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Explorer, geographer, and colonizer. +Born in 1567 at Brouage, a village on the Bay of Biscay. +Belonged by parentage to the lesser gentry of Saintonge. +In boyhood became imbued with a love of the sea, but also +served as a soldier in the Wars of the League. Though an +enthusiastic Catholic, was loyal to Henry of Navarre. On +the Peace of Vervins (1598) returned to the sea, visiting +the Spanish West Indies and Mexico. Between 1601 and 1603 +wrote his first book--the Bref Discours. In 1603 made +his first voyage to the St Lawrence, which he ascended +as far as the Lachine Rapids. From 1604 to 1607 was +actively engaged in the attempt of De Monts to establish +a French colony in Acadia, at the same time exploring +the seaboard from Cape Breton to Martha's Vineyard. +Returned to the St Lawrence in 1608 and founded Quebec. +In 1609 discovered Lake Champlain, and fought his first +battle with the Iroquois. In 1613 ascended the Ottawa to +a point above Lac Coulange. In 1615 reached Georgian Bay +and was induced to accompany the Hurons, with their +allies, on an unsuccessful expedition into the country +of the Iroquois. From 1617 to 1629 occupied chiefly in +efforts to strengthen the colony at Quebec and promote +trade on the lower St Lawrence. Taken a captive to London +by Kirke in 1629 upon the surrender of Quebec, but after +its recession to France returned (1633) and remained in +Canada until his death, on Christmas Day 1635. Published +several important narratives describing his explorations +and adventures. An intrepid pioneer and the revered +founder of New France. + +Into some such terms as these would the writer of a +biographical dictionary crowd his notice of Champlain's +career, so replete with danger and daring, with the +excitement of sailing among the uncharted islands of +Penobscot Bay, of watching the sun descend below the +waves of Lake Huron, of attacking the Iroquois in their +palisaded stronghold, of seeing English cannon levelled +upon the houses of Quebec. It is not from a biographical +dictionary that one can gain true knowledge of Champlain, +into whose experience were crowded so many novel sights +and whose soul was tested, year after year, by the +ever-varying perils of the wilderness. No life, it is +true, can be fitly sketched in a chronological abridgment, +but history abounds with lives which, while important, +do not exact from a biographer the kind of detail that +for the actions of Champlain becomes priceless. Kant and +Hegel were both great forces in human thought, yet +throughout eighty years Kant was tethered to the little +town of Konigsberg, and Hegel did not know what the French +were doing in Jena the day after there had been fought +just outside a battle which smote Prussia to her knees. +The deeds of such men are their thoughts, their books, +and these do not make a story. The life of Champlain is +all story. The part of it which belongs to the Wars of +the League is lost to us from want of records. But +fortunately we possess in his Voyages the plain, direct +narrative of his exploits in America--a source from which +all must draw who would know him well. + +The method to be pursued in this book is not that of the +critical essay. Nor will these pages give an account of +Champlain's times with reference to ordinances regulating +the fur trade, or to the policy of French kings and their +ministers towards emigration. Such subjects must be +touched on, but here it will be only incidentally. What +may be taken to concern us is the spirited action of +Champlain's middle life--the period which lies between +his first voyage to the St Lawrence and his return from +the land of the Onondagas. Not that he had ended his work +in 1616. The unflagging efforts which he continued to +put forth on behalf of the starving colony at Quebec +demand all praise. But the years during which he was +incessantly engaged in exploration show him at the height +of his powers, with health still unimpaired by exposure +and with a soul that courted the unknown. Moreover, this +is the period for which we have his own narrative in +fullest detail. + +Even were we seeking to set down every known fact regarding +Champlain's early life the task would not be long. Parkman, +in referring to his origin, styles him 'a Catholic +gentleman,' with not even a footnote regarding his +parentage. [Footnote: It is hard to define Champlain's +social status in a single word. Parkman, besides styling +him 'a Catholic gentleman,' speaks of him elsewhere as +being 'within the pale of the noblesse.' On the other +hand, the Biographie Saintongeoise says that he came from +a family of fishermen. The most important facts would +seem to be these. In Champlain's own marriage contract +his father is styled 'Antoine de Champlain, Capitaine de +la Marine.' The same document styles Champlain himself +'Samuel de Champlain.' A petition in which he asks for +a continuation of his pension (circ. 1630) styles him in +its opening words 'Le Sieur de Champlain' and afterwards +'le dit sieur Champlain' in two places, while in six +places it styles him 'le dit sieur de Champlain.' Le +Jeune calls him 'Monsieur de Champlain.' It is clear that +he was not a noble. It is also clear that he possessed +sufficient social standing to warrant the use of de. On +the title-page of all his books after 1604 he is styled +the 'Sieur de Champlain.'] Dionne, in a biography of +nearly three hundred pages, does indeed mention the names +of his father and mother, but dismisses his first twenty +years in twenty lines, which say little more than that +he learned letters and religion from the parish priest +and a love of the sea from his father. Nor is it easy to +enlarge these statements unless one chooses to make +guesses as to whether or not Champlain's parents were +Huguenots because he was called Samuel, a favourite name +with French Protestants. And this question is not worth +discussion, since no one has, or can, cast a doubt upon +the sincerity of his own devotion to the Catholic faith. + +In short, Champlain by birth was neither a peasant nor +a noble, but issued from a middle-class family; and his +eyes turned towards the sea because his father was a +mariner dwelling in the small seaport of Brouage. + +Thus when a boy Champlain doubtless had lessons in +navigation, but he did not become a sailor in the larger +sense until he had first been a soldier. His youth fell +in the midst of the Catholic Revival, when the Church of +Rome, having for fifty years been sore beset by Lutherans +and Calvinists, began to display a reserve strength which +enabled her to reclaim from them a large part of the +ground she had lost. But this result was not gained +without the bitterest and most envenomed struggle. If +doctrinal divergence had quickened human hatreds before +the Council of Trent, it drove them to fury during the +thirty years that followed. At the time of the Massacre +of St Bartholomew Champlain was five years old. He was +seventeen when William the Silent was assassinated; twenty +when Mary Stuart was executed at Fotheringay; twenty-one +when the Spanish Armada sailed against England and when +the Guises were murdered at Blois by order of Henry III; +twenty-two when Henry III himself fell under the dagger +of Jacques Clement. The bare enumeration of these events +shows that Champlain was nurtured in an age of blood and +iron rather than amid those humanitarian sentiments which +prevail in an age of religious toleration. + +Finding his country a camp, or rather two camps, he became +a soldier, and fought for ten years in the wretched strife +to which both Leaguers and Huguenots so often sacrificed +their love of country. With Henry of Valois, Henry of +Navarre, and Henry of Guise as personal foes and political +rivals, it was hard to know where the right line of faith +and loyalty lay; but Champlain was both a Catholic and +a king's man, for whom all things issued well when Henry +of Navarre ceased to be a heretic, giving France peace +and a throne. It is unfortunate that the details of these +adventurous years in Champlain's early manhood should be +lost. Unassisted by wealth or rank, he served so well as +to win recognition from the king himself, but beyond the +names of his commanders (D'Aumont, St Luc, and Brissac) +there is little to show the nature of his exploits. +[Footnote: He served chiefly in Brittany against the +Spanish allies of the League, and reached the rank of +quartermaster.] In any case, these ten years of campaigning +were a good school for one who afterwards was to look +death in the face a thousand times amidst the icebergs +of the North Atlantic, and off the rocky coast of Acadia, +and in the forests of the Iroquois. + +With such parentage and early experiences as have been +indicated Champlain entered upon his career in the New +World. It is characteristic that he did not leave the +army until his services were no longer needed. At the +age of thirty-one he was fortunate enough to be freed +from fighting against his own countrymen. In 1598 was +signed the Peace of Vervins by which the enemies of Henry +IV, both Leaguers and Spaniards, acknowledged their +defeat. To France the close of fratricidal strife came +as a happy release. To Champlain it meant also the dawn +of a career. Hastening to the coast, he began the long +series of voyages which was to occupy the remainder of +his life. Indeed, the sea and what lay beyond it were +henceforth to be his life. + +The sea, however, did not at once lead Champlain to New +France. Provencal, his uncle, held high employment in +the Spanish fleet, and through his assistance Champlain +embarked at Blavet in Brittany for Cadiz, convoying +Spanish soldiers who had served with the League in France. +After three months at Seville he secured a Spanish +commission as captain of a ship sailing for the West +Indies. Under this appointment it was his duty to attend +Don Francisco Colombo, who with an armada of twenty +galleons sailed in January 1599 to protect Porto Rico +from the English. In the maritime strife of Spain and +England this expedition has no part that remains memorable. +For Champlain it meant a first command at sea and a first +glimpse of America. + +The record of this voyage was an incident of no less +importance in Champlain's fortunes than the voyage itself. +His cruisings in the Spanish Main gave him material for +a little book, the Bref Discours; and the Bref Discours +in turn advanced his career. Apart from any effect which +it may have had in securing for him the title of Geographer +to the King, it shows his own aspiration to be a geographer. +Navigation can be regarded either as a science or a trade. +For Champlain it was plainly a science, demanding care +in observation and faithfulness of narrative. The Bref +Discours was written immediately upon his return from +the West Indies, while the events it describes were still +fresh in mind. Appearing at a time when colonial secrets +were carefully guarded, it gave France a glimpse of +Spanish America from French eyes. For us it preserves +Champlain's impressions of Mexico, Panama, and the +Antilles. For Champlain himself it was a profession of +faith, a statement that he had entered upon the honourable +occupation of navigator; in other words, that he was to +be classed neither with ship-captains nor with traders, +but with explorers and authors. + +It was in March 1601 that Champlain reached France on +his return from the West Indies. The next two years he +spent at home, occupied partly with the composition of +his Bref Discours and partly with the quest of suitable +employment. His avowed preference for the sea and the +reputation which he had already gained as a navigator +left no doubt as to the sphere of his future activities, +but though eager to explore some portion of America on +behalf of the French crown, the question of ways and +means presented many difficulties. Chief among these was +the fickleness of the king. Henry IV had great political +intelligence, and moreover desired, in general, to befriend +those who had proved loyal during his doubtful days. His +political sagacity should have led him to see the value +of colonial expansion, and his willingness to advance +faithful followers should have brought Champlain something +better than his pension and the title of Geographer. But +the problems of France were intricate, and what most +appealed to the judgment of Henry was the need of domestic +reorganization after a generation of slaughter which had +left the land desolate. Hence, despite momentary impulses +to vie with Spain and England in oversea expansion, he +kept to the path of caution, avoiding any expenditure +for colonies which could be made a drain upon the treasury, +and leaving individual pioneers to bear the cost of +planting his flag in new lands. In friendship likewise +his good impulses were subject to the vagaries of a +mercurial temperament and a marked willingness to follow +the line of least resistance. In the circumstances it is +not strange that Champlain remained two years ashore. + +The man to whom he owed most at this juncture was Aymar +de Chastes. Though Champlain had served the king faithfully, +his youth and birth prevented him from doing more than +belongs to the duty of a subaltern. But De Chastes, as +governor of Dieppe, at a time when the League seemed +everywhere triumphant, gave Henry aid which proved to be +the means of raising him from the dust. It was a critical +event for Champlain that early in 1603 De Chastes had +determined to fit out an expedition to Canada. Piety and +patriotism seem to have been his dominant motives, but +an opening for profit was also offered by a monopoly of +the Laurentian fur trade. During the civil wars Champlain's +strength of character had become known at first hand to +De Chastes, who both liked and admired him. Then, just +at the right moment, he reached Fontainebleau, with his +good record as a soldier and the added prestige which +had come to him from his successful voyage to the West +Indies. He and De Chastes concluded an agreement, the +king's assent was specially given, and in the early spring +of 1603 the founder of New France began his first voyage +to the St Lawrence. + +Champlain was now definitely committed to the task of +gaining for France a foothold in North America. This was +to be his steady purpose, whether fortune frowned or +smiled. At times circumstances seemed favourable; at +other times they were most disheartening. Hence, if we +are to understand his life and character, we must consider, +however briefly, the conditions under which he worked. + +It cannot be said that Champlain was born out of his +right time. His active years coincide with the most +important, most exciting period in the colonial movement. +At the outset Spain had gone beyond all rivals in the +race for the spoils of America. The first stage was marked +by unexampled and spectacular profits. The bullion which +flowed from Mexico and Peru was won by brutal cruelty to +native races, but Europe accepted it as wealth poured +forth in profusion from the mines. Thus the first conception +of a colony was that of a marvellous treasure-house where +gold and silver lay piled up awaiting the arrival of a +Cortez or a Pizarro. + +Unhappily disillusion followed. Within two generations +from the time of Columbus it became clear that America +did not yield bonanza to every adventurer. Yet throughout +the sixteenth century there survived the dream of riches +to be quickly gained. Wherever the European landed in +America he looked first of all for mines, as Frobisher +did on the unpromising shores of Labrador. The precious +metals proving illusive, his next recourse was to trade. +Hawkins sought his profit from slaves. The French bought +furs from the Indians at Tadoussac. Gosnold brought back +from Cape Cod a mixed cargo of sassafras and cedar. + +But wealth from the mines and profits from a coasting +trade were only a lure to the cupidity of Europe. Real +colonies, containing the germ of a nation, could not be +based on such foundations. Coligny saw this, and conceived +of America as a new home for the French race. Raleigh, +the most versatile of the Elizabethans, lavished his +wealth on the patriotic endeavour to make Virginia a +strong and self-supporting community. 'I shall yet live +to see it an English nation,' he wrote--at the very moment +when Champlain was first dreaming of the St Lawrence. +Coligny and Raleigh were both constructive statesmen. +The one was murdered before he could found such a colony +as his thought presaged: the other perished on the +scaffold, though not before he had sowed the seed of an +American empire. For Raleigh was the first to teach that +agriculture, not mines, is the true basis of a colony. +In itself his colony on Roanoke Island was a failure, +but the idea of Roanoke was Raleigh's greatest legacy to +the English race. + +With the dawn of the seventeenth century events came +thick and fast. It was a time when the maritime states +of Western Europe were all keenly interested in America, +without having any clear idea of the problem. Raleigh, +the one man who had a grasp of the situation, entered +upon his tragic imprisonment in the same year that +Champlain made his first voyage to the St Lawrence. But +while thought was confused and policy unsettled, action +could no longer be postponed. The one fact which England, +France, and Holland could not neglect was that to the +north of Florida no European colony existed on the American +coast. Urging each of these states to establish settlements +in a tract so vast and untenanted was the double desire +to possess and to prevent one's neighbour from possessing. +On the other hand, caution raised doubts as to the balance +of cost and gain. The governments were ready to accept +the glory and advantage, if private persons were prepared +to take the risk. Individual speculators, very conscious +of the risk, demanded a monopoly of trade before agreeing +to plant a colony. But this caused new difficulty. The +moment a monopoly was granted, unlicensed traders raised +an outcry and upbraided the government for injustice. + +Such were the problems upon the successful or unsuccessful +solution of which depended enormous national interests, +and each country faced them according to its institutions, +rulers, and racial genius. It only needs a table of events +to show how fully the English, the French, and the Dutch +realized that something must be done. In 1600 Pierre +Chauvin landed sixteen French colonists at Tadoussac. On +his return in 1601 he found that they had taken refuge +with the Indians. In 1602 Gosnold, sailing from Falmouth, +skirted the coast of Norumbega from Casco Bay to Cuttyhunk. +In 1603 the ships of De Chastes, with Champlain aboard, +spent the summer in the St Lawrence; while during the +same season Martin Pring took a cargo of sassafras in +Massachusetts Bay. From 1604. to 1607 the French under +De Monts, Poutrincourt, and Champlain were actively +engaged in the attempt to colonize Acadia. But they were +not alone in setting up claims to this region. In 1605 +Waymouth, sailing from Dartmouth, explored the mouth of +the Kennebec and carried away five natives. In 1606 James +I granted patents to the London Company and the Plymouth +Company which, by their terms, ran athwart the grant of +Henry IV to De Monts. In the same year Sir Ferdinando +Gorges sent Pring once more to Norumbega. In 1607 Raleigh, +Gilbert, and George Popham made a small settlement at +the mouth of the Sagadhoc, where Popham died during the +winter. As a result of his death this colony on the coast +of Maine was abandoned, but 1607 also saw the memorable +founding of Jamestown in Virginia. Equally celebrated is +Champlain's founding of Quebec in 1608. In 1609 the Dutch +under an English captain, Henry Hudson, had their first +glimpse of Manhattan. + +This catalogue of voyages shows that an impulse existed +which governments could not ignore. The colonial movement +was far from being a dominant interest with Henry IV or +James I, but when their subjects saw fit to embark upon +it privately, the crown was compelled to take cognizance +of their acts and frame regulations. 'Go, and let whatever +good may, come of it!' exclaimed Robert de Baudricourt +as Joan of Arc rode forth from Vaucouleurs to liberate +France. In much the same spirit Henry IV saw De Monts +set sail for Acadia. The king would contribute nothing +from the public purse or from his own. Sully, his prime +minister, vigorously opposed colonizing because he wished +to concentrate effort upon domestic improvements. He +believed, in the second place, that there was no hope of +creating a successful colony north of the fortieth +parallel. Thirdly, he was in the pay of the Dutch. + +The most that Henry IV would do for French pioneers in +America was to give them a monopoly of trade in return +for an undertaking to transport and establish colonists. +In each case where a monopoly was granted the number of +colonists was specified. As for their quality, convicts +could be taken if more eligible candidates were not +forthcoming. The sixty unfortunates landed by La Roche +on Sable Island in 1598 were all convicts or sturdy +vagrants. Five years later only eleven were left alive. + +For the story of Champlain it is not necessary to touch +upon the relations of the French government with traders +at a date earlier than 1599. Immediately following the +failure of La Roche's second expedition, Pierre Chauvin +of Honfleur secured a monopoly which covered the Laurentian +fur trade for ten years. The condition was that he should +convey to Canada fifty colonists a year throughout the +full period of his grant. So far from carrying out this +agreement either in spirit or letter, he shirked it +without compunction. After three years the monopoly was +withdrawn, less on the ground that he had failed to fulfil +his contract than from an outcry on the part of merchants +who desired their share of the trade. To adjudicate +between Chauvin and his rivals in St Malo and Rouen a +commission was appointed at the close of 1602. Its members +were De Chastes, governor of Dieppe, and the Sieur de la +Cour, first president of the Parlement of Normandy. On +their recommendation the terms of the monopoly were so +modified as to admit to a share in the privilege certain +leading merchants of Rouen and St Malo, who, however, +must pay their due share in the expenses of colonizing. +Before the ships sailed in 1603 Chauvin had died, and De +Chastes at once took his place as the central figure in +the group of those to whom a new monopoly had just been +conceded. + +[Footnote: The history of all the companies formed during +these years for trade in New France is the same. First +a monopoly is granted under circumstances ostensibly most +favourable to the Government and to the privileged +merchants; then follow the howls of the excluded traders, +the lack of good voluntary colonists, the transportation +to the colony of a few beggars, criminals, or unpromising +labourers; a drain on the company's funds in maintaining +these during the long winter; a steady decrease in the +number taken out; at length no attempt to fulfil this +condition of the monopoly; the anger of the Government +when made aware of the facts; and finally the sudden +repeal of the monopoly several years before its legal +termination.--H. P. Biggar, 'Early Trading Companies of +New France,' p. 49.] + +We are now on the threshold of Champlain's career, but +only on the threshold. The voyage of 1603, while full of +prophecy and presenting features of much interest, lacks +the arduous and constructive quality which was to mark +his greater explorations. In 1603 the two boats equipped +by De Chastes were under the command of Pontgrave [Footnote: +Francois Grave, Sieur du Pont, whose name, strictly +speaking, is Dupont-Grave, one of the most active French +navigators of the seventeenth century. From 1600 to 1629 +his voyages to the St Lawrence and Acadia were incessant.] +and Prevert, both mariners from St Malo. Champlain sailed +in Pontgrave's ship and was, in fact, a superior type of +supercargo. De Chastes desired that his expedition should +be self-supporting, and the purchase of furs was never +left out of sight. At the same time, his purpose was +undoubtedly wider than profit, and Champlain represented +the extra-commercial motive. While Pontgrave was trading +with the Indians, Champlain, as the geographer, was +collecting information about their character, their +customs, and their country. Their religious ideas interested +him much, and also their statements regarding the interior +of the continent. Such data as he could collect between +the end of May and the middle of August he embodied in +a book called Des Sauvages, which, true to its title, +deals chiefly with Indian life and is a valuable record, +although in many regards superseded by the more detailed +writings of the Jesuits. + +The voyage of 1603 added nothing material to what had +been made known by Jacques Cartier and the fur traders +about Canada. Champlain ascended the St Lawrence to the +Sault St Louis [Footnote: Now called the Lachine Rapids. +An extremely important point in the history of New France, +since it marked the head of ship navigation on the St +Lawrence. Constantly mentioned in the writings of +Champlain's period.] and made two side excursions--one +taking him rather less than forty miles up the Saguenay +and the other up the Richelieu to the rapid at St Ours. +He also visited Gaspe, passed the Isle Percee, had his +first glimpse of the Baie des Chaleurs, and returned to +Havre with a good cargo of furs. On the whole, it was a +profitable and satisfactory voyage. Though it added little +to geographical knowledge, it confirmed the belief that +money could be made in the fur trade, and the word brought +back concerning the Great Lakes of the interior was more +distinct than had before been reported. The one misfortune +of the expedition was that its author, De Chastes, did +not live to see its success. He had died less than a +month before his ships reached Havre. + + + +CHAPTER II + +CHAMPLAIN IN ACADIA + +[Footnote: This word (Acadia) has sometimes been traced +to the Micmac akade, which, appended to place-names, +signifies an abundance of something. More probably, +however, it is a corruption of Arcadia. The Acadia of De +Monts' grant in 1604 extended from the parallel of 40 +degrees to that of 46 degrees north latitude, but in the +light of actual occupation the term can hardly be made +to embrace more than the coast from Cape Breton to +Penobscot Bay.] + +The early settlements of the French in America were +divided into two zones by the Gulf of St Lawrence. +Considered from the standpoint of colonization, this +great body of water has a double aspect. In the main it +was a vestibule to the vast region which extended westward +from Gaspe to Lake Michigan and thence to the Mississippi. +But while a highway it was also a barrier, cutting off +Acadia from the main route that led to the heart of the +interior. Port Royal, on the Bay of Fundy, was one centre +and Quebec another. Between them stretched either an +impenetrable wilderness or an inland sea. Hence Acadia +remained separate from the Laurentian valley, which was +the heart of Canada--although Acadia and Canada combined +to form New France. Of these two sister districts Canada +was the more secure. The fate of Acadia shows how much +less vulnerable to English attack were Quebec, Three +Rivers, and Montreal than the seaboard settlements of +Port Royal, Grand Pre, and Louisbourg. + +It is a striking fact that Champlain had helped to found +Port Royal before he founded Quebec. He was not the +pioneer of Acadian colonization: De Monts deserves the +praise of turning the first sod. But Champlain was a +leading figure in the hard fight at St Croix and Port +Royal; he it was who first charted in any detail the +Atlantic seaboard from Cape Breton to Cape Cod; and his +narrative joins with that of Lescarbot to preserve the +story of the episode. + +Although unprosperous, the first attempt of the French +to colonize Acadia is among the bright deeds of their +colonial history. While the death of De Chastes was most +inopportune, the future of the French race in America +did not hinge upon any one man. In 1603 fishing on the +Grand Bank off Newfoundland was a well-established +occupation of Normans and Bretons, the fur trade held +out hope of great profit, and the spirit of national +emulation supplied a motive which was stronger still. +Hence it is not surprising that to De Chastes there at +once succeeds De Monts. + +As regards position they belonged to much the same class. +Both were men of standing, with enough capital and +influence to organize an expedition. In respect, however, +of personality and circumstance there were differences. +By reason of advanced age De Chastes had been unable to +accompany his ships, whereas De Monts was in his prime +and had already made a voyage to the St Lawrence. Moreover, +De Monts was a Huguenot. A generation later no Huguenot +could have expected to receive a monopoly of the fur +trade and a royal commission authorizing him to establish +settlements, but Henry IV, who had once been a Protestant, +could hardly treat his old co-religionists as Richelieu +afterwards treated them. The heresy of its founder was +a source of weakness to the first French colony in Acadia, +yet through a Calvinist it came into being. + +Like De Chastes, De Monts had associates who joined with +him to supply the necessary funds, though in 1604. the +investment was greater than on any previous occasion, +and a larger number were admitted to the benefits of the +monopoly. Not only did St Malo and Rouen secure recognition, +but La Rochelle and St Jean de Luz were given a chance +to participate. De Monts' company had a capital of 90,000 +livres, divided in shares--of which two-fifths were +allotted to St Malo, two-fifths to La Rochelle and St +Jean de Luz conjointly, and the remainder to Rouen. The +personal investment of De Monts was somewhat more than +a tenth of the total, as he took a majority of the stock +which fell to Rouen. Apart from Sully's unfriendliness, +the chief initial difficulty arose over religion. The +Parlement of Normandy refused to register De Monts' +commission on the ground that the conversion of the +heathen could not fitly be left to a heretic. This +remonstrance was only withdrawn after the king had +undertaken to place the religious instruction of the +Indians in the charge of priests--a promise which did +not prevent the Protestant colonists from having their +own pastor. The monopoly contained wider privileges than +before, including both Acadia and the St Lawrence. At +the same time, the obligation to colonize became more +exacting, since the minimum number of new settlers per +annum was raised from fifty to a hundred. + +Champlain's own statement regarding the motive of De +Monts' expedition is that it lay in the desire 'to find +a northerly route to China, in order to facilitate commerce +with the Orientals.' After reciting a list of explorations +which began with John Cabot and had continued at intervals +during the next century, he continues: 'So many voyages +and discoveries without results, and attended with so +much hardship and expense, have caused us French in late +years to attempt a permanent settlement in those lands +which we call New France, in the hope of thus realizing +more easily this object; since the voyage in search of +the desired passage commences on the other side of the +ocean and is made along the coast of this region.' + +A comparison of the words just quoted with the text of +De Monts' commission will serve to illustrate the strength +of Champlain's geographical instinct. The commission +begins with a somewhat stereotyped reference to the +conversion of the heathen, after which it descants upon +commerce, colonies, and mines. The supplementary commission +to De Monts from Montmorency as Lord High Admiral adds +a further consideration, namely, that if Acadia is not +occupied by the French it will be seized upon by some +other nation. Not a word of the route to the East occurs +in either commission, and De Monts is limited in the +powers granted to a region extending along the American +seaboard from the fortieth parallel to the forty-sixth, +with as much of the interior 'as he is able to explore +and colonize.' + +This shows that, while the objects of the expedition were +commercial and political, Champlain's imagination was +kindled by the prospect of finding the long-sought passage +to China. To his mind a French colony in America is a +stepping-stone, a base of operations for the great quest. +De Monts himself doubtless sought honour, adventure, and +profit--the profit which might arise from possessing +Acadia and controlling the fur trade in 'the river of +Canada.' Champlain remains the geographer, and his chief +contribution to the Acadian enterprise will be found in +that part of his Voyages which describes his study of +the coast-line southward from Cape Breton to Malabar. + +But whether considered from the standpoint of exploration +or settlement, the first chapter of French annals in +Acadia is a fine incident. Champlain has left the greatest +fame, but he was not alone during these years of peril +and hardship. With him are grouped De Monts, Poutrincourt, +Lescarbot, Pontgrave, and Louis Hebert, all men of capacity +and enterprise, whose part in this valiant enterprise +lent it a dignity which it has never since lost. As yet +no English colony had been established in America. Under +his commission De Monts could have selected for the site +of his settlement either New York or Providence or Boston +or Portland. The efforts of the French in America from +1604. to 1607 are signalized by the character of their +leaders, the nature of their opportunity, and the special +causes which prevented them from taking possession of +Norumbega. + +[Footnote: There appears in Verrazano's map of 1529 the +word Aranbega, as attached to a small district on the +Atlantic seaboard. Ten years later Norumbega has become +a region which takes in the whole coast from Cape Breton +to Florida. At intervals throughout the sixteenth century +fables were told in Europe of its extraordinary wealth, +and it was not till the time of Champlain that this myth +was exposed. Champlain himself identifies 'the great +river of Norumbega' with the Penobscot.] + +De Monts lacked neither courage nor persistence. His +battle against heartbreaking disappointments shows him +to have been a pioneer of high order. And with him sailed +in 1604 Jean de Biencourt, Seigneur de Poutrincourt, +whose ancestors had been illustrious in Picardy for five +hundred years. Champlain made a third, joining the +expedition as geographer rather than shipmaster. Lescarbot +and Hebert came two years later. + +The company left Havre in two ships--on March 7, 1604, +according to Champlain, or just a month later, according +to Lescarbot. Although De Monts' commission gave him the +usual privilege of impressing convicts, the personnel of +his band was far above the average. Champlain's statement +is that it comprised about one hundred and twenty artisans, +and there were also 'a large number of gentlemen, of whom +not a few were of noble birth.' Besides the excitement +provided by icebergs, the arguments of priest and pastor +diversified the voyage, even to the point of scandal. +After crossing the Grand Bank in safety they were nearly +wrecked off Sable Island, but succeeded in reaching the +Acadian coast on May 8. From their landfall at Cap de la +Heve they skirted the coast-line to Port Mouton, +confiscating en route a ship which was buying furs in +defiance of De Monts' monopoly. + +Rabbits and other game were found in abundance at Port +Mouton, but the spot proved quite unfit for settlement, +and on May 19 De Monts charged Champlain with the task +of exploring the coast in search of harbours. Taking a +barque of eight tons and a crew of ten men (together with +Ralleau, De Monts' secretary), Champlain set out upon +this important reconnaissance. Fish, game, good soil, +good timber, minerals, and safe anchorage were all objects +of search. Skirting the south-western corner of Nova +Scotia, the little ship passed Cape Sable and the Tusquet +Islands, turned into the Bay of Fundy, and advanced to +a point somewhat beyond the north end of Long Island. +Champlain gives at considerable length the details of +his first excursion along the Acadian seaboard. In his +zeal for discovery he caused those left at Port Mouton +both inconvenience and anxiety. Lescarbot says, with a +touch of sharpness: 'Champlain was such a time away on +this expedition that when deliberating about their return +[to France] they thought of leaving him behind.' Champlain's +own statement is that at Port Mouton 'Sieur de Monts was +awaiting us from day to day, thinking only of our long +stay and whether some accident had not befallen us.' + +De Monts' position at Port Mouton was indeed difficult. +By changing his course in mid-ocean he had missed rendezvous +with the larger of his two ships, which under the command +of Pontgrave looked for him in vain from Canseau to the +Bay of Islands. Meanwhile, at Port Mouton provisions were +running low, save for rabbits, which could not be expected +to last for ever. The more timid raised doubts and spoke +of France, but De Monts and Poutrincourt both said they +would rather die than go back. In this mood the party +continued to hunt rabbits, to search the coast +north-easterly for Pontgrave, and to await Champlain's +return. Their courage had its reward. Pontgrave's ship +was found, De Monts revictualled, Champlain reappeared, +and by the middle of June the little band of Colonists +was ready to proceed. + +As De Monts heads south-west from Port Mouton it is +difficult to avoid thoughts regarding the ultimate destiny +of France in the New World. This was the predestined +moment. The Wars of Religion had ended in the reunion of +the realm under a strong and popular king. The French +nation was conscious of its greatness, and seemed ready +for any undertaking that promised honour or advantage. +The Huguenots were a sect whose members possessed +Calvinistic firmness of will, together with a special +motive for emigrating. And, besides, the whole eastern +coast of America, within the temperate zone, was still +to be had for the taking. With such a magnificent +opportunity, why was the result so meagre? + +A complete answer to this query would lead us far afield, +but the whole history of New France bears witness to the +fact that the cause of failure is not to be found in the +individual French emigrant. There have never been more +valiant or tenacious colonists than the peasants of +Normandy who cleared away the Laurentian wilderness and +explored the recesses of North America. France in the +age of De Monts and Champlain possessed adequate resources, +if only her effort had been concentrated on America, or +if the Huguenots had not been prevented from founding +colonies, or if the crown had been less meddlesome, or +if the quest of beaver skins farther north had not diverted +attention from Chesapeake Bay and Manhattan Island. The +best chance the French ever had to effect a foothold in +the middle portion of the Atlantic coast came to them in +1604, when, before any rivals had established themselves, +De Monts was at hand for the express purpose of founding +a colony. It is quite probable that even if he had landed +on Manhattan Island, the European preoccupations of France +would have prevented Henry IV from supporting a colony +at that point with sufficient vigour to protect it from +the English. Yet the most striking aspect of De Monts' +attempt in Acadia is the failure to seize a chance which +never came again to the French race. In 1607 Champlain +sailed away from Port Royal and the English founded +Jamestown. In 1608 Champlain founded Quebec, and thenceforth +for over a century the efforts of France were concentrated +on the St Lawrence. When at length she founded Louisbourg +it was too late; by that time the English grasp upon the +coast could not be loosened. + +Meanwhile De Monts, to whom the future was veiled, left +Port Mouton and, creeping from point to point, entered +the Bay of Fundy--or, as Champlain calls it, 'the great +Baye Francoise, so named by Sieur de Monts.' The month +was June, but no time could be lost, for at this juncture +the aim of exploration was the discovery of a suitable +site, and after the site had been fixed the colonists +needed what time remained before winter to build their +houses. Hence De Monts' first exploration of the Baye +Francoise was not exhaustive. He entered Annapolis Basin +and glanced at the spot which afterwards was to be Port +Royal. He tried in vain to find a copper-mine of which +he had heard from Prevert of St Malo. He coasted the Bay +of St John, and on June 25 reached St Croix Island. 'Not +finding any more suitable place than this island,' says +Champlain, the leaders of the colony decided that it +should be fortified: and thus was the French flag unfurled +in Acadia. + +The arrangement of the settlement at St Croix was left +to Champlain, who gives us a drawing in explanation of +his plan. The selection of an island was mainly due to +distrust of the Indians, with whom, however, intercourse +was necessary. The island lay close to the mouth of a +river, now also called the St Croix. As the choice of +this spot proved most unfortunate, it is well to remember +the motives which prevailed at the time. 'Vessels could +pass up the river,' says Champlain, 'only at the mercy +of the cannon on this island, and we deemed the location +most advantageous, not only on account of its situation +and good soil, but also on account of the intercourse +which we proposed with the savages of these coasts and +of the interior, as we should be in the midst of them. +We hoped to pacify them in course of time and put an end +to the wars which they carry on with one another, so as +to derive service from them in future and convert them +to the Christian faith.' + +De Monts' band was made up largely of artisans, who at +once began with vigour to erect dwellings. A mill and an +oven were built; gardens were laid out and many seeds +planted therein. The mosquitoes proved troublesome, but +in other respects the colonists had good cause to be +pleased with their first Acadian summer. So far had +construction work advanced by the beginning of autumn +that De Monts decided to send an exploration party farther +along the coast to the south-west. 'And,' says Champlain, +'he entrusted me with this work, which I found very +agreeable.' + +The date of departure from St Croix was September 2, so +that no very ambitious programme of discovery could be +undertaken before bad weather began. In a boat of eighteen +tons, with twelve sailors and two Indian guides, Champlain +threaded the maze of islands which lies between +Passamaquoddy Bay and the mouth of the Penobscot. The +most striking part of the coast was Mount Desert, 'very +high and notched in places, so that there is the appearance +to one at sea as of seven or eight mountains extending +along near each other.' To this island and the Isle au +Haut Champlain gave the names they have since borne. +Thence advancing, with his hand ever on the lead, he +reached the mouth of the Penobscot, despite those 'islands, +rocks, shoals, banks, and breakers which are so numerous +on all sides that it is marvellous to behold.' Having +satisfied himself that the Penobscot was none other than +the great river Norumbega, referred to largely on hearsay +by earlier geographers, he followed it up almost to +Bangor. On regaining the sea he endeavoured to reach the +mouth of the Kennebec, but when within a few miles of it +was driven back to St Croix by want of food. In closing +the story of this voyage, which had occupied a month, +Champlain says with his usual directness: 'The above is +an exact statement of all I have observed respecting not +only the coasts and people, but also the river of Norumbega; +and there are none of the marvels there which some persons +have described. I am of opinion that this region is as +disagreeable in winter as that of our settlement, in +which we were greatly deceived.' + +Champlain was now to undergo his first winter in Acadia, +and no part of his life could have been more wretched +than the ensuing eight months. On October 6 the snow +came. On December 3 cakes of ice began to appear along +the shore. The storehouse had no cellar, and all liquids +froze except sherry. 'Cider was served by the pound. We +were obliged to use very bad water and drink melted snow, +as there were no springs or brooks.' It was impossible +to keep warm or to sleep soundly. The food was salt meat +and vegetables, which impaired the strength of every one +and brought on scurvy. It is unnecessary to cite here +Champlain's detailed and graphic description of this +dreadful disease. The results are enough. Before the +spring came two-fifths of the colonists had died, and of +those who remained half were on the point of death. Not +unnaturally, 'all this produced discontent in Sieur de +Monts and others of the settlement.' + +The survivors of the horrible winter at St Croix were +not freed from anxiety until June 15, 1605, when Pontgrave, +six weeks late, arrived with fresh stores. Had De Monts +been faint-hearted, he doubtless would have seized this +opportunity to return to France. As it was, he set out +in search of a place more suitable than St Croix for the +establishment of his colony, On June 18, with a party +which included twenty sailors and several gentlemen, he +and Champlain began a fresh voyage to the south-west. +Their destination was the country of the Armouchiquois, +an Algonquin tribe who then inhabited Massachusetts. + +Champlain's story of his first voyage from Acadia to Cape +Cod is given with considerable fulness. The topography +of the seaboard and its natural history, the habits of +the Indians and his adventures with them, were all new +subjects at the time, and he treats them so that they +keep their freshness. He is at no pains to conceal his +low opinion of the coast savages. Concerning the Acadian +Micmacs he says little, but what he does say is chiefly +a comment upon the wretchedness of their life during the +winter. As he went farther south he found an improvement +in the food supply. At the mouth of the Saco he and De +Monts saw well-kept patches of Indian corn three feet +high, although it was not yet midsummer. Growing with +the corn were beans, pumpkins, and squashes, all in +flower; and the cultivation of tobacco is also noted. +Here the savages formed a permanent settlement and lived +within a palisade. Still farther south, in the neighbourhood +of Cape Cod, Champlain found maize five and a half feet +high, a considerable variety of squashes, tobacco, and +edible roots which tasted like artichokes. + +But whether the coast Indians were Micmacs or Armouchiquois, +whether they were starving or well fed, Champlain tells +us little in their praise. Of the Armouchiquois he says: + + I cannot tell what government they have, but I think + that in this respect they resemble their neighbours, + who have none at all. They know not how to worship or + pray; yet, like the other savages, they have some + superstitions, which I shall describe in their place. + As for weapons, they have only pikes, clubs, bows and + arrows. It would seem from their appearance that they + have a good disposition, better than those of the + north, but they are all in fact of no great worth. + Even a slight intercourse with them gives you at once + a knowledge of them. They are great thieves, and if + they cannot lay hold of any thing with their hands, + they try to do so with their feet, as we have oftentimes + learned by experience. I am of opinion that if they + had any thing to exchange with us they would not give + themselves to thieving. They bartered away to us their + bows, arrows, and quivers for pins and buttons; and + if they had had any thing else better they would have + done the same with it. It is necessary to be on one's + guard against this people and live in a state of + distrust of them, yet without letting them perceive it. + +This passage at least shows that Champlain sought to be +just to the savages of the Atlantic. Though he found them +thieves, he is willing to conjecture that they would not +steal if they had anything to trade. + +The thieving habits of the Cape Cod Indians led to a +fight between them and the French in which one Frenchman +was killed, and Champlain narrowly escaped death through +the explosion of his own musket. At Cape Cod De Monts +turned back. Five of the six weeks allotted to the voyage +were over, and lack of food made it impossible to enter +Long Island Sound. Hence 'Sieur de Monts determined to +return to the Island of St Croix in order to find a place +more favourable for our settlement, as we had not been +able to do on any of the coasts which he had explored +during this voyage.' + +We now approach the picturesque episode of Port Royal. +De Monts, having regained St Croix at the beginning of +August, lost no time in transporting his people to the +other side of the Bay of Fundy. The consideration which +weighed most with him in establishing his headquarters +was that of trade. Whatever his own preferences, he could +not forget that his partners in France expected a return +on their investment. Had he been in a position to found +an agricultural colony, the maize fields he had seen to +the south-west might have proved attractive. But he +depended largely upon trade, and, as Champlain points +out, the savages of Massachusetts had nothing to sell. +Hence it was unwise to go too far from the peltries of +the St Lawrence. To find a climate less severe than that +of Canada, without losing touch with the fur trade, was +De Monts' problem. No one could dream of wintering again +at St Croix, and in the absence of trade possibilities +to the south there seemed but one alternative--Port Royal. + +In his notice of De Monts' cruise along the Bay of Fundy +in June 1604, Champlain says: 'Continuing two leagues +farther on in the same direction, we entered one of the +finest harbours I had seen all along these coasts, in +which two thousand vessels might lie in security. The +entrance is 800 paces broad; then you enter a harbour +two leagues long and one broad, which I have named Port +Royal.' Here Champlain is describing Annapolis Basin, +which clearly made a deep impression upon the minds of +the first Europeans who saw it. Most of all did it appeal +to the imagination of Poutrincourt, who had come to Acadia +for the purpose of discovering a spot where he could +found his own colony. At sight of Port Royal he had at +once asked De Monts for the grant, and on receiving it +had returned to France, at the end of August 1604, to +recruit colonists. Thus he had escaped the horrible winter +at St Croix, but on account of lawsuits it had proved +impossible for him to return to Acadia in the following +year. Hence the noble roadstead of Port Royal was still +unoccupied when De Monts, Champlain, and Pontgrave took +the people of St Croix thither in August 1605. Not only +did the people go. Even the framework of the houses was +shipped across the bay and set up in this haven of better +hope. + +The spot chosen for the settlement lay on the north side +of the bay. It had a good supply of water, and there was +protection from the north-west wind which had tortured +the settlers at St Croix. 'After everything had been +arranged,' says Champlain, 'and the majority of the +dwellings built, Sieur de Monts determined to return to +France, in order to petition His Majesty to grant him +all that might be necessary for his undertaking.' Quite +apart from securing fresh advantages, De Monts at this +time was sore pressed to defend his title against the +traders who were clamouring for a repeal of the monopoly. +With him returned some of the colonists whose ambition +had been satisfied at St Croix. Champlain remained, in +the hope of making further explorations 'towards Florida.' +Pontgrave was left in command. The others numbered +forty-three. + +During the autumn they began to make gardens. 'I also,' +says Champlain, 'for the sake of occupying my time made +one, which was surrounded with ditches full of water, in +which I placed some fine trout, and into which flowed +three brooks of very fine running water, from which the +greater part of our settlement was supplied. I made also +a little sluice-way towards the shore, in order to draw +off the water when I wished. This spot was entirely +surrounded by meadows, where I constructed a summer-house, +with some fine trees, as a resort for enjoying the fresh +air. I made there, also, a little reservoir for holding +salt-water fish, which we took out as we wanted them. I +took especial pleasure in it and planted there some seeds +which turned out well. But much work had to be laid out +in preparation. We resorted often to this place as a +pastime; and it seemed as if the little birds round took +pleasure in it, for they gathered there in large numbers, +warbling and chirping so pleasantly that I think I have +never heard the like.' + +After a busy and cheerful autumn came a mild winter. The +snow did not fall till December 20, and there was much +rain. Scurvy still caused trouble; but though twelve +died, the mortality was not so high as at St Croix. +Everything considered, Port Royal enjoyed good +fortune--according to the colonial standards of the +period, when a winter death-rate of twenty-six per cent +was below the average. + +At the beginning of March 1606 Pontgrave fitted out a +barque of eighteen tons in order to undertake 'a voyage +of discovery along the coast of Florida'; and on the 16th +of the month a start was made. Favoured by good weather, +he and Champlain would have reached the Hudson three +years before the Dutch. But, short of drowning, every +possible mischance happened. They had hardly set out when +a storm cast them ashore near Grand Manan. Having repaired +the damage they made for St Croix, where fog and contrary +winds held them back eight days. Then Pontgrave decided +to return to Port Royal 'to see in what condition our +companions were whom we had left there sick.' On their +arrival Pontgrave himself was taken ill, but soon +re-embarked, though still unwell. Their second start was +followed by immediate disaster. Leaving the mouth of the +harbour, two leagues distant from Port Royal, they were +carried out of the channel by the tide and went aground. +'At the first blow of our boat upon the rocks the rudder +broke, a part of the keel and three or four planks were +smashed and some ribs stove in, which frightened us, for +our barque filled immediately; and all that we could do +was to wait until the sea fell, so that we might get +ashore... Our barque, all shattered as she was, went to +pieces at the return of the tide. But we, most happy at +having saved our lives, returned to our settlement with +our poor savages; and we praised God for having rescued +us from this shipwreck, from which we had not expected +to escape so easily.' + +This accident destroyed all hope of exploration to the +southward until word came from France. At the time of De +Monts' departure the outlook had been so doubtful that +a provisional arrangement was made for the return of the +colonists to France should no ship arrive at Port Royal +by the middle of July. In this event Pontgrave was to +take his people to Cape Breton or Gaspe, where they would +find trading ships homeward bound. As neither De Monts +nor Poutrincourt had arrived by the middle of June, a +new barque was built to replace the one which had been +lost on April 10. A month later Pontgrave carried out +his part of the programme by putting aboard all the +inhabitants of Port Royal save two, who were induced by +promise of extra pay to remain in charge of the stores. + +Thus sorrowfully the remnant of the colonists bade farewell +to the beautiful harbour and their new home. Four days +later they were nearly lost through the breaking of their +rudder in the midst of a tempest. Having been saved from +wreck by the skill of their shipmaster, Champdore, they +reached Cape Sable on July 24. Here grief became rejoicing, +for to their complete surprise they encountered Ralleau, +De Monts' secretary, coasting along in a shallop. The +glad tidings he gave them was that Poutrincourt with a +ship of one hundred and twenty tons had arrived. From +Canseau the Jonas had taken an outer course to Port Royal, +while Ralleau was keeping close to the shore in the hope +of intercepting Pontgrave. 'All this intelligence,' says +Champlain, 'caused us to turn back; and we arrived at +Port Royal on the 25th of the month, where we found the +above-mentioned vessel and Sieur de Poutrincourt, and +were greatly delighted to see realized what we had given +up in despair.' Lescarbot, who arrived on board the Jonas, +adds the following detail: 'M. de Poutrincourt ordered +a tun of wine to be set upon end, one of those which had +been given him for his proper use, and gave leave to all +comers to drink freely as long as it lasted, so that +there were some who made gay dogs of themselves.' + +Wine-bibbing, however, was not the chief activity of Port +Royal. Poutrincourt at once set men to work on the land, +and while they were sowing wheat, rye, and hemp he hastened +preparations for an autumn cruise 'along the coast of +Florida.' On September 5 all was ready for this voyage, +which was to be Champlain's last opportunity of reaching +the lands beyond Cape Cod. Once more disappointment +awaited him. 'It was decided,' he says, 'to continue the +voyage along the coast, which was not a very well considered +conclusion, since we lost much time in passing over again +the discoveries made by Sieur de Monts as far as the +harbour of Mallebarre. It would have been much better, +in my opinion, to cross from where we were directly to +Mallebarre, the route being already known, and then use +our time in exploring as far as the fortieth degree, or +still farther south, revisiting upon our homeward voyage +the entire coast at pleasure.' + +In the interest of geographical research and French +colonization Champlain was doubtless right. Unfortunately, +Poutrincourt wished to see for himself what De Monts and +Champlain had already seen. It was the more unfortunate +that he held this view, as the boats were victualled for +over two months, and much could have been done by taking +a direct course to Cape Cod. Little time, however, was +spent at the Penobscot and Kennebec. Leaving St Croix on +September 12, Poutrincourt reached the Saco on the 21st. +Here and at points farther south he found ripe grapes, +together with maize, pumpkins, squashes, and artichokes. +Gloucester Harbour pleased Champlain greatly. 'In this +very pleasant place we saw two hundred savages, and there +are here a large number of very fine walnut trees, +cypresses, sassafras, oaks, ashes and beeches. ...There +are likewise fine meadows capable of supporting a large +number of cattle.' So much was he charmed with this +harbour and its surroundings that he called it Le Beauport. +After tarrying at Gloucester two or three days Poutrincourt +reached Cape Cod on October 2, and on the 20th he stood +off Martha's Vineyard, his farthest point. + +Champlain's chronicle of this voyage contains more detail +regarding the Indians than will be found in any other +part of his Acadian narratives. Chief among Poutrincourt's +adventures was an encounter with the natives of Cape Cod. +Unlike the Micmacs, the Armouchiquois were 'not so much +hunters as good fishermen and tillers of the land.' Their +numbers also were greater; in fact, Champlain speaks of +seeing five or six hundred together. At first they did +not interfere with Poutrincourt's movements, even permitting +him to roam their land with a body of arquebusiers. After +a fortnight, however, their suspicions began to become +manifest, and on October 15 four hundred savages set upon +five Frenchmen who, contrary to orders, had remained +ashore. Four were killed, and although a rescue party +set out at once from the barque, the natives made their +escape. + + To pursue them was fruitless, for they are marvellously + swift. All that we could do was to carry away the dead + bodies and bury them near a cross which had been set + up the day before, and then to go here and there to + see if we could get sight of any of them. But it was + time wasted, therefore we came back. Three hours + afterwards they returned to us on the sea-shore. We + discharged at them several shots from our little brass + cannon, and when they heard the noise they crouched + down on the ground to escape the fire. In mockery of + us they pulled down the cross and disinterred the + dead, which displeased us greatly and caused us to go + for them a second time; but they fled, as they had + done before. We set up again the cross and reinterred + the dead, whom they had thrown here and there amid + the heath, where they kindled a fire to burn them. We + returned without any result, as we had done before, + well aware that there was scarcely hope of avenging + ourselves this time, and that we should have to renew + the undertaking when it should please God. + +With a desire for revenge was linked the practical +consideration that slaves would prove useful at Port +Royal. A week later the French returned to the same place, +'resolved to get possession of some savages and, taking +them to our settlement, put them to grinding corn at the +hand-mill, as punishment for the deadly assault which +they had committed on five or six of our company.' As +relations were strained, it became necessary to offer +beads and gewgaws, with every show of good faith. Champlain +describes the plan in full. The shallop was to leave the +barque for shore, taking + + the most robust and strong men we had, each one having + a chain of beads and a fathom of match on his arm; + and there, while pretending to smoke with them (each + one having an end of his match lighted so as not to + excite suspicion, it being customary to have fire at + the end of a cord in order to light the tobacco), coax + them with pleasing words so as to draw them into the + shallop; and if they should be unwilling to enter, + each one approaching should choose his man and, putting + the beads round his neck, should at the same time put + the rope on him to draw him by force. But if they + should be too boisterous and it should not be possible + to succeed, they should be stabbed, the rope being + firmly held; and if by chance any of them should get + away, there should be men on land to charge upon them + with swords. Meanwhile, the little cannon on our barque + was to be kept ready to fire upon their companions in + case they should come to assist them, under cover of + which firearms the shallop could withdraw in security. + +This plot, though carefully planned, fell far short of +the success which was anticipated. To catch a redskin +with a noose required more skill than was available. +Accordingly, none were taken alive. Champlain says: 'We +retired to our barque after having done all we could.' +Lescarbot adds: 'Six or seven of the savages were hacked +and hewed in pieces, who could not run so lightly in the +water as on shore, and were caught as they came out by +those of our men who had landed.' + +Having thus taken an eye for an eye, Poutrincourt began +his homeward voyage, and, after three or four escapes +from shipwreck, reached Port Royal on November 14. + +Champlain was now about to spend his last winter in +Acadia. Mindful of former experiences, he determined to +fight scurvy by encouraging exercise among the colonists +and procuring for them an improved diet. A third desideratum +was cheerfulness. All these purposes he served through +founding the Ordre de Bon Temps, which proved to be in +every sense the life of the settlement. Champlain himself +briefly describes the procedure followed, but a far more +graphic account is given by Lescarbot, whose diffuse and +lively style is illustrated to perfection in the following +passage: + + To keep our table joyous and well provided, an order + was established at the board of the said M. de + Poutrincourt, which was called the Order of Good Cheer, + originally proposed by Champlain. To this Order each + man of the said table was appointed Chief Steward in + his turn, which came round once a fortnight. Now, this + person had the duty of taking care that we were all + well and honourably provided for. This was so well + carried out that though the epicures of Paris often + tell us that we had no Rue aux Ours over there, as a + rule we made as good cheer as we could have in this + same Rue aux Ours, and at less cost. For there was no + one who, two days before his turn came, failed to go + hunting or fishing, and to bring back some delicacy + in addition to our ordinary fare. So well was this + carried out that never at breakfast did we lack some + savoury meat of flesh or fish, and still less at our + midday or evening meals; for that was our chief banquet, + at which the ruler of the feast or chief butler, whom + the savages called Atoctegic, having had everything + prepared by the cook, marched in, napkin on shoulder, + wand of office in hand, and around his neck the collar + of the Order, which was worth more than four crowns; + after him all the members of the Order carrying each + a dish. The same was repeated at dessert, though not + always with so much pomp. And at night, before giving + thanks to God, he handed over to his successor in the + charge the collar of the Order, with a cup of wine, + and they drank to each other. I have already said that + we had abundance of game, such as ducks, bustards, + grey and white geese, partridges, larks, and other + birds; moreover moose, caribou, beaver, otter, bear, + rabbits, wild-cats, racoons, and other animals such + as the savages caught, whereof we made dishes well + worth those of the cook-shop in the Rue aux Ours, and + far more; for of all our meats none is so tender as + moose-meat (whereof we also made excellent pasties) + and nothing so delicate as beaver's tail. Yea, sometimes + we had half a dozen sturgeon at once, which the savages + brought us, part of which we bought, and allowed them + to sell the remainder publicly and to barter it for + bread, of which our men had abundance. As for the + ordinary rations brought from France, they were + distributed equally to great and small alike; and, as + we have said, the wine was served in like manner. + +The results of this regime were most gratifying. The +deaths from scurvy dropped to seven, which represented +a great proportionate decrease. At the same time, +intercourse with the Indians was put on a good basis +thereby. 'At these proceedings,' says Lescarbot, 'we +always had twenty or thirty savages--men, women, girls, +and children--who looked on at our manner of service. +Bread was given them gratis, as one would do to the poor. +But as for the Sagamos Membertou, and other chiefs who +came from time to time, they sat at table eating and +drinking like ourselves. And we were glad to see them, +while, on the contrary, their absence saddened us.' + +These citations bring into view the writer who has most +copiously recorded the early annals of Acadia--Marc +Lescarbot. He was a lawyer, and at this date about forty +years old. Having come to Port Royal less as a colonist +than as a guest of Poutrincourt, he had no investment at +stake. But contact with America kindled the enthusiasm +of which he had a large supply, and converted him into +the historian of New France. His story of the winter he +passed at Port Royal is quite unlike other narratives of +colonial experience at this period. Champlain was a +geographer and preoccupied with exploration. The Jesuits +were missionaries and preoccupied with the conversion of +the savages. Lescarbot had a literary education, which +Champlain lacked, and, unlike the Jesuits, he approached +life in America from the standpoint of a layman. His +prolixity often serves as a foil to the terseness of +Champlain, and suggests that he must have been a merciless +talker. Yet, though inclined to be garrulous, he was a +good observer and had many correct ideas--notably the +belief that corn, wine, and cattle are a better foundation +for a colony than gold or silver mines. In temperament +he and Champlain were very dissimilar, and evidence of +mutual coolness may be found in their writings. These we +shall consider at a later stage. For the present it is +enough to note that both men sat at Poutrincourt's table +and adorned the Order of Good Cheer. + +Meanwhile De Monts was in France, striving with all the +foes of the monopoly. Thanks to the fur trade, his company +had paid its way during the first two years, despite the +losses at St Croix. The third season had been much less +prosperous, and at the same moment when the Dutch and +the Basques [Footnote: Traders from the extreme south of +France, whose chief port was St Jean de Luz. Though living +on the confines of France and Spain, the Basques were of +different racial origin from both Spaniards and French. +While subject politically to France, their remoteness +from the main ports of Normandy and Brittany kept them +out of touch with the mariners of St Malo and Havre, save +as collision arose between them in the St Lawrence. Among +the Basques there were always interlopers, even when St +Jean de Luz had been given a share in the monopoly. They +are sometimes called Spaniards, from their close +neighbourhood to the Pyrenees.] were breaking the monopoly +by defiance, the hatters of Paris were demanding that it +should be withdrawn altogether. To this alliance of a +powerful guild with a majority of the traders, the company +of De Monts succumbed, and the news which Poutrincourt +received when the first ship came in 1607 was that the +colony must be abandoned. As the company itself was about +to be dissolved, this consequence was inevitable. Champlain +in his matter-of-fact way states that De Monts sent +letters to Poutrincourt, 'by which he directed him to +bring back his company to France.' Lescarbot is much more +outspoken. Referring to the merits and struggles of De +Monts, he exclaims: + + Yet I fear that in the end he may be forced to give + it all up, to the great scandal and reproach of the + French name, which by such conduct is made a + laughing-stock and a byword among the nations. For as + though their wish was to oppose the conversion of + these poor Western peoples, and the glory of God and + of the King, we find a set of men full of avarice and + envy, who would not draw a sword in the service of + the King, nor suffer the slightest ill in the world + for the honour of God, but who yet put obstacles in + the way of our drawing any profit from the province, + even in order to furnish what is indispensable to the + foundation of such an enterprise; men who prefer to + see the English and Dutch win possession of it rather + than the French, and would fain have the name of God + remain unknown in those quarters. And it is such + godless people who are listened to, who are believed, + and who win their suits. O tempora, O mores! + +On August 11, 1607, Port Royal was abandoned for the +second time, and its people, sailing by Cape Breton, +reached Roscou in Brittany at the end of September. The +subsequent attempt of Poutrincourt and his family to +re-establish the colony at Port Royal belongs to the +history of Acadia rather than to the story of Champlain. +But remembering the spirit in which he and De Monts +strove, one feels glad that Lescarbot spoke his mind +regarding the opponents who baffled their sincere and +persistent efforts. + + + +CHAPTER III + +CHAMPLAIN AT QUEBEC + + From the Island of Orleans to Quebec the distance is + a league. I arrived there on the third of July, when + I searched for a place suitable for our settlement, + but I could find none more convenient or better than + the point of Quebec, so called by the savages, which + was covered with nut-trees. I at once employed a + portion of our workmen in cutting them down, that we + might construct our habitation there: one I set to + sawing boards, another to making a cellar and digging + ditches, another I sent to Tadoussac with the barque + to get supplies. The first thing we made was the + storehouse for keeping under cover our supplies, which + was promptly accomplished through the zeal of all, + and my attention to the work. + +Thus opens Champlain's account of the place with which +his name is linked imperishably. He was the founder of +Quebec and its preserver. During his lifetime the results +seemed pitifully small, but the task once undertaken was +never abandoned. By steadfastness he prevailed, and at +his death had created a colony which became the New France +of Talon and Frontenac, of La Salle and D'Iberville, of +Brebeuf and Laval. If Venice from amid her lagoons could +exclaim, Esto perpetua, Quebec, firm based upon her cliff, +can say to the rest of Canada, Attendite ad petram unde +excisi estis--'Look unto the rock whence ye are hewn.' + +Champlain's Quebec was very poor in everything but courage. +The fact that it was founded by the men who had just +failed in Acadia gives proof of this virtue. Immediately +upon his return from Port Royal to France, Champlain +showed De Monts a map and plan which embodied the result +of his explorations during the last three years. They +then took counsel regarding the future, and with Champlain's +encouragement De Monts 'resolved to continue his noble +and meritorious undertaking, notwithstanding the hardships +and labours of the past.' It is significant that once +more Champlain names exploration as the distinctive +purpose of De Monts. + +To expect a subsidy from the crown was futile, but Henry +felt compunction for his abrupt recall of the monopoly. +The result was that De Monts, in recognition of his +losses, was given a further monopoly--for the season of +1608 only. At the same time, he was expressly relieved +from the obligation to take out colonists. On this basis +De Monts found partners among the merchants of Rouen, +and three ships were fitted out--one for Acadia, the +others for the St Lawrence. Champlain, as lieutenant, +was placed in charge of the Laurentian expedition. With +him went the experienced and invaluable Pontgrave. + +Nearly seventy-five years had now passed since Jacques +Cartier first came to anchor at the foot of Cape Diamond. +During this period no one had challenged the title of +France to the shores of the St Lawrence; in fact, a +country so desolate made no appeal to the French themselves. +Roberval's tragic experience at Cap Rouge had proved a +warning. To the average Frenchman of the sixteenth century +Canada meant what it afterwards meant to Sully and +Voltaire. It was a tract of snow; a land of barbarians, +bears, and beavers. + +The development of the fur trade into a staple industry +changed this point of view to a limited extent. The +government, as we have seen, considered it desirable that +colonists should be established in New France at the +expense of traders. For the St Lawrence, however, the +first and only fruits of this enlightened policy had been +Chauvin's sixteen derelicts at Tadoussac. + +The founding of Quebec represents private enterprise, +and not an expenditure of money by Henry IV for the sake +of promoting colonization. De Monts and Champlain were +determined to give France a foothold in America. The +rights upon which the venture of 1608 was financed did +not run beyond the year. Thenceforth trade was to be +free. It follows that De Monts and his partners, in +building a station at Quebec, did not rely for their +expenses upon any special favours from the crown. They +placed their reliance upon themselves, feeling confident +of their power to hold a fair share of the trade against +all comers. For Champlain Quebec was a fixed point on +the way to the Orient. For De Monts it was a key to the +commerce of the great river. None of his rivals would +begin the season of 1609 with a permanent post in Canada. +Thus part of the anticipated profits for 1608 was invested +to secure an advantage in the approaching competition. +The whole success of the plan depended upon the mutual +confidence of De Monts and Champlain, both of whom +unselfishly sought the advancement of French interests +in America--De Monts, the courageous capitalist and +promoter; Champlain, the explorer whose discoveries were +sure to enlarge the area of trading operations. + +Pontgrave sailed from Honfleur on April 5, 1608. Champlain +followed eight days later, reaching Tadoussac at the +beginning of June. Here trouble awaited him. The Basque +traders, who always defied the monopoly, had set upon +Pontgrave with cannon and muskets, killing one man and +severely wounding two others, besides himself. Going +ashore, Champlain found Pontgrave very ill and the Basques +in full possession. To fight was to run the risk of +ruining De Monts' whole enterprise, and as the Basques +were alarmed at what they had done, Darache, their captain, +signed an agreement that he would not molest Pontgrave +or do anything prejudicial to the rights of De Monts. +This basis of compromise makes it clear that Pontgrave +was in charge of the season's trade, while Champlain's +personal concern was to found the settlement. + +An unpleasant dispute was thus adjusted, but the incident +had a still more unpleasant sequel. Leaving Tadoussac on +June 30, Champlain reached Quebec in four days, and at +once began to erect his storehouse. A few days later he +stood in grave peril of his life through conspiracy among +his own men. + +The ringleader was a locksmith named Jean Duval, who had +been at Port Royal and narrowly escaped death from the +arrows of the Cape Cod Indians. Whether he framed his +plot in collusion with the Basques is not quite clear, +but it seems unlikely that he should have gone so far as +he did without some encouragement. His plan was simply +to kill Champlain and deliver Quebec to the Basques in +return for a rich reward, either promised or expected. +Some of the men he had no chance to corrupt, for they +were aboard the barques, guarding stores till a shelter +could be built. Working among the rest, Duval 'suborned +four of the worst characters, as he supposed, telling +them a thousand falsehoods and presenting to them prospects +of acquiring riches.' The evidence subsequently showed +that Champlain was either to be strangled when unarmed, +or shot at night as he answered to a false alarm. The +conspirators made a mutual promise not to betray each +other, on penalty that the first who opened his mouth +should be poniarded. + +Out of this deadly danger Champlain escaped through the +confession of a vacillating spirit named Natel, who +regretted his share in the plot, but, once involved, had +fears of the poniard. Finally he confessed to Testu, the +pilot, who immediately informed Champlain. Questioned as +to the motive, Natel replied that 'nothing had impelled +them, except that they had imagined that by giving up +the place into the hands of the Basques or Spaniards they +might all become rich, and that they did not want to go +back to France.' Duval, with five others, was then seized +and taken to Tadoussac. Later in the summer Pontgrave +brought the prisoners back to Quebec, where evidence was +taken before a court-martial consisting of Champlain, +Pontgrave, a captain, a surgeon, a first mate, a second +mate, and some sailors. The sentence condemned four to +death, of whom three were afterwards sent to France and +put at the discretion of De Monts. Duval was 'strangled +and hung at Quebec, and his head was put on the end of +a pike, to be set in the most conspicuous place on our +fort, that he might serve as an example to those who +remained, leading them to deport themselves correctly in +future, in the discharge of their duty; and that the +Spaniards and Basques, of whom there were large numbers +in the country, might not glory in the event.' + +It will be seen from the recital of Duval's conspiracy +that Champlain was fortunate to escape the fate of Hudson +and La Salle. While this cause celebre was running its +course to a tragic end, the still more famous habitation +grew day by day under the hands of busy workmen. As fruits +of a crowded and exciting summer Champlain could point +to a group of three two-storeyed buildings. 'Each one,' +he says, 'was three fathoms long and two and a half wide. +The storehouse was six fathoms long and three wide, with +a fine cellar six feet deep. I had a gallery made all +round our buildings, on the outside, at the second storey, +which proved very convenient. There were also ditches, +fifteen feet wide and six deep. On the outer side of the +ditches I constructed several spurs, which enclosed a +part of the dwelling, at the points where we placed our +cannon. Before the habitation there is a place four +fathoms wide and six or seven long, looking out upon the +river-bank. Surrounding the habitation are very good +gardens.' + +Three dwellings of eighteen by fifteen feet each were a +sufficiently modest starting-point for continental +ambitions, even when supplemented by a storehouse of +thirty-six feet by eighteen. In calling the gardens very +good Champlain must have been speaking with relation to +the circumstances, or else they were very small, for +there is abundant witness to the sufferings which Quebec +in its first twenty years might have escaped with the +help of really abundant gardens. At St Croix and Port +Royal an attempt had been made to plant seeds, and at +Quebec Champlain doubtless renewed the effort, though +with small practical result. The point is important in +its bearing on the nature of the settlement. Quebec, +despite such gardens as surrounded the habitation, was +by origin an outpost of the fur trade, with a small, +floating, and precarious population. Louis Hebert, the +first real colonist, did not come till 1617. + +Lacking vegetables, Quebec fed itself in part from the +river and the forest. But almost all the food was brought +from France. At times there was game, though less than +at Port Royal. The river supplied eels in abundance, but +when badly cooked they caused a fatal dysentery. The +first winter was a repetition of the horrors experienced +at St Croix, with even a higher death-rate. Scurvy began +in February and lasted till the end of April. Of the +eighteen whom it attacked, ten died. Dysentery claimed +others. On June 5, 1609, word came that Pontgrave had +arrived at Tadoussac. Champlain's comment is eloquent in +its brevity. 'This intelligence gave me much satisfaction, +as we entertained hopes of assistance from him. Out of +the twenty-eight at first forming our company only eight +remained, and half of these were ailing.' + +The monopoly granted to De Monts had now reached its +close, and trade was open to all comers. From 1609 until +1613 this unrestricted competition ran its course, with +the result that a larger market was created for beaver +skins, while nothing was done to build up New France as +a colony. On the whole, the most notable feature of the +period is the establishment of close personal relations +between Champlain and the Indians. It was then that he +became the champion of the Algonquins and Hurons against +the Iroquois League or Five Nations, inaugurating a policy +which was destined to have profound consequences. + +The considerations which governed Champlain in his dealings +with the Indians lay quite outside the rights and wrongs +of their tribal wars. His business was to explore the +continent on behalf of France, and accordingly he took +conditions as he found them. The Indians had souls to be +saved, but that was the business of the missionaries. In +the state of nature all savages were much like wild +animals, and alliance with one nation or another was a +question which naturally settled itself upon the basis +of drainage basins. Lands within the Laurentian watershed +were inhabited mainly by Algonquins and Hurons, whose +chief desire in life was to protect themselves from the +Iroquois and avenge past injuries. The Five Nations dwelt +far south from the Sault St Louis and did not send their +furs there for the annual barter. Champlain, ever in +quest of a route to the East, needed friends along the +great rivers of the wilderness. The way to secure them, +and at the same time to widen the trading area, was to +fight for the savages of the St Lawrence and the Ottawa +against those of the Mohawk. + +And Champlain was a good ally, as he proved in the forest +wars of 1609 and 1615. With all their shortcomings, the +Indians knew how to take the measure of a man. The +difference between a warrior and a trader was especially +clear to their untutored minds, they themselves being +much better fighters than men of commerce. Champlain, +like others, suffered from their caprice, but they +respected his bravery and trusted his word. + +In the next chapter we shall attempt to follow Champlain +through the wilderness, accompanied by its inhabitants, +who were his guides and friends. For the present we must +pursue the fortunes of Quebec, whose existence year by +year hung upon the risk that court intrigue would prevail +against the determination of two brave men. + +From 1608 till 1611 De Monts had two partners, named +Collier and Legendre, both citizens of Rouen. It was with +the money of these three that the post at Quebec had been +built and equipped. Champlain was their lieutenant and +Pontgrave the commander of their trading ships. After +four years of experience Collier and Legendre found the +results unsatisfactory. 'They were unwilling,' says +Champlain, 'to continue in the association, as there was +no commission forbidding others from going to the new +discoveries and trading with the inhabitants of the +country. Sieur de Monts, seeing this, bargained with them +for what remained at the settlement at Quebec, in +consideration of a sum of money which he gave them for +their share.' + +Thus the intrepid De Monts became sole proprietor of the +habitation, and whatever clustered round it, at the foot +of Cape Diamond. But the property was worthless if the +fur trade could not be put on a stable basis. Quebec +during its first three years had been a disappointment +because, contrary to expectation, it gave its founders +no advantage over their competitors which equalled the +cost of maintenance. De Monts was still ready to assist +Champlain in his explorations, but his resources, never +great, were steadily diminishing, and while trade continued +unprofitable there were no funds for exploration. Moreover, +the assassination of Henry IV in 1610 weakened De Monts +at court. Whatever Henry's shortcomings as a friend of +Huguenots and colonial pioneers, their chances had been +better with him than they now were with Marie de Medicis +[Footnote: The second and surviving wife of Henry IV--an +Italian by birth and in close sympathy with Spain. As +regent for her son, Louis XIII, she did much to reverse +the policy of Henry IV, both foreign and domestic.] +Champlain states that De Monts' engagements did not permit +him to prosecute his interests at court. Probably his +engagements would have been less pressing had he felt +more sure of favour. In any event, he made over to +Champlain the whole conduct of such negotiations as were +called for by the unsatisfactory state of affairs on the +St Lawrence. + +Champlain went to France. What follows is an illuminating +comment upon the conditions that prevailed under the +Bourbon monarchy. As Champlain saw things, the merchants +who clamoured for freedom of trade were greedy pot-hunters. +'All they want,' he says, 'is that men should expose +themselves to a thousand dangers to discover peoples and +territories, that they themselves may have the profit +and others the hardship. It is not reasonable that one +should capture the lamb and another go off with the +fleece. If they had been willing to participate in our +discoveries, use their means and risk their persons, they +would have given evidence of their honour and nobleness, +but, on the contrary, they show clearly that they are +impelled by pure malice that they may enjoy the fruit of +our labours equally with ourselves.' Against folk of this +sort Champlain felt he had to protect the national +interests which were so dear to him and De Monts. As +things then went, there was only one way to secure +protection. At Fontainebleau a great noble was not +habituated to render help without receiving a consideration. +But protection could be bought by those who were able to +pay for it. + +The patron selected by Champlain was the Comte de Soissons, +a Bourbon by lineage and first cousin of Henry IV. His +kinship to the boy-king gave him, among other privileges, +the power to exact from the regent gifts and offices as +the price of his support. Possessing this leverage, +Soissons caused himself to be appointed viceroy of Canada, +with a twelve-year monopoly of the fur trade above Quebec. +The monopoly thus re-established, its privileges could +be sublet, Soissons receiving cash for the rights he +conceded to the merchants, and they taking their chance +to turn a profit out of the transaction. + +Such at least was the theory; but before Soissons could +turn his post into a source of revenue he died. Casting +about for a suitable successor, Champlain selected another +prince of the blood--Henri de Bourbon, Prince de Conde, +who duly became viceroy of Canada and holder of the +monopoly in succession to his uncle, the Comte de Soissons. + +The part of Champlain in these transactions is very +conspicuous, and justly so. There was no advantage in +being viceroy of Canada unless the post produced a revenue, +and before the viceroy could receive a revenue some one +was needed to organize the chief Laurentian traders into +a company strong enough to pay Soissons or Conde a +substantial sum. Champlain was convinced that the stability +of trade (upon which, in turn, exploration depended) +could be secured only in this way. It was he who +memorialized President Jeannin; [Footnote: One of the +chief advisers of Marie de Medicis. In the early part of +his career he was President of the Parlement of Dijon +and an important member of the extreme Catholic party. +After the retirement of the Duc de Sully (1611) he was +placed in charge of the finances of France.] enlisted +the sympathy of the king's almoner, Beaulieu; appealed +to the royal council; proposed the office of viceroy to +Soissons; and began the endeavour to organize a new +trading company. Considering that early in 1612 he suffered +a serious fall from his horse, this record of activity +is sufficiently creditable for one twelve-month. Meanwhile +the Indians at Sault St Louis grieved at his absence, +and his enemies told them he was dead. + +It was not until 1614 that the new programme in its +entirety could be carried out. This time the delay came, +not from the court, but from the merchants. Negotiations +were in progress when the ships sailed for the voyage of +1613, but Champlain could not remain to conclude them, +as he felt that he must keep faith with the Indians. +However, on his return to France that autumn, he resumed +the effort, and by the spring of 1614. the merchants of +Rouen, St Malo, and La Rochelle had been brought to terms +among themselves as participants in a monopoly which was +leased from the viceroy. Conde received a thousand crowns +a year, and the new company also agreed to take out six +families of colonists each season. In return it was +granted the monopoly for eleven years. De Monts was a +member of the company and Quebec became its headquarters +in Canada. But the moving spirit was Champlain, who was +appointed lieutenant to the viceroy with a salary and +the right to levy for his own purposes four men from each +ship trading in the river. + +Once more disappointment followed. Save for De Monts, +Champlain's company was not inspired by Champlain's +patriotism. During the first three years of its existence +the obligation to colonize was wilfully disregarded, +while in the fourth year the treatment accorded Louis +Hebert shows that good faith counted for as little with +the fur traders when they acted in association as when +they were engaged in cut-throat competition. + +Champlain excepted, Hebert was the most admirable of +those who risked death in the attempt to found a settlement +at Quebec. He was not a Norman peasant, but a Parisian +apothecary. We have already seen that he took part in +the Acadian venture of De Monts and Poutrincourt. After +the capture of Port Royal by the English he returned to +France (1613) and reopened his shop. Three years later +Champlain was authorized by the company to offer him and +his family favourable terms if they would emigrate to +Quebec, the consideration being two hundred crowns a year +for three years, besides maintenance. On this understanding +Hebert sold his house and shop, bought an equipment for +the new home, and set off with his family to embark at +Honfleur. Here he found that Champlain's shareholders +were not prepared to stand by their agreement. The company +first beat him down from two hundred to one hundred crowns +a year, and then stipulated that he, his wife, his +children, and his domestic should serve it for the three +years during which the grant was payable. Even at the +end of three years, when he found himself at liberty to +till the soil, he was bound to sell produce to the company +at the prices prevalent in France. The company was to +have his perpetual service as a chemist for nothing, and +he must promise in writing to take no part in the fur +trade. Hebert had cut off his retreat and was forced to +accept these hard terms, but it is not strange that under +such conditions colonists should have been few. Sagard, +the Recollet missionary, says the company treated Hebert +so badly because it wished to discourage colonization. +What it wanted was the benefit of the monopoly, without +the obligation of finding settlers who had to be brought +over for nothing. + +A man of honour like Champlain could not have tricked +Hebert into the bad bargain he made, and their friendship +survived the incident. But a company which transacted +its business in this fashion was not likely to enjoy long +life. Its chief asset was Champlain's friendship with +the Indians, especially after his long sojourn with them +in 1615 and 1616. Some years, particularly 1617, showed +a large profit, but as time went on friction arose between +the Huguenots of La Rochelle and the Catholics of Rouen. +Then there were interlopers to be prosecuted, and the +quarrels of Conde with the government brought with them +trouble to the merchants whose monopoly depended on his +grant. For three years (1616-19) the viceroy of Canada +languished in the Bastille. Shortly after his release he +sold his viceregal rights to the Duke of Montmorency, +Admiral of France. The price was 11,000 crowns. + +In 1619 Champlain's company ventured to disagree with +its founder, and, as a consequence, another crisis arose +in the affairs of New France. The cause of dispute was +the company's unwillingness to keep its promises regarding +colonization. Champlain protested. The company replied +that Pontgrave should be put in charge at Quebec. Champlain +then said that Pontgrave was his old friend, and he hoped +they would always be friends, but that he was at Quebec +as the viceroy's representative, charged with the duty +of defending his interests. The leader of Champlain's +opponents among the shareholders was Boyer, a trader who +had formerly given much trouble to De Monts, but was now +one of the associates. When in the spring of 1619 Champlain +attempted to sail for Quebec as usual, Boyer prevented +him from going aboard. There followed an appeal to the +crown, in which Champlain was fully sustained, and Boyer +did penance by offering a public apology before the +Exchange at Rouen. + +It was shortly after this incident that Conde abdicated +in favour of Montmorency. The admiral, like his predecessor, +accepted a thousand crowns a year and named Champlain as +his lieutenant. He also instituted an inquiry regarding +the alleged neglect of the company to maintain the post +at Quebec. The investigation showed that abundant cause +existed for depriving the company of its monopoly, and +in consequence the grant was transferred, on similar +terms, to William and Emery de Caen. Here complications +at once ensued. The De Caens, who were natives of Rouen, +were also Huguenots, a fact that intensified the ill-feeling +which had already arisen on the St Lawrence between +Catholic and heretic. The dispute between the new +beneficiaries and the company founded by Champlain involved +no change in the policy of the crown towards trade and +colonization. It was a quarrel of persons, which eventually +reached a settlement in 1622. The De Caens then compromised +by reorganizing the company and giving their predecessors +five-twelfths of the shares. + +The recital of these intricate events will at least +illustrate the difficulties which beset Champlain in his +endeavour to build up New France. There were problems +enough even had he received loyal support from the crown +and the company. With the English and Dutch in full +rivalry, he saw that an aggressive policy of expansion +and settlement became each year more imperative. Instead, +he was called on to withstand the cabals of self-seeking +traders who shirked their obligations, and to endure the +apathy of a government which was preoccupied with palace +intrigues. + +At Quebec itself the two bright spots were the convent +of the Recollets [Footnote: The Recollets were a branch +of the Franciscan order, noted for the austerity of their +rule.] and the little farm of Louis Hebert. The Recollets +first came to New France in 1615, and began at once by +language study to prepare for their work among the +Montagnais and Hurons. It was a stipulation of the viceroy +that six of them should be supported by the company, and +in the absence of parish priests they ministered to the +ungodly hangers-on of the fur trade as well as to the +Indians. Louis Hebert and his admirable family were very +dear to the Fathers. In 1617 all the buildings which had +been erected at Quebec lay by the water's edge. Hebert +was the first to make a clearing on the heights. His +first domain covered less than ten acres, but it was well +tilled. He built a stone house, which was thirty-eight +feet by nineteen. Besides making a garden, he planted +apple-trees and vines. He also managed to support some +cattle. When one considers what all this means in terms +of food and comfort, it may be guessed that the fur +traders, wintering down below on salt pork and smoked +eels, must have felt much respect for the farmer in his +stone mansion on the cliff. + +We have from Champlain's own lips a valuable statement +as to the condition of things at Quebec in 1627, the year +when Louis Hebert died. 'We were in all,' he says, +'sixty-five souls, including men, women, and children.' +Of the sixty-five only eighteen were adult males fit for +hard work, and this small number must be reduced to two +or three if we include only the tillers of the soil. +Besides these, a few adventurous spirits were away in +the woods with the Indians, learning their language and +endeavouring to exploit the beaver trade; but twenty +years after the founding of Quebec the French in Canada, +all told, numbered less than one hundred. + +Contrast with this the state of Virginia fifteen years +after the settlement of Jamestown. 'By 1622,' says John +Fiske, 'the population of Virginia was at least 4000, +the tobacco fields were flourishing and lucrative, durable +houses had been built and made comfortable with furniture +brought from England, and the old squalor was everywhere +giving way to thrift. The area of colonization was pushed +up the James River as far as Richmond.' + +This contrast is not to be interpreted to the personal +disadvantage of Champlain. The slow growth and poverty +of Quebec were due to no fault of his. It is rather the +measure of his greatness that he was undaunted by +disappointment and unembittered by the pettiness of spirit +which met him at every turn. A memorial which he presented +in 1618 to the Chamber of Commerce at Paris discloses +his dream of what might be: a city at Quebec named +Ludovica, a city equal in size to St Denis and filled +with noble buildings grouped round the Church of the +Redeemer. Tributary to this capital was a vast region +watered by the St Lawrence and abounding 'in rolling +plains, beautiful forests, and rivers full of fish.' From +Ludovica the heathen were to be converted and a passage +discovered to the East. So important a trade route would +be developed, that from the tolls alone there would be +revenue to construct great public works. Rich mines and +fat cornfields fill the background. + +Such was the Quebec of Champlain's vision--if only France +would see it so! But in the Quebec of reality a few +survivors saw the hunger of winter yield to the starvation +of spring. They lived on eels and roots till June should +bring the ships and food from home. + + + +CHAPTER IV + +CHAMPLAIN IN THE WILDERNESS + +Champlain's journeyings with the Indians were the holiday +of his life, for at no other time was he so free to follow +the bent of his genius. First among the incentives which +drew him to the wilderness was his ambition to discover +the pathway to China. In 1608 the St Lawrence had not +been explored beyond the Lachine Rapids, nor the Richelieu +beyond Chambly--while the Ottawa was known only by report. +Beyond Lake St Louis stretched a mysterious world, through +the midst of which flowed the Great River. For an explorer +and a patriot the opportunity was priceless. The acquisition +of vast territory for the French crown, the enlargement +of the trade zone, the discovery of a route to Cathay, +the prospect of Arcadian joys and exciting +adventures--beside such promptings hardship and danger +became negligible. And when exploring the wilderness +Champlain was in full command. Off the coast of Norumbega +his wishes, as geographer, had been subject to the special +projects of De Monts and Poutrincourt. At Fontainebleau +he waited for weeks and months in the antechambers of +prelates or nobles. But when conducting an expedition +through the forest he was lord and master, a chieftain +from whose arquebus flew winged death. + +The story of Champlain's expeditions along these great +secluded waterways, and across the portages of the forest, +makes the most agreeable page of his life both for writer +and reader, since it is here that he himself is most +clearly in the foreground. At no point can his narrative +be thought dull, compact as it is and always in touch +with energetic action. But the details of fur trading at +Tadoussac and the Sault St Louis, or even of voyaging +along the Acadian seaboard, are far less absorbing than +the tale of the canoe and the war party. Amid the depths +of the interior Champlain reaped his richest experiences +as an explorer. With the Indians for his allies and +enemies he reached his fullest stature as a leader. + +It is not important to dwell upon the minor excursions +which Champlain made from his headquarters at Quebec into +the country of the Montagnais. [Footnote: An Algonquin +tribe dwelling to the north of the St Lawrence, for the +most part between the Saguenay and the St Maurice.] He +saw little of the rocky northland which, with its myriad +lakes and splendid streams, sweeps from the St Lawrence +to Hudson Bay. Southward and westward lay his course to +the cantons of the Iroquois south of Lake Ontario and +the villages of the Hurons north of Lake Simcoe. Above +all, the expeditions of 1609, 1613, and 1615 are the +central episodes of his work as an explorer, each marked +by a distinct motive and abounding with adventures. In +1609 he discovered Lake Champlain and fought his first +battle with the Iroquois. In 1613 he was decoyed by a +lying guide into a fruitless search for the North-West +Passage by the route of the Ottawa. In 1615 he discovered +Lake Huron, traversed what is now Central Ontario, and +attacked the Iroquois in the heart of their own country. +These three journeys make the sum of Champlain's +achievements as a pioneer of the interior. For all three, +likewise, we have his own story, upon which all other +versions are based and from which they draw their most +striking details. + +The discovery of Lake Champlain had its root in Champlain's +promise to the Algonquins that he would aid them in their +strife with the Iroquois. In turn this promise was based +upon the policy of conciliating those savage tribes from +whom the French derived their supply of furs, and with +whom throughout the St Lawrence basin they most constantly +came in contact. + +It was the year which followed the founding of Quebec. +Of the twenty-eight who entered upon the first winter +eight only had survived, and half of these were ailing. +On June 5 relief came in the person of Des Marais, who +announced that his father-in-law, Pontgrave, was already +at Tadoussac. Champlain at once set out to meet him, and +it was arranged that Pontgrave should take charge of the +settlement for the coming year, while Champlain fulfilled +his promise to aid the Algonquins in their war with the +Iroquois. The full plan required that Pontgrave should +spend the winter in Canada, while Champlain, after his +summer campaign, was to return to France with a report +of his explorations. + +The Indians had stated that the route to the land of the +Iroquois was easy, and Champlain's original design was +to proceed in a shallop capable of carrying twenty +Frenchmen. Early in July he reached the mouth of the +Richelieu, but on arriving at Chambly he found it quite +impossible to pass the falls with his shallop. Either +the expedition must be abandoned or the plan be radically +changed, with the consequence of incurring much greater +risks. To advance meant sending back the shallop with +its crew and stores, embarking in a canoe, and trusting +wholly to the good faith of the savages. The decision +was not easy. 'I was much troubled,' says Champlain. 'And +it gave me especial dissatisfaction to go back without +seeing a very large lake, filled with handsome islands +and with large tracts of fine land bordering on the lake, +where their enemies lived, according to their +representations. After duly thinking over the matter I +determined to go and fulfil my promise and carry out my +desire. Accordingly I embarked with the savages in their +canoes, taking with me two men, who went cheerfully. +After making known my plan to Des Marais and others in +the shallop, I requested the former to return to our +settlement with the rest of our company, giving them the +assurance that in a short time, by God's grace, I would +return to them.' + +Having convinced himself, Champlain was next forced to +convince the Indians, whose first impulse was to abandon +the campaign when they found that they would be accompanied +by only three of the Frenchmen. Champlain's firmness, +however, communicated itself to them, and on July 12 they +set out from Chambly Basin to commence the portage. At +the top of the rapid a review of forces was held, and it +proved that the Indians numbered sixty men, equipped with +twenty-four canoes. Advancing through a beautifully wooded +country, the little war-party encamped at a point not +far below the outlet of Lake Champlain, taking the +precaution to protect themselves by a rough fortification +of tree trunks. + +At this point Champlain introduces a graphic statement +regarding the methods which the Indians employ to guard +against surprise. On three sides they protect the camp +by fallen trees, leaving the river-bank without a barricade +in order that they may take quickly to their canoes. +Then, as soon as the camp has been fortified, they send +out nine picked men in three canoes to reconnoitre for +a distance of two or three leagues. But before nightfall +these scouts return, and then all lie down to sleep, +without leaving any pickets or sentries on duty. When +Champlain remonstrated with them for such gross +carelessness, they replied that they worked hard enough +during the daytime. The normal formation of an Indian +war-party embraced three divisions--the scouts, the main +body, and the hunters, the last always remaining in the +rear and chasing their game in a direction from which +they did not anticipate the appearance of the enemy. +Having arrived at a distance of two or three days' march +from their enemies, they united in a single party (save +for the scouts) and advanced stealthily by night. At this +juncture their food became baked Indian meal soaked in +water. They hid by day and made no fire, save that required +to smoke their tobacco. + +Thus does Champlain describe the savage as he is about +to fall upon his foe. He gives special prominence to the +soothsayer, who on the eve of battle enters into elaborate +intercourse with the devil. Inside a wooden hut the +necromancer lies prostrate on the ground, motionless. +Then he springs to his feet and begins to torment himself, +counterfeiting strange tones to represent the speech of +the devil, and carrying on violent antics which leave +him in a stream of perspiration. Outside the hut the +Indians sit round on their haunches like apes and fancy +that they can see fire proceeding from the roof, although +the devil appears to the soothsayer in the form of a +stone. Finally, the chiefs, when they have by these means +learned that they will meet their enemy and kill a +sufficient number, arrange the order of battle. Sticks +a foot long are taken, one for each warrior, and these +are laid out on a level place five or six feet square. +The leader then explains the order of battle, after which +the warriors substitute themselves for the sticks and go +through the manoeuvres till they can do them without +confusion. + +From this description of tactics we pass speedily to a +story of real war. Reaching Lake Champlain, the party +skirted the western shore, with fine views of the Green +Mountains, on the summit of which Champlain mistook white +limestone for snow. On July 29, at Crown Point, the +Iroquois were encountered at about ten o'clock in the +evening. Thus the first real battle of French and Indians +took place near that remarkable spot where Lake Champlain +and Lake George draw close together--the Ticonderoga of +Howe, the Carillon of Montcalm. + +The Algonquins were in good courage, for, besides the +muskets of the three Frenchmen, they were inspired by a +dream of Champlain that he had seen the Iroquois drowning +in a lake. As soon as the enemies saw each other, both +began to utter loud cries and make ready their weapons. +The Algonquins kept out on the water; the Iroquois went +ashore and built a barricade. When the Algonquins had +made ready for battle + + they dispatched two canoes to the enemy to inquire if + they wished to fight, to which the latter replied that + they wished nothing else; but they said that at present + there was not much light, and that it would be necessary + to wait for day so as to be able to recognize each + other; and that as soon as the sun rose they would + offer us battle. This was agreed to by our side. + Meanwhile the entire night was spent in dancing and + singing, on both sides, with endless insults and other + talk; as how little courage we had, how feeble a + resistance we should make against their arms, and that + when day came we should realize it to our ruin. Ours + also were not slow in retorting, telling them that + they would see such execution of arms as never before, + together with an abundance of such talk as is not + unusual in the siege of a town. + +Care had been taken by the Algonquins that the presence +of Champlain and his two companions should come to the +Iroquois as a complete surprise. Each of the Frenchmen +was in a separate canoe, convoyed by the Montagnais. At +daylight each put on light armour and, armed with an +arquebus, went ashore. Champlain was near enough the +barricade to see nearly two hundred Iroquois, 'stout and +rugged in appearance. They came at a slow pace towards +us, with a dignity and assurance which greatly impressed +me, having three chiefs at their head.' Champlain, when +urged by his allies to make sure of killing the three +chiefs, replied that he would do his best, and that in +any case he would show them his courage and goodwill. + +Then began the fight, which must be described in Champlain's +own words, for in all his writings there is no more famous +passage. + + As soon as we had landed, they began to run for some + two hundred paces towards their enemies, who stood + firmly, not having as yet noticed my companions, who + went into the woods with some savages. Our men began + to call me with loud cries; and in order to give me + a passage way they opened in two parts and put me at + their head, where I marched some twenty paces in + advance of the rest, until I was within about twenty + paces of the enemy, who at once noticed me and, halting, + gazed at me, as I did also at them. When I saw them + make a move to fire at us, I rested my musket against + my cheek and aimed directly at one of the three chiefs. + With the same shot two fell to the ground; and one of + their men was so wounded that he died some time after. + I had loaded my musket with four balls. When our side + saw this shot so favourable for them, they began to + raise such loud cries that one could not have heard + it thunder. Meanwhile the arrows flew on both sides. + The Iroquois were greatly astonished that two men had + been so quickly killed, although they were equipped + with armour woven from cotton thread and with wood + which was proof against their arrows. This caused + great alarm among them. As I was loading again, one + of my companions fired a shot from the woods, which + astonished them anew to such a degree that, seeing + their chiefs dead, they lost courage and took to + flight, abandoning their camp and fort and fleeing + into the woods, whither I pursued them, killing still + more of them. Our savages also killed several of them + and took ten or twelve prisoners. The remainder escaped + with the wounded. Fifteen or sixteen were wounded on + our side with arrow shots, but they were soon healed. + +The spoils of victory included a large quantity of Indian +corn, together with a certain amount of meal, and also +some of the native armour which the Iroquois had thrown +away in order to effect their escape. Then followed a +feast and the torture of one of the prisoners, whose +sufferings were mercifully concluded by a ball from +Champlain's musket, delivered in such wise that the +unfortunate did not see the shot. Like Montcalm and other +French commanders of a later date, Champlain found it +impossible to curb wholly the passions of his savage +allies. In this case his remonstrances had the effect of +gaining for the victim a coup de grace--which may be +taken as a measure of Champlain's prestige. The atrocious +savagery practised before and after death is described +in full detail. Champlain concludes the lurid picture as +follows: 'This is the manner in which these people behave +towards those whom they capture in war, for whom it would +be better to die fighting or to kill themselves on the +spur of the moment, as many do rather than fall into the +hands of their enemies.' + +Beyond the point at which this battle was fought Champlain +did not go. At Ticonderoga he was within eighty miles of +the site of Albany. Had he continued, he would have +reached the Hudson from the north in the same summer the +Half Moon [Footnote: Henry Hudson, an English mariner +with a Dutch crew, entered the mouth of the Hudson in a +boat called the Half Moon on September 4, 1609. As named +by him, the river was called the 'Great North River of +New Netherland.'] entered it from the mouth. But the +Algonquins were content with their victory, though they +candidly stated that there was an easy route from the +south end of Lake George to 'a river flowing into the +sea on the Norumbega coast near that of Florida.' The +return to Quebec and Tadoussac was attended by no incident +of moment. The Montagnais, on parting with Champlain at +Tadoussac, generously gave him the head of an Iroquois +and a pair of arms, with the request that they be carried +to the king of France. The Algonquins had already taken +their departure at Chambly, where, says Champlain, 'we +separated with loud protestations of mutual friendship. +They asked me whether I would not like to go into their +country to assist them with continued fraternal relations; +and I promised that I would do so.' + +As a contribution to geographical knowledge the +expedition of 1609 disclosed the existence of a noble +lake, to which Champlain fitly gave his own name. Its +dimensions he considerably over-estimated, but in all +essential respects its situation was correctly described, +while his comments on the flora and fauna are very +interesting. The garpike as he saw it, with +amplifications from the Indians as they had seen it, gave +him the subject for a good fish story. He was deeply +impressed, too, by the richness of the vegetation. His +attack on the Iroquois was not soon forgotten by that +relentless foe, and prepared a store of trouble for the +colony he founded. But the future was closed to his view, +and for the moment his was the glorious experience of +being the first to gaze with European eyes upon a lake +fairer and grander than his own France could show. + +Four years elapsed before Champlain was enabled to plunge +once more into the depths of the forest--this time only +to meet with the severest disappointment of his life. +Much has been said already regarding his ambition to +discover a short route to Cathay. This was the great +prize for which he would have sacrificed everything save +loyalty to the king and duty to the church. For a moment +he seemed on the point of gaining it. Then the truth was +brutally disclosed, and he found that he had been wilfully +deceived by an impostor. + +It was a feature of Champlain's policy that from time to +time French youths should spend the winter with the +Indians--hunting with them, living in their settlements, +exploring their country, and learning their language. Of +Frenchmen thus trained to woodcraft during Champlain's +lifetime the most notable were Etienne Brule, Nicolas +Vignau, Nicolas Marsolet, and Jean Nicolet. Unfortunately +the three first did not leave an unclouded record. Brule, +after becoming a most accomplished guide, turned traitor +and aided the English in 1629. Champlain accuses Marsolet +of a like disloyalty. [Footnote: Marsolet's defence was +that he acted under constraint.] Vignau, with more +imagination, stands on the roll of fame as a frank +impostor. + +Champlain, as we have seen, spent the whole of 1612 in +France, and it was at this time that Vignau appeared in +Paris with a tale which could not but kindle excitement +in the heart of an explorer. The basis of fact was that +Vignau had undoubtedly passed the preceding winter with +the Algonquins on the Ottawa. The fable which was built +upon this fact can best be told in Champlain's own words. + + He reported to me, on his return to Paris in 1612, + that he had seen the North Sea; that the river of the + Algonquins [the Ottawa] came from a lake which emptied + into it; and that in seventeen days one could go from + the Falls of St Louis to this sea and back again; that + he had seen the wreck and debris of an English ship + that had been wrecked, on board of which were eighty + men who had escaped to the shore, and whom the savages + killed because the English endeavoured to take from + them by force their Indian corn and other necessaries + of life; and that he had seen the scalps which these + savages had flayed off, according to their custom, + which they would show me, and that they would likewise + give me an English boy whom they had kept for me. This + intelligence greatly pleased me, for I thought that + I had almost found that for which I had for a long + time been searching. + +Champlain makes it clear that he did not credit Vignau's +tale with the simple credulity of a man who has never +been to sea. He caused Vignau to swear to its truth at +La Rochelle before two notaries. He stipulated that Vignau +should go with him over the whole route. Finally, as they +were on the point of sailing together for Canada in the +spring of 1613, he once more adjured Vignau in the presence +of distinguished witnesses, saying 'that if what he had +previously said was not true, he must not give me the +trouble to undertake the journey, which involved many +dangers. Again he affirmed all that he had said, on peril +of his life.' + +After taking these multiplied precautions against deceit, +Champlain left the Sault St Louis on May 29, 1613, attended +by four Frenchmen and one Indian, with Vignau for guide. +Ascending the Ottawa, they encountered their first +difficulties at the Long Sault, where Dollard forty-seven +years later was to lose his life so gloriously. Here the +passage of the rapids was both fatiguing and dangerous. +Prevented by the density of the wood from making a portage, +they were forced to drag their canoes through the water. +In one of the eddies Champlain nearly lost his life, and +his hand was severely hurt by a sudden jerk of the rope. +Having mounted the rapids, he met with no very trying +obstacle until he had gone some distance past the Chaudiere +Falls. His reference to the course of the Gatineau makes +no sense, and Laverdiere has had recourse to the not +improbable conjecture that the printer dropped out a +whole line at this point. Champlain also over-estimates +considerably the height of the Rideau Falls and is not +very exact in his calculation of latitude. + +The hardships of this journey were greatly and unnecessarily +increased by Vignau, whose only hope was to discourage +his leader. In. the end it proved that 'our liar' (as +Champlain repeatedly calls him) had hoped to secure a +reward for his alleged discovery, believing that no one +would follow him long, even if an attempt were made to +confirm the accuracy of his report. But Champlain, +undeterred by portages and mosquitoes, kept on. Some +savages who joined him said that Vignau was a liar, and +on their advice Champlain left the Ottawa a short distance +above the mouth of the Madawaska. Holding westward at +some distance from the south shore, he advanced past +Muskrat Lake, and after a hard march came out again on +the Ottawa at Lake Allumette. + +This was the end of Champlain's route in 1613. From the +Algonquins on Allumette Island he learned that Vignau +had wintered with them at the time he swore he was +discovering salt seas. Finally, the impostor confessed +his fraud and, falling on his knees, asked for mercy. +The Indians would gladly have killed him outright, but +Champlain spared his life, though how deeply he was moved +can be seen from these words: 'Overcome with wrath I had +him removed, being unable to endure him any longer in my +presence.' After his confession there was nothing for it +but to return by the same route. An astrolabe found some +years ago near Muskrat Lake may have been dropped from +Champlain's luggage on the journey westward, though he +does not mention the loss. + +Apart from disclosing the course of the Ottawa, the Voyage +of 1613 is chiefly notable for its account of Indian +customs--for example, the mode of sepulture, the tabagie +or feast, and the superstition which leads the Algonquins +to throw pieces of tobacco into the cauldron of the +Chaudiere Falls as a means of ensuring protection against +their enemies. Of the feast given him by Tessouat, an +Algonquin chief, Champlain says: + + The next day all the guests came, each with his + porringer and wooden spoon. They seated themselves + without order or ceremony on the ground in the cabin + of Tessouat, who distributed to them a kind of broth + made of maize crushed between two stones, together + with meat and fish which was cut into little pieces, + the whole being boiled together without salt. They + also had meat roasted on the coals and fish boiled + apart, which he also distributed. In respect to myself, + as I did not wish any of their chowder, which they + prepare in a very dirty manner, I asked them for some + fish and meat, that I might prepare it my own way, + which they gave me. For drink we had fine, clear water. + Tessouat, who gave the tabagie, entertained us without + eating himself, according to their custom. + + The tabagie being over, the young men, who are not + present at the harangues and councils, and who during + the tabagie remain at the door of the cabins, withdrew, + when all who remained began to fill their pipes, one + and another offering me one. We then spent a full + half-hour in this occupation, not a word being spoken, + as is their custom. + +But for the dexterous arrangement by which Champlain +managed to cook his own food, the tabagie would have been +more dangerous to health than the portage. In any case, +it was an ordeal that could not be avoided, for feasting +meant friendly intercourse, and only through friendly +intercourse could Champlain gain knowledge of that vast +wilderness which he must pierce before reaching his +long-sought goal, the sea beyond which lay China. + +As for Vignau, his punishment was to make full confession +before all the French who had assembled at the Sault St +Louis to traffic with the Indians. When Champlain reached +this rendezvous on June 17, he informed the traders of +all that had happened, including + + the malice of my liar, at which they were greatly + amazed. I then begged them to assemble in order that + in their presence, and that of the savages and his + companions, he might make declaration of his + maliciousness; which they gladly did. Being thus + assembled, they summoned him and asked him why he had + not shown me the sea of the north, as he had promised + me at his departure. He replied that he had promised + something impossible for him, since he had never seen + the sea, and that the desire of making the journey + had led him to say what he did, also that he did not + suppose that I would undertake it; and he begged them + to be pleased to pardon him, as he also begged me + again, confessing that he had greatly offended, and + if I would leave him in the country he would by his + efforts repair the offence and see this sea, and bring + back trustworthy intelligence concerning it the + following year; and in view of certain considerations + I pardoned him on this condition. + +Vignau's public confession was followed by the annual +barter with the Indians, after which Champlain returned +to France. + +We come now to the Voyage of 1615, which describes +Champlain's longest and most daring journey through the +forest--an expedition that occupied the whole period from +July 9, 1615, to the last days of June 1616. Thus for +the first time he passed a winter with the Indians, +enlarging greatly thereby his knowledge of their customs +and character. The central incident of the expedition +was an attack made by the Hurons and their allies upon +the stronghold of the Onondagas in the heart of the +Iroquois country. But while this war-party furnishes the +chief adventure, there is no page of Champlain's narrative +which lacks its tale of the marvellous. As a story of +life in the woods, the Voyage of 1615 stands first among +all Champlain's writings. + +As in 1609, there was a mutuality of interest between +Champlain and the Indians who traded at the Sault. His +desire was to explore and theirs was to fight. By compromise +they disclosed to him the recesses of their country and +he aided them against the Iroquois. In 1615 the Hurons +not only reminded him of his repeated promises to aid +them, but stated flatly that without such aid they could +no longer attend the annual market, as their enemies were +making the route too unsafe. On their side they promised +a war-party of more than two thousand men. A further +proof of friendship was afforded by their willingness to +receive a missionary in their midst--the Recollet, Father +Joseph Le Caron. + +Champlain's line of exploration in 1615-16 took the +following course. He first ascended the Ottawa to the +mouth of the Mattawa. Thence journeying overland by ponds +and portages he entered Lake Nipissing, which he skirted +to the outlet. French River next took him to Georgian +Bay, or, as he calls it for geographical definition, the +Lake of the Attigouautan [Hurons]. His own name for this +vast inland sea is the Mer Douce. That he did not explore +it with any degree of thoroughness is evident from the +terms of his narrative as well as from his statement that +its length, east and west, is four hundred leagues. What +he saw of Lake Huron was really the east shore of Georgian +Bay, from the mouth of French River to the bottom of +Matchedash Bay. Here he entered the country of the Hurons, +which pleased him greatly in comparison with the tract +before traversed. 'It was very fine, the largest part +being cleared, and many hills and several rivers rendering +the region agreeable. I went to see their Indian corn, +which was at that time [early in August] far advanced +for the season.' + +Champlain's route through the district between Carmaron +and Cahaigue can best be followed in Father Jones's map +of Huronia. [Footnote: This map will be found in 'The +Jesuit Missions 'in this Series, and also in vol. xxxiv +of 'The Jesuit Relations,' ed. Thwaites.] The points +which Champlain names are there indicated, in each case +with as careful identification of the locality as we are +ever likely to get. For those who are not specialists in +the topography of Huronia it may suffice that Champlain +left Matchedash Bay not far from Penetanguishene, and +thence went to Carmaron at the very north of the peninsula. +Returning, he passed through some of the largest of the +Huron villages, and after sixteen days came out at +Cahaigue, which was situated close to Lake Simcoe and +almost on the site of the modern Hawkestone. It was here +that most of the Huron warriors assembled for the great +expedition against the Onondagas. Setting out on their +march, they first went a little to the northward, where +they were joined on the shores of Lake Couchiching by +another contingent. The party thus finally made up, +Champlain's line of advance first took him to Sturgeon +Lake. Afterwards it pursued that important waterway which +is represented by the Otonabee river, Rice Lake, and the +river Trent. Hence the warriors entered Lake Ontario by +the Bay of Quinte. + +This country between Lake Simcoe and the Bay of Quinte +seems to have pleased Champlain greatly. He saw it in +September, when the temperature was agreeable and when +the vegetation of the forest could be enjoyed without +the torment inflicted by mosquitoes. 'It is certain,' he +says, 'that all this region is very fine and pleasant. +Along the banks it seems as if the trees had been set +out for ornament in most places, and that all these tracts +were in former times inhabited by savages who were +subsequently compelled to abandon them from fear of their +enemies. Vines and nut trees are here very numerous. +Grapes mature, yet there is always a very pungent tartness, +which is felt remaining in the throat when one eats them +in large quantities, arising from defect of cultivation. +These localities are very pleasant when cleared up.' + +From the Bay of Quinte the war-party skirted the east +shore of Lake Ontario, crossing the head of the St +Lawrence, and thence following the southern shore about +fourteen leagues. At this point the Indians concealed +all their canoes and struck into the woods towards Lake +Oneida. Though made up chiefly of Hurons, the little army +embraced various allies, including a band of Algonquins. +Whether from over-confidence at having Champlain among +them or from their natural lack of discipline, the allies +managed their attack very badly. On a pond a few miles +south of Oneida Lake lay the objective point of the +expedition--a palisaded stronghold of the Onondagas. At +a short distance from this fort eleven of the enemy were +surprised and taken prisoners. What followed was much +less fortunate. Champlain does not state the number of +Frenchmen present, but as his drawing shows eleven +musketeers, we may infer that his own followers were +distinctly more numerous than at the battle on Lake +Champlain. + +The height of the palisade was thirty feet, and a system +of gutters supplied abundant water for use in extinguishing +fire. Champlain's plan of attack was to employ a cavalier, +or protected scaffolding, which should overtop the palisade +and could be brought close against it. From the top of +this framework four or five musketeers were to deliver +a fusillade against the Iroquois within the fort, while +the Hurons kindled a fire at the foot of the palisade. +Champlain's drawing shows the rest of the musketeers +engaged in creating a diversion at other points. + +But everything miscarried. Though the cavalier was +constructed, the allies threw aside the wooden shields +which Champlain had caused to be made as a defence against +the arrows of the Iroquois while the fire was being +kindled. Only a small supply of wood had been collected, +and even this was so placed that the flames blew away +from the palisade instead of towards it. On the failure +of this attempt to fire the fort all semblance of discipline +was thrown to the winds. 'There also rose such disorder +among them,' says Champlain, 'that one could not understand +another, which greatly troubled me. In vain did I shout +in their ears and remonstrate to my utmost with them as +to the danger to which they exposed themselves by their +bad behaviour, but on account of the great noise they +made they heard nothing. Seeing that shouting would only +burst my head and that my remonstrances were useless for +putting a stop to the disorder, I did nothing more, but +determined, together with my men, to do what we could +and fire upon such as we could see.' + +The fight itself lasted only three hours, and the casualties +of the attacking party were inconsiderable, since but +two of their chiefs and fifteen warriors were wounded. +In addition to their repulse, the Hurons suffered a severe +disappointment through the failure to join them of five +hundred allies who had given their solemn promise. Although +Champlain had received two severe wounds, one in the leg +and another in the knee, he urged a second and more +concerted attack. But in vain. The most the Hurons would +promise was to wait four or five days for the expected +reinforcements. At the end of this time there was no sign +of the five hundred, and the return began. 'The only good +point,' says Champlain, 'that I have seen in their mode +of warfare is that they make their retreat very securely, +placing all the wounded and aged in their centre, being +well armed on the wings and in the rear, and continuing +this order without interruption until they reach a place +of security.' + +Champlain himself suffered tortures during the retreat, +partly from his wounds, but even more from the mode of +transportation. The Indian method of removing the wounded +was first to bind and pinion them 'in such a manner that +it is as impossible for them to move as for an infant in +its swaddling-clothes.' They were then carried in a kind +of basket, 'crowded up in a heap.' Doubtless as a mark +of distinction, Champlain was carried separately on the +back of a savage. His wound was so severe that when the +retreat began he could not stand. But the transportation +proved worse than the wound. 'I never found myself in +such a gehenna as during this time, for the pain which +I suffered in consequence of the wound in my knee was +nothing in comparison with that which I endured while I +was carried bound and pinioned on the back of one of our +savages. So that I lost my patience, and as soon as I +could sustain myself got out of this prison, or rather +gehenna.' + +The enemy made no pursuit, but forced marches were kept +up for twenty-five or thirty leagues. The weather now +grew cold, as it was past the middle of autumn. The fight +at the fort of the Onondagas had taken place on October +10, and eight days later there was a snowstorm, with hail +and a strong wind. But, apart from extreme discomfort, +the retreat was successfully accomplished, and on the +shore of Lake Ontario they found the canoes intact. + +It had been Champlain's purpose to spend the winter at +Quebec, and when the Hurons were about to leave the east +end of Lake Ontario for their own country he asked them +for a canoe and an escort. Four Indians volunteered for +this service, but no canoe could be had, and in consequence +Champlain was forced reluctantly to accompany the Hurons. +With his usual patience he accepted the inevitable, which +in this case was only unpleasant because he was ill +prepared for spending a winter among the Indians. After +a few days he perceived that their plan was to keep him +and his companions, partly as security for themselves +and partly that he might assist at their councils in +planning better safeguards against their enemies. + +This enforced residence of Champlain among the Hurons +during the winter of 1615-16 has given us an excellent +description of Indian customs. It was also the means of +composing a dangerous quarrel between the Hurons and the +Algonquins. Once committed to spending the winter among +the Indians, Champlain planned to make Huronia a point +of departure for still further explorations to the +westward. Early in 1616 there seemed to be a favourable +opportunity to push forward in the direction of Lake +Superior. Then came this wretched brawl of Hurons and +Algonquins, which threatened to beget bitter hatred and +war among tribes which hitherto had both been friendly +to the French. Accepting his duty, Champlain gave up his +journey to the far west and threw himself into the task +of restoring peace. But the measure of his disappointment +is found in these words: + + If ever there was one greatly disheartened, it was + myself, since I had been waiting to see this year what + during many preceding ones I had been seeking for with + great toil and effort, through so many fatigues and + risks of my life. But realizing that I could not help + the matter, and that everything depended on the will + of God, I comforted myself, resolving to see it in a + short time. I had such sure information that I could + not doubt the report of these people, who go to traffic + with others dwelling in those northern regions, a + great part of whom live in a place very abundant in + the chase and where there are great numbers of large + animals, the skins of several of which I saw, and + which I concluded were buffaloes from their + representation of their form. Fishing is also very + abundant there. This journey requires forty days as + well in returning as in going. + +Thus Champlain almost had a chance to see the bison and +the great plains of the West. As it was, he did his +immediate duty and restored the peace of Huron and +Algonquin. In partial compensation for the alluring +journey he relinquished, he had a better opportunity to +study the Hurons in their settlements and to investigate +their relations with their neighbours--the Tobacco Nation, +the Neutral Nation, les Cheveux Releves, and the Race of +Fire. Hence the Voyage of 1615 not only describes the +physical aspects of Huronia, but contains intimate details +regarding the life of its people--their wigwams, their +food, their manner of cooking, their dress, their +decorations, their marriage customs, their medicine-men, +their burials, their assemblies, their agriculture, their +amusements, and their mode of fishing. It is Champlain's +most ambitious piece of description, far less detailed +than the subsequent narratives of the Jesuits, but in +comparison with them gaining impact from being less +diffuse. + +It was on May 20, 1616, that Champlain left the Huron +country, never again to journey thither or to explore +the recesses of the forest. Forty days later he reached +the Sault St Louis, and saw once more his old friend +Pontgrave. Thenceforward his life belongs not to the +wilderness, but to Quebec. + + + +CHAPTER V + +CHAMPLAIN'S LAST YEARS + +When Champlain reached the Sault St Louis on July 1, +1616, his career as an explorer had ended. The nineteen +years of life that still remained he gave to Quebec and +the duties of his lieutenancy. + +By this time he had won the central position in his own +domain. Question might arise as to the terms upon which +a monopoly of trade should be granted, or as to the +persons who should be its recipients. But whatever company +might control the trade, Champlain was the king's +representative in New France. When Boyer affronted him, +the council had required that a public apology should be +offered. When Montmorency instituted the investigation +of 1620, it was Champlain's report which determined the +issue. Five years later, when the Duc de Ventadour became +viceroy in place of Montmorency, Champlain still remained +lieutenant-general of New France. Such were his character, +services, and knowledge that his tenure could not be +questioned. + +Notwithstanding this source of satisfaction, the post +was difficult in the extreme. The government continued +to leave colonizing in the hands of the traders, and the +traders continued to shirk their obligations. The Company +of the De Caens did a large business, but suffered more +severely than any of its predecessors from the strife of +Catholic and Huguenot. Those of the reformed religion +even held their services in the presence of the Indians, +thus anticipating the scandals of Kikuyu. Though the Duc +de Ventadour gave orders that there should be no +psalm-singing after the outbound ships passed Newfoundland, +this provision seems not to have been effective. It was +a difficult problem for one like Champlain, who, while +a loyal Catholic, had been working all his life with +Huguenot associates. + +The period of the De Caens was marked by the presence at +Quebec of Madame Champlain. The romance of Champlain's +life does not, however, revolve about his marriage. In +1610, at the age of forty-three, he espoused Helene +Boulle, whose father was secretary of the King's Chamber +to Henry IV. As the bride was only twelve years old, +the marriage contract provided that she should remain +two years longer with her parents. She brought a dowry +of six thousand livres, and simultaneously Champlain made +his will in her favour. Probably De Monts had some part +in arranging the marriage, for Nicholas Boulle was a +Huguenot and De Monts appears as a witness to the notarial +documents. Subsequently, Madame Champlain became an +enthusiastic Catholic and ended her days as a nun. She +had no children, and was only once in Canada, residing +continuously at Quebec from 1620 to 1624. No mention +whatever is made of her in Champlain's writings, but he +named St Helen's Island after her, and appears to have +been unwilling that she should enter a convent during +his lifetime. + +One need feel little surprise that Madame Champlain should +not care to visit Canada a second time, for the buildings +at Quebec had fallen into disrepair, and more than once +the supply of food ran very low. During 1625 Champlain +remained in France with his wife, and therefore did not +witness the coming o the Jesuits to the colony. This +event, which is a landmark in the history of Quebec and +New France, followed upon the inability of the Recollets +to cover the mission field with any degree of completeness. +Conscious that their resources were unequal to the task, +they invoked the aid of the Jesuits, and in this appeal +were strongly supported by Champlain. Once more the +horizon seemed to brighten, for the Jesuits had greater +resources and influence than any other order in the Roman +Catholic Church, and their establishment at Quebec meant +much besides a mere increase in the population. The year +1626 saw Champlain again at his post, working hard to +complete a new factory which he had left unfinished, +while the buildings of the Jesuit establishment made good +progress under the hand of workmen specially brought from +France. What still remained imperfect was the fortification. +The English had destroyed the French settlements at Mount +Desert and Port Royal. What was to hinder them from +bombarding Quebec? + +This danger soon clouded the mood of optimism that had +been inspired by the coming of the Jesuits. The De Caens +objected to any outlay on a fort, and would not give +Champlain the men he needed. In reply Champlain sent the +viceroy a report which was unfavourable to the company +and its methods. But even without this representation, +the monopoly of the De Caens was doomed by reason of +events which were taking place in France. + +At the court of Louis XIII Richelieu had now gained an +eminence and power such as never before had been possessed +by a minister of the French crown. Gifted with imagination +and covetous of national greatness, he saw the most +desirable portions of other continents in the hands of +the Spaniards, the Portuguese, the English, and the Dutch. +The prospect was not pleasing, and he cast about for a +remedy. + +For Hanotaux, [Footnote: Gabriel Hanotaux, member of the +French Academy, is the author of the most authoritative +work on the life and times of Richelieu.] Richelieu is +'the true founder of our colonial empire,' and La Ronciere +adds: 'Madagascar, Senegal, Guiana' the Antilles, Acadia, +and Canada--this, to be exact, was the colonial empire +for which we were indebted to Richelieu.' Regarding his +breadth of outlook there can be no doubt, and in his +Memoirs he left the oft-quoted phrase: 'No realm is so +well situated as France to be mistress of the seas or so +rich in all things needful.' Desiring to strengthen +maritime commerce and to hold distant possessions, he +became convinced that the English and the Dutch had +adopted the right policy. Strong trading companies--not +weak ones--were what France needed. + +Henry IV could have given the French a fair start, or +even a lead, in the race for colonies. He missed this +great opportunity; partly because he was preoccupied with +the reorganization of France, and partly because Sully, +his minister, had no enthusiasm for colonial ventures. +Twenty years later the situation had changed. Richelieu, +who was a man of wide outlook, was also compelled by the +activity of England and Holland to give attention to the +problem of a New France. The spirit of colonization was +in the air, and Richelieu, with his genius for ideas, +could not fail to see its importance or what would befall +the laggards. His misfortune was that he lacked certain +definite qualifications which a greater founder of colonies +needed to possess. Marvellous in his grasp of diplomatic +situations and in his handling of men, he had no talent +whatever for the details of commerce. His fiscal regime, +particularly after France engaged in her duel with the +House of Hapsburg, was disorganized and intolerable. Nor +did he recognize that, for the French, the desire to +emigrate required even greater encouragement than the +commercial instinct. He compelled his company to transport +settlers, but the number was not large, and he kindled +no popular enthusiasm for the cause of colonization. +France had once led the crusade eastward. Under proper +guidance she might easily have contributed more than she +did to the exodus westward. + +At any rate Richelieu, 'a man in the grand style, if ever +man was,' had decided that New France should no longer +languish, and the Company of One Hundred Associates was +the result. In 1627 he abolished the office of viceroy, +deprived the De Caens of their charter, and prepared to +make Canada a real colony. The basis of the plan was an +association of one hundred members, each subscribing +three thousand livres. Richelieu's own name heads the +list of members, followed by those of the minister of +finance and the minister of marine. Most of the members +resided in Paris, though the seaboard and the eastern +provinces were also represented. Nobles, wealthy merchants, +small traders, all figure in the list, and twelve titles +of nobility were distributed among the shareholders to +help in the enlistment of capital. The company received +a monopoly of trade for fifteen years, and promised to +take out three hundred colonists annually during the +whole period covered by the grant. It also received the +St Lawrence valley in full ownership. One notable provision +of the charter was that only Roman Catholics should be +sent to New France, and the company was placed under +special obligation to maintain three priests in each +settlement until the colony could support its own clergy. + +Champlain was now sixty years of age, and he had suffered +much. Suddenly there burst forth this spontaneous enthusiasm +of Richelieu the all-powerful. Was Champlain's dream of +the great city of Ludovica to come true after all? + +Alas, like previous visions, it faded before the glare +of harsh, uncompromising facts. The year in which Richelieu +founded his Company of New France was also the year of +a fierce Huguenot revolt. Calling on England for aid, La +Rochelle defied Paris, the king, and the cardinal. +Richelieu laid siege to the place. Guiton, the mayor, +sat at his council-board with a bare dagger before him +to warn the faint-hearted. The old Duchesse de Rohan +starved with the populace. Salbert, the most eloquent +of Huguenot pastors, preached that martyrdom was better +than surrender. Meanwhile, Richelieu built his mole across +the harbour, and Buckingham wasted the English troops to +which the citizens looked for their salvation. Then the +town yielded. + +The fall of La Rochelle was a great personal triumph for +Richelieu, but the war with England brought disaster to +the Company of New France. At Dieppe there had lived for +many years an Englishman named Jarvis, or Gervase, Kirke, +who with his five sons--David, Lewis, Thomas, John, and +Jamesknew much at first hand about the French merchant +marine. Early in the spring of 1628 Kirke (who had shortly +before moved to London) secured letters of marque and +sent forth his sons to do what damage they could to the +French in the St Lawrence. Champlain had spent the winter +at Quebec and was, of course, expecting his usual supplies +with the opening of navigation. Instead came Lewis Kirke, +sent from Tadoussac by his brother David, to demand +surrender. + +Champlain made a reply which, though courteous, was +sufficiently bold to convince the Kirkes that Quebec +could be best captured by starvation. They therefore +sailed down the St Lawrence to intercept the fleet from +France, confident that their better craft would overcome +these 'sardines of the sea.' The plan proved successful +even beyond expectation, for after a long cannonade they +captured without material loss the whole fleet which had +been sent out by the Company of New France. Ships, +colonists, annual supplies, building materials--all fell +into the hands of the enterprising Kirkes, who then sailed +for England with their booty. Alike to Champlain and to +the Hundred Associates it was a crippling blow. + +Thus, but for the war with England, Quebec would have +seen its population trebled in 1628. As it was, the +situation became worse than ever. Lewis Kirke had been +careful to seize the cattle pastured at Cap Tourmente +and to destroy the crops. When winter came, there were +eighty mouths to feed on a scant diet of peas and maize, +imperfectly ground, with a reserve supply of twelve +hundred eels. Towards spring anything was welcome, and +the roots of Solomon's seal were esteemed a feast. +Champlain even gave serious thought to a raid upon the +Mohawks, three hundred miles away, in the hope that food +could be brought back from their granaries. Finally, on +the 19th of July 1629, Lewis Kirke returned with a second +summons to surrender. This time only one answer was +possible, for to the survivors at Quebec the English came +less in the guise of foes than as human beings who could +save them from starvation. Champlain and his people +received honourable treatment, and were promised a passage +to France. The family Hebert, however, decided to remain. + +We need not dwell upon the emotions with which Champlain +saw the French flag pulled down at Quebec. Doubtless it +seemed the disastrous end of his life-work, but he was +a good soldier and enjoyed also the comforts of religion. +A further consolation was soon found in the discovery +that Quebec might yet be reclaimed. Ten weeks before +Champlain surrendered, the two countries were again at +peace, and the Treaty of Suza embodied a provision that +captures made after the treaty was signed should be +mutually restored. This intelligence reached Champlain +when he landed in England on the homeward voyage. It is +characteristic of the man, that before going on to France +he posted from Dover to London, and urged the French +ambassador that he should insistently claim Quebec. + +As a result of the war Canada and Acadia were both in +the possession of England. On the other hand, the dowry +of Henrietta Maria was still, for the most part, in the +treasury of France. When one remembers that 1628 saw +Charles I driven by his necessities to concede the Petition +of Right, it will be readily seen that he desired the +payment of his wife's dowry. Hence Richelieu, whose +talents in diplomacy were above praise, had substantial +reason to expect that Canada and Acadia would be restored. +The negotiations dragged on for more than two years, and +were complicated by disputes growing out of the captures +made under letter of marque. When all was settled by the +Treaty of St Germain-en-Laye (March 1632) Quebec and Port +Royal became once more French--to the profound discontent +of the Kirkes and Sir William Alexander, [Footnote: +Alexander had received grants from the British crown in +1621 and 1625 which covered the whole coast from St Croix +Island to the St Lawrence.] but with such joy on the part +of Champlain as only patriots can know who have given a +lifelong service to their country. + +Having regained Canada, Richelieu was forced to decide +what he would do with it. In certain important respects +the situation had changed since 1627, when he founded +the Company of New France. Then Gustavus Adolphus and +the Swedes were not a factor in the dire strife which +was convulsing Europe. [Footnote: At this period the +largest interest in European politics was the rivalry +between France and the House of Hapsburg, which held the +thrones of Spain and Austria. This rivalry led France to +take an active part in the Thirty Years' War, even though +her allies in that struggle were Protestants. Between +1627, when the Company of New France was founded, and +1632, when Canada was restored to France, the Swedes +under Gustavus Adolphus had won a series of brilliant +victories over the Catholic and Hapsburg forces in Germany, +After the death of Gustavus Adolphus in 1632, Richelieu +attacked the Emperor Ferdinand II in great force, thereby +conquering Alsace.] In 1632 the political problems of +Western and Central Europe had assumed an aspect quite +different from that which they had worn five years earlier. +More and more France was drawn into the actual conflict +of the Thirty Years' War, impelled by a sense of new and +unparalleled opportunity to weaken the House of Hapsburg. +This, in turn, meant the preoccupation of Richelieu with +European affairs, and a heavy drain upon the resources +of France in order to meet the cost of her more ambitious +foreign policy. Thus the duel with Austria, as it progressed +during the last decade of the cardinal's life, meant a +fresh check to those colonial prospects which seemed so +bright in 1627. + +Richelieu's first step in resuming possession of Canada +was to compose matters between the De Caens and the +Company of New France. Emery de Caen and his associates +were given the trading rights for 1632 and 79,000 livres +as compensation for their losses through the revocation +of the monopoly. Dating from the spring of 1633, the +Company of New France was to be placed in full possession +of Canada, subject to specific obligations regarding +missions and colonists. Conformably with this programme, +Emery de Caen appeared at Quebec on July 5, 1632, with +credentials empowering him to receive possession from +Lewis and Thomas Kirke, the representatives of England. +With De Caen came Paul Le Jeune and two other Jesuits, +a vanguard of the missionary band which was to convert +the savages. 'We cast anchor,' says Le Jeune, 'in front +of the fort which the English held; we saw at the foot +of this fort the poor settlement of Quebec all in ashes. +The English, who came to this country to plunder and not +to build up, not only burned a greater part of the detached +buildings which Father Charles Lalemant had erected, but +also all of that poor settlement of which nothing is now +to be seen but the ruins of its stone walls.' + +The season of 1632 thus belonged to De Caen, whose function +was merely to tie up loose ends and prepare for the +establishment of the new regime. The central incident of +the recession was the return of Champlain himself--an +old man who had said a last farewell to France and now +came, as the king's lieutenant, to end his days in the +land of his labours and his hopes. If ever the oft-quoted +last lines of Tennyson's Ulysses could fitly be claimed +by a writer on behalf of his hero, they apply to Champlain +as he sailed from the harbour of Dieppe on March 23, +1633. + + Come, my friends, + + 'Tis not too late to seek a newer world. + Push off, and sitting well in order smite + The sounding furrows; for my purpose holds + To sail beyond the sunset, and the baths + Of all the western stars until I die. + + Tho' much is taken, much abides; and tho' + We are not now that strength which in old days + Moved earth and heaven; that which we are, we are; + One equal temper of heroic hearts, + Made weak by time and fate, but strong in will + To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield. + +It was Champlain's reward that he saw Quebec once more +under the fleur-de-lis, and was welcomed by the Indians +with genuine emotion. The rhetorical gifts of the red +man were among his chief endowments, and all that eloquence +could lavish was poured forth in honour of Champlain at +the council of the Hurons, who had come to Quebec for +barter at the moment of his return. The description of +this council is one of the most graphic passages in Le +Jeune's Relations. A captain of the Hurons first arose +and explained the purpose of the gathering. 'When this +speech was finished all the Savages, as a sign of their +approval, drew from the depths of their stomachs this +aspiration, HO, HO, HO, raising the last syllable very +high.' Thereupon the captain began another speech of +friendship, alliance, and welcome to Champlain, followed +by gifts. Then the same captain made a third speech, +which was followed by Champlain's reply--a harangue well +adapted to the occasion. But the climax was reached in +the concluding orations of two more Huron chiefs. 'They +vied with each other in trying to honour Sieur de Champlain +and the French, and in testifying their affection for +us. One of them said that when the French were absent +the earth was no longer the earth, the river was no longer +the river, the sky was no longer the sky; but upon the +return of Sieur de Champlain everything was as before: +the earth was again the earth, the river was again the +river, and the sky was again the sky.' + +Thus welcomed by the savages, Champlain resumed his +arduous task. He was establishing Quebec anew and under +conditions quite unlike those which had existed in 1608. +The most notable difference was that the Jesuits were +now at hand to aid in the upbuilding of Canada. The Quebec +of De Monts and De Caen had been a trading-post, despite +the efforts of the Recollets and Jesuits to render it +the headquarters of a mission. Undoubtedly there existed +from the outset a desire to convert the Indians, but as +a source of strength to the colony this disposition +effected little until the return of the Jesuits in 1632. + +With the re-establishment of the Jesuit mission the last +days of Champlain are inseparably allied. A severe +experience had proved that the colonizing zeal of the +crown was fitful and uncertain. Private initiative was +needed to supplement the official programme, and of such +initiative the supply seemed scanty. The fur traders +notoriously shirked their obligations to enlarge the +colony, and after 1632 the Huguenots, who had a distinct +motive for emigrating, were forbidden by Richelieu to +settle in Canada. There remained the enthusiasm of the +Jesuits and the piety of those in France who supplied +the funds for their work among the Montagnais, the Hurons, +and the Iroquois. As the strongest order in the Roman +Catholic Church, the Jesuits possessed resources which +enabled them to maintain an active establishment in +Canada. Through them Quebec became religious, and their +influence permeated the whole colony as its population +increased and the zone of occupation grew wider. Le Jeune, +Lalemant, Brebeuf, and Jogues are among the outstanding +names of the restored New France. + +During the last two years of his life Champlain lived +patriarchally at Quebec, administering the public affairs +of the colony and lending its religious impulses the +strength of his support and example. Always a man of +serious mind, his piety was confirmed by the reflections +of advancing age and his daily contact with the +missionaries. In his household there was a service of +prayer three times daily, together with reading at supper +from the lives of the saints. In pursuance of a vow, he +built a chapel named Notre Dame de la Recouvrance, which +records the gratitude he felt for the restoration of +Quebec to France. He was, in short, the ideal layman-- +serving his king loyally in all business of state, and +demeaning himself as a pilgrim who is about to set forth +for the City of God. + +It is not to be inferred from the prominence of Champlain's +religious interests that he neglected his public duties, +which continued to be many and exacting. One of his +problems was to prevent the English from trading in the +St Lawrence contrary to treaty; another was to discourage +the Hurons from selling their furs to the Dutch on the +Hudson. The success of the mission, which he had deeply +at heart, implied the maintenance of peace among the +Indians who were friendly to the French. He sought also +to police the region of the Great Lakes by a band of +French soldiers, and his last letter to Richelieu (dated +August 15, 1635) contains an earnest appeal for a hundred +and twenty men, to whom should be assigned the duty of +marshalling the Indian allies against the English and +Dutch, as well as of preserving order throughout the +forest. The erection of a fort at Three Rivers in 1634 +was due to his desire that the annual barter should take +place at a point above Quebec. A commission which he +issued in the same year to Jean Nicolet to explore the +country of the Wisconsins, shows that his consuming zeal +for exploration remained with him to the end. + +It was permitted Champlain to die in harness. He remained +to the last lieutenant of the king in Canada. At the +beginning of October 1635 he was stricken with paralysis, +and passed away on Christmas Day of the same year. We do +not possess the oration which Father Paul Le Jeune +delivered at his funeral, but there remains from Le +Jeune's pen an appreciation of his character in terms +which to Champlain himself would have seemed the highest +praise. + + On the twenty-fifth of December, the day of the birth + of our Saviour upon earth, Monsieur de Champlain, our + Governor, was reborn in Heaven; at least we can say + that his death was full of blessings. I am sure that + God has shown him this favour in consideration of the + benefits he has procured for New France, where we hope + some day God will be loved and served by our French, + and known and adored by our Savages. Truly he had led + a life of great justice, equity, and perfect loyalty + to his King and towards the Gentlemen of the Company. + But at his death he crowned his virtues with sentiments + of piety so lofty that he astonished us all. What + tears he shed! how ardent became his zeal for the + service of God! how great was his love for the families + here!--saying that they must be vigorously assisted + for the good of the Country, and made comfortable in + every possible way in these early stages, and that he + would do it if God gave him health. He was not taken + unawares in the account which he had to render unto + God, for he had long ago prepared a general Confession + of his whole life, which he made with great contrition + to Father Lalemant, whom he honoured with his friendship. + The Father comforted him throughout his sickness, + which lasted two months and a half, and did not leave + him until his death. He had a very honourable burial, + the funeral procession being farmed of the people, + the soldiers, the captains, and the churchmen. Father + Lalemant officiated at this burial, and I was charged + with the funeral oration, for which I did not lack + material. Those whom he left behind have reason to be + well satisfied with him; for, though he died out of + France, his name will not therefor be any less glorious + to posterity. + + + +CHAPTER VI + +CHAMPLAIN'S WRITINGS AND CHARACTER + +There are some things that speak for themselves. In +attempting to understand Champlain's character, we are +first met by the fact that he pursued unflinchingly his +appointed task. For thirty-two years he persevered, amid +every kind of hardship, danger, and discouragement, in +the effort to build up New France. He had personal +ambitions as an explorer, which were kept in strict +subordination to his duty to the king. He possessed +concentration of aim without fanaticism. His signal +unselfishness was adorned by a patience which equalled +that of Marlborough. Inspired by large ideals, he did +not scorn imperfect means. + +Thus there are certain large aspects of Champlain's +character that stand forth in the high light of deed, +and do not depend for their effect either upon his own +words or those of others. But when once we have paid +tribute to the fine, positive qualities which are implied +by his accomplishment, we must hasten to recognize the +extraordinary value of his writings as an index to his +mind and soul. His narrative is not an epic of disaster. +It is a plain and even statement of great dangers calmly +met and treated as a matter of course. Largely it is a +record of achievement. At points where it is a record of +failure Champlain accepts the inevitable gracefully and +conforms his emotions to the will of God. The Voyages +reveal a strong man 'well four-squared to the blows of +fortune.' They also illustrate the virtue of muscular +Christianity. + +At a time which, like ours, is becoming sated with +cleverness, it is a delight to read the unvarnished story +of Champlain. In saying that the adjective is ever the +enemy of the noun, Voltaire could not have levelled the +shaft at him, for few writers have been more sparing in +their use of adjectives or other glowing words. His love +of the sea and of the forest was profound, but he is +never emotional in his expressions. Yet with all his +soberness and steadiness he possessed imagination. In +its strength and depth his enthusiasm for colonization +proves this, even if we omit his picture of the fancied +Ludovica. But as a man of action rather than of letters +he instinctively omits verbiage. In some respects we +suffer from Champlain's directness of mind for on much +that he saw he could have lingered with profit. But very +special inducements are needed to draw him from his plain +tale into a digression. Such inducements occur at times +when he is writing of the Indians, for he recognized that +Europe was eager to hear in full detail of their traits +and customs. Thus set passages of description, inserted +with a sparing hand, seemed to him a proper element of +the text, but anything like conscious embellishment of +the narrative he avoids--probably more through mere +naturalness than conscious self-repression. + +From Marco Polo to Scott's Journal the literature of +geographical discovery abounds with classics, and standards +of comparison suggest themselves in abundance to the +critic of Champlain's Voyages. Most naturally, of course, +one turns to the records of American exploration in the +sixteenth and seventeenth centuries--to Ramusio, Oviedo, +Peter Martyr, Hakluyt, and Purchas. No age can show a +more wonderful galaxy of pioneers than that which extends +from Columbus to La Salle, and among the great explorers +of this era Champlain takes his place by virtue alike of +his deeds and writings. In fact, he belongs to the small +and distinguished class of those who have recorded their +own discoveries in a suitable and authentic narrative, +for in few cases have geographical results of equal moment +been described by the discoverer himself. + +Among the many writings which are available for comparison +and contrast one turns, singularly yet inevitably, to +Lescarbot. The singularity of a comparison between +Champlain and Lescarbot is that Lescarbot was not a +geographer. At the same time, he is the only writer of +importance whose trail crosses that of Champlain, and +some light is thrown on Champlain's personality by a +juxtaposition of texts. That is to say, both were in +Acadia at the same time, sat together at Poutrincourt's +table, gazed on the same forests and clearings, met the +same Indians, and had a like opportunity of considering +the colonial problems which were thrust upon the French +in the reign of Henry IV. + +It would be hard to find narratives more dissimilar,--and +the contrast is not wholly to the advantage of Champlain. +Or rather, there are times when his Doric simplicity of +style seems jejune beside the flowing periods and +picturesque details of Lescarbot. No better illustration +of this difference in style, arising from fundamental +difference in temperament, can be found than the description +which each gives of the Ordre de Bon Temps. To Champlain +belongs the credit of inventing this pleasant means of +promoting health and banishing ennui, but all he tells +of it is this: 'By the rules of the Order a chain was +put, with some little ceremony, on the neck of one of +our company, commissioning him for the day to go a-hunting. +The next day it was conferred upon another, and thus in +succession. All exerted themselves to the utmost to see +who would do the best and bring home the finest game. We +found this a very good arrangement, as did also the +savages who were with us.' + +Such is the limit of the information which we receive +from Champlain regarding the Ordre de Bon Temps, his own +invention and the life of the company. It is reserved +for Lescarbot to give us the picture which no one can +forget--the Atoctegic, or ruler of the feast, leading +the procession to dinner 'napkin on shoulder, wand of +office in hand, and around his neck the collar of the +Order, which was worth more than four crowns; after him +all the members of the Order, carrying each a dish.' +Around stand the savages, twenty or thirty of them, 'men, +women, girls, and children,' all waiting for scraps of +food. At the table with the French themselves sits the +Sagamos Membertou and the other Indian chiefs, gladdening +the company by their presence. And the food!--'ducks, +bustards, grey and white geese, partridges, larks, and +other birds; moreover moose, caribou, beaver, otter, +bear, rabbits, wild-cats, racoons, and other animals,' +the whole culminating in the tenderness of moose meat +and the delicacy of beaver's tail. Such are the items +which Champlain omits and Lescarbot includes. So it is +throughout their respective narratives--Champlain ever +gaining force through compactness, and Lescarbot constantly +illuminating with his gaiety or shrewdness matters which +but for him would never have reached us. + +This difference of temperament and outlook, which is so +plainly reflected on the printed page, also had its effect +upon the personal relations of the two men. It was not +that Lescarbot scandalized Champlain by his religious +views, for though liberal-minded, Lescarbot was not a +heretic, and Champlain knew how to live harmoniously even +with Huguenots. The cause of the coolness which came to +exist between them must be sought rather in fundamental +contrasts of character. To Champlain, Lescarbot doubtless +seemed a mere hanger-on or protege of Poutrincourt, with +undue levity of disposition and a needless flow of +conversation. To Lescarbot, Champlain may well have seemed +deficient in literary attainments, and so preoccupied +with the concerns of geography as to be an uncongenial +companion. To whatever cause conjecture may trace it, +they did not become friends, although such lack of sympathy +as existed shows itself only in an occasional pin-prick, +traceable particularly in the later editions of their +writings. For us it is the more needful to lay stress +upon the merits of Lescarbot, because he tends to be +eclipsed by the greater reputation of Champlain, and also +because his style is sometimes so diffuse as to create +prejudice. But at his best he is admirable, and without +him we should know much less than we do about that Acadian +experience which holds such a striking place in the career +of Champlain. + +The popular estimate of French character dwells overmuch +upon the levity or gaiety which undoubtedly marks the +Gallic race. France could not have accomplished her +great work for the world without stability of purpose +and seriousness of mood. Nowhere in French biography are +these qualities more plainly illustrated than by the acts +of Champlain. The doggedness with which he clung to his +patriotic and unselfish task is the most conspicuous fact +in his life. Coupled therewith is his fortitude, both +physical and moral. In times of crisis the conscript sets +his teeth and dies without a murmur. But Champlain enlisted +as a volunteer for a campaign which was to go on unceasingly +till his last day. How incessant were its dangers can be +made out in full detail from the text of the Voyages. We +may omit the perils of the North Atlantic, though what +they were can be seen from Champlain's description of +his outward voyage in the spring of 1611. The remaining +dangers will suffice. Scurvy, which often claimed a +death-roll of from forty to eighty per cent in a single +winter; famine such as that which followed the failure +of ships from home to arrive at the opening of navigation; +the storms which drove the frail shallop on the rocks +and shoals of Norumbega; the risk of mutiny; the chances +of war, whether against the Indians or the English; the +rapids of the wilderness as they threatened the overloaded +canoe on its swift descent; the possible treachery of +Indian guides--such is a partial catalogue of the +death-snares which surrounded the pathway of an explorer +like Champlain. Every one of these dangers is brought +before us by his own narrative in a manner which does +credit to his modesty no less than to his fortitude. +Without embellishment or self-glorification, he recites +in a few lines hairbreadth escapes which a writer of less +steadfast soul would have amplified into a thrilling tale +of heroism. None the less, to the discriminating reader +Champlain's Voyages are an Odyssey. + +Bound up with habitual fortitude is the motive from which +it springs. In Champlain's case patriotism and piety were +the groundwork of a conspicuous and long-tested courage. +The patriotism which exacted such sacrifices was not one +which sought to define itself even in the form of a +justifiable digression from the recital of events. But +we may be sure that Champlain at the time he left Port +Royal had made up his mind that the Spaniards, the English, +and the Dutch were not to parcel out the seaboard of +North America to the exclusion of the French. As for the +religious basis of his fortitude, we do not need Le +Jeune's story of his death-bed or the record of his +friendship with men of religion. His narrative abounds +throughout with simple and natural expressions of piety, +not the less impressive because they are free from trace +of the theological intolerance which envenomed French +life in his age. And not only did Champlain's trust in +the Lord fortify his soul against fear, but religion +imposed upon him a degree of self-restraint which was +not common among explorers of the seventeenth century. +It is far from fanciful to see in this one of the chief +causes of his hold upon the Indians. To them he was more +than a useful ally in war time. They respected his sense +of honour, and long after his death remembered the +temperance which marked his conduct when he lived in +their villages. + +As a writer, Champlain enjoyed the advantage of possessing +a fresh, unhackneyed subject. The only exception to this +statement is furnished by his early book on the West +Indies and Mexico, where he was going over ground already +trodden by the Spaniards. His other writings relate to +a sphere of exploration and settlement which he made his +own, and of which he well merited to be the chronicler. + +Running through the Voyages is the double interest of +discovery and colonization, constantly blending and +reacting upon each other, but still remaining matters of +separate concern. It is obvious that in the mind of the +narrator discovery is always the more engaging theme. +Champlain is indeed the historian of St Croix, Port Royal, +and Quebec, but only incidentally or from chance. By +temper he was the explorer, that is, the man of action, +willing to record the broad results, but without the +instinct which led Lescarbot to set down the minutiae of +life in a small, rough settlement. There is one side of +Champlain's activity as a colonizer which we must lament +that he has not described--namely, his efforts to interest +the nobles and prelates of the French court in the +upbuilding of Canada. A diary of his life at Paris and +Fontainebleau would be among the choicest documents of +the early colonial era. But Champlain was too blunt and +loyal to set down the story of his relations with the +great, and for this portion of his life we must rely upon +letters, reports, and memoranda, which are so formal as +to lack the atmosphere of that painful but valiant +experience. + +Excluding the brief notices of life at St Croix, Port +Royal, and Quebec, Champlain's Voyages present a story +of discovery by sea and discovery by land. In other words, +the four years of Acadian adventure relate to discoveries +made along the seaboard, while the remaining narratives, +including the Des Sauvages of 1604, relate to the basin +of the St Lawrence. Mariner though he was by early +training, Champlain achieved his chief success as an +explorer by land, in the region of the Great Lakes. Bad +fortune prevented him from pursuing his course past +Martha's Vineyard to the mouth of the Hudson and Chesapeake +Bay. It was no small achievement to accomplish what he +did on the coast of Norumbega, but his most distinctive +discoveries were those which he made in the wilderness, +leading up to his fine experience of 1615-16 among the +Hurons. + +To single out Champlain's chief literary triumph, it was +he who introduced the Algonquin, the Huron, and the +Iroquois to the delighted attention of France. Ever since +the days of Cartier the French had known that savages +inhabited the banks of the St Lawrence, but Champlain is +the pioneer in that great body of literature on the North +American Indian, which thenceforth continued without +interruption in France to the Rene and Atala of +Chateaubriand. Above all other subjects, the Indians are +Champlain's chief theme. + +To some extent the account of Indian life which is given +in the Voyages suffers by comparison with the Relations +of the Jesuits. The Fathers, by reason of their long +residence among the Indians, undoubtedly came to possess +a more intimate knowledge of their character and customs +than it was possible for Champlain to acquire during the +time he spent among them. On the other hand, the Jesuits +were so preoccupied with the progress of the mission that +they tended to view the life of the savages too exclusively +from one angle. Furthermore, the volume of their description +is so great as to overwhelm all readers who are not +specially interested in the mission or the details of +Indian custom. Champlain wrote with sufficient knowledge +to bring out salient traits in high relief, while his +descriptive passages are sufficiently terse to come within +the range of those who are not specialists. When we +remember the perpetual interest which, for more than +three hundred years, Europe has felt in the North American +Indian, the Voyages of Champlain are seen in their true +perspective. For he, with fresh eyes, saw the red man in +his wigwam, at his council, and on the war-path; watched +his stoic courage under torture and his inhuman cruelty +in the hour of vengeance. Tales of the wilderness, the +canoe, the portage, and the ambush have never ceased to +fascinate the imagination of Europe. Champlain's narrative +may be plain and unadorned, but, with such a groundwork, +the imagination of every reader could supply details at +will. + +In all essential respects Champlain seems to have been +a good observer and an accurate chronicler. It is true +that his writings are not free from error involving facts +of distance, altitude, and chronology. But such slips as +have crept into his text do not constitute a serious +blemish or tend to impugn the good faith of his statements +on matters where there is no other source of information. +Everything considered, his substantial accuracy is much +more striking than his partial inaccuracy. In fact, no +one of his high character and disinterested zeal could +write with any other purpose than to describe truly what +he had seen and done. The seal of probity is set upon +Champlain's writings no less than upon the record of his +dealings with his employers and the king. Unselfish as +to money or fame, he sought to create New France. + +In national progress much depends on the auspices under +which the nation was founded and the tradition which it +represents. Thus England, and all the English world, has +an imperishable tradition in the deeds and character of +Alfred the Great; thus Canada has had from the outset of +the present stage in her development a great possession +in the equal self-sacrifice of Montcalm and Wolfe. On +the other hand, the nation is doomed to suffer which +bases its traditions of greatness upon such acts as the +seizure of Silesia by Frederick or Bismarck's manipulation +of the Ems telegram. + +For Canada Champlain is not alone a heroic explorer of +the seventeenth century, but the founder of Quebec; and +it is a rich part of our heritage that he founded New +France in the spirit of unselfishness, of loyalty, and +of faith. + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE + + + +Original Text + +The best edition of Champlain's own works, in the +original text, is that of Laverdiere--'OEuvres de +Champlain, pabliees sous le Patronage de l'Universite +Laval. Par l'Abbe C.-H. Laverdiere, M.A. Seconde +Edition. 6 tomes, 4to. Quebec: Imprime au Seminaire par +Geo. E. Desbarats, 1870.' + +The list of Champlain's writings includes: + +1. The 'Bref Discours,' describing his trip to the West + Indies. + +2. The 'Des Sauvages,' describing his first voyage to + the St Lawrence. + +3. The 'Voyages' of 1613, covering the years 1604-13 + inclusive. + +4. The 'Voyages' of 1619, covering the years 1615-18 + inclusive. + +5. The 'Voyages' of 1632, which represent a re-editing + of the early voyages from 1603 forward, and continue + the narrative from 1618 to 1629. + +6. A general treatise on the duties of the mariner. + + + +English Translations + +1. The 'Bref Discours,' in a translation by Alice Wilmere, + was published by the Hakluyt Society in 1859. + +2. The Des Sauvages (1604) was translated in 'Purchas + His Pilgrimes' (1625). + +3. The 'Voyages' of 1604-18 inclusive were translated by + C. P. Otis for the Prince Society of Boston, in three + volumes, 1878-82, with the Rev. E. F. Slafter as + editor. This is a fine work, but not easily accessible + in its original form. Fortunately, Professor Otis's + translation has been reprinted, with an introduction + and notes by Professor W. L. Grant, in the 'Original + Narratives of Early American History' (Scribners, + 1907). The passages quoted in the present volume are + taken from Otis's translation, with occasional changes. + +4. The 'Voyages' of 1604-16 inclusive have also been well + translated by Annie Nettleton Bourne, with an + introduction and notes by Professor E. G. Bourne + (A. S. Barnes and Co., 1906). This translation follows + the edition of 1632, and also gives the translation + of 'Des Souvages' which appears in Purchas. + + + +General Literature + +The career of Champlain is treated in many historical +works, of which the following are a few: Parkman, 'Pioneers +of France in the New World'; Dionne, 'Samuel de Champlain' +(in the Makers of Canada' series); Biggar, 'Early Trading +Companies of New France'; Slafter, 'Champlain' (in Winsor's +'Narrative and Critical History of America,' vol. iv, +part i, chap. iii); Salone, 'La Colonisation de la Nouvelle +France'; Sulte, 'Histoire des Canadiens-Francais'; Ferland, +'Cours d'Histoire du Canada'; Garneau, 'Histoire du +Canada,' fifth edition edited by the author's grandson, +Hector Garneau. + + + +Portrait + +Unfortunately, there is no authentic portrait of Champlain. +That ascribed to Moncornet is undoubtedly spurious, as +has been proved by V. H. Paltsits in 'Acadiensis,' vol. iv, +pp. 306-11. + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Founder of New France, by Charles W. Colby + |