for snow to lie, were seen to the north-east, +from among which the river appeared to issue into the more open tract +immediately below. + +The road did not descend at once to the level of the river, but, +turning abruptly to the left, proceeded along a platform of alluvium, +at least a thousand feet in thickness, for more than a mile, before it +descended, which it did at last very abruptly down a steep sandy +slope. The mass of alluvium was, in many places, almost pure sand, +but in general many pebbles and boulders were mixed with it. Towards +the river it presented scarped cliffs, in which its composition was +well seen. + + [Sidenote: POPULUS EUPHRATICA. + _October, 1847._] + +The Shayuk, where I descended to it, flowed through a wide gravelly +plain, varying in breadth from one to two miles, and quite destitute +of vegetation. Rocky spurs of black slate and conglomerate, with many +granite veins, projecting from the mountains on the south, +occasionally narrowed the valley, while the recesses were generally +filled with a mass of alluvium. The river was occasionally divided +into several branches. In some of the recesses small trees of a +peculiar species of poplar (_P. Euphratica_) were not uncommon, +growing in pure sand. This tree is remarkable for its extended +distribution. Originally discovered on the banks of the Euphrates, it +has been found by Griffith, and more recently by Dr. Stocks and +others, to be abundant on the banks of the Indus, in Sind and Multan. +It occurs also at intervals along the valley of the Indus, within the +mountains, but appears to be far from common, and to confine itself to +hot sandy places. In several parts of Nubra it is common enough, but +only, so far as I have observed, on the south side of the Shayuk. This +poplar is also remarkable for the very changeable shape of its leaves, +which vary from broadly deltoid and coarsely toothed, to narrow-linear +and quite entire. The leaves of the full-grown tree are generally +broad and much toothed, while young plants have very narrow leaves; +the shoots of pollarded plants, which are common, the tree being much +used for fuel, are also narrow. + +After proceeding parallel to the river for six or seven miles, I +crossed to the right bank. The stream was undivided, and about a +hundred yards broad. It had a considerable velocity, and was about +three feet deep in the centre. Its bed was full of large waterworn +boulders and gravel, and the banks on both sides were, for a great +distance from the river, of similar structure, and so little elevated +above its surface, that a very slight rise of the water would have +been sufficient to submerge them. + +From the village of Tsatti, at which I encamped on the 14th of +October, I followed the course of the Shayuk to its junction with a +large stream descending from the north, which, from the name of the +district in which the junction is situated, is commonly called the +Nubra river. Thence I ascended the latter stream for about twenty +miles, with the intention of making an attempt to penetrate to the +north-east, across the mountains to the Nubra Chu of Vigne; but the +lateness of the season, and especially the occurrence of several falls +of snow, which extended down the mountain slopes almost as far as the +plain, induced me to place reliance on the assurances of the people of +the valley, that the difficulties of the road would be quite +insurmountable. + + [Sidenote: DISTRICT OF NUBRA. + _October, 1847._] + +The district of Nubra includes the whole course of the Shayuk river, +from its great bend to the eastward of the point where I joined it +below Digar, till it again contracts nine or ten miles below the +village of Unmaru; and also the lower part of the valley of the Nubra +river, as far up, indeed, as population and cultivation extend. The +place of junction of the two rivers is elevated, according to my +observation of the boiling-point of water, about 10,600 feet above +the level of the sea. This may be considered as the mean elevation of +the whole district; for the cultivated tracts nowhere rise to any +height above the bed of the rivers, which have everywhere a very +gentle and apparently uniform inclination. + + [Sidenote: DESCRIPTION OF NUBRA. + _October, 1847._] + +The valley of the Shayuk is widest at the point of its junction with +the Nubra river. At this place the level plain, including the gently +sloping alluvium on each side, has a breadth of about six miles. The +width of the valley gradually diminishes as we recede from the centre, +the mountains encroaching more and more, till at last they hem in the +river, leaving no space for villages or cultivation, and the valley +ceases to be inhabited. The centre of the plain is uniformly occupied +by a flat gravelly expanse, one to three miles in width, scarcely +raised above the surface of the river, which, when flooded, covers a +great part of it. On both sides of this gravelly bed, low platforms of +alluvium, in the form of triangles, with their apices resting on the +mountain ravines, slope very gently towards the base of mountains, +which rise abruptly and precipitously on both sides of the valley, to +a height of three or four thousand feet. Some of the more projecting +spurs, even where the width of the valley is greatest, advance so far +into the open plain as to abut upon the river and compel the traveller +to ascend their slopes, in order to cross them in travelling from +village to village. + +The gravelly plain over which the Shayuk flows, is usually quite +devoid of vegetation. A few scattered bushes of _Tamarix_ and +_Myricaria_ appear, indeed, near its junction with the Nubra river, +but further up the gravel is absolutely bare: in this it contrasts +strongly with similar portions in the valley of the Nubra river, which +are densely wooded. The cause of this difference seems to lie in the +frequent floods which have, at different periods, devastated the whole +course of the Shayuk valley, from the glaciers of Sassar. These +floods, which appear to be due to the blocking-up of the upper course +of the river by the ice, have been most destructive to the prosperity +of the valley. + + [Sidenote: VILLAGES. + _October, 1847._] + +Throughout Nubra, the villages, with scarcely an exception, occupy the +surface of the low platforms of alluvium which fill up the +funnel-shaped terminations of the ravines. In Tibet the size of the +villages, and the extent of cultivation by which they are surrounded, +entirely depend on the supply of water and on the facility with which +it can be diverted from its bed for purposes of irrigation; and as, in +this district, the width and horizontality of the alluvial tracts are +very favourable to the industry of man, the villages are in general +large and surrounded with much cultivation. Indeed, a super-abundance +of water is in general indicated by the swampy banks of the irrigation +canals, as the water, oozing through the loose gravel of the +platforms, produces a dense jungle of _Hippophaë_ scrub, which makes +the cultivated tracts conspicuous, even in winter, when the trees are +bare of leaves and the fields of crops. + +This copious supply of water no doubt depends on the great elevation +of the surrounding mountains, which everywhere rise, if not above, yet +almost to the level of perpetual snow, which is about 18,000 feet, so +that at the head of each little stream there is either a glacier, or +a snow-bed which does not entirely melt till the latter end of autumn, +affording therefore a nearly perennial supply of water. Even in the +hottest months slight falls of snow are of occasional occurrence at +all elevations above 16,000 feet; and as every range rises much above +that height, a small addition to the supply is thus obtained. + +The villages have generally a few fruit-trees, as well as a good many +poplars and willows, which yield almost the only timber the +inhabitants can command. The walnut and _Elæagnus_, both of which +trees find their upper limit in Nubra, are so extremely scarce that +they are not available for such purposes. + +In most parts of Nubra the soil is very generally saline, the dry +grassy plains which are common on the banks of the streams being +generally covered with a copious efflorescence of carbonate of soda; +while the abundance of _Salsolæ_ and other Chenopodiaceous plants on +the dry alluvial plains, and even on the rocky hills, seems to prove +that the saline matter is not confined to the immediate vicinity of +water, or to the lowest levels, but is very generally diffused over +the surface. + + [Sidenote: VALLEY OF NUBRA RIVER. + _October, 1847._] + +The valley of the Nubra river, for upwards of twenty miles, is very +similar in general character to that of the Shayuk. The same wide +gravelly expanse occupies its centre, forming a plain of one or two +miles in width, through which the river runs in many branches. A great +part of this gravelly plain, particularly on the right side of the +valley, is covered by a dense thicket of _Hippophaë_, extending +continuously for four or five miles, usually impervious, except in +certain beaten tracts, and tenanted by vast numbers of hares. The +gravel on which this jungle grows is almost on a level with the river, +so that it is very generally swampy, and traversed here and there by +little streamlets of water. The _Hippophaë_ is here a small tree, +attaining a height of fifteen feet, with a short thick trunk and stiff +crooked spinous branches. + + [Sidenote: CHIRASA. + _October, 1847._] + +In several parts of the course of the Nubra river, low hills rise in +the valley, isolated, or nearly so, from the mountain ranges behind, +and forming, therefore, a remarkable feature. On one of these, on the +right bank of the river, is situated the little fort and village of +Chirasa, a considerable mass of houses, of a class a little better +than those usual in the district, and conspicuous from their elevated +position. The rock on which they stand is composed of a hard porphyry, +which has been injected from below, and has displaced the black slate, +which is the more usual rock in the lower part of this valley. + +In the lower part of the ravine behind the town of Chirasa, the +alluvium is more extensively developed than usual in this valley, +where aqueous action seems in a great measure to have removed the +accumulation of detritus, which once, no doubt, occupied the whole +valley. Beds of gravelly conglomerate, at times passing into fine +clay, may here be seen, at a height of perhaps 1000 feet, on the +mountain-sides in isolated patches, generally faced by cliffs, in +which a tendency to horizontal stratification is observable. + + [Sidenote: NUBRA VALLEY. + _October, 1847._] + +The lower part of the Nubra valley is very fertile, and on the east +side cultivation extends, with little interruption, from Tirit as far +as Panamik, in a belt varying in width from a few hundred feet to +nearly a mile. The villages are large, and seem populous. Many of the +houses are very substantially built, and the long sacred walls, called +Mané, are numerous, and of great length and size. Several +watercourses, which are carried along the sides of the hills at an +elevation of several hundred feet above the cultivation, and are +easily recognizable by the fringe of _Hippophaë_ bushes, which forms +an impenetrable belt along their margins, indicate a degree of +industry and energy very unusual in Tibet, where, however, the amount +of cultivable land is seldom sufficient to promise much reward to any +extensive and elaborate system of irrigation. + +As the advanced period of the year rendered exploration at great +elevations scarcely practicable, and made it desirable to reach a +lower level as soon as possible, I did not remain more than a week in +Nubra. On the 22nd of October I started from Lyakjung, at the mouth of +the Nubra river, towards Iskardo, following the course of the Shayuk +river. The district of Nubra extends about thirty miles below the +junction of the river of that name with the Shayuk; but I found the +level valley gradually to diminish in width as I descended. On the +22nd of October I encamped at Hundar; on the 23rd, at Tertse; and on +the 24th at Unmaru, beyond which village there is no cultivation, and +the valley becomes extremely narrow. On the 25th of October I reached +an encamping ground called Kuru, at the termination of the Nubra +district, where the mountains, which for three days had gradually been +encroaching on the valley, completely closed in, and the river +entered a deep gorge, walled in on both sides by lofty and almost +perpendicular cliffs of black slate. + + [Sidenote: LOWER NUBRA. + _October, 1847._] + + [Sidenote: FOSSIL SHELLS IN THE CLAY. + _October, 1847._] + +The general aspect of the lower part of Nubra requires no particular +description, as it presents much the same features as the other parts +of the district. The mountains on both sides of the valley are not +less steep, barren, and inaccessible than elsewhere in Tibet. The +alluvial platforms, which were everywhere present, increased +remarkably in thickness as they diminished in size. Widely spread out +in the broadest parts of the valley, they were not more than from +twenty to forty feet thick where cut across by the river, and sloped +very gently. In the narrower parts of the valley they were often not +less than a hundred feet high along the river. In structure these +platforms varied much. The greater part certainly consisted of gravel +and clay, quite unstratified, but the lower beds were very frequently +fine clay, or fine sand, or alternations of these two. The +superposition of the coarse beds to the fine was nearly uniformly +observed, though occasionally, above the fine clays, alternations of +gravel with thin beds of sand or clay were met with. In one place, on +the north side of the river, nearly opposite to the village of Tertse, +I found these beds to contain fresh-water shells. The fossiliferous +bed was elevated very little above the present level of the river, and +was composed of a fine somewhat sandy clay, stratified horizontally, +and covered with upwards of fifty feet of coarse conglomerate. The +shells, which were all small, were species of _Planorbis_ and +_Lymnæa_, apparently identical with those afterwards found in the +neighbourhood of Iskardo, but quite different from those of the salt +lake of Thogji. + +The villages of Lower Nubra are not numerous, but some of them possess +very extensive cultivation. Hundar in particular, at the mouth of a +large ravine, by which a considerable tributary stream descends from +the south (at the source of which there is a pass across the range +into the valley of the Indus), is a very large village (probably the +most populous in Nubra), with very fine orchards of apricot-trees. +Walnut, mulberry, and _Elæagnus_ became common at Unmaru, on the north +bank of the river. Perhaps the gradual narrowing of the valley may +have a considerable effect in modifying the climate, for the +diminution of elevation is very inconsiderable, the river at Kuru +being nearly 10,300 feet above the sea, or not more than 300 feet +lower than the junction of the Shayuk and Nubra rivers. + +In this part of its course, and at this advanced season, when the +great summer floods are over, the Shayuk appears to be everywhere +fordable. It is, however, a noble stream, with a rapid current; and is +usually divided into many channels. Above Hundar, where I forded it, +one branch was not less than 300 feet wide, and was from one to two +feet deep. Opposite Tertse, again, I found the stream running in seven +branches, of which three were from 100 to 150 feet wide, and had an +average depth of about two feet, increased in the centre to about +three. The other branches were, however, much smaller. + + [Sidenote: GREAT FLOOD OF THE SHAYUK. + _October, 1847._] + +In several places between Hundar and Tertse, on the gravelly plain +which skirted the river, I observed manifest traces of a flood, +consisting of such rejectamenta as are usually seen deposited by +swollen streams, fragments of wood and twigs, straw, sheep's dung, and +other light materials, forming a bed two or three feet wide, +continuous in many places for hundreds of yards, at a distance of not +less than half a mile from the river. To my inquiries as to the nature +of the flood which had deposited these reliquiæ, the invariable reply +was, that a great flood had taken place five years before, by the +bursting of a lake called Khundan Chu, at which time the whole course +of the river was devastated, and much destruction of property, +sometimes even life, ensued, particularly in the narrower parts of the +valley. In most parts of the world the preservation of such +insignificant vestiges of a flood for so long a period would have been +impossible; but here, where rain is almost unknown, and where the +winter falls of snow seldom exceed one or two inches, there are no +disturbing causes which could prevent them from remaining till carried +away or altered in position by another similar flood. I should, +therefore, have had no difficulty in attaching credence to the +testimony of the inhabitants of the country, even had I not, in my +journey down the river, received the most abundant proofs that the +flood was everywhere well known, at least as far as Iskardo. + +The vegetation of Lower Nubra had so entirely disappeared, that I +could form scarcely any idea of its character; but, as the general +aspect of the country was unaltered, I had no reason to look for any +change. In the gravelly bed of the river, bushes of _Myricaria_ and +_Tamarix_ were common; thickets of _Hippophaë_, loaded with very acid +yellow berries, lined the watercourses, forming an impenetrable +barrier. Little bushes of _Artemisia_, _Lycium_, _Perowskia_, and +_Ephedra_, were also occasionally seen on the rocks, but the +herbaceous vegetation had quite withered away. In the villages, the +cultivated trees were also rapidly shedding their leaves; constant +night frosts, and frequent falls of snow on the mountain-sides, having +so far reduced the temperature that winter was evidently at hand. + + [Sidenote: NARROW GORGE. + _October, 1847._] + +Below the village of Unmaru, the width of the valley had so much +diminished that many of the lateral spurs advanced close to the river. +Several of these prominent spurs consisted of trap rocks, various +forms of basalt and greenstone occurring, with not unfrequently veins +of coarse serpentine. Stratified rocks, however, still continued, but +the hard black slate was often with difficulty distinguishable from +the basalt. + +My encamping ground at Kuru was on the north side of the river, and +close to the gorge into which the Shayuk disappeared among rocks of +black slate, which rise almost perpendicularly from the river. A small +tributary, descending from the north, ran parallel and close to the +rugged mountain spur which formed the barrier of the valley; and +immediately above, a deep bay or recess in the mountains was entirely +filled with beds of loose sand, resting on the alluvial clay +formation. The appearance of the place was altogether most singular. +Much of the light sandy beds were evidently of very recent origin, +probably referable to the great flood five years before, at which time +the waters, suddenly checked at the gorge, after having spread out _ad +libitum_ in the open valley of Nubra, rose to a height of not less +than fifty feet above their usual level, and required several days to +subside. The beds of clay under the loose sand were all stratified, +and were, no doubt, referable to the same lacustrine formation as the +fossiliferous beds observed higher up the valley of the Shayuk. + + [Sidenote: WARIS RAVINE. + _October, 1847._] + +From Kuru there is no road along the bank of the river, the rocks +being on both sides too precipitous to permit of a passage, and the +river too deep to be forded. In winter, when the river is frozen, +travellers are able to continue their course along its bed by +proceeding on the ice in those places where the steepness of the rocks +obstructs the passage; but at other seasons it is necessary to make a +long _détour_, and to ascend a lateral ravine for eight miles before a +point is reached where the steep ridge is capable of being crossed. +Leaving Kuru on the morning of the 26th of October, I encamped at the +village of Waris, elevated 12,400 feet, among a few fields from which +the crops had long been cleared. The few huts which formed the village +contained no inhabitants, being abandoned, as soon as the harvest has +been reaped and housed, for the more temperate climate of the river +valley. + +The ravine by which I ascended from Kuru was very narrow and rugged. +The road generally lay at a considerable height on the steep slopes of +the hills, but three times crossed the stream; once by a natural +bridge composed of a huge mass of rock lying across a very narrow part +of the stream, where it had worn out in the solid rock a channel not +more than from three to twelve feet wide. The steep sloping banks of +the ravine were usually shingly and devoid of vegetation; but on the +margin of the little stream there were a good many shrubs, principally +willows, and occasionally the cordate-leaved poplar so commonly +cultivated in the Tibetan villages, which here appeared quite +indigenous. + +The geological structure of this rocky ravine was very intricate, from +the great mass of igneous rock, granite, greenstone, and amygdaloid, +which everywhere occurred. A very hard conglomerate, similar in +character to that of the upper Indus and of the Giah ravine, was also +observed at intervals, alternating with very highly metamorphic +slates. After about five miles, the road left the main ravine to +ascend into a lateral branch, much more steep than the former. Here +masses of alluvial conglomerate of great thickness rested on the sides +of the mountains, many hundred feet above the bed of the stream. +During the day the weather had been very cloudy and threatening, and a +little snow fell in the afternoon at my encamping ground at Waris. + + [Sidenote: PASS ABOVE WARIS. + _October, 1847._] + +During the night more snow fell, and on the morning of the 27th it was +four or five inches deep. From my camp I ascended at once, very +steeply, to the crest of the ridge on the left, which I then followed +in a succession of undulations in a westerly direction. As soon as I +had gained the summit, a reach of the Shayuk was seen, distant perhaps +a mile and a half, flowing among steep black rocks, with here and +there banks of gravel at the bends. The view from the ridge was very +striking, the dark colour of the rocks below contrasting strongly with +the snowy whiteness of the upper parts of the mountains, which, on +the south side of the Shayuk, rise very abruptly to a height of +perhaps 18,000 feet. + +The summit of the ridge was not less than 14,700 feet above the sea. +At this elevation, the snow, on southern exposures, had, by eleven +A.M., quite melted, under the influence of a bright sun. Along the +ridge, tufts of a prickly _Statice_, still displaying the remains of +flowers, were very common, and a few stunted trees of juniper occurred +at intervals. The descent from the ridge was exceedingly abrupt (three +thousand feet in less than a mile), into a narrow valley, in which I +encamped among the fields of a summer village named Boghdan, now, like +the one I had left in the morning, deserted by its inhabitants, who +had gone for the winter to the village of Chulungka, nine miles +distant, on the banks of the Shayuk. I was now in the district of +Chorbat, the ridge which I had just crossed being the boundary of +Nubra on the west. + + [Sidenote: BOGHDAN RAVINE. + _October, 1847._] + +The Boghdan ravine, though very narrow and tortuous, is well wooded +with small trees of poplar and willow, and with shrubs, chiefly of +_Hippophaë_ and _Myricaria_. These plants are entirely confined to the +level bottom of the ravine, forming a belt, ten or twenty feet wide, +on each side of the little stream. After a descent of three miles, I +again joined the Shayuk, along which a journey of four days brought me +to Siksa, the principal village of Chorbat, encamping on the way at +the villages of Chulungka, Turtuk, and Pranu. + + [Sidenote: DISTRICT OF CHORBAT. + _October, 1847._] + +The district of Chorbat is a dependency of the government of Iskardo, +which, like that of Le, is subject to Kashmir. The desert country by +which Nubra and Chorbat are separated has, for the present, acted as +a barrier to the further extension eastward of the Mahommedan +religion, which is now universally that of the people of the whole of +the Iskardo (or Balti) district, as well as of Dras. On the Indus, and +in the valleys south of it, there is no uninhabited tract between the +two, so that the Mahommedan and Buddhist population are in direct +contact. The result is, that Mahommedanism is in that part gradually, +though very slowly, extending to the eastward. + +In this part of its course the Shayuk river is in general very rapid, +and is hemmed in so closely by the mountains on both sides, that +little space is left for the accumulation of alluvium, except where +considerable lateral streams join the main river. The barrier by which +Chorbat is separated from Nubra is the most contracted part of the +valley, and the general ruggedness by degrees becomes less marked as +we continue to descend the river. The mountains, everywhere steep, +rocky, and inaccessible, close in general to within a quarter of a +mile of one another, and their projecting spurs, at short intervals, +advance quite to the centre of the valley, forming deep bays, either +filled with sand or occasionally occupied by platforms of +conglomerate, on the top of which, where water is procurable, there is +generally a village. The river, winding from one side of its channel +to the other, washes the foot of each rocky spur, so that the road +frequently quits the level of the river to ascend abruptly the rocky +hills, which are often so steep as to be only accessible by means of +scaffoldings of wood, propped up against the face of the perpendicular +cliffs by trunks of trees. Once or twice the road lay at a great +height above the river for several miles, without descending at all to +its level. + + [Sidenote: BRIDGES. + _October, 1847._] + +The channel of the Shayuk is generally formed of coarse gravel or +large rolled stones, and immense boulders are everywhere scattered on +the level banks. The stream is rapid and deep, and the fall much more +considerable than in Nubra, Siksa being only about 9000 feet above the +sea. It is nowhere in the whole distance fordable; and as the villages +lie alternately on opposite sides of the river, I had occasion to +cross it three times before reaching Siksa. In every case a narrow and +rapid part of the river is selected, the bridges being composed of +poplar trunks, stretching from bank to bank, with a light and rude +hand-rail of hurdles to give support. Opposite Turtuk, the bridge, +which rests upon piers projecting on each side eight feet into the +river, measures twenty-five paces, so that the river is not more than +eighty feet wide. + +Where platforms of alluvium occupy the lateral ravines, they attain a +very great thickness, seldom less than two hundred feet, and +occasionally at least twice as much. They are generally cut off in +steep cliffs by the river, beautifully showing the structure of the +alluvium. In the sections of these masses of boulders and clay, I +several times observed that the strata, instead of being horizontal, +were highest in the middle and sloped gently downwards on either side. +This would indicate, I think, a local origin of these deposits, which +probably commenced under water, close to a ravine on the +mountain-side, and gradually extended, by the addition of successive +layers, till they met similar accumulations, derived from the opposite +side of the valley. + + [Sidenote: VILLAGES. + _October, 1847._] + +In the upper part of the district of Chorbat, the villages are few and +very insignificant, but lower down several are of great extent. +Chulungka, the highest village, consists of three or four houses, on a +small platform about fifty feet above the river. This village stood +formerly on the low ground close to the Shayuk, but the cultivable +soil at the lower level was entirely swept away by the flood of 1842, +so that the inhabitants were obliged to change the position of their +houses. The first considerable village is Turtuk, on the south side of +the river. Pranu, on the north side, is remarkable for the great +extent of its cultivation, and for several isolated rocks, behind +which the alluvium has accumulated to a thickness of at least six or +seven hundred feet. + +All the villages are surrounded by fine orchards of apricot-trees. +Walnut and mulberry trees are also common; and at Turtuk I saw a few +vines; these latter are, however, by no means generally cultivated in +the district. Willows are less frequent than in Nubra, but there are +plenty of poplars. The black poplar is the common species, but a white +downy-leaved species (_P. alba_), which is cultivated also in Kunawar, +and which seems to be indigenous in some of the Himalayan valleys +south of Kashmir, occurs for the first time at Turtuk. The fields are +everywhere terraced, and water seems to be very abundant. + + [Sidenote: ROCKS OF CHORBAT. + _October, 1847._] + +A very remarkable outburst of granite commences at the junction of the +Boghdan ravine with the Shayuk, and continues as far as Siksa, +altering the secondary rocks so that they can scarcely be recognized. +The granite is frequently in great mass, and usually occupies the +lowest part of the valley, sending out gigantic veins or branches into +the overlying slates, which are often transformed into a coarse +serpentine. The hard conglomerate which is associated with the slate, +seems the same as occurs in Lower Nubra, so that probably the slates +are also a continuation of the same series, and the whole may even be +connected with the conglomerates and slates of the Giah valley and of +the Indus below Le, the strike of which to the N.W. or N.N.W. would +carry them nearly in the direction of Chorbat. Here the intrusion of +the granite renders both dip and strike obscure, the beds being +frequently quite vertical. + +From Siksa, close to which there is a small fort or castle on an +isolated rock, a road leads across the Hanu pass into the valley of +the Indus. By this route Mr. Vigne proceeded when he abandoned his +intention of penetrating by the Shayuk to Nubra, and it has since been +crossed by several travellers at different times. It is, indeed, a +route very commonly adopted in travelling from Iskardo to Le, as the +lower part of the Shayuk is more open and practicable than the Indus +below the junction of the river of Dras. + + [Sidenote: PLAIN OF KHAPALU. + _October, 1847._] + +Below Siksa, the valley of the Shayuk continues narrow for eight or +ten miles. It then begins again to expand, and its width continues to +increase as far as Khapalu, which is situated near the centre of a +wide plain similar to that of Nubra, and, like that, coincident with +the junction of a large river from the north. It is certainly worthy +of note, that it is always at the point of junction of large +tributaries that the valley of the Shayuk is widest, and that the +evidences of the former existence of lakes are most evident, while in +the intermediate parts of its course the valley is narrow and rugged, +and shows no certain indications of having been at any period +lacustrine. + + [Sidenote: MACHULU RIVER. + _November, 1847._] + +The great axis of the plain of Khapalu is from south-east to +north-west, in the direction of the river Machulu, which runs through +a very open and wide gravelly plain, apparently for a considerable +distance. This stream, which is probably at least as large as the +Nubra river, has its source in heavily-snowed mountains to the north. +The general surface of the plain is gravelly, and its appearance on +the whole is so similar to that of Nubra that no detailed description +is necessary. The river divides in the open gravelly plain into +numerous branches, which separate to a considerable distance from one +another, and ramify very irregularly. There is not much alluvial +accumulation in this plain, except in the immediate vicinity of +Khapalu, where a very curious isolated rock of black slate rises +abruptly in the middle of the plain, its base being washed by one +branch of the Shayuk, now (after its junction with the Machulu) too +deep to be forded. Behind this rock there is an accumulation of +alluvium, forming a steep ridge six or seven hundred feet in height; +which it is necessary to cross in travelling from Surmu to Khapalu, as +the abruptness with which the clay-slate rock rises out of the water, +completely prevents a passage along the margin of the river. + +On the 2nd of November I forded the Shayuk a little below the village +of Abadan, where it runs in two branches, each about a hundred yards +wide, and with an average depth of about two feet. A little further +down it is joined by the Machulu, and it does not appear to be +anywhere fordable in its further course, even in winter, so that +probably the influx of water brought by that stream is very +considerable. I did not, however, see the junction, which is situated +on the north side of the plain, quite out of the direct road towards +the town of Khapalu. + +Where the valley is widest, the mountain ranges on both sides of the +river are well seen. The range south of the Shayuk rises close at hand +into a very steep mountain mass, now much snowed. A pass which leads +from Khapalu to Kartash was (I was informed) already shut up by snow, +and impracticable for travellers. To the north, up the wide valley of +the Machulu, the mountains are more distant, and the main chain of the +Muztagh is evidently fully in sight; the absence of hills close at +hand allowing a considerable extent of it to be seen; it was very +heavily snowed. The nearest, and apparently loftiest peak, bore N. 13 +W. (Magn.) from Surmu. + + [Sidenote: KHAPALU. + _November, 1847._] + +The principal villages of this open tract are Surmu and Khapalu, both +on the south side of the Shayuk, and separated from one another by a +high alluvial ridge, which rests on a bold scarped rock rising +immediately out of the river. Surmu has a very long and narrow tract +of cultivation, skirting the gravelly river-bed. It occupies the +slopes of a projecting platform of alluvium of no great height. In +this village many fields, on a level with the river, have evidently +been destroyed by the flood of 1842, as fruit-trees were still +standing among the gravel and shingle of the river-beds. Khapalu, on +the other hand, which is situated at the point of junction of a +considerable stream, occupies the surface of a thick bed of alluvium +of great extent, sloping very steeply from the apex of the triangle in +a recess among the mountains to its base, which is formed by the +Shayuk. The fort of Khapalu is perched at a great height on a +remarkable projecting scarped rock, just at the mouth of the ravine +behind the village. The cultivation has a width of not less than two +miles, and, as it abounds in fruit-trees, it must in summer, when the +fields are green and the trees are in leaf, be a place (for Tibet) of +considerable beauty. From the abruptness of the slope of the alluvial +platform, the terrace-walls of the fields are very high, often as much +as six feet. The fruit-trees are the same as those commonly cultivated +in Nubra and Chorbat; the elm and _Elæagnus_ of Nubra are also common, +as well as the white poplar. At Khapalu there are also a few +plane-trees, which do not extend further east. + +The _Lycium_ of Nubra, which had entirely disappeared in the narrow +and rocky parts of the Shayuk, reappeared as soon as the valley spread +out into a gravelly plain, being common at Abadan, and abundant at +Surmu and Khapalu. A species of berberry, a genus wanting in the +higher parts of the Shayuk (except in the mountains, where a small +alpine species is occasionally seen), was found in Surmu. The species +was apparently identical with the common berberry of Europe, which +extends even into the drier valleys of the Himalaya. I also recognized +a few other new plants--a small, almost herbaceous _Sophora_ was one +of these, and, still more remarkable, _Peganum Harmala_, a species +which extends from the Mediterranean flora as far east as the Punjab, +and which indicates a very considerable amount of summer heat. + +The shrubby _Hippophaë_ is still very plentiful, but, either from more +careful cultivation, or because the nature of the slopes prevents the +formation of swampy margins to the little irrigation streams, it does +not spread to so great an extent over the cultivated tracts, which, +therefore, in the winter season look considerably more bare than those +around the villages of Nubra. + +The height of the bed of the Shayuk at Khapalu may be roughly +estimated at about 8000 feet, as the determination of the +boiling-point of water at my tent, which was high up in the village, +gave an elevation of 8300 feet. I arrived at Khapalu from Surmu on the +3rd of November, and remained there during the 4th. The weather, which +for some days had been very unsettled and disagreeable, suddenly +cleared up on the 2nd of November, and continued for nearly a week +very fine, the days being uniformly bright and sunny, with a gentle +wind blowing up the valley of the Shayuk. The temperature in the sun +was extremely agreeable, though the shade maximum was never much +higher than 50°. The nights were clear and cold, the thermometer +falling at Khapalu more than 14° below the freezing-point. + +A little below Khapalu I found a number of people washing the sand of +the Indus for gold; but the produce seemed to be very trifling, and +the work is only carried on during winter, when labour is of no value +for other purposes. I purchased for a rupee (paying, I believe, a good +deal more than the value) the produce in gold-dust of one man's +labour for three weeks. I suppose, however, he only worked +occasionally. + + [Sidenote: BRAGHAR. + _November, 1847._] + +Below Khapalu the valley of the Shayuk again begins to contract, but +the open plain may be considered to extend for some way below the +village of Braghar, where a large tributary joins from the north, and +to which place there is a great deal of cultivation, especially on the +right bank. Immediately below Braghar, there is a remarkable saline +grassy plain, very swampy, and traversed by numerous small streamlets, +in which a _Chara_ and a linear-leaved _Potamogeton_ were abundant. +Below this plain the mountain spurs close in upon the river, +contracting its channel very much, and frequently preventing all +passage along the bank. The narrow portion of the river extends within +a few miles of Iskardo, or for at least thirty miles of river +distance. Throughout this tract the valley is very similar to that +between Nubra and Chorbat. Villages are numerous, occupying very +elevated platforms, on which there is frequently luxuriant +cultivation. In many of the narrowest and most rugged places there is +no passage along the river, and the road crosses spurs of considerable +elevation. + +Between Kunes and Kuru the narrowness of the river is probably at its +maximum, as the road lies altogether along a ridge, elevated perhaps a +thousand feet, to which the ascents and descents are extremely abrupt. +Many parts of this ridge are capped with alluvium, which occurs in +many places along this part of the course of the Shayuk in very great +quantity. The largest village on this part of the river is Kiris, +situated just above the junction of the Shayuk and Indus, on a nearly +level alluvial platform of large size. Round Kiris there is a very +extensive deposit of lacustrine clay, very fine, and horizontally +stratified. Good sections of this, sometimes at least fifty feet in +thickness, are exposed east of Kiris, not far from the Shayuk. I did +not observe any fossils; but in so cursory an inspection as I was able +to make, it is very probable that I may have overlooked them. + + [Sidenote: JUNCTION OF SHAYUK WITH INDUS. + _November, 1847._] + +The junction of the Shayuk and Indus rivers takes place a little way +below Kiris. The Shayuk is considerably wider and more rapid than the +Indus, but much less deep, so that neither river so decidedly +preponderates over the other as to enable their relative size to be +determined at a glance. Probably the discharge of the two will be +found nearly equal. The direction of the united streams is the same as +that of the Shayuk, which the Indus joins nearly at a right angle. + +The granitic and slate rocks of the district of Chorbat are continued +unaltered as far as the junction of the Indus and Shayuk. In many +places the granite so predominates as to form almost the whole mass of +the mountains, but more generally there is also a good deal of slate. +The schists are of very various appearance; a very hard black slate is +the most common, but in contact with and near the granite many +portions of the slaty mass are quite undistinguishable from gneiss. +The direction and inclination of the dip vary extremely. In general +the granitic veins appear to be parallel to the strata of schist, but +instances are not unfrequent where vertical strata of schist are cut +through by horizontal veins of granite. + + [Sidenote: NAR. + _November, 1847._] + +On the 9th of November I encamped at Kiris, and next day I passed the +junction of the Indus and Shayuk. The direction of the united streams +soon becomes nearly due north, and it flows for many miles through a +very narrow ravine, along which the road is of a most difficult +nature, partly high on the mountains, partly on platforms of alluvium, +and occasionally over angular blocks of rock, which are piled in +enormous heaps along the banks of the river. At the most northerly +point of the river, where the ravine is narrowest, I passed through +the cultivated lands of the village of Nar, which extend for more than +two miles on the surface of an alluvial platform many hundred feet +above the bottom of the valley. Leaving this village, I continued to +ascend, and entirely lost sight of the Indus, which flowed to the +south-west, while the road kept winding among rocky hills, gradually +ascending to the crest of a low pass, among rocks of black slate, +which entirely prevented me from seeing the nature of the surrounding +country. From the summit of the ascent I descended gradually down a +narrow valley, and emerging at last rather suddenly on an open plain, +I found myself in sight of the valley of Iskardo, which presented to +the eye an expanse of level ground much greater than I had seen since +leaving Khapalu, to which and to Nubra the district round Iskardo +bears a very close resemblance. + +When the road entered the open country, at the north-east corner of +the plain of Iskardo, it lay for miles over loose sand, utterly +barren, forming low undulating hills, which rested upon a deposit of +pure white clay. Three miles from Iskardo, a spur from the northern +mountains advances close to the river, and the road skirting the +latter is for a short distance rocky and uneven. Soon, however, it +again enters a tract of bare sand, which extends as far as the ferry +immediately above the town of Iskardo. The river, being here +unfordable, is crossed by means of a flat-bottomed boat. + + [Sidenote: ISKARDO. + _November, 1847._] + +The plain of Iskardo, which surrounds the junction of the Shigar river +with the Indus, is nearly twenty miles in length, and has an average +breadth of about five miles. It is elevated about 7200 feet above the +level of the sea. In its very centre, on the south bank of the Indus, +and opposite to the junction of the Shigar river, an isolated rock of +black slate rises to the height of nearly a thousand feet, directly +overhanging the Indus, parallel to which it stretches for nearly a +mile. It is faced on all sides by perpendicular cliffs, inaccessible +except at the west end, where a steep and difficult path leads to the +summit, which is a long narrow ridge. + +The name Iskardo is a Mahommedan corruption of a Tibetan name Skardo, +or Kardo, as it is very commonly pronounced; but as the +first-mentioned name is most familiar to foreigners, and is likely to +become universal, as well from the inhabitants of the district being +all Mahommedans, as from the country being now subject to Kashmir, it +is better, I think, to retain it, than to attempt to substitute the +more pure Tibetan pronunciation. + + [Illustration: ISKARDO + _From South-east of the Valley._ + + _Pl. II._ + + J. W. del. W. L. Walton, Lithog. + Printed by Hullmandel & Walton.] + + + + +The mountains which surround the Iskardo plain rise at once with great +abruptness, and are very steep and bare. Those on the south side, +derived from the range which separates the Indus from the table-land +of Deotsu, the axis of which is not more than ten or fifteen +miles distant, rise very abruptly in rocky pinnacles, covered, at the +time I reached the valley, with much snow. Two spurs from this range +run forward to the Indus, one five miles east of Iskardo, the other +about three miles to the west of it, dividing the whole south side of +the valley into three deep bays, each watered by a considerable +stream, whose source is in the southern mountains. The mountains on +the north side, the terminal spurs of two great branches of the +Kuenlun or Muztagh, which flank the Shigar river, are considerably +lower, but equally barren and desolate. + +The river Indus traverses the open valley in an extremely winding +course. At one time it washes the base of the cliffs which terminate +the projecting mountain spurs; at another it flows between high banks +of alluvial conglomerate or of fine clay. Not unfrequently these +clayey cliffs recede to a considerable distance from the river, in +which case the intervening space is generally sandy. A small branch of +the stream, at times little more than a chain of pools, often runs +close to the cliffs, indicating a former channel of the river; and +when this is the case, the low ground between the two channels is +often swampy and grassy. + +The bed of the Indus in this part of its course is very little +inclined, the stream flowing in general very gently over a sandy bed, +its surface quite smooth and tranquil, occasionally only a little +rippled in turning round a projecting rocky spur, where its bottom is +gravelly and the inclination perhaps a little greater. Opposite +Iskardo the Indus is even in the depth of winter a noble stream, +often more than 500 feet wide, and nine or ten feet deep in the +centre. + +Iskardo occupies a nearly level plain of fine alluvial clay elevated +fifty or sixty feet above the river, and extending from the isolated +rock which overhangs the Indus towards the mountains on the south side +of the valley. To the right and left of the rocky hill, two small +streams have excavated for themselves out of the soft clay deep and +wide ravines, which are covered with coarse gravel, and are faced by +more or less steep banks of clay or sand. The surface of the platform +on which all the cultivated ground lies is watered by means of +artificial canals, brought from a distance of nearly two miles, from +the point where the streams issue from among the hills. + +The neighbourhood of the rock of Iskardo was doubtless selected as the +site of the principal town of the kingdom of Balti, from the +advantages which it afforded as a place of defence; and in the days of +the independence of the country a fortified palace occupied its +eastern extremity, while the western and more accessible end was +apparently protected by a series of rude works. The principal +buildings of the palace seem to have been at the very base of the +rock. A mass of ruins, showing large blocks of well-hewn stone, +fragments of marble fountains, and some solid walls supporting +terraces, which appear at one time to have been gardens, alone remain +to show the former magnificence of the place. A mausoleum, raised to +the memory of the last independent king, Ahmed Shah, perched on a rock +perhaps 300 feet above the plain, is still untouched and uninjured. + +An aqueduct or canal extends in a direct line from the palace towards +the mountains, a distance of at least a mile. It is an exceedingly +massive work, consisting of two walls raised perhaps fifteen feet +above the level of the plain, and built of very large blocks of hewn +stone. The intervening space is filled with earth. At present, a small +conduit, a foot or so wide, brings all the water which is required for +the use of the inhabitants of Iskardo; but a very large quantity might +be conveyed along the aqueduct, and the work is so strong and +substantial that very little repair would be requisite to restore it +to its original condition. + +The fortified post of the present rulers of the country is built on +the margin of the platform of alluvium, on the right bank of the +little stream which joins the Indus to the east of the rock of +Iskardo, and is separated by a hollow from the palace and the +principal part of the village. It is built of unburnt brick, and is +extremely irregular in shape, with rounded bastions at the angles. + +The houses of Iskardo are very much scattered over a large extent of +surface, so that there is no appearance of a town; nor is the +population in the immediate neighbourhood of the rock so extensive as +that of some of the more remote villages in the valley, and especially +of those on the banks of the Shigar river, which are very richly +cultivated. Many of the Iskardo houses, however, are very good, being +often of two stories, and built of unburnt bricks in a framework of +wood. Latticed windows, covered with paper or small plates of mica, +are also common. The roofs are all flat, and covered with mud beaten +hard. + + [Sidenote: LACUSTRINE CLAY. + _November, 1847._] + +The lacustrine clay formation occurs in great quantity throughout the +valley of Iskardo, and is nowhere seen in greater perfection than in +the immediate neighbourhood of the town, where the cliffs facing the +Indus, and those along the little lateral streams which descend from +the south, exhibit an abundance of sections of these beds. The height +of the cliffs is very variable; but it is seldom less than thirty +feet, and to the east of the town is as much as a hundred feet. The +clay formation varies much in appearance, being most commonly a very +fine unctuous cream-coloured clay, stratified quite horizontally, but +occasionally gritty and mixed with numerous particles of mica. Now and +then thin beds of sand and of small waterworn pebbles alternate with +the finer clays. In many places near the rock of Iskardo, the beds are +very irregular, undulating a good deal, and at times exhibiting very +remarkable flexures, as if the isolated rocky mass (which must have +once been under water) had formed eddies in the lake, and prevented +that regularity of deposition which is elsewhere so universal. + +Fossils are very rare in these clays, but occurred in several +different localities. Close to Iskardo I once found a very few small +specimens of a _Lymnæa_ and _Planorbis_, but after repeatedly +searching carefully did not succeed in obtaining any more. I was more +fortunate in two places east of Iskardo, where fresh-water shells are +sufficiently common in one or two thin seams of very fine clay, mixed +with a good deal of apparently vegetable matter. The great mass of the +clay is, however, quite non-fossiliferous. + +The surface of the clay formation round Iskardo is very undulating, +and is often covered with masses of large boulders. Opposite two of +the ravines which penetrate the mountains on the southern side of the +valley, two very remarkable banks of boulders project forward into the +valley. They consist of very large fragments of rock, angular or more +or less rounded, piled on one another to a height of forty or fifty +feet. They terminate abruptly, and are, I think, evidently moraines. + +On the very top of the isolated rock, in the middle of the Iskardo +plain, horizontal beds of coarse sandstone rest upon the hard +clay-slate of which the rock is composed. This sandstone crumbles with +great ease in the hand, the particles of which it is composed being +very slightly coherent. These beds, in which I could find no traces of +shells or of vegetable remains, are elevated at least 800 or 1000 feet +above the level of the Indus. The sandstone seems to cap the whole +hill, but is exposed only in a few places, being in a great measure +covered by the loose drift or alluvium which has been deposited above +it. + + [Sidenote: VEGETATION. + _November, 1847._] + +The vegetation of Iskardo had so entirely disappeared, that I was able +to form very little idea of its nature. A few shrubby species, and +some withered fragments of autumn flowering plants, alone remained. On +the whole, I was struck with the similarity of the few plants which I +recognized with those of Nubra and Le. _Artemisiæ_ and _Chenopodiaceæ_ +were still abundant. _Hippophaë_ was the universal shrub along all the +streamlets, and _Lycium_ was common in sandy places; a berberry (the +same already seen at Khapalu) was also frequent. The few novelties +were Kashmir plants. _Lycopsis arvensis_, _Prunella vulgaris_, a +thistle, a species of _Sium_, some gentians, and _Ranunculus +aquatilis_, were the most Indian forms which I met with. From the +mountains I procured specimens of a juniper (_J. excelsa_), and of the +alpine birch of the Himalaya, which skirts the southern borders of the +Tibetan region, without extending into the driest parts of that +country. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + + Leave Iskardo in the direction of Kashmir -- First march + through snow to Turgu -- Lacustrine clay -- it extends into + narrow valleys beyond Nar -- Gol -- Junction of Indus and + Shayuk -- Parkuta -- Tolti -- Kartash -- Extensive lacustrine + deposits -- Tarkata -- Road turns up the Dras river -- Ulding + Thung -- Fall of snow -- Hardas -- Karbu -- Continued snow -- + Dras -- Find pass in front shut by deep snow -- Obliged to + return to Iskardo -- Rafts and rope-bridges on Indus -- + _Elæagnus_ and Apricot apparently wild -- Winter at Iskardo. + + + [Sidenote: UPPER PART OF ISKARDO PLAIN. + _December, 1847._] + +On the 2nd of December I left Iskardo, in the direction of Kashmir, by +way of Dras, all other routes being shut with snow. My first march was +to Turgu, seven miles. The ground was all the way covered with snow +which had fallen during the night, but it thawed a good deal during +the day, making the journey rather unpleasant. The road lay along the +south bank of the river, at first over the level platform of +lacustrine clay, among large boulders, which were scattered over its +surface, but soon descending by a narrow and steep footpath, on the +face of the clayey cliff, to the level of the river, to cross a deep +bay, from which the clay formation has been entirely removed, to a +large village three miles from Iskardo, through the cultivation of +which the road ascended gradually, and proceeded on the barren stony +slopes behind. About five miles from Iskardo, a spur, from the +mountain range on the south, which abuts in a scarped cliff upon the +river, has been taken advantage of by the inhabitants to build a small +gateway, through which the road is made to run. The extreme steepness +of the mountain mass which lies to the south and east, makes it +scarcely possible to approach Iskardo along the south bank of the +river from these directions, without passing through this gateway, +and, therefore, a small party of soldiers is kept on this rocky pass +by the Sikh rulers of the country. A species of _Daphne_ was very +common on the rocky hills about this pass, apparently an evergreen, as +it was in full leaf in the midst of the snow. From the higher parts of +the road, and from the rocky pass which overhangs the river, there is +an extensive view over the barren sandy waste on the north bank of the +river. The lacustrine clay is, at this end of the valley, very thick +and but little excavated, forming cliffs which rise close to the +river, which has, as it were, worn for itself a narrow channel in the +clay formation. The banks or cliffs are of very different heights, and +many of them consist of alluvial gravel and boulders, overlying and +quite obscuring the clays. Behind Turgu, and in many places on the +last part of the march, there are great masses of angular fragments of +rock piled into a steeply sloping mass, as if they had fallen from the +mountains behind, but so mixed with smaller fragments and with gravel, +that it seems probable that they were accumulated under water. + + [Sidenote: WATERWORN ROCKS. + _December, 1847._] + +The next day's march, from Turgu to Gol, round the great bend of the +Indus, was entirely barren. On the western side of the curve several +rocky spurs were crossed, but after the road turns to the south it +runs generally on the surface of very elevated platforms of coarse +alluvial debris, covered in many places with enormous boulders, partly +derived, in all probability, from the fall of masses of rock from the +cliffs above, but in more than one place so curiously arranged, at the +apertures of lateral ravines, as to be, I think, almost certainly of +glacial origin. Many of the large boulders which occurred in the +alluvium were observed to be much waterworn, spherical cavities being +worn out in them. Similar waterworn rocks were also seen _in situ_ at +great heights above the river, in places to which no water has at +present access, and where it is difficult to understand in what way +the effect was produced. Behind the alluvial platforms, which are +generally one or two hundred feet above the level of the river, the +mountains rise precipitously, in cliffs of granite, which has now +replaced the slate rocks of Iskardo. + + [Sidenote: EXTENT OF LACUSTRINE CLAY. + _December, 1847._] + +At the point where the river changes its direction from north to +south-west, the mountains on the southern bank advance quite to the +river, and on the north side also they approach very near. It would +therefore, at first sight, appear that the lake, in which the clay +formation of Iskardo has been deposited, had here terminated to the +eastward, no clay being seen in the narrow ravine above Nar, or near +the river anywhere between Nar and Gol. I had at first no doubt that I +had reached the eastern extremity of the lake; but some time after +passing the most northerly point of the ravine I observed a patch of +very fine cream-coloured clay, quite similar to the finest portions of +the Iskardo formation, clinging in a remarkable position on the flank +of a very steep rocky cliff, not less than 1000 or 1200 feet above the +river. Several other patches came into sight soon after, all high up +on the mountain-sides; one above the village of Golochu, and others at +intervals all the way to the junction of the Indus and Shayuk. I +cannot, therefore, doubt that the lake in which the clay beds of Kiris +were deposited, was the same as that which occupied the Iskardo basin; +nor does it seem easy to fix its exact boundaries. The great height of +the patches of clay, in the narrow channel above Nar, show that the +depth of the lake had been very considerable; and if we assume a depth +of 1500 feet, which seems necessary, and at the same time admit the +arrangement of the ancient rocks to have been the same as at present, +we must either suppose some great barrier to have existed in the +narrow passage below Khapalu, or must admit that the Khapalu lake was +also continuous with that of Iskardo. I did not, however, observe any +beds of fine clay higher up than Kuru, in the narrow part of the +ravine of the Shayuk, which would warrant the drawing such a +conclusion; although vast masses of alluvium certainly abound there, +piled at great heights above the river. Is it possible that these may +at one time have been continuous, and have blocked up the whole +valley, and that the portions now seen capping ridges, whose origin is +otherwise inexplicable, are the last remnants of a continuous mass +which occupied the whole interspace? and if so, to what are we to +ascribe the deposition of such an enormous mass of alluvium-like +accumulation? + + [Sidenote: JUNCTION OF INDUS WITH SHAYUK. + _December, 1847._] + +To the eastward of the village of Gol the valley of the Indus again +becomes a little wider, an open sandy plain extending round the +junction of the two rivers. The cultivation round Gol is on a high +platform of alluvium; but the road descends, soon after leaving the +village, nearly to the level of the river, and continues over the low +ground, skirting the mountains of the southern bank, till it reaches +the junction of the two rivers, where it turns abruptly to the south, +ascending the left bank of the Indus, which runs nearly due north in a +narrow rocky ravine. A bluff projecting ridge of granite, sixty or +eighty feet high, polished on the surface by aqueous action, and of a +brilliantly brown-black colour, so that the nature of the rock is only +discoverable by breaking it, here advances close to the river, and is +crossed by a steep sinuous path, eked out by flights of steps, with +wooden supports, where it would otherwise be impracticable. The Indus +is here very narrow and deep, and runs with an extremely rapid +current. The path, after crossing this ridge, again descends to the +level of the river. Even in this narrow ravine I was surprised to find +the fine cream-coloured clay of the lacustrine formation, similar to +many of the beds of the same deposit round Iskardo. It was here quite +on a level with the river. + + [Sidenote: INDUS VALLEY. + _December, 1847._] + +The mountains rise on both sides of the Indus very abruptly, being +almost always precipitous. From the narrowness of the valley the great +elevation of these is not seen, and the lesser height of those on the +right bank of the Indus, which form the termination of the chain +separating that river from the Shayuk, is not brought prominently to +notice. For more than two miles, the ravine continues very narrow, +and several steep spurs are crossed. It then becomes gradually a +little wider, narrow platforms of conglomerate skirting the stream, +and changes its direction from nearly due south to south-east. The +right bank is stony and unproductive the whole way, but on the left +there is one small village, three miles from the junction of the +Shayuk, and thence after three miles of desert, a succession of small +villages continuing with little intermission on the surface of +alluvial platforms as far as Parkuta, at which I encamped. In one of +the villages a good many small juniper-trees were seen. + +The lacustrine clay formation, though not continuous throughout the +whole of this day's march, may be traced in patches, with so little +interval that its former continuity cannot be doubted. The spots in +which I observed its presence in the narrow ravine were all close to +the river, the low level of the road not permitting an extended view +of the higher slopes of the mountains. Further up, however, patches +were in my subsequent April journey seen at considerable elevations, +but in December the slopes were covered with snow to within a thousand +feet of the river. In several places the clay formed cliffs, which +rose perpendicularly from the Indus, and could be seen to be covered +with modern alluvium deposited during floods, just as the ancient +rocks are in other places. The clay appeared everywhere extremely +fine, without any intermixture of sand or micaceous grains. I saw no +appearance of fossils, which I think never occur in the very fine +cream-coloured clays, but seem always to accompany more sandy, or at +least gritty varieties, as if the influx of a small stream, and +probably the proximity of land, were requisite to the existence of +testaceous mollusks; while the central part of the lake, in which the +very finest clays were deposited, was quite devoid of them. + + [Sidenote: PARKUTA. + _December, 1847._] + +Parkuta is a very large village, three or four hundred feet above the +river, occupying both slopes of a deep ravine cut in the thick mass of +alluvium by a large stream from the south. The alluvium is scarped +towards the Indus, and a low granitic hill, the cause of its +accumulation to such a height, just rises above the general surface of +the platform. This is covered with a mass of buildings, formerly the +residence of the Rajah of Parkuta, a branch of the same family who +ruled at Iskardo, and dependent on them while that state remained +independent; he has, however, been removed by the Sikhs, and his house +is at present untenanted. The village is large, with extensive +cultivation, and many fine fruit-trees. Vines are plentiful, climbing +over the poplars. + + [Sidenote: TOLTI. + _December, 1847._] + +On the 5th of December my day's journey carried me to Tolti, a +distance of twelve miles. The valley continued narrow, and the +mountains rose precipitously on both sides. On the early part of the +march there were many villages, and much cultivation on the left bank. +The village of Urdi, three or four miles from Parkuta, seemed very +populous, and extended for a great distance along the river. It was +remarkable for an aqueduct supported on pillars of stone, which +crossed a ravine immediately above the village. At this spot the +cultivation terminated abruptly, and the alluvial platform was for +more than a mile, during which space it gradually narrowed by the +encroachments of the cliffs, covered with an accumulation of very +large granitic boulders, which seemed to have fallen on it from the +mountains behind. + + [Sidenote: KARTASH. + _December, 1847._] + +As I approached Tolti the valley of the Indus became much more rugged +and narrow. A long gentle ascent to a ridge more than a thousand feet +above the bottom of the valley, but which dipped abruptly to the +river, occupied the latter part of the march. At Tolti the belt of +cultivation is very narrow, just skirting the river on very narrow +platforms of alluvium, which are irrigated by artificial canals +carried with considerable labour between the fields and the mountains. +Tolti was the most gloomy village which I had yet seen, the +precipitous mountains forming a circle all round it, and almost +shutting out the light of day. The bird's-nest fort in the ravine +behind the village, perched on the top of a rock (in a most untenable +position, though probably well suited for defence against sudden +attack), accorded well with the gloomy aspect of the place. The +temperature was here considerably lower than in the more open valley, +as large patches of snow lay still unmelted in the fields, though four +days had elapsed since its fall. At Gol, two days before, it had quite +melted. On a bank a mile or two below Tolti, I saw a few trees of +_Populus Euphratica_, just recognizable by a few withered leaves which +still remained on the tree. + +From Tolti, I made three marches to Tarkata, a small village on the +Indus, six miles below its junction with the river of Dras. The +general aspect of the valley of the Indus was but little changed in +this distance, notwithstanding a very long and remarkable bend of the +river above Kartash, in which its direction is to the eastward of +north. From Tolti, the easiest road in an upward direction crosses the +Indus, and proceeds on the right bank; but to avoid the labour of +crossing, I suppose, my guides conducted me by a road on the left +bank. On this side, the lower part of the valley is so steep as to be +impracticable; and I found it necessary to ascend at once from Tolti +on a stony ridge, almost directly away from the river. The ascent was +long and fatiguing; the ridge being capped, in the same manner as that +above Kunes on the Shayuk, with masses of alluvium. The ridge was more +than 1500 feet above the river, and its upper part was covered with +snow, through which the path lay for four or five miles, after which +it descended very abruptly to the river, which had been in sight +almost all the way, generally running among precipitous rocks, but +with a few villages scattered at intervals on the northern bank. After +regaining the bank of the river, the road was for five or six miles +nearly level, passing opposite the village of Kartash, with a fort on +a hill. Here still resides the Rajah Ali Sher Khan, the most +intelligent of the princes of Balti; though now past the prime of +life, he still retains the intelligence and kind hospitality for which +he is so deservedly praised by Vigne. + + [Sidenote: INDUS VALLEY. + _December, 1847._] + +Kartash being situated at the northern or lower end of the great bend +of the Indus, and in an extremely narrow part of the ravine, is a most +sombre-looking place. It is possible, however, that in summer, when +the villages are green with cultivation and fruit-trees, the +appearance of this and other places may be less gloomy, and that, from +having only seen this part of Tibet in the depth of winter, I may be +disposed to regard it in too unfavourable a point of view. The abrupt +and precipitous rise of the mountains on all sides must undoubtedly +tend strongly to modify the summer temperature, which, from the want +of rain, and the reflection from masses of bare rock, would otherwise +be oppressive. The fort seems to have some good buildings, and to be +kept in excellent order, and the village looked extensive and +prosperous. + +All along the narrow ravine, from Tolti nearly as far as Tarkata, +deposits of alluvium were very extensively developed, not only in the +valley of the river, but at considerable heights on the ridges. There +was, however, I believe, none of the lacustrine clay, as +contradistinguished from the coarser alluvium. I speak here with +considerable hesitation, as I find with regret that I have not in my +notes attended with sufficient care to the distinction between the +two, not having at the time sufficiently adverted to their probably +different origin. I am now disposed to think that in the narrow ravine +above Tolti was situated the barrier which bounded on the east the +lake basin of Iskardo, a vast inland sea, which must have extended +thence in a north-westerly direction as far as Rondu. This barrier, if +my supposition be correct, must have consisted of a mass of coarse +drift or alluvium, entirely blocking up the narrow ravine to a height +of three thousand feet or more above the present level of the Indus. + +The mountains all along this ravine are extremely elevated, the peaks +above Kartash (from which a pass leads to Khapalu on the Shayuk) +being, I should think, not less than 18,000 feet. The bareness and +desolation of their sides exceeded anything I had seen since leaving +Iskardo, and quite equalled the most rugged parts of Tibet which I had +yet visited. They consisted of large masses of rock, split and +fractured in every direction, often very precipitous, without a +vestige of soil, and with scarcely the slightest traces of vegetation. +Immense tracts, both along the river and on the slopes of the ravines +descending from the mountains, were covered with boulders or with +angular fragments of rock, strewed irregularly on the surface, or +piled in masses one on another. Granite formed the great mass of the +mountains, mixed with stratified rocks, which were always highly +metamorphic, but extremely variable in appearance, sometimes, though +rarely, having the appearance of ordinary gneiss. A singular +porphyritic rock appeared (as boulders) along the river in one place +only. + +About two miles west of Tarkata, the Indus resumes its more usual +direction, and, at the same time, its valley becomes somewhat more +open, the mountains, without any diminution of elevation, receding +considerably from the river. Their lower slopes present a very +different aspect from those in other parts of the Indus, being +composed not of primitive rock, but of a soft and almost incoherent +sandstone, alternating irregularly and without any definite order with +boulder conglomerate, and fine clay. These beds, which are very +extensively developed on both sides of the river, around the village +of Tarkata, for some distance in both directions, attain a thickness +of at least six or seven hundred feet. They are, however, very +irregular, forming a succession of ridges separated by deep ravines or +gullies, on the sides of which fine sections of the strata are +generally exposed, showing them to be uniformly horizontal, and to +consist of a great many alternations of sand, clay, and drift. Above +Tarkata, very fine clays were abundant. + + [Sidenote: SOFT SANDSTONE ROCKS. + _December, 1847._] + +The sandstone, of which a greater part of these curious deposits +consists, is formed principally of coarse grains of quartz, which only +cohere very slightly, and easily crumble under pressure. It is quite +similar in appearance to the sandstone which occurs on the summit of +the rock of Iskardo, differing only in being very much more +extensively developed than that is, and in being associated and +alternating with the very fine clays resembling those which occupy the +lower levels of the valley of Iskardo. The sandstones of Tarkata did +not appear to be fossiliferous, nor did I, in the slight examination I +was able to give them, discover any shells in the fine clays in this +neighbourhood. The general similarity, however, of these deposits to +the lacustrine clays of the Iskardo valley, makes it nearly certain +that their origin is similar, while the association of the sandstones +and the fine clays in the neighbourhood of Tarkata, renders it +probable that I am right in assuming the arenaceous beds of the summit +of the rock of Iskardo to be lacustrine. + + [Sidenote: FLOATING ICE. + _December, 1847._] + +Ever since leaving Iskardo, the weather had been very unsettled, but +no more snow had fallen. The sky had been pretty generally overcast +with light clouds, and during the day the wind had almost invariably +blown down the river, generally with great violence, and, especially +in the narrowest parts of the valley, in furious gusts, against which +it was most laborious to make any progress. The mornings had been +always frosty, but the temperature rose in the middle of the day +several degrees above 32°. On the 8th of December, a sudden increase +of cold seemed to take place, the temperature not rising above the +freezing-point. Large cakes of ice, which appeared early on the +morning of that day, floating down the river, indicated an evident +commencement of very severe weather in the upper part of its course, +and the descent of such masses of ice, in cakes of from one to ten +feet in diameter, tended very much to lower the temperature of all +parts of the river to which they extended. The elevation of Tarkata I +found to be 7800 feet above the sea. + +The road from Iskardo to Kashmir leaves the valley of the Indus at the +junction of the river of Dras, and follows the course of that river +almost to its source. The lower part of the valley of Dras is a deep +and narrow rocky ravine, bordered by precipices of granite, which are +so steep that the bottom of the valley is quite inaccessible. In +passing from the Indus into the valley of Dras, the road crosses the +granitic spur which separates the two rivers, at an elevation of about +2000 feet above the Indus, ascending to this height very rapidly along +a steep spur, which recedes almost in a perpendicular direction from +that river. From the shoulder of this ridge, which was elevated +probably about 10,000 feet, the course of the Indus was visible for +some distance above the junction of the river of Dras. It appeared to +be hemmed in very closely by rocky mountain spurs. A good many patches +of fine lacustrine clay were in sight, on both banks. + + [Sidenote: VALLEY OF DRAS. + _December, 1847._] + +From the same ridge, the view up the Dras valley was very remarkable. +The river of that name, which formed many deep pools and was partially +frozen, ran at the bottom of a deep gorge. On the right bank opposite +to where I stood, a sheer precipice rose nearly to a level with my +eye. Between the ridge on which I stood and the next in succession up +the Dras valley, an open and shallow valley, everywhere strewed with +enormous blocks of granite, sloped gently till it approached the brink +of the almost perpendicular cliffs which overhang the Dras river. +Crossing this open valley, and the low spur beyond it, I encamped at a +small village called Ulding Thung, situated at the point of junction +of the Dras river, with a considerable tributary descending from the +west. + +This little village occupies the gentle slope of a hill-side, but I +encamped at the lowest part of it, which was a small level plain +surrounded by a number of giant boulders, resting on the upper edge of +a very steep slope, and evidently, I think, of glacial origin. They +were quite angular, and not less than from twenty to thirty feet in +length. + +On the slope of the hill above my encampment at Ulding, the lacustrine +clay formation again occurred in great quantity. It was a very fine +impalpable clay, without fossils, and was here (as is not uncommon +elsewhere) dug out by the inhabitants for the purpose of extracting +its salt, which is obtained in a state of brine by simply washing the +clay with water. The elevation of this clay formation was probably a +good deal more than 8500 feet, but not greater than that of many of +the hills and patches of similar deposit around Tarkata in the valley +of the Indus. + +At daybreak on the morning of the 18th of December I found that +between three and four inches of snow had fallen during the night. It +had ceased snowing at that time; and during the day, which was stormy +and often very cloudy, no more fell. There was a good deal of thaw +during the day, and towards evening the snow, except in sheltered +spots, was nearly melted. My day's journey was about ten miles, to the +village of Hardas, on the left bank of the Dras river; passing about +two miles before the end of the march the river of Kargyl or Pashkyum, +a very large stream which descends from the south-east. During the +earlier part of this day, the road was extremely bad. It descended +from Ulding abruptly to the level of the Dras river, to cross at its +point of junction a large tributary whose source is in the eastern +slopes of Deotsu. A succession of steep ascents and descents followed +for four or five miles, throughout which distance the ravine through +which the river ran was narrow and precipitous and quite without +villages. Further up, the valley widened a little, the mountains rose +less steeply, and left narrow strips of level ground along the margin +of the stream. + + [Sidenote: SNOW STORM. + _December, 1847._] + +Very early on the morning of the 11th of December, it began again to +snow, and continued with little intermission throughout the day. I +marched ten miles to Karbu, crossing the river three miles above +Hardas, and keeping on the right bank during the remainder of the day. +I could see that the valley was wider than the day before, but the +incessant snow made the appearance of the country undistinguishable. +The margins of the stream were occasionally fringed with bushes of +poplar and willow. Karbu is a village high up a steep lateral valley, +with scattered groves of juniper on the sides of the hills above the +cultivation. By evening the depth of snow was about fifteen inches. + +On the 12th of December, after marching five miles through a heavy +fall of snow to the village of Tashgang, crossing the river by a +wooden bridge close to the village, a violent storm of wind and +snow-drift, blowing directly down the valley, compelled me to halt for +the night. The snow-storm continued till about eight P.M., when the +weather cleared, and the night was clear and starlight. Next morning, +the weather continuing fine, I was able to proceed to Dras. The depth +of snow had increased to about two feet; and the labour of progressing +through this depth of untrodden snow was much increased by the +shortness of the steps of the porters, treading exactly after one +another, so as to form pits in the snow, not more than a foot apart, +and alternately on the right and left. + + [Sidenote: DRAS. + _December, 1847._] + +I reached the Sikh fort at Dras, which was distant eleven miles, about +two o'clock; the road was pretty level and the valley open, with low +hills on either hand. The depth of snow increased as I advanced, and +was three feet in the plain round the fort. Here I was greeted by the +most unwelcome tidings, that my advance so far was fruitless, the pass +in front being blocked up with snow. For this I was quite unprepared, +having been led to believe that the road to Kashmir in this direction +was always open, and no hint having been given me at Iskardo that my +delay there might in the least prevent my reaching Kashmir. The heavy +snow-fall of the last three or four days seemed to have been something +quite unusual; and it had accumulated, as I was told, on the pass to a +depth which quite precluded all possibility of a passage for many days +to come. + +Notwithstanding all these assurances, I should certainly have tried to +advance at least as far as Maten, had I not found at Dras one of the +principal inhabitants of Kargyl, who had returned the day before from +that place, after attempting in the morning to advance towards the +pass, which is ten miles further on, and being stopped by finding the +snow ten and twelve feet deep, and quite soft. After the assurances of +this traveller, I should not have been justified in taking so many +porters across the pass, supposing them to have acceded to my wishes +to make the attempt; I therefore very reluctantly gave up the idea of +proceeding. + +It then became a question what I should do. It might and would +probably be many weeks before the pass would be practicable for loaded +men. To have remained at Dras so long would have been impossible. The +demands of my party for fuel were found very difficult to supply, even +for a day, the faggots of brushwood, which alone are there available, +being soon consumed, and, therefore, unwillingly parted with; I +therefore resolved to return to Iskardo, and remain there till the +return of spring should enable me to resume my travels, and to visit +the district further down the Indus, before crossing into Kashmir. + + [Sidenote: RETURN TOWARDS ISKARDO. + _December, 1847._] + +My return journey, being from a severe to a milder climate, was +sufficiently agreeable. At first a succession of bright and clear days +reduced the temperature very much. The thermometer fell to zero in the +mornings, and the frost throughout the day was intense. I was no +longer able to inhabit my tent, which I had continued to occupy up to +the period of my arrival at Dras, where, in the Sikh fort, I found, +rather to my surprise, a room, with a fire-place and chimney, allotted +for my accommodation by the kindness of the commandant. In descending +again towards the Indus, I took shelter in the villages, occupying, if +possible, a cow-house in preference to one used by the inhabitants. +The houses are generally built of waterworn stones, without cement, +but plastered with mud outside and inside. The roofs are flat; the +rafters are unsawn trees or branches of poplar, covered with willow +twigs, over which is laid a thick coating of mud. A hole in the centre +of the roof serves for a chimney, the fire being made in the centre of +the floor. In some of the poorer villages the houses were less +elaborate, consisting merely of wattle-work of willow twigs, covered +with a thin coating of clay. + + [Sidenote: FROZEN WATERFALLS. + _December, 1847._] + +In the open plain below Dras I observed many withered stems of +_Prangos_, the celebrated Umbelliferous plant so much valued by the +inhabitants of Dras as a food for their sheep, still bearing ripe +seeds. Juniper, too, was common, even along the bank of the stream. +As I descended the river, I found that a very few days had made a +great change in the temperature. The river was everywhere hard frozen, +and all the little streams which ran down the mountain-sides were +coated with a thick shell of ice. More than once I saw a waterfall +with a covering, perhaps a yard in thickness, of clear blue ice, under +which the little streamlet could be distinctly seen. At Ulding, though +the cold was severe, I found the ground partially free of snow, so +that the amount of fall, at that distance from the central chain of +mountains, had been quite insignificant. + +On the 19th of December, on which day I regained the valley of the +Indus, it was again snowing heavily, after an interval of exactly +seven days. The river was now entirely frozen over, and so solid, that +one of my servants, a native of India, losing his way in the +snow-storm, instead of turning to the left on arriving at the Indus, +walked across the river to a village on the right bank, without being +aware that he had quitted the proper road. + +Instead of keeping the left bank of the river, as I had done in my +upward course, I crossed it on the ice about three or four miles above +the village of Kartash, or Karmang, as it is also called, and kept on +the north side till within a mile of Tolti. About two miles below +Kartash, there are a succession of rapids in the stream, which extend, +without much intermission, considerably more than a mile, and must +produce a very considerable change in the elevation of its bed. The +river was nowhere frozen between Kartash and Tolti, the stream being +too rapid to freeze readily. In crossing to the left bank I made use +of a raft of skins, which consisted of a light frame-work of willow +rods, six feet square, resting on about a dozen inflated sheep or goat +skins. This flimsy contrivance just floated on the water when loaded +with three or four people. + + [Sidenote: ROPE BRIDGES. + _December, 1847._] + +At Tolti and at Karmang are the only rope-bridges which I saw on the +Indus, above Iskardo. The cables used in their construction are here +made of willow twigs, twisted into a thick rope. Seven such ropes on +each side are combined to form the parallel lateral cables, about a +yard apart, from which the road way of the bridge is suspended. These +bridges are perfectly safe, though, from their open structure, rather +formidable to those who are not accustomed to use them. The principle +on which they are made is the same as one which is in use in all the +hill provinces of India, from the Khasya mountains and Butan, as far +west as the Indus; but the material differs with each particular +locality, cane being used in the most eastern parts, rope (often of +grass or _Eriophorum_) in the Western Himalaya; and in Tibet, where +even that material is not available, willow twigs are employed as a +substitute. + +In many parts of the Indus valley, even in the most rugged and +desolate spots, I noticed, occasionally, trees of the _Elæagnus_ and +of apricot, growing in rocky places along the river, where it was very +evident that they had never been planted. The _Elæagnus_ is always +conspicuous, even in mid-winter, in consequence of the withered leaves +remaining attached to the tree instead of falling at the end of +autumn. Occasionally, no doubt, the occurrence of these trees was due +to the former existence of villages in the vicinity of the places in +which they were observed, but they also seemed sometimes to occur in +places where no cultivation could ever have existed. Their occurrence, +however, must, I think, be considered purely accidental: they were too +few in number to be regarded as really indigenous; nor is it +surprising that these trees, which are so extensively cultivated round +all the villages of Baltistan, and so universally used as food by the +inhabitants, should occasionally vegetate at a great distance from +their usual place of growth. + + [Sidenote: WINTER AT ISKARDO. + _December, 1847._] + +I reached Iskardo on the evening of the 25th of December, and +succeeded, without difficulty, in hiring a house sufficiently large to +accommodate all my party. As I remained stationary at this place for +two months, I was able to make some observations of the thermometer, +and to watch the state of the weather during the whole of that period. +The elevation of Iskardo above the level of the sea is about 7200 +feet. Winter may be said to have commenced on the 28th of November, on +which day the first snow fell. From that date, falls of snow recurred +constantly at intervals, which varied from two or three days to a +week. The earlier falls were very slight, not more than an inch or two +in depth, but the quantity gradually increased, until each fall was +from four to six inches. The entire depth of the snow in the middle of +February, beyond which time the fresh falls were insignificant, was +from fifteen to eighteen inches. + +After each fall of snow, the weather usually became bright and calm, +with a serene cloudless sky. The sun shone out brightly, and was +agreeably warm to the feel, while the temperature of the air rose +nearly to, or a little above, the freezing-point. In the earlier part +of the winter, the snow melted rapidly, and the ground in the open +valley was generally nearly free of it before the next fall. After the +beginning of January, however, the cold increased, and the snow lay +permanently, except on the most sunny slopes. The sun seemed to have +much less power, and little thaw took place except on rocks and beaten +paths. The diminution in the quantity of snow by evaporation was often +considerable. + +The greatest cold which was registered at Iskardo was at daybreak on +the 8th of February, when Fahrenheit's thermometer stood at half a +degree above zero. The mean temperature at sunrise during the whole +winter was 19½°, and that at two P.M. 33¾°. The mean temperature +during the period from the 28th of December to the 31st of January was +27½°, and from the 1st to the 24th of February 25¾°. The increase of +cold was principally by the depression of the night temperature, the +mean highest temperature being within a fraction of a degree the same +during both periods. + +On the first or second day of clear weather after a fall of snow, the +temperature in the morning was often very low, with abundant +hoar-frost, which, except at such times, was not seen at all. The +surface of the plain was covered with a dense fog, which remained till +nearly noon before the sun was able to dispel it. On the second or +third day the sky would become hazy, the sun being partly obscured by +a thin stratum of cloud at a great elevation. During the continuance +of this haze, the temperature was always more elevated than when the +sky was clear. The hazy weather was once or twice dissipated by +violent winds, without any fall of snow on the open plain; but more +generally it increased gradually, till the sky was completely and +densely overcast, and snow began again to fall, perhaps most +frequently during the night. + +During the greater part of the winter the snow was invariably in +extremely minute grains. It was not till the latter part of February, +when spring was rapidly approaching, that large flakes fell. I more +than once observed the phenomenon of small quantities of extremely +fine-grained snow falling when the sky was quite clear, and the air at +the surface of the earth quite motionless. During clear weather very +little thaw took place, the cold produced by radiation appearing to +counteract the sun's action; at the same time the snow diminished +rapidly by evaporation, which was not the case when the sky was +overcast. + +The fall of snow was evidently much less considerable in the open +plain than on the mountains round Iskardo. During the heavier falls, +the snow on the steep mountain slopes often slipped downwards. It was +but rarely that these avalanches were visible, but the noise of the +snow in motion was heard like distant thunder, often many times a day, +and the bare spots which it had left could be seen after the +snow-storm had ceased. When the weather was settled, the wind was in +general very gentle, and blew up the valley of the Indus; during +snow-storms it was usually violent, and very irregular in direction. +The storms came mostly from the south-west, a moisture-bringing upper +current of air from that direction being condensed by the dry and cold +north wind. + +My collections had accumulated to such an extent, and got into such +confusion, during five months of almost incessant travelling, that I +was very glad to have an opportunity of devoting some time to their +arrangement, and found, without difficulty, occupation for all my time +during two months of rest. The snow was never so deep as to prevent me +from taking regular exercise, so that I was soon familiar with all the +roads in the neighbourhood of the town, and examined the cliffs of +clay in every direction in search of fossils, without discovering (as +I had some hopes of doing) any mammalian remains. The communication +with Le was open all winter; I was therefore able to correspond with +Captain Strachey, who, after examining the course of the Indus from +the Chinese boundary downwards, was spending the winter there. By his +assistance I succeeded in replenishing my store of tea and sugar, both +of which were exhausted. The sugar which I procured from Le was very +good, and the brick tea, though not superexcellent in quality, was, in +the absence of better, quite good enough for use. Other supplies I had +no difficulty in procuring at Iskardo, sheep and flour being abundant. +The wood supplied for fuel was almost entirely _Elæagnus_, no wild +timber occurring in the country. + +The Thannadar of Iskardo, who is the deputy of Maharajah Gulab Singh +of Kashmir, is the governor of all Balti, but he rules by means of +native Mahommedan chiefs or rajahs. In some instances, where no +opposition was made to the Sikh invasion, the former ruler was +allowed to retain his position; in other cases a change was made. At +Iskardo, Mahommed Shah, the present Rajah, had been an exile in +Kashmir, from being on bad terms with his father. He is a feeble and +sickly young man, without the energy of his father, M. Vigne's host in +Iskardo. The inhabitants of Balti, though Tibetan in language and +appearance, are all Mahommedans, and differ from the more eastern +Tibetans of Le (who call themselves Bhotias, or inhabitants of Bhot) +by being taller and less stoutly made. Their language, I am told, +differs considerably from that of Le, but only as one dialect differs +from another. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + + Leave Iskardo for Rondu -- Insurrection in Gilgit -- Koardu -- + Kamar -- Enter narrow part of Indus valley -- Difficult road -- + Range of mountains south of Indus -- Description of Rondu -- + Thawar -- Avalanches -- Alluvium -- Swing bridge -- Villages -- + Juniper -- _Pinus excelsa_ -- Rocks -- Vegetation -- Return to + Iskardo -- Agriculture of Balti -- Game of Chaugan -- Chakor + hunting -- Shigar valley -- Journey towards Kashmir -- Dras + valley -- Karbu -- Dras fort -- Maten -- Cross pass into + Kashmir -- Baltal -- Valley of Sind river -- Sonamarg -- + Gagangir -- Gond -- Gangan -- Ganderbal -- Enter main valley of + Kashmir -- Town of Kashmir -- Description of Kashmir -- + Lacustrine formation -- Trap hills -- Lake -- Climate -- + Vegetation. + + +It was not till the 25th of February that the approach of spring was +sufficiently decided to permit me to make a move with any chance of +fair weather. On that day I started from Iskardo, with the intention +of making eight or ten days' journey down the Indus in the direction +of Rondu. The district of Rondu may be understood to comprise the +whole of the narrow part of the Indus valley, from the western end of +the Iskardo plain to the great bend of that river, where it assumes a +southerly direction. It is only during the winter season that the +route along the valley of the Indus is much frequented, as it is quite +impracticable for horses, and so very bad even for travellers on foot, +that the road over the passes towards Hasora is always preferred in +summer. At the season of my journey I had no option, the passes being +still covered with heavy snow. + + [Sidenote: KOARDU. + _February, 1848._] + +Unfortunately for my objects, the inhabitants of Gilgit had since the +beginning of winter been in a state of open insurrection, and had +besieged the garrison placed by Gulab Singh in one of the forts of the +valley. Attempts had been made by the Thannadar of Iskardo to send a +force to their relief, but the garrison of that place was too weak to +enable him to detach more than a very small portion of it; and the +forced levies of Balti men, collected in all the districts of the +country, had evidently no desire to fight against the more active +inhabitants of Gilgit and the robber tribes of the higher valleys of +Hunza and Nagyr. Large parties of fifty and a hundred were continually +arriving during the winter at Iskardo, and were as soon as possible +despatched towards the disturbed country; but the greater number of +them, I was told, managed to desert, and to return to their villages, +or to hiding-places elsewhere, long before the detachment arrived at +the end of its journey. + +Crossing the Indus in the ferry-boat, a little below the rock of +Iskardo, my road lay along the north bank of the river, through +extensive tracts of cultivation. There was much less snow on the +surface of the fields in the village of Koardu, the first through +which I passed on the north bank, than in the town of Iskardo, owing +to the more favourable exposure. The villagers were busy sprinkling a +thin layer of earth over the snow to hasten its melting. This village, +which is about five miles distant from Iskardo, is backed by very high +masses of clay conglomerate and clay, forming very irregular, often +precipitous banks, resting on the ancient rocks behind. From Iskardo +these beds are very conspicuous, but in the village itself only a very +small portion can be seen at a time. + + [Sidenote: KAMAR. + _February, 1848._] + +West of Koardu, a ridge of mica-slate, containing abundance of +garnets, advances close to the river, which here runs on the northern +side of the valley. The road up the valley skirts the base of this +projecting spur, and then passes over level platforms for about four +miles. The level tracts were still covered with snow, but in rocky +places, and on all slopes facing the south, the ground was quite bare. +Four miles from Koardu I passed the very large village of Kamar, the +fields rising in terraces one behind another on a steeply sloping +platform, which skirts the plain for nearly two miles. Behind the +village, the same system of conglomerate and clay-beds, as at Koardu, +rises in steep banks. + +About a mile beyond Kamar, which is the last village on the north side +of the Iskardo plain, the valley of the Indus contracts very suddenly, +the mountains closing in upon the river. The beds of lacustrine clay +extend without any diminution to the end of the open valley, and are +covered, when close to the mountains, by numerous boulders of all +sizes, many of which are of great dimensions. The fine clay at the +termination of the open plain appears to underlie a great mass of +boulder conglomerate, which is continued into the narrow part of the +river valley. + + [Sidenote: ENTRANCE OF RONDU. + _February, 1848._] + +Where the river passes from the open plain into the narrow ravine, the +inclination of its bed seems increased, and the rapidity of its +motion becomes much greater. This result is quite in accordance with +what has been observed in the Nubra and Khapalu plains. Indeed, narrow +valleys are so generally steeply sloping, and wide valleys so +generally nearly level, that it can scarcely be doubted that the +inclination of the surface is in some way connected with the width or +amount of excavation of the valley. + +For a mile or two beyond the end of the Iskardo plain, the mountains +are sufficiently far apart to allow of the interposition of a narrow +platform of conglomerate, over which the road runs. Soon, however, +even this disappears, and thenceforward, as far as I went, the Indus +runs through a narrow ravine of very uniform character. The mountains +on both sides of the river are extremely steep, and, so far as I could +judge at so early a season, almost uniformly rocky and precipitous. At +distant intervals a small platform of alluvium is interposed between +the cliffs and the river, but much more frequently precipices directly +overhang the stream, or steep bare rocks, only not absolutely +precipitous, rise from its margin. It is but seldom that the stony bed +of the river or the alluvial platforms overhanging it, afford a level +road for a few hundred yards at a time. In general the path +continually ascends and descends over each successive ridge; the +elevation to which it is required to ascend to find a practicable +passage, varying from a few hundred to several thousand feet above the +bottom of the valley. In at least eight or ten places between Iskardo +and Rondu, the path ascends or descends by means of ladders placed +against the face of a perpendicular wall of rock, or crosses fissures +in the cliffs by planks laid horizontally over them. This road is +therefore quite impracticable for beasts of burden or horses, and is +never used except in winter, when no other route is open to the +traveller. + + [Sidenote: INDUS VALLEY. + _February, 1848._] + +As the road lies altogether on the north or right bank of the Indus, +the elevation and appearance of the mountains on that side cannot well +be seen. This range separates the Indus valley from that of Shigar, +which is in no part of Rondu more than twenty-five miles distant, and +is crossed in several places by passes at the head of the larger +ravines. These passes being still blocked up with snow, I could not +cross them, nor ascertain their elevation, which is perhaps nowhere +less than fourteen or fifteen thousand feet, except at the very +eastern extremity of the ridge. + +From the higher parts of the road, where it attained an elevation of +eight and nine thousand feet, the mountain ranges on the south of the +Indus could be well seen. They were covered with snow from base to +summit, and in general rose so very abruptly, that the nearer spurs +completely concealed from view the main range, except when a more open +valley than usual permitted the view to extend backwards. Occasionally +very lofty peaks were seen, which appeared to attain a height of at +least eighteen or twenty thousand feet; but, as the whole landscape +was covered with snow, distances could not be estimated with any +accuracy. As the ridge to the south of the Indus keeps very close to +the river, it is probable that the highest summits seen in that +direction were situated beyond the valley of Hasora. + + [Sidenote: VILLAGES OF RONDU. + _February, 1848._] + +The villages of Rondu are not numerous, and are of very small extent; +still every available spot seems to be occupied by a small patch of +cultivation. The platforms are generally high above the river. In the +lower part of the district, where the lateral ravines are of greater +length, they open out above the very steep slope, by which they +debouche into the Indus, into gently sloping open valleys. The +villages of Thawar and Murdu, being situated in these open valleys, +are much more extensive than any of those close to the Indus. The fort +of Rondu is on the left bank of the river, on a platform perhaps two +hundred feet above its level, nearly opposite the end of the Thawar +valley, and not far from the termination of a valley which descends +from the southern mountains, along which there is a road across a pass +to Hasora. + +From Iskardo to Thawar, a large village in a lateral ravine on the +north side of the Indus, almost opposite to the fort of Rondu, the +road distance is about forty miles. As five days were employed in +traversing this distance, the average day's journey was only eight +miles; and yet, from the difficult nature of the road, all the marches +appeared long, and were felt to be very fatiguing. A great part of the +road being at an elevation much more considerable than that the +Iskardo plain, I met with much snow on all the higher parts of the +mountains. In the valley of the Indus thaw made rapid progress, and by +the beginning of March, in favourable exposures, there was no snow +below 8000 feet. + + [Sidenote: AVALANCHES. + _March, 1848._] + +The progress of the thaw occasioned constant avalanches, the snow +slipping from the steep sides of the ravines, and when once in +motion, advancing with constantly increasing momentum till it reached +the lowest level. All day long the mountains echoed with the sound of +falling snow; the avalanches were not often visible, as they took +place in the ravines, but now and then (where the ravines terminated +in precipices) they were seen pouring in cataracts of snow over the +face of the cliffs. In each large ravine which joined the Indus I +found one of these gigantic avalanches, and was enabled to see that +they were composed of a congeries of balls of snow, varying in +diameter from one to six feet, and often containing fragments of rock +in their centre. Many of these snow-streams were not less than forty +or fifty feet thick. At the level of the Indus they were now very +soft, and evidently thawing rapidly. + +In many parts of Rondu are to be seen very distinct indications of the +boulder conglomerate, by which the ravine was _perhaps_ at one period +entirely filled; though from the very steep slopes of the mountains in +most places, there is not often a resting-place for it. The platforms +on which the villages are built are all formed of this alluvium, and +are often covered with transported blocks of vast size. Between Siri +and Baicha I saw several which were not less than sixty feet in +length. In the upper part of the valley of Thawar, which is more level +than the ravines higher up the Indus, a great accumulation of clay and +boulders is seen attaining a height of at least 8000 feet above the +level of the sea, as it forms hills a thousand feet above the village, +which is at least as much above the Indus. + +The valley in which the village of Thawar is situated slopes gently +towards the Indus till near its termination, when it descends +extremely abruptly down a very steep inclined bank of boulders, which +appears to block up the whole of the end of the valley. The slope of +this steep bank was so great that it was only possible to descend by a +very devious route. Between the lower part of the cultivation and the +commencement of the steep slope, the valley was very irregular, and +filled with heaps of boulders, forming long low hills. The appearance +of the mass of debris in this valley was very remarkable, and had much +the appearance of an old moraine deposited by a glacier, which had +extended as far as the end of the present cultivation, and had shot +forward the boulders by which it had been covered into the abyss +below. + + [Sidenote: BRIDGE OF RONDU. + _March, 1848._] + +The Indus is crossed by a swing-bridge of willow twigs, which leads +from the villages on the north bank to the fort of Rondu. From Thawar +I descended to this bridge, in order to ascertain the boiling-point of +water, so as to get an approximation to the elevation of the bed of +the river. It is thrown across a remarkably contracted part of the +river, where it flows between perpendicular rocks rising several +hundred feet out of the water, and the path by which the bridge is +reached from Thawar descends the scarped face of the precipice by a +succession of ladders. + +From the boiling-point of water I estimated the elevation of the +bridge, which was more than a hundred feet above the river, at 6200 +feet. This would indicate a fall of about 1000 feet since leaving +Iskardo, or, as the river flows very tranquilly till it leaves the +Iskardo plain, from the commencement of Rondu, a distance by the road +of twenty-nine miles, but not, I should think, more than twenty along +the course of the river, as the road winds very much in crossing +ridges. This is equivalent to a fall of about fifty feet per mile, +which, for a stream discharging so vast a volume of water, is very +considerable indeed, but not more than is indicated by the general +turbulent course of the river. + + [Sidenote: CULTIVATED TREES. + _March, 1848._] + +The villages of Rondu, though mostly small, have abundance of +fruit-trees. The apricot is still the commonest of these; but there +are also many fine walnuts, and plenty of vines climbing up the trees, +and remarkable for the great size of their trunks. Willows are very +common, and two kinds of poplar, and now and then there occurs a +plane-tree of enormous girth and stature, which must, no doubt, afford +a most welcome shade from the rays of the too-powerful sun of summer, +the heat of which, in so deep and rocky a ravine, must be very +oppressive. The willow and poplar had already begun to show signs of +vitality, the flower-buds being almost ready to expand; the other +trees seemed still quite inert. + +All over the hills of Rondu the juniper[16] is rather common, and +seemingly quite at home both on the higher ridges, and in the bottom +of the ravine close to the river. It forms generally a low bush, but +occasionally I saw small trees, and once, in a level tract close to +the river and near a village, a considerable tree perhaps forty feet +high. The young plants had made considerable shoots, and were covered +with longish acicular patent leaves, very different from the short +adpressed scaly leaves of the adult plant. + + [Sidenote: PINE TREES. + _March, 1848._] + +Rondu is remarkable for producing another Coniferous tree, indeed a +true pine, namely, _Pinus excelsa_, which occurs in small groves in +several places on the south side of the river, at elevations from +eight to ten thousand feet above the sea. It was first observed +opposite the village of Siri, but is more plentiful above the fort of +Rondu. One or two trees occur close to the river, and on the north +side, so that I was enabled to get specimens and ascertain the +species. The occurrence of this tree must be considered to indicate a +greater degree of humidity than exists in the upper parts of the Indus +valley, so that Rondu is the place of transition between the Tibetan +climate and that of the eastern Punjab, into which the Indus passes at +its point of exit from the mountains. + +The mountains of Rondu contain much granite, which occurs in great +mass at the bridge opposite the fort. In this place the granite +occupies the lower part of the ravine, close to the river, while the +higher parts of the mountains are composed of gneiss or clay-slate, +sometimes passing into sandstone, or of a highly crystalline magnesian +rock. The granite consists chiefly of quartz and mica, the former, as +well as the felspar, white, the mica black and highly crystalline. +The stratified rocks are always highly metamorphic, and are shattered +and dislocated by the intrusion of the granite to a very great extent. + + [Sidenote: LOWER PART OF RONDU. + _March, 1848._] + +Below Thawar and the fort of Rondu, the valley of the Indus continues +extremely narrow and difficult, and ceases to be inhabited at the +village and fortified post of Tok, at which place a few soldiers are +stationed, to keep up the communication with Gilgit, and to give +notice of any incursions from that side. Thence, as far as the +mountain range which bounds the Gilgit valley on the east, the valley +is said to be quite desert. The disturbed state of Gilgit had made me +abandon my original intention of continuing my journey in that +direction; I therefore made only one march to the westward of Thawar, +and found the ravine, along which the river flowed, so barren and +uninteresting, that I did not consider it necessary to visit Tok, but +retraced my steps towards Iskardo, which I reached on the 11th of +March. + + [Sidenote: VEGETATION OF RONDU. + _March, 1848._] + +I should have been glad to have had an opportunity of observing the +nature of the vegetation of the valley of Rondu, but the season of the +year was unfortunately not favourable for that purpose. The cultivated +plants were not different from those of Iskardo, and much of the +shrubby vegetation was the same as that common higher up the Indus. An +ash, of which the flowers were just expanded, but which was still +quite leafless, appeared a novelty; but it was probably the same +species which I had already collected in Kunawar and Piti. The only +subtropical plants of which I saw any traces, were _Linaria_ +_ramosissima_, a shrubby _Plectranthus_, now leafless, but which I +guessed to be _P. rugosus_, and some withered stems of tall reedy +grasses, species of _Saccharum_ and _Erianthus_. In summer, no doubt, +many more would have occurred, and a complete list of the plants of +Rondu would be of very great interest, as illustrative of the +connection between the alpine flora of Ladak, which passes into that +of Siberia, and the vegetation of the mountains of Affghanistan, the +plants of which are in a great measure the same as those of Persia and +Asia Minor. There is also a transition through this country, down the +valley of the Indus, to a third flora, that of the hot dry plains of +the Punjab and of Sind, which extends with little variation along the +littoral districts of Beluchistan and Persia, into Arabia and Egypt. + +On my return to Iskardo, I found the plain almost free from snow, a +little only remaining on banks facing the north. The mountains on the +south side of the valley were, however, still snow-clad to the very +base, and the fruit-trees had scarcely begun to show any signs of +vegetation. Along the watercourses there was more appearance of +spring; a little gentian and _Hutchinsia_ were already in flower, and +most of the spring plants had begun to grow rapidly. + + [Sidenote: AGRICULTURAL OPERATIONS. + _March, 1848._] + +The return of spring set the whole population of the district to work +in their fields; and both in Rondu and in the neighbourhood of +Iskardo, I had an opportunity of seeing the mode in which the +processes of agriculture are carried on. As soon as the ground is +clear of snow, the manure, which has been accumulated during the +preceding year, consisting of the contents of the cowhouse and +stable, mixed with every sort of refuse, is carried in small baskets +to the fields, on which it is deposited in small heaps. It is then +spread uniformly over the surface by hand. Occasionally the field has +had a previous ploughing, but it is more usually just in the state in +which it had been left after the harvesting of the previous crop. + +After the manure has been spread, it is ploughed into the land. The +plough is usually drawn by a pair of bullocks, and is formed entirely +of wood, the front part being blunted and hollow. The ploughshare, a +sharp and hard piece of wood, is passed through the hollow, beyond +which it projects several inches. This moveable piece of wood does the +principal work, and is easily replaced when it has sustained injury. +After the ploughing, the seed is sown broadcast, and the field is then +harrowed. The harrow is a frame-work of wood, weighted with stones, +but without spikes; or a heavy board, weighted; or occasionally only a +thorny bush, with several large stones laid upon it. It is generally +drawn by one man, who assists its action by breaking with his feet the +clods which would otherwise be too bulky to be crushed by it. The +harrowing is repeated till the soil is reduced to a sufficient +fineness, an operation which is much facilitated by the dryness of the +atmosphere. The field is then laid out into small square beds, for +convenience of irrigation, and water is supplied to it at intervals +throughout the summer. + +About the middle of March, an assembly of all the principal +inhabitants of the district took place at Iskardo, on some occasion of +ceremony or festivity, the nature of which I have forgotten. I was +thus fortunate enough to be a witness of the national game of the +Chaugan, which is derived from Persia, and has been described by Mr. +Vigne as hockey on horseback, a definition so exact, as to render a +further detail unnecessary. Large quadrangular enclosed meadows for +this game may be seen in all the larger villages of Balti, often +surrounded by rows of beautiful willow and poplar trees. + + [Sidenote: CHAKOR HUNTING. + _March, 1848._] + +About the same time, I was invited by the Thannadar of Iskardo to be +present at a hunting party, which he had arranged for the capture of +the _chakor_, or painted partridge, by surrounding a spot of ground, +in which these birds are numerous, with a ring of men, who, +approaching from all directions, gradually form a dense circle of +perhaps a hundred yards in diameter. When the partridges are disturbed +by a horseman in this enclosure, they naturally fly towards the living +wall by which they are surrounded. Loud shouts, and the beating of +drums and waving of caps and cloaks, turn them back, and they are +driven from side to side, till at last, exhausted with fatigue, and +stupid from the noise and confusion, they sink to the ground, and +allow themselves to be caught by hand. The scene was a very striking +one. The spot selected was a deep dell, full of rocks, but without +trees. The sport, however, did not seem so successful as usual, six or +eight birds only being captured. The chakor is an extremely common +bird in all parts of the valley of the Indus, and indeed throughout +Tibet. In winter, when the hills are covered with snow, they are to be +found in great numbers close to the river, even in the immediate +neighbourhood of the villages; and in general, when approached, they +lie very close among the crevices of the stones. + + [Sidenote: SHIGAR VALLEY. + _March, 1848._] + +Before finally leaving Iskardo, I devoted three days to a visit to the +valley of Shigar, which is watered by a very large tributary which +joins the Indus opposite the rock of Iskardo. The terminal ridges of +the mountain ranges on both sides of the Shigar river, advance close +to the centre of the valley where the stream enters the Indus. The +road to Shigar from Iskardo, therefore, crosses low hills of dark +schistose rocks, winding among dry valleys which are occupied by great +masses of alluvium. A coarse sandstone, horizontally stratified, +formed beds of fifty feet thick, alternating with and capped by beds +of clay conglomerate containing numerous angular fragments. The +sandstone was very similar to that which I had previously seen on the +top of the rock of Iskardo, and rested upon thinner strata of a +bluish-grey indurated clay, quite non-fossiliferous, and different in +appearance from any deposit which I had seen in Tibet. These +lacustrine strata occupied both sides of the valley along which the +road lay. From the summit of the low range of hills, the road +descended rapidly to the level of the cultivation of the Shigar plain. +The Shigar river flows through a wide gravelly channel in many +branches; and low, grassy, and swampy tracts skirt the stream. Fifty +feet above these are the platforms of alluvium, which extend along the +left bank of the river uninterruptedly for five or six miles, and vary +in width from a quarter of a mile to a mile or more. They are almost +entirely covered with arable land, formed into terraces which rise +gradually one above another, and a succession of small villages are +scattered among the fields. Numerous little streams descend from the +mountains, and irrigation canals ramify in every direction. Ploughing +was the universal occupation of the villagers; and the yellow flowers +of _Tussilago Farfara_ were everywhere seen expanding on the clayey +banks of the rivulets. + +The fort of Shigar is close to the mountains on the east side of the +valley, where a considerable stream makes its exit from them. By this +stream, Mr. Vigne ascended to a pass on the high range to the +eastward, and descended upon the Shayuk at the village of Braghar. +Where it terminates in the Shigar plain, this valley is for a few +hundred yards very narrow; but a little above its entrance it widens +considerably, and the flanks of the mountains are covered with a great +accumulation of the alluvial deposits, clinging to the face of the +rocks on both sides, certainly as high as a thousand feet above the +stream. The beds were sometimes, but rarely, stratified, and were very +variable in appearance. Coarse conglomerates, at one time with angular +boulders, at others, with rounded stones, alternated with coarse and +fine sand and finely laminated clays. No fossils of any kind were +observed. + +In summer, the discharge of the Shigar river, which descends from the +snowy masses of the Muztagh or Kouen-lun, must be immense, as +prodigious glaciers descend very low among the valleys of its +different branches. Up one of the streams a practicable road exists +towards Yarkand over an enormous glacier. I met with one or two people +at Iskardo who had traversed it; but it is now not at all frequented, +being very unsafe, in consequence of the marauding propensities of the +wild Mahommedan tribes who inhabited the Hunza valley. It was +described to me as an exceedingly difficult road, lying for several +days over the surface of the glacier. + + [Sidenote: DEPARTURE FROM ISKARDO. + _April, 1848._] + +On the 31st of March, I left Iskardo for the last time. It was +expected that the pass between Dras and Kashmir would be easily +accessible by the time I should reach it. My road as far as Dras was +the same as that along which I had twice travelled in December, and, +except from the indications of returning spring, was much the same as +it had then been. The crops of wheat and barley in the fields in the +Iskardo plain were an inch or two high, the buds of the apricot were +just beginning to swell, and the willows had almost expanded their +flowers. + +At Gol and Nar, where the valley is narrow and the heat therefore more +concentrated, the corn was considerably further advanced, and in some +of the apricot flowers the petals had begun to expand. Wild flowers +had also begun to vegetate: a violet was in flower on the banks of +streamlets, as well as a _Primula_ and an _Androsace_. Above Parkuta, +again, the season was more backward. Large snow-banks, which had +descended in avalanches, still remained in all the larger furrows on +the mountain-sides. The river had been discoloured since the day I +left Iskardo, and on the 4th of April, the day I reached Kartash, it +became very much so, and was said to be rising rapidly. + + [Sidenote: VALLEY OF DRAS. + _April, 1848._] + +On the 6th of April, I entered the Dras valley, and encamped at +Ulding Thung, where there were still a few patches of snow. On the +7th, I marched to Hardas, ten miles. Here, at about 9000 feet, spring +had scarcely commenced. The fruit-trees showed no signs of vitality; +and though the fields had been ploughed, the grain had not yet begun +to vegetate. The valley of the Dras river begins to expand at the +village of Bilergu, four or five miles above Ulding. As soon as there +is enough of level space, beds of conglomerate, and more rarely of +fine clay, appear along the river. Round the village of Bilergu, the +poplars, willows, and apricots are as numerous as in the valley of the +Indus; but beyond it, the inclination of the valley is considerable, +and at Hardas there were but few trees. Above Bilergu the quantity of +snow increased considerably, and the contrast between the sides of the +valley was very striking: at Hardas, the shady slope was quite white, +while that facing the south had only a few patches of snow. + +On the 8th of April, I marched to Karbu, eight miles. As I advanced, I +found much more snow; but the road was in general free, except in the +ravines where snow-slips had descended. On the latter part of the day, +these were universal in all the ravines, and were frequently of great +depth, and so soft as to be difficult to cross: on the least deviation +from the beaten path, I sank to the middle at every step. These +avalanches were cut off abruptly by the river, forming cliffs of snow +fifteen or twenty feet high, in which the structure and development of +the mass by successive slips, alternating with falls of snow, could be +distinctly made out. One or two of them still crossed the river, which +flowed below the bridge of ice. Three miles below Karbu, the granite, +which had been the rock ever since entering Dras, was replaced by a +peculiar slate, apparently magnesian, and perhaps hornblende slate, +passing into or containing beds of a coarse sandstone. + +At Karbu, where I was detained a day, the Thannadar not having +expected me so soon, and my porters not being ready, the weather was +very unsettled, and in the evening, and during the nights of the 8th +and 9th of April, there was a good deal of rain, especially on the +9th. The wind during the storm was very irregular in direction. The +ground was still covered to the depth of more than a foot with snow. +The morning of the 10th was gloomy, but as the day advanced the clouds +broke, and the afternoon was bright and beautiful, with a gentle air +down the valley. + + [Sidenote: FORT OF DRAS. + _April, 1848._] + +On the 11th of April I reached the fort of Dras. For the last ten +miles the snow lay continuously, and two or three feet deep, but there +was always a clear path. The temperature being much above the +freezing-point, the thaw proceeded rapidly. A good deal of _Prangos_, +which is evidently a common wild plant (as it is also in many parts of +Kashmir), was seen; the withered inflorescence projecting through the +snow. I observed it also very abundantly in the hay, which is +preserved in the villages, and seems to consist of all the plants of +the meadows cut indiscriminately, and not of _Prangos_ alone, as I had +erroneously imagined. + + [Sidenote: MATEN. + _April, 1848._] + +My former journey having terminated at Dras, the road in advance was +new to me; but the whole country being still covered with snow, I +could see little of the nature of the surface. The fort of Dras is +about 10,000 feet above the sea: it is situated in an open, nearly +level plain of some width, skirted by low hills. The higher mountains, +which are several miles distant on both sides, are very steep. Several +villages are scattered over the plain, at some distance from the fort, +which stands alone, on the bank of a little stream, just before it +joins the Dras river. Beyond Dras, the road to the pass having +scarcely been used, there was no beaten path. In the morning the snow +was hard and firm, and even in the afternoon, notwithstanding the +warmth of the midday sun, the foot did not sink more than three or +four inches. The depth of snow increased rapidly as I advanced. Two +miles above the fort the plain contracts into a narrow valley, and the +channel of the river becomes very rocky; the stream is also very +rapid, and the slope of its bed evidently considerable. The valley +again expands around the village of Pain Dras. Immediately beyond this +I crossed the river on a bridge of snow, at least forty feet thick, +which covered the river for more than a hundred yards. This snow-bed, +which was continuous with the general level of the surface, was to all +appearance quite solid. After a march of ten miles I encamped at +Maten, the last village of Dras, a small group of stone huts half a +mile from the river on its eastern bank, and immediately at the base +of a very steep scarped mountain, which rises in precipices several +thousand feet above the village. Maten I estimated, from the +boiling-point of water, to be 10,700 feet above the sea. + + [Sidenote: ZOJI PASS. + _April, 1848._] + +On the 13th of April I crossed the pass into Kashmir, starting, as +the distance was said to be considerable, at about half-past two +o'clock in the morning. The evening before had been dull, with +irregular squalls of wind, so that the weather did not promise very +favourably. It was very dark and quite calm at two A.M., and when I +started it snowed slightly, but not enough to induce me to stop, as I +hoped it would cease with daylight. Unfortunately, on the contrary, it +increased rapidly, and by four o'clock was snowing heavily, and +continued to do so till the afternoon. There was no wind, and the air +was very mild, so that I suffered no inconvenience from cold. The +surface of the snow, even in the morning, was a little soft, the +cloudy night having prevented it from freezing. After four o'clock it +snowed so heavily that the accumulation of fresh snow soon amounted to +several feet, and we sank above the knee at every step. There was +scarcely any slope, the road appearing quite horizontal. Before +daylight my guides managed to lose their way, and we wandered for more +than half an hour puzzled by our own footsteps. The compass was of no +use, as I did not know the direction in which we ought to proceed, nor +was it till after dawn that we recovered the road. + + [Sidenote: VALLEY OF THE SIND RIVER. + _April, 1848._] + +After daylight there was no improvement in any respect, as the heavy +snow completely obscured the view. The leaders of the party, however, +seemed to recognize the outlines of the hills, as they held their +course without hesitation. The valley was quite full of snow, which +completely covered all irregularities of surface. The river was often +quite covered by the mass of snow for distances of more than a furlong +without interruption. Our path often crossed it; and, latterly, for +several miles before gaining the crest of the pass, the stream was +completely concealed. + +About noon the snow fell more lightly, and we could see around. The +width of the valley was from half a mile to a mile, and steep +mountains rose on both sides to a considerable height, the peaks +being, I should think, at least 16,000 feet. Patches of willow and +juniper were seen on the sides of the hills. Still the road was to +appearance quite level. The valley made several bends, and we turned +finally to the right, before gaining the crest of the pass, to which +there was a barely perceptible rise. + +The descent was at first gradual, but soon became very steep, down a +bank of snow, which filled the whole of a narrow ravine. The rocky +walls on either side were at first bare, but soon became sprinkled +with birch and pine. For two thousand feet below the summit of the +pass the descent was uninterrupted, till I reached the banks of the +Sind river, which flows through the northernmost valley of Kashmir, +and is separated from the main valley by a lofty range of mountains. +Here, on a level space separated by a little stream from pine-forest, +I found a log-hut buried up to the roof in snow, which was heaped up +round the building, probably from having been thrown off the roof. The +snow at Baltal--for so this first halting-place on the Kashmir side of +the Zoji pass is called--was not deep, probably little more than what +had fallen during the day. + + [Sidenote: DETENTION AT BALTAL. + _April, 1848._] + +My whole party took possession of the log-hut; but not liking the +smoke which, in an instant, filled it, so that there was no seeing +across its width, I had a space cleared for my tent. It rained smartly +in the evening, but soon after dark it again began to snow, and long +before morning I was awoke by the cracking of the ridge-pole of my +tent, which had given way under the pressure of a foot and a half of +snow. Had it fallen at once I should probably have been buried till +morning, as I was too distant to make myself heard, and had to rise to +summon assistance, to move my bed into the log-hut. + +All day on the 14th it snowed unceasingly, and my people would not +continue the journey; but on the 15th it was fair, and I gladly made a +move, as the log-hut of Baltal was a most uncomfortable resting-place. +The road lay along the Sind river, which ran to the south-west, +through a deep but rather open valley, only partially wooded. The +forest consists partly of pines, partly of deciduous-leaved trees. Of +these I could recognize birch, poplar, and willow, which formed the +mass of the woods, but there were no doubt many others. The pines were +principally _Pinus excelsa_; silver fir and spruce also occurred, but +I saw no deodar nor Gerard's pine. The trees grew in well defined +masses of forest, separated by much open ground, in the level plain +which skirted the river on the south side of the valley; on this side +they also rose high on the mountains, but the slopes on the north side +were bare. + + [Sidenote: SONAMARG. + _April, 1848._] + +Seven or eight miles from Baltal, I found an uninhabited house, at a +place called Sonamarg[17], where a bridge crosses the Sind river. Snow +had been continuous all the way, diminishing in depth as we descended +the river. A mile or two before reaching Sonamarg, the stream +approaches close to the mountains on the north side of the valley, +barely leaving a passage for the road, which for some distance skirted +the base of steep cliffs. In one of the ravines which here furrowed +the mountain slopes, I had an opportunity of seeing the descent of an +avalanche. While crossing the ravine I was warned by the sound that a +snow-slip was approaching, but had abundance of time to retreat to a +place of safety before it came near. When the avalanche came into +sight, the ravine, which was narrow and deep, was completely filled by +balls of snow of various dimensions, which continued to flow past for +several minutes. The snow-slip terminated in the river, which was +speedily blocked up for two-thirds of its width with an immense +accumulation of snow. + +At Sonamarg the Sind river bends abruptly towards the south, and +enters a rocky gorge, down which its stream advances with great +rapidity, over a steeply inclined bed, very rocky and much interrupted +by rapids. Leaving Sonamarg on the morning of the 16th of April, I +crossed the river, and after a mile and a half of level ground bare of +trees, still covered with snow, I entered a thin forest of pine and +silver fir, which continued to the entrance of the gorge. The silver +fir (_Picea Webbiana_) was a fine straight tree, with short horizontal +or drooping branches, and its leaves were very variable in length. + +When I had fairly entered the narrow gorge of the river, I found that +it was in many places still blocked up with snow, which had descended +in avalanches down the narrow ravines, and had accumulated in the bed +of the stream. We crossed the river three times on snow-beds. From the +rapidity of the descent, however, the climate changed rapidly. After +four or five miles there was no snow, except in ravines, where it had +accumulated in avalanches, and at last even these had almost entirely +melted away. Still snow lay in patches on the right bank of the river, +in the village of Gagangir, at which I halted for the day; and on the +left bank, which faced the north, and was therefore in shade, snow +still covered the whole surface down to the bank of the river. + + [Sidenote: GAGANGIR. + _April, 1848._] + +At the village of Gagangir the Sind river resumes its south-westerly +direction, and its valley becomes more open, and the descent of its +bed less abrupt. The elevation of the village is about 7900 feet above +the level of the sea, so that the descent from Sonamarg is probably +not less than a thousand feet in a distance of nine miles--a very +considerable fall. On the latter part of the day's journey, a very +considerable change was observable in the aspect of the vegetation. +Birch and willow continued common throughout, but were mixed latterly +with many other trees and shrubs, all of which were beginning to show +symptoms of vitality. The hazel (_Corylus lacera_) and a species of +_Viburnum_ were in full flower, both still devoid of leaves; a few +herbaceous plants were also in flower in open places, the most +abundant of which were a species of _Colchicum_, remarkable for its +bright orange-coloured flowers, and a pretty little rose-purple +_Corydalis_, very closely allied to, if not the same as, a species of +eastern Europe. Still the general aspect of the country was very +wintry, as there were few pines, and the forest was therefore quite +bare of leaves, while the signs of progress, though evident on a near +inspection, did not attract attention in the general view. + + [Sidenote: SIND VALLEY. + _April, 1848._] + +At Gagangir, which is the first village of Kashmir by the route along +which I was travelling, I was enabled to relieve my Dras porters, who +had accompanied me so far. The discharge and payment of these men +occupied me a great part of the 17th of April; and as the day was +rainy I did not leave Gagangir till the 18th, when I marched to Gond, +seven miles. The road still followed the course of the Sind river, +which I crossed twice during the day. The width of the valley was +considerable all along, with much arable land, and a good many +villages in ruins on both sides. The mountains on the right hand were +uniformly bare of trees, and often rocky; on the left they were well +wooded to the summit, the forest being most dense above. Early in the +day several of the ravines were still full of snow; and on the shady +side a good deal lay in patches. Further on, the snow in the valley +had quite disappeared, but on the mountain slopes there was still +plenty. As I advanced the cultivated land increased in extent, and the +appearance of the valley became exceedingly picturesque, the centre +being occupied by a broad belt of fields and orchards, while the hills +on both sides rose abruptly to a great elevation. The fruit-trees were +principally walnuts, apples, and apricots. Groves of poplar occurred +occasionally along the river, but I saw no birch during the day. Many +more spring plants were in flower than on the previous day; +_Cruciferæ_ were the prevailing family, but I also collected species +of _Nepeta_ and _Gagea_, and a pretty little tulip. On the latter part +of the march, a small shrubby species of _Amygdalus_ was very +abundant; and _Fothergilla involucrata_ of Falconer, a plant of the +natural order _Hamamelideæ_, which was just bursting into flower, +formed a dense coppice on the hills on the north bank of the river. +Though the greater part of the plants was new to me, still I +recognized a number of species which occur in the valley of the Indus. +_Juniperus excelsa_ was common in rocky places, and the _Ribes_ and +rose were the same as those common at Iskardo. + + [Sidenote: VEGETATION. + _April, 1848._] + +On the 19th, the road still followed the course of the Sind river, now +a rapid torrent, much swollen by the heavy rains, flowing through an +open valley. A good deal of level ground was interposed between the +mountains and the stream, and was laid out in terraced fields +evidently adapted for rice cultivation, but now quite bare. I met with +many very interesting plants. _Tussilago Farfara_ was abundant, +growing in gravelly places along the river. In shady woods a species +of _Hepatica_, with a small white flower, first discovered by Dr. +Falconer, was common. In more sunny places a _Primula_ and _Androsace_ +were in full flower. On open sandy soil a species of the curious +Siberian genus _Ceratocephalus_ was a very striking novelty. On the +higher hills there was still dense forest of _Pinus excelsa_, spruce, +silver fir, and deodar, mixed with yew and _Juniperus excelsa_, and +with many deciduous-leaved trees, few of which were recognizable. +After travelling twelve miles I encamped at Gangan, which is elevated +about 6000 feet. + +Next day I remained stationary; but on the 21st I continued my journey +to Ganderbal, nine miles further and close to the point where the Sind +valley expands into the open plain of Kashmir. As I advanced, the +valley gradually widened, and turned more to the south. There were +several platforms, or steppes, as it were, of nearly level arable +land, one above another, and below them the river flowed through a +wide stony plain. The mountains on the right, high and snow-topped, +receded to a considerable distance; those on the left gradually +diminished in elevation, became less covered with forest, and at last +terminated in low ranges of hills covered only with brush-wood. The +road was extremely pretty. At first it lay along the right bank of the +river, through fine underwood, and among beautiful meadows, which +skirted the bank of the stream; it then crossed to the left bank, and, +ascending the lower hills, entered a fine wood, in which apricot, +pear, and cherry trees, all bursting into flower, were common, and to +all appearance wild, though they had probably spread into these woods +from the neighbouring villages. Latterly we emerged upon a somewhat +elevated platform sloping to the south, covered with bushes and many +fruit-trees, with here and there a village, and a great deal of +cultivated ground. Where the Sind valley joined the plain of Kashmir, +it was several miles in width, and evidently richly cultivated. The +expanse of the plain of Kashmir was much greater than I had +anticipated; the mountains on its south side, which were still covered +with snow, were in sight, but at a considerable distance. + +Above Gond the valley of the Sind river is very poorly inhabited, and +deserted villages and abandoned cultivation showed that the population +is diminishing. The lower part of the valley, however, is very +populous. The villages are numerous and large, and the houses good: +they are usually built entirely or partially of wood, with high +sloping roofs, which are either thatched or covered with wood. The +cultivated lands all rest upon platforms or banks of alluvium, which +are probably analogous to those of the Tibetan valleys, though, as +they are generally faced by sloping banks covered with bush-jungle, +their structure is not so easily determined as that of the platforms +of that more barren country. + + [Sidenote: PLAIN OF KASHMIR. + _April, 1848._] + +On the morning of the 22nd of April, after following the base of the +low hills for half a mile, till the last projecting point had been +rounded, I entered the valley of Kashmir. This "celebrated valley" did +not at all come up to the expectations which I had formed from +previous descriptions, and from the appearance of the termination of +the valley of the Sind river. The first impression was one of +considerable disappointment. It was by no means well wooded, and the +centre of the valley along the river, being very low, had an +unpleasant swampy appearance. The road to the town, which is about ten +miles from Ganderbal, led over an elevated platform. There were +several villages, and plane, willow, and fruit trees were scattered +here and there, though far from abundantly. The platform was in +general covered with a carpet of green, now spangled with myriads of +dandelions and other spring flowers. The mountains on the left, which +at first were very low, gradually rose in elevation, and were +throughout rugged and bare. As I approached the town I mounted an +elephant, which formed a part of the _cortège_ sent, according to the +usual oriental etiquette, to receive an expected visitor; and I +consequently saw the town to much better advantage than I should have +done had I ridden through it on my little Ladak pony. Passing +completely through the city, I was conducted to the Sheikh Bagh, a +garden on the banks of the Jelam, at its eastern extremity, in a +pavilion in the centre of which I took up my quarters. + + [Sidenote: CITY OF KASHMIR. + _April, 1848._] + +The town of Kashmir is apparently of great extent, and seems very +densely populated. Its length is much greater than its width, as it is +hemmed in between the Jelam on the south and a lake on the north. The +principal part of the town is on the north side of the Jelam, but a +large suburb occupies the opposite bank, surrounding the Sher-Garhi, +or fortified palace of the ruler of the country. The streets are in +general so narrow, that there are but few through which an elephant +can pass; and the houses, which have mostly several stories, are built +with a wooden frame-work, the lower story of stone and those above of +brick. There are no buildings of any great note; and the elaborate +account of Moorcroft renders it unnecessary to enter into any detail. +The river is crossed by many bridges, all built of deodar-wood. + + [Sidenote: PLAIN OF KASHMIR. + _April, 1848._] + +The province or country of Kashmir consists of an extensive plain, +surrounded on all sides by lofty mountains. It is the valley of the +river Behat, or Jelam, which is separated from that of the Chenab on +the south, by rugged and often snowy ranges, and from the basin of the +Indus on the north, by the main axis of the Western Himalaya, which, +originating in the peaks of Kailas, separates the basins of the +Sutlej and the Chenab from that of the Indus. The mountains which +surround the plain of Kashmir are very lofty. Those on the north are +for the most part bare and rugged on their southern face, while those +which lie to the south appear from the plain to be magnificently +wooded with forests of pines and deciduous-leaved trees, descending +almost to their base. On both sides of the valley the mountains rise +above the level of perpetual snow, but those on the north side are +considerably more lofty than the others. Numerous transverse valleys +penetrate into these mountains, which are well cultivated in their +lower parts, and, higher up, present superb mountain scenery. On the +south side of the valley, many passes, varying in elevation from +10,000 to 14,000 feet, lead across the main chain to the Chenab valley +and the plains of India. To the north there are only two frequented +routes, that by the Garys pass towards Hasora and Deotsu, and that by +the valley of the Sind river towards Dras. At the eastern end of the +valley a high pass leads across the mountains to the valley of +Wardwan, from which travellers can reach Kargil and the Indus on the +left, and Kishtwar in the valley of the Chenab on the right. + +The flat country or alluvial plain of Kashmir, which is 5300 feet +above the sea, is about fifty miles in length, and not more than ten +or twelve miles wide. It commences close to Islamabad, where the last +spurs of the mountains at the east end of the valley disappear; and +terminates at Baramula, where the ranges, branches of the opposite +mountain chains, again advance close to the bank of the river. It is +traversed in its whole length by the river Jelam, which rises at the +east end of the valley, and winds from one side of the plain to the +other, at one time washing the base of the northern hills, at another +receding to a considerable distance from them. The Jelam flows with a +tranquil stream, and, being navigable throughout the whole of the +level country as far up as Islamabad, for boats of considerable +burden, is the great highway for the traffic of the country, in which, +notwithstanding its being perfectly level, wheel-carriages are +unknown. At Islamabad it is a very small stream, but it gradually +enlarges, by additions from both sides, as it descends. Near the town +of Kashmir it is from fifty to a hundred yards wide, often very deep, +and in few places fordable, even at the driest season. + + [Sidenote: LACUSTRINE STRATA. + _April, 1848._] + +The plain of Kashmir has evidently at one time been the bed of a lake, +a deposit of fine clayey and sandy strata, more rarely partially +indurated into a soft sandstone rock, occupying a great part of the +surface. Soft pebbly conglomerate is also occasionally met with, and +an indurated conglomerate, containing water-worn pebbles, occurs in +many places in the lower course of the Sind river. This lacustrine +formation forms elevated platforms, which are from fifty to one +hundred and fifty feet or more above the level of the river. In many +places, both on the Jelam and along the lateral streams which descend +from the mountains to join it, the beds of clay have been removed by +aqueous action. In such places the plain has a lower level, often very +little above the surface of the river, and is covered with rice-fields +or with marshy lands, undrained and not under cultivation. + + [Sidenote: LAKE OF KASHMIR. + _April, 1848._] + +The platforms of lacustrine clay are called, in Kashmir, "_karewah_." +They are often quite dry, and generally uncultivated, but where water +is procurable they are highly cultivated, yielding luxuriant crops of +wheat and barley. A proper application of artificial irrigation would, +I believe, make the whole of these more elevated parts of the plain +fertile, as the soil is everywhere well adapted for the growth of +corn. These karewahs generally run parallel to the lateral streams +which join the Jelam, and extend from the base of the mountains till +they are cut off by the river. There are, however, in the upper part +of the valley, several isolated patches, all horizontally stratified, +from which I infer that they had originally been continuous. One of +these, near Bijbeara, forms a table-topped hill of considerable +extent, surrounded on all sides by low land. Several low hills near +Islamabad, also, are evidently outlying patches of the same formation. +The sands and sandy clays of these platforms are usually quite +non-fossiliferous; but I determined the lacustrine nature of the +strata by finding, on the flanks of Takht-i-Suleiman, a hill near the +town of Kashmir, and close to the city lake, but at least thirty feet +above its level, a bed of clay, which contained, abundantly, shells of +the genera _Lymnæa_ and _Paludina_. + +The main chain of the Himalaya, north of Kashmir, consists, where I +crossed it, by the Zoji pass north of Baltal, of metamorphic schist; +and all its branches, which descend towards the plain of Kashmir, seem +to be formed of the same rock. Along the north side of the valley, +however, a series of hills of trap rise, almost isolated, out of the +plain. Ahathung, near the Wulur lake, is, I believe, the most westerly +of these, but I did not visit it, and only infer its structure from +its conical shape and from its similarity in appearance to those +further east. Near the town of Kashmir there are two of these isolated +hills, composed of an amygdaloidal trap: these are Hari-Parbat, which +is fortified, and Takht-i-Suleiman, which rises about eight hundred +feet above the plain. The former lies to the north-west, and the +latter on the north-east side of the town. + +The lake or _Dal_ of Kashmir lies to the north of the town, stretching +from the base of these two hills to the more lofty mountain range +which bounds the valley on the north. It is nearly circular and four +or five miles in diameter, but is only open in its northern half, the +end nearest the town being occupied by large islands, with narrow +channels between them, in some of which there is a good deal of +current. Its waters are discharged into the Jelam by a considerable +stream, which, flowing from its south-east corner, runs to the +westward in a course nearly parallel to the southern margin of the +lake for nearly a mile, when it turns abruptly south to enter the +Jelam in the middle of the town of Kashmir. This stream is evidently +an artificial canal, and the embankment by which it is separated from +the lake appears to have been constructed in order to keep the surface +of the latter higher than it would naturally be. The stream at its +point of exit from the lake flows through a narrow canal of masonry, +and has, when the Jelam is low, a fall of several feet. A pair of +flood-gates prevent the return of the stream in times of flood, when +the waters of the river are higher than those of the lake. + +The Wulur lake, below the junction of the Sind river with the Jelam, +appears to be similar in appearance to that close to the town, and, +like it, to owe its extent in part to artificial means. Its dimensions +are, however, much greater. There are several large marshy tracts in +different parts of the plain, which, by a little engineering, might +also be converted into lakes: one in particular, near Avantipura, is +quite under water in spring, though in summer and autumn it is only a +swamp. + + [Sidenote: CLIMATE OF KASHMIR. + _April, 1848._] + +The climate of Kashmir is the same as that of the interior valleys of +the Himalaya, but modified by its extreme western position, which +brings it within the influence of the spring rains which prevail in +Affghanistan and the countries on the lower mountain course of the +Indus. There are at least four months of winter; and in general a good +deal of snow falls. March and April are very rainy; the summer months +mostly dry and fine. The periodical rains of India cannot be said to +extend into Kashmir; but in July and August showers and thunder-storms +are said to be frequent. The spring and autumn are unhealthy seasons. +In the former, the cold rainy weather affects those who have already +suffered from the malaria produced by the action of a powerful sun on +neglected swamps. The abandonment of cultivation, in consequence of +the long oppression of the country under a foreign government, has +been the cause of the increase of marshy ground. The river in seasons +of flood rises higher than the level of the lowest portion of the +alluvial land, and is only excluded (as in Holland) by means of +artificial works along the course of the river. By the omission to +repair these _bunds_, or dykes, a large extent of country which might +be under cultivation is left in a state of swamp. + + [Sidenote: VEGETATION OF KASHMIR. + _April, 1848._] + +There is no natural forest on any part of the open plain of Kashmir, +and the cultivated trees are not numerous; the plane, poplar, and +willow are all common, with numerous fruit-trees, chiefly walnuts, +apples, apricots, cherries, and quinces. A mulberry is also common, +the dried specimens of which are in no way distinguishable from those +of the common white mulberry of Europe, with which I have compared it. +The vines are trained up the poplar-trees, rising to their very tops, +and hanging down from their summits. A species of _Celtis_, which is +commonly planted around the town, is, I think, the most tropical of +all the Kashmirian trees, being common in the warmer valleys of the +outer Himalayas; it is, however, I think, _Celtis australis_, L., a +species which is a native of western Asia and eastern Europe, and +appears to find its eastern limit in the Himalaya. + +At the time of my arrival in Kashmir, the fruit-trees were in full +blossom; the wild vegetation had, however, made very little progress, +only the earliest plants being in flower. The spring flora was +eminently European in character; not only the genera, but many of the +species, being identical with those of our own island. _Cruciferæ_ +were the most abundant natural order; and, among many others, I +collected _Draba verna_, _Capsella_, _Erysimum_, _Alliaria_, _Turritis +glabra_, and European species of _Lepidium_, _Thlaspi_, _Alyssum_, and +_Sisymbrium_. Other common forms were _Lycopsis arvensis_, +_Lithospermum arvense_, _Myosotis collina_, _Scandix Pecten_, +_Ranunculus Philonotis_, _Anagallis arvensis_, _Euphorbia +Helioscopia_, and several species of _Veronica_. None of the annual +plants were Indian forms, though a few of them were such as occur +commonly in the plains in the cold season. The shrubby vegetation was +very limited: a Juniper (_J. communis_), a _Cotoneaster_, _Rubus_, +_Rosa Webbiana_, _Zizyphus_, _Elæagnus_, _Daphne_, and two species of +_Berberis_, were the most common. A few straggling trees of _Pinus +excelsa_, which grew on the northern face of the low hill called +Solomon's Throne, were the only pines which I saw in any part of the +open valley. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[16] This juniper has a very extended range in altitude, being common +in the drier parts of the Himalaya at elevations of 12-13,000 feet, +and in some parts of Tibet, where it meets with a higher summer +temperature, even as high as 14-15,000 feet. It is the _Juniperus +excelsa_ of Wallich, and, so far as the point can be decided by dried +specimens, seems identical with specimens in the Hookerian Herbarium, +collected in Karabagh and Sakitschiwan by Szowitz, and communicated to +Sir W. J. Hooker by Fischer. The Taurian specimens of _J. excelsa_ +from Bieberstein are, however, a good deal different, and are perhaps +only a form of _J. Sabina_. + +[17] In Moorcroft's time, this place was a small village. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + + Environs of Kashmir -- City lake -- Gardens of Shalimar and + Dilawer Khan -- Pampur -- Avantipura -- Platforms of lacustrine + clay -- Mountain of Wasterwan -- Ancient city -- Clay, with + shells and fragments of pottery -- Ancient temple imbedded in + clay -- Lakes caused by subsidence -- Islamabad -- Shahabad -- + Vegetation -- Vernag -- Banahal Pass -- Valley of Banahal -- + Tropical vegetation -- Pass above Chenab Valley -- Nasmon -- + _Jhula_, or Swing-bridge -- Balota -- Ladhe ke Dhar -- Katti -- + Fort of Landar -- Mir -- Kirmichi -- Tertiary sandstones -- + Dhuns -- Seda -- Jamu. + + +During my stay in Kashmir, besides the necessary ceremonial of +complimentary visits, my chief occupation was visiting the principal +places in the vicinity. From my residence in the Sheikh Bagh I had +easy access to the river, as well as to the canal by which it +communicates with the lake. A broad road, three-quarters of a mile in +length, shaded on both sides by very fine poplar-trees, runs from the +eastern end of the town, parallel to this canal, as far as the hill +called the Takht, at the foot of which is situated the passage by +which the lake discharges its waters into the canal. The weather was +very favourable, the spring rains having terminated a day or two +before my arrival. The Kashmiris are accomplished boatmen, a great +part of the population living upon the water; and as most of the +conspicuous objects around the town are only accessible by water, I +gave pretty constant employment to a boat's crew whom I hired during +my stay. + + [Sidenote: LAKE OF KASHMIR. + _April, 1848._] + +My first visit was to the lake, and to the celebrated gardens on its +northern shore, which were the delight of the emperors who made +Kashmir their retreat from the heat and cares of Delhi and Lahore. The +southern part of the lake is very shallow, and I sailed along narrow +channels, which separated large patches of tall reeds, among which a +very narrow-leaved _Typha_ and an _Arundo_ were the commonest plants. +Three or four species of _Potamogeton_ were abundant in the lake, just +coming into flower, but most of the water-plants were only beginning +to vegetate. I saw three or four flowers of a water-lily (_Nymphæa +alba_), and could just recognize _Villarsia nymphæoides_, _Menyanthes +trifoliata_, and _Trapa_, all of which had been recorded by previous +travellers as natives of Kashmir. I looked anxiously for _Nelumbium_, +but saw no signs of it, except the withered capsules of the previous +year, many of which I observed floating on the lake. + + [Sidenote: GARDENS OF KASHMIR. + _April, 1848._] + +The gardens of Shalimar and of Dilawer Khan rise in a succession of +terraces from the margin of the lake. They are laid out in a stiff +formal style, straight walks crossing one another at right angles, and +are irrigated by means of straight water-courses, branching from a +long canal which passes down the centre, through a succession of ponds +well built in masonry, and provided with artificial fountains, which +are made to play on festivals and holidays. Pavilions of fine marble +occupy the intersections of the principal walks. Magnificent +plane-trees form the chief ornament of these gardens, which are now +much neglected; straggling bushes and a wilderness of weeds occupying +all the less conspicuous parts, while the main avenues alone are kept +a little neat. + +Although the chief beauty of the valley of Kashmir is undoubtedly the +magnificent girdle of snowy mountains by which it is surrounded, the +orchards and gardens, which are still numerous in the neighbourhood of +the capital, are charming spots, and the more so from the contrast +which they present with the barrenness of the surrounding country, and +the absolute ugliness of the swamps in the centre of the valley. Nor +should it be forgotten, when we compare the accounts given by early +travellers with the impressions made upon us by the present appearance +of the valley, that Kashmir is no longer in the same state as it was +in the days of the emperors; a long continuance of misrule, under a +succession of governors, whose only interest it has been to extract as +much revenue as possible from the unfortunate inhabitants, having +produced the only conceivable result, in abandoned cultivation, a +diminished revenue, and an impoverished people. + +On the 2nd of May I left the town of Kashmir, taking the route by the +Banahal pass, towards Jamu and the plains of India. As my road lay for +several days' journey along the course of the Jelam (or Behat, as it +is always called in Kashmir), I engaged boats for the transport of my +servants and baggage as far as Islamabad, travelling myself, however, +generally by land and on foot, in order to see the country. My first +halting-place was Pampur, seven miles from the town of Kashmir. After +traversing the magnificent avenue of poplars, which runs north-west +from the town, the road winds round the base of the Takht, the eastern +face of which is only separated from the Jelam by a low swampy tract, +a few hundred yards in breadth. East of the Takht a succession of +rugged trap hills skirt the road, but beyond these the more distant +mountains are evidently stratified. The road was grassy and quite +level, and passed through much cultivation, the young wheat and barley +being dripping with a heavy dew which had fallen during the night. A +scarlet poppy and _Adonis_ were common weeds among the corn. + + [Sidenote: AVANTIPURA. + _May, 1848._] + +Next day I travelled to Avantipura, seven miles further. The +lacustrine formations, which had made their appearance on the bank of +the river a little west of Pampur, continued to occur more or less +constantly as we proceeded eastward, and the road traversed for some +miles an elevated plain, quite bare of trees, and only partially +cultivated, while the remainder was covered with grass. The surface of +this plain was eroded by wide transverse valleys, formed by little +streams which ran towards the Jelam: these were flat, and well +cultivated, some of the wheat being already in ear. On the highest +parts of the platform the cultivation of saffron is carried on, in +beds four or five feet square, separated by deep ditches or furrows +from one another. The plant, which flowers in autumn, was now in full +leaf. + + [Sidenote: ASCENT OF WASTERWAN. + _May, 1848._] + +Behind Avantipura lies a high mountain, called Wasterwan, rising to a +height of 10,000 feet above the sea by the determination of +Jacquemont, or 4700 feet above the plain. It projects forward in an +almost isolated manner, though it is connected by a narrow ridge +behind with the general mass of the range on the north side of the +valley. On the 4th of May I ascended to the summit of this mountain, +which I found to be entirely formed of trap, partly homogeneous, and +partly amygdaloidal. Several gigantic _Umbelliferæ_, already in full +flower, were abundant in the lower parts of the open valley by which I +ascended. One of these was _Prangos pabularia_, which formed dense +thickets four or five feet high. From this open valley I got upon a +sharp ridge, grassy below but very rocky above, along which I +proceeded almost to the top; but being stopped by a precipice, I was +obliged to enter a narrow rocky ravine, by ascending which I managed +to gain the summit, which was grassy and rounded, and covered with a +few patches of snow. On the northern face of the hill snow still lay +in great quantity. The view from the top was very fine, the day being +in every respect favourable: the greater part of the valley of Kashmir +was seen spread out far below, and a complete circle of snowy +mountains bounded the horizon. The mountains to the north were seen to +be distinctly stratified. + +The commonest plants on the ascent were a beautiful rose-coloured +_Oxytropis_, and a tulip (_T. stellata_), the flowers of which, when +fully expanded, spread out like a star. A few trees of _Pinus excelsa_ +were seen on the upper part of the ridge; and in a hollow close to the +top there were about a dozen yew-trees. On the summit, though the +vegetation was not generally alpine, most of the plants of the middle +zone extending to the very top, there were many pretty little spring +flowers, which did not extend far down. A _Primula_, _Pedicularis_, +_Gentiana_, _Leontopodium_, _Corydalis_, and _Callianthemum_, were all +in flower. On the northern slope of the mountain, a wood of deciduous +trees, still bare of leaves, commenced a few yards below the summit. +At first the trees were all birch, but lower down a cherry and maple +were mixed with it; the former with young leaves, and just-formed +racemes; the latter only recognizable by the last year's leaves, which +strewed the ground. A few horse-chesnut trees were also seen near the +top. + + [Sidenote: ANCIENT CITY OF AVANTIPURA. + _May, 1848._] + +The neighbourhood of the village of Avantipura is one of the most +interesting places in which the lacustrine strata of the Kashmir +valley can be studied, as there is distinct evidence of the existence +in that place of deposits much more recent than those which extend +over the whole plain, and which were therefore formed when the valley +was occupied by a large lake. Avantipura was formerly the site of a +very large town, the capital, I believe, of the kingdom; built in the +shape of an amphitheatre in a deep semicircular bay, enclosed by two +low spurs, which project from the mountain Wasterwan, which rises +immediately behind. + +The ruins of the ancient town are still visible, consisting of heaps +of stones, some of immense size, indicative of large buildings, but +none of them showing the slightest traces by which the shape or +structure of the edifices could be determined. These ruins extend all +round the deep recess in the mountains, and terminate below quite +abruptly, without any apparent cause, in a perfectly horizontal line +along the mountain-side. The mountain behind is an isolated peak, +furrowed by numerous ravines, which are dry except immediately after +rain. The place would therefore appear singularly inappropriate as the +site of a large city, were there not, I think, sufficient evidence +that a lake existed in front of the town, the surface of which was on +a level with the horizontal line by which the ruins are abruptly +terminated. + + [Sidenote: CLAY, WITH BROKEN POTTERY. + _May, 1848._] + +The ruins of the ancient city stand upon the lacustrine clay of the +Kashmir plain, and are therefore posterior in age to the period when +the valley was occupied by one large lake. Immediately in front of the +ancient ruins, between them and the small modern village of +Avantipura, which is situated on the banks of the Jelam, there occur +beds of fine brown-coloured clay, containing in great quantity +fragments of pottery, with here and there small pieces of charcoal and +bone. In one place on the bank of a small ravine, which then probably +carried a streamlet into the lake, I found the clay to contain, mixed +with the broken pottery, numerous shells, some fresh-water and some +land species, and all the same as are common at the present day in the +river Jelam, or on the grassy hill-sides in the valley. The place +where these shells occur is fifty or sixty feet above the river. + +The appearance of this evidently very modern deposit is exactly that +which would no doubt be exhibited, were the present lake close to the +city of Kashmir dried up, and a section of its bed exposed. This lake +contains abundance of shells, and in the neighbourhood of the town it +is made the receptacle of refuse of every kind, broken pottery being +particularly plentiful. In shallow places in the river, close to the +town of Bijbehara, a similar deposit is accumulating, valves of a +_Cyrena_ being found to some depth in the fine mud, mixed with broken +pots, charcoal, bones, and other refuse. + + [Sidenote: TEMPLE IMBEDDED. + IN LACUSTRINE CLAY. + _May, 1848._] + +The most remarkable fact connected with this very recent lacustrine +deposit is, that the ruins of an ancient temple exist on the plain +above the Jelam, a little west of the modern village, partially buried +in the clay. The upper parts of two temples, resembling in all +respects the ruins on the elevated platform at Martand, near +Islamabad, stand on the open plain, not far from the river, but +perhaps twenty feet above its level, and certainly far below the level +to which the clay containing pottery rises on the hill-sides. One of +the temples is quite in ruins, the immense blocks of which it is built +being piled confusedly on one another. The beautiful colonnade +(exactly like that at Martand) by which it is surrounded, is evidently +quite uninjured in any way; but it is entirely buried under the +lacustrine clay, except a very small portion, consisting of three +pillars, which were exposed by Major Cunningham in 1847. These three +pillars may be seen in a cavity under the level of the present surface +of the ground, and the clay in which they were imbedded contains +fragments of pottery in profusion. + +If these temples (the date of which I believe is approximately known +to antiquarians) were contemporaneous with the ancient town, they must +have been buried in the lacustrine silt at some period not very long +subsequent to their erection, if I am right in supposing a lake to +have existed at the same time with the town. Probably, therefore, +they are anterior in age to the town, as they are imbedded in such +masses of pottery as could only have been accumulated in the +neighbourhood of a very dense population. Their present appearance, I +think, helps to explain the nature and origin of the many lakes or +marshy depressions which occur in all parts of the valley. It appears +evident that at Avantipura, at some period subsequent to the building +of the temples, a subsidence of the ground must have taken place +during one of the many earthquakes which are well known to have +convulsed the Kashmir valley. This subsidence, which must have been +partial, and not co-extensive with the valley, converted the ground on +which the temples stood into a lake. A fresh subsidence, or the +gradual wearing away of the incoherent clay strata lower down the +river, must at last have drained the little lake, and left the country +round Avantipura in the state in which we now see it. Even now a marsh +partly under water during the spring months extends from Avantipura +for several miles up the river. + +The occurrence of repeated partial subsidences in various parts of the +Kashmir plain appears to me the only way in which the general +appearance of the country can be explained. The abrupt, broad, and +shallow depressions between the different platforms are seemingly much +too extensive to have been formed by the trifling streamlets which now +run along them, without the assistance of volcanic action. The lakes, +too, are deeper than the present level of the river, a circumstance +only explicable in an alluvial country on some such supposition; and +as it is well known that violent earthquakes have at intervals +convulsed this valley for many centuries, this mode of explaining the +phenomena becomes highly probable. + + [Sidenote: BIJBEHARA. + _May, 1848._] + + [Sidenote: ISLAMABAD. + _May, 1848._] + +On the 5th of May I continued my journey to Islamabad, which is about +eleven miles from Avantipura. The peak of Wasterwan is the termination +of a long mountain ridge, which separates two large valleys from one +another. Immediately to the eastward, therefore, the mountains recede +from the river, and the road traverses a marshy tract, a great part of +which, from the late heavy rains, was still under water, while the +remainder was laid out in fields, prepared for the cultivation of +rice. Further on, cliffs of lacustrine clay again rose perpendicularly +from the river. Several streams joined the Jelam from both sides, some +of them deep and sluggish, with straight banks like canals, while +others were almost as large as the main stream, and broad and shallow, +with a sandy bed and gently flowing current. Near Bijbehara, a +considerable village, with many timber-built houses and a substantial +bridge of deodar, the banks are beautifully wooded with shady trees. +Above this village the Jelam is much smaller, often shallow, and the +banks lower, though still eight or ten feet above the water, and not +swampy, but either fringed with willow and mulberry trees, or bare and +covered with fields of green corn, or of rape now in full flower. The +bridge of Islamabad, which is the limit of navigation, is nearly a +mile from the town, which is a considerable place, the next in +importance to the capital, though very much smaller. It lies on low +ground close by the river, but immediately behind it a long +promontory of the lacustrine formation stretches back for several +miles, rising abruptly out of the finely cultivated and well-wooded +valley on the left, in steep, rugged cliffs, which are worn into +irregular ravines by the action of rain. These formations attain here +a thickness of at least 150 feet, and well deserve the particular +attention of the geologist. The ancient temple of Martand, the most +perfect of its class of ruins in the valley, is built on the upper and +back part of this platform. + +Leaving Islamabad, I crossed immediately one branch of the Jelam, +which descends from the west. It had already lost the tranquil +character of the stream lower down. There were pebbles in its bed, and +it had a more rapid current. After crossing this stream, the country +was for some distance quite flat, and entirely covered with +rice-fields, now bare; some of them had been ploughed, but most were +still just as they had been left after harvest. They were traversed by +numerous ditches or canals for irrigation, in all of which a +proportion of fresh-water shells, chiefly _Lymnææ_, were seen. Further +on, the appearance of the country began to change: there were still +plenty of rice-fields, but they rose in steps one above another, and +the water in the irrigation canals flowed rapidly over pebbly beds. +Crossing another branch of the Jelam, which had a broad channel full +of large boulders, but shallow and easily fordable, the road began +gradually to ascend a low range of hills covered with grass and bushes +where it was dry, but still laid out in rice-fields wherever water was +procurable. These hills, which are the termination of a long range +which descends from the snow-clad mountains at the east end of the +valley, are composed of a very hard limestone, the strata of which are +much bent, sinuated, and fractured. On the south side of this ridge is +the valley of Shahabad, which is watered by the principal branch of +the Jelam. It contains numerous villages, surrounded with fine +orchards, and its rice-fields are arranged in terraces. Water being +plentiful, the whole valley is cultivated with rice, and the district +appears to be one of the richest in Kashmir. + + [Sidenote: SHAHABAD. + _May, 1848._] + +The general character of the vegetation continues the same as further +west, and the more advanced season enabled me to recognize a few +common Himalayan plants. The scandent white rose (_R. Brunonis_) was +one of these, also _Lonicera diversifolia_ and a shrubby _Indigofera_. +I also observed _Viola serpens_, _Thymus Serpyllum_, _Lactuca +dissecta_, and _Fragaria Indica_. Among the rice-fields several plains +plants occurred, such as _Potentilla supina_, _Convolvulus arvensis_, +_Mazus rugosus_, _Salvia plebeia_, and _Marsilea quadrifolia_. Nor +were the plants of a Tibetan climate altogether wanting, for _Rosa +Webbiana_ was everywhere common, and a species of _Myricaria_ grew +plentifully among the boulders on the banks of all the streams. + + [Sidenote: FOUNTAIN OF VERNAG. + _May, 1848._] + +From Shahabad I made, on the 7th, a short march to Vernag, a +celebrated fountain near the bottom of the Banahal pass. Crossing the +river, the road lay up the open valley of the Jelam, still among +rice-fields, rising step by step behind one another, as the valley +sloped upwards. Vernag lies close to the mouth of a little lateral +valley, up which our further course lay. The fountain, which is built +of marble, is large, contains many fish, and supplies a considerable +stream. It is the reputed source of the Behat or Jelam, but the main +branch of that river descends from the mountains a good way further to +the south-west. The hills on both sides of the Shahabad valley are of +limestone, the strike of which seemed to be west-south-west, or nearly +in the direction of the valley. It is very much indurated, and its +colour is bluish-grey; it has all the appearance of having been much +altered by heat. The dip appeared different on the opposite sides of +the valley: on the north it was east of north, on the other side +southerly; the inclination of the beds varied much, and they were +often very much distorted. I did not see any eruption of igneous rock +on any part of the day's journey. + +On the hills above Vernag there was a good deal of brushwood, +consisting chiefly of _Fothergilla involucrata_, two species of +_Viburnum_, _Cotoneaster_, _Lonicera_, and a few trees of _Pinus +excelsa_, yew, and deodar. The opposite hills were bare and grassy. In +the forests of Kashmir (as was first pointed out by Dr. Falconer) we +do not find the oak, _Andromeda_, and _Rhododendron_, which are so +abundant at similar elevations in the outer Himalaya. The appearance +of the woods is, therefore, remarkably different, as these trees, +which, in the temperate zone of the mountains near the plains, +constitute almost all the forest, give the woods there a peculiar +character. + + [Sidenote: BANAHAL PASS. + _May, 1848._] + +On the 8th of May I passed from the valley of Kashmir into the basin +of the Chenab, crossing the Banahal pass, the summit of which is not +more than 10,000 feet above the sea: it is a very narrow ridge, +separating two deep valleys. Starting through rice-fields, and +passing at the upper limit of cultivation a few fields of barley and +rape, I soon entered brushwood, the same as on the hills above Vernag. +In the ravines on the left hand, snow descended below 7000 feet. +Ascending rapidly on a ridge, the brushwood gave place to a fine wood +of maple, horse-chesnut, cherry, hazel, and elm, all just bursting +into leaf. The dip of the limestone rocks was exceedingly variable, at +one time southerly, at another northerly, but the strike was, I +believe, the same as the day before. The ascent continuing rapid, the +shady side of the ridge was soon covered with snow; but the road kept +on the southern exposure, which was sometimes bare of forest. Birch at +last appeared among the other trees, and, as the elevation increased, +it began to predominate. About the same time, the limestone gave place +to a slaty rock, which was almost immediately followed by an +amygdaloid, which continued to the summit. Both the slate and the +limestone appeared to have been upheaved by the igneous rock, and I +thought the slate seemed inferior to the limestone. + +On the upper part of the ascent the birch gradually became more and +more stunted; it was here almost the only tree, with the exception of +a few specimens of _Picea Webbiana_, at the limit of forest a little +below the summit. Here the hills were bare and rocky; but the forest +did not cease on account of elevation, because on the opposite hill, +which had a northern exposure, a shady wood, chiefly consisting of +pines, rose to a level considerably higher than that of the pass, +which was a depression in the ridge, considerably overtopped by the +hills on both sides. The crest of the pass was undulating, and +covered with green-sward, among which a few spring plants were in +flower; these were a _Corydalis_, an _Anemone_, and _Primula +denticulata_. A large patch of snow occupied the northern slope, just +below the top. + +The view from the summit would have been magnificent had the day been +more favourable; but a thick haze rested over the more distant parts +of the valley of Kashmir, as well as over the southern mountains in +the direction of the plains of India. The southern slope of the range +on which I stood was bare, scarcely even a bush being visible; and the +Banahal valley, nearly four thousand feet below, appeared as a +perfectly level plain, covered with rice-fields and scattered +villages, marked by groves of trees. On the descent I followed a very +steep rocky ridge. About half-way down, the amygdaloid was replaced by +metamorphic slate, and for the remainder of the descent the rocks were +alternations of slate, very hard conglomerate, and quartz rock. The +dip of these strata was very variable, and on the face of several +spurs, at a little distance, sections were exposed, exhibiting +enormous flexures. I saw no limestone on the southern face of the +pass, except in the valley of Banahal, where there was a good deal of +a horizontally stratified limestone, very different in appearance from +that on the other side, which, as it was confined to the bottom of the +valley, and was there very local, appeared to be of much more recent +origin. + + [Sidenote: BANAHAL VALLEY. + _May, 1848._] + +After joining the Banahal river, the descent became more gradual. At +first, the valley was almost level and quite covered with rice-fields, +all under water. The villagers were busy ploughing, both bullocks and +men knee-deep in soft mud. Further on, the valley contracted, and +cultivation only occurred at intervals. In the narrower parts, the +stream was fringed with trees, but the hill-sides were still quite +bare. Round the villages there were very fine trees, chiefly walnut, +horse-chesnut, and elms, with the ordinary fruit-trees; but the plane +and black poplar do not occur, nor are any vines cultivated in the +valley. The winter is said to be quite as severe as in Kashmir; and +the elevation, so far as I could determine it by the boiling-point of +water, is a little greater, the lower villages (in one of which I +encamped) being about 5500 feet, while the highest fields are about +6000 feet. In the woods, _Fothergilla_, cherry, sycamore, and +horse-chesnut were common, just as in Kashmir. The season was much +further advanced than on the north side of the pass, all these trees +being fully in leaf, and the horse-chesnut in flower. The greater part +of the vegetation was identical with that of Kashmir, but I saw many +more species, probably only from the more advanced state of the +season. The _Zizyphus_ and rose (_R. Webbiana_) of Kashmir were still +common, and the white poplar was wild along the banks of the stream. I +did not, however, see _Daphne_ or _Myricaria_. In shady lateral +ravines an oak was frequent, the more interesting as I had seen none +in Kashmir; it was _Q. floribunda_, a species of the middle zone of +the outer Himalaya, which usually occurs at higher levels than _Q. +incana_, and lower than _Q. semecarpifolia_. + +Though the river of Banahal is a tributary of the Chenab, yet the +district has always been considered as a dependency of Kashmir, from +which it is only a short day's journey distant, while for several +days in descending towards the Chenab, the country is almost +uninhabited. Halting one day at Banahal to change my porters, I made +three marches to Nasmon, on the right bank of the Chenab, following +the course of the Banahal river during the first and part of the +second march, but afterwards leaving it, on account of its increasing +ruggedness, to cross the range on the left hand by a pass about 8000 +feet above the sea, which overhangs the valley of the Chenab. The +bounding spurs which hem in the Banahal valley descend almost +perpendicularly upon the Chenab, and dip at last very abruptly to that +river. At first, large masses of snow were visible at the sources of +all the lateral valleys, but lower down the elevation was not +sufficient, and the hills were bare. After leaving the last village of +Banahal, the bottom of the valley was for some time level and covered +with fine forest, consisting chiefly of magnificent trees of _Celtis_, +elm, and alder; the others were two species of Acer, _Fraxinus_, +_Morus_, _Populus ciliata_, and a willow. _Fothergilla_ now grew to a +small tree, and _Marlea_ made its appearance, the first indication of +an approach to a hot climate. Soon, the banks of the river became +rocky, and left no passage, so that the road ascended on the right +bank, and lay at a considerable elevation on the hill-sides, looking +down upon a richly wooded and often rocky glen. The hills were steep +and generally bare, but the ravines were often well wooded. _Pinus +excelsa_ occurred occasionally; _Quercus floribunda_ was common, and +_Q. lanata_ made its appearance. + +Before leaving the Banahal river, I had got down to about 4000 feet, +meeting latterly with some familiar plants of the warmer zone: _Pinus +longifolia_ formed dry woods, _Cedrela Toona_, a fig, _Albizzia +mollis_, and last of all, _Dalbergia Sissoo_. Still, most of the +plants of the upper part of the valley accompanied me throughout; even +the hoary oak had not disappeared, and the general appearance of the +vegetation was very different from what it would have been at the same +elevation further east, the plants of a hot climate being chiefly such +as delight in a dry heat, and are capable of enduring a considerable +amount of winter cold, provided the summer temperature be sufficiently +elevated. It was evident that the temperature was considerably lower +than it would have been at the same height in the Sutlej valley, and I +drew the same inference with regard to the humidity, from the +appearance of a number of dry-climate plants; for instance, a yellow +spinous _Astragalus_, a _Dianthus_, and _Eremurus_, an Asphodeleous +genus common in Kunawar, and other dry valleys of the Himalaya. + + [Sidenote: PASS ABOVE NASMON. + _May, 1848._] + +In the ascent of the lateral ravine, towards the pass above Nasmon, I +encountered, for the first time, _Rhododendron arboreum_ and +_Andromeda ovalifolia_, the two trees which, with the hoary oak, form +the mass of the Simla woods. The forest was now very fine, as I was on +the northern slope of the range. On the upper part of the ridge by +which I ascended, there was a grove of fine deodar-trees, and in the +bottom of the dell a shady wood of horse-chesnut and sycamore. I had +now entered a zone in which the flora was quite similar to that of +Simla; _Fothergilla_ being the only tree I observed, which is not +common in that district. And it was curious that it was on the +northern and most shady, as well as most humid exposure, that this +identity of flora became first remarkable, and that the same trees +which at Simla form the forests of the drier slopes and more exposed +situations, grew in this valley low down on the hill-sides, in the +most sheltered spots. + + [Sidenote: VEGETATION. + _May, 1848._] + +The ascent towards the ridge was latterly steep, with a good deal of +silver fir and deodar. The trees rose to the very top of the northern +slope, but, as usual, the summit was bare and grassy, though the tops +of the trees were actually higher than the crest of the ridge, and +obscured the view to the north. As the elevation was only 8000 feet, +there was no peculiarity of vegetation, all the plants being those of +the middle zone, except the silver fir, which descended to a lower +level than it usually does in the Simla hills. There was some +cultivation of wheat and barley within a very short distance of the +summit, which overlooked the valley of the Chenab; and as the day was +fortunately clear, there was a very fine view. The ravine through +which the river flowed appeared everywhere rugged, more especially +towards the plains, where a succession of steep rocky hills were seen, +the nearest of which surrounded the mouth of the Banahal river. Across +the Chenab, a high range, beautifully wooded, ran parallel to the +river, rising into a snowy peak nearly opposite to me. This peak, +which concealed all view of the plains beyond, lay on my road to Jamu, +and was about 9000 feet in height. + + [Sidenote: BRIDGE OVER THE CHENAB. + _May, 1848._] + +The descent to Nasmon, which is only 2700 feet above the level of the +sea, was very steep. At first it led along the face of a bare hill, +but soon entered a shady ravine, filled with alder, oak, walnut, and +_Celtis_, but without any of the superb horse-chesnuts which had been +so abundant in the humid valleys on the northern face of the range; +nor was there any _Rhododendron_. Crossing a considerable stream, the +road ascended through fine forest to the crest of a ridge, beyond +which there was a long and steep descent of at least 1500 feet, to the +village of Nasmon, on which tropical vegetation made its appearance +very abruptly. _Pinus longifolia_ grew scattered along the sides of +this hill, and _Daphne_, pomegranate, the olive of the Sutlej valley, +_Vitex Negundo_, _Colebrookea_, _Rottlera_, _Sissoo_, _Adhatoda +Vasica_, a thorny _Celastrus_, _Acacia modesta_ and _Lebbek_, and +_Bauhinia variegata_, made their appearance in succession, in the +order in which I have named them. Most of these are the same as the +shrubby forms common in the Sutlej valley at Rampur; but the +_Celastrus_ and _Acacia modesta_ are plants of the plains of the +western Punjab, and do not extend so far west as that river. The range +parallel to the Chenab on the north, which I had just crossed, has +probably a granitic axis, for boulders of granite were common on the +upper part of the ascent on both sides of the pass, though I did not +anywhere see that rock _in situ_. On both sides the first rock exposed +was a fine-grained gneiss, with large crystals of felspar. Lower down, +on the north face, I observed mica-slate, with garnets; and in the bed +of the Banahal river ordinary clay-slate occurred. + + [Sidenote: NASMON. + _May, 1848._] + +Nasmon is a very large but scattered village, with much cultivation. +It lies on a high platform of alluvium, considerably above the bed of +the river. Plane, orange, apricot, and pear trees grew in the +gardens, with _Melia Azedarach_, and a few trees of the European +cypress (_C. sempervirens_), bearing apparently ripe fruit. The day +was oppressively warm, the thermometer rising above 85° in the shade. + +On the 13th of May, I crossed the Chenab by a bridge about a mile +above Nasmon. The descent to the bank of the river was gradual, and +very bare. Rocks of a black clay-slate and of conglomerate, in nearly +vertical strata, formed the bed of the river, which was as large as +the Sutlej at Rampur, and very much swollen and muddy. The bridge is +the simplest form of _jhula_, a single set of ropes, from which a +wooden seat is suspended, which is pulled from side to side by means +of a rope, worked from the rocks on either side of the river. The +banks of the river were adorned with a profusion of bushes of _Nerium +odorum_, in full flower, and highly ornamental. The vegetation along +the river exhibited the same curious contrast of tropical and +temperate forms, which I have already described as characteristic of +the dry valleys of the interior of the Himalaya, at elevations between +two and four thousand feet; and the tropical plants were so similar to +those which I observed on the Sutlej, that I need not particularize +them. There was no forest in any part of the valley near the river, +but a few trees of _Pinus longifolia_ grew scattered on the bank; and +on the stony ground which skirted the stream, there was a low jungle +of the same tropical shrubs as had occurred on the lower part of the +descent the day before. I saw also _Zizyphus nummularia_, a shrub +which is eminently characteristic of a dry climate, being common in +the most desert and rainless districts of the Punjab. The shrubby +temperate forms were not numerous, being chiefly _Rosa Brunonis_, and +the Himalayan pear, _Lonicera diversifolia_, _Myrsine bifaria_, and +_Jasminum revolutum_, all plants which have a very wide range in the +Himalaya. + + [Sidenote: WILD OLIVES AND POMEGRANATES. + _May, 1848._] + +Passing through the bush jungle which skirted the river, I entered a +large tract of almost level cultivated land, covered with fields of +barley, ripe and partly cut. One or two plantain-trees, and some +buffaloes, were signs that we were still in a very hot region. +Crossing a considerable stream, the road began to ascend rapidly on a +narrow ridge. Passing some farm-houses, surrounded by fields, I +entered a scattered wood of wild olive-trees (_Olea cuspidata_), mixed +with _Zizyphus_ and wild pomegranate. The young shoots and panicles of +the olive were abundantly covered with a white floccose glutinous +matter, the source of which I could not exactly determine; but I could +see no trace of any insects by which it could have been formed, so +that it was perhaps a natural exudation from the tree. Small woods of +_Pinus longifolia_ occurred at intervals, almost alone, for few plants +seem to thrive under its shade. At 4000 feet, while the olive and +pomegranate were still abundant, _Quercus lanata_ appeared. At 4500 +feet, which was about the upper limit of the olive, I re-entered a +cultivated district, disposed in terraces on the slopes of the hills. +The barley was quite ripe, and being cut, but the wheat, though in +full ear, was still green. There were also a few fields of the opium +poppy in full flower, and of safflower (_Carthamus tinctorius_), which +was not nearly so far advanced. + +I encamped at the village of Balota, elevated 5000 feet. Round the +village were some very fine table-topped deodars, perhaps the relics +of a former forest, though more likely planted by the villagers. The +hills on all sides were richly cultivated, as far up as 6000 feet, +above which elevation fine forest commenced; and the snowy top of the +mountain behind, which I had seen from the pass of the 12th, was +visible rising behind the forest. During the whole of the ascent from +the Chenab, the rock was a coarse-grained sandstone, in highly +inclined strata, generally of a reddish-brown colour, the surface of +which rapidly passes into a state of decay. + + [Sidenote: LADHE KE DHAR. + _May, 1848._] + +The range of mountains to the south of the Chenab, by which that river +is separated from the basin of the Tawi or river of Jamu, still lay +between me and the plains of India. On the 14th of May, I crossed a +spur from this range, descending into a valley watered by a tributary +of the Chenab. This ridge, which is called Ladhe ke Dhar, rises a +little above 9000 feet, that being the elevation at which the road +crosses it. After leaving the cultivated lands of Balota, the ascent, +which was steady, lay through fine brushwood and stunted oaks. On the +banks of the stream, which occupied the centre of the valley by which +I ascended, sycamore, horse-chesnut, and cherry, were abundant. On the +slopes there were a few trees of _Pinus excelsa_ and _Picea_, but the +forest was not dense. About 7000 feet, on the north-western face of a +spur, there was much cultivation of wheat and barley, hardly yet in +ear. Here there was a fine view in the direction of the upper valley +of the Chenab, of rugged mountains, scarcely wooded on the slope +exposed to view, rising behind one another, the more distant still +heavily snowed. Higher up, the forest was chiefly formed of the +holly-leaved oak, but the latter part of the ascent was through a dark +forest of silver fir, intermixed with a few fine yews. The underwood +here was chiefly _Viburnum nervosum_, still in flower, though its +leaves were almost fully developed. On emerging from this gloomy +forest, in the upper part of which there was a thin sprinkling of +snow, I found myself on the crest of the range, which was bare and +rounded. Snow lay in large patches, and had evidently been till very +recently continuous over the whole top, as vegetation was just +commencing, and few plants were in flower. _Primula denticulata_ was +common, as well as a little gentian, which extended on both sides at +least 2000 feet lower; the only alpine plant was the little +_Callianthemum_ which I had found some days before on the summit of +Wasterwan in Kashmir. The distant view was unfortunately quite +obscured by haze, so that I could not see, as I had expected, the +plains of India. + + [Sidenote: KATTI. + _May, 1848._] + +In descending the southern face of this mountain, the road at once +entered a forest of silver fir, in the upper part of which I saw one +tree of _Quercus semecarpifolia_, a species which I had not met with +on the Kashmir passes, or anywhere since leaving the Sutlej. About +8000 feet, the pines were replaced by the holly-leaved oak, forming +open woods, in the glades of which patches of cultivation soon +occurred; I encamped at about 7000 feet, at the village of Katti. +During the day the sandstone rock occurred uninterruptedly, partly, as +the day before, of a reddish-brown colour, partly grey, or nearly +white. On the descent large angular fragments of this rock were +everywhere scattered over the surface, almost always more or less +imbedded in the soil: these had somewhat the appearance of a former +moraine, but the surface was so much covered with wood, and the +boulders were so much buried, that I could not trace their arrangement +in a satisfactory manner. + + [Sidenote: LANDAR. + _May, 1848._] + +Next morning I continued the descent, which was rapid, so that I soon +arrived at tropical vegetation. There was but little forest, except in +ravines, and the heat soon became very great. About three miles from +Katti I passed the fort of Landar, built on an almost isolated cliff, +overhanging the ravine; and a little further on I descended abruptly +to a small stream, running towards the Chenab, the elevation of whose +bed was about 3000 feet. The descent, which was almost precipitous, +led down the face of a mass of clay, in some respects like the +alluvial deposits so common in Tibet. Similar masses of alluvium, all +table-topped, and very steep, and much worn by ravines, had occurred +throughout the whole of the descent from Katti. A few pines grew on +this steep bank, and all the shrubs which I had found on the banks of +the Chenab at Nasmon were again met with. After crossing this stream, +the bed of which was filled with large water-worn boulders, I again +ascended to about 5000 feet, chiefly among cultivation, and encamped +at _Mir_, a small village close to the crest of the main range south +of the Chenab, the elevation of which was now very inconsiderable. + + [Sidenote: OPEN VALLEYS OF THE OUTER HIMALAYA. + _May, 1848._] + +Next day, a gentle ascent of half an hour brought me to the crest of +this range. The mountain slopes were bare and grassy, but in the +ravines there was now and then some brushwood. _Andromeda ovalifolia_ +and _Rhododendron arboreum_ were both noticed; and, much to my +surprise, I observed at intervals a few trees of _Fothergilla_, for I +had not expected to find this Kashmir tree so close to the plains, and +in a district the flora of which was so completely that of the Simla +hills. On the summit of the pass, which was not more than 6000 feet, I +found a beautiful gentian (_G. Kurroo_ of Royle) and a yellow spinous +_Astragalus_, seemingly the same species which I had found at Nasmon, +on the Chenab. It was curious to find a representative of the +spiny-petioled group of this genus in so hot a climate and so near the +plains; for in the rainy parts of the mountains, and in the more humid +parts of the Indian plain, the genus is almost wanting, and this +particular section entirely so. + +From the summit I descended at once through a pine-wood to the bottom +of a valley, the course of which I followed throughout the day in a +southerly direction. It gradually widened as I advanced; villages +became frequent, and were surrounded by extensive cultivation, and all +temperate vegetation disappeared. I encamped at the village of +Kirmichi, where the valley which I was following appeared to expand +into an open plain of some width. Here oranges and mulberries were +cultivated in gardens, and the toon and mango, pipal and banyan +(_Ficus religiosa_ and _Indica_) were planted in groves round the +houses. + +On the 17th of May, I continued my journey towards the plains of the +Punjab. An open, somewhat undulating valley lay before me, appearing +to stretch from east to west, and to be bounded by two ranges of +hills which had the same direction. Trikota Debi, a curious +three-peaked hill, the last culminating point of the range separating +the Chenab from the Tawi, rose some miles to the westward. To the +eastward the valley of the Tawi was open as far as Ramnagar, which was +distant about twenty miles. In crossing this open plain, or _dhun_, I +nearly followed the course of a little stream which had excavated for +itself a deep channel in the soft sandstone of which the plain was +composed. This rock was very different in appearance from the red or +grey sandstone which had accompanied us from Balota; it was pure +white, and almost horizontally stratified, while that was always +highly inclined. During the latter part of my journey of the 10th I +nowhere saw rock _in situ_, so that I had no opportunity of +ascertaining the contact of these two formations, which are probably +of very different epochs, the sandstone of the open plain being +certainly the Sewalik tertiary formation, while the red sandstone of +the higher mountains, which in the total absence of all organic +remains is as yet of uncertain age, is perhaps the same as the +gypsiferous and saliferous sandstones which skirt a great part of the +western Himalaya. + +One or two pine-trees, and some bushes of _Euphorbia pentagona_, were +almost the only features in the vegetation which distinguished this +open valley from the plains of India. On shady rocks along the stream +three or four ferns were common; the oleander also grew near water; a +dwarf date-palm occupied drier spots; and I saw a few trees of _Cassia +fistula_. Crossing a broad shallow river which flowed to the eastward +at the southern boundary of this _dhun_, in a depression faced by +cliffs of sandstone, I entered among low hills covered with scattered +trees of _Pinus longifolia_. This plant appears to grow luxuriantly on +hot dry hills; the trees did not attain a great size, but appeared +vigorous and healthy, with thick trunks and gnarled branches, exactly +like the Scotch fir, except in the great length of the leaves, which +are pendulous from the ends of the branches. + + [Sidenote: SANDSTONE RANGES. + _May, 1848._] + +On the 18th, I crossed a sandstone range, in which the strata +exhibited an anticlinal axis, dipping towards the plain on both sides. +The ascent was easy, and the summit was not above the limit of +tropical vegetation, as a banyan-tree grew on the top. The descent was +much steeper and considerably longer, the valley to the south being a +good deal lower. The road was good, being in the steeper parts paved +with large flat stones, while in the more rocky parts the sandstone +was cut into steps. A flat and well cultivated valley lay to the south +of this range, in the centre of which flowed a river, in a wide +channel several hundred feet below the level of the plain: it was very +shallow, and was crossed by stepping-stones. Another hilly tract +followed, covered with straggling bush jungle, and on the upper part +with pine-forest: this was also of sandstone, very soft, and excavated +by the various little streams which traversed it, into narrow and deep +ravines. Even foot-paths, by constant use, were sunk four or five feet +deep in the soft rock. The dip of this range was gentle, towards the +plains of India. + + [Sidenote: JAMU. + _May, 1848._] + +I encamped on the 18th at Seda, under the shade of a superb +banyan-tree, in a hollow in this sandstone range, and next day +continued my journey to Jamu. Emerging from the hills after a mile or +two, I entered a third valley, and followed the course of the little +stream by which it was watered, to its junction with the Tawi, along +which I travelled about four miles; to the town of Jamu, which is +built on the outermost range of hills, at the point where the river +Tawi finally quits the mountains. These hills rise very gently from +the plains, their southern slope forming a long inclined plane, +densely covered with a jungle of low thorny trees. The same sort of +jungle usually skirts their base to a distance of two or three miles, +or as far as the alluvial soil of the level country which lies beyond +is covered with stones and shingle. It is principally composed of +_Acacia modesta_ and _Catechu_, and of two species of _Zizyphus_. The +northern or inner face of this range of hills is very steep, often +quite precipitous; and where they overhang the Tawi, they terminate +abruptly in a line of cliffs facing the river. A similar range, but a +good deal lower, descends from the eastward towards Jamu, and, like +the other, presents a series of vertical cliffs covered with brushwood +towards the river. The town occupies the gentle slope which faces the +plains; it is a straggling and dirty place, but with some very good +houses. The principal building is the residence of Maharaja Gulab +Sing; at the time of my visit occupied by his eldest son. It is +situated on the edge of the cliff, overhanging the river, and commands +a fine view of the open valley of the Tawi below, and of the mountain +ranges to the north and east, the more distant of which were still +tipped with snow. + +The outermost range of hills, which does not rise to any great +elevation, consists entirely of loose conglomerate coarsely +stratified, the beds dipping very gently towards the plains. The +boulders of which it is composed are waterworn, and very various in +composition, but all referable to the interior ranges; a few thin beds +of sand and of a clay resembling pipe-clay, are interposed between the +strata of conglomerate. + +The very curious country through which I had been travelling since the +16th, had so much the appearance of a succession of valleys parallel +to the plains, and separated by long ranges of hills, that it was +difficult to avoid taking up that impression, which, notwithstanding, +I believe to be an erroneous one. The gentle slope of the different +tributaries which join the Tawi from the right and left, tends to keep +out of sight the longitudinal ranges parallel to that river, from +which the lateral ramifications proceed. When we obtain a detailed +survey of the district, it will be found that the lateral valleys on +each side of the Tawi do not correspond in direction, and are not +quite opposite to one another, and that the apparent uniformity is +caused by the great width of their valleys, when compared with the +elevation of the bounding ranges. The Sewalik sandstone here attains a +width of at least thirty miles, which is very much more than is found +further west. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + + Leave Jamu to return to Tibet -- Lake of Sirohi Sar -- + Vegetation of lower hills -- _Dodonæa_ -- Ramnagar -- Garta -- + Dadu, on a tributary of the Chenab -- Camp at 10,000 feet -- + Badarwar -- Padri pass -- Descend a tributary of the Ravi -- + and ascend another towards the north -- Sach _Joth_, or pass -- + Snow-beds -- Camp in Chenab valley. + + +On my arrival in Kashmir, I had forwarded an application to the Indian +Government, requesting permission to return to Tibet, for the purpose +of visiting the mountains north of Nubra, which, from the advanced +state of the season, I had been unable to do the previous year. Soon +after reaching Jamu, I received intimation that the Governor-General, +Lord Dalhousie, had been pleased to accede to my request. I had +already determined, if permitted to return to Le, to take the route by +Zanskar, which, though much frequented by the natives of the country, +was quite unknown to European travellers; but as the season was far +advanced, I chose a road through the higher hills, instead of taking +that leading directly to Chamba, which would have obliged me to travel +for at least a week through the hot valleys of the outer ranges. + + [Sidenote: LAKE OF SIROHI SAR. + _May, 1848._] + +I left Jamu on the morning of the 23rd of May. After crossing the +Tawi by a ferry immediately below the town, my road lay for three +miles up the left bank of that river, along an open sandy plain, only +very partially cultivated. I then turned to the right, and entered the +low hills which skirted the plain on that side. The road generally +followed the course of the ravines, which have been excavated out of +the soft sandstone by the numerous tributaries which descend to join +the Tawi. These streams are all of small size, with gravelly or sandy +beds, and are separated by low ridges of some breadth, faced generally +by perpendicular cliffs. An undulating country of this nature occupies +the whole of the space which intervenes between the outer range of +hills and that next to it, a distance, by the road along which I +travelled, of about twelve miles. This second range is a branch given +off by an axis, whose direction is nearly east and west. The road +ascended to it by a very steep rocky path, after surmounting which I +found myself on a considerable tract of nearly level ground, partly +occupied by a pretty little lake, with grassy banks. On the banks of +this lake, which is called Sirohi Sar, and is rather less than half a +mile in length, I encamped on the 24th of May, in a grove of very fine +mango-trees. The depth of the lake did not appear great, its margins +being for a considerable distance very shallow, and producing an +abundance of reeds and water-plants, among which the sacred +_Nelumbium_, with its gay flowers, was conspicuous. The elevation of +the lake, as deduced from the boiling-point of water, I found to be +2200 feet. It occupies a depression in the top of the ridge, being +surmounted on both sides by low ranges of hills, rising only to the +height of a few hundred feet. At the east end, a low flat plain, +interrupted only by a few regular rocky knolls, seemed to indicate +that the size of the lake had formerly been more considerable than at +present. + + [Sidenote: VEGETATION OF SANDSTONE HILLS. + _May, 1848._] + +The vegetation of the country between Jamu and Sirohi Sar was entirely +of a tropical character. The rocky hills were in many places covered +with thinly scattered pines, all of small size, and generally with +much-contorted trunks, but apparently healthy and vigorous. In the +cultivated grounds the plants were identical with those of the plains, +but, as is usual in all hilly countries, the barren tracts produced a +flora of a different character. _Nerium odorum_ was abundant on the +banks of streams, and I met with _Cassia fistula_, _Punica_, species +of _Rhus_ and _Casearia_, as well as the curious _Euphorbia +pentagona_, and now and then the beautiful _Bauhinia Vahlii_. _Acacia +modesta_ and a _Zizyphus_ were the most common trees. The lake +produced a great variety of water-plants, but except an _Alisma_ and +_Dysophylla_, both of which were new to me, the species seemed all +natives of the plains. + +On the 25th of May, I proceeded along the side of the ridge in an +easterly direction, passing several small flat-bottomed depressions, +apparently the sites at a former period of small lakes, similar to +that from which I had commenced my march. The road was rocky and +rugged, and gradually rose several hundred feet to the crest of the +ridge. Pine-trees were generally plentiful. On reaching the top, +shortly after daybreak, a fine wide undulating valley was seen below, +bounded on the north at the distance of about ten miles by a third +range of mountains, and traversed by several streams, which had +excavated for themselves deep perpendicular-sided ravines in the +sandstone strata. All these streams had a westerly course to join the +Tawi, which, issuing from a deep valley behind the third range, +crossed the open plain in a south-west direction. + + [Sidenote: SANDSTONE RANGES. + _May, 1848._] + +Leaving the ridge, the road descended gradually to the plain, and +after crossing a deep ravine, with precipitous walls, continued +through a fine level country to the village of Thalaura, about a mile +from the third range of hills. The sandstone frequently contained a +few waterworn pebbles scattered through it; and a bed of coarse +conglomerate, with an indurated matrix, capped the cliff above this +ravine. Some strata of indurated clay and soft slate also alternated, +but rarely, with the sandstone. The plain was well cultivated, being +chiefly laid out in rice-fields; and the people were all busy +ploughing, sowing rice, and harrowing with a log of wood, drawn by +bullocks and kept down by the weight of a man. + +On the earlier rocky part of the road, the vegetation was much the +same as the day before. _Dodonæa_ was common, as it is in most parts +of this hilly tract, never, however, rising out of the tropical belt. +I do not know how far to the eastward of Jamu this plant extends; but +as it does not seem to occur to the east of the Sutlej, and probably +stops much sooner[18], it appears to prefer a rather dry climate, and +will, I think, be found limited to the drier portion of the Peninsula, +from which it probably extends through Central India, and along the +hilly country west of Sind. On the open plain the pines entirely +disappeared, and the aspect of the vegetation was entirely that of the +plains of India. + +From Thalaura I marched, on the 26th of May, to Ramnagar, crossing the +third range of hills, the ascent of which was at first very steep and +rocky, over a made road, paved with large stones, in many places much +out of repair. This range was also sandstone, dipping to the north at +a gentle angle; some strata of indurated clay occurred between the +beds of sandstone. These hills were precipitous to the south, and +sloped gently towards the north, in the direction of the dip. The tree +_Euphorbia_, which, with its stiff fleshy branches springing in +verticils of five from the stem, forms a striking feature in the +vegetation of the lower hills, was common on the ascent, and the +yellow spinous _Astragalus_, which I had observed between the Chenab +and Jamu a fortnight before, was frequent on both sides of this ridge; +but even at the top, except one species of _Indigofera_, no plants +indicating elevation were met with: on this account I omitted to +determine the height of the range by the boiling-point of water, but +comparing its elevation with that of Ramnagar, which was in sight, I +estimated that it might be about 3600 feet. To the north lay another +valley, considerably more rugged than that crossed the day before, and +evidently much more highly inclined, as its eastern termination was +not far distant. This valley was traversed by the principal branch of +the Tawi, the source of which is in the mountains east of Ramnagar. + + [Sidenote: RAMNAGAR. + _May, 1848._] + +The descent from this range was very gradual, the road running +obliquely to the eastward, among scattered pine-trees, over bare +sandstone rocks, till it reached the bank of a small stream separated +from the Tawi by a low range of hills. During the descent, a number of +plants of Himalayan forms made their appearance, which had not +occurred before: these were a berberry, _Rubus flavus_, and _Myrsine +bifaria_. _Olea cuspidata_ was seen lower down, and a species of alder +grew in shady ravines along the edge of the stream. In the bottom of +the valley, the mixture of the forms of the middle and lower zones was +curious and interesting. _Pinus longifolia_ occurred with _Phoenix +sylvestris_, alder with _Rondeletia_ and _Rottlera_, pear with +_Sissoo_, and _Fragaria Indica_ and _Micromeria_ with _Trichodesma_ +and _Solanum Jacquini_. At the same time, it was evident that in this +dry stony valley the tropical species, which formed the majority, were +more at home than the stragglers which had descended from above. + +After ascending for a short distance along the banks of the little +stream, the road crossed it, and after a short steep ascent from the +right bank, the remainder of the day's journey was nearly level, along +the sides of hills, or over a high table-land to Ramnagar, a small +town and fort, formerly the residence of Rajah Suchet Sing, since +whose death the place has been rapidly falling to decay, most of the +shops of its well-built bazaar being now empty. There were in the +neighbourhood one or two large gardens, in which the trees and plants +were nearly all Indian, _Sissoo_ and _Melia Azedarach_ being the most +common. A single plane-tree was scarcely an exception; for though +undoubtedly more at home at greater elevations, the plane (like the +poplar and many of the fruit-trees of temperate climes) does not +refuse to grow even in the plains, as is proved by the occurrence of a +number of trees of it of considerable size and apparently healthy in +gardens at Lahore. + + [Sidenote: GARTA. + _May, 1848._] + +Leaving Ramnagar on the morning of the 27th, I continued to ascend the +valley of the Tawi for about three miles, the road running along the +sides of the hills among rich cultivation at a considerable height +above the stream. It then descended somewhat abruptly to the river, +and soon crossed to the right bank, from which a steep ascent +commenced at once, and continued, with one or two interruptions of +level cultivated ground, to the end of the day's journey. The ascent +had throughout a southern exposure, and was in consequence generally +bare of trees, and dry and grassy. Much cultivated land was met with, +wherever the ground was sufficiently level to admit of it. I encamped +at a small village, or rather cluster of farmhouses, called Garta, at +a height of about 5800 feet. From the bare grassy nature of the ascent +and its hot sunny exposure, the number of species of plants which +occurred was very limited, and the change of vegetation much less +marked than in better-wooded regions of these mountains. A few oaks +(_Q. lanata_) made their appearance about half-way up, or perhaps at +4500 feet. + +During this day's journey, I believe that I passed the point of +contact of the tertiary sandstone with the more ancient rock, for on +the ascent after crossing the river, the strata were very highly +inclined, and often bent into large curves. The rock was also more +indurated, and different in colour and appearance from that of the +outer hills. I did not, however, observe the place where the change +took place. + + [Sidenote: PATA. + _May, 1848._] + +Next day, the ascent continued equally steep and bare as the day +before, and there was still much cultivation, wherever the surface was +sufficiently level for the purpose, or could be made so by means of +terracing. During the preceding day's march, the fields of wheat and +barley had been for some time cut, but here, though generally ripe, +they were still standing. On attaining an elevation of about 7000 +feet, the steep spur which I had been ascending joined the main ridge, +and the road, turning to the east, entered a thick forest of small +oak-trees (_Q. lanata_) through which it continued, alternately +descending and ascending a little, as it entered the recesses or +advanced along the projecting ridges. The greatest height attained may +have been about 8000 feet, and the summit of the range, which was +frequently visible, did not seem to be above 1000 feet higher. After +about three miles of forest, the hills again became bare, and +continued so till the end of the march, which terminated by an abrupt +descent of 600 or 700 feet to a ravine, and an equally steep ascent to +the village of Pata, which was elevated about 7500 feet. Throughout +the day, the vegetation, both in the forest and on the open tracts, +was identical with that of the Simla hills. The forest consisted of +oak, _Rhododendron_, and _Andromeda_. Pines were visible at the very +top of the ridge, but did not cross to the southern exposure: they +appeared to be _Picea Webbiana_ (_Pindrow_). The village at which I +encamped was of considerable size, with extensive wheat cultivation, +very luxuriant and in full ear, but still quite green. Many trees of +the glabrous holly-leaved oak were scattered among the fields, which, +from the lateral branches having been lopped off by the villagers, +rose to a great height with an erect poplar-like trunk, bearing only a +small tuft of branches at the top, in a manner very foreign to the +usual habit of the tree. + +On the 29th of May I crossed the range along which I had travelled the +previous day, and descended into a valley watered by a tributary of +the Chenab, running towards the north-west. The ascent, which was bare +and grassy, amounted only to about 1000 feet in perpendicular height. +Close to the top, a few trees of _Picea_ made their appearance, while +I was still on the south face of the ridge, and on gaining the crest +of the pass, I found that the northern slope was occupied by a fine +forest of the same tree. As the range was not sufficiently elevated to +produce any really alpine plants, the vegetation presented little +worthy of note. _Viburnum nervosum_ was the commonest shrub, and an +_Anemone_, a _Ranunculus_, the common _Gypsophila_ and _Trifolium +repens_ were the herbs which predominated at the top. + + [Sidenote: VALLEY OF DADU. + _May, 1848._] + +The road descended rapidly through fine forest. The sombre silver fir +was, after a short descent, mixed with plenty of horse-chesnut and +sycamore, and of the glabrous-leaved oak. Lower down, deodar and +_Abies Smithiana_ also appeared, and on arriving in the valley, the +forest gave place to cultivated fields, with only a few oak-trees +scattered among them. The road now ascended the valley, which was +tolerably open and well cultivated. The stream ran through a deep +ravine, with steep, well-wooded, often rocky banks, far below the +level of the cultivation. I encamped at an elevation of about 6800 +feet, at a village called Dadu, or Doda, situated on the edge of a +small open plain, covered with luxuriant crops of wheat. + +Near the village, and along the edges of the cultivation, were +numerous apricot-trees of large size; and a willow, apparently the +same which occurs in Kashmir (_S. alba_) was commonly planted. The +general appearance of the place was very much that of the villages in +lower Kunawar; and I was much interested to find that although the +greater part of the vegetation was the same as is common in the outer +ranges of the mountains, a few plants indicative of a drier climate +were to be seen. I was particularly surprised to find that _Quercus +lanata_, _Rhododendron arboreum_, and _Andromeda ovalifolia_, three +trees which are everywhere most abundant in the outer ranges of the +Himalaya in the temperate zone, had entirely disappeared. The Kashmir +_Fothergilla_ was not uncommon, and I noted at least four or five +herbaceous plants, which I had first met with in that valley or in +Kunawar. + +On the northern face of this range, between Pata and Dadu, the +sandstone, which had continued since I left the valley of the Tawi, +was replaced by a succession of metamorphic slates, sometimes very +micaceous. In the valley of Dadu, boulders of gneiss, with crystals of +felspar from one to three inches in length, were common, but the rock +did not occur _in situ_. + +The range of mountains bounding the valley on the south, did not +appear to rise anywhere to a greater height than between 9000 and +10,000 feet, and where I crossed it, was not, I should think, higher +than 8500. Immediately to the east of this low pass, however, it began +to rise rapidly, and at the head of the valley lay a high snowy +mountain, evidently a projecting peak of a long range descending from +the north-east, and forming the boundary between the basins of the +Chenab and the Ravi. This range, which in most places must be upwards +of 11,000 feet, and which in some probably rises to 14,000, must, I +think, to some extent check the progress of the masses of clouds +during the monsoon, and therefore tend to diminish the quantity of +rain, particularly as the rain-clouds come from the eastward, on which +account the lower altitude of the ridge to the south-west is of less +importance. + +Halting at Dadu on the 30th of May, my road on the 31st lay up the +valley towards the snowy range to the eastward. Cultivation did not +continue beyond the village; and after a steep, somewhat rocky ascent +and descent over a bare spur, I followed the course of the stream as +nearly as the precipitous nature of its banks would permit, through a +forest of sycamore, walnut, alder, horse-chesnut, and holly-leaved +oak. Pines also were abundant, of the four common species: namely, +deodar, spruce, silver fir, and _Pinus excelsa_. After following the +course of the river for about a mile, the road crossed a large lateral +tributary descending from the right, and ascended a steep bare spur +between it and the main stream for perhaps 500 feet, after which it +ran for some distance through fields of wheat still green, at first at +a considerable distance above the stream, the bed of which, however, +rose so rapidly that a very short descent brought me again to its +banks. I then re-entered a beautiful forest, principally pine, in +which the _Pindrow_ was now the most common tree, bearing in abundance +its erect purple cones. As the road rose rapidly, the vegetation soon +began to change: _Syringa Emodi_, a currant, and other plants of the +sub-alpine zone, making their appearance. The most common shrubby +plants were _Viburnum nervosum_ and _Spiræa Lindleyana_, both of which +occurred in vast quantity. For perhaps a mile and a half, the valley +was extremely beautiful; the torrent being rocky and rapid, and the +forest very fine. The road then crossed the stream by a good wooden +bridge, and a steep ascent commenced. As the forest was confined to +the bottom of the valley, I soon emerged on dry grassy slopes. The +precipitous nature of the banks rendered it necessary to ascend nearly +1000 feet, after which the road was again level along the dry mountain +slope facing the south. The bed of the stream rose very rapidly, so +that the road soon re-approached it; and when nearly on a level with +it, I again entered forest, in which _Quercus semecarpifolia_, the +alpine oak of Himalaya, was the prevailing tree. After about a mile, +having attained an elevation of 10,000 feet, I encamped on an open +grassy spot in the forest. The ravines facing the north had for some +time been full of snow, but I had got close to camp before any +appeared in those on the right bank, along which the road lay. A +snowy peak, the upper part of which was high above the level of trees, +lay to the south-east. + + [Sidenote: ASCENT TOWARDS PASS. + _May, 1848._] + +In the lower part of the ascent, the rock was clay-slate; but near my +camp it was succeeded by the same gneiss, with large crystals of +felspar, which I had found (in boulders) around Dadu. In general +appearance, this gneiss was very similar to that observed on the +mountains north of Nasmon, on the Chenab; and as these two places have +nearly the same relative position as the usual line of strike in the +north-western Himalaya, it is very probable that the rock is the same +in both. + +On the morning of the 1st of June, I continued to follow the course of +the stream, ascending now very gently. The valley was open, and the +road lay over undulating grassy ground, the forest having receded to +some distance on both sides. Round my camp I had noticed very little +in the vegetation different from what was common one or two thousand +feet lower; but almost immediately after starting, I found myself +among numerous bushes of _Rhododendron campanulatum_ in full flower, +and many other alpine plants appeared very shortly afterwards: of +these, perhaps the most lovely was the elegant _Primula rosea_, which +was extremely plentiful in hollow marshy spots from which snow had +recently melted. + + [Sidenote: PASS SOUTH OF BADARWAR + _June, 1848._] + +The ascent continued exceedingly gentle till close to the end, when, +turning suddenly to the left into a pine-clad ravine, a few steps +brought me to the crest of the ridge over which my road ran,--a +lateral spur from the great snowy mass, which (as is often the case) +was a good deal lower where it branched off than at a greater +distance from the main range. After gaining the crest of the ridge, I +followed it for a few hundred yards previous to commencing the +descent. I had unfortunately somewhat rashly concluded, the day +before, that the ascent during the day would be very trifling, and +therefore did not carry with me the means of ascertaining the +elevation of the pass; I believe, however, that it a little exceeded +11,000 feet. It was still in the forest zone. The trees were mostly +the alpine oak, with a few scattered individuals of _Pinus excelsa_. +At a short distance, on the more shady slope, and still higher than +the pass, _Picea_ was plentiful. The highest level of trees only rose +a few hundred feet above me, and the lofty snowy peak which lay to the +southward, attaining a height of probably little under 14,000 feet, +was quite bare. + + [Sidenote: BADARWAR. + _June, 1848._] + +I reached the summit of the ridge between nine and ten A.M., at which +time a dense mass of heavy clouds filled the whole of the valley +below, while the sky above was perfectly clear. Vivid flashes of +lightning were seen, accompanied by loud thunder, and the clouds were +in violent commotion, being driven about by violent gusts of wind; but +in less than half an hour they had entirely disappeared, disclosing a +most magnificent view, bounded only by the grand snowy range beyond +the Chenab, stretching in both directions as far as the eye could +reach. Much nearer lay a second range of snowy mountains, evidently +that which runs parallel to the Chenab on the south. Still nearer were +other ranges of mountains, which, from the elevation at which I +stood, looked like gently undulating hills. Immediately below, lay +the rich and fertile valley of Badarwar, to which the descent was +extremely rapid, down the face of a projecting spur, densely covered +for the upper half of the way with forest. At the top of the pass, +there were here and there, on slopes facing the north, large patches +of snow, especially under the shade of trees, but on the descent it +appeared only in the most shady ravines. As the elevation diminished, +the same change in the forest was observed as during the ascent. The +alpine oak and spruce gave place to horse-chesnut, sycamore, and +holly-leaved oak, with deodar and spruce. Lower down, cultivation +appeared, and the road, lying on the southern slope of the spin, was +generally bare and grassy, with only a few scattered deodar-trees of +small size. At the base of the descent, clay-slate rocks replaced the +gneiss. + +The town of Badarwar is of considerable size, containing, I should +think, not less than from three to four hundred houses, all, however, +small and without any indication of wealth. It lies at the elevation +of 5800 feet, in the upper part of a valley watered by a tributary of +the Chenab, from which it is distant, according to Vigne, twelve or +fourteen miles. Round the town the valley is two or three miles in +width, and completely covered with fields, rising in terraces one +above another. Some rice is cultivated, but millet and Indian corn, +neither of which were yet sown, are, I was informed, the principal +produce. + +The vegetation of the valley of Badarwar was hardly at all different +from that of the one which I had just left, and the few new forms +which occurred were for the most part Kashmir species. _Quercus +lanata_, and the trees usually associated with it, did not occur; but +_Fothergilla_ was plentiful in the woods on the hill-sides, and in +open exposed sunny places a Kashmir _Daphne_ and _Zizyphus_ were +common: both of these species, however, are natives of the Sutlej +valley. In the shady ravines a species of _Philadelphus_, and the +_Nima_ of Hamilton, were met with. Vines were cultivated near the +town, as well as a few trees of _Populus nigra_, and a rough +small-leaved elm, which grew to a gigantic size. + +From Badarwar two roads were open to me, by either of which I could +reach Chatargarh on the Chenab, from which place there is a road into +Zanskar. One of these follows the course of the Badarwar valley to its +junction with the Chenab, and ascends that river by Kishtwar; the +other crosses the mountains to the eastward, so as to get into the +valley of the Ravi, and to join the road which leads from Chamba to +Zanskar. Of these I selected the latter, which appeared to present the +advantages of being less known, of leading through a more elevated +country, and also (as I was led to believe) of saving several days. + + [Sidenote: PADRI PASS. + _June, 1848._] + +I started from Badarwar on the morning of the 3rd of June, and +proceeded up the valley in a south-easterly direction, towards the +Padri pass, a depression in the range which separates the districts +drained by the Chenab from those whose waters run towards the Ravi. At +first the road lay through cultivation. The fields of barley were +ripe, those of wheat still green, and considerably more backward than +at the same height in valleys more distant from the snow. The +elevation of the valley increased gently but steadily, and its +breadth gradually diminished as I advanced, the fields becoming +reduced to a narrow strip along the bank of the stream, and then +ceasing altogether. The road lay on the right bank, and was generally +open, but the opposite slopes and ravines were often prettily wooded. +After three miles the road began to ascend the hill-sides on the north +of the valley, for about a mile gently, but afterwards more steeply. +The hill-sides were bare, but on the opposite side of the valley there +was a fine forest; and as soon as the road had attained the crest of +the ridge or spur, the same dense forest was observed to cover the +whole of its steep northern face, stopping abruptly at the top. As the +elevation increased, the trees and herbaceous vegetation exhibited the +same gradual change which I had noted on the ascent two days before, +and I met with very few species which I had not collected at that +time. In the shady woods on the northern slope of the ridge, I found +the little Kashmir _Hepatica_, another instance of the extension to +the eastward of plants characteristic of that valley. Near the top +_Thermopsis barbata_ was plentiful, in full flower, on open stony +banks. The ascent continued steep to the top of the pass, the height +of which was 10,000 feet. The top was nearly level for some distance, +and was covered with large patches of snow. The continuation of the +range to the north was undulating and grassy, and the hills of very +moderate elevation above the level of the pass. To the southward they +rose abruptly to a considerable height, and the ravines were filled +with forest. I encamped on a grassy plain close to the top. The +morning had been cloudy, and after eleven A.M. it rained smartly till +evening; the temperature at sunset was 47½°. + + [Sidenote: LANGERA. + _June, 1848._] + +Next morning, before commencing the descent, I ascended a ridge on the +mountains to the south, to the height of about 1000 feet above the +pass. The snow had evidently only just melted from the greater part of +the surface; it still lay in large patches under the trees, and the +spring plants were just bursting into flower. The forest, as is +usually the case at that height, was principally the alpine oak. A +rose, willow, currant, cherry, _Lonicera_, and _Viburnum nervosum_ +were bursting into leaf, and _Rhododendron campanulatum_ was abundant +and in full flower. The greater part of the herbaceous vegetation +consisted of _Primula denticulata_, a yellow _Corydalis_, and species +of _Thermopsis_, _Anemone_, _Caltha_, _Onosma_, _Potentilla_, +_Valeriana_, _Trillium_, and _Gentiana_. I continued to ascend to the +limit of herbaceous vegetation, stopping only where the ground was +uninterruptedly covered with snow. The uppermost level of trees was +still at least 500 feet above me. In descending I followed the course +of a ravine full of snow, the sides of which were covered by a dense +forest of silver fir. + +After reaching the direct road from the pass, which I had quitted to +ascend the hills in the morning, there was a short ascent over a low +spur, and then a long and very steep descent, to the bottom of a deep +rocky ravine, so narrow and sheltered from the sun's rays, that the +stream was still covered with a great thickness of snow. Over this I +crossed to the north side of the valley, down which the road ran for +the remainder of the march, descending at first with great rapidity, +but on the latter half much more gently. There was plenty of fine +forest, but, as usual, it was for the most part confined to the south +side of the valley. The road lay along grassy slopes, sometimes steep +and rocky, at other times, where there was any extent of tolerably +level ground, covered knee-deep with a rank herbage of dock, +_Polygona_, thistles, and a variety of other plants not yet in flower. +It was in general at a considerable height above the bottom of the +valley, which was deep and gloomy, and filled with snow during a great +part of the way. I encamped at a village called Langera, at the height +of about 7600 feet, and was surprised to observe large patches of snow +still lying on the banks of the stream, at least three hundred feet +below me. + + [Sidenote: DEGHI. + _June, 1848._] + +On the 5th of June, my road again lay on the left side of the valley, +and usually along the hill-sides at some height above the stream, to +which it descended only once or twice. The valley was very pretty, +being generally deep and more or less rocky, and on the south side +well wooded. For the first three miles, large patches of snow were +seen now and then in the most shady parts, more than once covering +over the stream. The forest presented a good deal of variety. Except +_Picea_, all the common pines occurred, as well as horse-chesnut, +cherry, elm, _Celtis_, _Populus ciliata_, and holly-leaved oak. +_Fothergilla_ was very common all along, and on the latter half of the +march _Quercus lanata_ and _Andromeda ovalifolia_ made their +appearance. The occurrence of these trees I regarded as a sure +indication that the rains were somewhat more heavy than on the west +side of the pass, and as a confirmation of the view I had taken when +in Badarwar, that the climate of that valley was considerably +modified by the occurrence of a high and partially snowy range to the +eastward. Throughout the day's journey there was a good deal of +cultivation, always considerably above the stream; and at the village +of Deghi, at which I encamped, at about 5800 feet, the fields of wheat +were being cut, clearly showing that the climate was much milder on +the east side of the pass than at the same elevation in Badarwar, +where they had been still quite green two days before. + +On the 6th of June, I again followed the course of the valley, at a +considerable height on the steep but well-cultivated hill-sides +overlooking a deep and pretty glen. The slopes along which the road +ran were bare, or covered with scattered brushwood, trees only +occurring in ravines, but the opposite bank was usually well wooded. I +encamped at a small village called Buju (just below 5000 feet), +considerably higher than the bottom of the valley. The vegetation was +in most respects (except the occurrence of _Fothergilla_, which was +plentiful) what is usual in the neighbourhood of Simla, at similar +elevations. Several species of the sub-tropical belt occurred, mixed +with the ordinary plants of the middle zone, such as _Marlea_, +_Albizzia mollis_, _Olea cuspidata_, _Xanthoxylon_, and others, and in +the neighbourhood of Buju _Pinus longifolia_ was common on the south +side of the valley. + +From Badarwar to the summit of the Padri pass, and throughout the +descent, clay-slate had been the prevailing rock. It varied much in +appearance, and latterly it alternated with a conglomerate, and was +often very fragile, splitting into thin shaly layers. Near the +village of Dewar, a hard bluish limestone occurred in considerable +quantity, close to the river. + + [Sidenote: DISTRICT OF CHAMBA. + _June, 1848._] + +The general direction of my journey, while descending this valley, had +been south-east, the elevation of the mountains on my left hand having +been too great to permit me to turn to the north. On this march, +however, about three miles from its termination, at a village called +Dewar, I left the road to Chamba, which there crosses the stream and +proceeds direct over low hills to the Ravi, while the valley (and my +road) turned suddenly to the north-east. A little below my camp at +Buju, the river resumed its former direction, and, uniting itself with +a large stream descending from the northward, took a southerly course, +to join the Ravi. + + [Sidenote: VALLEY NORTH OF CHAMBA. + _June, 1848._] + +Along the valley, which descended from the north, ran the road from +Chamba to Chatargarh on the Chenab, and on the 7th I proceeded in that +direction. The two streams, at their junction, flowed through an +extremely deep rocky ravine, so that I had several fatiguing ascents +and descents before I succeeded in passing into the valley which I +wished to ascend. I was, however, gratified, at the highest part of +the road, where I turned for the first time fairly towards the north, +by a superb view of the snowy range, towards which I was now +travelling. On the 8th and 10th of June (having halted on the 9th) I +continued to ascend the valley, encamping on the latter day at 8000 +feet. During both days, many parts of the road were very rocky and +difficult, with frequent steep ascents. At other times, when it was +more level, very long detours were necessary, to pass deep lateral +ravines. The valley was in general open, and the hill-sides only +sparingly wooded, though at intervals along the stream there was a +fine and dense forest of oaks, horse-chesnut, laurels, and _Celtis_. +The ranges of mountains on both sides were tipped with snow, and from +my camp of the 10th the snowy range in front appeared so close, that I +could scarcely give credence to the assurances of my guides that I was +still a good day's journey from its base. + +Since I had left Jamu, the weather had been very uniform. The mornings +were generally fine, with a cloudless sky and little or no wind; +towards the afternoon, or if not then, certainly in the evening or +during the night, clouds collected, and it rained heavily. This was of +daily occurrence; sometimes the rain lasted for several hours, but +before morning the sky was always serene. The atmosphere was hazy, as +is usually the case in the Himalaya during the dry season, before the +accession of the rains. + + [Sidenote: ALPINE VEGETATION. + _June, 1848._] + +On the 11th, I continued to ascend the valley. At the commencement of +the march, the hills were bare and open, and the vegetation was still +entirely that of the middle zone. There was a good deal of +cultivation, and the wheat was still green. After crossing several +ravines, the road began to ascend rapidly through a wood of small +trees of holly-leaved oak, interspersed with numerous small patches of +cultivation. Among the corn, _Adonis æstivalis_, and a number of other +common Kashmir weeds, were abundant, and apricot-trees were commonly +planted. By degrees, other trees were mingled with the oaks, and the +forest became very dense, with luxuriant undergrowth of _Indigoferæ_, +_Spiræa Lindleyana_, and _Philadelphus_, and a vine was common, +climbing up the trunks of the trees. Numerous open glades, covered +with a luxuriant herbaceous vegetation of dock and other rank plants, +were met with in the forest, which, though not so beautiful, a good +deal resembled that of Mahasu, near Simla. On the opposite and shady +side of the valley, the forest seemed to be chiefly composed of pines. +As the elevation increased, silver fir and alpine oak began to appear, +and soon became the only trees in the forest. The ravines were now all +full of snow, the oaks were still in flower, and there was little or +no vegetation under their shade, except in swampy places, where a +bright yellow _Caltha_ and a pink _Dentaria_ were in full flower. I +encamped at 10,600 feet, on an open grassy spot overlooking a deep +ravine full of snow, which lay between me and the snowy range in +front. + +On emerging from the forest, which extended close to my camp, I found +myself surrounded by a truly alpine vegetation. _Rhododendron +campanulatum_, which is certainly, when _en masse_ and in full flower, +the pride of our northern Indian mountains in early spring, was in +vast abundance and great beauty. The hills around were covered with +birch; _Rhododendron lepidotum_, _Gaultheria trichocarpa_, _Deutzia +corymbosa_, willows, and many other alpine shrubs, covered the rocks, +and the moist grassy sward of the open spots was adorned with the +brilliant flowers of _Primula denticulata_, _Corydalis Govaniana_, +_Gagea_, _Caltha_, and other plants. The sky was brilliantly clear, +the very heavy rain of the preceding day having, for the time, quite +removed the usual haze, and the view from my tent was superb. The last +village in the valley was many miles behind, and no cultivation was +anywhere in sight. The opposite spurs, which rose, like that on which +my tent was pitched, abruptly from the snowy ravine, were beautifully +wooded, up to the limit of forest, while all above was covered with +snow. + + [Sidenote: ASCENT TOWARDS + SACH PASS. + _June, 1848._] + +On the 12th of June, I crossed the snowy range into the valley of the +Chenab. At starting, the road lay through forest, which covered the +precipitous face of the rocky hill overhanging the deep ravine above +which I had encamped. After crossing the ravine, which was full of +snow, the road ascended a bare steep slope, which was swampy and +covered with _Caltha_ and _Primulæ_. Every other part of the face of +the hill was occupied by a dense jungle of shrubs, almost impenetrable +from the prostrate position which their branches had taken from the +pressure of the winter's snow. Very stunted bushes of _Quercus +semecarpifolia_ constituted the greater part of this shrubby jungle. +With it grew _Rhododendron campanulatum_, a cherry, and a birch, whose +silvery trunks rose conspicuous above all the others. This dense +covering of shrubs being confined to the lower part of the slope, the +road soon rose above its level, and continued obliquely along the face +of the bare grassy hill, rising very gently, and by degrees +approaching the line of snow. I observed that the line of the highest +level of trees varied much according to the exposure, being more +elevated on the shady side than on slopes exposed to the sun. The snow +level, as might have been expected, was extremely indefinite, varying +with the degree of inclination of the surface, with the absence or +presence of trees, and especially with the exposure. On the slope +facing the south, it was about 12,000 feet, while on that opposite it +descended among the trees several hundred feet lower. Close to the +snow, among rocks and in swampy places, the alpine vegetation was +extremely luxuriant and beautiful. + +After skirting the snow for perhaps half a mile, I descended a little +to cross a ravine, and immediately after began to ascend rapidly over +snow, which was hard and firm, so that it was traversed without +difficulty. Throughout the whole ascent, there were at intervals steep +slopes and masses of rock bare of snow, and even on the smallest of +these spots vegetation was making rapid progress, under the +encouragement of a powerful sun and abundant moisture. The plants +observed were all alpine: among the number were several _Primulæ_, and +species of _Draba_, _Potentilla_, _Sibbaldia_, _Ranunculus_, and +_Pedicularis_. The ascent continued steady to the top of the pass, +which was a mass of bare rock, quite free of snow, and elevated 14,800 +feet. The pass (the name of which is _Sach Joth_) was a deep +depression in the crest of the range, which rose on both sides to a +considerable height. The ridge was a mass of black slate rock, in +highly inclined strata, on which no snow lay, and which absorbed so +much heat from the sun, that a number of minute plants were not only +vegetating but in full flower. _Primula minutissima_ and a yellow +_Draba_ were common, and a little _Ranunculus_ and _Potentilla_, with +one moss and a species of lichen, also occurred more sparingly. The +view from the pass was extensive to the southward, but to the north +entirely intercepted by lofty precipitous ridges, distant not more +than a mile. The morning had been beautiful, but before I reached the +summit, a high wind had sprung up from the south, drifting heavy +watery clouds over the crest, from which there were slight showers of +hail. + + [Sidenote: DESCENT INTO THE + VALLEY OF THE CHENAB. + _June, 1848._] + +The descent on the north side was over snow, commencing a few feet +from the rocky crest of the pass. After the first few hundred yards, +the snow-bed was very steep, and perhaps covered a small glacier. +Further on, the mountains on both sides closed in so as to form a +narrow valley, the course of which I followed for many miles, before I +could find a bare spot upon which to encamp. The valley was bounded on +both sides by exceedingly steep rocky mountains, sometimes quite +precipitous, which soon became bare of snow. After descending rapidly +for a considerable time, patches of juniper appeared on the +hill-sides, succeeded by birch, and soon after by a few pines, which, +from their shape, were, I believe, silver fir. A little lower, pines +became frequent wherever the mountain-sides were not absolutely +precipitous; _Picea_ and _Pinus_ excelsa were first recognized, and a +little lower down _Abies Smithiana_; deodar did not appear till I had +nearly reached the end of the day's journey. I encamped at 8500 feet, +on the first available bare spot, among a few pine-trees. + +From the summit of the pass till within a few hundred yards of my +encampment, snow was continuous in the valley along which I descended, +covering the stream and the whole of the level portion of the valley +for many miles after it had melted from the steep sloping hills on +both sides, on which vegetation was already making rapid progress. +This snow-bed was not in the least icy, but consisted of pure snow, +much compressed and often dirty. Its slope followed that of the +valley, and its surface was quite smooth till close to its +termination, where it was broken up into fragments by the fall of +portions into the stream below. The greater permanence of snow in +valleys and ravines than on mountain slopes seems to be due to its +accumulation there during the winter to a great depth by avalanches +from both sides. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[18] I have been told by Dr. Jameson that he has met with it in the +Kangra hills, but that he has never seen it in Mandi. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + + Marked change in the Vegetation -- Bridge over Chenab -- + Pargwal -- Description of Chenab valley -- Asdhari -- + Chatargarh -- Road turns up valley of Butna -- Vegetation of + Chenab valley -- Chishot -- Snow-beds -- Camp at 10,500 feet -- + Ancient moraines -- Glacier -- Camp at 11,500 feet -- Rapid + ascent along glacier -- Camp on moraine, at 14,600 feet -- + Change of weather -- Ascent towards pass over glacier -- Cross + Umasi La -- Descent -- Immense glacier -- Encamp in Tibet, at + 13,800 feet -- Open valley of Zanskar -- Padum -- Great change + of climate -- and in vegetation. + + +As a great part of my baggage and some of my servants did not reach +camp till after dark, in the evening of the 12th of May, I halted on +the 13th. I was encamped in a very narrow valley, on both sides of +which lofty mountains rose very abruptly. The spurs which projected +into this ravine were all of very peculiar configuration, their +northern face being uniformly quite precipitous, while to the south, +though still steep, they were green and sloping. I ascended on the +southern slope of the spur, nearest to my tent, to a height of perhaps +1500 feet, without obtaining any extensive view of the valley of the +Chenab, though I afterwards found that I was not more than two miles +in a direct line from that river, but that the rocky mountains right +and left, retaining their elevation till they were close to it, +completely interrupted the view in every direction, except directly +down the ravine, where a small portion of the snow-topped mountains +beyond the river was visible. + + [Sidenote: VEGETATION OF CHENAB VALLEY. + _June, 1848._] + +From the great elevation of the mountains which I had just crossed, I +was prepared to find a marked change in the aspect of the vegetation, +and I was not disappointed. The steep slopes were covered with a most +luxuriant herbage, above two feet in height. A tall panicled _Rheum_ +was very common, and numerous _Umbelliferæ_, _Silene inflata_, +_Geranium_, and _Pteris aquilina_ were abundant. The most remarkable +plant, however, from the extreme quantity in which it occurred, was an +Asphodelaceous plant (_Eremurus_, Bieb.), the long scapes of which, +from four to five feet in height, covered the hill-sides in countless +myriads. These scapes were clothed, for nearly half their length, with +a profusion of elegant white flowers, very slightly tinged with a pale +yellowish green. I met, during the day, with most of the +characteristic plants of the Kunawar flora; as instances, I may +mention _Ephedra_, _Dictamnus_, _Rosa Webbiana_, _Dianthus_, and +_Scutellaria orientalis_. The arboreous vegetation was much the same +as on the other side of the pass. The right side of the ravine was +well clothed with pines, of all the four ordinary species; the left +side was usually bare, the northern faces of the spurs, which are +generally wooded, being too precipitous, but in the hollows there were +a few small clumps of trees, principally pine, walnut, and sycamore. + + [Sidenote: VALLEY OF CHENAB + _June, 1848._] + +On the 14th of June I resumed my journey. The ravine in front was +pronounced by my guides impracticable, and, as I afterwards saw, not +without reason, as it gained the Chenab by running down an almost +precipitous rocky slope between 1200 and 1500 feet in height. The road +ascended the steep hills to the right rather abruptly, inclining to +the north at the same time, till it gradually wound round the northern +angle of the mountain range which formed the side of the ravine, when +I found myself looking down on the valley of the Chenab from a height +of about 3000 feet above the bed of the river. Unfortunately the day +was foggy, with a light drizzling rain, or no doubt the view would +have been magnificent. After rounding this rocky angle, the road ran +parallel to the Chenab, but in a direction contrary to its course, and +continued to rise very gently among shady forests, with scattered +patches of snow. I conjectured at the time that an immediate descent +was prevented by precipices below; and I afterwards ascertained from +the opposite side of the river that such was the case. After about a +mile and a half an extremely abrupt descent commenced, at first +through dense forest, but afterwards among numerous fields and +scattered houses, constituting a large village between 8000 and 9000 +feet in elevation. Fruit-trees were abundant, principally walnut, of +which there were many magnificent trees. The crops of wheat were not +yet in ear. + + [Sidenote: PARGWAL + _June, 1848._] + +Below the village lands the road entered a forest of deodar, and +continued to descend rapidly. The deodars continued nearly to the +river, a few hundred feet only at the lowest part being covered with +high brushwood, principally consisting of _Fothergilla_. The Chenab +(or Chandrabhaga, as it is always called in the mountains) is a +noble-looking, rapid stream, running through a deep rocky channel. It +is crossed at a considerable height above the water by a good and +substantial wooden bridge, from which the course of the valley could +be seen both up and down, to a considerable distance; and in both +directions the river flows between lofty ranges of mountains, +generally very rocky and precipitous, and often finely wooded. I did +not determine the elevation of the bed of the river, but believe that +it may safely be stated to be about 7000 feet. After crossing the +Chenab the road ascended very abruptly to the village of Pargwal, in +which I encamped, at an elevation of about 8500 feet. On the lower +part of the ascent the forest was much more luxuriant than on the +opposite side, and than it usually is on slopes facing the south: this +was caused by the great depth and narrowness of the ravine through +which the river flowed. + +This day's march was rendered unpleasant by rain, which commenced +about seven A.M., and continued to fall steadily till near sunset; the +sky being completely overcast, and the day nearly calm. It was, +however, very gentle, so that the quantity which fell during the day +was beyond a doubt much less than would have fallen with constant rain +for an equal length of time in the outer ranges of mountains, where no +snowy range is interposed to stop the rain-clouds. It did not rain +again while I continued in the valley; still one day's experience +would of itself be quite insufficient to warrant any conclusion, were +it not that the inhabitants describe the climate as tolerably dry. +Their account is, that the rains continue lightly at intervals for +about a month from the middle of June, after which they cease +entirely. I have already pointed out that the climate of lower Kunawar +is precisely the same in character, and these two valleys are equally +similar in situation with respect to the mountain ranges. + + [Sidenote: DESCRIPTION OF + CHENAB VALLEY. + _June, 1848._] + +I had reached the Chenab at a point a good deal higher up than +Chatargarh, from which place the most frequented road into the Zanskar +valley turns to the north. There is, I believe, another pass a good +deal more to the eastward, the road to which leaves the Chenab not far +from the place where I crossed it; but I was informed that it is at +all times extremely difficult, and that the season was still too early +to attempt it. I therefore proceeded, on the 15th and 16th of June, +down the right bank of the Chenab, through an exceedingly mountainous +country, and generally at a great height above the stream, but with +frequent descents to cross lateral torrents. The mountains to the +north were generally crested with snow, and dipped very abruptly to +the river. The north-west face of each ridge was invariably +precipitous, so that all the descents along the road were abrupt, +rocky, and difficult. Many villages were met with in the valley, and +much cultivation usually high up on the sides of the mountains. +Poplars (_P. nigra_ and _alba_) and apricots were commonly planted, +but the favourite fruit-tree seemed to be the walnut. I did not see +any vines cultivated. On both days the scenery was extremely fine, +varying with every turn of the valley; at times the view from the top +of the scarped precipices, which were frequent, was of the grandest +possible description. The south side of the valley, where not +absolutely precipitous, was covered with forest, most frequently of +pine; and on the north side, on which the road lay, though the upper +parts were often bare and grassy, or only covered with brushwood, yet +the banks of the river were usually well wooded, and all the ravines, +which were deep and shady, were filled with a dense forest of deodar, +horse-chesnut, hazel, sycamore, birch, and _Fothergilla_, with many +other trees. _Pinus Gerardiana_, which may be looked upon as more +characteristic of a moderately dry climate than any other tree, +inasmuch as it will not flourish where the rains are at all heavy, was +extremely common. On the 16th a great part of the road lay through an +extensive wood, of a species of oak (_Q. Ilex_), which I had only +before seen in Kunawar, where it is not uncommon. + +On the 15th I encamped at the village of Asdhari, at an elevation of +8800 feet, and nearly 2000 feet above the river. On the 16th my +halting-place was Shol, a large village close to the Chenab, with an +extensive tract of cultivation, quite bare of trees, except a few +cherries. The elevation of my tent was here about 6900 feet: it was +not more than fifty feet above the river. Opposite the village, on the +south bank of the river, under a cliff which screened it from the rays +of the sun, there was a very large patch of snow. + + [Sidenote: CHATARGARH. + _June, 1848._] + +The early part of my march of the 17th was still along the Chenab, +through fine shady forest, for about three miles, rising to the height +of about 1000 feet, and again descending close to the water's edge. +The road then continued nearly on a level with the stream, and became +very rocky and difficult, planks of wood or rough bridges being laid +in some places from rock to rock to effect a passage. Below this +narrow rocky part of the channel the valley widened out on the north +side into an open sandy plain, watered by a large tributary stream, +descending from the north. Close to this stream lay the small fort of +Chatargarh, the residence of the Thannadar of the valley, and of a +small garrison of soldiers. The Butna, which here joins the Chenab, +and up which my road lay, is a large impetuous stream. I crossed it a +short way above the fort, by a good bridge, and, following its right +bank for about two miles through oak forest, encamped at the village +of Liundi. + +The flora of the valley of the Chenab, as far as my road lay along it, +continued to agree in most respects with that of Kunawar. As I +descended the river, there were some indications of an approach to the +vegetation of the outer Himalaya; but the number of species belonging +to that flora which appeared was not great. A _Zizyphus_ common in the +lower Sutlej and in Kashmir, the common pomegranate, and a shrubby +_Desmodium_, were those noted. This gradual transition in the +character of the vegetation occurs equally in Kunawar; and as both the +Sutlej and the Chenab commence their course in an arid climate, and +enter the plains under the full influence of the rains, it is quite in +accordance with what might be expected to happen. The change is in +both valleys extremely gradual, and appears to be directly +proportional to the diminished elevation of the mountains which run +parallel to the rivers on the south.[19] + + [Sidenote: BUTNA VALLEY. + _June, 1848._] + +On the 18th of June my road again lay up the valley of the Butna, +usually close to the stream, partly through bare country, with +scattered bushes of _Zizyphus_ and _Daphne_, but mostly through very +beautiful forest of oak, alder, horse-chesnut, and ash. The river +varied much in character; but for the most part it flowed with great +rapidity over a rocky channel, and in one place formed a cataract of +some size. More than once, however, and always above the most rapid +parts, it was tranquil, though still swift, and flowed between +gravelly islands. The hills on both sides were steep and lofty, and +after the first two miles, patches of snow occurred in every ravine. I +passed several villages and a good deal of cultivation, and encamped +at Chishot, at about 8200 feet above the level of the sea. + + [Sidenote: ASCENT OF + BUTNA VALLEY. + _June, 1848._] + +Next day, at starting, the road lay through pine-forests for about two +miles, the elevation rapidly increasing. At about that distance, there +was a very long rapid or cataract, with a fall of several hundred feet +within a space of 150 or 200 yards. At the lower end of the rapid, the +river disappeared under a snow-bed, which formed an arch across it +from bank to bank. Above, the stream was wide and tranquil, and the +pine-forest ceasing, the road entered an open valley, with much +cultivation around the village of Himor. Along the water-courses by +which the lands of this village were irrigated, there was a good deal +of swampy ground, in which grew _Parnassia_, _Polygonum viviparum_, an +_Orchis_ not unlike _O. latifolia_, a _Triglochin_, and some +_Carices_, all Kunawar species. Beyond the village, the valley +continued open and bare, but was very rocky, and covered with large +boulders. There was no wood, except in the ravines, which were +occupied by groves of poplar (_P. ciliata_) and walnut; a few trees of +the same and of birch being scattered over the hill-sides. No oak or +Gerard's pine was seen during the day. The herbaceous vegetation on +the open sunny banks was very luxuriant, and the species were mostly +the same as I have recorded in a similar situation, and at the same +elevation, on the 13th, after descending from the Sach pass. I must +except the _Eremurus_, then so abundant, which was here entirely +wanting. There were also a few novelties. Large tracts were covered +with a tall fern (_Pteris aquilina_?). After passing through the +cultivated lands of a second village, and crossing some snow-beds, the +road entered a wood of stunted deodars, and, turning to the left, +proceeded up the more northerly of two ravines, into which the valley +here divided. That to the south, which in direction was a continuation +of the valley, was filled with forest, but the one up which the road +turned was steep and stony, and contained only a few scattered trees +of birch, hazel, and poplar. After a march of about eight miles, I +encamped on an open level spot, where there were a few fields, and one +or two huts, at present uninhabited, at an elevation of 10,500 feet. + + [Sidenote: VIEW OF THE GLACIER. + _June, 1848._] + +On the 20th, I proceeded further up the same valley, ascending gently +but steadily. The valley was open and bounded on both sides by steep +rocky mountains, those on the right partially wooded with birch, on +the other side quite bare. Behind, beyond the point from which I had +the day before turned abruptly to the left, rose a lofty snowy peak, +very steep and rocky; in front, only a very small portion of the snowy +range which I was rapidly approaching could be seen. The stream was +for the most part covered with snow, and the road crossed numerous +snow-beds. At first, the hill-sides were rounded and covered with +vegetation, but very soon the road became rocky, and was covered as +yesterday with enormous boulders, evidently indicative of a former +glacier. These were all gneiss, which rock also occurred _in situ_, as +had been the case ever since I had left Chatargarh, where it replaced +the clay-slate, which had been common on the banks of the Chenab. +After walking for about two miles among these huge masses of rock, I +suddenly emerged into open country, and, after descending a few feet, +entered a level plain, nearly two miles in length and at least half a +mile in width, partly covered with snow stretching down from the +ravines on each side. This plain appeared to have been at one time the +bed of a small lake; and as its lower end was crossed by an evident +moraine, it seems probable that a glacier had at some former period +crossed the valley and dammed up the channel of the stream. Small +groves of willow of two distinct species, one twelve to fifteen feet +high, the other not above two or three, were scattered over this +plain. The surface, where free from snow, was usually grassy, and near +the lower end very swampy. The snow had evidently very recently +covered the whole surface, as few plants were yet in flower, except a +bright blue gentian in the marshy parts, and a viscid _Cerastium_ on +the gravel. A species of rhubarb was abundant on the banks surrounding +this plain, and its acid leaf-stalks were eagerly eaten by the men who +carried my luggage. The road traversed the whole length of this level +tract, and, at its upper end, crossed two low ridges of boulders, +evidently moraines. Beyond these lay another plain, much more barren +and desolate-looking than the previous one, the greater part being +still covered with snow. Those parts from which the snow had melted +were gravelly, with scarce a vestige of vegetation. I encamped on the +last bare spot of this plain, close to extensive snow-beds, from below +which the stream flowed, and about a mile from the end of a large +glacier which filled up the end of the valley, but was cut off +abruptly at the commencement of the open plain. The elevation of my +tent was 11,400 feet. The plain on which I was encamped was surrounded +on all sides by lofty mountains, all extremely steep and rugged. Those +to the south and east were covered with snow to the very base, but to +the north little or no snow was visible, the hills close at hand +rising so abruptly that they entirely excluded the view of the ranges +behind. The southern slopes from the base to the height of about 1000 +feet were covered with birch-trees, still quite leafless, except a few +on the edge of the plain, which were beginning to throw out buds, the +snow having melted round their roots. + +On the 21st of June I continued my journey over the snow-bed close to +which I had encamped, in the direction of the end of the glacier. +While still several hundred yards distant from it, the road turned +abruptly to the left, ascending a very steep stony hill, which formed +the side of a lateral ravine descending from the north. When I had +ascended a few hundred feet, I obtained an excellent view of the +glacier which occupied the valley below. Its surface, from the great +slope of the valley, was extremely irregular, and to all appearance +quite impassable, from the numerous fissures which traversed it in +every direction, and the irregular pinnacles of ice which rose above +its surface. It was terminated abruptly by a perpendicular cliff, +which projected more in the centre than on the sides, and was much and +deeply fissured both horizontally and perpendicularly. The glacier was +in parts covered with masses of boulders and gravel, on which lay a +sprinkling of snow in small patches. The lateral moraines were well +marked, being much higher than the surface of the glacier, and +separated by a deep fissure from the rocky wall of the valley. +Immediately in front of the termination of the glacier, the surface of +the plain was free from snow; numerous boulders of large size were +scattered over it, and large masses of ice, evidently fragments of the +glacier, lay among them. + + [Sidenote: ASCENT TOWARDS + BARDAR PASS. + _June, 1848._] + +The ascent of the lateral ravine continued steep, sometimes over rock, +often over what appeared to be an ancient moraine, and now and then +over grassy sward, adorned with numerous alpine plants in full flower. +Among these was a little _Iris_, which I had seen the day before in +fruit, _Podophyllum_, _Fritillaria_, and a pretty rose-coloured +_Pedicularis_. There were a few stunted bushes of birch on the first +part of the ascent, but they were soon left behind. After ascending +about 1500 feet, I passed a singular-looking little circular plain, +perhaps half a mile in diameter, still covered with snow. The road lay +on the left of this plain over a hill of boulders. It now ascended +very rapidly, and soon reached another glacier, the termination of +which was extremely oblique, being prolonged much further on the right +or south-east side of the ravine than on the other. The slope of the +valley was so extremely abrupt, that the surface of the glacier was +fissured in a most extraordinary manner; and it was still partially +covered with snow. The road ascended over the moraine which lay +between the glacier and the wall of the valley, generally at a great +height above the level of the ice. In the crevices of the stones one +or two plants still lingered: _Primula minutissima_ was in flower, and +a little _Sedum_ and a dwarf willow (_S. repens_, L.) were beginning +to expand their buds. My day's march amounted to about five miles, and +I encamped upon the moraine on a level piece of ground just large +enough to hold my tent, and close to the glacier. The temperature of +boiling water indicated an elevation of about 14,600 feet. All around +was snow and ice, except one steep sloping bank facing the south, on +the most sheltered corner of which my baggage porters established +themselves. On this bank vegetation had already made considerable +progress: at least a dozen species were in flower, of which the most +abundant were a rose-coloured _Polygonum_, a _Potentilla_, and +_Ranunculus_, and, most abundant of all, a beautiful blue +_Gymnandra_. + +The surface of the glacier opposite to my tent was much covered with +debris, and many large boulders were imbedded in the ice, which was +very much fissured, rising into sharp pinnacles. As the day advanced, +it was traversed by numerous rills of water, and the sound of falling +stones was heard in every direction. + +I had hitherto been extremely fortunate in weather, considering the +season; but just at sunset, a few light clouds having first appeared +in the south horizon, the sky became suddenly overcast, and light snow +began to fall. Very little fell during the night, but at daybreak on +the 22nd of June, just as I was preparing to start, it began to snow +rather heavily. I had unfortunately no choice but to proceed. The +place in which I was encamped was not at all adapted for a +resting-place during a heavy fall of snow; and arrangements had +already been made for the relief of the baggage porters who had come +with me, by a party of Zanskaries at the top of the pass on this day. + + [Sidenote: LARGE GLACIER. + _June, 1848._] + +The first part of the ascent lay up the moraine parallel to the +glacier, and was extremely steep for nearly 1000 feet of perpendicular +elevation, up to the top of the very abrupt ravine in which I had been +encamped. Beyond this, the valley widened considerably; and as its +slope was now very gentle, the glacier was quite smooth, and the path +lay over its surface, which was covered by a considerable layer (five +or six inches) of last winter's snow, as well as by a sprinkling of +that which had fallen during the night. The ice was a good deal +fissured, but in general the fissures were not more than a few inches +in width; a few only were as much as two feet. The road continued for +two or three miles over the surface of the glacier, which gradually +widened out as I advanced. Its upper part was expanded into an icy +plain of great width, bounded by a semicircular arch of precipitous +rocks, except where three ravines descended into it, down which three +narrow glaciers flowed to contribute a supply of ice to the vast mass +in the bay. On the smooth ice below, central moraines were very +visible, and could be distinctly traced to the rocks by which the +three smaller glaciers were separated. A great part of these central +moraines were covered with snow; but now and then an immense detached +boulder of gneiss was seen, supported by a column of clear blue ice, +veined with horizontal white bands, by which it was raised high above +the surface of the glacier, and the snow which covered it. + + [Sidenote: SUMMIT OF PASS. + _June, 1848._] + +The three branches which united to form this grand sea of ice were +very steep, and consequently much fissured and fractured. The road lay +up that to the right, ascending by the moraine to the left of the +glacier, the surface of the ice being quite impracticable. This +ascent, which I estimated at the time to amount to at least 1000 feet, +was exceedingly steep and laborious, as beneath a thin layer of fresh +snow it was covered with hard frozen snow, on which the footing was +quite insecure. On attaining the summit of this steep ascent, I found +the surface of the glacier much more smooth, the inclination of the +bed of the ravine having suddenly changed; it was now, however, +covered with a layer of snow several feet thick, which probably tended +to render small inequalities of surface unobservable. I was now in a +wide valley or basin, the rocky hills on both sides rising +precipitously to a height of from 200 to 1000 feet above the level of +the snow. After perhaps two miles of gradual ascent, these rocky walls +gradually closing in united in a semicircle in front, and the road +passed through a gorge or fissure in the ridge, to the crest of which +the snow-bed had gradually sloped up. This fissure, which was not more +than two feet in width, was the pass, but when I reached it, snow was +falling so thickly that I could not see ten yards in any direction. I +therefore remained only long enough to ascertain that the +boiling-point of water was 180·3°, indicating an elevation of at least +18,000 feet. + +The commencement of the descent was very rapid down a narrow gorge, +into which the fissure at the top widened by degrees. The fresh snow, +which had fallen to the depth of at least a foot, was quite soft and +yielding, so that great caution was required. After four or five +hundred yards, the slope became more gradual and the ravine +considerably wider. The road was now evidently over the surface of a +glacier. The mountains on both sides were extremely rocky, rugged, and +precipitous. Each lateral ravine brought an additional stream of ice +to swell that in the central one; and on each lateral glacier there +was a moraine which had to be crossed. Further on, the slope again +increasing, the road left the surface of the glacier, and ascended the +moraine by its side. This was at first covered with deep snow, both +old and fresh; but as I advanced I found the old snow only in patches, +but covered with a layer of new. At last I reached a point at which +the snow melted as it fell, and not long after the glacier stopped +abruptly, a considerable stream issuing from beneath the +perpendicular wall by which it terminated. + + [Sidenote: IMMENSE GLACIER. + _June, 1848._] + +Beyond the end of the glacier the valley continued very steep. It was +several hundred feet across, and covered with loose stones of various +sizes, over which the stream ran in a wide shallow channel. Lower +down, the bed of the rivulet became contracted and rocky, and I +crossed to its right bank over a natural bridge consisting of one +large stone, ten or twelve feet long, which had fallen so as to lie +across the rocky channel. Advancing a few paces beyond this bridge, I +suddenly found myself at the end of the ravine, and overlooking a wide +valley many hundred feet below, filled by an enormous glacier +descending from the left. This glacier was completely covered with a +mass of debris, which entirely concealed the ice, and from its +enormous dimensions must have had a very distant source. I had no +means at the time of determining with accuracy either its width or +depth, nor do I find any estimate of it (except in superlatives) in my +notes made on the spot; I cannot, therefore, at this distance of time, +venture to give any exact dimensions: I can only say that it much +exceeded in size any that I have before or since had an opportunity of +seeing. + +It was just at the termination of the upper ravine that the first +traces of vegetation were observed: till reaching this point the rocks +and gravel had been quite bare. The first plant observed was _Primula +minutissima_; the only other in flower was a large purple-coloured +_Crucifera_ (a species of _Parrya_), but leaves of several others were +beginning to expand. + + [Sidenote: ZANSKAR. + _June, 1848._] + +The road did not descend at once into the large valley, but, turning +abruptly to the right, ran parallel to the glacier but high above it +on the rocky mountain-side, for nearly a mile, gradually descending so +as to reach the bottom of the valley just as the glacier ended. The +valley beyond its termination was wide and stony, and I encamped among +a number of very large boulders about half a mile further on. The +elevation of my camp was 13,800 feet, so that I had descended upwards +of 4000 feet from the top of the pass. I found that the inhabitants on +the two sides of the pass knew it by different names, those of Padar, +on the south, calling it the Bardar pass, while to the Zanskaries it +is known as Umasi La. + +The morning of the 23rd of June was bright and clear, but intensely +frosty. The valley in which I was encamped was enclosed by lofty +mountains covered with much snow, though on the level ground there +were only a few patches. The road lay down the valley, which soon +became narrow and stony, and the descent somewhat rapid. The ground +was at first quite bare, and devoid of any sort of vegetation, except +here and there on the bank of the stream, where, close to the water's +edge, a small patch of green was occasionally to be seen. The +narrowest parts of the ravine were occupied by large snow-beds, +entirely covering the rivulet, but at intervals the valley widened out +into a gravelly plain. After about a mile, some vegetation began to +appear, and after four or five miles it became plentiful. The banks of +the stream, in the wide and gravelly parts, were fringed with dwarf +willows just bursting into leaf. _Primula minutissima_ was plentiful +in the crevices of the stones, and I met with many plants scattered +about, of which none but the very earliest were yet in flower. Two or +three species only could be identified with the plants of the Indian +side of the pass; the majority were quite different. _Lithospermum +Euchromon_ of Royle, and the _Parrya_ first seen the day before, were +among the commonest species; several other _Cruciferæ_ were also seen, +as well as a _Gentiana_, one or two _Astragali_, a species of +_Meconopsis_, a small _Gagea_, _Ephedra_, and _Nepeta glutinosa_. +Species of _Artemisia_, _Cynoglossum_ and other _Boragineæ_, of +_Polygonum_ and _Rheum_, though not in flower, were recognizable, but +the greater number of plants were only beginning to vegetate. As I +descended, a few shrubs of _Lonicera hispida_ and of _Rosa Webbiana_ +(the Tibet rose) were met with, but all very stunted. + + [Sidenote: VALLEY OF ZANSKAR. + _June, 1848._] + +The valley continued to descend, and the snow soon receded to some +distance up the mountain-sides. At last I came to a single habitation, +a little monastery inhabited by one Lama, and built under the +precipitous rocks on the left side of the valley. A very small patch +of cultivation lay on the bank of the stream just below it; the corn +was not more than two or three inches high. A little further on, the +road suddenly turned into a much larger and more open valley, watered +by a considerable stream, which ran through a wide, open, gravelly +channel, from which long and very slightly inclined gravelly slopes +extended on both sides to the base of the mountains. The stream proved +to be the western branch of the Zanskar river. To the north-westward +of the point where I entered its valley, its upward course was visible +for eight or ten miles, all the way through an open gravelly plain. +Several villages and a good deal of cultivation were seen in that +direction, on the slopes descending from the mountains. + +My road lay to the eastward down the valley, partly through cultivated +lands, partly over barren gravelly or stony plains, and often over +grassy meadows on the banks of the river. Wheat, barley, and peas were +the crops cultivated, all only a few inches in height. Round the +fields and on the banks of the water-courses a luxuriant herbage was +beginning to spring up, which contrasted strongly with the sterility +of the stony plains. The fields were quite flat and generally +unenclosed, the valley being too level to require terracing; small +canals conducted water for irrigation to every field. The villages +were all small and bare, and during the day I saw only a single +tree--a small poplar--in a garden or enclosure at one of the last +villages through which I passed, before halting for the day. I +encamped, after a march of at least twelve miles, near the village of +Markim, on a fine grassy plain close to the river, the banks of which +were lined by a few bushes of _Myricaria_ and _Hippophaë_. The +elevation of my tent was 12,100 feet. + +In the valley of the Chenab the prevailing rock had everywhere been +clay-slate, but where I turned up the valley of the Butna it was +replaced by gneiss, which continued to form the whole mountain-mass on +both sides of the Umasi pass, so far as I could infer the nature of +their structure from the boulders brought down by glaciers. On the +earlier part of this day's journey, the gneiss gave place again to +mica-slate and clay-slate; but in the wide valley, where no rock was +seen _in situ_, the boulders were all composed of gneiss, and had +probably, therefore, been transported from the upper part of the +mountains. + + [Sidenote: PADUM. + _June, 1848._] + +On the 24th of June I continued my journey to Padum, which is +considered the capital of Zanskar. My road lay still east, down a +wide, open plain. The mountains on the north side of the valley were +not to appearance very lofty, and were merely tipped with snow; those +to the south were much higher and had a great deal of snow, which, +however, did not come within perhaps 1500 feet of the plain. There was +no snow in the plain itself, which had a width of from two to four +miles. Cultivated tracts were frequent, occurring wherever water was +easily procurable for irrigation, but the greater part of the surface +was dry, barren, and stony, producing scarcely any herbage. The river +ran through a wide, gravelly bed, and was divided into numerous +channels. It was often fringed with low jungle of _Myricaria_ and +_Hippophaë_, two shrubs which, though not entirely confined to Tibet, +are most abundant in every part of that country up to nearly 14,000 +feet, in the gravelly beds of streams. In some places the banks of the +stream were very low and swampy, and covered with turf. About half-way +down the plain the different branches of the river united into one, +which ran with a swift impetuous current over the boulders which +formed its bed, the melting of the snow on the mountains having +brought down a very large body of water. At this point it was crossed +by a rope-bridge, leading to a large village on the left bank. A +little further on I passed through a considerable village, with +extensive cultivated lands, and a large well-built monastery, in +which, I believe, Csoma de Körös resided while in Zanskar. The road +then made a considerable detour to the south, to the base of the +mountains, to reach a bridge over a lateral stream now so much swollen +as to be unfordable. After crossing this stream by a good wooden +bridge, the road entered an open grassy plain sloping imperceptibly +from the mountains towards the river, at the south-east angle of which +lay the town or village of Padum. + +Padum, which was at one time the principal place in Zanskar, is, +though now much decayed, still considered as such, probably both from +its central situation and from the garrison of Gulab Singh's troops +being established near it. It is built on a low hill lying at the +south-east corner of a wide open plain which surrounds the junction of +two large streams which here unite to form the Zanskar river. Of +these, one descending from the south runs through a rocky and barren +country, which contains, I was informed, but few and small villages. +It is that to which Moorcroft, who crossed it near its source, has +given the name of Zanskar; and as it appears to the eye the larger +stream of the two, it will probably be found entitled to retain the +name, although the district watered by the western branch, which runs +gently through an open country, is much more fertile and populous. The +junction of these two streams takes place four or five miles north of +Padum. The plain is partly low and partly a platform nearly a hundred +feet above the level of the rivers. + + [Sidenote: CLIMATE OF ZANSKAR. + _June, 1848._] + +Entirely secluded by lofty ranges of snowy mountains from the approach +of any moisture-bringing winds, the valley of Zanskar has an +absolutely Tibetan climate. Tree vegetation is entirely wanting, and +the mountains and plains are dry, barren, and desolate. At the same +time, from the dryness of the summer, the powerful influence of the +sun induces here, as elsewhere in Tibet, a much milder climate than +prevails at an equal elevation within the influence of the periodical +rains, for in no part of the Indian portion of the mountains does any +cultivated valley exist at an elevation of 12,000 feet above the level +of the sea. The extent of open country is more considerable in this +portion of the Zanskar valley than elsewhere in the basin of the +Indus. Villages also are frequent, particularly in the lower part, and +the cultivated lands of many of them are extensive. The alluvial +platforms are of great extent, and so nearly level, that no terracing +is required for purposes of irrigation. On this account, and from the +total want of fences, the appearance of the plain is remarkable, and +very different from that usual around Tibetan villages. At the period +of my visit, the crops were only a few inches in height, and the whole +population were busy in the fields, irrigating them and keeping out +straggling cattle. The inhabitants, in appearance, manners, and mode +of life, are the same as those of Ladak; their language and religion +too are the same, as far as I could learn. + + [Sidenote: VEGETATION OF ZANSKAR. + _June, 1848._] + +The change of climate was, as a matter of course, accompanied by an +almost total change of vegetation, which had assumed entirely the +Tibetan character. Scarcely more than a fourth, on a rough estimate, +of the species observed, were the same as grew on the Indian side of +the pass. Of these, a very few were cosmopolitan or widely-diffused +plants. Such were _Thymus Serpyllum_, _Plantago Asiatica_, +_Taraxacum_, _Veronica biloba_, _Medicago lupulina_, and _Polygonum +aviculare_ or a closely-allied species. The greater number were +species of the dry climate, which, from being capable of bearing a +certain quantity of moisture, vegetate also in the first valleys on +the opposite side of the pass, though quite incapable of living under +the full influence of the rains: as instances, I may mention _Rosa +Webbiana_, _Myricaria_, _Hippophaë_, _Ephedra_, _Aquilegia +Moorcroftiana_, and several _Astragali_. + +Excluding both these classes, more than two-thirds of the plants were +entirely different from those which flourish on the Indian side. The +season was early spring, so that a great part of the vegetation was +still dormant, but it was making rapid strides under the influence of +a powerful sun, particularly in the neighbourhood of the town of +Padum, which appeared to be the warmest nook in the valley. The dry, +barren tracts, which constitute the greater part of the surface, +produced numerous, generally dwarf species of _Boragineæ_ and +_Cruciferæ_. Three _Potentillæ_ were common, one of them _P. +anserina_. Near the river there was a more luxuriant vegetation. Rank +species of _Heracleum_, _Astragalus_, _Scrophularia_, _Matthiola_, and +_Eurotia_ were coming into flower under the shelter of walls and +bushes. In richer soil a species of _Hyoscyamus_, with pale yellow +trumpet-shaped flowers (_Belenia_ of Decaisne), was common, while +around the fields grew species of _Geranium_, _Cynoglossum_, _Nepeta_, +and _Astragalus_. Except a little _Poa_, no grasses were yet in +flower, but several small _Cyperaceæ_ formed dense patches of turf. +The meadows close to the edge of the river were invariably swampy, and +had a peculiar vegetation of their own, consisting of two species of +_Triglochin_, a white-flowered _Taraxacum_, a little _Primula_, +_Ranunculus Cymbalaria_, and _Glaux_, with _Hippuris_ and +_Utricularia_ in the pools of water. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[19] A species of vine was very common in the forests, climbing to a +great height on the trees, which very closely resembled the common +cultivated vine, from which it is not, I think, specifically distinct. +At the same time, my specimens are scarcely distinguishable from +_Vitis Indica_, L., a species of the plains of India, not uncommon in +hot jungles, even at a considerable distance from the foot of the +mountains. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + + Rope bridge across Zanskar river -- Tongde -- Zangla -- Road + leaves Zanskar river -- Takti La -- Nira -- Bridge over Zanskar + river -- Singhi La -- Phutaksha -- Wandla -- Lama Yuru -- Cross + Indus river -- Kalatze -- Nurla -- Saspola -- Nimo -- Le -- + Pass north of Le -- Small glacier -- Kardong -- Kalsar -- + Vegetation -- Diskit -- Passage of Shayuk river -- Upper Nubra + -- Vegetation of Nubra -- Hot spring at Panamik. + + + [Sidenote: TONGDE. + _June, 1848._] + +I remained at Padum two days, to make inquiries as to the road and +arrangements for porters and supplies. On the 27th of June, I +commenced my journey towards the Indus. The road lay down the valley +of Zanskar, crossing the eastern branch of that river opposite the +town of Padum, by a rather insecure-looking rope-bridge, high above +the stream, which was deep, rapid, and muddy. The rope, as is usual in +Tibet, was formed of willow twigs. After crossing this bridge, I +followed the right bank of the stream in a north-easterly direction, +principally over dry, desert, stony plains, considerably elevated +above the river. These high banks were composed of fine clay, which +was occasionally quite pure, but more frequently contained numerous +fragments of a black slate rock. These were especially abundant where +lateral ravines descended from the mountains, while in the +intervening spaces the clay was comparatively free of them. The same +black slate cropped out _in situ_ in several places along the bank of +the river; and from the numerous boulders everywhere scattered over +the surface of the platform, it appeared to be the prevailing rock in +the mountains on the right. The platforms usually terminated abruptly, +being either scarped or sloping very steeply towards the river. A +strip of low, wet, grassy ground, which was more or less covered with +_Hippophaë_ jungle, was generally interposed between the cliffs and +the river. When this was absent, the steep slopes were barren till +close to the water's edge. On the left bank of the river, after the +first two miles, the table-land sank, an extensive low plain forming a +tongue of land between the two branches. On this low land, close to +the eastern river, and about two miles from the town of Padum, lay the +fort occupied by the military force of the valley: a small square, +with four round bastions. After marching nine or ten miles, I encamped +at a small village called Tongde, among undulating clay hills, by +which the view of the river and valley was excluded. Nearly opposite, +a mile or two below the junction of the two rivers, was Karsha, at +present the largest town in Zanskar: it lies in a ravine at a +considerable distance from the river, and, from the steepness of the +slope on which it is built, presents rather an imposing appearance. +The level tract intervening between the town and the river was covered +with cultivation. + + [Sidenote: ZANGLA. + _June, 1848._] + +On the 28th, I continued along the valley, but in a more northerly +direction than the day before. The lofty snowy range to the south-west +was now finely seen, forming a semicircle of rocky peaks behind +Padum. The road lay again over dry plains, partly stony, partly hard +clay; even the banks of the river were dry and stony, without a +vestige of turf. The only species worthy of note which occurred during +the day, in addition to the plants common on these barren tracts, was +_Oxytropis chiliophylla_: it was very scarce at the beginning of the +march, but before I had reached half-way it had become so abundant +that at a distance the ground appeared of a bright red colour, from +the immense abundance of its flowers. Several villages were passed on +the road, and two considerable streams, both of which had excavated +deep ravines in the loose conglomerate of which the plateau was +formed. On the latter part of the march, the mountains which formed +the right side of the valley approached close to the river, leaving no +passage along the bank, so that the road made a short steep ascent +over loose shingly debris and rocky ground, and continued for more +than a mile along the face of the ridge. After that distance, it +descended to a grassy, saline, very swampy plain, close to the river. +I encamped at the village of Zangla, which lies at the base of the +mountains, on the upper part of a steep stony slope, extending down to +the river. + +The alluvial platforms during this day's journey were generally of +great thickness. This was especially the case around Tongde, where the +clay formation formed considerable hills; and on the latter part of +the march, where the mountains advanced nearly to the stream. Here +high banks of clay were accumulated on the ridges, and were +frequently, as in many other parts of Tibet, worn into fantastic +shapes by the melting of the snow. Near Zangla, too, detached masses +were seen clinging to the sides of the mountains, at considerable +heights, in positions which indicated great denudation. + + [Sidenote: THE ROAD LEAVES + THE VALLEY OF ZANSKAR. + _June, 1848._] + +The result of my inquiries at Padum had been, that the lower part of +the course of the Zanskar river (which I had hoped I might be able to +follow to its junction with the Indus) was so rocky and difficult as +to be impracticable, and that at the present season, when the torrents +were all swollen by the melting snow, the only practicable road to the +Indus lay through the mountains, at a distance from the river. I was +now approaching the point where the road entered the mountains, and +could already see that the fine open valley through which I had been +travelling was soon to have an end. At Zangla it had become sensibly +narrower, and the mountains on both sides, still tipped with snow, +were extremely rocky and rugged. + +The earlier part of the march of the 29th of June was still parallel +to the river, partly over table-land, at other times through a dense +jungle of _Hippophaë_, which covered its low banks, as well as several +islands in its channel. After about four miles, the road turned +suddenly to the right, and, leaving the valley altogether, commenced a +rapid ascent on the steep slope of the mountain. From the point at +which the road turned off, the Zanskar valley ahead could be seen to +narrow rapidly, by the closing-in of the mountains. A turn in its +direction, at the distance of four or five miles, hid the further +course of the river from view, but the steep scarped mountains, which +seemed to rise almost perpendicularly from its bed, left no doubt of +the difficult nature of the country through which it ran. + +The first part of the ascent was very steep and bare. A prickly +_Statice_, in dense round tufts, made its appearance after the first +few hundred feet, accompanied by another very common Tibetan plant, +which had not been met with in the open plain, a species of _Cicer_, +described by Bentham as _C. microphyllum_, if indeed the Siberian _C. +Soongaricum_ be not the same species. This plant is remarkable, not +only for a very viscid exudation, but also for its peculiar strong +aromatic and pungent odour, which, except that it is very much more +powerful, a good deal resembles that of its cultivated congener _C. +arietinum_, the well-known _gram_ of Upper India. It also recalls to +mind the smell of the common black currant, which, however, is more +aromatic and less pungent and acidulous. On the lower part of the +ascent the prevailing rock was limestone, of a dark bluish-grey +colour, extremely hard, containing many white veins and crystals of +calcareous spar; it closely resembled the limestone of the Hangarang +pass, and, like it, alternated with hornstone and cherty quartz rock, +and with finely laminated slates. + + [Sidenote: MOUNTAINS ON RIGHT BANK + OF ZANSKAR RIVER. + _June, 1848._] + +On leaving the bare slope, the road entered a narrow ravine, and +continued to ascend rapidly along the bank of the streamlet which +trickled down it. The ravine was full of loose angular stones, and had +on both sides high rocky precipices of limestone and slate. Close to +the little rivulet, a willow, a _Lonicera_, and a rose grew in great +plenty among the loose stones, forming a dense bushy mass of green, +six or eight feet high, which contrasted strongly with the barrenness +of the shingle remote from the water, and of the rocky walls on either +side. The ascent was rapid, and ere long, as the elevation increased, +the shrubby vegetation disappeared, and the only plants which grew +among the loose fragments of slate were a few small alpine species: +_Anemone_, _Corydalis_, _Thermopsis_, and _Androsace_, were the genera +to which these hardy plants belonged. In the crevices of the rocks, a +large fleshy-leaved saxifrage, of the subgenus _Bergenia_, was common: +it was a different species from either of the two hitherto described +from India, as well as from _S. crassifolia_ of Siberia, and was +particularly interesting as a connecting link between these two +floras. Further on, the ascent became more gentle; a few small patches +of snow were passed, and soon after, the road ascended a very steep +and shingly slope after the north side of the ravine, to the crest of +a ridge, the elevation of which I estimated at about 15,500 feet. + +The top of the ridge was rounded, and had more soil, and, as a +consequence, more vegetation, than the stony dell below. Several +plants of the valley reappeared, particularly _Lithospermum Euchromon_ +and a species of _Cynoglossum_, both of which seem to have a wide +range in altitude. A few new species of _Cruciferæ_ and _Astragalus_ +were obtained on the ridge. There was a very good and extensive view +to the north, of mountain behind mountain, all bare and desolate; but +in every other direction ridges close at hand intercepted the view. +The most distant ridge had much snow on it, and appeared very +elevated: I supposed it to be that between the Zanskar river and the +Indus. After leaving the ridge, the road gradually descended towards +the north, down a ravine full of fragments of slate: the hills on both +sides were low and rounded. On the descent, _Caragana versicolor_, the +_Dama_ of the Tibetans, occurred very plentifully; it is, however, in +general, much less common in the north-west parts of Tibet than +further to the south, where it is very luxuriant. Following the course +of the ravine, after a considerable distance, I observed bushes of +willow and _Lonicera_ to appear in the dry channel, and almost +immediately afterwards a little water was found trickling down it, so +that I was enabled to encamp, after rather a fatiguing march, at an +elevation of about 13,700 feet. + + [Sidenote: NARROW RAVINE. + _June, 1848._] + +Next day I continued to descend the ravine. The hills were now +considerably higher and more rugged than in the upper part, and were +faced by cliffs of a clayey conglomerate, partly soft, but often +indurated. A rapidly decaying yellowish slate, in highly inclined +strata, was seen occasionally in the bed of the river. The stream was, +as usual, fringed by willow and _Lonicera_; and a species of poplar, +forming a small tree, occurred frequently. There was scarcely a single +vestige of vegetation on the mountain-sides. After descending about +two miles, I reached a large ravine, the slope of which was much more +gradual. The banks were still composed of clay conglomerate, which +rose in lofty precipices on both sides; after about three miles, +however, this disappeared, and the ravine became very narrow and +rocky. The road was now very rugged, ascending high on the +mountain-side, and then descending to cross the stream. The limestone +cliffs, which here approached within ten or twelve feet of one +another, were marked with horizontal undulating grooves, perhaps +indicative of the former existence of a glacier in this spot. As I +advanced, after crossing to the right bank of the stream, the road +became still more rocky and difficult, till at last the ravine in +front became quite impracticable. I now turned suddenly to the right, +and entered a narrow passage with perpendicular walls of rock, down +which ran a very small streamlet. In this dark shady dell, which was +so narrow that the light of the sun could not possibly reach the +bottom, there were several large patches of snow. The ascent was at +first rapid, but after a mile and a half the slope became more gradual +and the ravine considerably wider. The usual shrubs then appeared on +the water's edge, close to which I encamped, after a march of perhaps +nine miles, at about 13,600 feet, very nearly the same elevation as +the place from which I had started in the morning, and in an equally +desert situation. The whole march was exceedingly barren, and without +any cultivation or village. A few small bushes of juniper (_J. +excelsa_) were met with about half-way, for the first time during my +present journey. + + [Sidenote: TAKTI PASS. + _June, 1848._] + +On the 1st of July, I continued the ascent of the ravine, which was +still extremely barren and stony, except in the immediate vicinity of +the stream, where the usual vegetation of willow and _Lonicera_ +continued plentiful. A few birch-trees were seen on the road-side. +After following the ravine for nearly two miles, I reached a point at +which it divided into two branches. The luggage porters took that to +the right, which was said to be easier, but longer, while my guide led +me to the left, up a steep ravine, which, after a few hundred yards, +contracted to a mere fissure three to six feet in width, with very +lofty rocky walls, and full of loose shingle. In several places, large +masses of hard smooth ice had to be passed, which, from the steepness +of the slope, proved no easy task, and would certainly have been +almost an impossibility for loaded men. After passing through this +fissure, which, as usual, opened out in its upper part, the road +turned to the left up a long steep shingly hill-side, to the top of +the ridge, which was rounded. While in the ravine I saw no plants; but +on the shingly ascent a number of alpine species made their +appearance. One of the first was an _Anemone_, but by far the most +abundant was a yellow species of _Thermopsis_, which was in full +flower, and seemed to thrive best among loose stones. A small +_Veronica_, with bright blue flowers, occurred several times on the +ascent. + +The pass over this ridge is called Takti La. Its elevation was, +according to my observation of the boiling-point of water, 16,360 +feet. The mountains to the right and left, rising perhaps 1500 feet +higher than the pass, obstructed all view. Behind, the landscape was +shut in by a lofty snowy mountain, not a mile off; and in front, part +of the same snowy range which I had observed from the ridge two days +before, was visible. There was a good deal of vegetation at the top, +which was in part swampy round a small spring, where probably the snow +had only recently melted. The plants were all alpine: _Biebersteinia +odora_, a well-known North Asiatic form, was very common, with +several _Ranunculaceæ_ and _Cruciferæ_, and one or two species of +_Polygonum_. + + [Sidenote: NIRA. + _July, 1848._] + +On the steep shingly ascent which faced the south, I had met with no +snow till close to the top, when I saw a few very small patches. On +leaving the top of the pass, the road continued to run along the side +of the mountain on the left hand, nearly level for about a mile. As I +got more fully on the north face, I found snow lying in large patches, +which were melting rapidly; and when fairly on the northern slope, I +found that, though very steep, it was covered by a continuous bed of +snow from the very crest down to about 15,500 feet, as near as I could +guess. The view to the north, which, from the pass itself, had been +very limited, was now extensive. The range in front was everywhere +tipped with snow, and the road up to its crest, with the pass by which +I was to cross it, were distinctly visible. Between this range and +that on which I stood was interposed the deep ravine of the Zanskar +river, the course of which could be traced for a long way, though from +the precipitous rocks through which it ran, the stream itself could +not be seen. + +I find it extremely difficult to describe in an adequate manner the +extreme desolation of the most barren parts of Tibet, where no +luxuriant forest or bright green herbage softens the nakedness of the +mountains, but everywhere the same precipices, heaps of rocks, and +barren monotonous deserts meet the eye. The prospect now before me was +certainly most wonderful. I had nowhere before seen a country so +utterly waste. At the great elevation on which I stood I completely +overlooked the valley, and the two or three villages which I +afterwards found to exist were either seen as mere spots, or concealed +by ranges of hills. Directly in front, across the Zanskar river, a +rocky precipice, worn and furrowed in every direction, and broken into +sharp pinnacles, rose to the height of at least 2000 feet, overhanging +a deep ravine, while to the right and left mountain was heaped upon +mountain in inextricable confusion, large patches of snow crowning the +highest parts. + +From the edge of the snow I descended rapidly to the village of Nira. +On the earlier part of the descent, the ground was soft and miry from +the recent melting of the snow, which still lay in the more shady +parts in large patches. A bright yellow _Ranunculus_, with numerous +petals, and the pretty _Lloydia serotina_ were plentiful close to the +snow. Further down, the road was extremely stony, and the descent very +abrupt, but towards the end I followed the course of a small +streamlet, the margins of which were skirted by a belt not more than a +foot in width of vividly green turf. The village of Nira, in which I +encamped, was 12,900 feet above the level of the sea: its cultivated +lands were extensive, and both in the village and on the hills around, +juniper-trees of considerable size were common. + + [Sidenote: CROSS ZANSKAR RIVER. + _July, 1848._] + + [Sidenote: YULCHUNG. + _July, 1848._] + +On the 2nd of July I crossed the Zanskar river to the village of +Yulchung (13,700 feet). At Nira, besides the usual crops of barley, +there was a good deal of buckwheat, which was just above ground. The +fields were bordered, as usual, by a rank vegetation. A _Nepeta_, very +like _N. Sibthorpiana_, was quite new to me, and a tall erect +_Wahlenbergia_, with very large pale greenish-blue flowers, and +coarse, somewhat fetid leaves, was very abundant, just coming into +flower; the rest of the plants observed were the same as in the upper +part of Zanskar. The stream which ran by the village had in some +places spread out into a marshy meadow, in which a large pink-flowered +_Cardamine_ or _Dentaria_ occurred plentifully, with _Orchis +latifolia_? a white _Juncus_, and many common plants. + +Below the village the descent was bare and stony, and extremely abrupt +the whole way down to the river; the Tibetan rose was in full flower +on the road-side. The river did not come into sight till it was close +at hand, the bottom of the ravine through which it flowed being narrow +and rocky. A common wooden bridge, without side-rails, forty or fifty +feet above the surface of the water, was thrown over at the narrowest +part, where the stream was hemmed in by high rocky walls, and was, I +think, not more than forty feet broad. The current was rapid, and the +water much discoloured. The course of the river at the bridge was +easterly, but below, after a slight bend to the south of east, the +valley seemed to take a more northerly direction, and above the bridge +it came from the south-west. The banks of the river did not seem to be +at all practicable, and I was informed that it was only when the river +was frozen that travellers could proceed down it to Le. Accounts +differed much as to the length of time required for the journey, and I +could not discover that any of my party had ever travelled it, so that +I presume the route is not very much frequented. + +Immediately after crossing the river, a long, steep, utterly barren +ascent commenced over stones and shingle. A deep ravine, with a small +stream at the bottom, lay to the right of the road, beyond which were +the lofty rugged precipices which had been so conspicuous from the +heights the day before. At about 13,000 feet I gained the summit of a +projecting ridge, which rose, a little to the right, into a rocky +peak, and then sank abruptly down to the ravine. The road then dipped +into a hollow filled with large boulders and fragments of rock, +perhaps of glacial origin, and rose again more gradually to a second +ridge, in the hollow beyond which lay the village at which I had +determined to encamp, its lowest houses overhanging the deep ravine on +the right. The elevation not being materially different from that of +Nira, the plants of the cultivated grounds were the same. _Potentilla +anserina_ was very plentiful, and remarkably luxuriant. + +The rocks during the ascent were chiefly a very hard but very brittle +quartz or schist, alternating with loose crumbly slates, and a little +limestone. I diverged a little from the direct road, to visit an iron +mine, and to see the process of smelting. The ore was yellow ochre, +occurring in a breccia-looking conglomerate situated on the flanks of +a steep narrow ravine. There were two smelting furnaces, built of +stone, of a conical shape, three feet in height, and about six inches +in diameter at the top. The fuel employed was charcoal, and no flux +was mixed with the ore. + + [Sidenote: SINGHI PASS. + _July, 1848._] + +On the 3rd of July, I crossed Singhi La, the pass which I had seen so +distinctly on the 1st. The ascent commenced at once from the village +of Yulchung, over dry rounded hills, at the same time receding +considerably from the deep ravine on the right. No rock _in situ_ was +visible on the earlier part of the ascent, the hills being entirely +covered with coarse gravel and small stones, among which a spinous +_Astragalus_ and a species of _Polygonum_ were the predominant plants; +a glabrous _Artemisia_, a little _Euphorbia_, and the prickly +_Statice_, were also frequent. After about 1000 feet of ascent, plants +of the alpine zone began to appear. Afterwards the ascent was more +gentle, over similar ground, till I attained an elevation of about +15,000 feet; at which height the road was for some distance nearly +level, winding round a deep bay or hollow in the mountains, with high +hills rising on the left hand, and the deep ravine still on the right. +Several small streams were crossed, and many alpine plants seen, all +familiar to me, except a species of rhubarb, which grew among the +shingle in considerable quantity, and which is probably an undescribed +species. + +After completing the circuit of the deep bay, the ascent recommenced, +but was not at all rapid, till within a few hundred yards of the top, +when a short steep pull occurred. On the latter part of the ascent, +from the loose, stony nature of the soil, vegetation was very scanty; +and at the top, which was rounded, there was absolutely none. The +elevation was 16,500 feet. Several large patches of snow occurred on +the south side when close to the top, but not continuously. The view +was extensive to the south, embracing a considerable portion of the +great snowy range north of the Chenab, which, from the great elevation +of the spot on which I stood, as well as of the intermediate ranges, +and from the much smaller quantity of snow on its northern face, +looked much less imposing than it does when viewed from the Indian +side. Right and left were huge rocky peaks, and in front the view was +obstructed by mountains close at hand, except to the north-west, in +which direction a long gently-sloping valley was visible, running +between two steep ridges, along which, I was informed, the next day's +journey lay. From the top of the pass I attempted to form an estimate +of the height of the neighbouring ranges, taking the quantity of snow +as a guide, and it appeared to me that they were in general between 19 +and 20,000 feet, a few isolated peaks only exceeding that altitude. +Such guesses, however, are necessarily extremely vague. + +Quartzy rock, slate, and limestone, alternated during the ascent; and +near the summit of the pass the limestone evidently contained organic +remains, perhaps coralline, though the traces were not sufficiently +distinct to enable me to decide the point. The fossils were not +observed _in situ_, but the angular fragments in which they occurred +did not appear to have been transported from any distance. + +On the north side of the pass a snow-bed commenced at the very crest, +down which the descent was very steep for a few hundred yards. The +snow was very soft, and was rapidly melting, but it possibly covered a +permanent mass of ice, as it terminated abruptly, and the valley at +its base was wide and but little inclined, with only a few patches of +snow. The ground near the snow was swampy, owing to the rapid thaw. +Here a little sweet-scented _Primula_ was abundant, with one or two +more alpine plants. The road followed the course of a wide arid +valley, descending very gently. Two species of rhubarb were common, +and a dwarf willow fringed the margins of the stream. + + [Sidenote: PHUTAKSHA. + _July, 1848._] + +As I advanced, the valley gradually narrowed, and on the right high +precipitous rocks ere long overhung the stream, so that I crossed to +the left bank, and, instead of keeping on the bottom of the valley, +proceeded horizontally along the hill-sides. A little further on, the +stream, which had hitherto had a north-west course, turned suddenly to +the north, and entered an extremely narrow rocky ravine, which to all +appearance was quite impassable. Here the road turned abruptly to the +left, and ascended to cross a low ridge. On attaining the summit an +open valley was seen 1000 feet below, which at its lower extremity +contracted into a fissure precisely similar to that just described; +and as the two ravines were only separated by a narrow rocky ridge, +which rose to the north into a high cliff, there can be no doubt that +the two streams joined a mile or two below. Descending gradually into +the valley, I encamped at the village of Phutaksha, at an elevation of +about 14,300 feet. + + [Sidenote: LACUSTRINE CLAY. + _July, 1848._] + +Notwithstanding its great elevation, the valley of Phutaksha was +partially cultivated. The fields formed a narrow belt parallel to the +stream, along which they extended almost up to 15,000 feet, but the +crops were scanty. The wild plants of the borders of the cultivated +land were the same as those common in Zanskar, and grew with great +luxuriance along the margins of the irrigation streamlets. Alluvial +boulder clay was common in the valley; and I saw also a great deal of +the fine cream-coloured clay, which I have elsewhere noticed as being +probably of lacustrine origin. The occurrence of this clay at an +elevation of upwards of 14,000 feet is rather uncommon, and here, as +well as elsewhere, appears to be accompanied by such a conformation of +the mountains as to render the former existence of a small lake +probable. Below Phutaksha, as I have already observed, the ravine of +the little stream is exceedingly narrow and rocky, and as likely as +any other part of Tibet to have been blocked up by alluvial deposits +so as to form a lake. + +On the 4th of July my road lay up the valley. The banks of the little +stream were lined with most beautiful green turf, producing all the +characteristic plants already mentioned. I took the right-hand branch +of two which here united, and, on looking up the other, observed that +the snow-line on the northern slope of the mountains, at its head, was +very considerably above the level at which I stood; its height, where +lowest, seemed to be about 16,000 feet. In one small side-ravine there +was an incipient glacier. After leaving the cultivated lands the +valley became extremely stony and barren, fragments of a brittle +limestone rock being everywhere scattered about. The vegetation +changing to that of the alpine zone, several new species of +_Astragalus_ and _Phaca_ were collected. Following the streamlet +almost to its source, the road afterwards ascended to the top of a +steep ridge, elevated probably a little more than 16,000 feet; this +ridge was rocky, or covered with shingle of a dark slate, which had +succeeded to the limestone. The yellow _Thermopsis_ was almost the +only plant which grew on the summit, from which I had a fine view of +the pass crossed the day before, and of the range of mountains I had +left; but to the north there was no distant view, the valley bending +abruptly to the right. + + [Sidenote: HANUPATA. + _July, 1848._] + +From the top of the pass I descended rapidly along a deep valley, +generally at some height above the stream, to the village of Hanupata, +elevated 13,100 feet. This valley was throughout barren and stony, and +became very narrow in the lower part. _Dama_ was very plentiful, but +otherwise there was little novelty in the vegetation, except along the +bank of the stream in its upper part, where I made a rich collection +of small alpine species. A large-flowered _Aster_, a white +_Pyrethrum_, and a little _Pedicularis_, were the new species +obtained. In the lower part of the valley willow and _Lonicera_ as +usual appeared; and when close to Hanupata, I met with a shrubby +species of _Labiatæ_ (perhaps a _Ballota_) which is an extremely +common plant in the valley of the Indus from 7000 to 14,000 feet, but +seems never to occur far from that river. + + [Sidenote: WANDLA RAVINE. + _July, 1848._] + +On the 5th of July I proceeded down the same valley to Wandla, a +distance of about eleven miles. The fields of Hanupata occupied only a +narrow strip along the bank of the stream, the sides of the valley +being steep and rocky. The crops were much further advanced than any I +had hitherto seen; the barley in particular was very luxuriant, and +one field was already in ear. Along the margins of the field there was +the same rank herbage as usually occurs in similar situations. Lucerne +and melilot, both seemingly the common European species, were very +plentiful. Poplars and willows were cultivated; and I observed some +large juniper-trees. Beyond the cultivation the valley became very +narrow. The bed and banks of the stream were gravelly, and on the +latter grew a dense thicket of _Myricaria_, _Hippophaë_, willow, and +rose. After two or three miles there was not left space even for +these, the mountains coming so close together that in many places +there was not room to pass between them and the water. The current was +too rapid for fording, so that it repeatedly became necessary to +ascend to a considerable height in order to effect a passage. One of +these ascents was not much less than 1000 feet perpendicular, up a +narrow lateral ravine, and then over a very steep bank of loose +shingle, descending again with great abruptness to the water's edge. +The road also crossed the stream several times. + +In one place I observed a very remarkable natural tunnel, where the +stream flowed below a solid mass of conglomerate rock, which formed an +arch obliquely across it. The conglomerate was exceedingly hard, and +rested on both sides on very soft friable slate, by the excavation of +which, by the action of the stream, the tunnel appeared to have been +formed. The original channel of the stream was still visible six or +eight feet higher than its present level a little to the right. The +ravine continued narrow and rocky for nearly seven miles, but during +the last two of these the road lay high upon the mountain-side, and +was tolerably level and good. Near the end the valley became wider, +and several small patches of cultivation appeared, with a few +apricot-trees; and a double yellow rose was planted near some of the +houses. The last mile of the day's journey was entirely through very +rich and luxuriant cultivation, which was further advanced than any I +had yet seen. + + [Sidenote: WANDLA. + _July, 1848._] + +The elevation of Wandla is only 11,000 feet, and the heat of the sun +was very oppressive. On the latter part of the march, many plants of +the Indus valley which were familiar to me from my journey of the year +before, but which I had not seen during my present visit to Tibet, +made their appearance. _Echinops_ and _Nepeta floccosa_, _Mulgedium +Tataricum_, a large and handsome yellow _Corydalis_, _Capparis_, and +numerous _Chenopodiaceæ_ were abundant. The leaves of _Tussilago +Farfara_ were common along the water-courses; in the corn-fields a +little viscid _Cerastium_ (_Lepyrodiclis_) was only too plentiful. By +far the most conspicuous plant was the rose (_R. Webbiana_), which, in +the rich and well-watered soil of the cultivated plain, grew most +luxuriantly, forming dense almost spherical bushes, many of which were +at least fifteen feet high, as much in diameter, and bushy down to the +ground. They were now in full bloom, and the foliage was almost +entirely concealed by the profusion of bright red flowers. + +I was obliged to remain a day at Wandla, owing to the serious illness +of one of my servants, who, though a native of a mountainous country, +had suffered much more on the high passes than any of the inhabitants +of the plains of India, and was now so much exhausted as to be unable +to move. On the 7th, however, I proceeded towards the Indus, not a +little glad to be at last within a day's journey of that river, as I +was considerably later than I had originally calculated, not having +made allowance for the very rugged nature of the country between +Zanskar and Le. + + [Sidenote: LAMAYURU. + _July, 1848._] + +The valley of Wandla, I was informed, contracted again into a rocky +ravine a very little way below the village. This ravine was not quite +impracticable, but the stream had to be forded very frequently; and as +it was at least four feet deep, I was recommended to follow another +route, a little more circuitous, but free of difficulty. For the first +mile I proceeded up an open valley, which joined at a right angle from +the west that which I had descended on the 5th. I then turned to the +right up a very sterile ravine, with much saline efflorescence; in a +few places a small streamlet trickled among the stones, but for the +first part the channel was quite dry, the water filtering underneath +the gravel. The sides of the ravine were bare and shingly and without +vegetation, except at the entrance, where a _Corydalis_, thistle, and +one or two other plants occurred sparingly. On the most stony parts +_Güldenstädtia cuneata_, Benth., was common, and here and there in the +gravelly channel was a bush of _Myricaria_ (not _M. elegans_, but a +smaller and much less handsome species). After a gentle ascent of +about two miles, I gained the head of the ravine, and crossing a stony +ridge not high enough for alpine plants, descended another valley on +its north side, which, though at first if possible more barren than +the ascent, soon became somewhat green with willow-bushes and the +ordinary plants. After descending perhaps a thousand feet, I reached +an extensive tract of cultivation, just above which, in another +ravine, lay the village and monastery of Lamayuru, of which a +circumstantial account has been given by Moorcroft[20]. At this place, +I joined the road from Kashmir by Dras to Ladak, which has been +repeatedly traversed by European travellers, and is particularly +described in Moorcroft's Travels. + + [Sidenote: INDUS VALLEY. + _July, 1848._] + + [Sidenote: KALATZE. + _July, 1848._] + +Below this village the valley contracted, and was for some distance +full of immense masses of lacustrine clay; lower down it became a +narrow rocky ravine. The road descended with great rapidity till I +reached the Wandla stream, which I had left in the morning; it was +afterwards less steep, following the banks of that river through a +winding rocky valley to its junction with the Indus, which was not +seen till close at hand. The valley of the Indus, where I entered it, +was very barren, with bare rugged mountains on both sides. A stony +platform of alluvial conglomerate usually intervened between the +mountains and the river, over which my road lay for about three miles +up the river, to a good wooden bridge, defended on the north side by a +small, very indifferent fort. By this bridge I crossed to the right +side of the river, and a mile further on reached the village of +Kalatze (or Kalsi, as it is commonly pronounced), at which I encamped. + +In the lower part of the Wandla ravine, the clay-slate rock became +much indurated, and alternated with a very hard conglomerate, the +matrix of which had a semi-fused appearance, while the pebbles which +it contained were all rounded. This rock is very similar to, and +probably identical with, that of the Giah ravine north of the Tunglung +pass, and of the upper Indus. A modern conglomerate, with an indurated +sandy and calcareous matrix, in horizontal beds, rested unconformably +upon the more ancient rock, but afforded no indications by which I +could form an opinion of its exact age. + + [Sidenote: VEGETATION OF VALLEY OF INDUS. + _July, 1848._] + +The elevation of my tent at Kalatze I made to be 10,400 feet; but I +was encamped at the highest part of the village, and the bed of the +river was not much above 10,000 feet. The cultivated lands, which are +very extensive, lie on the top of a thick platform of alluvium, +through which the river has excavated a deep broad channel. The lands +of the village slope gradually from the base of the mountain to the +edge of the cliff overhanging the river, and the fields are made into +level terraces by walls of stones from three to six feet in height. +Numerous streams of water are conducted through the fields for +irrigation, upon which cultivation in Tibet entirely depends. The +crops had an appearance of great luxuriance: they consisted of wheat +and barley (both in full ear, the latter even beginning to turn +yellow), buckwheat, peas, and oil-seed (_Brassica Napus_). Fruit-trees +were abundant, chiefly apricots; but there was no deficiency of +apples, pears, walnuts, and mulberries. Along the water-courses and on +the edges of the fields grew plenty of wild plants, many the same as +occur everywhere in Tibet, but, from the diminished elevation, +numerous novelties were observed. A _Clematis_, with dingy +brownish-orange flowers, straggled over bushes; a shrubby _Ballota_ +and a _Perowskia_ covered the walls; _Iris_, _Capsella_, _Veronica +biloba_ and _agrestis_, _Lamium amplexicaule_, _Mentha_, _Potentillæ_, +_Plantago Asiatica_, _Thalictrum_, and numerous other plants grew +along the water-courses; while in the fields among the corn the weeds +were much the same as are common in Europe and in the plains of India +in the cold season; _Vaccaria_, _Silene conoidea_, _Stellaria media_, +_Malva rotundifolia_, and _Convolvulus arvensis_ being plentiful. + + [Sidenote: NURLA. + _July, 1848._] + +On the 8th of July, I marched to Nurla[21], about eight miles up the +valley of the Indus. After leaving Kalatze, the whole day's journey +was quite barren, the road usually lying on the top of an alluvial +platform. Just beyond Kalatze, a large stream had cut a deep ravine +through the platform, showing it to be composed of large incoherent +water-worn stones, mixed with gravel and clay. The mountains on both +sides were steep, rocky, and bare. The vegetation on these platforms +was scanty: _Boragineæ_ and _Chenopodiaceæ_ were the two prominent +orders; _Nepeta floccosa_, a little _Hyoscyamus_, _Güldenstädtia_, a +large and handsome _Corydalis_, a _Matthiola_, and several +_Astragali_, _Cruciferæ_, and _Artemisiæ_, were also prevalent. Of +grasses, _Stipa_ was the most common, but several sub-tropical forms +were observed, which were interesting and somewhat unexpected. A +species of _Cymbopogon_, and an _Andropogon_ allied to _A. Ischæmum_, +grew among rocks close to the river. In similar places I met with two +species of _Vincetoxicum_, one a twiner, and the other erect; +_Tribulus_, too, was common on the most barren spots. At Nurla, the +cultivated lands are very extensive: the crops and fruit-trees as at +Kalatze; some of the barley was nearly ripe. The common bean seemed a +good deal cultivated, usually intermixed with wheat; _Lathyrus +sativus_ was also a common crop[22]. + +Behind the village of Kalatze, rounded hills of moderate elevation +were capped with incoherent beds of sand and boulders of considerable +thickness, horizontally stratified; similar beds, sometimes indurated +into a soft sandstone rock, occurred at intervals throughout the day. +Boulders of granite were abundant in the alluvium and on the surface +of the platforms, derived, I believe, from the axis of the chain +separating the Indus from the Shayuk. These transported masses of +granite were not observed anywhere between lower Zanskar and the +Indus; it may therefore, I think, be inferred that the superficial +alluvium (which, where the two occur together, generally covers the +lacustrine clays) has been deposited since the present river system +was in full operation, and is not, as I at one time conjectured, +analogous to the drifts of Europe. The ancient rocks between Kalatze +and Nurla were alternations of friable slate with indurated +conglomerate and grey sandstone. + + [Sidenote: SASPOLA. + _July, 1848._] + +Between Nurla and Saspola, to which place (eleven miles) I marched on +the 9th, the valley of the Indus was narrower than before, as well as +more rocky. The rock was chiefly grey sandstone. The road frequently +ascended to some height in places where the banks of the river were +too rugged to permit a passage. On the 10th of June I proceeded to +Nimo, ten miles further. At Saspola the road leaves the banks of the +Indus, to ascend a barren valley, among hills of loose conglomerate. +At first, the banks of the little stream were green and turfy; but +after about a mile I entered a dry stony ravine, along the bed of +which the road gradually ascended. The rocks were clay-slate, +conglomerate, and sandstone, and all the hills were capped with modern +alluvial clay conglomerate. Granite boulders occurred abundantly, and +marks of the action of water were seen on the rocks far above the +reach of the present streams. At the summit, which must have been +nearly 1000 feet above the Indus, I emerged suddenly upon a wide and +open gravelly plain. To the right, a number of low hills concealed the +course of the Indus; to the left, the mountain range had receded to +some distance, and could be seen to be here and there tipped with +snow. The road lay for several miles over this barren plain, which was +entirely alluvial, descending afterwards very abruptly into a deep +flat-bottomed hollow, excavated out of the soft conglomerate by a +considerable stream. In this hollow, quite concealed till close at +hand, was the village of Bazgo, with a long narrow strip of +cultivation along the margin of its stream. Following the course of +this valley till near the Indus, I then ascended its left bank, and +emerged upon another extensive alluvial platform, high above the +river, but parallel to it. At the east end of this platform was the +village of Nimo, the termination of my day's journey. + + [Sidenote: NIMO. + _July, 1848._] + +From this place my journey of the 12th brought me to Le, about twelve +miles. About a mile above Nimo the Indus is joined by the Zanskar +river. The valley where the two rivers unite is very rocky and +precipitous, and bends a long way to the south. The road to Le does +not follow the river, but ascends among gravelly ravines behind the +village, and emerges on a wide open plain, which, as on the previous +march, is interposed between the northern range of mountains and the +present channel of the Indus. The height of this plain above the river +was at least 1000 feet; it was lowest in the centre, sloping up not +only towards the mountains to the north, but to a range of +round-topped hills of moderate elevation, which overhung the valley of +the Indus, sinking on their south face very abruptly down to the +river. The higher mountains were chiefly granite, with a few +interposed beds of slate dipping at a high angle. The granite +exhibited the usual tendency of that rock to decay in spheres, or +rather in irregular-shaped masses with rounded angles. + +In proceeding along this plain, the road at first rose almost +imperceptibly, but after two miles I reached the highest part of it, +from which it sloped down towards the east. From this point the course +of the Indus in front of Le, and to the south-east for many miles, was +finely seen. The river runs through a wide valley, but the range of +mountains to the north sends down many rugged spurs, which, in the +shape of low rocky hills, advance close to the river. On the south or +left bank, on the contrary, a wide, open, gently-sloping plain extends +to a considerable distance. From the highest level of the plain a long +gradual descent brought me to the Indus, to which it was necessary to +descend in order to get round one of the spurs just referred to. It is +here a tranquil but somewhat rapid stream, divided into several +branches by gravelly islands, generally swampy, and covered with low +_Hippophaë_ scrub. The size of the river was very much less than it +had been below the junction of the river of Zanskar, the latter +appearing to contribute considerably more than half the amount of +water. At the point of the low spur lay the village of Pitak, on an +isolated hill, surrounded by extensive deposits of cream-coloured +lacustrine clay. From this village there is a gradual ascent of about +four miles to the town of Le, which is built on a low hill at the +upper corner of a wide open valley. + + [Sidenote: PITAK. + _July, 1848._] + +The bed of the Indus at Pitak, below Le, has an elevation of about +10,500 feet above the level of the sea, but the town is at least 1300 +feet higher. Its sheltered situation, in a hollow surrounded by hills, +and facing the south, compensates to a certain extent for this +increase of elevation; still the crops are very much inferior to those +on the banks of the Indus. There are but few trees, the apricot being +the only fruit-tree cultivated, and it does not seem to thrive. Water +is plentiful in the valley, and is conveyed through the cultivated +lands in deeply-cut canals or trenches, faced with walls of stone. +Natural meadows of tall grasses, intermixed with luxuriant lucerne and +melilot, are common along the banks of the river, especially above the +town. + + [Sidenote: LE. + _July, 1848._] + +The vegetation in the vicinity of Le scarcely differed from that of +the Indus at Kalatze. The most abundant families of plants were +_Chenopodiaceæ_, _Labiatæ_, and _Artemisiæ_, which covered the barren +and stony tracts; the _Boragineæ_, so abundant throughout Tibet in +early spring, had already quite dried up and disappeared. In the +meadows tall species of _Thalictrum_, _Silene_, and _Heracleum_, were +coming into flower, and in swamps _Veronica Beccabunga_ and +_Anagallis_, _Limosella_, and a yellow _Pedicularis_, were the most +abundant plants. + +At Le I had the pleasure of meeting Captain Strachey, who had spent +the winter there, and had returned shortly before my arrival, from an +exploring journey to the eastward. After a week's stay I set out for +Nubra on the 19th of July, crossing the lofty chain separating the two +rivers by the pass directly north of Le, which, during the summer +months, presents no difficulty, and is therefore preferred as being +the most direct. The pass is distinctly visible from the town of Le, +to which it appears very close, though the distance is at least ten or +twelve miles. I did not attempt to cross it the first day, but +encamped as far up on the southern face as I conveniently could, so as +to reach the top early in the morning. At starting, the road lay for +about three miles through an open valley, partly cultivated, and with +a good deal of swampy ground. Higher up, the valley contracted into a +barren ravine, with a narrow strip of green along the margin of the +stream. About half-way, the road left the bottom of the valley, and +for the remainder of the march I proceeded along the bare side of the +mountain, ascending very rapidly. There was a striking change in the +vegetation as the height increased. On the lower slopes _Cicer_ and +_Statice_ were abundant, with several _Astragali_; on the latter part +of the ascent many alpine plants were observed, belonging to the +genera _Corydalis_, _Elsholtzia_, _Potentilla_, and _Draba_. A very +small violet was extremely plentiful in the crevices of the rocks, and +among stones, after I had reached 15,000 feet. I encamped at about +15,700 feet, on a level piece of ground, a few hundred feet above the +bottom of the valley. + + [Sidenote: PASS NORTH OF LE. + _July, 1848._] + +On the 20th I crossed the pass, starting about sunrise. The morning +was intensely frosty, and the stones and vegetation near the water +were encrusted with ice. The path lay close to the stream, ascending +somewhat rapidly among the green turf which grew along its margin, in +which I found many little alpine plants, among which, a large-flowered +_Aster_ and a small poppy with still unexpanded flowers were the most +conspicuous. The last part of the ascent was extremely steep, among +immense angular granite boulders, with here and there a little snow in +the crevices. Here a most elegant sweet-scented species of _Primula_ +was common, so firmly fixed in the frozen mud, that I could with +difficulty procure a specimen. Except in very small patches, there was +no snow till within two hundred yards of the top of the ascent, for +which distance it was continuous, but very soft, and evidently melting +rapidly. The crest of the pass was a narrow ridge of large spheres of +granite, seemingly quite detached from one another, but which had +probably been formed on the spot they now occupied by the peculiar +decay characteristic of that rock. + +The continuation of the ridge on both sides was for some distance +very little more elevated than the pass itself, the height of which +was 17,700 feet. To the south, the view was very extensive, embracing +a great extent of snowy mountains, with numerous lofty peaks, as well +as a part of the Indus valley, and the town of Le, immediately below; +to the north it was much more limited, as hills close at hand +completely excluded all distant view, except directly in front, where +one snowy peak could be seen a long way off, evidently beyond the +Shayuk. + +On the north side of the pass snow commenced at the very top, and +continued for at least 1200 feet of perpendicular height. The descent +for this distance was extremely steep, over a snow-bed, which appeared +to cover an incipient glacier. About 1200 feet below the top I came to +a small oval-shaped lake, completely frozen over; a little higher up I +had passed a small bare piece of rock projecting through the snow, and +perhaps thirty feet long, on which the beautiful blue-flowered _Nepeta +multibracteata_, Benth., had already put forth its flowers. Beyond the +frozen lake the descent became at once much more gentle, and was +partially free of snow. The path lay over a vast accumulation of +angular stones, which appeared to have fallen from the rocks above. +Many parts of the valley were swampy, evidently from recently melted +snow, and in such places the _Primula_, noticed on the ascent, +occurred in great abundance, its scapes rising to the height of six to +eight inches, and bearing large globes of deep rose-coloured flowers. +Among the loose stones _Nepeta multibracteata_ was common. About three +miles from the top I passed the end of an exceedingly well-marked +moraine, which must have been deposited by a glacier at a time when, +from increased cold, these masses of ice stretched down much further +than they do at present. The remainder of the descent was again more +abrupt, but very bare, stony, and uninteresting. A single tree of +_Juniperus excelsa_ grew in one of the ravines, and below 14,000 feet +a species of berberry, with very small leaves, was common on dry stony +ground. I encamped at the small village of Kardong, at 13,500 feet. +The cultivation round this village was on a level plain without any +terracing. + + [Illustration: Metamorphic rocks. Alluvium. Stream. Alluvium. + Metamorphic rocks.] + + [Sidenote: KARDONG. + _July, 1848._] + + [Sidenote: ALLUVIAL PLATFORMS. + _July, 1848._] + +On the 21st I proceeded to Karsar, a village on the bank of the Shayuk +river, distant about nine miles. A few hundred feet above the village +of Kardong the alluvial boulder clay had begun to occur in the valley, +and around the village, which occupied the end of a lateral ravine, it +was already very thick. From Kardong to the Shayuk this alluvium +continued in great quantity, forming elevated platforms, sloping very +gently from the mountains, and faced by steep, often quite +perpendicular cliffs. Where lateral ravines joined the main valley +the alluvium was deeply excavated by the little streams which +traversed them, and the road descended abruptly by steep and curiously +winding paths down the cliffs of clay, and among piles of boulders, to +re-ascend to the platform beyond the stream. Such a ravine, of great +depth, occurred just below Kardong. After crossing it the road lay +over the surface of the clay platform, which was nearly level, and +consequently at an increasing height above the bottom of the Kardong +valley, which rapidly diminished in elevation. This platform was +extremely barren, and quite devoid of water. Here and there isolated +rocky masses rose up through the alluvium. The rock was peculiar, +being very hard, and, as it were, porphyritic, with a black, +basaltic-looking matrix, quite homogeneous, in which numerous white +specks were diffused. In hand specimens and boulders, and even on a +near view of the hills, this rock appeared quite an igneous rock, but +when an extensive section was exposed, it could be seen to be +distinctly stratified. + + [Sidenote: KARSAR. + _July, 1848._] + +When within a short distance of the Shayuk valley, though still high +above it, the road turned to the left, and, leaving the alluvial +platform, proceeded among rugged rocky hills, in a direction parallel +to that river, at the same time descending somewhat rapidly to a +platform of modern lacustrine clay and conglomerate, which filled up +the whole of a deep recess in the mountains facing the Shayuk, to a +thickness of at least 1000 feet. The village of Karsar, at which I +encamped, lies in a deep ravine, excavated out of the clay formation +by a considerable stream, on both sides of which, for nearly a mile, +there is a belt of cultivation, very narrow where the stream issues +from the mountains, but gradually widening as it descends. Owing to +the sheltered situation, from the great height of the cliffs of clay +on both sides, the crops were exceedingly luxuriant, and fruit-trees +were plentiful, principally apples and apricots. Some very fine +walnut-trees also occurred. + +From the same cause the herbaceous vegetation was particularly rich, +and I met with many species which were new to me. The banks of the +stream, from the point where it issued from among the mountains, were +everywhere bordered by large bushes of _Myricaria elegans_, now +adorned with masses of sweet-scented rose-coloured flowers. In the +lower part of the village-lands there were shady plantations of poplar +and willow, which seemed to be occasionally irrigated, in order that +they might produce a rich natural pasture. In these groves _Euphrasia +officinalis_, species of _Gentiana_, _Ranunculus_, _Potentilla_, and +_Carum_ grew most luxuriantly; a tall but very small-flowered +_Pedicularis_ was also very common. No less than three species of +_Orchideæ_ occurred, a family which more than any other dislikes +dryness: these were _Orchis latifolia_, an _Epipactis_, and an +_Herminium_. Many of the weeds of the cultivated fields were also new +and interesting: a _Hypecoum_, an _Elsholtzia_, and some species of +_Polygonum_, were those I particularly noted. + + [Sidenote: LACUSTRINE DEPOSIT. + _July, 1848._] + +The lacustrine formation of Karsar consists mostly of very pure white +clay, horizontally stratified; but at the lower end of the ravine, +where it is about to expand into the open plain of the Shayuk, a +tolerably solid but still very friable sandstone, the strata of which +were also quite horizontal, occurred under the clay. I saw no +fossils, but when the clay is examined with care, they will probably +be occasionally detected. At all events, as this clay formation is at +least a thousand feet thick, if we take into consideration the open +nature of the whole valley of Nubra, there can be no doubt that it +must have been deposited from the same waters with the very similar +clay which I found at Tertse, in lower Nubra, in October, 1847, and +that it is therefore lacustrine. If this be admitted, it seems +impossible to escape from the conclusion, that the deposits in the +Kardong valley, (of which I have given an imaginary section in page +398,) though different in appearance, belong to the same lake. Now, +these attain an elevation of 13,500 feet and upwards, as they commence +above Kardong: the level of the surface of the Nubra lake can +therefore hardly have been less than 14,000 feet; so that it must have +extended up the Tanktse valley, almost as far as the low pass by which +that district is separated from the Pangong lake. + + [Sidenote: DISKIT. + _July, 1848._] + +From Karsar, I marched on the 25th of July, down the valley of the +Shayuk, to Diskit. The earlier part of the road, after ascending +abruptly out of the Karsar ravine, lay over the clay platform, which +was perfectly flat; but after about four miles, it descended nearly to +the level of the river, whose wide gravelly plain now extended on the +south side to the very foot of the mountains, the lacustrine beds +having been entirely removed. The plain was traversed by several small +streamlets, apparently derived in a great measure from the river, the +water of which seemed to sink among the gravel and sand of its bed, +and to spring up again at a distance from the main channel. One of +these streams ran at the extreme edge of the plain, close under the +cliffs, which here rose almost precipitously to a great height. Its +banks were very saline, and in the neighbourhood of Diskit a great +part of the plain was encrusted with soda. + +The cultivated lands of the village, which is of considerable size, +lie on a sloping bank, rising rather steeply out of the plain. Many +apricot-trees grow among the houses, some of which were large enough +to afford a shade under which a tent could be pitched. The vegetation +was in general the same as at Karsar, but a white-flowered _Allium_ +was new, as well as a species of _Chloris_, which was abundant in the +pastures. A very small _Cyperus_, which grew in the water-courses, +appeared to be a dwarf state of a species common in the plains of +India, and, with the _Chloris_, which is a tropical grass, was +interesting as an indication of the considerable heat of the summer +climate in the valley of the Shayuk, notwithstanding its great +elevation. + + [Sidenote: PASSAGE OF SHAYUK RIVER. + _July, 1848._] + +The village of Diskit is almost exactly opposite the place where the +Nubra river joins the Shayuk from the northward. In October, 1847, I +had crossed the Shayuk five or six miles above Karsar, and descended +along its right bank, but during the hot months this route is not +practicable, as there are no bridges, and the river is too deep to be +forded anywhere except just at its junction with that of Nubra, where +the wide gravelly plain of the Shayuk expands to its greatest +diameter, and the river is divided into numerous branches. + +The greater part of the 26th of July was occupied by the passage of +the Shayuk, which was both tedious and difficult, the river being now +nearly at its greatest height. The first branch was nearly two miles +from Diskit, the intervening gravelly plain being partly swampy, with +a few bushes of _Hippophaë_, _Tamarix_, and _Myricaria_. There were +four large branches to be crossed, besides several of smaller size. +Nearly a mile of sand separated the last large branch from the +remainder, and the ford was a most intricate one, each branch being +crossed obliquely and at a different point from the adjacent ones. The +united breadth of all the streams could not, I think, have been less +than half a mile. The velocity of the water was so great, that though +the depth nowhere, I think, exceeded three and a half feet, and was +more usually about two and a half, people on foot appeared to have the +utmost difficulty in retaining their footing, and the loaded men had +to be supported by one or two without loads on each side. In the more +difficult parts, two men placed themselves on each side of my horse's +head, to guide him in the proper road, and two more at each stirrup to +give him support in case of need. When in the centre of the current, +where, from the necessity of keeping my eye on the horse's motions, I +had to look at the water, I found it impossible to avoid a feeling of +giddiness, and an impression that horse and rider were being hurried +upwards with extreme velocity in a direction contrary to the stream. +These very rapid portions, however, were never more than ten or twenty +yards broad; the remainder was more moderate and shallower. + + [Sidenote: LYAKJUNG. + _July, 1848._] + +After safely effecting the passage with all my party and baggage, I +proceeded about a mile over loose sand, and encamped at the village of +Lyakjung, situated at the border of the low plain of the river, at the +point of union of the two valleys. The Shayuk valley is visible from +this place as far as the large village of Hundar, about ten miles, the +river running throughout that distance through a wide gravelly plain, +but with high rocky mountains on both sides. + + [Sidenote: VALLEY OF NUBRA. + _July, 1848._] + +From the 27th of July till the 9th of August, I remained in the valley +of Nubra, the necessary preparations for my further journey, which was +to be entirely through an uninhabited country, requiring considerable +time. During this interval, I moved from place to place in the valley, +which is well inhabited and rather pretty. The river is in the hot +months very large and rapid, and has its origin, no doubt, in the +great snowy mountains to the north. I crossed it twice a little above +the town of Chirasa, and found its current quite as strong as that of +the Shayuk, and in many places as deep, but its breadth was +considerably less. In one of the channels, a lad, carrying a light +bundle, was carried away by the stream, and rolled over repeatedly in +the water, after being separated from his load, before he was picked +up by a number of men who hastened to his assistance. The difficulty +of crossing was much increased by numerous quicksands, which made it +necessary to proceed by a tortuous path, and which were evidently very +liable to shift, as the guides proceeded very cautiously, and more +than once abandoned a ford on finding the footing insecure. + +The general appearance of the valley of Nubra is very agreeable, and +superior to that of any other part of Tibet at the same elevation. The +villages are well wooded, with orchards of apricot-trees, and with +poplars and willows, which are either planted in rows, or scattered +irregularly in meadows on the skirts of the cultivated lands: the +willows, when not pollarded, attain a large size, and afford an ample +shade. The fields are carefully enclosed with walls, or hedges of +_Hippophaë_, or with a fence of the dead branches of that plant. Green +and shady lanes, bordered by high _Hippophaë_ hedges, full of +_Clematis_ and rose-bushes, lead through the village lands. The crops +are chiefly wheat and barley, with a few fields of millet (_Panicum +miliaceum_), buckwheat, and rape. There is also much pasture, +particularly along the little streams, and in fields near the river, +which are often swampy. + +The beauty of the cultivated tracts is much enhanced by the utter +sterility of the drier parts of the plain, which are either gravelly +or stony, and utterly barren, except that occasionally from some +peculiarity of soil or position there is a considerable extent of +clayey soil not low enough to be swampy, but not remote from water, +covered with short turf much encrusted with soda. These grassy plains +are more common in the upper part of the district, and are perhaps +connected with springs containing carbonate of soda in solution[23]. + + [Sidenote: VEGETATION OF NUBRA. + _August, 1848._] + +Except from the more advanced period of the season, the flora of +Nubra differed but little from that of Le. Species of _Artemisia_, +_Labiatæ_, and _Chenopodiaceæ_, were now in full flower on the more +desert and stony tracts, in which a shrubby _Lycium_ (which is not +found on the Indus) was also common. _Chenopodiaceæ_ had become +extremely plentiful, and belonged to many different genera: shrubby +species of _Eurotia_ and _Caroxylon_ were common, but the greater +number were herbaceous, and belonged to the genera _Chenopodium_, +_Ambrina_, _Salsola_, _Echinopsilon_, and Corispermum. A species of +thistle grew on barren soil, particularly where the ground was saline; +on the salt soil, _Glaux_, a little _Crucifera_, and a _Polygonum_ +were the most abundant plants. _Mulgedium Tataricum_, a _Galium_ (very +like _G. Aparine_), and a scandent species of _Vincetoxicum_, were +frequent in hedges; and species of _Mentha_, _Erodium_, _Epilobium_, +_Lepidium_, and _Matthiola_, all common plants at Le, being now in +full flower, attracted notice more than at an earlier period. A very +tall species of grass (_Melica?_) in large and elegant tufts, often +six feet high, was one of the most ornamental plants in the valley; +while as uncommon forms I may enumerate a prickly _Sophora_, +_Orobanche_, _Parietaria_, and in ponds a little _Utricularia_, +closely resembling a European species. + +A small-leaved elm, which is common near Tagar, is apparently +wild,--at least it is not acknowledged by the inhabitants as a +cultivated tree. I have not observed this tree elsewhere in Tibet, but +Mr. Vigne mentions that he met with an elm in the mountains between +Shigar and Khapalu. It appears to be the same with a species common in +the forests of the lower valleys of Kashmir. + + [Sidenote: HOT SPRINGS. + _August, 1848._] + +About a mile from the large village of Panamik are the hot springs +formerly visited by Moorcroft. They are two in number, and spring from +the rocky mountain-side, about a hundred yards from the edge of the +plain. The temperature of the water in the spring which I tried was +170·5°. It was faintly sulphurous both in taste and smell, but not +perceptibly saline, and deposited a thick calcareous incrustation on +everything within its reach. + +To the south of Panamik the rocks of Nubra are chiefly black slate, +but transported blocks of granite are everywhere common, and at that +village the latter rock descends to the level of the river, and +continues to form the whole mass of the mountains on the left side of +the valley as far as I continued along it. On the right side there +were indications of stratification on the steep sides of the +mountains, and, from the colour, the rock there appeared to be partly +granite and partly metamorphic slate. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[20] Travels, vol. ii. p. 11. + +[21] Written, I believe, _Snurla_, as Le is written _Sle_, and Nimo, +_Snimo_, the initial letter being in all three mute. Many similar +instances might be given, silent initial letters occurring very +commonly in the written language of Tibet. It admits of much doubt +whether the best mode of spelling be according to the pronunciation, +or as the words are written: I have preferred the former, as less +likely to mislead. + +[22] I do not know whether or not to attribute to this plant a +remarkable disease which, on my return down the Indus in September, I +found in the village of Saspola. At least thirty people in that +village, of all ages from a full-grown man to an infant, and of both +sexes indifferently, had been attacked with paralysis within the last +two years. The palsy was confined to the lower extremities, and +differed much in degree. The sufferers were in other respects the most +healthy and good-looking portion of the inhabitants. The people +themselves were quite at a loss to assign a cause for this +extraordinary affection, and, except in some article of diet, I was +unable to think of any. + +[23] This view has been suggested to me by Dr. R. D. Thomson, who has +paid much attention to the chemical contents of springs, and is at +present engaged in examining the saline matters which I brought with +me from Tibet. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + + Start for Karakoram -- Steep ascent out of Nubra valley -- Meet + a party of Merchants from Yarkand -- View from summit of pass + -- Rapid torrent -- Large glacier -- Steep moraines -- Alpine + vegetation -- Numerous glaciers -- Lakes -- Glacier on crest of + Sassar pass -- Sassar -- Cross Shayuk river -- Murgai -- + Limestone rocks -- Ascend Murgai Valley to 16,800 feet -- + Singular limestone formation -- Open plain above 17,000 feet -- + Re-cross Shayuk river -- Karakoram pass -- Return to Sassar -- + Glaciers of Sassar -- Return to Le -- Start for Kashmir -- + Lamayura -- Phatu pass -- Kanji river -- Namika pass -- Molbil + Pashkyum -- Kargil -- Dras -- Zoji pass -- Kashmir -- Lahore -- + Completion of journey. + + +Having at last completed the preparations necessary for a journey of +twenty days through uninhabited regions, I started on the 9th of +August from the village of Taksha. My first day's journey lay up the +Nubra valley, which continued wide, though the alluvial platforms were +destitute of cultivation, and quite barren. In several places (always +opposite to ravines) they were covered with enormous boulders, which +had all the appearance of having been brought to the position they +occupied by glaciers. Two small villages were seen, both on the west +bank of the river. Four miles from Taksha I crossed, by a good wooden +bridge, a large stream which descended from the mountains on my right +hand through an exceedingly rocky gorge. After seven miles and +a half, I found that I had reached the point at which the road +followed by the merchants in travelling from Le to Yarkand leaves the +valley of Nubra. It was too late in the day to attempt the ascent of +the ridge to the right; I therefore encamped in a grove of willows, +which formed a belt along the margin of a stream whose bed was now +quite dry, its scanty supply of water having been diverted into an +artificial channel for the irrigation of a couple of fields of +indifferent barley not far off. + + [Illustration: SKETCH MAP of Route from =NUBRA TO KARAKORAM=. + _by Dr. T. Thomson._] + +In the valley of Nubra, beyond this encamping ground, which is known +by the name of Changlung, there are, I believe, only three small +villages, the most distant of which appeared to be not more than five +or six miles off. In the direction of the valley, which was still +north-north-west, very lofty mountains were visible at no great +distance, all with snowy tops, and generally with heavy snow-beds and +glaciers in their hollows; and according to the statement of my +guides, the river at the distance of less than two days' journey +issues from beneath a glacier, by which all passage is stopped[24]. + + [Sidenote: ASCENT OUT OF NUBRA VALLEY. + _August, 1848._] + +On the 10th of August I started at daybreak, immediately commencing +the ascent of the mountain range which enclosed the valley on the +east. The mountain was exceedingly steep, indeed almost precipitous, +and the road proceeded in a zigzag direction over bare granite rock, +with scarce a vestige of vegetation. During the ascent I had a good +view of the valley, and of the mountain range which bounded it on the +south-west; large patches of snow lay on its peaks, and here and there +I saw a small glacier in its ravines. The upper part of the valleys by +which these mountains were furrowed had a very moderate slope, but +from about 14,000 feet down to the bottom they were extremely abrupt. + + [Sidenote: YARKAND MERCHANTS. + _August, 1848._] + +After about 3500 feet of extremely laborious climbing, I arrived at a +small level plain, perhaps two hundred yards long and forty or fifty +wide, evidently much frequented as a resting-place by travellers, a +small pool of water being the inducement. I here met a party of +merchants on their way from Yarkand to Le. Their goods were conveyed +by ponies, apparently much exhausted by their long journey through +desert country. I had noticed, on the way up the mountain, that the +road was lined by numerous skeletons and scattered bones of horses; I +had also seen one or two of the same animals recently dead, and the +appearance of these loaded ponies enabled me to understand the cause +of the great mortality. Many of the unfortunate animals appeared +scarcely to have strength to accomplish the few miles of descent which +still intervened between them and plenty of food. The main reliance of +the merchants for the support of their horses is on corn carried with +them, to which there must be a limit, otherwise they would carry +nothing but their own food. + + [Sidenote: SUMMIT OF PASS. + _August, 1848._] + +From this halting-place the remainder of the ascent was less abrupt, +though still steep and extremely stony. There was, however, a little +more vegetation than on the lower part, where the barren rocks, except +at the very base, produced scarcely anything but _Ephedra_, a dwarf +species of _Rhamnus_, and tufts of the hardy _Statice_. Higher up, +several species of _Astragalus_ and _Artemisia_ were plentiful, with +_Lithospermum euchromon_, _Dracocephalum heterophyllum_, and several +_Chenopodiaceæ_ and grasses. The top of the ridge had an elevation of +15,300 feet, but from its extreme aridity and rockiness, and its +consequent elevated temperature, no alpine plants occurred. On +reaching the top I was able to see something of the road before me, +regarding which I had previously had little information, except in +accounts of its extreme difficulty. These I had been inclined to +consider exaggerated, but the prospect before me was undoubtedly far +from tempting. Immediately below lay a narrow stony valley, to which, +from the spot on which I stood, the descent was almost perpendicular. +Opposite to me there was a range of mountains higher than that on +which I stood, with here and there a patch of snow. The valley below +me was partly occupied by a mass of loose alluvial conglomerate, +through which the stream had excavated a deep ravine; its direction +was south-south-west, and there could be no doubt that the stream +which I had crossed the day before, about half-way, was that which +drained the valley upon which I now looked down. On the top of the +alluvial platform, on the opposite side, there was a narrow strip of +green, indicating a small patch of cultivation, without, however, any +habitation, the crop being apparently left to its fate till ready for +the reaper. In every other direction, stones and snow were alone +visible. + + [Sidenote: BARREN VALLEY. + _August, 1848._] + +I descended obliquely into the valley, so as to reach it about a mile +and a half higher up than the spot from which it was first visible. +The descent was very laborious, a great part of it being covered with +loose gravel or coarse sand, produced by the disintegration of the +granite rocks. There was rather more vegetation than on the opposite +face, and I collected a number of plants which I had not recently met +with; a _Nepeta_, _Scrophularia_, _Cicer_, and _Heracleum_, and two +shrubby _Potentillæ_, were the commonest species. One of the species +of _Potentilla_ (_P. discolor_ of Jacquemont) was remarkable for +exciting violent sneezing when touched or shaken; this curious +property seemed to be owing to a very fine dust which covered the +under surface of the leaves. + +After reaching the surface of the alluvial platform overhanging the +stream, about half a mile of gentle ascent among large stones brought +me, after a journey of ten miles, to my encamping ground. This was a +level spot, close to a lateral torrent, which had its source in a +snow-bed in the mountains on the left, and was rushing in a most +impetuous milk-white torrent over immense boulders, to unite itself to +the main stream. The elevation of my camp was about 14,000 feet. + +On the morning of the 11th, at starting, I crossed the torrent close +to camp. Although much less considerable than it had been the previous +afternoon, still, from its great rapidity and the number of boulders +in its bed, the crossing was not accomplished without difficulty by +the laden animals, who carried the greater part of my baggage. I +crossed it myself by leaping from boulder to boulder, which would have +been quite impossible in the afternoon of the previous day, when it +was swollen by the action of the sun upon the snow. The road lay up +the valley parallel to the river, among a most extraordinary +accumulation of granite boulders of all sizes, from one to ten feet in +diameter, piled upon one another in vast heaps, and evidently +transported by a former glacier. After about half a mile, I crossed +the river by a wooden bridge of two or three beams, which must have +been brought from Nubra for the purpose, as no timber of any sort +grows in the valley. The stream was very rapid and muddy. A mile +further, a torrent descending from the mountains on the right was +crossed, and soon after I got upon the bank of the main stream, now +more tranquil and fordable. The road for the remainder of the march +lay along its left bank, over boulders and gravel, ascending now and +then a little way on steep sloping banks, entirely composed of +transported materials. I encamped on a level, somewhat grassy spot of +ground, which was evidently commonly used as a halting-place, having +travelled only four and a half miles, an unnecessarily short day's +work. I had throughout my journey had considerable difficulty in +fixing the marches at proper lengths, the inhabitants having no +measure of distance but the day's journey. In the present instance, my +tent was pitched, and most of the party had commenced to cook, or were +dispersed to collect fuel, long before my arrival, so that I was +obliged to rest content for the day. + + [Sidenote: GLACIER. + _August, 1848._] + +The course travelled during the day had been north-north-east, but I +had evidently arrived nearly as far as was practicable in that +direction, for about half a mile in front was the bluff end of a very +large glacier, filling up the continuation of the valley. This +glacier, which was nearly half a mile wide, was covered almost +entirely with stones and earth, very little of its surface being +visible, and the dirty black colour of its terminating cliff showing +how much soil had been mixed up with it in its progress. The elevation +of my tent was about 14,500 feet, and the termination of the glacier +may have been 250 feet higher. All around the mountains were very +lofty, their tops covered with snow, which nowhere came within 2000 +feet at least of the valley, even on northern exposures. Granite was +everywhere the prevailing rock, but on the higher mountain slopes, +which were often precipitous, it was much intermixed with a dark rock, +probably clay-slate. + + [Sidenote: ALPINE NETTLE. + _August, 1848._] + +During the day I had scarcely seen any vegetation, except when close +to the edge of the stream. Among the boulders and on the bare stony +ground there was frequently not a vestige of herbage. Near one of the +ravines I found the white shrubby _Potentilla_, along with an +exceedingly pretty prostrate plant, with bright rose-coloured flowers, +belonging to the order of _Compositæ_: it was a species of the genus +_Allardia_, described by M. Decaisne from the collections of +Jacquemont, by whom it was found in Piti. One of the very few alpine +plants which I saw during the day was a little gentian, common among +the turf close to my tent. Round camp a species of nettle was +plentiful, seemingly, like others of the genus, attracted by the +nitrogenous nature of the soil of an encamping ground much frequented +by shepherds with their flocks. The sting of this nettle, though +rather faint, was quite perceptible. It was decidedly an alpine plant, +which is rather uncommon, not only in the genus, but the order to +which it belongs. + +The journey of the 12th of August commenced by a steep ascent into a +lateral valley descending from the eastward. The hill-side up which I +climbed (apparently the bluff termination of an ancient moraine) was +very stony and dry. When a sufficient elevation above my encampment +had been gained, I obtained a commanding view of the glacier which +occupied the continuation of the main valley. It was nearly straight, +and, as I believe, at least five or six miles long; distances, +however, are so difficult to estimate on snow, that this must be +regarded as a mere guess. The inclination of its surface was +considerable; but, while the distance remained doubtful, no just +estimate of the height of the ridge from which it descended could be +made. On each side, two or three lateral glaciers, descending from the +mountains by which it was enclosed, contributed to increase its size, +all loaded with heaps of stones, which had at the lower end of the +central glacier so accumulated as completely to cover its whole +surface. + + [Sidenote: MORAINES. + _August, 1848._] + +After 800 or 1000 feet of ascent I found that I had attained the level +of the lateral valley, along which the road ran, and that the +remainder of the way was much more gentle, but exceedingly fatiguing, +from its excessive roughness, and from the great elevation, which made +the slightest exertion difficult. On both sides were high ranges of +mountains, which had much snow on their summits, and in one or two +ravines there was a small snow-bed or incipient glacier, but the +distance from the crest of the ridge not being great, no glacier of +any length was formed. On the left hand, the mountains were steeper +and higher than those on the right, and several bulky glaciers on +very steep slopes occupied their ravines. None of these entered the +valley along which my road lay, but their moraines often projected to +its very centre, forming immense piles of angular fragments of rocks, +which attained, in more than one place, a height of several hundred +feet, and indicated that the glaciers had at some former period +advanced much further than they now do. The main valley was itself +everywhere covered with boulders; in some places large blocks, ten to +twenty feet in diameter, were arranged at moderate distances from one +another, but more frequently the fragments were all small. + + [Sidenote: SASSAR PASS. + _August, 1848._] + +After the first steep ascent, the slope of the valley was uniformly +gentle, except when a steep-sided moraine had to be passed. Latterly a +few small patches of snow occurred in the valley. I encamped at 16,600 +feet, on a level grassy spot of ground close to a small circular plain +resembling the bed of a lake, and still partially covered with snow. +The snow level on the mountains to the south had approached within +less than one hundred feet of the level of the plain. Though the +distance travelled during the day was only six miles, I felt a good +deal fatigued, and suffered much from headache, caused by the +rarefaction of the air. + +From the great quantity of snow on the mountains all around, there had +been throughout the day an abundance of moisture, and vegetation was +in consequence much more plentiful than usual. The plants were all +alpine, and being mostly diminutive, had to be sought in the crevices +of rocks, and among the stones which everywhere abounded. The banks of +the stream were frequently grassy, and there was a great deal of +marshy ground. Most of the plants obtained were in full flower, and +the colours were in general very bright, and sufficiently varied. By +far the greater part belonged to the same genera which prevail on +European mountains, such as _Draba_, _Saxifraga_, _Sibbaldia_, +_Potentilla_, _Ranunculus_, _Papaver_, _Pedicularis_, _Cerastium_, +_Leontopodium_, and _Saussurea_. The most remarkable forms were three +species of _Allardia_, several _Astragali_, a one-flowered _Lychnis_, +_Delphinium Brunonianum_, and a _Ligularia_. The alpine nettle was +common on many parts of the road, chiefly near places frequented by +the shepherds as halting-places. + +Next day at starting I proceeded along the edge of the small plain +close to which I had been encamped. On the right hand was an ancient +moraine, which prevented me from seeing the road in advance. At the +upper end of the plain I found a small streamlet running parallel to +the moraine; and about a mile from camp I reached the end of a small +glacier, from which the streamlet had its origin. Crossing the latter, +which was still partially frozen, I ascended in a deep hollow between +the left side of the glacier and the moraine. The icy mass had not yet +begun to thaw, the temperature being still below freezing. After half +a mile I ascended on the surface of the ice, and as soon as I did so, +was enabled to see that the glacier had its origin in a ravine on the +south, and entered the main valley almost opposite to me. The great +body of the ice took a westerly direction, forming the glacier along +which I had been travelling; but a portion formed a cliff to the +eastward, which dipped abruptly into a small, apparently deep lake. At +the distance of perhaps five hundred yards there was another glacier, +which descended from a valley in the northern range of mountains, and, +like the one on which I stood, presented a perpendicular wall to the +little lake. Right and left of the lake were enormous piles of +boulders, occupying the interval between its margin and the mountains, +or rather filling up a portion of the space which it would otherwise +have occupied. Into this very singular hollow I descended, on a steep +icy slope, and passing along the northern margin of the lake, ascended +on the glacier beyond; as before, between the ice and moraine. + +On reaching the surface of the second glacier, I found that a similar +but smaller depression lay beyond it to the east, in which also there +was a small lake, with another mass of ice beyond it. This third +glacier also came from the north, and was a much more formidable mass +than those which had already been crossed. It was very steep, and was +covered with snow, which was beginning to thaw more than was +convenient. When at the highest part, I found that though apparently +nearly level, it sloped downwards sensibly, though very slightly for +nearly half a mile, in an easterly direction. It was evident that I +had now reached the highest part of the ascent, and that the crest of +the pass was covered by this glacier. I did not make any observation +to determine its altitude, but the ascent from camp was very moderate, +not, I think, exceeding a thousand feet. Assuming this estimate to be +correct, the height of the pass would be about 17,600 feet, which I +believe will prove not far from the truth. + +On so icy an ascent vegetation could not be expected to be plentiful; +still, even in the depressions between the glaciers, the crevices +among the boulders produced a few plants, mostly the same as those +observed the day before, but three species of _Saussurea_ were the +most common of all. Before arriving at the first glacier, the +beautiful _Primula_ collected on the pass above Le was met with in +great abundance. + + [Sidenote: SASSAR. + _August, 1848._] + +For about half a mile, as I have said, the slope of the glacier was +just perceptible; beyond that distance the descent was abrupt. On +reaching the end of the level portion, I obtained an excellent view to +the eastward, in which direction a wide valley was seen at a distance +of several miles. Through this valley, from left to right, ran a +considerable river, which proved to be the Shayuk. Beyond the river, +rocky mountains were seen, apparently nearly as high as those near at +hand, and perfectly barren. In descending from the pass, I soon left +the surface of the ice, which, as soon as the slope became abrupt, was +too rugged to be walked over. I then got upon the moraine; about +half-way down, the glacier, which had latterly been almost entirely +covered with debris, came to an end, but a moraine continued a long +way down, and the remainder of the descent was very stony. I encamped +at about 15,400 feet on a dry gravelly plain, close to the broad +valley of the Shayuk, but at least 500 feet above it. To the right, in +a very deep ravine, was a small stream, on the banks of which were +patches of snow. The name of the ground on which I encamped, which is +a usual halting-place, was Sassar, and the Turki merchants call the +pass also by the same name. + + [Sidenote: PLAIN OF SHAYUK RIVER. + _August, 1848._] + +From Sassar not more than three or four miles of the upward course of +the river were visible, but within that distance three glaciers were +in sight. Two of these stopped short of the valley, while the third, +which was at the most distant point visible, appeared to descend to +the river. An enormous precipice, which must have been at least 3000 +feet in height, rose on the opposite side of the valley beyond the +glaciers. Downward the valley of the Shayuk was seen for nearly ten +miles, as a wide gravelly plain, with high rugged mountains on both +sides. + +On the morning after my arrival at Sassar, it was snowing slightly at +daybreak, and continued to do so till near noon. The snow melted +almost immediately on the level ground, but on the mountain-sides it +lay all day, down as low as the level of my tent. The afternoon was +dull and stormy, but no more snow fell. This unfavourable weather was +of less consequence, because I had determined to halt in order to make +fresh arrangements for my baggage, being advised not to take any +cattle beyond Sassar, the roads in advance being very bad. I +afterwards found that they were gravelly, which is more injurious than +even rock to the unprotected feet of the Tibetan bullock. + +The gravelly sloping hills round my encampment were covered with +abundance of vegetation, but few of the species were alpine, and +almost all were familiar to me. A species of _Allium_, with purple +flowers and broad strap-shaped leaves, was the most plentiful of all. +_Thermopsis_ was frequent, in fruit; other common plants were species +of _Artemisia_, _Cynoglossum_, _Cicer_, and _Dracocephalum_. The only +new species were a very handsome dark purple _Nepeta_, which grew in +large tufts among loose shingle, and a tall _Saussurea_, by far the +largest species of the genus which I had found in Tibet, but I believe +one of those described from Jacquemont's collections. A species of +_Rheum_ occurred occasionally on dry stony places, but it was the same +which I had found several times before. + +On the 15th of August I resumed my journey. The morning was misty, +with a few flakes of snow at intervals, and the sky remained overcast +all day, with high squalls of wind. My road lay across the Shayuk, but +I found it necessary to ascend about half a mile on the high bank +before I reached a place where it was possible to descend to its +gravelly plain, which was more than half a mile wide, and quite +destitute of any kind of vegetation. The river was running in several +channels, with an average depth of about a foot and a half; in one +place only it was as much as two feet. The current ran with +considerable rapidity. + +On the opposite side of the plain of the Shayuk, I entered an +extremely narrow ravine, bounded by precipices of black slate, down +which ran a small stream, which crossed at every turn of the ravine +from one side to the other, generally close to the rocky wall, and had +to be forded a great number of times. After a mile and a half, the +road, suddenly quitting the ravine, turned to the right, and ascended +by a steep pathway to a wide, very gently rising plain, bounded on +both sides by snowy mountains. This plain was partly grassy, but +mostly composed of hard dry clay. In a few spots where snow appeared +recently to have lain, the clay was soft and treacherous, sinking +under the feet. About a mile's walk over this plain brought me to the +highest part of it, beyond which it began to slope to the eastward, at +first very gently but afterwards more rapidly. Many large isolated +boulders were observed on its surface. It was curious to observe that +the gravel produced by the disintegration of the mountains (chiefly, I +suppose, by snow-slips in winter) differed in colour on the two sides +of the valley, and that the line of demarcation followed very closely +the centre of the valley. The northern mountains, being granitic, +produced a hard quartzy gravel, while those to the south, which were +schistose, contributed a dark-coloured gravel of sharp slaty +fragments. On the lower part of the descent, a small rivulet made its +appearance in the centre of the plain, and I encamped, after nine and +a half miles, close to an open valley of considerable size, whose +course seemed to be south-east. + + [Sidenote: MURGAI. + _August, 1848._] + +This encamping-ground is called by the Turki merchants Murgai, by the +Tibetans, Murgo-Chumik; the former name being probably a corruption of +the latter. It was the last place at which I was to expect a +sufficiency of fuel, or even, with rare exceptions, of grass for my +horse, which, though not often used, I was unwilling to leave behind, +lest I should by any accident be disabled from walking. The +temperature of boiling water here indicated an elevation of about +15,100 feet, but as the weather was stormy and threatening, this was +probably several hundred feet more than the truth. A number of springs +appeared to break out of the ground close to my tent, where there was +a considerable extent of boggy pasture, much greener than is usual at +so great an elevation. A few bushes of _Myricaria elegans_ were the +only shrubs, but tufts of _Artemisia_ and _Eurotia_ were sufficiently +plentiful to produce an abundance of fuel. In the boggy meadow, a +pretty little species of _Primula_ was very abundant; the other plants +observed were a white _Pedicularis_, two species of _Triglochin_, and +some _Carices_ and grasses. + +The morning of the 16th of August was bright and beautiful, the clouds +having been entirely dissipated during the night. The wide valley near +which I was encamped descended, as I was informed, to the Shayuk, +which it was said to join through a rocky gorge eight or ten miles +lower down than Sassar. Along its course the merchants are in the +habit of ascending at the season when the valley of the Shayuk is +followed all the way from Nubra, which is only practicable in early +spring and late in the autumn, at which times that river is fordable +throughout. It is a fortunate circumstance for the trade that there is +thus a choice of routes, for at these seasons the Sassar pass must be +in a great measure blocked up with snow. + + [Sidenote: ASCENT OF + MURGAI VALLEY. + _August, 1848._] + +On my arrival at Murgai, I had observed that the mountains to the +north were very precipitous, and had been puzzled to decide what +direction the road might take. On starting, however, I found that it +lay along the upward course of the stream which watered the valley +before me, and which here issued from the mountains through a very +narrow ravine with high precipices on both sides. At first I ascended +to the top of a platform of conglomerate which lay at the base of the +mountains. The ground was strewed with fragments of limestone, +evidently derived from the mountains above; and about half a mile from +camp I passed a calcareous spring which had deposited large quantities +of tufa throughout the whole of the space between its source and the +face of the precipice which overhung the river: the thickness of the +incrustation was, in front of the cliff, from six to eight feet. A +little further on, the road descended abruptly to the stream, and, +after crossing it several times within a few hundred yards, ascended +equally abruptly the steep stony slopes on its left bank, at a point +where its course, which had previously been nearly north, turned +rather suddenly to the eastward. On emerging from the ravine, two +small glaciers came in sight almost directly opposite, in branches of +a narrow and very deep gorge, which descended from the mountains to +the north nearly in the original direction of the ravine. The road +ascended to the height of at least 1000 feet, and then proceeded along +the steep slopes, alternately ascending and descending over very stony +ground, occasionally covered with loose limestone shingle. The stream +was visible below, running through a narrow rocky fissure. + +After about a mile and a half, the road again descended to the river, +now a little wider, with a gravelly channel. Here I found that there +were two roads. One of these, for loaded animals, ascended steeply on +the north side, to the height of nearly 1000 feet, and again descended +very abruptly. The other was in the bed of the stream, which was +partially filled up with huge blocks of rock. The stream being almost +dry, I took the lower road, which for pedestrians was only +objectionable from its great roughness, and because it was necessary +to cross the rivulet occasionally. After about a quarter of a mile, +the ravine suddenly opened out into a gravelly plain nearly half a +mile in width, traversed by numerous branches of the little stream: +these were now almost dry, owing to the cloudy weather of the last few +days having in a great measure stopped the melting of the glaciers by +which they were supplied. Along this open plain I continued for nearly +five miles. In one place only it contracted again for a few hundred +yards into a gorge full of huge rocky masses heaped one on another, by +which it was apparently quite blocked up; this however was avoided by +a slight ascent among angular limestone fragments. On descending into +the plain again, I observed a very small patch of grassy ground on a +bank a few feet above the level of the stream, the only herbage seen +during the day. About a mile further on I encamped, after a march of +nine miles, on the south side of the plain, on a dry bank elevated +four or five feet above its gravelly bed. There was a sudden change in +the direction of the valley just at my encamping-ground, its further +course being in a direction west of north. The elevation of my tent +was very nearly 16,000 feet. + +High, rugged, precipitous mountains, with snowy tops, rose on both +sides of the road during the whole of this day's journey. The rock +throughout the day was limestone, a few thin layers of slate excepted. +It varied much in colour, but was generally very dark and highly +crystalline, and often contained large masses of white calcareous +spar. It was distinctly stratified, and occasionally exhibited +obscure traces of what might be fossils, but which were too indistinct +to be relied upon. The principal mass of snow seen was nearly due +south of my encampment, but this was probably owing to the northerly +exposure of the mountains on that side. The vegetation observed during +the day was scanty in the extreme; _Eurotia_, a _Saussurea_ with very +viscid leaves, _Oxytropis chiliophylla_, and _Biebersteinia odora_ +being almost the only plants on the stony slopes and shingle during +the first half of the way. On the gravelly plain there was no +vegetation at all, but on its margins a few scattered plants were +occasionally to be found, a _Pyrethrum_ and two or three _Cruciferæ_ +being the species noted. The most remarkable plant observed during the +day was a species of _Alsine_ in dense hemispherical tufts, a foot or +more in diameter. This plant (the moss of Moorcroft's visit to Garu, +and of other travellers in and on the borders of Tibet) is a common +Tibetan plant at very great elevations, 16,000 feet being perhaps not +far from its lowest level[25]. + +On the 17th my road lay entirely along the gravelly plain in a +direction always considerably to the west of north. The plain +gradually narrowed as I advanced, and came to an end by contracting +into a rocky ravine, just as I halted for the day. The mountains on +the left were still very lofty; one glacier was seen on that side. On +the right the mountains were lower and quite without snow, but +extremely rugged and rocky. The slope of the valley was scarcely +perceptible, but I found at the end of my day's journey, which +amounted to twelve miles, that I had risen above 700 feet, the height +of my encampment being a little more than 16,700 feet. The day was +bright and sunny, and the stream, which, in the morning was quite +insignificant, not three feet wide and scarcely ankle-deep, had +increased much by the afternoon, and had become of a dirty red colour. +It was twenty feet wide, and a foot and a half deep, where I crossed +it just before halting. The vegetation was still more scanty than the +day before, though most of the plants then noted were again seen +occasionally. Small tufts of a little _Stipa_ were not uncommon, +constituting almost the only food for cattle, as patches of green +grass, a few feet in diameter, were only seen twice during the day. +Two very small _Saussureæ_ formed dense tufted masses on the surface +of the ground, and a little rose-coloured _Astragalus_ spread itself +prostrate over the gravel; indeed, this mode of growth seemed to be +characteristic either of the climate or soil, as I found, though +rarely, a species of _Myricaria_, with short thick wiry branches lying +flat on the ground and spreading into patches a yard in diameter. + + [Sidenote: REMARKABLE LIMESTONE. + _August, 1848._] + +Not far from the point where the direction of the valley changed so +suddenly, the blue or greyish massive but brittle limestone of the +higher mountains gave place to a rock of a very different appearance. +This was also a limestone, perfectly white, or with a very faint +yellowish or greyish tinge, and either quite amorphous, with a +saccharine texture, and often honeycombed, or composed of a congeries +of very minute crystals. Occasionally, but rarely, rolled pebbles +were seen in it. No traces of stratification were anywhere +discoverable, in which respect it differed very strikingly from the +limestone of the previous day, in which lines of stratification, much +contorted, were well seen in many sections exposed at different +heights. This remarkable limestone formed the rock on both sides of +the gravelly plain during the greater part of the day's journey. In +one place only metamorphic slate was seen below it, dipping at a high +angle to the north-east. The limestone was extremely brittle, and the +cliffs terminated above in sharp pinnacles of the most fantastic +shapes, while at the base they were covered with heaps of angular +debris[26]. A coarse conglomerate replaced the limestone during the +last mile previous to my encamping. + + [Sidenote: ELEVATED PLAIN OF KARAKORAM. + _August, 1848._] + +On the 18th of August, after following for a few hundred yards the +course of the stream through a narrow rocky gorge, the road turned +abruptly to the right, up a dry stony ravine, ascending rather +rapidly. The coarse conglomerate of the lower part of this ravine was +succeeded by a coarse sandstone, and that again by an incoherent +alluvial conglomerate with a clayey matrix. After a short distance, +the ravine widened out into a narrow, gravelly, moderately steep +valley, with low rounded hills on either side. By degrees, as I +increased my elevation, superb snowy mountains came in sight to the +south-west, and on attaining the top of the ascent an open, gravelly, +somewhat undulating plain lay before me, while behind a grand snowy +range was seen in perfection, forming apparently a continuous chain, +with a direction from south-east to north-west. The snow was to the +eye perfectly continuous in both directions as far as the mountains +were visible, and appeared everywhere to lie on the mountain-sides to +three and four thousand feet below their tops. As I had passed through +this apparent chain of mountains without rising above 16,000 feet, the +continuity of the snowy mass was of course a deception. Many very +lofty peaks rose above the others at intervals. The height of the more +distant ones I could not venture to estimate, but I felt at the time +fully convinced that a very high peak, just opposite to me, and +distant, according to bearings taken afterwards, about ten miles (in a +direct line) from the edge of the plain, was 6000 or 7000 feet higher +than the ground on which I stood, or at least 24,000 feet above the +level of the sea. I do not wish that any great degree of confidence +should be placed on this estimate, but I think it right that I should +state my impression at the time, formed without any wish to +exaggerate. + +The stream along which I had ascended during the two last days lay in +a deep ravine far below the level of the plain. Its source was +evidently not far distant, and it issued no doubt from a large glacier +at the head of the gorge, though the slight upward slope of the plain +to the west prevented me from seeing its precise origin. In a +northerly direction the plain appeared to extend for six or seven +miles, and beyond it lay several ranges of mountains running from east +to west, but only very moderately patched with snow. Eastward the +plain diminished slightly in elevation for four or five miles, at +which distance there was a low range of hills, and immediately at +their foot a small stream apparently running to the northward. Beyond +these low hills were a number of lofty black peaks to the northward of +the great mass of snow, on the further side of which the country +probably dips to the eastward in the direction of Khoten. Every one of +my guides positively denied the existence of any road in that +direction; afraid, perhaps, that I might attempt to proceed by it; for +I learned afterwards, on my return to Le, from a merchant of Yarkand, +that there was an unfrequented path by which Khoten might be reached, +if the Chinese authorities were willing to permit it to be used. + +My road lay across the open plain in a direction very little west of +north. The surface of the ground was covered with a few boulders and +many small pebbles, for the most part rolled, and very various in +composition; granite, greenstones of many sorts, amygdaloid, +limestone, and different-coloured slates, being all seen. Many of +these were encrusted with a calcareous concretion, and the whole plain +had the appearance of having formerly been the bed of a lake. +Skeletons and scattered bones of horses indicated with great exactness +the road across this arid tract, which seemed to be almost destitute +of either animal life or vegetation. The only living beings seen were +a few ravens, a hoopoe, and a small bird somewhat like a sparrow. +Tufts of the moss-like _Alsine_, referred to on the 17th, were the +only vegetation, except in the bed of a little rivulet near the middle +of the plain, which produced a few specimens of _Saussurea_ and +_Sibbaldia_. This streamlet rose in a large patch of snow about half +a mile to the westward, and ran towards the east, turning afterwards +nearly due north along the foot of a low range of hills mentioned +above. The elevation of its bed, which was the lowest part of the +table-land in the direction in which I crossed it, was 17,300 feet, +and the lowest part of the plain was immediately under the low hills +to the eastward, where it probably was about 17,000 feet. + +There was no snow on the plain, except one patch close to its highest +part, in which the little rivulet had its source, and a very few +remnants on the shady side of a low undulating ridge, which crosses it +near its northern border. After about five miles, having been +ascending very gradually since leaving the banks of the stream, I +passed through an opening between two low gravelly hills, and found +myself looking down upon a wide valley, into which I descended very +gradually along a dry ravine. Passing a small patch of swampy, grassy +ground, at which I left my horse with a servant till my return, as +there was no food for him further on, I arrived, about two miles from +the point at which the valley just came in sight, at a small river +about thirty feet wide and ankle-deep, running from east to west. +According to the information of my guides, this was the river which +runs past Sassar,--in fact, the Shayuk. None of them had followed its +course, but they assured me that there was no doubt of the accuracy of +their statement, which indeed is confirmed by the fact (which I +mention on the authority of Yarkand merchants) that formerly +travellers used to ascend the Shayuk from Sassar, in order to reach +the Karakoram pass, instead of pursuing the circuitous route by which +I travelled; but that about ten or twelve years ago the glaciers above +Sassar descended so low as entirely to prevent any one passing in that +direction, for which reason it became necessary to adopt a new +road[27]. + + [Sidenote: SHAYUK RIVER. + _August, 1848._] + +The course of the Shayuk was visible for several miles, running nearly +due west. Beyond that distance, it disappeared among rocky hills. +Fording the river, I ascended a steep bank, to get upon a stony +platform, over which I proceeded in a northerly direction, gradually +approaching a small stream which came from the north to join the +Shayuk. Passing a low rounded hill to the right, I descended after +about two miles into the ravine excavated by this little stream, and, +crossing it, encamped under low limestone rocks on its right bank +after a march of twelve miles. I did not ascertain the elevation of +this halting-ground, but, from the result of an experiment made at a +place which appeared nearly midway (in point of elevation) between it +and the bed of the Shayuk, where I got a boiling-point, indicating an +elevation of 17,000 feet, I estimate the bed of the river at 16,800 +feet, and my encamping-ground of the 18th at 17,200 feet. The plain +all round seemed destitute of vegetation, so that, as on the two last +days, there was a great scarcity of fuel, which had to be collected +from a distance of many miles; and consisted only of the roots of a +small bushy _Artemisia_ or _Tanacetum_, which rose three or four +inches above the ground. During these three days, I suffered very +considerably from the effects of the rarefaction of the air, being +never free from a dull headache, which was increased on the slightest +exertion. + + [Sidenote: KARAKORAM PASS. + _August, 1848._] + +On the 19th of August, leaving my tent standing, I started to visit +the Karakoram pass, the limit of my journey to the northward. The +country round my halting-place was open, except to the north, where a +stream descended through a narrow valley from a range of hills, the +highest part of which was apparently about 3000 feet above me. All the +rivers had formed for themselves depressions in the platform of gravel +which was spread over the plain. At first I kept on the south bank of +the river close to which I had halted, but about a mile from camp I +crossed a large tributary which descended from the south-west, and +soon after, turning round the rocky termination of a low range of +hills, entered a narrow valley which came from a little west of +north-west. At the foot of the rocky point of the range were three +very small huts, built against the rock as a place of shelter for +travellers, in case of stormy or snowy weather; and bones of horses +were here scattered about the plain in greater profusion than usual. + + [Sidenote: VEGETATION OF KARAKORAM + _August, 1848._] + +I ascended this valley for about six miles: its width varied from 200 +yards to about half a mile, gradually widening as I ascended. The +slope was throughout gentle. An accumulation of alluvium frequently +formed broad and gently sloping banks, which were cut into cliffs by +the river. Now and then large tracts covered with glacial boulders +were passed over; and several small streams were crossed, descending +from the northern mountains through narrow ravines. About eight miles +from my starting-point the road left the bank of the stream, and began +to ascend obliquely and gradually on the sides of the hills. The +course of the valley beyond where I left it continued unaltered, +sloping gently up to a large snow-bed, which covered the side of a +long sloping ridge four or five miles off. After a mile, I turned +suddenly to the right, and, ascending very steeply over fragments of +rock for four or five hundred yards, I found myself on the top of the +Karakoram pass--a rounded ridge connecting two hills which rose +somewhat abruptly to the height of perhaps 1000 feet above me. The +height of the pass was 18,200 feet, the boiling-point of water being +180·8°, and the temperature of the air about 50°. Towards the north, +much to my disappointment, there was no distant view. On that side the +descent was steep for about 500 yards, beyond which distance a small +streamlet occupied the middle of a very gently sloping valley, which +curved gradually to the left, and disappeared behind a stony ridge at +the distance of half a mile. The hills opposite to me were very +abrupt, and rose a little higher than the pass; they were quite +without snow, nor was there any on the pass itself, though large +patches lay on the shoulder of the hill to the right. To the south, on +the opposite side of the valley which I had ascended, the mountains, +which were sufficiently high to exclude entirely all view of the lofty +snowy mountain seen the day before, were round-topped and covered with +snow. Vegetation was entirely wanting on the top of the pass, but the +loose shingle with which it was covered was unfavourable to the growth +of plants, otherwise, no doubt, lichens at least would have been +seen. Large ravens were circling about overhead, apparently quite +unaffected by the rarity of the atmosphere, as they seemed to fly with +just as much ease as at the level of the sea. + +The great extent of the modern alluvial deposit concealed in a great +measure the ancient rocks. At my encampment a ridge of very hard +limestone, dipping at a high angle, skirted the stream. Further up the +valley a hard slate occurred, and in another place a dark blue slate, +containing much iron pyrites, and crumbling rapidly when exposed to +the atmosphere. Fragments of this rock were scattered over the plain +in all states of decay. On the crest of the pass the rock _in situ_ +was limestone, showing obscure traces of fossils, but too indistinct +to be determined; the shingle, which was scattered over the ridge, was +chiefly a brittle black clay-slate. + +On my return no plants were met with till I had almost reached the +bank of the stream. The first species which occurred was a small +purple-flowered _Crucifera_ (_Parrya exscapa_ of Meyer). Throughout +the day the number of flowering plants observed was seventeen, of +which three were grasses, three _Saussureæ_, and two _Cruciferæ_; +there was also one species of each of the following genera, _Aster_, +_Nepeta_, _Gymnandra_, _Sedum_, _Lychnis_, _Potentilla_, and _Phaca_; +the dense-tufted _Alsine_, and a shrubby _Artemisia_ with yellow +flowers, complete the number. The only animals seen, besides ravens, +were a bird about the size of a sparrow, a bright metallic-coloured +carrion-fly, and a small dusky butterfly. Returning by the same road, +I arrived at my tent a little after sunset, the distance from the top +of the pass being about ten miles. + + [Sidenote: MURGAI RIVER. + _August, 1848._] + +While travelling at these great elevations the weather was uniformly +serene and beautiful. There was but little wind, and the sky was +bright and cloudless. At night the cold was severe, and the edges of +the streams were in the morning always frozen. On my return towards +Sassar I found that the bright sunny weather which had continued since +the 16th, had made a great alteration in the state of the stream in +the wide gravelly valley along which the road ran. It was now +impetuous and muddy, increasing considerably towards the afternoon, +when it ran in several channels, which were not always easily +fordable. In some places the gravel was throughout the whole width of +the plain saturated with water, and gave way under the feet, so that +it became necessary to ascend on the stony sloping banks on one side +or other, instead of following the centre of the valley. At Murgai, on +the evening of the 23rd of August, just after sunset, I felt three +slight shocks of an earthquake. On that day the weather again became +dull, and on the morning of the 24th there was a slight fall of snow +for about an hour. + +The remarkable open plain to the south of the Karakoram pass occupies +a deep concavity in the great chain of the Kouenlun, which there +appears to form a curve, the convexity of which looks northward. The +main range to the eastward was distinctly visible, forming a range of +snowless, but certainly very lofty, black peaks beyond the sources of +the most eastern branch of the Shayuk; while the heavily-snowed +mountains, the summits of which were seen further east, were probably +also a part of the axis of the chain, which apparently bends round the +sources of the river of Khoten, or of some stream draining the +northern flanks of the Kouenlun. To the westward, no peaks rose behind +the snowy ridge which terminated the western branch of the Shayuk a +little west of the Karakoram pass, beyond which the surface probably +dips, while the axis of the Kouenlun bends to the southward, towards +the glaciers of the Nubra river. + + [Sidenote: SNOW LEVEL. + _August, 1848._] + +In crossing the open plain on my return towards Sassar, I had the +splendid snowy peaks to the south-west always in view, and was able to +form a tolerable estimate of their appearance and elevation. The range +was very heavily snowed, and from the lateness of the season but +little additional thaw could be expected. What seemed the highest peak +was very near, and its position could be determined by bearings with +little risk of error. It rose abruptly in the midst of a great mass of +snow, which filled the hollows and slopes of the range all around. The +surface of the plain over which I was travelling sloped very gently up +to the westward, and partly concealed the lower edge of the perpetual +snow on the mountains behind, the limit of which was, I think, between +17,500 and 18,000 feet. To the northward and eastward the snow-line +was certainly much higher. Here and there, where there was shade, +there were patches below 18,000 feet, but even up to 20,000 feet there +was no continuous snow. As the source of the snow-fall on these +mountains is no doubt the Indian Ocean to the south-west, the gradual +rise of the snow-level in advancing north-east, and the occurrence of +the highest peaks, and of the greatest mass of snow on branches of +the chain, and not on its main axis, are quite in accordance with what +is usually the case throughout every part of the Himalaya. + +The occurrence of a nearly level plain, six or eight miles in +diameter, with a mean elevation of not less than 17,300 feet, is +certainly very remarkable. The ridge or watershed of the plain +appeared to me parallel to the deep ravine, excavated by the stream +along which I had travelled on the 17th of August, and at no great +distance from it, as the descent was abrupt. All the northern and +western part of this level tract was composed of loosely cohering +matters, and was possibly of lacustrine origin; but a much more +accurate acquaintance with the outline, structure, and elevation of +the plain will be necessary before any certain conclusion can be drawn +as to its age or origin. + + [Sidenote: GLACIERS OF SASSAR. + _August, 1848._] + +Before leaving Sassar, I visited the glaciers which descend into the +valley of the Shayuk, a little to the north of that place. The path at +first lay along the high platform on which I was encamped, which was +precipitous towards the Shayuk; it afterwards descended to the level +of the river, close to which I travelled for some distance over +enormous boulders. The bluff ends of two glaciers were seen high above +at the top of the precipitous alluvial bank, and after a walk of +upwards of three miles, I arrived at a most superb glacier, which, +descending a broad and deep valley in the mountains, and latterly in +the alluvial platform, entered the bed of the Shayuk at the bottom of +a deep bend, and fairly crossed the river, which flowed out below the +ice. On the opposite side of the river, the mountains were +precipitous a few hundred feet from the water's edge, but the stream +of ice did not extend to the foot of the precipice, but stopped a very +few feet up the opposite bank. I could of course only see the position +of the ice at the edge of the glacier: how far it extended in the +centre I could not tell. + +The glacier was extremely rugged, being covered with huge sharp +pinnacles of ice, and I was obliged to ascend a long way parallel to +its side before I could find a place where it could be crossed. Near +its lower extremity it rose high above the surface of the plain, and +sloped rapidly down to the river: its sides were there scarped and +inaccessible, but higher up it lay in a deep hollow in the alluvial +conglomerate. A moment's reflection showed how impossible it was for +clay and boulders to resist the friction of such an enormous mass; +still I was much pleased to observe the glacier buried, as it were, in +a groove of its own forming, from the light which was thereby thrown +on the origin of the many broad, shallow, flat-bottomed valleys which +occasionally occur in the modern alluvial and lacustrine formations in +all parts of Tibet, as for instance at Karsar in Nubra, and at Bazgo +below Le. An ancient moraine, deposited at a period when the glacier +must have been much more bulky than it now is, skirted the edge of the +high bank of alluvium, and prevented the ice from being seen till +close at hand, and then only by mounting on the top of the pile of +boulders. Down this moraine, which on the face towards the glacier was +extremely steep and perhaps sixty feet high, I descended to the +surface of the present moraine. The descent required great caution, +many of the blocks being loose and easily displaced. When I had +reached the surface of the glacier, the passage was not difficult. +About a quarter of its width on each side was occupied by blocks of +stone; the centre was almost entirely ice, extremely irregular, and +here and there a little fissured. The pathway, which was only marked +by the footsteps of two men whom I had sent the day before to select a +place for crossing, at one time ascended to the top of a ridge of ice, +at another descended into a deep hollow. At the time I crossed (about +eleven A.M.) numerous streams of water had begun to flow in furrows on +the surface of the ice. The whole width was close upon half a mile, +and on the north side I ascended a steep moraine similar to that which +I had previously descended. + +From the top of the bank on which the moraine rested, a second glacier +came in sight at the distance of a mile. My exploring party reported +that they had been unable to find a point at which this glacier could +be crossed, and as from the appearance of the mountains behind I felt +certain that after crossing it I should only arrive at a third, I did +not long persevere in trying to find a passage, but descended to its +extremity in order to see whether or not I could walk round it, as it +did not appear to enter the water. At the bottom of the valley it +spread out in a fan-shaped manner to the width of at least a mile; +perhaps indeed much more, for as I failed in getting round it, I was +unable to ascertain precisely. At its south-east corner, where it was +nearly a hundred yards from the river, a considerable stream, white +with suspended mud, was rushing out from beneath an arched vault of +ice, even before sunrise. To avoid fording this icy stream, the +margins of which were thickly frozen, I crossed with a good deal of +difficulty an angle of the end of the glacier. On its surface I found +several small moraines, which had sunk down into grooves ten or +fifteen feet deep, and had therefore been invisible from outside. +Further progress on the ice was stopped by cliffs which were not +accessible without ladders, so that I had to descend to the bank of +the Shayuk. I walked along between the ice and the river, till my +advance was stopped by the glacier fairly projecting into the water in +such a manner that I could not see anything of what lay beyond. The +icy wall being quite inaccessible, I could not get upon the surface of +the glacier to attempt to advance in that way, nor could I ford the +river, which was very deep. + +The terminal cliff of the glacier varied in height from fifteen to +thirty feet, and a talus of large stones lay in front, evidently +deposited by it. Indeed, while I was there I saw several small stones +which projected from the face of the cliff, drop out by the melting of +the ice in which they were imbedded. Many cavities were seen in the +ice, from which large stones must have dropped out no longer ago than +the day before, and the stones which corresponded in size to them were +seen lying close at hand. Before I left the front of the glacier, the +heat of the sun having become considerable, rapid thaw had commenced; +rills of water trickled down its face in every direction, and the +sound of falling stones was to be heard on all sides. Now and then a +report as loud as that of a cannon was heard, caused, as I supposed, +by the fall of a very large boulder from one of the smaller glaciers, +which stopped abruptly at the top of the high cliff of alluvium. + +Before quitting finally these magnificent glaciers, I ascended to a +height on the mountain-side in order to see whether or not there was +any lake in sight corresponding to that laid down, from information, +by Mr. Vigne as Nubra or Khundan Chu. The mountains were very steep +and stony, and were covered above 16,000 feet with snow, which had +fallen in a storm a few days before; I did not, therefore, get up to +any great elevation, probably not beyond 16,500 feet, but at that +height I could see nothing of the river beyond the second glacier, +though its course through the mountains could be traced distinctly +enough. It is, however, highly improbable that any permanent lake +exists. Such could, I think, only be formed by the stoppage of the +river by a glacier, an obstruction which could only be temporary, and +would inevitably be followed by a terrific inundation, such as is +known repeatedly to have devastated the valley of the Shayuk. + + [Sidenote: RETURN TO LE. + _August, 1848._] + +It had been my original intention, on my return from Karakoram, to +follow the course of the Shayuk all the way from Sassar to Nubra, but +on my return to the former place after visiting the pass, I found that +there was no probability of the road along the river being practicable +for at least three weeks, the depth of the stream, which requires +frequently to be forded, being still much too great; I was therefore +reluctantly compelled to return by the same route as that by which I +had reached Sassar. Early in September, I found the crops in Nubra +ripe, the barley being mostly cut; buckwheat and a few fields of +millet, however, were still quite green. The Shayuk had very +considerably diminished in size: one branch which in July had been +three feet deep was quite dry on the 6th of September. On the 11th of +that month I crossed the pass above Le, the state of which was a good +deal altered. The little lake, which on the 20th of July was still +frozen over, was now free of ice, nor was there any snow, except a +very few small patches, below the steep snow-bank on the northern +side. The snow, which had covered this steep descent, had melted away, +exposing a mass of ice, which was not crossed without a good deal of +difficulty and some little risk. Loaded cattle were unable to get to +the top of the pass till the afternoon. The snow on the south face had +almost entirely gone. + +I reached Le just in time to escape some very unsettled weather, +during which snow fell on the mountains down to about 13,000 feet. +This was ushered in by very high wind, blowing in gusts from all +points of the compass. Heavy clouds formed, but always high: on the +14th there was a good deal of thunder, and during the following night +a smart shower of rain, which lasted about an hour. + +The inhabitants were busy with the operations of harvest. A coarse +knife or rude sickle was employed to cut the wheat and barley as close +to the ground as possible; they were then tied into large bundles, +each sufficient for one load, which were carried (usually by women) to +the threshing-floors, not without considerable loss, from the ripeness +of the ears and the great bulk of the loads, which were rubbed against +every obstacle, particularly the narrow walls of the pathways between +the fields. The grain was trodden out of the ear by cattle and asses, +all muzzled, on small threshing-floors made of clay beaten hard. It +was then winnowed, by being gently shaken out of flat vessels held as +high as possible above the ground. + +On the 15th of September I left Le for Kashmir. For five days my route +was the same as that by which I had travelled in July. On the fourth +day I reached Kalatze on the Indus, and on the 19th of September I +encamped at the village of Lama-Yuru, close to which the road from +Zanskar joins that along which I proposed to travel towards Dras. In +the valley of the Indus a great part of the vegetation was already +destroyed by the night frosts; _Chenopodiaceæ_ were now the most +numerous family, and these were rapidly ripening their seeds. In the +narrow ravine of the Wandla river, on the ascent to Lama-Yuru, I found +a few plants indicative of lower and hotter regions than those in +which I had lately been travelling: a little wiry _Lactuca_ with +decurrent leaves, a spathulate-leaved _Statice_, and a small +_Hyoscyamus_, all plants of the neighbourhood of Iskardo, were those +which I noted. + + [Sidenote: PHATU PASS. + _September, 1848._] + +On the 20th of September I crossed the Phatu pass, stated by Moorcroft +to be 14,000 feet above the sea, but which Major Cunningham has +ascertained to be only about 13,500 feet. The discrepancy is probably +owing to some error in Moorcroft's manuscripts, from which the +elevations given in his work were calculated by Professor Wilson. In +the neighbourhood of Lama-Yuru lacustrine clay occurs in great +abundance, and the ascent to the summit of this pass was gentle, up a +gravelly valley, which was full of alluvium, almost to the very +summit. The pass did not nearly attain the elevation requisite for +alpine vegetation, still the flora was a good deal altered; two +large-flowered thistles, _Caragana versicolor_, and several species of +_Umbelliferæ_ were observed, none of which had occurred in the hills +to the north of the Indus; the prickly _Statice_ was also common, but +the _Chenopodiaceæ_ of the Indus valley had entirely disappeared. The +descent along the Kanji river to Karbu, at which I encamped, was long +and gradual, down a wide valley skirted by gently sloping hills, +which, at some distance on the left, rose into high mountains, but on +the right attained only a moderate elevation, the Indus being at no +great distance. Alluvium occurred throughout the descent, latterly +indurated into a coarse conglomerate. + + [Sidenote: NAMIKA PASS. + _September, 1848._] + +From Karbu I marched on the 21st to Molbil, crossing the Namika pass. +The previous night had been very threatening, with violent wind, and +at daybreak all the hills around were covered with snow; it was still +snowing slightly, but none lay in the valley, and before nine o'clock +it cleared, and the remainder of the forenoon was tolerably fine. For +two miles I followed the banks of the Kanji river; afterwards the road +turned to the left to ascend a clayey valley, to the rounded summit of +a ridge separating that river from the Pashkyum on the left. The pass +has been determined by Major Cunningham, who crossed it in October, +1847, to be 12,900 feet above the sea. The descent was long, but not +rapid after the first mile. The upper part was desert, but lower down +villages were frequent and cultivation extensive. At first the rocks +were clay-slate, but these were replaced in the lower part by a hard +limestone; alluvium was everywhere plentiful, forming, near Molbil, +table-topped platforms of indurated conglomerate, horizontally +stratified, and faced towards the stream by scarped cliffs. The +afternoon was again stormy, and a good deal of rain fell during the +night. + + [Sidenote: PASHKYUM. + _September, 1848._] + +Next day I made a long march to Pashkyum, following the course of the +river of that name. The descent was very gradual, and the road varied +much in character, the valley being sometimes open, at other times +narrow and rocky. The villages increased in numbers as the elevation +diminished, and latterly for several miles cultivation was continuous. +Pashkyum is not more than 8600 feet above the sea, and accordingly the +season was much less advanced than it had been three and four thousand +feet higher, the weather being much milder, and the summer heat no +doubt much more considerable than in the neighbourhood of Le. The +crops had long been cut, except the buckwheat, the fields of which +were however quite ripe; the plants were being plucked up by the roots +and laid down separately in the fields to dry, previous to removal to +the threshing-floor. + +A remarkable change had taken place in the appearance of the country +during this day's journey. The banks of the river were frequently +shaded with immense willows, and the trees of the cultivated lands +were numerous and of great size. Many new forms of plants were also +seen, though the general character of the flora was unaltered. Shrubby +_Artemisiæ_ were extremely plentiful, and the _Perowskia_, _Ballota_, +_Echinops_, and _Iris_ of the Indus valley were very abundant. The new +plants were all species of Kashmir or Iskardo, such as _Verbascum +Thapsus_, _Lappa_, _Valeriana_, _Swertia_, and _Gentiana +Moorcroftiana_. _Trifolium repens_ and _fragiferum_ grew in the +pastures close to the river, and tropical species of _Setaria_ and +_Amaranthus_ were common weeds in the corn-fields. + + [Sidenote: SINGULAR SANDSTONE FORMATION. + _September, 1848._] + +In the immediate neighbourhood of Pashkyum the rocks consist of +coarse-grained grey or white sandstones, often containing small +water-worn pebbles, and alternating with dark crumbling pyritiferous +shales. These rocks, which dip to the east or south-east, at an angle +of not more than 15°, rise on the north side of the valley to the +summit of a long sloping ridge, which appears to overhang the Indus. +As these sandstones and shales contained, so far as I could observe, +no fossils, their age is a matter of complete uncertainty. They were +quite independent of the modern lacustrine formation, patches of +which, perfectly horizontally stratified, and therefore unconformable +to the other, were seen in several places resting on the sandstone. +These sandstones perhaps reach as far as the Indus, but I was not able +to determine how far they extended to the southward, in which +direction high and rugged mountains, now covered with snow, skirted +the valley at a distance of a few miles. + + [Sidenote: KARGIL. + _September, 1848._] + +On the 23rd of September, I followed the Pashkyum river to its +junction with that of Dras. Crossing, at starting, to the left bank of +the river, the road lay for a mile through cultivated lands; it then +ascended to a platform of alluvium, which blocked up the valley, while +the river disappeared in a narrow ravine far to the right. Five miles +from Pashkyum, I descended very abruptly from this elevated plain, to +the village of Kargil, where the Pashkyum river is joined by a large +stream from Suru, called by Moorcroft the Kartse; which I crossed by a +good wooden bridge, close to a small fort, occupied by a Thannadar +with a small party of soldiers. The cultivated lands of Kargil, which +is elevated about 8300 feet, are extensive and well wooded; but +immediately below, the valley becomes narrow and rocky, and continues +so for more than a mile, till the stream joins the Dras river. Nearly +due south of Kargil the stratified rocks of the mountains are replaced +by igneous rocks, and the point of contact of the two is well marked +on the precipitous face of a lofty peak. At first the igneous rock was +dark and resembling greenstone, but it soon changed to granite, which, +as I had observed in April, occurs everywhere in the valley of Dras, +below Karbu. + +I encamped on the right bank of the Dras river, about a mile above the +village of Hardas. Henceforward my route was the same as I had +travelled in April. On the 24th I travelled to Tashgong, and on the +25th I arrived at Dras. In most parts of the valley I found a great +deal of alluvium, but I saw none of the fine clay which is +characteristic of the purely lacustrine strata above the village of +Bilergu, where I had observed it in April. Gravelly conglomerate was +everywhere the prevailing form,--sometimes indurated, but generally +soft and shingly. Most of these deposits were unstratified, but +distinct stratification was far from uncommon. The alluvium often +capped low hills in the open valley many hundred feet above the bed of +the river, and it was observed at frequent intervals in every part of +the valley, from the junction of the Pashkyum river to Dras itself. + + [Sidenote: ALLUVIUM OF DRAS. + _September, 1848._] + +The great extent and remarkable forms of alluvium which I had seen in +the district through which I had travelled, between Kalatze and Dras, +induced me to note with care the position and composition of the +alluvial beds of the Dras valley. The known low elevation of the Zoji +pass, between Dras and Kashmir, which is only 11,300 feet above the +sea, made the great extent and continuity of these deposits very +remarkable, and with difficulty explicable, unless on the supposition +of the existence of a series of lakes separated from one another by +extensive accumulations of alluvium, now to a great extent removed by +denudation. The lacustrine clays of lower Dras, about Ulding, appear +continuous with those of the Indus valley about Tarkata, but the clays +of Pashkyum, which are separated from them by a very thick mass of +alluvium, which occupies that part of the Dras and Pashkyum rivers +immediately above the junction of the two, may have been deposited in +an isolated lake. Further east again, at Lamayuru, there are beds of +pure clay as high as the summit of the Zoji pass, so that the alluvial +beds of the upper part of the Phatu ridge must have separated the lake +in which these were deposited from the more western waters, which (it +may be conjectured) at the same time covered the whole of the valley +of Molbil and Pashkyum. + +The vegetation of Dras was still very Tibetan, but transitional forms +were becoming frequent. The _Chenopodiaceæ_ (except _Eurotia_) had all +disappeared, but _Artemisiæ_ and _Umbelliferæ_ were very abundant. The +new forms were all Kashmirian, and indicated a considerable increase +of humidity: a small white-flowered balsam was observed not far from +Hardas, and _Prunella_, _Thymus Serpyllum_, an _Achillea_, _Senecio_, +_Galium_, and _Silene inflata_ were all seen below the fort of Dras. +At that place the harvest was but just over; indeed, a field or two of +wheat were still uncut. + + [Sidenote: MATEN. + _September, 1848._] + +On the 26th of September, I marched to Maten, along a road which, in +April, had been entirely covered with deep snow. Part of the road was +rocky, but in general the valley was open. During this day's journey, +a very great change took place in the vegetation. Hitherto, Kashmirian +plants had been the exception, the greater part of the species being +Tibetan; to-day the reverse was the case, most of the plants seen +being those common in the comparatively moist climate of Kunawar, or +species new to me, but belonging to families or genera which inhabit a +more humid climate than Tibet. Groves of dwarf willows lined the banks +of the stream, and nearly sixty species of plants not observed in +Tibet were collected during the day. _Vitis_, _Aconitum_, _Hypericum_, +_Vernonia_, a prickly juniper, _Convallaria_, and _Tulipa_, may be +selected as illustrative of the greatness of the change, which was +particularly interesting from its suddenness. Numerous Tibetan forms +no doubt still lingered, but principally such as extend into Kashmir. +At Maten the barley was still uncut, notwithstanding that it is +upwards of a thousand feet lower than Le, at which place harvest was +nearly over at the time of my departure. + + [Sidenote: ZOJI PASS. + _September, 1848._] + +There can be no doubt that the sudden alteration in the character of +the vegetation is due to the great depression in the chain separating +Tibet from Kashmir, at the Zoji pass, which is far below the usual +level of the lowest parts of these mountains. The access of a great +amount of humidity, which would have been condensed if the +moisture-bringing winds had been obliged to pass over a lofty chain, +makes the autumn partially rainy, and frequently cloudy, thereby +diminishing the action of the sun's rays, and lowering the mean +temperature of the summer. + +On the 27th of September, I crossed the pass of Zoji La, which had now +a very different aspect from that which it had presented in April. +From Maten the road lay up a wide open valley with a scarcely +perceptible ascent, generally along the edge of a small stream, but +occasionally on the slope of the hill-sides. The valley was flat and +often swampy; but the mountains on both sides, more particularly on +the left, were high and abrupt, not unfrequently precipitous. On that +side there were in most of the ravines large patches of snow, and in +one there was a fine glacier, which stopped abruptly within a hundred +yards of the main valley. Latterly a few patches of snow lay even in +the open valley. The vegetation was almost entirely Kashmirian, not +more than six or seven out of about 110 species being otherwise; the +hill-sides were covered with brushwood, at first of willow and prickly +juniper, but latterly principally of birch. + +Five or six miles from Maten, the main branch of the stream was found +to descend from a narrow ravine on the left, at the head of which +there was perhaps a glacier. In the valley along which the road lay, +there was scarcely any water in the bed of the stream, and about a +mile further on, without any increase in the inclination, I came to a +large patch of dirty snow, beyond which there was a very evident slope +to the southward. The boiling-point of water here indicated an +elevation of 11,300 feet. A few hundred yards further, I arrived at a +large pond (it could hardly be called a lake), into which a very small +rill of water was trickling from the north, while from the opposite +end a stream ran towards the south. This little lake was not, as I had +expected, on the crest of the pass, but undoubtedly on the Kashmirian +side of it. + + [Sidenote: BALTAL. + _September, 1848._] + +Beyond the lake, the descent became steep, and the valley contracted +into a rocky ravine, full of snow, under which the little stream +disappeared. The road was at first on the left side of the valley, but +crossed on the snow at the commencement of the contracted part, and +ascended rather abruptly a steep hill on the right through a very +pretty grove of birch. The top of this steep ascent is usually +considered by travellers as the pass, and is the place to which the +name Zoji La properly belongs. The point of separation of the waters +must of course, for geographical purposes, be considered as the actual +pass, but this ridge, which, if not actually higher, is at all events +on a level with it, and has in addition a steep ascent on both sides, +has not unnaturally had that honour assigned to it. On reaching the +shoulder of the ridge, the valley of Baltal came in sight, presenting, +in the words of Moorcroft, "as if by magic, a striking contrast in its +brown mountains and dark forests of tall pines to the bare rocks and +few stunted willows to which we had so long been accustomed." The +sight of a forest is certainly a great source of gratification to a +traveller who has been long in Tibet; but the pleasing effect of the +view from the Zoji pass is not owing merely to contrast; as the +traveller looks down upon the bed of Sind river, more than 2000 feet +below, and the forest in the valley is not too dense, but interspersed +with open glades, while beyond rise high mountains tipped with snow. I +do not think that I have anywhere in the Himalaya seen a more +beautiful scene than that which then lay before me; but the effect was +enhanced by the recollection of the appearance of the same spot in +April, when the whole landscape was covered with snow, and I descended +from the summit of the pass on a snow-bank which filled up the now +inaccessible ravine, on account of which I was obliged to make a long +detour. The descent was extremely abrupt, through a pretty wood, down +to a log hut built for the accommodation of travellers a few hundred +yards from the river, at an elevation of 9,200 feet. + +The flora of the Sind valley at Baltal was very rich: the forest +consisted chiefly of pine, poplar (_P. ciliata_), birch, and sycamore, +intermixed with underwood of _Ribes_, _Berberis_, _Viburnum_, +_Lonicera_, and _Salix_. The herbaceous vegetation had all that +excessive luxuriance which characterizes the subalpine forests of the +Himalaya at the end of the rainy season. Gigantic _Compositæ_, +_Labiatæ_, _Ranunculaceæ_, and _Umbelliferæ_ were the prevailing +forms. There were several large patches of snow in the bed of the +lateral torrent which descended from Zoji La, as low down as the log +hut; and it was not a little curious to observe, that in spots from +which the snow had only recently melted, the willows were just +beginning to expand their buds, and the cherry, rhubarb, _Thalictrum_, +_Anemone_, _Fragaria_, and other plants of early spring, were in full +flower. + + [Sidenote: KASHMIR. + _October, 1848._] + +In descending the Sind valley towards Kashmir, my route was the same +by which I had travelled in April. The mountains on the left were +extremely precipitous and heavily snowed, and in a ravine a little +below Sonamarg a glacier descended almost to 9000 feet. The lower part +of the valley was one sheet of cultivation, chiefly of rice, which was +almost ripe. In the neighbourhood of Kashmir, where I arrived on the +5th of October, the season of vegetation was almost at an end; species +of _Nepeta_, _Eryngium_, _Daucus_, _Centaurea_, _Carpesium_, and +several _Artemisiæ_ being the most remarkable of the herbaceous plants +remaining. In the lake there were vast groves of _Nelumbium_ leaves, +but the flowers and fruit were both past; _Salvinia_ was everywhere +floating in great abundance; while the other aquatic plants were +species of _Bidens_, _Stachys_, _Mentha_, _Scutellaria_, _Hippuris_, +and _Typha_, all European or closely resembling European forms. + +Besides rice, which constitutes the staple crop of the valley, the +principal grains cultivated in autumn appeared to be different kinds +of millet, and a good deal of maize; Indian species of _Phaseolus_ +also were common, now nearly ripe. The wheat and barley, which are +much earlier, were already above ground. I saw a few fields of +_Sesamum_ (the _Til_ of India), and in drier spots a good deal of +cotton, which was being picked by hand, but appeared a poor stunted +crop, much neglected. + +On the high platforms between Pampur and Avantipura the saffron was in +flower, and its young leaves were just shooting up. This crop seems a +very remunerative one to the Raja, who retains the monopoly in his own +hands, compelling the cultivators to sell the produce to him at a +fixed price. The bulbs are allowed to remain in the ground throughout +the year, and continue in vigour for eight or ten years, after which +the produce diminishes so much in quantity that the beds are broken +up, and the bulbs separated and replanted. The flowers are picked +towards the end of October, and carried into the town of Kashmir, +where the stigmas are extracted. + +Another very important product of Kashmir is hemp, which grows +spontaneously along the banks of the river, forming dense thickets +often twelve and fifteen feet in height, and almost impenetrable. It +is only used in the manufacture of an intoxicating drink, and for +smoking; and the plant is preserved entire, in store-houses, in the +town of Kashmir, till required for consumption. + +From Kashmir I proceeded towards the plains of the Punjab by the same +route by which I had travelled in May. During my absence in Tibet, the +second Sikh war had broken out, and as it was then at its height, it +was not easy to reach the British territories. I was therefore +detained a good while, first in Kashmir, and afterwards at Jamu, and +did not reach Lahore till the 16th of December. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[24] Two months later, Captain Strachey ascended the Nubra valley till +stopped by this glacier, which appears to be on a still more gigantic +scale than those of the Shayuk to the eastward. + +[25] Excellent specimens of this singular alpine plant, each tuft of +which must, I think, represent the growth of centuries, may be seen in +the Museum of the Royal Gardens at Kew, collected by Dr. Hooker in +Eastern Tibet. + +[26] I have no conjecture to offer regarding the age or nature of this +very remarkable rock. + +[27] The itinerary of Mir Izzet Ullah shows that at the time of his +journey from Le to Yarkand the direct road up the Shayuk was still +open. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + + General description of Tibet -- Systems of mountains -- + Trans-Sutlej Himalaya -- Cis-Sutlej Himalaya -- Kouenlun -- Four + Passes across Kouenlun -- Boundaries of Western Tibet -- Height + of its mountain ranges and passes -- Climate of Tibet -- Clouds + -- Winds -- Snow-fall -- Glaciers -- Their former greater + extension -- Elevation to which they descend -- Snow-level -- + Geology -- Lacustrine clay and alluvium. + + +The elevated country of Central Asia, situated to the north of the +lofty snowy mountains which encircle India from Kashmir to Assam, is +familiarly known to Europeans by the name of Thibet or Tubet,--most +properly, I believe, Tibet. This name is also commonly employed by the +Mohammedan nations to the north and west to designate the same +country, but is not, so far as I am aware, known in the language of +the Tibetans themselves, among whom different portions of the country +are usually known by different names. + + [Sidenote: BOUNDARIES OF TIBET.] + +The whole of Tibet (as far as our present very limited knowledge of +the south-east portion enables an opinion to be formed) appears to be +characterized by great uniformity of climate and productions, and +perhaps also of natural features, on which account it appears +convenient to retain the name for the whole country, although, as has +already been pointed out by Baron Humboldt[28], it is naturally +separable into two grand divisions. One of these, the waters of which +collect to join the Sanpu, which in India becomes the Brahmaputra, is +still scarcely known; the other, drained principally by the Indus and +its tributaries, has been repeatedly visited by European travellers. +The line of separation between these two portions lies a little to the +east of the great lakes[29], from the neighbourhood of which the +country must gradually slope in both directions towards the sea. + +If the whole of western Tibet formed (as it does, according to the +popular opinion on the subject of the countries to the north of the +Himalaya) an extensive plain bounded on the south by the great chain +of the Himalaya, and on the north by the lofty mountains of Kouenlun, +it would be an easy task to define its limits. This is, however, so +far from being the case, that the greater part of the surface of the +country is traversed in all directions by ranges of mountains in every +respect similar to the Himalaya, of which in fact those south of the +Indus are ramifications, while those on the north are branches of the +snowy chain of Kouenlun. + +If, again, the Himalaya formed an uninterrupted chain along the +southern border of Tibet, broken only by the passage of the Indus at +one extremity and by that of the Brahmaputra at the other, the +mountainous nature of the interior would be no obstacle to the +existence of a clear and distinct boundary. Unfortunately, however, +for simplicity of definition, no such chain exists. A line of high +snowy peaks may doubtless be traced in a direction nearly parallel to +the plains of India, but these are separated from one another by deep +ravines, along which flow large and rapid rivers, and therefore afford +no tangible line of demarcation between the two countries. + + [Sidenote: TRANS-SUTLEJ HIMALAYA.] + +Between the river Indus and the plains of north-west India is +interposed a mountain tract which has a breadth of about 150 miles in +linear distance. This tract is everywhere (with one exception) +extremely rugged and mountainous, nor is it at all an easy task to +convey an idea of the extreme complication of the ramifications of the +numerous ranges of which it consists. No wide plain (Kashmir alone +excepted) is interposed between these ranges, so that the only +feasible mode of division which appears to be applicable to them is +afforded by the course of the different rivers which traverse them in +various directions. If these be taken as a guide, the mountains will +be found to resolve themselves into two great systems connected to the +eastward, but otherwise independent of, though nearly parallel to, one +another. + +From the sources of the west branch of the Chenab or Chandrabhaga +river, a range of very great elevation runs in a north-west direction +as far as Kashmir, and, after reaching the north-east corner of that +valley, assumes a more westerly direction so as to encircle the whole +of its north side, bending at the same time gradually towards the +south. This chain forms the line of separation between the waters of +the Indus and those of the Chenab and Jelam. To the eastward of the +Baralacha Pass it ramifies to a considerable extent, its different +branches including between them several depressions quite unconnected +with the general drainage of the country, and surrounded on all sides +by ranges of hills which prevent any exit of their waters. The +principal of these depressions is that of lake Chumoreri; another is +occupied by the little salt lake first visited by Trebeck, and called +by him Thogji[30]. + + [Sidenote: SALT LAKES.] + +All these depressions, though at present unconnected with any of the +river systems, have evidently at some former period been so. +Chumoreri, as I am informed by Major Cunningham, is even now very +slightly saline, though scarcely perceptibly so to the taste. It has +evidently had an outlet at its southern extremity, where it is only +separated from the valley of the Parang river by a very low range of +hills which was crossed in 1846 by Mr. Agnew, and more recently by +Captain H. Strachey. The outlet of the little salt lake of Thogji has +evidently been near its north end, and its waters, previous to the +change in the state of the country which interrupted their exit, in +all probability flowed into that tributary of the Zanskar river which +runs to the eastward of the Lachalang pass, and which is marked in the +map accompanying Moorcroft's Travels as the Sumghiel. Major +Cunningham, who travelled in 1846 by the same route as that previously +followed by Moorcroft, informs me that no obstacle intervenes to +prevent the waters of the lake taking that direction in case of their +being raised in the lake itself to a height of two or three hundred +feet above their present level. + +If we consider the basins of these two lakes to be referable to the +systems of drainage to which they appear to have formerly belonged, +though now separated from them by accidental alterations of level, the +course of the mountain chain which I am endeavouring to trace must be +considered to run between the two. This is in fact the position of the +loftiest part of the chain, which, skirting the north and east sides +of Chumoreri, is thence continued in a south-east direction, forming +that lofty but little-known range which separates the valley of the +Sutlej from that of the Indus. This chain was crossed by Moorcroft on +his visit to Garu, and appears to extend uninterruptedly as far as +Kailas to the north of lake Manasarawar. + +The mountain chain which lies to the south of the river Sutlej may +also be considered to have its origin in the lofty country adjoining +the lakes, but a little to the south and east of them. This chain, +which separates the valley of the Sutlej from that of the Ganges and +its tributaries (including the Jumna), sinks at last into the plains +of India a little to the south of the town of Nahan. + + [Sidenote: CIS-SUTLEJ HIMALAYA.] + +The course of this chain has been admirably described by Captain +Herbert in his Geological Report of the Himalaya[31], a paper which +contains exceedingly accurate general views of the mountains between +the Sutlej and Jumna. He was quite unacquainted with the details of +the mountains north of the former river, and therefore could not form +any idea of their arrangement. Captain Herbert calls the chain south +of the Sutlej the Indo-Gangetic chain, a very inappropriate name, for +which, however, it is difficult to substitute a better. Perhaps the +name of Cis-Sutlej Himalaya, though not exactly classical, is the best +that can be devised, and if so, the chain which, commencing in Kailas, +separates the waters of the Sutlej from those of the Indus, may not +improperly be designated the Trans-Sutlej Himalaya[32]. + +To these two great chains the whole of the mountains between the Indus +and the plains may be referred. Both are of very great elevation, in +the eastern half of their course more especially, but that north of +the Sutlej is much less covered with snow than the other. This is +owing to the moisture-bringing winds, which are entirely derived from +the Indian side, being stopped by the chain to the south; and in fact, +as soon as the elevation of the latter is so far diminished that it +ceases to be covered with perpetual snow, the more northerly chain, +without any increase of elevation, becomes much more snowy, so as to +merit the appellation of great snowy range, a term which, more to the +eastward, is applied to the mountains south of the Sutlej. As several +of the principal ramifications of the northern chain attain an +elevation not at all inferior to that of the axis from which they are +derived, they produce a similar effect upon the climate of the ranges +to the north of them, being themselves covered with vast masses of +snow, while the mountains which they shelter are in a great measure +bare. + + [Sidenote: KOUENLUN.] + +The northern boundary of Tibet is formed by the great chain north of +the Indus, to which Humboldt, following Chinese geographers, has given +the name of Kouenlun. Our knowledge of the appearance and course of +this chain of mountains, by which Tibet is separated from Yarkand and +Khoten, is so extremely limited that, except as to its general +direction, very little can be said regarding it. The only conclusion +which can be drawn from the scanty notices of it by travellers is, +that it must be of extreme height and covered with perpetual snow. +Many of the principal ramifications which it sends down towards the +Indus are very elevated, and immense glaciers descend in their +valleys, so that, except in a very few places, the main chain cannot +be seen from the valley of the Shayuk, the mountains in the immediate +vicinity of that river in general obstructing the view. + + [Sidenote: PASSES ACROSS KOUENLUN.] + +I am not aware of more than four places in which passes exist across +the Kouenlun. The most westerly of these, called in Balti the pass of +the Muztagh, lies at the source of the right branch of the Shigar +river, a stream which joins the Indus opposite the town of Iskardo. +The road over this pass to Yarkand was formerly frequented by +merchants, but has for many years been disused, the reason assigned +being the danger of plunder by the hordes of robbers beyond. As +described to me by persons who had crossed it, the snow is reached +after ten days' journey from Iskardo, and continues during three +marches. It is said to be quite impracticable for horses, from which +it may, I think, be inferred that there are numerous glaciers. + +The second pass is that marked in Vigne's map as the Alibransa pass, +at the head of a considerable tributary which joins the Shayuk river +opposite Khapalu. The enormous glacier over which this road runs, by +which, in conjunction with the lateness of the season, Mr. Vigne's +attempts to cross the pass were frustrated, has been well described by +that traveller[33]. I did not, while in Tibet, meet with any one who +had crossed it, and I was assured by the inhabitants of Nubra that +they were not acquainted with any road from the upper part of their +valley, either towards Khapalu or towards Yarkand. + +The third pass, and the only one now frequented, is that of the +Karakoram, an extremely easy though very elevated one. The most +easterly pass of which I find any notice occurs on the road between +Ruduk and Khoten; it is mentioned by Moorcroft[34], but without any +account of the nature of the road, or the elevation of the mountains. + +To the westward of Karakoram, the direction of the Kouenlun is +seemingly as nearly as possible parallel to the Indus, but to the east +of that pass nothing certain is known regarding it. In Humboldt's map +it is laid down as running nearly from west to east, on the authority +of Chinese geographical works. Its course is unquestionably to the +north of the Pangong lake, but till it has been explored by European +travellers its direction must, I think, be regarded as involved in +much doubt. Another lofty range, however, unquestionably runs parallel +to the Indus from south-east to north-west. This range, which is +continuous with that by which the Indus and Shayuk rivers are +separated, terminates (or more properly originates) in the still +almost unknown mass of mountains which lies to the north of lake +Manasarawar. Between this chain and the Kouenlun is situated a tract +of country of unknown extent, which seems to be made up of a number of +isolated lake-basins quite unconnected, not only with one another, but +with the general drainage of the country by which they are surrounded. + + [Sidenote: PANGONG LAKE.] + +If we except the basin of the Pangong lake, into which Moorcroft and +Trebeck descended after crossing the range of mountains parallel to +the Indus, every part of this country must be viewed as a _terra +incognita_. It cannot, I think, be doubted, from the description of +the Pangong lake given by Moorcroft and Trebeck, that the basin in +which it rests had originally an outlet at its north-west extremity, +discharging itself along the valley of Tanktse into the Shayuk. The +country to the eastward is so totally unknown, that it is impossible +to conjecture whether the little lake-basins of which it is said to +consist, discharge themselves towards the Pangong lake, or southward +into the Indus. + + [Sidenote: BOUNDARIES OF TIBET.] + +Western Tibet, then, is a highly mountainous country, lying on both +sides of the river Indus, with its longer axis directed like that +river from south-east to north-west. It is bounded on the north-east +by the Kouenlun chain of mountains, by which it is separated from the +basin of Yarkand. On the south-east its boundary is formed by the +ridge which separates the waters of the Indus from those of the Sanpu. +To the north-west and south-west its boundaries are somewhat +arbitrary, unless the political division of the country be had +recourse to, which, depending on accidental circumstances entirely +unconnected with physical geography or natural productions, is so +liable to change, that its adoption would be extremely inconvenient. +The best mode of drawing a line of separation between India and Tibet, +in those parts where mountain chains are not available for the +purpose, appears to consist in regarding the latter to commence only +at the point where the aridity of the climate is too great to support +forests of trees, or any coniferous tree except juniper. + +As limited by these boundaries, West Tibet includes the whole of the +valley of the Indus and its tributaries, down to about 6000 feet above +the level of the sea, a considerable portion of the upper course of +the Sutlej down to between 9000 and 10,000 feet, and small portions of +the upper course of the Chenab, of the Ganges (Jahnavi), and of the +Gogra. + + [Sidenote: MOUNTAIN RANGES.] + +Every part of Tibet is traversed by ranges of mountains which have +their origin either in the Kouenlun on the north, or in the +trans-Sutlej Himalaya on the south. These mountain ranges are +generally extremely rocky and rugged, but as a general rule it may be +said that they are less so in the upper part of the course of the +different rivers, than in their lower parts. This rule applies not +only to the Indus and to the Sutlej, but with scarcely an exception to +all the tributaries of these rivers. There are no extensive open +plains in any part of the country, the only level portions being in +the valleys of the rivers, the width of which is usually not more than +one or two miles, and very seldom exceeds five miles. + +To this general description of the surface of the country I have met +with no exception in those parts of Tibet which I have had an +opportunity of examining. I have not, however, had an opportunity of +seeing the extreme south-west portion, my knowledge of the course of +the Indus not extending further up than Hanle[35]. + +The height of the mountain ranges which traverse West Tibet is in all +parts pretty much the same, and, as a consequence, the depth of the +valleys in the lower portion of the course of the Indus and of all its +tributaries is very much greater than near the sources of these +rivers. In the higher valleys therefore the mountains are apparently +much less lofty; they are also frequently rounded and sloping, or at +all events less rocky and precipitous than lower down, though to this +there are many exceptions. + + [Sidenote: ELEVATION OF PASSES.] + +The elevation of the passes in a mountainous region represents in +general the height of the lowest part of the chain. In the mountain +ranges of Tibet the average height of the ridges does not exceed from +1000 to 2000 feet above the passes, many of which indeed are scarcely +at all lower than the highest crest of the ridge in which they are +situated. I believe that in estimating the principal ranges of +mountains at 19,000 feet, and the minor ranges at from 17,000 to +18,000 feet, I approximate very closely to the truth. This estimate +applies to all parts of the country, the height of the ranges being +remarkably uniform; but peaks occur at intervals in every one of the +principal mountain ranges, which considerably exceed the elevation +just stated, rising very generally (so far as can be judged by the eye +from known heights of 17,000 and 18,000 feet) to twenty-one or +twenty-two thousand feet; some peaks appearing to exceed even this. + +It is generally supposed that the great peaks of the Himalaya on the +southern border of Tibet are much more lofty than the mountains of the +interior of that country. I do not think, however, that the facts of +the case are such as to warrant this assumption. West of the Sutlej, +in which district only the mountains of Tibet may be said to be at all +known, many peaks of the interior of that country are probably much +more lofty than any of those near the plains of India, and if +inaccessibility is to be any criterion, the chain of the Kouenlun is +beyond a doubt a much more elevated mass than any part of the Western +Himalaya. Of Tibet east of the Sutlej little is known, except that +between Ruduk and Lassa no road into the interior of Asia appears to +exist. + + [Sidenote: CLIMATE.] + +The climate of Tibet is in every part extremely arid, because it is +surrounded almost entirely by ranges of mountains so elevated that the +rarefied air which passes over them can contain only a very small +proportion of aqueous vapour. Along the Indus, indeed, no mountain +chains are interposed to obstruct the passage of moist air, but the +lower course of that river lies entirely in a comparatively dry +climate, so that the winds which blow over the plains of Sind and the +lower mountains of Eastern Affghanistan cannot convey any excess of +moisture to lower Tibet. In the few Tibetan valleys which, like that +of the Sutlej, are traversed by rivers debouching on the plains of +India in a rainy climate, the quantity of moist air which they can +receive being limited to that which proceeds directly up the valley, +the upward current, even when saturated with moisture at the +commencement, being gradually rarefied by the increasing elevation of +the river-bed, and meeting with descending currents of cold air in its +course, it very early deposits its moisture, first in the form of +light showers, afterwards of fog and mist, and in its further progress +is just as dry as the air in the more interior parts of the country. + + [Sidenote: RAIN-FALL.] + +It will probably be long before lengthened registers of meteorological +phenomena will be obtained from all the different stages between India +and the central parts of Tibet, so as satisfactorily to establish the +gradual transition of climate. Till such shall be the case, the best +evidence from which to deduce the fact of the alteration of climate, +is afforded by the gradual change in the vegetation of the country as +one advances towards the interior. Direct observation will probably at +some future period fix the point in the outer Himalaya, at which the +quantity of rain--always greater, _cæteris paribus_, among mountains +than in level countries--is a maximum. I believe that in the Western +Himalaya the greatest quantity of rain will be found to fall on +mountains elevated from seven to nine thousand feet. Ranges of +mountains which attain an elevation of from ten to eleven thousand +feet have already (in the Western Himalaya) a very sensible effect in +diminishing the quantity of moisture, as indicated by the vegetation; +and when the mountain chains became sufficiently elevated to be capped +by perpetual snow, they condense a very great proportion of the +moisture of the air-currents which pass over them. + +To a traveller who penetrates directly to the Tibetan interior from +the plains of India, the change of climate is perceptible to the +senses; most markedly so of course if his journey occurs during the +Indian rainy season. Even during the rains, however, the +irregularities which everywhere occur in the fall of rain prevent the +gradations of climate from being ascertained during a journey with the +precision which a lengthened series of observations would permit; but +the phenomena of vegetable life, which are dependent on the average +seasons, are not affected by accidental irregularities, and therefore +form an unerring guide. + + [Sidenote: CLOUDS.] + +Though the climate of the whole of Western Tibet may, in general, be +characterized as extremely dry, it is by no means cloudless. The +winter months in particular are often very cloudy, and a good deal of +snow falls. During the summer the sky is either bright and clear, or +overcast with very light clouds. These clouds, usually cirrhi, are in +general elevated and extremely thin. The cirrhus, when it remains for +any length of time, changes or increases into a uniform hazy stratum, +which covers the whole sky; more rarely, and perhaps only by an +optical deception, it is seen under the form of stratus. Cumuli are +very uncommon. After several dull days the clouds generally +accumulate, descend lower in the atmosphere, and rest on the mountain; +as a few drops of rain fall in the valleys, the clouds disappear, and +the highest peaks are seen to have received a slight sprinkling of +snow, which is soon melted by the rays of the sun. It is only very +rarely that the quantity of rain exceeds a few drops, or merits the +appellation of a shower. The few occasions on which I have observed +any fall of rain, at all deserving of being called by that name, have +mostly been in early spring or in the latter part of autumn. + + [Sidenote: TEMPERATURE.] + +When the sky is clear, the sun, in all parts of Tibet, even at great +elevations, but especially in the valleys at and below ten and eleven +thousand feet, is extremely powerful. The shade temperature depends, +of course, in a great measure on the elevation above the level of the +sea, but also on the situation, exposure, and many other accidental +circumstances. In the lower part of the Indus valley, at elevations of +seven and eight thousand feet, it is said to be frequently very +high[36], the clear dry atmosphere allowing the full influence of the +sun to be exerted on the bare, often black rocks. Even as far up as +11,000 feet, in narrow valleys, the heat is often great in the middle +of the day, but the more open plains are generally very temperate in +the shade, and the nights and mornings are always cool. + +On the tops of the lower passes, and in the alpine valleys, the +temperature of the nights and mornings is, in clear weather, very much +depressed by radiation, so that the mornings, except when the sky is +overcast, are intensely frosty, at elevations of 15,000 and 16,000 +feet, or far below the level of perpetual snow. This is the case even +in the month of August, which is the hottest of the year. The shade +temperature at these high elevations rarely rises very high, even when +the heat of the sun is oppressive, as it is moderated by the action of +the violent winds which so generally prevail. + +The periods of cloudy sky, which now and then alternate with the +bright sunshine, which is the prevailing weather, are in the alpine +regions extremely cold. The stratum of cloud, at first high in the +atmosphere, gradually lowers itself, and the traveller is enveloped in +a frozen mist, followed most commonly during the night by a fall of +snow. The quantity of snow which falls is very small, seldom, so far +as I have seen, more than an inch or two in depth, and it speedily +disappears as soon as the clouds have been dissipated and the sky +resumes its usual serenity. + + [Sidenote: WINDS.] + +The whole of Western Tibet is subject to extremely violent winds, the +course and direction of which could only be satisfactorily studied by +a resident. From the great depth of the valleys, the wind in general +follows their course, blowing at one time up them, at other times +down. In unsettled weather the direction is extremely variable, often +changing repeatedly in the course of the day, but in clear settled +weather the direction of the wind is, during the day at least, more +frequently up the valleys than in the contrary direction. I have not +observed any constancy in the course of the wind on the passes, on +which it would be principally important to be acquainted with it, but +it probably varies in direction according to the period of the day, so +that a traveller, whose time does not permit him to delay to register +the changes as they occur, is not likely to be able to discover any +general law. + +The Tibetan wind, in the ordinary state of the atmosphere, commences +after the sun has nearly attained the meridian, the mornings being in +general quite calm. It increases in violence during the afternoon, +sometimes till after sunset, ceasing to blow after dark, or at all +events before midnight. This wind seems to be pretty constant over the +whole country, from the upper Sutlej as far west as Rondu; and as a +very similar wind blows in the valleys of Affghanistan, which have an +identical summer climate in respect of moisture, it must, I presume, +be caused by the influence of the sun, in heating the barren rocky +plains and hills. + +During periods of cloud, and throughout the winter, the wind is much +less regular in its direction, as well as in the periods during which +it blows. It frequently changes its direction very abruptly. About the +equinoxes, or at the commencement and end of winter, at which times +there seems to be generally a good deal of unsettled weather, it blows +for some days with extreme violence. In March, 1848, at Iskardo, for +several nights the wind almost amounted to a hurricane; its direction +was from the south, or directly across the mountains. This was very +commonly the case at Iskardo, in unsettled weather, during the winter, +but never when the days were bright and cloudless. + + [Sidenote: SNOW-FALL.] + +The amount of snow-fall varies much, diminishing as we advance into +the interior of the country, but being always much greater on the +mountains than in the valleys at their feet. In the outer Himalaya, +the amount at equal distances from the plains diminishes as we advance +westward, but in the Kouenlun, where the source of moisture lies to +the westward, the snow-fall diminishes rapidly from west to east. The +same is the case in the valley of the Indus, where the amount of +winter's snow, except in the most westerly parts, is quite +insignificant. + +It is probably owing to the absence of cumular clouds, and to the +general uniform expansion of the condensed vapours over the whole sky, +that the outward manifestations of electricity--thunderstorms--are of +very rare occurrence in Tibet. I find only one instance of a +thunderstorm recorded as having been observed while I was in a Tibetan +climate. This was at Le, in September, 1848, at which time there was a +good deal of cloudy weather for several days. From the extreme dryness +of the air, electricity is evolved with great facility by friction: +all articles of woollen clothing, blankets, and even the hair, emit +sparks when rubbed in the dark. I have even observed this to be the +case at the elevation of 15,500 feet, in cloudy weather, when snow was +falling. + + [Sidenote: GLACIERS.] + +In every part of the Himalaya, and of Western Tibet, wherever the +mountains attain a sufficient elevation to be covered with perpetual +snow, glaciers are to be found. The occurrence of glacial ice is a +sufficient indication of the existence of snow of more than one year's +duration, and (setting aside trifling cases of masses of ice in deep +and sunless ravines, which, indeed, are not an exception, as they have +no motion,) it may be laid down as a general law, that every glacier +has its origin in perpetual snow. + +The converse of this proposition does not seem to be so universal. We +have the high authority of Humboldt for the fact, that no glaciers +occur in the Andes of tropical America, from the equator to 19° north +latitude. Nor is it, I think, possible that the existence of glaciers +should have escaped his notice, did they occur of such dimensions as +would be indicated by the solitary and doubtful instance mentioned by +M. Boussingault, to which Humboldt refers[37], which is stated to have +been seen at the same elevation as the town of Quito, or more than +5500 feet below the level of perpetual snow in that region of the +Andes. The cause of the non-existence of masses of moving ice, in +connection with the perpetual snow of the American tropics, must +apparently be sought in the extreme uniformity of the seasons, and in +the small quantity of snow which falls at any time of the year. + +In every region of the earth, so far as is known to me, where the mean +temperatures of summer and winter are very different, or where the +climate is what is called excessive, perpetual snow produces glaciers. +These rivers of ice, as they have most appropriately been called, vary +very much in size and appearance. In the lofty chains of the cis- and +trans-Sutlej Himalaya, and of the Kouenlun, whose peaks rise to a very +great height, and collect in winter enormous depths of snow, they are +of great length. In the central parts of Tibet, which are often lower, +and even in their loftiest parts are less snowy than the bounding +chains, the glaciers are of inferior dimensions, often of that kind +which I have called incipient, where the snow-bed is at once cut off +abruptly in an ice cliff, which can hardly be said to be in motion, or +rather whose motion must be almost entirely from above downwards. + +The general appearance of an Indian glacier seems in every respect to +accord with those of Switzerland and of other parts of the temperate +zone. It is only of late years, indeed, that they have been generally +recognized in the Himalaya; but it must not be forgotten that it is +only recently that the researches of modern investigators, and in +particular the delightful work of Forbes, have familiarized the +untravelled world with their appearance, and more especially with the +fact and cause of their motion. It has also, singularly enough, long +been the custom to look upon the Himalaya as a tropical range of +mountains, in which it was, as a matter of course, regarded as +impossible that glaciers could exist[38]. + +The upper end or origin of a glacier seems commonly to be in an +enormous snow-bed, occupying the whole space included by an +amphitheatre of snowy peaks. The snow-slips and accumulations by which +the snow-bed is added to during winter, must to a great extent remain +concealed from human eyes; and in summer, when these icy fields are +accessible, they are generally, I believe I may say always, covered by +a thick layer of snow, which assists at the same time that it conceals +the process by which the snow is converted into ice. + +I have never measured the dimensions of any of the great glaciers of +the Himalaya, nor is it easy to ascertain the length of any of them +even approximately, as they are seldom traversed by roads, and are +usually bent so that only a small part of their course can be seen. +Many of them must considerably exceed ten miles in length; I have seen +several which were more than half a mile broad; and the depth of the +icy mass frequently amounts to hundreds of feet. + +The appearance of the surface of a glacier seems to depend almost +entirely on the inclination of its bed. Where the slope is gentle the +surface is nearly uniformly smooth, or at most only slightly fissured. +I have not had occasion to observe any fissures of more than a foot +or two in width, so that, though often very deep, they are crossed +without difficulty. In describing the icy surface as smooth, it is +necessary to mention that such is only the case in the upper part of +the glacier, where the moraines are small or only lateral. Whenever +the surface supports rocky fragments in great quantity, it is +extremely unequal till such time as the whole superficies becomes +covered with stones, when the melting being uniform, the surface again +becomes tolerably even. + +On steeply inclined planes the glacier is traversed in every direction +by enormous fissures, between which the surface is very irregular, +rising into sharp icy pinnacles of the most fantastic shape and +appearance. More than once I have seen extremely steeply sloping +glaciers, which were terminated abruptly by a lofty precipice, at the +bottom of which huge piles of boulders and occasional icy fragments +sufficiently indicated the forward motion of the ice; at other times, +the slope of the valley in which the glacier lies again becoming +gentle, the ice ceases to be fissured and rugged, and is capable of +being walked on without difficulty. + +Moraines, which, on the larger glaciers and among mountains of easily +decaying rocks, are of astonishing dimensions, form the margins of +each glacier, and also occur longitudinally on different parts of +their surface, increasing in number as the glacier advances, till at +last the different series whose origin can long be traced to the +different ramifications of the glacier, become blended into one. The +nature, origin, and aspect of the moraines, the mode of melting of the +ice beneath them, and the isolated pinnacles of ice which support +large solitary boulders, agree so entirely with descriptions of +glaciers in other parts of the world, that it is unnecessary to dwell +upon them. The large glaciers are often a good deal lower in their +central parts than where they are covered by a bulky moraine; and a +curious ravine-like hollow, between the moraine and the bare ice, +which makes the former appear as if entirely disconnected from the +glacier, is of very common occurrence. There is, however, also very +often an ancient moraine, not now resting on ice, which runs parallel +to the glacier, and seems to indicate its former greater extent. + + [Sidenote: FORMER GREATER + EXTENSION OF GLACIERS.] + +In every part of the Tibetan mountains, and in very many parts of the +Indian Himalaya, I have thought that I could recognize unmistakeable +proofs of all the valleys having been formerly occupied by glaciers at +much lower levels than at present. At first sight it seems rather +improbable, that in sub-tropical latitudes the present extension of +perpetual snow should at any former period have been exceeded; but it +would not be difficult to show that the mean temperature, and +particularly the mean summer temperature, is very much higher in the +Western Himalaya and Tibet than it might fairly be expected to be in +such a latitude. In fact, in the more humid climate of Eastern Bengal, +though at least four degrees nearer to the equator, the mean summer +temperature at equal elevations in the mountains is probably +considerably lower than in the mountains of North-west India, and the +snow-level is certainly lower. It is fair, therefore, to conclude, +looking back to a period when the sea washed the base of the Himalaya +in the upper part of the Punjab, that at that period a very different +state of atmospheric circumstances prevailed from that which we find +at the present time. + +Wherever I have seen glaciers in Tibet or the mountains of India, I +have been able to trace their moraines to a level very considerably +lower than their present termination; and when I find in those ranges +of the Himalaya which do not at present attain a sufficient elevation +to be covered with perpetual snow, series of angular blocks, evidently +transported, because different from the rocks which occur _in situ_, +and, so far as I can judge, exactly analogous in position to the +moraines of present glaciers, I feel myself warranted in concluding +that they are of glacial origin, and find it necessary to look about +for causes which should render it probable that the snow-level should +have formerly been lower than it is at present. In the rainy districts +of the Himalaya, where forest covers the slopes of the hills, it is +difficult to fix the lowest limits at which evident moraines occur, +but in many places I have seen them at least three thousand feet lower +than the terminations of the present glaciers. In the valley of the +Indus, accumulations of boulders, which I believe to be moraines, +occur in Rondu as low as 6000 feet. + +Glaciers, as is well known, terminate inferiorly at the point where +the waste by melting in any given time begins to exceed in amount the +mass of solid ice which is in the same space of time pushed forward by +the _vis à tergo_. In the mountains of Tibet the elevation of this +point is very different in different places. It seems to depend +principally on the mass of the glacier, as large glaciers invariably +descend much lower than those of smaller size; the inclination of the +bed has perhaps also some influence in determining the matter. + +In comparing the glaciers of the Tibetan Himalaya with those on the +Indian face of the same mountains, it will be found that, _cæteris +paribus_, glaciers descend much lower on the Indian side, or in a +moist climate, than in the dry and arid Tibetan climate. It is indeed +impossible to ascertain with certainty that any two glaciers are of +equal size, but it appears to me sufficiently accurate to compare the +main glaciers on the opposite sides of the same pass. In the Umasi +pass, which is situated in the main chain of the trans-Sutlej +Himalaya, all the circumstances seem favourable for comparison. On the +south side of this pass the principal glacier terminates at about +11,500 feet, while on the north side a much more massive glacier comes +to an end abruptly at 14,000 feet. The difference then, on opposite +sides of the same pass, where the pass coincides with the line of +transition of climate, amounts to 2500 feet. + +That I am justified in ascribing the cause of this difference to the +change of climate appears from the fact, that in the interior of +Tibet, where no such change is observed in crossing even very lofty +passes, there is frequently a glacier on the north declivity when none +exists on the south. This is the case, for instance, on the Parang +pass, and on the pass immediately north of Le. It may therefore be +inferred, that when glaciers occur on both sides of a pass, that on +the northern exposure will, unless there be a marked alteration of +climate, invariably descend lower than that on the south side. I have +not had an opportunity of seeing glaciers on both sides of any pass +in the most external ranges of the Himalaya, but I have been informed +that in the range south of the Chenab river, glaciers frequently occur +on the north sides of the passes, while none exist towards the south. +If this were to be found universally the case, it would be an +additional proof that the lower descent of glaciers on the south or +Indian side of the mountain chain is an exceptional occurrence. + + [Sidenote: GLACIERS OF KOUENLUN.] + +The glaciers of the southern slope of the Kouenlun appear, from the +descriptions of travellers, to be on a still more gigantic scale than +those of the Himalaya. Five mountain ranges of great height, separated +from one another by rivers of great size, descend from the axis of +that chain towards the Indus and Shayuk, and attain so great an +elevation, that, with scarcely an exception, there is no passage from +one of these lateral valleys to another. All these ranges rise far +above the line of perpetual snow, and in their valleys enormous +glaciers descend to a level which is gradually lower as we advance +westward in the direction of the source of the rain- and snow-fall. +The range east of the Shayuk has comparatively few and small glaciers, +but to the west of that river the glaciers of Sassar terminate at +about 15,000 feet. A little further west, a glacier, overhanging the +valley of Nubra, terminates at 14,700 feet, and the great glacier of +Nubra was found, by Captain Strachey, to terminate at 13,000 feet. In +the range between Nubra and the Machulu again there are vast glaciers, +but their height has not been determined, nor do we know precisely to +what level those of the Shigar valley descend; though it is evident, +from their proximity to the main valley, and their small distance +from Shigar, which is not more than 7200 feet above the level of the +sea, that they must descend very low, perhaps to 10,000 feet. In the +valley of Gilgit, I am informed by Mr. Winterbottom, the glaciers +descend as low as 8000 feet. + + [Sidenote: LEVEL OF + PERPETUAL SNOW.] + +In the mountains further east than the Shayuk it would appear that the +snow-fall is so very small that the level of perpetual snow recedes to +an enormous height. This has been found to be the case on the passes +north of the Pangong lake, many of which were crossed by Captain H. +Strachey. The great height of the mountains without snow, east of the +Karakoram pass, confirms the fact; and it is probable, so rapidly does +the snow-level rise in advancing eastward, that if we could penetrate +a very short distance beyond the eastern extremity of the Pangong +lake, an absolutely dry country might be reached, in which rain or +snow never falls. + +So much error has unfortunately taken place regarding the height above +which the mountains of North-west India are covered with perpetual +snow, that it appears necessary that travellers should put upon record +the results of their observations, however limited. It is for this +reason, and not because I expect to throw much additional light on the +subject, that the following remarks are hazarded. The recent paper of +Captain R. Strachey[39] has furnished facts which had hitherto been +wanting, while the theoretical considerations which have been laid +down by Humboldt are so accurate and comprehensive, that the +undoubted mistake into which he has fallen is the more to be +regretted. + +The Indian and Tibetan Himalaya, west of Nipal, lies entirely within +the temperate zone, and from that circumstance has its year divided +into summer and winter. The periodical rains, which it is well known +are principally confined to the outermost parts of the mountains, +being derived from the Bay of Bengal, are excessive in the easternmost +part of the chain, and gradually diminish as we advance westward; +there is no reason, however, to believe that the winter monsoon, which +is particularly dwelt upon by Captain Strachey in the valuable paper +to which I have had occasion to refer, is so. Probably indeed it is +the reverse, though I have no detailed observations to refer to in +corroboration of this opinion; I may however recall to mind, that the +winter is the season of heavy snow, and the spring of heavy rain, +throughout the north of Affghanistan, and that in the Punjab frequent +cloudy weather and rain occurs during the cold season, while in the +plains of India the weather seems to become at that period less +unsettled as we advance eastward. + +The quantity of rain which falls during the summer in the outer +Himalaya has necessarily a very material influence on the sun's action +during the time in which he has most power, and therefore on the mean +temperature of the summer months, which at corresponding elevations, +notwithstanding the northing of the chain as we advance from east to +west, must be higher to the westward. In the interior or Tibetan +portion of the Himalaya, this difference is not observed, the climate +being the same, or nearly so, from east to west of the region under +consideration. + + [Sidenote: WINTER, THE SEASON OF SNOW.] + +In the most western part of the Himalaya, in Kashmir and Balti, the +winter's fall of snow commences about the beginning of December, and +continues on the highest ranges nearly to the beginning of May. The +supply of moisture from which the snow is condensed is evidently +derived from the Indian seas, and I suppose principally from the +south-west, that being the general direction from which I observed +snow-storms to arrive at Iskardo. The fall of snow must therefore, +equally with that of rain in the rainy season, be greatest in the +outermost (snowy) ranges, and very much less in all those in the +interior. In the lower parts of Tibet on the Indus the snow-fall +during winter is very considerable, though during summer the climate +is as dry as elsewhere in Tibet. This difference seems to be explained +by the westerly point from which the winter's wind blows, and by the +much greater moisture of the atmosphere at that season over +Affghanistan and Sind, so that the south-west wind advances loaded +with vapour up the valley of the Indus. The increase of elevation in +the bed of that river of course causes all the excess of moisture to +be deposited without penetrating to any great distance, so that the +more eastern parts of the country are not affected by this cause. + +The snowy season in the highest mountains is probably in every part of +the range very much the same. On the low outer ranges, which do not +attain the height of perpetual snow, it is gradually lessened in +duration as the elevation diminishes, ceasing entirely, in average +years, at about 4000 feet. When the winter is at an end, the +influence of a powerful sun and gradually increasing temperature is at +once brought to bear on the mass of snow which has fallen; on the +inner ranges where the summer is dry, this action proceeds +uninterruptedly till the commencement of the next winter, but on the +outermost snowy ranges it is modified by the access of the rainy +season. + + [Sidenote: MELTING OF SNOW IN SUMMER.] + +On the outer ranges of the Himalaya, the crests of which rise to +between five and ten thousand feet, the powerful sun soon dissipates +all snow. It is in the inner ranges, which rise nearly to the height +of perpetual snow, and where the river-beds are from six to eight +thousand feet above the level of the sea, that the snow remains for a +great length of time. When the valleys are open, the plain on the +banks of the stream becomes first of all bare of snow, then the banks +which face the south, and lastly the northern slopes. It is not so, +however, in the deep narrow valleys and ravines through which the +Himalayan rivers generally flow. In these the bottom of the glen is so +much sheltered from the sun that a dense mass of snow, the result of +accumulation from the avalanches of the winter, remains for a very +long time after both slopes are quite bare of snow. These _snow-beds_ +have nothing of the nature of a glacier in them, but are simply firm, +hard snow. I have, in the month of June, descended along one of them +from 13,000 feet (above which height there was perhaps a glacier +beneath), to 8500 feet, a distance of seven miles without a break. It +was entirely confined to the bottom of the ravine, both banks being +throughout all that distance free of snow, and often covered with a +most luxuriant herbage. + + [Sidenote: SNOW-BEDS IN RAVINES.] + +Similar snow-beds are to be seen in every ravine which is not too wide +to be choked up by snow in winter. Their occurrence so universally is +probably in a great measure the reason why glaciers were not +recognized in our Indian mountains till so recent a period. These beds +being so clearly transitory in existence, it was assumed that all +masses of snow and ice were equally so. A visit to one of the great +glaciers at the end of autumn would of course at once have indicated +the dissimilarity. + +In many narrow ravines remains of these snow-beds may be seen at +surprisingly low elevations throughout the year, their permanence +depending much more on the amount of the winter's fall of snow, and of +the accumulation in that particular locality, than upon the mean or +summer temperature of the place. At Baltal, in the upper part of the +Sind valley in Kashmir, the little stream which descends from the Zoji +pass was still arched over by a bed of snow several feet thick, in the +end of September, at an elevation of not more than 9500 feet. This was +not, as might have been expected, in a very shady spot, but fully +exposed to the action of the sun; it was, however, in a place where +the fall of snow during winter is very great. + +The causes which are enumerated by Baron Humboldt as affecting the +snow-level are numerous, but several are of only local effect. Two in +addition to the latitude seem more important than the others, namely, +the amount of fall during winter, and the amount of solar heat during +summer. Captain R. Strachey regards the diminished amount of the +winter's fall of snow as the main cause of the greater height of the +snow-line in the interior of the Himalaya, but I feel disposed to +believe that both causes co-operate equally to produce the effect. + + [Sidenote: LEVEL OF PERPETUAL SNOW.] + +Captain R. Strachey has estimated (from the mean of several +observations) the snow-level on the southern slope of the cis-Sutlej +Himalaya at 15,500 feet. This elevation is, no doubt, as near as +possible correct. Captain Herbert, in his geological report, had fixed +upon 15,000 feet, which is a little too low even in the district of +Basehir, to which his estimate, I believe, refers. In the trans-Sutlej +Himalaya, from the diminished amount of summer cloudy weather, the +snow-level is probably a little higher, but we are not yet in +possession of any accurate determinations of heights in that range in +those parts which are in close contact with the plains of India. Two +of its ramifications are extremely well adapted for determining the +height of perpetual snow. First, the Chumba range, which, as has been +pointed out to me by Major Cunningham, is barely snow-tipped +throughout the year; and second, the Pir Panjal range south of +Kashmir, the northern slopes of which have perpetual snow and +glaciers, while on the south side the snow has entirely melted before +the end of summer. The elevation of the Pir Panjal has not been +determined with accuracy, the heights given by Baron Hügel and by Mr. +Vigne being estimated from their measurement of the pass over which +they crossed[40]. + + [Sidenote: SNOW-LEVEL IN TIBET.] + +In the interior of north-west Tibet every principal range attains the +elevation of perpetual snow, but only a few peaks rise much above it. +There is therefore no very great mass of snow during the summer months +to lower the temperature of the air, and consequently circumstances +are the most favourable possible for the elevation of the snow-line to +an extreme degree; a dry, stony, desert, treeless country, violent +winds, clear sky, and powerful sun, being all combined. In the most +central part of the country, the Lanak pass, near Hanle, and the Sabu +pass, near Le, both elevated as nearly as possible 18,000 feet, are +without perpetual snow, but the Parang pass, between 18,400 and 18,600 +feet, has a glacier on its north face, and therefore exceeds in +elevation the snow-line. The snow-level in central Tibet must +therefore be sought between these heights, but nearer that of the +Parang pass, which has no perpetual snow towards the south: it is, +therefore, certainly not below 18,000 feet. + +In the Kouenlun, on the northern border of Tibet, where the mountains +are again much more elevated, the snow-level descends no lower. Even +on the 19th and 20th of August, the mass of snow, which was on the +northern face of its highest peaks continuous down from 20,000 feet +and upwards, did not descend below 17,500 feet, and the open level +plain of the upper Shayuk had at that height only trifling patches of +snow. On the Karakoram pass (18,200 feet) there were only large +patches of snow, the south face of the ridge being quite bare for some +distance in both directions. + + [Sidenote: LEVEL ON OPPOSITE SIDES OF PASSES.] + +The _vexata quæstio_ of the difference of the level at which snow lies +on the north and south slopes of the Himalaya, affords a singular +instance of misconception. Enunciated originally in an obscure and +somewhat incorrect form, when little was known of the structure of the +inner part of the chain, the fact has been repeatedly contradicted by +those who thought they found it contrary to their experience. Both +parties were to a certain extent right. On each individual range the +snow-level will at all times be found lower on the north face than on +the south, except when the range which we are crossing happens to +coincide with a very marked and abrupt change of climate, which will +only be the case when it is extremely elevated. When this is the case, +the proposition, otherwise true of the mountains _en masse_, or the +inner ranges compared with the outer, becomes applicable to a +particular range. This is probably the case in the very pass in Kamaon +(I know not which it was) from which the law was first inferred. It is +certainly so in the great passes north of the Chenab, where, on the +Indian face, I found in June snow at 11,500 feet, while on the north +side, only twenty miles distant, it had already receded beyond 15,000 +feet. + +From the rapid nature of my journey, and the great number of objects +to which I was obliged to devote my attention, the geological +observations which I was enabled to make were much more imperfect than +I could have wished. It appeared, however, desirable, hurried as they +were, to enumerate them, for the purpose of drawing the attention of +future travellers to the subject; and for the same reason I shall here +recapitulate the general conclusions which appear to result from the +facts observed. + + [Sidenote: GEOLOGY OF TIBET.] + +The greater part of Tibet consists of plutonic and metamorphic rocks; +and from the gigantic scale on which the sections are exposed, and the +general bareness of the mountains, which enables their structure to be +seen, that country probably presents the finest field in which these +classes of rocks could be studied. Granite occurs in great abundance, +sending immense veins in all directions into the metamorphic rocks, +which are seen to be everywhere upheaved and dislocated by the +injected mass. In the immediate vicinity of the plutonic masses, all +traces of the direction of the strata of the superposed rocks are +lost; but elsewhere, with every variety of dip, it is very generally +found that the stratified rocks strike in a direction which varies +between north-west and south-east, and north-north-west and +south-south-east. As all my observations were made roughly and +unconnectedly, and without my discovering this identity till after my +return to India, the strike is probably very uniform throughout a +great extent of country. + +It is not a little remarkable that a belt twenty miles wide, in the +direction of this line of strike, drawn from Iskardo to the Niti pass, +would cover every place south of the Indus in which limestone has been +observed in Tibet. It would pass through Molbil on the Pashkyum river, +the limestone districts of Zanskar, and the Lachalang pass, where +limestone was found by Gerard. It would also cover Piti, Hangarang, +and Bekhar, all well-known limestone tracts. Of course the limestones +of Nubra and the Karakoram on the one hand, and of Kashmir on the +other, cannot in any way be connected with this line. + +The sandstones, slates, and conglomerates, which so closely resemble +in appearance those rocks which in Europe are chiefly members of the +old red sandstone and greywacke series, appear to assume also the same +direction. I bring forward these coincidences of direction only as a +remarkable fact, worthy of investigation, without attaching any great +weight to them, as more careful observation may show that they are +merely accidental, and that rocks of very different ages exist among +the limestones and associated rocks of the northern Himalaya. + + [Sidenote: ALLUVIAL AND LACUSTRINE DEPOSIT.] + +The great extent and development of a very modern alluvium-like +formation, composed of great masses of clay with boulders, and +occasionally of very fine laminated clay, constitutes one of the most +remarkable and striking features of Western Tibet. In every part +through which I have travelled, and at all elevations, except on the +highest passes, I have found these deposits in greater or less +quantity. In their most common state they consist of loose earthy or +clayey unstratified masses, containing boulders either angular or +rounded. Very fine clay, distinctly and horizontally stratified, is +also common; sandstone and hardened conglomerate are more rare, but +also occur occasionally. + +That some of these beds are of lacustrine origin, the occurrence of +fresh-water shells appears to prove very clearly; and though here and +there small portions may be terrestrial and of glacial origin, it +cannot, I think, be doubted that the great mass of the boulder clay +was deposited under water. + +In the structure of Scotland at the present day we have a state of +circumstances which appears to me capable of throwing much light on +the nature of these deposits. We find there a series of narrow arms of +the sea, stretching far into the land, and separated by rugged and +generally steep ranges of metamorphic or plutonic rocks. They are all +more or less silted up by sedimentary matter, and near their mouths, +especially where, as is often the case, they are much contracted, we +generally find a bar, shallower than the remainder. At various +elevations above the sea-level again there is a series of fresh-water +lakes, differing little in aspect from the arms of the sea. We find +also in many parts of the Highlands of Scotland long valleys, nearly +level, which are filled with incoherent sedimentary deposits, and +bounded like the lochs by steep mountains. If these were formerly arms +of the sea, which by the elevation of the land have been converted +into dry land, then the fresh-water lakes probably occupy those parts +of the narrow channels which were originally deepest, or which, being +wider than the rest, have remained unoccupied by sedimentary matter at +the time of the elevation. In conformity with this view we find that +at the lower end of these lakes the mountains generally approach very +close to one another. + +If we were to suppose the gradual elevation of Scotland to continue +till the mountains attained an elevation equal to that of the +Himalaya, it is evident that a continued series of marine sedimentary +deposits would extend from the summit to the sea-level, unless removed +by the action of streams or other ordinary causes. Some of the +valleys would be of considerable width, and would contain marine +fossils in great abundance; but in the narrower mountain valleys the +gravel and boulders would be quite destitute of fossils. Here and +there fresh-water formations of partial extent would occur, but they +would be separated from one another by large tracts filled with marine +beds. The gradual elevation of the land would bring to bear upon these +incoherent strata the powerful action of running water, which would +remove portion after portion, till at last deep valleys would be +excavated, and small patches only of the gravel and clay would remain +where the action of the streams was least powerful. Such I conceive to +be the present state of Tibet, but a much more detailed investigation +of that remarkable country would be necessary, before this view can be +regarded in any other light than an hypothesis. + +The causes by which the metamorphic rocks, which must have been +brought into their present remarkable state at a great depth in the +interior of the globe, acquired their present configuration of +mountain and valley, form a question on which I am not now prepared to +enter. One continued process of elevation seems inadequate to produce +the observed effects; but however numerous the alternations of +elevation and depression may have been, it is evident that the +alluvial deposits at present existing must all be referable to the +last period of elevation, as such incoherent strata could not +withstand the continued action of the sea. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[28] Asie Centrale, vol. i. p. 14. + +[29] Manasarawar and Rawan Rhad. + +[30] Moorcroft's Travels, vol. ii. pp. 47-50. + +[31] Journal of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta, 1842, No. 126. +Captain Herbert, who had travelled a great deal in the Himalaya, was +the first to point out the impropriety of regarding these mountains as +a single chain parallel to the plains of India. Jacquemont also +arrived at the same conclusion, as will be seen from the following +extract from his journal:--"Le langage de la géographie descriptive +est théorique; c'est une grande faute si les théories qu'il rappelle +sans cesse sont dénuées de fondement. Ainsi l'on dit que le Setludje +_coupe_ la chaîne centrale de l'Himalaya, que sa vallée est creusée au +travers, etc., etc., et l'on donne à penser par là que cette chaîne +auparavant etait continue et que c'est par un effort des eaux que s'y +est faite cette large trouée, comme si les montagnes avaient dû se +former primitivement avec une continuité non interrompue" (vol. ii. p. +201); and again (at p. 269), "Le Setludje coule donc non au nord de +l'Himalaya, mais entre deux chaînes à peu près également élevées." + +[32] Captain R. Strachey, in his paper on the snow-level, proposes to +call the more western part of the Cis-Sutlej Himalaya the Busehir +range, a name which, though exceedingly appropriate to the portion to +which he applies it, is not adapted for extension to the more eastern +part. + +[33] Travels in Kashmir, etc., vol. ii. p. 382. + +[34] Travels, vol. i. p. 361. + +[35] That Tibet is not an extensive plain, according to the usual +idea, has already been pointed out by Humboldt (Asie Centrale, vol. i. +p. 12). Chinese geographers, according to him, describe all parts of +Tibet as more or less mountainous; the eastern portion of West Tibet +(Gnari) as least so. Captain H. Strachey, in his account of his visit +to lake Manasarawar, says expressly that "the surface of Gnari is for +the most part extremely mountainous." In the lower Tibetan course of +the Sutlej, the recent discoveries of Captain Strachey show that an +alluvial table-land of considerable extent exists, intersected by deep +ravines. + +[36] See some observations of the thermometer recorded by Mr. Vigne, +at Iskardo, Khapalu, etc. + +[37] Asie Centrale, vol. iii. p. 22. + +[38] In the Map No. 65 of the Survey of the Western Himalaya, by +Captains Hodgson and Herbert, the glacier of Gangutri is marked "Great +snow-bed _or glacier_;" but whether this indication of a knowledge of +the true nature of the mass is due to the surveyors or to the maker of +the map in England, I have no means at present of ascertaining. + +[39] On the Snow-level in the Himalaya, in the Journal of the Asiatic +Society of Calcutta. + +[40] The thermometric results obtained by these two travellers do not +agree with one another. M. Hügel's thermometer indicated 6300 feet for +the elevation of Kashmir, a result which is known from the barometric +observations of Jacquemont to be 1000 feet in excess. Mr. Vigne's +thermometer, when tested by Moorcroft's barometric results at Le, errs +considerably in the opposite direction. In neither case do I know the +mode of calculation employed, the results only being given. + + + + +INDEX. + + + Abadan, 209. + + Adenocaulon Himalaicum, 47. + + Agricultural processes at Iskardo, 259. + + " " Le, 443. + + Alibransa pass, 463. + + Alluvial deposits of Chango, 112. + + " " Chorbat, 206. + + " " Dankar, 125. + + " " Dras valley, 448. + + " " Indus below Le, 391. + + " " Karakoram, 433, 438. + + " " Kardong, 398. + + " " Kyuri, 117. + + " " Landar valley, 309. + + " " Lio, 107. + + " " Molbil, 446. + + " " Nubra, 196. + + " " Phatu pass, 445. + + " " Phutaksha, 382. + + " " Piti valley, 122. + + " " Rondu, 254. + + " " Shayuk valley, 190. + + " " Shigar valley, 262. + + " " Sungnam, 97. + + " " Tibet, 491. + + " " Tolti, 232. + + " " Zanskar, 369. + + Alsine, tufted, 426. + + Asdhari, 347. + + Avalanches in Dras, 265. + + " " Kashmir, 271. + + " " Rondu, 253. + + + Badarwar, 329. + + Balanophora, 47. + + Ballota, 306. + + Baltal, 269, 452. + + Banahal pass, 297. + + " valley, 299. + + Bardar pass, 355. + + Basehir, 51. + + Baspa river, 75. + + Berberry of Tibet, 211. + + Bijbehara, 294. + + Bilergu, 265. + + Boghdan, 204. + + Borax plain of Pugha, 166. + + Borendo pass, 75. + + Braghar, 213. + + Buddhist edifices at Le, 183. + + " temple at Nako, 109. + + Buju, 334. + + Burang pass, 75. + + Butna river, 348. + + + Caper, wild, of Sutlej valley, 88. + + Caragana versicolor, 99, 156. + + Cedrus Deodara, 19. + + Celtis, 282. + + Chakor, or painted partridge, 261. + + Chamba, 335. + + Changlung, 409. + + Changar, 113. + + Chango, 112. + + Changrang pass, 113. + + Changrezing, 113. + + Chashut, 181. + + Chatargarh, 348. + + " district, 346. + + Chegaon, 69. + + Chenab valley, 301, 345. + + Chinese frontier, direction of, 143. + + " " stoppage on, 116. + + Chini, 78. + + Chirasa, 196. + + Chishot, 349. + + Chloris, species of, in Nubra, 402. + + Chorbat, 204. + + Christolea, 114, 144. + + Chulungka, 207. + + Chumoreri, 140, 459. + + Cicer microphyllum, 371. + + Climate of Dras, 450. + + " Chatargarh, 345. + + " Iskardo in winter, 243. + + " Kashmir, 282. + + " Kunawar, 71. + + " Le in September, 443. + + " Pashkyum, 446. + + " Piti, 128. + + " Simla, 21. + + " Tibet, 468. + + " Zanskar, 363. + + Confervæ in Pugha hot-springs, 164. + + Crambe, 103. + + Cupressus torulosa, 31. + + Currant, black, 115. + + " Tibetan, 104. + + Cyanite, 84, 111. + + Cyclas, fossil, 172. + + Cyperus, a species, in Nubra, 402. + + Cyrena, 292. + + + Dadu, 324. + + Dama, 99. + + Dankar, 125. + + Datisca, 58. + + Deghi, 334. + + Deodar, 19. + + Dewar, 335. + + Digar, 189. + + Diskit, 401. + + Doda, 324. + + Dodonæa, 318. + + Dras valley, 234, 264, 449. + + " village and fort, 238, 267. + + + Elæagnus, 195, 242. + + Elm of Nubra, 406. + + Ephedra, 94. + + Eremurus, 343. + + Euphorbia pentagona, 6. + + + Fagu, 35. + + Fish in Hanle lake, 152. + + " Pugha stream, 164. + + Floods of Shayuk, 200. + + Fothergilla involucrata, 274. + + + Gagangir, 272. + + Gagar river, 2. + + Gambar river, 11, 12. + + Ganderbal, 275. + + Gangan, 274. + + Gaora, 58. + + Garta, 321. + + Garys pass, 278. + + Gentiana Moorcroftiana, 126. + + Geology of Tibet, 490. + + Gerard's pine, 70, 73, 74. + + Giah, 176. + + Giri river, 36. + + Giu river, 118. + + Glacier of Butna valley, 352. + + " Nubra mountains, 413. + + " Parang pass, 136. + + " pass north of Le, 397. + + " Sassar, 438. + + " Sassar pass, 417. + + " Umasi pass, north face, 357. + + " " south face, 354. + + " Zoji pass, 451. + + Glaciers of Himalaya, 474. + + " Kouenlun, 481. + + Gol, 224. + + Gold-washing in Khapalu, 212. + + Gond, 273. + + Granite in Chorbat, 207. + + Greenstone near Hanle, 149. + + + Hangarang district, 96. + + " pass, 100. + + Hango, 102. + + Hanle, 152. + + Hanle river, 155. + + Hanu pass, 208. + + Hanupata, 384. + + Hardas, 237, 265. + + Haripur, 12. + + Harvest at Le, 443. + + Hattu, ascent of, 41. + + Hemp in Kashmir, 455. + + Himalaya, appearance of, from plains, 2. + + " arrangement of ranges of, 458. + + " Cis-Sutlej, 459. + + " Trans-Sutlej, 458. + + Himor, 349. + + Hippophaë conferta, 59. + + " forest of Nubra, 195. + + " of Tibet, 212. + + Hordeum Ægiceras, 102. + + Hot-springs of Panamik, 407. + + " Pugha, 164. + + Huling, 119. + + Hundar, 199. + + Hydrangea, scandent, 47. + + Hyoscyamus niger, 77. + + + Indus river, at Iskardo, 217. + + " at Upshi, 178. + + " frozen over, 241. + + " junction with Shayuk, 214. + + " north of Hanle, 158. + + Iron-mine in Zanskar, 379. + + Iskardo, 216. + + " winter at, 243. + + Islamabad, 294. + + + Jako, 17. + + " view from, 23. + + Jamu, 313. + + Junipers of Kunawar, 83. + + Juniperus excelsa, 254. + + + Kalatze, 388. + + Kalka, 4. + + Kamar, 250. + + Kanam, 94. + + Kanji river, 445. + + Karakoram pass, 433. + + " plain, 428, 436. + + Karbu, in Dras, 238, 266. + + " in Pashkyum, 445. + + Kardong, 398. + + Kargil, 448. + + Karsar, 399. + + Karsha, 368. + + Kartash, 231. + + Kartse river, 448. + + Kashbir, 79. + + Kashmir, 277, 454. + + Katti, 308. + + Kepu, 50. + + Khapalu, 211. + + " plain of, 209. + + Khoten, road to, from Karakoram, 430. + + Khundan Chu, 442. + + Ki, 131. + + Kiang or wild horse, 141. + + Kibar, 131. + + Kiris, 213. + + Kirmichi, 310. + + Koardu, 249. + + Kotgarh, 48. + + Kouenlun, 436, 462. + + Kulzum pass, 127. + + Kunawar, 62. + + Kunes, 213. + + Kuru, in Balti, 213. + + " in Nubra, 201. + + Kussowlee, 5. + + Kyuri, 117. + + + Lacustrine clay of Avantipura, 290. + + " " Chango, 111. + + " " Gol, 225. + + " " Iskardo, 220, 223. + + " " Kamar, 250. + + " " Karsar, 400. + + " " Kashmir, 279. + + " " Kiris, 214. + + " " Kuru, in Nubra, 201. + + " " Kyuri, 117. + + " " Lipa, 88. + + " " lower Dras, 236. + + " " lower Nubra, 198. + + " " Phutaksha, 382. + + " " Thogji lake, 170. + + " " Zanskar, 367. + + Ladhe ke Dhar, 307. + + Lake of Kashmir, 281. + + " salt, of Thogji, 170. + + Lakes, glacial, of Sassar pass, 417. + + Lamayuru, 387, 444. + + Lanak pass, 146. + + Landar, 309. + + Langera, 333. + + Lara, 127. + + Lari, 119. + + Lazgung pass, 188. + + Le, 182, 393, 443. + + Lecanora miniata, 136. + + Limestone of Hangarang, 100. + + " Karakoram, 427. + + " " pass, 435. + + " Murgai, 425. + + " Piti, 124. + + " Shahabad, 297. + + " Zanskar, 371. + + Lio, 105. + + Lipa, 87. + + Liundi, 348. + + Lyakjung, 197, 404. + + Lycium, 211. + + Lymnæa, fossil, at Iskardo, 220. + + " " at Thogji lake, 170. + + " " in Nubra, 198. + + " " in Piti, 117. + + + Machulu river, 209. + + Mahasu ridge, 31. + + Markanda river, 2. + + Markim, 361. + + Marsilang, 181. + + Maten, 267, 450. + + Mattiana, 36. + + Melia Azedarach, 59. + + Mir, 309. + + Miru, in Kunawar, 70. + + " Tibet, 178. + + Molbil, 445. + + Murgai, 422. + + " river, ascent of, 423. + + Muztagh pass, 462. + + Myricaria trees, 162. + + + Nachar, 64. + + Nagkanda, 41. + + Nako, 108. + + Namika pass, 445. + + Nar, 215. + + Nasmon, 304. + + Natural bridge in Piti, 116. + + Natural tunnel, 385. + + Nettle, alpine, 414. + + Nimo, 392. + + Nira, 377. + + Nirt, 51. + + Nostoc, 145. + + Nubra, 192, 404. + + " Chu, 442. + + " lower, 198. + + Nurla, 390. + + + Oak, evergreen, 73. + + Olive, wild, 306. + + Orchideæ of Nubra, 400. + + Oxybaphus Himalayanus, 60. + + Oxytropis chiliophylla, 369. + + + Padri pass, 330. + + Padum, 363. + + Pain Dras, 267. + + Pampur, 288. + + Panamik, 407. + + " hot-springs, 407. + + Pangi, 79. + + Pangong lake, 464. + + Paralysis, curious cases of, 391. + + Parang pass, 135. + + " river, lower course of, 113. + + " " upper course of, 138. + + Pargwal, 345. + + Parkuta, 229. + + Partridge, painted, 261. + + Pashkyum, 446. + + Pass above Changlung in Nubra, 410. + + " Dadu, 327. + + " Mir, 309. + + " Nasmon, 302. + + " Pata, 323. + + Pass north of Le, 395, 443. + + " " Ruduk, 463. + + Passes across Kouenlun, 462. + + " of Tibet, elevation of, 467. + + Pata, 322. + + Peganum Harmala, 212. + + Perowskia, 178. + + Perpetual snow, 482. + + " in outer Himalaya, 487. + + " in Tibet, 488. + + " on opposite sides of passes, 489. + + Phatu pass, 444. + + Phutaksha, 382. + + Picea Webbiana, 86. + + Pin river, 126. + + Pindrow, 86. + + Pinus excelsa in Rondu, 257. + + " Gerardiana, 70, 73, 74. + + " longifolia, 18. + + Pitak, 394. + + Piti, 128. + + " river, 106. + + Planorbis, fossil, 117, 170, 198, 220. + + Pok, 124. + + Poplars of Indus valley, 180. + + Populus alba, 95, 207. + + " balsamifera, 177. + + " Euphratica, 191. + + Porgyul, 101, 110. + + Potato cultivation, 34. + + Potentilla discolor, 412. + + Prangos, 240, 266. + + Pranu, 207. + + Pugha, borax plain, 166. + + " hot springs, 164. + + " ravine, 162. + + " sulphur-mine, 168. + + Pulokanka pass, 170. + + + Quercus Ilex, 73, 347. + + Quinoa, 49. + + + Raldang, 80. + + Ramnagar, 320. + + Rampur, 54. + + Rangrig, 127. + + Ribes glandulosum, 104. + + Rocks of Banahal pass, 298. + + " Butna valley, 361. + + " Chorbat, 207. + + " Dadu, 324. + + " Giah ravine, 179. + + " Hangarang, 100. + + " Karakoram pass, 435. + + " " plain, 427. + + " Kargil, 448. + + " Kashmir, 280, 297. + + " Kunawar, 81. + + " lower Shayuk, 214. + + " Murgai valley, 425. + + " Nubra, 407. + + " Pashkyum, 447. + + " Pugha, 165. + + " Rondu, 257. + + " Simla, 27. + + " Singhi pass, 381. + + " Sungnam, 99. + + " Tawi valley, 311. + + " Umasi pass, 361. + + " Wandla ravine, 388. + + " Waris ravine, 203. + + " Zanskar, 361, 371. + + Rogi, 73. + + Rondu, 248. + + Rope-bridge of Kartash, 242. + + " Nasmon, 305. + + " Padum, 367. + + " Rampur, 54. + + " Rondu, 255. + + Rosa Webbiana, 386. + + Rose, yellow, 385. + + Rukchin valley, 172. + + Runang pass, 92. + + Ruskalan river, 94. + + + Sabathu, 11. + + Sabu, 188. + + Sach pass, 338. + + Saffron cultivation, 288, 455. + + Sairi, 16. + + Salt lake of Thogji, 170. + + Sandstone, modern, of Iskardo, 221. + + " " Karsar, 400. + + " " Tarkata, 234. + + " of Pashkyum, 447. + + " tertiary of Jamu hills, 311, 312. + + Saspola, 391. + + Sassar, 420. + + Sassar pass, 417. + + Seda, 312. + + Serahan, 60. + + Shahabad, 296. + + Shali, 31, 32. + + Shalimar, 286. + + Shayuk river, in Chorbat, 205. + + " " Karakoram, 431. + + " " Khapalu, 209. + + " " Nubra, 193, 403. + + " " Sassar, 419. + + " " its junction with Indus, 214. + + Shialkar, 112. + + Shigar valley, 262. + + Shol, 347. + + Siksa, 204. + + Sildang river, 64. + + Simla, 16. + + Sind river, 270. + + Singhi pass, 379. + + Sirohi Sar, 316. + + Snow-fall in Tibet, 473. + + Soda, efflorescence, in Nubra, 195. + + " " Piti, 128. + + Sonamarg, 271. + + Statice, prickly, 204. + + Suliman range, 3. + + Sulphur-mine of Pugha, 168. + + Sungnam, 94. + + Surmu, 210. + + Suru, 448. + + Sutlej river at Rampur, 51. + + " " Wangtu, 66. + + " " its diurnal fluctuations, 54. + + + Taksha, 408. + + Takti pass, 375. + + Tarkata, 233. + + Tawi river, 313. + + Temple buried in lacustrine clay, 292. + + Tertse, 197. + + Thalaura, 318. + + Thawar, 254. + + Theog, 37. + + Thogji lake, 170, 459. + + Tibet, general description of, 456. + + Tirit, 197. + + Tolti, 230. + + Tongde, 368. + + Tranda, 61. + + Trikota Debi, 310. + + Tsatti, 192. + + Tunglung pass, 175. + + Turgu, 223. + + Turtuk, 207. + + Tussilago Farfara, 263. + + + Ulding Thung, 236. + + Umasi pass, 355. + + Unmaru, 197. + + Upshi, 179. + + Urdi, 229. + + + Vegetation of Badarwar, 329. + + " Baltal, 453. + + " Banahal, 301. + + " Chatargarh, 348. + + " Chenab valley, 304, 342. + + " Dadu, 324. + + " Dras, 449. + + " Gambar valley, 13. + + " Hangarang pass, 101. + + " Hattu, 43. + + " Indus valley below Le, 390. + + " Jamu hills, 317. + + " Kalka, 4. + + " Karakoram, 435. + + " Karsar in Nubra, 400. + + " Kashmir, 283, 296, 454. + + " Kotgarh, 47, 50. + + " Kunawar, 72, 76. + + " Kussowlee, 6, 7. + + " Le, 395. + + " Mahasu, 31. + + " Nubra, 406. + + " Pashkyum, 446. + + " Phatu pass, 445. + + " Ramnagar valley, 320. + + " Rondu, 258. + + " Runang pass, 92. + + " Sassar, 420. + + " Sassar pass, 416. + + " Simla, 18. + + " Sind valley, 272. + + " Sutlej valley at Rampur, 53. + + " " " Wangtu, 67. + + " Werang pass, 85. + + " Zanskar, alpine, 359. + + " " northern passes, 375, 377, 380. + + " " valley, 365, 371. + + " Zoji pass, 451. + + Vernag, 296. + + Vines of Parkuta, 229. + + " Turtuk, 207. + + " wild, of Butna valley, 348. + + Vineyards of Kunawar, 78. + + " Sungnam, 94. + + + Wandla, 386. + + Wangtu Bridge, 66. + + Waris, 202. + + Wasterwan, 288. + + Waterfall at Wangtu, 68. + + " frozen, in Dras, 241. + + Werang pass, 84. + + Willows of Tibet, 180. + + Winds of Tibet, 472. + + Winter at Iskardo, 243. + + Wulur lake, 282. + + + Yarkand merchants, 410. + + " road to, from Iskardo, 263. + + Yulchung, 379. + + + Zangla, 369. + + Zannichellia, 164. + + Zanskar, 358, 363. + + Zobo, 91. + + Zoji pass, 267, 451. + + Zungsam river, 113. + + + JOHN EDWARD TAYLOR, PRINTER, + LITTLE QUEEN STREET, LINCOLN'S INN FIELDS. + + + + + THE + RHODODENDRONS + OF + SIKKIM-HIMALAYA; + + Being an Account, Botanical and Geographical, of the _Rhododendrons_ + recently discovered in the Province of Sikkim, on the Eastern + Himalaya Mountains. + + BY + JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER, M.D., R.N., F.R.S., F.L.S. + EDITED BY SIR W. J. HOOKER, K.H., D.C.L., F.R.S.A. + + Imp. folio. Thirty Plates. £3 16_s._ coloured. + + "In this work we have the first results of Dr. Hooker's botanical + mission to India. The announcement is calculated to startle some of + our readers when they know that it was only last January twelvemonths + that the Doctor arrived in Calcutta. That he should have ascended the + Himalaya, discovered a number of plants, and that they should be + published in England in an almost UNEQUALLED STYLE OF MAGNIFICENT + ILLUSTRATION, in less than eighteen months, is one of the marvels of + our time."--_Athenæum._ + + "A most beautiful example of fine drawing and skilful colouring, while + the letter-press furnished by the talented author possesses very high + interest. Of the species of _Rhododendron_ which he has found in his + adventurous journey, some are quite unrivalled in magnificence of + appearance. We recommend the district to the nurseryman. Whoever could + bring home plenty of seeds of these plants would require no better + foundation for a little fortune."--_Gardeners' Chronicle._ + + + _Also, by the same Author_, + + 1. FLORA OF NEW ZEALAND. + + Parts I., II., and III. Twenty Plates. Price 21_s._ plain; £1 11_s._ + 6_d._ coloured. To be completed in Five Parts. + + 2. THE BOTANY OF THE ANTARCTIC VOYAGE. + + Two Hundred Plates. 2 vols, royal 4to, cloth. £7 10_s._ plain; £10 + 15_s._ coloured. + + + LONDON: + + REEVE AND CO., HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN. + + + + + LIST OF WORKS + PRINCIPALLY ON + NATURAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE, + PUBLISHED BY + REEVE AND CO., + 5, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN. + + + + +BOTANY. + + + THE VICTORIA REGIA. By Sir W. J. HOOKER, F.R.S. In elephant + folio. Illustrated on a large scale by W. Fitch. 31_s._ 6_d._ + + The work on the Royal Water Lily contains four plates of very + large size, expensively coloured, illustrative of the different + stages of flowering and fruiting, with analyses of structure, + as follows:-- + + 1. A view of the entire plant, flower, fruit, and leaves, on + the water. + + 2. A flower _of the natural size_ in progress of expanding, + together with as much of the enormous foliage as the broad + dimensions of the paper will admit. + + 3. A fully expanded flower _of the natural size_, with foliage, + &c. + + 4. A vertical section of the fully developed flower, with + various dissections and analyses. + + "Although many works have been devoted to the illustration and + description of the _Victoria regia_, it seemed still to want + one which, whilst it gave an accurate botanical description of + the plant, should at the same time show the natural size of its + gigantic flowers. This object has been aimed at by the combined + labours of Sir W. Hooker and Mr. Fitch, and with distinguished + success. The illustrations are everything that could be desired + in the shape of botanical drawings. They are accurate, and they + are beautiful."--_Athenæum._ + + + THE RHODODENDRONS OF SIKKIM-HIMALAYA. With drawings and + descriptions made on the spot. By J. D. HOOKER, M.D., F.R.S. + Edited by Sir W. J. HOOKER, D.C.L., F.R.S. In handsome imperial + folio, with thirty coloured plates. Price 3_l._ 11_s._ + + "In this work we have the first results of Dr. Hooker's + botanical mission to India. The announcement is calculated to + startle some of our readers when they know that it was only + last January twelvemonths that the Doctor arrived in Calcutta. + That he should have ascended the Himalaya, discovered a number + of plants, and that they should be published in England in an + almost UNEQUALLED STYLE OF MAGNIFICENT ILLUSTRATION, in less + than eighteen months--is one of the marvels of our + time."--_Athenæum._ + + "A most beautiful example of fine drawing and skilful + colouring, while the letter-press furnished by the talented + author possesses very high interest. Of the species of + Rhododendron which he has found in his adventurous journey, + some are quite unrivalled in magnificence of + appearance."--_Gardeners' Chronicle._ + + + SANDERS'S PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE CULTURE OF THE VINE. With + plates. 8vo. 5_s._ + + "Mr. Assheton Smith's place at Tedworth has long possessed a + great English reputation for the excellence of its fruit and + vegetables: one is continually hearing in society of the + extraordinary abundance and perfection of its produce at + seasons when common gardens are empty, and the great world + seems to have arrived at the conclusion that the kitchen + gardening and forcing there are nowhere excelled. We have, + therefore, examined with no common interest the work before us, + for it will be strange indeed, if a man who can act so + skilfully as Mr. Sanders should be unable to offer advice of + corresponding value. We have not been disappointed. Mr. + Sanders's directions are as plain as words can make them; and, + we will add, as judicious as his long experience had led us to + expect. After a careful perusal of his little treatise, we find + nothing to object to, and much to praise."--_Gardeners' + Chronicle._ + + "A clever, well-written, and nicely illustrated horticultural + pamphlet, telling us all we want to know on the + subject."--_Guardian._ + + + PHYCOLOGIA BRITANNICA; or, History of the British Sea-weeds; + containing coloured figures, and descriptions, of all the + species of Algæ inhabiting the shores of the British Islands. + By WILLIAM HENRY HARVEY, M.D., M.R.I.A., Keeper of the + Herbarium of the University of Dublin, and Professor of Botany + to the Dublin Society. The price of the work, complete, + strongly bound in cloth, is as follows:- + + In three vols, royal 8vo, arranged in the } £7 12 6 + order of publication } + + In four vols, royal 8vo, arranged systematically} £7 17 6 + according to the Synopsis } + + _A few Copies have been printed on large paper._ + + "The 'History of British Sea-weeds' we can most faithfully + recommend for its scientific, its pictorial, and its popular + value; the professed botanist will find it a work of the + highest character, whilst those who desire merely to know the + names and history of the lovely plants which they gather on the + sea-shore, will find in it the faithful portraiture of every + one of them."--_Annals and Magazine of Natural History._ + + "The drawings are beautifully executed by the author himself on + stone, the dissections carefully prepared, and the whole + account of the species drawn up in such a way as cannot fail to + be instructive, even to those who are well acquainted with the + subject. The greater part of our more common Algæ have never + been illustrated in a manner agreeable to the present state of + Algology."--_Gardeners' Chronicle._ + + + POPULAR HISTORY OF BRITISH SEA-WEEDS, comprising all the Marine + Plants. By the Rev. DAVID LANDSBOROUGH, A.L.S., Member of the + Wernerian Society of Edinburgh. With twenty coloured plates by + Fitch. _Second Edition._ Royal 16mo. 10_s._ 6_d._ + + "The book is as well executed as it is well timed. The + descriptions are scientific as well as popular, and the plates + are clear and explicit. Not only the forms, but the uses of + Algæ, are minutely described. It is a worthy SEA-SIDE + COMPANION--a handbook for every occasional or permanent + resident on the sea-shore."--_Economist._ + + "Those who wish to make themselves acquainted with British + Sea-weeds, cannot do better than begin with this elegantly + illustrated manual."--_Globe._ + + "This elegant work, though intended for beginners, is well + worthy the perusal of those advanced in the science."--_Morning + Herald._ + + + A CENTURY OF ORCHIDACEOUS PLANTS, selected from those most + worthy of cultivation figured in Curtis's Botanical Magazine, + with coloured figures and dissections, chiefly executed by Mr. + FITCH; the descriptions (entirely re-written) by Sir WILLIAM J. + HOOKER, F.R.S. With an introduction on the culture of + Orchidaceæ generally, and on the treatment of each genus; by + JOHN C. LYONS, Esq. Royal 4to, containing one hundred coloured + plates. Price _Five Guineas_. + + "In the exquisite illustrations to this splendid volume full + justice has been rendered to the oddly formed and often + brilliantly coloured flowers of this curious and interesting + tribe of plants."--_Westminster and Foreign Quarterly Review._ + + "A very acceptable addition to our knowledge of the Orchis + tribe. The plates are beautifully executed, and have been + selected with great care. Each species has a brief character + attached, and to each genus botanical and practical + observations, from the pen of Sir William Hooker, are prefixed. + The work is enriched with a prefatory memoir by Mr. Lyons, full + of sound judgment and experience, on the most approved method + of growing Orchids."--_Literary Gazette._ + + + POPULAR HISTORY OF BRITISH FERNS, comprising all the Species. + By THOMAS MOORE. With twenty coloured plates by Fitch. Royal + 16mo, cloth. 10_s._ 6_d._ + + "Mr. Moore's 'Popular History of British Ferns' forms one of + the numerous elegant and instructive books by which Messrs. + Reeve and Co. have endeavoured to popularize the study of + Natural History. In the volume before us, Mr. Moore gives a + clear account of the British Ferns, with directions for their + cultivation; accompanied by numerous coloured plates neatly + illustrated, and preceded by a general introduction on the + natural character of this graceful class of + plants."--_Spectator._ + + "We have rarely, if ever, seen a publication relating to plants + where the object aimed at is more fully accomplished than in + this elegant volume."--_Hooker's Journal._ + + "A prettily got-up book, and fit for a drawing-room + table."--_The Friend._ + + + THE BRITISH DESMIDIEÆ; or, Fresh-Water Algæ. By JOHN RALFS, + M.R.C.S., Honorary Member of the Penzance Nat. Hist. Society. + The Drawings by EDWARD JENNER, A.L.S. Royal 8vo, thirty-five + coloured plates. Price 36_s._ cloth. + + + NEREIS AUSTRALIS; or, Illustrations of the Algæ of the Southern + Ocean. By Professor HARVEY, M.D., M.R.I.A. To be completed in + Four Parts, each containing twenty-five coloured plates, imp. + 8vo. Price 1_l._ 1_s._ Parts I. and II. recently published. + + + "Of this most important contribution to our knowledge of exotic + Algæ, we know not if we can pay it a higher compliment than by + saying it is worthy of the author. It should be observed that + the work is not a selection of certain species, but an arranged + system of all that is known of Australian Algæ, accompanied by + figures of the new and rare ones, especially of those most + remarkable for beauty of form and colour."--_London Journal of + Botany._ + + + CURTIS'S BOTANICAL MAGAZINE (commenced in 1786); Continued by + Sir WILLIAM JACKSON HOOKER, K.H., D.C.L., &c., Director of the + Royal Gardens of Kew. + + *** Published in monthly numbers, each containing six plates, + price 3_s._ 6_d._ coloured; and in annual volumes, price 42_s._ + + + HOOKER'S JOURNAL OF BOTANY and KEW GARDENS MISCELLANY. Edited + by Sir WILLIAM JACKSON HOOKER. + + + This Botanical Journal, in addition to original papers by + Eminent Botanists, contains the Botanical News of the month, + Communications from Botanical Travellers, Notices of New Books, + &c. + + *** In monthly numbers, with a plate, price 2_s._ + + + ICONES PLANTARUM; or, Figures, with brief descriptive + characters and remarks, of new and rare Plants. Published + monthly, with eight plates. Price 2_s._ 6_d._ + + + (_Under the Authority of the Lords Commissioners of the + Admiralty._) + + FLORA ANTARCTICA; or, Botany of the Antarctic Voyage of H.M. + Discovery Ships _Erebus_ and _Terror_, during the years + 1839-1843, under the command of Capt. Sir James Clark Ross, + R.N., F.R.S. By JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER, M.D., R.N., F.R.S., &c., + Botanist to the Expedition. In two vols. royal 4to, cloth, + containing 200 plates. Price 10_l._ 15_s._ coloured; 7_l._ + 10_s._ plain. + + "The descriptions of the plants in this work are carefully + drawn up, and much interesting matter, critical, explanatory, + and historical, is added in the form of notes. The drawings of + the plants are admirably executed by Mr. Fitch; and we know of + no productions from his pencil, or, in fact, any botanical + illustrations at all, that are superior in faithful + representation and botanical correctness."--_Athenæum._ + + + CRYPTOGAMIA ANTARCTICA; or, Cryptogamic Botany of the Antarctic + Voyage of H. M. Ships _Erebus_ and _Terror_. By JOSEPH DALTON + HOOKER, M.D., F.R.S., &c. Royal 4to, cloth, containing 74 + plates. Price 4_l._ 4_s._ coloured; 2_l._ 17_s._ plain. + + + THE ESCULENT FUNGUSES OF ENGLAND; a treatise on their History, + Uses, Structure, Nutritious Properties, Mode of Cooking, + Preserving, &c. By the Rev. Dr. BADHAM. Super-royal 8vo, cloth, + coloured plates. 21_s._ + + "The English are not a fungus-eating nation; and though we do + not eat frogs like our neighbours, we are rather celebrated for + our love of another of the reptilian family--turtle. There is + no reason why we should eschew frogs and relish turtle; still + less is there for our eating one or two of the numerous edible + funguses which our island produces, and condemning all the + rest. To draw attention to this fact, and to supply an accurate + account, with a correct delineation, of the esculent species of + this family in Great Britain, are the objects of the book + before us. Such a work was a desideratum in this country, and + it has been well supplied by Dr. Badham; with his beautiful + drawings of the various edible fungi in his hand the collector + can scarcely make a mistake. The majority of those which grow + in our meadows, and in the decaying wood of our orchards and + forests, are unfit for food; and the value of Dr. Badham's book + consists in the fact, that it enables us to distinguish from + these such as may be eaten with impunity."--_Athenæum._ + + + ILLUSTRATIONS OF BRITISH MYCOLOGY; containing Figures and + Descriptions of the Funguses of interest and novelty indigenous + to Britain. _First Series._ By Mrs. HUSSEY. 4to, cloth gilt, + with ninety beautifully coloured drawings. Price 7_l._ 12_s._ + 6_d._ + + "This talented lady and her sister were in the first instance + induced to draw some of the more striking Fungi, merely as + picturesque objects. Their collection of drawings at length + became important from their number and accuracy, and a long + continued study of the nutritive properties of Fungi has + induced the former to lay the results of her investigations + before the public, under the form of illustrations of the more + useful and interesting species. The figures are so faithful + that there can be no difficulty in at once determining with + certainty the objects they are intended to represent; and the + observations will be found of much interest to the general + reader."--_Gardeners' Chronicle._ + + "This is an elegant and interesting book: it would be an + ornament to the drawing-room table; but it must not, therefore, + be supposed that the value of the work is not intrinsic, for a + great deal of new and valuable matter accompanies the plates, + which are not fancy sketches, but so individualized and + life-like, that to mistake any species seems impossible. The + accessories of each are significant of site, soil, and season + of growth, so that the botanist may study with advantage what + the artist may inspect with admiration."--_Morning Post._ + + + ILLUSTRATIONS OF BRITISH MYCOLOGY; containing Figures and + Descriptions of the Funguses of interest and novelty indigenous + to Britain. _Second Series._ By Mrs. HUSSEY. Publishing in + Monthly Parts, coloured drawings, price 5_s._ + + + VOICES FROM THE WOODLANDS; or, History of Forest Trees, + Lichens, Mosses, and Ferns. By MARY ROBERTS. Elegantly bound. + With twenty coloured Plates of Forest Scenery, by FITCH. Royal + 16mo. 10_s._ 6_d._ + + "This work includes a wide range of genera, from the lichen to + the oak, and by way of giving variety to a subject so + commonplace, the several plants are supposed to tell their own + stories, and describe their own family + peculiarities."--_Atlas._ + + "The fair authoress of this pretty volume has shown more than + the usual good taste of her sex in the selection of her mode of + conveying to the young interesting instruction upon pleasing + topics. She bids them join in a ramble through the sylvan + wilds, and at her command the fragile lichen, the gnarled oak, + the towering beech, the graceful chestnut, and the waving + poplar discourse eloquently, and tell their respective + histories and uses."--_Britannia._ + + + POPULAR FIELD BOTANY; containing a familiar and technical + description of the plants most common to the British Isles, + adapted to the study of either the Artificial or Natural + Systems. By AGNES CATLOW. _Second Edition._ Arranged in twelve + chapters, each being the Botanical lesson for the month. + Containing twenty coloured plates of figures. Royal 16mo. + 10_s._ 6_d._ + + "The design of this work is to furnish young persons with a + Self-instructor in Botany, enabling them with little difficulty + to discover the scientific names of the common plants they may + find in their country rambles, to which are appended a few + facts respecting their uses, habits, &c. The plants are classed + in months, the illustrations are nicely coloured, and the book + is altogether an elegant, as well as useful + present."--_Illustrated London News._ + + + THE TOURIST'S FLORA. A Descriptive Catalogue of the Flowering + Plants and Ferns of the British Islands, France, Germany, + Switzerland, and Italy. By JOSEPH WOODS, F.A.S, F.L.S, F.G.S. + 8vo. 18_s._ + + "The appearance of this book has been long expected by us; and + we can justly state that it has quite fulfilled all our + expectations, and will support the high reputation of its + author. Mr. Woods is known to have spent many years in + collecting and arranging the materials for the present work, + with a view to which he has, we believe, visited all the most + interesting localities mentioned in it. This amount of labour, + combined with extensive botanical knowledge, has enabled him to + produce a volume such as few, if any other, botanists were + capable of writing."--_Annals of Natural History._ + + + + +ZOOLOGY. + + + (_Under the Authority of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty._) + + ZOOLOGY OF THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. SAMARANG. Edited by ARTHUR + ADAMS, F.L.S, Assistant-Surgeon, R.N, attached to the + Expedition. + + VERTEBRATA. By _John Edward Gray_, F.R.S., Keeper of the + Zoological Department of the British Museum. + + FISHES. By Sir JOHN RICHARDSON, M.D., F.R.S. + + MOLLUSCA. By the EDITOR and LOVELL REEVE, F.L.S. Including the + anatomy of the _Spirula_, by Prof. OWEN, F.R.S. + + CRUSTACEA. By the EDITOR and ADAM WHITE, F.L.S. + + *** Complete in one handsome royal 4to volume, + containing 55 plates. Price, strongly bound in cloth, 3_l._ + 10_s._ + + + THE BIRDS OF IRELAND. By WILLIAM THOMPSON, Esq., President of + the Natural History and Philosophical Society of Belfast. Vol. + I., price 16_s._ cloth. Vol. II, price 12_s._ Vol. III., price + 16_s._, 8vo, cloth. + + "Our readers, if once they get hold of this work, will not + readily lay it down; for while habits are dwelt upon in a + manner so amusing that we have known extracts to be read aloud + to a delighted circle of children, it contains the precise + information which the ornithologist demands, and brings forward + topics both of popular and scientific interest, such as the + geographical distribution of species, the causes which seem to + operate on their increase and decrease, their migrations, their + uses to man, the occasional injuries they inflict, and the + important benefits they confer. It is a STANDARD WORK, and will + rank with those of our first ornithologists."--_Dublin + Quarterly Journal of Medical Science._ + + + CONTRIBUTIONS TO ORNITHOLOGY. By SIR WILLIAM JARDINE, Bart., + F.R.S.E., F.L.S., &c. + + The "CONTRIBUTIONS" are devoted to the various departments of + Ornithology. They are published at intervals in Parts, and form + an annual Volume, illustrated by numerous coloured and + uncoloured Plates, Woodcuts, &c. + + The Series for 1848, containing ten Plates, price 9_s._ + + The Series for 1849, containing twenty-four Plates, price 21_s._ + + The Series for 1850, containing twenty-one Plates, Vignettes, and + Woodcuts, price 21_s._ + + The Series for 1851, containing fourteen Plates, price 18_s._ + + + THE DODO AND ITS KINDRED; or, the History, Affinities, and + Osteology of the DODO, SOLITAIRE, and other extinct birds of + the islands Mauritius, Rodriguez, and Bourbon. By H. E. + STRICKLAND, Esq., M.A., F.R.G.S., F.G.S., President of the + Ashmolean Society, and A. G. MELVILLE, M.D., M.R.C.S. Royal + quarto, with eighteen plates and numerous wood-illustrations. + Price 21_s._ + + "The labour expended on this book, and the beautiful manner in + which it is got up, render it a work of great interest to the + naturalist. * * It is a model of how such subjects should be + treated. We know of few more elaborate and careful pieces of + comparative anatomy than is given of the head and foot by Dr. + Melville. The dissection is accompanied by lithographic plates, + creditable alike to the Artist and the Printer."--_Athenæum._ + + + POPULAR BRITISH ORNITHOLOGY; comprising a familiar and + technical description of the Birds of the British Isles. By P. + H. Gosse, Author of 'The Ocean,' 'The Birds of Jamaica,' &c. In + twelve chapters, each being the Ornithological lesson for the + month. In one vol. royal 16mo, with twenty plates of figures. + Price 10_s._ 6_d._ coloured. + + "To render the subject of ornithology clear, and its study + attractive, has been the great aim of the author of this + beautiful little volume.... It is embellished by upwards of 70 + figures of British birds beautifully coloured."--_Morning + Herald._ + + "This was a book much wanted, and will prove a boon of no + common value, containing, as it does, the names, descriptions, + and habits of all the British birds. It is handsomely got + up."--_Mirror._ + + + CONCHOLOGIA ICONICA; or, Figures and Descriptions of the Shells + of Molluscous Animals, with critical remarks on their synonyms, + affinities, and circumstances of habitation. By LOVELL REEVE, + F.L.S. + + *** Demy 4to. Published monthly, in Parts, each containing + eight plates. Price 10_s._ + + + SOLD ALSO IN MONOGRAPHS: + + £ _s._ _d._ + Achatina 1 9 0 + Achatinella 0 8 0 + Arca 1 1 6 + Artemis 0 13 0 + Buccinum 0 18 0 + Bulimus 5 12 0 + Bullia 0 5 6 + Cardita 0 11 6 + Cardium 1 8 0 + Cassidaria 0 1 6 + Cassis 0 15 6 + Chama 0 11 6 + Chiton 2 2 0 + Chitonellus 0 1 6 + Conus 3 0 0 + Corbula 0 6 6 + Crassatella 0 4 0 + Cypræa 1 14 0 + Cypricardia 0 3 0 + Delphinula 0 6 6 + Dolium 0 10 6 + Eburna 0 1 6 + Fasciolaria 0 9 0 + Ficula 0 1 6 + Fissurella 1 0 6 + Fusus 1 6 6 + Glauconome 0 1 6 + Haliotis 1 1 0 + Harpa 0 5 6 + Hemipecten 0 1 6 + Ianthina 0 3 0 + Isocardia 0 1 6 + Lucina 0 14 0 + Mangelia 0 10 6 + Mesalia} + Eglisia} 0 1 6 + Mitra 2 10 0 + Monoceros 0 5 6 + Murex 2 5 6 + Myadora 0 1 6 + Oliva 1 18 0 + Oniscia 0 1 6 + Paludomus 0 4 0 + Partula 0 5 6 + Pectunculus 0 11 6 + Phorus 0 4 0 + Pleurotoma 2 10 6 + Pterocera 0 8 0 + Purpura 0 17 0 + Pyrula 0 11 6 + Ranella 0 10 6 + Ricinula 0 8 0 + Rostellaria 0 4 6 + Strombus 1 4 6 + Struthiolaria 0 1 6 + Turbinella 0 17 0 + Triton 1 5 6 + Turbo 0 17 0 + Turritella 0 14 6 + Voluta 1 8 0 + + _The genus_ HELIX _is in course of publication._ + + +SOLD ALSO IN VOLUMES: + + VOL. I. CONUS + PLEUROTOMA + CRASSATELLA + PHORUS + PECTUNCULUS + CARDITA + DELPHINULA + CYPRICARDIA + HARPA + + [_122 Plates, price 7l. 16s. 6d. half-bound._] + + VOL. II. CORBULA + ARCA + TRITON + GLAUCONOME + MYADORA + RANELLA + MITRA + CARDIUM + ISOCARDIA + + [_114 Plates, price 7l. 6s. 6d. half-bound._] + + VOL. III. MUREX + CYPRÆA + HALIOTIS + MANGELIA + PURPURA + RICINULA + MONOCEROS + BULLIA + BUCCINUM + + [_129 Plates, price 8l. 5s. 6d. half-bound._] + + VOL. IV. CHAMA + CHITON + CHITONELLUS + FICULA + PYRULA + TURBINELLA + FASCIOLARIA + FUSUS + PALUDOMUS + TURBO + + [_110 Plates, price 7l. 1s. 6d. half-bound._] + + VOL. V. BULIMUS + ACHATINA + DOLIUM + CASSIS + TURRITELLA + MESALIA + EGLISIA + ONISCIA + CASSIDARIA + EBURNA + + [_147 Plates, price 9l. 7s. 6d. half-bound._] + + VOL. VI. VOLUTA + FISSURELLA + PARTULA + ACHATINELLA + ARTEMIS + LUCINA + HEMIPECTEN + OLIVA + STROMBUS + PTEROCERA + ROSTELLARIA + STRUTHIOLARIA + + [_129 Plates, price 8l. 5s. 6d. half-bound._] + + The figures are drawn and lithographed by Mr. G. B. SOWERBY, + Junr., of the _natural size_, from specimens chiefly in the + collection of Mr. Cuming. + + "This great work is intended to embrace a complete description + and illustration of the shells of molluscous animals, and, so + far as we have seen, it is not such as to disappoint the large + expectations that have been formed respecting it. The figures + of the shells are all of full size; in the descriptions a + careful analysis is given of the labours of others; and the + author has apparently spared no pains to make the work a + standard authority on the subject of which it + treats."--_Athenæum._ + + + CONCHOLOGIA SYSTEMATICA; or, Complete System of Conchology, + illustrated with 300 plates of upwards of 1500 figures of + Shells. By LOVELL REEVE, F.L.S. + + "The text is both interesting and instructive; many of the + plates have appeared before in Mr. Sowerby's works, but from + the great expense of collecting them, and the miscellaneous + manner of their publication, many persons will no doubt gladly + avail themselves of this select and classified portion, which + also contains many original figures."--_Athenæum._ + + *** In two quarto volumes, cloth. Price 10_l._ coloured; 6_l._ + plain. + + + ELEMENTS OF CONCHOLOGY; or, Introduction to the Natural History + of Shells and their animals. By LOVELL REEVE, F.L.S. Parts I. + to X., price 3_s._ 6_d._ each. + + "The work before us is designed to promote a more philosophical + spirit of inquiry into the nature and origin of + Shells."--_Ecclesiastical Review._ + + + CONCHOLOGIST'S NOMENCLATOR; or, Catalogue of recent species of + Shells, with their authorities, synonyms, and references to + works where figured or described. By AGNES CATLOW, assisted by + LOVELL REEVE, F.L.S. + + *** In sheets for labels, 20_s._ Cloth, 21_s._ Half-bound, + interleaved, 25_s._ + + + CONCHYLIA DITHYRA INSULARUM BRITANNICARUM. The Bivalve Shells + of the British Isles, systematically arranged. By WILLIAM + TURTON, M.D. Reprinted verbatim from the original edition. The + illustrations, printed from the original copper-plates, are + distinguished for their accurate detail. Twenty coloured + plates. Price 2_l._ 10_s._ + + + POPULAR HISTORY OF MOLLUSCA; or, Shells and their Animal + Inhabitants. By MARY ROBERTS. Royal 16mo, with twenty coloured + plates by Wing. Price 10_s._ 6_d._ + + "This little volume forms another of the excellent series of + illustrated works on various departments of Natural History, + for which the public is indebted to Mr. Reeve.... When we add, + that the plates contain no fewer than ninety figures of shells, + with their animal inhabitants, all of them well, and several + admirably, executed, and that the text is written throughout in + a readable and even elegant style, with such digression in + poetry and prose as serve to relieve its scientific details, we + think that we have said enough to justify the favourable + opinion we have expressed."--_British and Foreign + Medico-Chirurgical Review._ + + + CURTIS'S BRITISH ENTOMOLOGY, being Illustrations and + Descriptions of the Genera of Insects found in Great Britain + and Ireland, comprising coloured figures, from nature, of the + most rare and beautiful species, and, in many instances, of the + plants upon which they are found. By JOHN CURTIS, F.L.S. + + The 'British Entomology' was originally brought out in Monthly + Numbers, size royal 8vo, at 4_s._ 6_d._, each containing four + coloured plates with text. It was commenced in 1824, and + completed in 1840, in 193 Numbers, forming 16 volumes, price + £43 16_s._ + + The work is now offered new, and in the best condition:-- + + Price to Subscribers for complete copies in sixteen volumes £21. + Price of the new issue, and of odd Numbers 3_s._ 6_d._ per No. + + *** Vols. I. and II. of the New Issue are now ready for + delivery. + + + INSECTA BRITANNICA. DIPTERA. By F. WALKER, Esq. F.L.S. Vol. I. + Illustrated with plates. Price 25_s._ + + + EPISODES OF INSECT LIFE. Three vols., crown 8vo, with 108 + illustrations. Price 2_l._ 8_s._, elegantly bound in fancy + cloth. Coloured and bound extra, gilt back, sides, and edges, + 3_l._ 3_s._ + + *** Each volume, containing thirty-six illustrations, is + complete in itself, and sold separately. Price 16_s._ plain, + 21_s._ coloured. + + "The book includes solid instruction as well as genial and + captivating mirth. The scientific knowledge of the writer is + thoroughly reliable."--_Examiner._ + + "The letterpress is interspersed with vignettes clearly and + cleverly engraved on stone: and the whole pile of Natural + History--fable, poetry, theory, and fact--is stuck over with + quaint apophthegms and shrewd maxims, deduced for the benefit + of man from the contemplation of such tiny monitors as gnats + and moths. Altogether the book is a curious and interesting + one--quaint and clever, genial and well-informed."--_Morning + Chronicle._ + + + POPULAR BRITISH ENTOMOLOGY, comprising a familiar and technical + description of the Insects most common to the British Isles. By + MARIA E. CATLOW. In twelve chapters, each being the + Entomological lesson for the month. In one vol. royal 16mo, + with sixteen coloured plates of figures. Price 10_s._ 6_d._ + + "Judiciously executed, with excellent figures of the commoner + species, for the use of young beginners."--_Annual Address of + the President of the Entomological Society._ + + "Miss Catlow's 'Popular British Entomology' contains an + introductory chapter or two on classification, which are + followed by brief generic and specific descriptions in English + of above 200 of the commoner British species, together with + accurate figures of about 70 of those described; and will be + quite a treasure to anyone just commencing the study of this + fascinating science."--_Westminster and Foreign Quarterly + Review._ + + + POPULAR HISTORY OF MAMMALIA. By ADAM WHITE, F.L.S., Assistant + in the Zoological Department of the British Museum. With + sixteen coloured Plates of Quadrupeds, &c. by B. WATERHOUSE + HAWKINS, F.L.S. Royal 16mo. 10_s._ 6_d._ + + "The present increase of our stores of anecdotal matter + respecting every kind of animal has been used with much tact by + Mr. White, who has a terse chatty way of putting down his + reflections, mingled with that easy familiarity which every one + accustomed daily to zoological pursuits is sure to attain. The + book is profusely illustrated."--_Atlas._ + + + THE BRITISH PALÆOZOIC FOSSILS, added by Professor Sedgwick to + the Woodwardian Museum. By Professor M'COY. In royal 4to, with + numerous Plates. + + Part I., containing the Radiata and Articulata, is now ready. 16_s._ + + Part II., containing the Lower Palæozoic Mollusca, is in the press. + + + THOUGHTS ON A PEBBLE; or, a First Lesson in Geology. By Dr. + MANTELL, F.R.S. _Eighth Edition_, considerably enlarged. With + four coloured plates, twenty-seven woodcuts, and a Portrait of + the Author. Square 12mo. 5_s._ + + "I have just procured a little work for my young pupils, a most + delightful introduction, entitled 'Thoughts on a Pebble, or a + First Lesson in Geology,' by Dr. Mantell, and I must request + you to read it; for although it does not consist of more than + thirty pages [increased in the present edition to upwards of a + hundred] it will expand to your view a new world that will + astonish and delight you."--_Philosophy in Sport._ + + + + +MISCELLANEOUS. + + + ELEMENTARY PHYSICS; an Introduction to the Study of Natural + Philosophy. By ROBERT HUNT, Professor of Mechanical Science at + the Government School of Mines, Author of 'Poetry of Science,' + 'Researches on Light,' and 'Handbook to the Great Exhibition.' + Illustrated with a coloured frontispiece, and 217 vignettes and + wood engravings. Fcap. 8vo, cloth. 10_s._ 6_d._ + + CONTENTS. + + Chapter I. General Properties of Ponderable Matter. + " II. General Laws of Motion. + " III. Laws of Slightly Elastic Fluids. + " IV. Laws of Elastic Fluids. + Chapter V. Sonorous Movement of Bodies. + " VI. Primary Phenomena of Electricity. + " VII. Heat, or Caloric. + " VIII. Light and Actinism. + + "As a really elementary treatise on the whole work of Physical + Science, we know none to compare with it, and it is, therefore, + admirably adapted for the wants of the student; whilst, on the + other hand, it may be read and looked through with profit and + interest by those who have long mastered the general truths it + embodies, and for the many novel illustrations and applications + of these which it contains."--_British and Foreign + Medico-Chirurgical Review._ + + + POPULAR MINERALOGY; a Familiar account of Minerals and their + Uses. By HENRY SOWERBY. Royal 16mo, with plates of figures. + 10_s._ 6_d._ + + "Mr. Sowerby has endeavoured to throw around his subject every + attraction. His work is fully and carefully illustrated with + coloured plates."--_Spectator._ + + + PANTHEA, THE SPIRIT OF NATURE. By ROBERT HUNT, Author of 'The + Poetry of Science.' One vol. 8vo, cloth. 10_s._ 6_d._ + + "A work of very peculiar character, in which Philosophy and + Poetry are finely blended, and where great truths and noble + sentiments are expressed in language full of beauty and + eloquence."--_North British Review._ + + "Ample opportunities are afforded for conveying scientific + information in a popular form, and these have been liberally + and well embraced by the author."--_Athenæum._ + + "There is, throughout, the closeness of matter and eloquence of + style which distinguished the 'Poetry of + Science.'"--_Spectator._ + + + THE POETRY OF SCIENCE; or, Studies of the Physical Phenomena of + Nature. By ROBERT HUNT, Author of 'Panthea,' and 'Researches on + Light.' _Second Edition._ Revised. With an Index. One vol. 8vo, + cloth. 12_s._ + + "A truly scientific work, which has the character of poetry + only in so far as truth is poetical, and may be regarded as a + popular treatise on Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, and Geology, + similar in its nature and object to the 'Kosmos' of + Humboldt."--_North British Review._ + + + ILLUSTRATIONS of the WISDOM and BENEVOLENCE of the DEITY, as + manifested in Nature. By H. EDWARDS, LL.D. Cloth, 2_s._ 6_d._ + + "A little excursion in the track of Paley and the broad road of + the Bridgewater Treatises. Animals, Atmosphere, Organic Matter, + Light, and Electricity are the natural elements out of which + the author deduces his pious lessons, leading to a First Cause + in wonder, admiration, and worship."--_Literary Gazette._ + + + DROPS OF WATER; their marvellous and beautiful Inhabitants + displayed by the Microscope. By AGNES CATLOW. Square 12mo, with + coloured plates. 7_s._ 6_d._ + + "In this little book, illustrated with plates scarcely inferior + to those of the well-known Ehrenberg, we have the wonders of + the microscope revealed in the history of a drop of water. Miss + Catlow's pleasing works on botany, &c., are all well known, and + we can assure our readers that in this little history of + infusorial animals and plants of a drop of water she has added + much to her well-deserved reputation. The style in which it is + got up renders it worthy of companionship with the choicest + ornaments of the library table."--_Liverpool Standard._ + + "A pleasant introduction to microscopic studies, having + reference in particular to the animalcules or infusoria, as + they are now more commonly called, which inhabit water and + other liquids. The little volume before us contains a goodly + body of information touching the infusorial world, with some + clearly and sensibly written information as to the species of + water, and the seasons, in which certain varieties are to be + found."--_Atlas._ + + "'Drops of Water' is an introduction to one of Nature's + inexhaustible sources of wonder and delight, performed in a + very efficient and satisfactory manner.... As a specimen of + typography, it is of a superior character; and the plates are + indicative of no small degree of artistic skill as well as + science."--_Observer._ + + "An elegant little book, both in the getting up and its + literature.... The text is accompanied by coloured plates, that + exhibit the most remarkable creatures of the watery + world."--_Spectator._ + + "Of the manner in which this work is executed, we can say that, + like Miss Catlow's previous productions on Natural History, it + displays an accurate acquaintance with the subject, and a keen + delight in the contemplation of the objects to which it is + devoted. As far as the living beings which inhabit 'Drops of + Water' are concerned, we know of no better introduction to the + use of the microscope than the present volume."--_Athenæum._ + + + INSTINCT AND REASON. By ALFRED SMEE, F.R.S., Author of + 'Electro-Biology.' One vol. 8vo. With coloured Plates by Wing, + and Woodcuts. 18_s._ + + "Mr. Smee's facts are extremely valuable. His work, moreover, + is one of the most vivid interest. Entertainment and + instruction are here combined in a very high degree; and the + coloured plates add essentially to its value."--_Britannia._ + + "Mr. Smee is the inventor of a convenient and elegant voltaic + battery, and his experiments on the physical process of nervous + excitation are curious and ingenious. We give the author credit + for his powers of patient observation, and ingeniously devised + experiment."--_Athenæum._ + + "Mr. Smee has done good service to the cause of rational + philosophy."--_Lancet._ + + + (_Under the Authority of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty._) + + NARRATIVE OF THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. SAMARANG, during the years + 1843-46. By Capt. Sir EDWARD BELCHER, C.B, F.R.A.S. and G.S, + Commander of the Expedition, With a Popular Summary of the + Natural History of the islands visited, by ARTHUR ADAMS, F.L.S. + In two vols. 8vo, with thirty-five charts, coloured plates, and + etchings. Price 36_s._ cloth. + + "These volumes give the official and authorized account of the + surveying voyage of the Samarang in the Eastern Archipelago and + Northern Seas of China and Japan. Besides much geographical and + practical information, Capt. Belcher's Narrative contains a + close and mature view of the ministers and monarchs of those + distant regions. Quelpart and the Korean Archipelago are new + ground."--_Examiner._ + + + TRAVELS IN THE INTERIOR OF BRAZIL; principally through the + Northern Provinces and the Gold and Diamond Districts, during + the years 1836-41. By the late GEORGE GARDNER, M.D, F.L.S, + Superintendent of the Royal Botanic Gardens of Ceylon. _Second + and cheaper Edition._ With a Map of the Author's Route and View + of the Organ Mountains. Price 12_s._ cloth; 18_s._ bound. + + "When camping out on the mountain-top or in the wilderness; + roughing it in his long journeys through the interior; + observing the very singular mode of life there presented to his + notice; describing the curious characters that fell under his + observation, the arts or substitutes for arts of the people, + and the natural productions of the country--these Travels are + full of attraction. The book, like the country it describes, is + full of new matter."--_Spectator._ + + The narrative of his varied adventures forms not only to the + enthusiastic botanist, but to the general reader, an + exceedingly entertaining and also instructive book, from the + new view which it gives of the society of Brazil--particularly + in its less known provinces."--_Tait's Edinburgh Magazine._ + + "This volume is from the pen of an able naturalist, whose heart + is in his occupation.... Some of the regions he visited have + seldom been trodden by Europeans--never by Englishmen; so that + his observations derive value from the novelty of the matter to + which they relate."--_Athenæum._ + + "Mr. Gardner's volume, bearing the inimitable impress of + candour and good faith, as of the competency of the author for + the task he undertook, is not more valuable to the man of + science than interesting to the general + reader."--_Ecclesiastical Review._ + + + THE PLANETARY AND STELLAR UNIVERSE. By ROBERT JAMES MANN. With + fifty astronomical Diagrams and Maps of the Circumpolar + Constellations. Fcap. cloth. 5_s._ + + "A brief abstract of the discoveries of Newton, clearly + explained and elegantly illustrated."--_Westminster and Foreign + Quarterly Review._ + + + + +NEW WORKS + +TO BE + +PUBLISHED IN MAY AND JUNE. + + 1. PARKS AND PLEASURE GROUNDS; or, Practical Notes on Country + Residences, Villas, Public Parks, and Gardens. By CHARLES J. H. + SMITH, Landscape Gardener. + + 2. TALPA; or, THE CHRONICLE OF A CLAY FARM: an Agricultural + Fragment. By C. W. H. With Illustrations by GEORGE CRUIKSHANK. + + 3. POPULAR HISTORY OF BRITISH ZOOPHYTES. By the Rev. Dr. + LANDSBOROUGH. With Coloured Plates. + + 4. POPULAR SCRIPTURE ZOOLOGY; or, History of the Animals mentioned + in the Bible. By MARIA CATLOW. With Coloured Plates. + + 5. WESTERN HIMALAYA AND TIBET; the Narrative of a Journey through + the Mountains of Northern India, during the Years 1847-8. By + THOMAS THOMSON, M.D. + + 6. FLORA OF NEW ZEALAND. By Dr. J. D. HOOKER, F.R.S. With Coloured + Plates. + + 7. FLORA OF WESTERN ESKIMAUX-LAND, including the Sound to Point + Barrow, and the adjacent Islands. By BERTHOLD SEEMANN. With + Plates. + + [_Now ready, price 10s._] + + +Printed by J. E. Taylor, Little Queen-street, Lincoln's-inn-fields. + + + + + * * * * * * + + + + +Transcriber's note: + + Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the original document have + been preserved. Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. + + On page 30, text appears to be missing from the phrase: "the ridge + continues in a * direction". + + On page 342, 12th of May is probably a typo for 12th of June. + + On page 393, the phrase "was finely seen" should perhaps be "was + finally seen". + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42146 *** |