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Colby + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Founder of New France: A Chronicle of +Champlain, by Charles W. Colby + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Founder of New France: A Chronicle of Champlain + Chronicles Of Canada, Volume 3 (Of 32) + +Author: Charles W. Colby + +Editor: George M. Wrong and H. H. Langton + +Release Date: December 13, 2009 [EBook #4213] +Last Updated: January 26, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW FRANCE *** + + + + +Produced by Gardner Buchanan, and David Widger + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table summary="" style="margin-right: auto; margin-left: auto" cellpadding="4" border="3"> +<tr> +<td> +THERE IS AN ILLUSTRATED EDITION OF THIS TITLE WHICH MAY VIEWED AT EBOOK <big><b><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/30257"> +[# 30257 ]</a></b></big> +</td> +</tr> +</table> + + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + THE FOUNDER OF NEW FRANCE + </h1> + <h2> + A Chronicle of Champlain + </h2> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Charles W. Colby + </h2> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h3> + CHRONICLES OF CANADA, Volume 3 (of 32) + </h3> + <h4> + Edited by George M. Wrong and H. H. Langton + </h4> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h5> + TORONTO, 1915 + </h5> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + Contents + </h2> + <table summary="" style="margin-right: auto; margin-left: auto"> + <tr> + <td> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I. CHAMPLAIN'S EARLY YEARS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER II. CHAMPLAIN IN ACADIA </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER III. CHAMPLAIN AT QUEBEC </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER IV. CHAMPLAIN IN THE WILDERNESS + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER V. CHAMPLAIN'S LAST YEARS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER VI. CHAMPLAIN'S WRITINGS AND + CHARACTER </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0007"> BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE </a> + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER I. CHAMPLAIN'S EARLY YEARS + </h2> + <p> + Were there a 'Who's Who in History' its chronicle of Champlain's life and + deeds would run as follows: + </p> + <p> + Champlain, Samuel de. Explorer, geographer, and colonizer. Born in 1567 at + Brouage, a village on the Bay of Biscay. Belonged by parentage to the + lesser gentry of Saintonge. In boyhood became imbued with a love of the + sea, but also served as a soldier in the Wars of the League. Though an + enthusiastic Catholic, was loyal to Henry of Navarre. On the Peace of + Vervins (1598) returned to the sea, visiting the Spanish West Indies and + Mexico. Between 1601 and 1603 wrote his first book—the Bref + Discours. In 1603 made his first voyage to the St Lawrence, which he + ascended as far as the Lachine Rapids. From 1604 to 1607 was actively + engaged in the attempt of De Monts to establish a French colony in Acadia, + at the same time exploring the seaboard from Cape Breton to Martha's + Vineyard. Returned to the St Lawrence in 1608 and founded Quebec. In 1609 + discovered Lake Champlain, and fought his first battle with the Iroquois. + In 1613 ascended the Ottawa to a point above Lac Coulange. In 1615 reached + Georgian Bay and was induced to accompany the Hurons, with their allies, + on an unsuccessful expedition into the country of the Iroquois. From 1617 + to 1629 occupied chiefly in efforts to strengthen the colony at Quebec and + promote trade on the lower St Lawrence. Taken a captive to London by Kirke + in 1629 upon the surrender of Quebec, but after its recession to France + returned (1633) and remained in Canada until his death, on Christmas Day + 1635. Published several important narratives describing his explorations + and adventures. An intrepid pioneer and the revered founder of New France. + </p> + <p> + Into some such terms as these would the writer of a biographical + dictionary crowd his notice of Champlain's career, so replete with danger + and daring, with the excitement of sailing among the uncharted islands of + Penobscot Bay, of watching the sun descend below the waves of Lake Huron, + of attacking the Iroquois in their palisaded stronghold, of seeing English + cannon levelled upon the houses of Quebec. It is not from a biographical + dictionary that one can gain true knowledge of Champlain, into whose + experience were crowded so many novel sights and whose soul was tested, + year after year, by the ever-varying perils of the wilderness. No life, it + is true, can be fitly sketched in a chronological abridgment, but history + abounds with lives which, while important, do not exact from a biographer + the kind of detail that for the actions of Champlain becomes priceless. + Kant and Hegel were both great forces in human thought, yet throughout + eighty years Kant was tethered to the little town of Konigsberg, and Hegel + did not know what the French were doing in Jena the day after there had + been fought just outside a battle which smote Prussia to her knees. The + deeds of such men are their thoughts, their books, and these do not make a + story. The life of Champlain is all story. The part of it which belongs to + the Wars of the League is lost to us from want of records. But fortunately + we possess in his Voyages the plain, direct narrative of his exploits in + America—a source from which all must draw who would know him well. + </p> + <p> + The method to be pursued in this book is not that of the critical essay. + Nor will these pages give an account of Champlain's times with reference + to ordinances regulating the fur trade, or to the policy of French kings + and their ministers towards emigration. Such subjects must be touched on, + but here it will be only incidentally. What may be taken to concern us is + the spirited action of Champlain's middle life—the period which lies + between his first voyage to the St Lawrence and his return from the land + of the Onondagas. Not that he had ended his work in 1616. The unflagging + efforts which he continued to put forth on behalf of the starving colony + at Quebec demand all praise. But the years during which he was incessantly + engaged in exploration show him at the height of his powers, with health + still unimpaired by exposure and with a soul that courted the unknown. + Moreover, this is the period for which we have his own narrative in + fullest detail. + </p> + <p> + Even were we seeking to set down every known fact regarding Champlain's + early life the task would not be long. Parkman, in referring to his + origin, styles him 'a Catholic gentleman,' with not even a footnote + regarding his parentage. [Footnote: It is hard to define Champlain's + social status in a single word. Parkman, besides styling him 'a Catholic + gentleman,' speaks of him elsewhere as being 'within the pale of the + noblesse.' On the other hand, the Biographie Saintongeoise says that he + came from a family of fishermen. The most important facts would seem to be + these. In Champlain's own marriage contract his father is styled 'Antoine + de Champlain, Capitaine de la Marine.' The same document styles Champlain + himself 'Samuel de Champlain.' A petition in which he asks for a + continuation of his pension (circ. 1630) styles him in its opening words + 'Le Sieur de Champlain' and afterwards 'le dit sieur Champlain' in two + places, while in six places it styles him 'le dit sieur de Champlain.' Le + Jeune calls him 'Monsieur de Champlain.' It is clear that he was not a + noble. It is also clear that he possessed sufficient social standing to + warrant the use of de. On the title-page of all his books after 1604 he is + styled the 'Sieur de Champlain.'] Dionne, in a biography of nearly three + hundred pages, does indeed mention the names of his father and mother, but + dismisses his first twenty years in twenty lines, which say little more + than that he learned letters and religion from the parish priest and a + love of the sea from his father. Nor is it easy to enlarge these + statements unless one chooses to make guesses as to whether or not + Champlain's parents were Huguenots because he was called Samuel, a + favourite name with French Protestants. And this question is not worth + discussion, since no one has, or can, cast a doubt upon the sincerity of + his own devotion to the Catholic faith. + </p> + <p> + In short, Champlain by birth was neither a peasant nor a noble, but issued + from a middle-class family; and his eyes turned towards the sea because + his father was a mariner dwelling in the small seaport of Brouage. + </p> + <p> + Thus when a boy Champlain doubtless had lessons in navigation, but he did + not become a sailor in the larger sense until he had first been a soldier. + His youth fell in the midst of the Catholic Revival, when the Church of + Rome, having for fifty years been sore beset by Lutherans and Calvinists, + began to display a reserve strength which enabled her to reclaim from them + a large part of the ground she had lost. But this result was not gained + without the bitterest and most envenomed struggle. If doctrinal divergence + had quickened human hatreds before the Council of Trent, it drove them to + fury during the thirty years that followed. At the time of the Massacre of + St Bartholomew Champlain was five years old. He was seventeen when William + the Silent was assassinated; twenty when Mary Stuart was executed at + Fotheringay; twenty-one when the Spanish Armada sailed against England and + when the Guises were murdered at Blois by order of Henry III; twenty-two + when Henry III himself fell under the dagger of Jacques Clement. The bare + enumeration of these events shows that Champlain was nurtured in an age of + blood and iron rather than amid those humanitarian sentiments which + prevail in an age of religious toleration. + </p> + <p> + Finding his country a camp, or rather two camps, he became a soldier, and + fought for ten years in the wretched strife to which both Leaguers and + Huguenots so often sacrificed their love of country. With Henry of Valois, + Henry of Navarre, and Henry of Guise as personal foes and political + rivals, it was hard to know where the right line of faith and loyalty lay; + but Champlain was both a Catholic and a king's man, for whom all things + issued well when Henry of Navarre ceased to be a heretic, giving France + peace and a throne. It is unfortunate that the details of these + adventurous years in Champlain's early manhood should be lost. Unassisted + by wealth or rank, he served so well as to win recognition from the king + himself, but beyond the names of his commanders (D'Aumont, St Luc, and + Brissac) there is little to show the nature of his exploits. [Footnote: He + served chiefly in Brittany against the Spanish allies of the League, and + reached the rank of quartermaster.] In any case, these ten years of + campaigning were a good school for one who afterwards was to look death in + the face a thousand times amidst the icebergs of the North Atlantic, and + off the rocky coast of Acadia, and in the forests of the Iroquois. + </p> + <p> + With such parentage and early experiences as have been indicated Champlain + entered upon his career in the New World. It is characteristic that he did + not leave the army until his services were no longer needed. At the age of + thirty-one he was fortunate enough to be freed from fighting against his + own countrymen. In 1598 was signed the Peace of Vervins by which the + enemies of Henry IV, both Leaguers and Spaniards, acknowledged their + defeat. To France the close of fratricidal strife came as a happy release. + To Champlain it meant also the dawn of a career. Hastening to the coast, + he began the long series of voyages which was to occupy the remainder of + his life. Indeed, the sea and what lay beyond it were henceforth to be his + life. + </p> + <p> + The sea, however, did not at once lead Champlain to New France. Provencal, + his uncle, held high employment in the Spanish fleet, and through his + assistance Champlain embarked at Blavet in Brittany for Cadiz, convoying + Spanish soldiers who had served with the League in France. After three + months at Seville he secured a Spanish commission as captain of a ship + sailing for the West Indies. Under this appointment it was his duty to + attend Don Francisco Colombo, who with an armada of twenty galleons sailed + in January 1599 to protect Porto Rico from the English. In the maritime + strife of Spain and England this expedition has no part that remains + memorable. For Champlain it meant a first command at sea and a first + glimpse of America. + </p> + <p> + The record of this voyage was an incident of no less importance in + Champlain's fortunes than the voyage itself. His cruisings in the Spanish + Main gave him material for a little book, the Bref Discours; and the Bref + Discours in turn advanced his career. Apart from any effect which it may + have had in securing for him the title of Geographer to the King, it shows + his own aspiration to be a geographer. Navigation can be regarded either + as a science or a trade. For Champlain it was plainly a science, demanding + care in observation and faithfulness of narrative. The Bref Discours was + written immediately upon his return from the West Indies, while the events + it describes were still fresh in mind. Appearing at a time when colonial + secrets were carefully guarded, it gave France a glimpse of Spanish + America from French eyes. For us it preserves Champlain's impressions of + Mexico, Panama, and the Antilles. For Champlain himself it was a + profession of faith, a statement that he had entered upon the honourable + occupation of navigator; in other words, that he was to be classed neither + with ship-captains nor with traders, but with explorers and authors. + </p> + <p> + It was in March 1601 that Champlain reached France on his return from the + West Indies. The next two years he spent at home, occupied partly with the + composition of his Bref Discours and partly with the quest of suitable + employment. His avowed preference for the sea and the reputation which he + had already gained as a navigator left no doubt as to the sphere of his + future activities, but though eager to explore some portion of America on + behalf of the French crown, the question of ways and means presented many + difficulties. Chief among these was the fickleness of the king. Henry IV + had great political intelligence, and moreover desired, in general, to + befriend those who had proved loyal during his doubtful days. His + political sagacity should have led him to see the value of colonial + expansion, and his willingness to advance faithful followers should have + brought Champlain something better than his pension and the title of + Geographer. But the problems of France were intricate, and what most + appealed to the judgment of Henry was the need of domestic reorganization + after a generation of slaughter which had left the land desolate. Hence, + despite momentary impulses to vie with Spain and England in oversea + expansion, he kept to the path of caution, avoiding any expenditure for + colonies which could be made a drain upon the treasury, and leaving + individual pioneers to bear the cost of planting his flag in new lands. In + friendship likewise his good impulses were subject to the vagaries of a + mercurial temperament and a marked willingness to follow the line of least + resistance. In the circumstances it is not strange that Champlain remained + two years ashore. + </p> + <p> + The man to whom he owed most at this juncture was Aymar de Chastes. Though + Champlain had served the king faithfully, his youth and birth prevented + him from doing more than belongs to the duty of a subaltern. But De + Chastes, as governor of Dieppe, at a time when the League seemed + everywhere triumphant, gave Henry aid which proved to be the means of + raising him from the dust. It was a critical event for Champlain that + early in 1603 De Chastes had determined to fit out an expedition to + Canada. Piety and patriotism seem to have been his dominant motives, but + an opening for profit was also offered by a monopoly of the Laurentian fur + trade. During the civil wars Champlain's strength of character had become + known at first hand to De Chastes, who both liked and admired him. Then, + just at the right moment, he reached Fontainebleau, with his good record + as a soldier and the added prestige which had come to him from his + successful voyage to the West Indies. He and De Chastes concluded an + agreement, the king's assent was specially given, and in the early spring + of 1603 the founder of New France began his first voyage to the St + Lawrence. + </p> + <p> + Champlain was now definitely committed to the task of gaining for France a + foothold in North America. This was to be his steady purpose, whether + fortune frowned or smiled. At times circumstances seemed favourable; at + other times they were most disheartening. Hence, if we are to understand + his life and character, we must consider, however briefly, the conditions + under which he worked. + </p> + <p> + It cannot be said that Champlain was born out of his right time. His + active years coincide with the most important, most exciting period in the + colonial movement. At the outset Spain had gone beyond all rivals in the + race for the spoils of America. The first stage was marked by unexampled + and spectacular profits. The bullion which flowed from Mexico and Peru was + won by brutal cruelty to native races, but Europe accepted it as wealth + poured forth in profusion from the mines. Thus the first conception of a + colony was that of a marvellous treasure-house where gold and silver lay + piled up awaiting the arrival of a Cortez or a Pizarro. + </p> + <p> + Unhappily disillusion followed. Within two generations from the time of + Columbus it became clear that America did not yield bonanza to every + adventurer. Yet throughout the sixteenth century there survived the dream + of riches to be quickly gained. Wherever the European landed in America he + looked first of all for mines, as Frobisher did on the unpromising shores + of Labrador. The precious metals proving illusive, his next recourse was + to trade. Hawkins sought his profit from slaves. The French bought furs + from the Indians at Tadoussac. Gosnold brought back from Cape Cod a mixed + cargo of sassafras and cedar. + </p> + <p> + But wealth from the mines and profits from a coasting trade were only a + lure to the cupidity of Europe. Real colonies, containing the germ of a + nation, could not be based on such foundations. Coligny saw this, and + conceived of America as a new home for the French race. Raleigh, the most + versatile of the Elizabethans, lavished his wealth on the patriotic + endeavour to make Virginia a strong and self-supporting community. 'I + shall yet live to see it an English nation,' he wrote—at the very + moment when Champlain was first dreaming of the St Lawrence. Coligny and + Raleigh were both constructive statesmen. The one was murdered before he + could found such a colony as his thought presaged: the other perished on + the scaffold, though not before he had sowed the seed of an American + empire. For Raleigh was the first to teach that agriculture, not mines, is + the true basis of a colony. In itself his colony on Roanoke Island was a + failure, but the idea of Roanoke was Raleigh's greatest legacy to the + English race. + </p> + <p> + With the dawn of the seventeenth century events came thick and fast. It + was a time when the maritime states of Western Europe were all keenly + interested in America, without having any clear idea of the problem. + Raleigh, the one man who had a grasp of the situation, entered upon his + tragic imprisonment in the same year that Champlain made his first voyage + to the St Lawrence. But while thought was confused and policy unsettled, + action could no longer be postponed. The one fact which England, France, + and Holland could not neglect was that to the north of Florida no European + colony existed on the American coast. Urging each of these states to + establish settlements in a tract so vast and untenanted was the double + desire to possess and to prevent one's neighbour from possessing. On the + other hand, caution raised doubts as to the balance of cost and gain. The + governments were ready to accept the glory and advantage, if private + persons were prepared to take the risk. Individual speculators, very + conscious of the risk, demanded a monopoly of trade before agreeing to + plant a colony. But this caused new difficulty. The moment a monopoly was + granted, unlicensed traders raised an outcry and upbraided the government + for injustice. + </p> + <p> + Such were the problems upon the successful or unsuccessful solution of + which depended enormous national interests, and each country faced them + according to its institutions, rulers, and racial genius. It only needs a + table of events to show how fully the English, the French, and the Dutch + realized that something must be done. In 1600 Pierre Chauvin landed + sixteen French colonists at Tadoussac. On his return in 1601 he found that + they had taken refuge with the Indians. In 1602 Gosnold, sailing from + Falmouth, skirted the coast of Norumbega from Casco Bay to Cuttyhunk. In + 1603 the ships of De Chastes, with Champlain aboard, spent the summer in + the St Lawrence; while during the same season Martin Pring took a cargo of + sassafras in Massachusetts Bay. From 1604. to 1607 the French under De + Monts, Poutrincourt, and Champlain were actively engaged in the attempt to + colonize Acadia. But they were not alone in setting up claims to this + region. In 1605 Waymouth, sailing from Dartmouth, explored the mouth of + the Kennebec and carried away five natives. In 1606 James I granted + patents to the London Company and the Plymouth Company which, by their + terms, ran athwart the grant of Henry IV to De Monts. In the same year Sir + Ferdinando Gorges sent Pring once more to Norumbega. In 1607 Raleigh, + Gilbert, and George Popham made a small settlement at the mouth of the + Sagadhoc, where Popham died during the winter. As a result of his death + this colony on the coast of Maine was abandoned, but 1607 also saw the + memorable founding of Jamestown in Virginia. Equally celebrated is + Champlain's founding of Quebec in 1608. In 1609 the Dutch under an English + captain, Henry Hudson, had their first glimpse of Manhattan. + </p> + <p> + This catalogue of voyages shows that an impulse existed which governments + could not ignore. The colonial movement was far from being a dominant + interest with Henry IV or James I, but when their subjects saw fit to + embark upon it privately, the crown was compelled to take cognizance of + their acts and frame regulations. 'Go, and let whatever good may, come of + it!' exclaimed Robert de Baudricourt as Joan of Arc rode forth from + Vaucouleurs to liberate France. In much the same spirit Henry IV saw De + Monts set sail for Acadia. The king would contribute nothing from the + public purse or from his own. Sully, his prime minister, vigorously + opposed colonizing because he wished to concentrate effort upon domestic + improvements. He believed, in the second place, that there was no hope of + creating a successful colony north of the fortieth parallel. Thirdly, he + was in the pay of the Dutch. + </p> + <p> + The most that Henry IV would do for French pioneers in America was to give + them a monopoly of trade in return for an undertaking to transport and + establish colonists. In each case where a monopoly was granted the number + of colonists was specified. As for their quality, convicts could be taken + if more eligible candidates were not forthcoming. The sixty unfortunates + landed by La Roche on Sable Island in 1598 were all convicts or sturdy + vagrants. Five years later only eleven were left alive. + </p> + <p> + For the story of Champlain it is not necessary to touch upon the relations + of the French government with traders at a date earlier than 1599. + Immediately following the failure of La Roche's second expedition, Pierre + Chauvin of Honfleur secured a monopoly which covered the Laurentian fur + trade for ten years. The condition was that he should convey to Canada + fifty colonists a year throughout the full period of his grant. So far + from carrying out this agreement either in spirit or letter, he shirked it + without compunction. After three years the monopoly was withdrawn, less on + the ground that he had failed to fulfil his contract than from an outcry + on the part of merchants who desired their share of the trade. To + adjudicate between Chauvin and his rivals in St Malo and Rouen a + commission was appointed at the close of 1602. Its members were De + Chastes, governor of Dieppe, and the Sieur de la Cour, first president of + the Parlement of Normandy. On their recommendation the terms of the + monopoly were so modified as to admit to a share in the privilege certain + leading merchants of Rouen and St Malo, who, however, must pay their due + share in the expenses of colonizing. Before the ships sailed in 1603 + Chauvin had died, and De Chastes at once took his place as the central + figure in the group of those to whom a new monopoly had just been + conceded. + </p> + <p> + [Footnote: The history of all the companies formed during these years for + trade in New France is the same. First a monopoly is granted under + circumstances ostensibly most favourable to the Government and to the + privileged merchants; then follow the howls of the excluded traders, the + lack of good voluntary colonists, the transportation to the colony of a + few beggars, criminals, or unpromising labourers; a drain on the company's + funds in maintaining these during the long winter; a steady decrease in + the number taken out; at length no attempt to fulfil this condition of the + monopoly; the anger of the Government when made aware of the facts; and + finally the sudden repeal of the monopoly several years before its legal + termination.—H. P. Biggar, 'Early Trading Companies of New France,' + p. 49.] + </p> + <p> + We are now on the threshold of Champlain's career, but only on the + threshold. The voyage of 1603, while full of prophecy and presenting + features of much interest, lacks the arduous and constructive quality + which was to mark his greater explorations. In 1603 the two boats equipped + by De Chastes were under the command of Pontgrave [Footnote: Francois + Grave, Sieur du Pont, whose name, strictly speaking, is Dupont-Grave, one + of the most active French navigators of the seventeenth century. From 1600 + to 1629 his voyages to the St Lawrence and Acadia were incessant.] and + Prevert, both mariners from St Malo. Champlain sailed in Pontgrave's ship + and was, in fact, a superior type of supercargo. De Chastes desired that + his expedition should be self-supporting, and the purchase of furs was + never left out of sight. At the same time, his purpose was undoubtedly + wider than profit, and Champlain represented the extra-commercial motive. + While Pontgrave was trading with the Indians, Champlain, as the + geographer, was collecting information about their character, their + customs, and their country. Their religious ideas interested him much, and + also their statements regarding the interior of the continent. Such data + as he could collect between the end of May and the middle of August he + embodied in a book called Des Sauvages, which, true to its title, deals + chiefly with Indian life and is a valuable record, although in many + regards superseded by the more detailed writings of the Jesuits. + </p> + <p> + The voyage of 1603 added nothing material to what had been made known by + Jacques Cartier and the fur traders about Canada. Champlain ascended the + St Lawrence to the Sault St Louis [Footnote: Now called the Lachine + Rapids. An extremely important point in the history of New France, since + it marked the head of ship navigation on the St Lawrence. Constantly + mentioned in the writings of Champlain's period.] and made two side + excursions—one taking him rather less than forty miles up the + Saguenay and the other up the Richelieu to the rapid at St Ours. He also + visited Gaspe, passed the Isle Percee, had his first glimpse of the Baie + des Chaleurs, and returned to Havre with a good cargo of furs. On the + whole, it was a profitable and satisfactory voyage. Though it added little + to geographical knowledge, it confirmed the belief that money could be + made in the fur trade, and the word brought back concerning the Great + Lakes of the interior was more distinct than had before been reported. The + one misfortune of the expedition was that its author, De Chastes, did not + live to see its success. He had died less than a month before his ships + reached Havre. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II. CHAMPLAIN IN ACADIA + </h2> + <p> + [Footnote: This word (Acadia) has sometimes been traced to the Micmac + akade, which, appended to place-names, signifies an abundance of + something. More probably, however, it is a corruption of Arcadia. The + Acadia of De Monts' grant in 1604 extended from the parallel of 40 degrees + to that of 46 degrees north latitude, but in the light of actual + occupation the term can hardly be made to embrace more than the coast from + Cape Breton to Penobscot Bay.] + </p> + <p> + The early settlements of the French in America were divided into two zones + by the Gulf of St Lawrence. Considered from the standpoint of + colonization, this great body of water has a double aspect. In the main it + was a vestibule to the vast region which extended westward from Gaspe to + Lake Michigan and thence to the Mississippi. But while a highway it was + also a barrier, cutting off Acadia from the main route that led to the + heart of the interior. Port Royal, on the Bay of Fundy, was one centre and + Quebec another. Between them stretched either an impenetrable wilderness + or an inland sea. Hence Acadia remained separate from the Laurentian + valley, which was the heart of Canada—although Acadia and Canada + combined to form New France. Of these two sister districts Canada was the + more secure. The fate of Acadia shows how much less vulnerable to English + attack were Quebec, Three Rivers, and Montreal than the seaboard + settlements of Port Royal, Grand Pre, and Louisbourg. + </p> + <p> + It is a striking fact that Champlain had helped to found Port Royal before + he founded Quebec. He was not the pioneer of Acadian colonization: De + Monts deserves the praise of turning the first sod. But Champlain was a + leading figure in the hard fight at St Croix and Port Royal; he it was who + first charted in any detail the Atlantic seaboard from Cape Breton to Cape + Cod; and his narrative joins with that of Lescarbot to preserve the story + of the episode. + </p> + <p> + Although unprosperous, the first attempt of the French to colonize Acadia + is among the bright deeds of their colonial history. While the death of De + Chastes was most inopportune, the future of the French race in America did + not hinge upon any one man. In 1603 fishing on the Grand Bank off + Newfoundland was a well-established occupation of Normans and Bretons, the + fur trade held out hope of great profit, and the spirit of national + emulation supplied a motive which was stronger still. Hence it is not + surprising that to De Chastes there at once succeeds De Monts. + </p> + <p> + As regards position they belonged to much the same class. Both were men of + standing, with enough capital and influence to organize an expedition. In + respect, however, of personality and circumstance there were differences. + By reason of advanced age De Chastes had been unable to accompany his + ships, whereas De Monts was in his prime and had already made a voyage to + the St Lawrence. Moreover, De Monts was a Huguenot. A generation later no + Huguenot could have expected to receive a monopoly of the fur trade and a + royal commission authorizing him to establish settlements, but Henry IV, + who had once been a Protestant, could hardly treat his old co-religionists + as Richelieu afterwards treated them. The heresy of its founder was a + source of weakness to the first French colony in Acadia, yet through a + Calvinist it came into being. + </p> + <p> + Like De Chastes, De Monts had associates who joined with him to supply the + necessary funds, though in 1604. the investment was greater than on any + previous occasion, and a larger number were admitted to the benefits of + the monopoly. Not only did St Malo and Rouen secure recognition, but La + Rochelle and St Jean de Luz were given a chance to participate. De Monts' + company had a capital of 90,000 livres, divided in shares—of which + two-fifths were allotted to St Malo, two-fifths to La Rochelle and St Jean + de Luz conjointly, and the remainder to Rouen. The personal investment of + De Monts was somewhat more than a tenth of the total, as he took a + majority of the stock which fell to Rouen. Apart from Sully's + unfriendliness, the chief initial difficulty arose over religion. The + Parlement of Normandy refused to register De Monts' commission on the + ground that the conversion of the heathen could not fitly be left to a + heretic. This remonstrance was only withdrawn after the king had + undertaken to place the religious instruction of the Indians in the charge + of priests—a promise which did not prevent the Protestant colonists + from having their own pastor. The monopoly contained wider privileges than + before, including both Acadia and the St Lawrence. At the same time, the + obligation to colonize became more exacting, since the minimum number of + new settlers per annum was raised from fifty to a hundred. + </p> + <p> + Champlain's own statement regarding the motive of De Monts' expedition is + that it lay in the desire 'to find a northerly route to China, in order to + facilitate commerce with the Orientals.' After reciting a list of + explorations which began with John Cabot and had continued at intervals + during the next century, he continues: 'So many voyages and discoveries + without results, and attended with so much hardship and expense, have + caused us French in late years to attempt a permanent settlement in those + lands which we call New France, in the hope of thus realizing more easily + this object; since the voyage in search of the desired passage commences + on the other side of the ocean and is made along the coast of this + region.' + </p> + <p> + A comparison of the words just quoted with the text of De Monts' + commission will serve to illustrate the strength of Champlain's + geographical instinct. The commission begins with a somewhat stereotyped + reference to the conversion of the heathen, after which it descants upon + commerce, colonies, and mines. The supplementary commission to De Monts + from Montmorency as Lord High Admiral adds a further consideration, + namely, that if Acadia is not occupied by the French it will be seized + upon by some other nation. Not a word of the route to the East occurs in + either commission, and De Monts is limited in the powers granted to a + region extending along the American seaboard from the fortieth parallel to + the forty-sixth, with as much of the interior 'as he is able to explore + and colonize.' + </p> + <p> + This shows that, while the objects of the expedition were commercial and + political, Champlain's imagination was kindled by the prospect of finding + the long-sought passage to China. To his mind a French colony in America + is a stepping-stone, a base of operations for the great quest. De Monts + himself doubtless sought honour, adventure, and profit—the profit + which might arise from possessing Acadia and controlling the fur trade in + 'the river of Canada.' Champlain remains the geographer, and his chief + contribution to the Acadian enterprise will be found in that part of his + Voyages which describes his study of the coast-line southward from Cape + Breton to Malabar. + </p> + <p> + But whether considered from the standpoint of exploration or settlement, + the first chapter of French annals in Acadia is a fine incident. Champlain + has left the greatest fame, but he was not alone during these years of + peril and hardship. With him are grouped De Monts, Poutrincourt, + Lescarbot, Pontgrave, and Louis Hebert, all men of capacity and + enterprise, whose part in this valiant enterprise lent it a dignity which + it has never since lost. As yet no English colony had been established in + America. Under his commission De Monts could have selected for the site of + his settlement either New York or Providence or Boston or Portland. The + efforts of the French in America from 1604. to 1607 are signalized by the + character of their leaders, the nature of their opportunity, and the + special causes which prevented them from taking possession of Norumbega. + </p> + <p> + [Footnote: There appears in Verrazano's map of 1529 the word Aranbega, as + attached to a small district on the Atlantic seaboard. Ten years later + Norumbega has become a region which takes in the whole coast from Cape + Breton to Florida. At intervals throughout the sixteenth century fables + were told in Europe of its extraordinary wealth, and it was not till the + time of Champlain that this myth was exposed. Champlain himself identifies + 'the great river of Norumbega' with the Penobscot.] + </p> + <p> + De Monts lacked neither courage nor persistence. His battle against + heartbreaking disappointments shows him to have been a pioneer of high + order. And with him sailed in 1604 Jean de Biencourt, Seigneur de + Poutrincourt, whose ancestors had been illustrious in Picardy for five + hundred years. Champlain made a third, joining the expedition as + geographer rather than shipmaster. Lescarbot and Hebert came two years + later. + </p> + <p> + The company left Havre in two ships—on March 7, 1604, according to + Champlain, or just a month later, according to Lescarbot. Although De + Monts' commission gave him the usual privilege of impressing convicts, the + personnel of his band was far above the average. Champlain's statement is + that it comprised about one hundred and twenty artisans, and there were + also 'a large number of gentlemen, of whom not a few were of noble birth.' + Besides the excitement provided by icebergs, the arguments of priest and + pastor diversified the voyage, even to the point of scandal. After + crossing the Grand Bank in safety they were nearly wrecked off Sable + Island, but succeeded in reaching the Acadian coast on May 8. From their + landfall at Cap de la Heve they skirted the coast-line to Port Mouton, + confiscating en route a ship which was buying furs in defiance of De + Monts' monopoly. + </p> + <p> + Rabbits and other game were found in abundance at Port Mouton, but the + spot proved quite unfit for settlement, and on May 19 De Monts charged + Champlain with the task of exploring the coast in search of harbours. + Taking a barque of eight tons and a crew of ten men (together with + Ralleau, De Monts' secretary), Champlain set out upon this important + reconnaissance. Fish, game, good soil, good timber, minerals, and safe + anchorage were all objects of search. Skirting the south-western corner of + Nova Scotia, the little ship passed Cape Sable and the Tusquet Islands, + turned into the Bay of Fundy, and advanced to a point somewhat beyond the + north end of Long Island. Champlain gives at considerable length the + details of his first excursion along the Acadian seaboard. In his zeal for + discovery he caused those left at Port Mouton both inconvenience and + anxiety. Lescarbot says, with a touch of sharpness: 'Champlain was such a + time away on this expedition that when deliberating about their return [to + France] they thought of leaving him behind.' Champlain's own statement is + that at Port Mouton 'Sieur de Monts was awaiting us from day to day, + thinking only of our long stay and whether some accident had not befallen + us.' + </p> + <p> + De Monts' position at Port Mouton was indeed difficult. By changing his + course in mid-ocean he had missed rendezvous with the larger of his two + ships, which under the command of Pontgrave looked for him in vain from + Canseau to the Bay of Islands. Meanwhile, at Port Mouton provisions were + running low, save for rabbits, which could not be expected to last for + ever. The more timid raised doubts and spoke of France, but De Monts and + Poutrincourt both said they would rather die than go back. In this mood + the party continued to hunt rabbits, to search the coast north-easterly + for Pontgrave, and to await Champlain's return. Their courage had its + reward. Pontgrave's ship was found, De Monts revictualled, Champlain + reappeared, and by the middle of June the little band of Colonists was + ready to proceed. + </p> + <p> + As De Monts heads south-west from Port Mouton it is difficult to avoid + thoughts regarding the ultimate destiny of France in the New World. This + was the predestined moment. The Wars of Religion had ended in the reunion + of the realm under a strong and popular king. The French nation was + conscious of its greatness, and seemed ready for any undertaking that + promised honour or advantage. The Huguenots were a sect whose members + possessed Calvinistic firmness of will, together with a special motive for + emigrating. And, besides, the whole eastern coast of America, within the + temperate zone, was still to be had for the taking. With such a + magnificent opportunity, why was the result so meagre? + </p> + <p> + A complete answer to this query would lead us far afield, but the whole + history of New France bears witness to the fact that the cause of failure + is not to be found in the individual French emigrant. There have never + been more valiant or tenacious colonists than the peasants of Normandy who + cleared away the Laurentian wilderness and explored the recesses of North + America. France in the age of De Monts and Champlain possessed adequate + resources, if only her effort had been concentrated on America, or if the + Huguenots had not been prevented from founding colonies, or if the crown + had been less meddlesome, or if the quest of beaver skins farther north + had not diverted attention from Chesapeake Bay and Manhattan Island. The + best chance the French ever had to effect a foothold in the middle portion + of the Atlantic coast came to them in 1604, when, before any rivals had + established themselves, De Monts was at hand for the express purpose of + founding a colony. It is quite probable that even if he had landed on + Manhattan Island, the European preoccupations of France would have + prevented Henry IV from supporting a colony at that point with sufficient + vigour to protect it from the English. Yet the most striking aspect of De + Monts' attempt in Acadia is the failure to seize a chance which never came + again to the French race. In 1607 Champlain sailed away from Port Royal + and the English founded Jamestown. In 1608 Champlain founded Quebec, and + thenceforth for over a century the efforts of France were concentrated on + the St Lawrence. When at length she founded Louisbourg it was too late; by + that time the English grasp upon the coast could not be loosened. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile De Monts, to whom the future was veiled, left Port Mouton and, + creeping from point to point, entered the Bay of Fundy—or, as + Champlain calls it, 'the great Baye Francoise, so named by Sieur de + Monts.' The month was June, but no time could be lost, for at this + juncture the aim of exploration was the discovery of a suitable site, and + after the site had been fixed the colonists needed what time remained + before winter to build their houses. Hence De Monts' first exploration of + the Baye Francoise was not exhaustive. He entered Annapolis Basin and + glanced at the spot which afterwards was to be Port Royal. He tried in + vain to find a copper-mine of which he had heard from Prevert of St Malo. + He coasted the Bay of St John, and on June 25 reached St Croix Island. + 'Not finding any more suitable place than this island,' says Champlain, + the leaders of the colony decided that it should be fortified: and thus + was the French flag unfurled in Acadia. + </p> + <p> + The arrangement of the settlement at St Croix was left to Champlain, who + gives us a drawing in explanation of his plan. The selection of an island + was mainly due to distrust of the Indians, with whom, however, intercourse + was necessary. The island lay close to the mouth of a river, now also + called the St Croix. As the choice of this spot proved most unfortunate, + it is well to remember the motives which prevailed at the time. 'Vessels + could pass up the river,' says Champlain, 'only at the mercy of the cannon + on this island, and we deemed the location most advantageous, not only on + account of its situation and good soil, but also on account of the + intercourse which we proposed with the savages of these coasts and of the + interior, as we should be in the midst of them. We hoped to pacify them in + course of time and put an end to the wars which they carry on with one + another, so as to derive service from them in future and convert them to + the Christian faith.' + </p> + <p> + De Monts' band was made up largely of artisans, who at once began with + vigour to erect dwellings. A mill and an oven were built; gardens were + laid out and many seeds planted therein. The mosquitoes proved + troublesome, but in other respects the colonists had good cause to be + pleased with their first Acadian summer. So far had construction work + advanced by the beginning of autumn that De Monts decided to send an + exploration party farther along the coast to the south-west. 'And,' says + Champlain, 'he entrusted me with this work, which I found very agreeable.' + </p> + <p> + The date of departure from St Croix was September 2, so that no very + ambitious programme of discovery could be undertaken before bad weather + began. In a boat of eighteen tons, with twelve sailors and two Indian + guides, Champlain threaded the maze of islands which lies between + Passamaquoddy Bay and the mouth of the Penobscot. The most striking part + of the coast was Mount Desert, 'very high and notched in places, so that + there is the appearance to one at sea as of seven or eight mountains + extending along near each other.' To this island and the Isle au Haut + Champlain gave the names they have since borne. Thence advancing, with his + hand ever on the lead, he reached the mouth of the Penobscot, despite + those 'islands, rocks, shoals, banks, and breakers which are so numerous + on all sides that it is marvellous to behold.' Having satisfied himself + that the Penobscot was none other than the great river Norumbega, referred + to largely on hearsay by earlier geographers, he followed it up almost to + Bangor. On regaining the sea he endeavoured to reach the mouth of the + Kennebec, but when within a few miles of it was driven back to St Croix by + want of food. In closing the story of this voyage, which had occupied a + month, Champlain says with his usual directness: 'The above is an exact + statement of all I have observed respecting not only the coasts and + people, but also the river of Norumbega; and there are none of the marvels + there which some persons have described. I am of opinion that this region + is as disagreeable in winter as that of our settlement, in which we were + greatly deceived.' + </p> + <p> + Champlain was now to undergo his first winter in Acadia, and no part of + his life could have been more wretched than the ensuing eight months. On + October 6 the snow came. On December 3 cakes of ice began to appear along + the shore. The storehouse had no cellar, and all liquids froze except + sherry. 'Cider was served by the pound. We were obliged to use very bad + water and drink melted snow, as there were no springs or brooks.' It was + impossible to keep warm or to sleep soundly. The food was salt meat and + vegetables, which impaired the strength of every one and brought on + scurvy. It is unnecessary to cite here Champlain's detailed and graphic + description of this dreadful disease. The results are enough. Before the + spring came two-fifths of the colonists had died, and of those who + remained half were on the point of death. Not unnaturally, 'all this + produced discontent in Sieur de Monts and others of the settlement.' + </p> + <p> + The survivors of the horrible winter at St Croix were not freed from + anxiety until June 15, 1605, when Pontgrave, six weeks late, arrived with + fresh stores. Had De Monts been faint-hearted, he doubtless would have + seized this opportunity to return to France. As it was, he set out in + search of a place more suitable than St Croix for the establishment of his + colony, On June 18, with a party which included twenty sailors and several + gentlemen, he and Champlain began a fresh voyage to the south-west. Their + destination was the country of the Armouchiquois, an Algonquin tribe who + then inhabited Massachusetts. + </p> + <p> + Champlain's story of his first voyage from Acadia to Cape Cod is given + with considerable fulness. The topography of the seaboard and its natural + history, the habits of the Indians and his adventures with them, were all + new subjects at the time, and he treats them so that they keep their + freshness. He is at no pains to conceal his low opinion of the coast + savages. Concerning the Acadian Micmacs he says little, but what he does + say is chiefly a comment upon the wretchedness of their life during the + winter. As he went farther south he found an improvement in the food + supply. At the mouth of the Saco he and De Monts saw well-kept patches of + Indian corn three feet high, although it was not yet midsummer. Growing + with the corn were beans, pumpkins, and squashes, all in flower; and the + cultivation of tobacco is also noted. Here the savages formed a permanent + settlement and lived within a palisade. Still farther south, in the + neighbourhood of Cape Cod, Champlain found maize five and a half feet + high, a considerable variety of squashes, tobacco, and edible roots which + tasted like artichokes. + </p> + <p> + But whether the coast Indians were Micmacs or Armouchiquois, whether they + were starving or well fed, Champlain tells us little in their praise. Of + the Armouchiquois he says: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I cannot tell what government they have, but I think + that in this respect they resemble their neighbours, + who have none at all. They know not how to worship or + pray; yet, like the other savages, they have some + superstitions, which I shall describe in their place. + As for weapons, they have only pikes, clubs, bows and + arrows. It would seem from their appearance that they + have a good disposition, better than those of the + north, but they are all in fact of no great worth. + Even a slight intercourse with them gives you at once + a knowledge of them. They are great thieves, and if + they cannot lay hold of any thing with their hands, + they try to do so with their feet, as we have oftentimes + learned by experience. I am of opinion that if they + had any thing to exchange with us they would not give + themselves to thieving. They bartered away to us their + bows, arrows, and quivers for pins and buttons; and + if they had had any thing else better they would have + done the same with it. It is necessary to be on one's + guard against this people and live in a state of + distrust of them, yet without letting them perceive it. +</pre> + <p> + This passage at least shows that Champlain sought to be just to the + savages of the Atlantic. Though he found them thieves, he is willing to + conjecture that they would not steal if they had anything to trade. + </p> + <p> + The thieving habits of the Cape Cod Indians led to a fight between them + and the French in which one Frenchman was killed, and Champlain narrowly + escaped death through the explosion of his own musket. At Cape Cod De + Monts turned back. Five of the six weeks allotted to the voyage were over, + and lack of food made it impossible to enter Long Island Sound. Hence + 'Sieur de Monts determined to return to the Island of St Croix in order to + find a place more favourable for our settlement, as we had not been able + to do on any of the coasts which he had explored during this voyage.' + </p> + <p> + We now approach the picturesque episode of Port Royal. De Monts, having + regained St Croix at the beginning of August, lost no time in transporting + his people to the other side of the Bay of Fundy. The consideration which + weighed most with him in establishing his headquarters was that of trade. + Whatever his own preferences, he could not forget that his partners in + France expected a return on their investment. Had he been in a position to + found an agricultural colony, the maize fields he had seen to the + south-west might have proved attractive. But he depended largely upon + trade, and, as Champlain points out, the savages of Massachusetts had + nothing to sell. Hence it was unwise to go too far from the peltries of + the St Lawrence. To find a climate less severe than that of Canada, + without losing touch with the fur trade, was De Monts' problem. No one + could dream of wintering again at St Croix, and in the absence of trade + possibilities to the south there seemed but one alternative—Port + Royal. + </p> + <p> + In his notice of De Monts' cruise along the Bay of Fundy in June 1604, + Champlain says: 'Continuing two leagues farther on in the same direction, + we entered one of the finest harbours I had seen all along these coasts, + in which two thousand vessels might lie in security. The entrance is 800 + paces broad; then you enter a harbour two leagues long and one broad, + which I have named Port Royal.' Here Champlain is describing Annapolis + Basin, which clearly made a deep impression upon the minds of the first + Europeans who saw it. Most of all did it appeal to the imagination of + Poutrincourt, who had come to Acadia for the purpose of discovering a spot + where he could found his own colony. At sight of Port Royal he had at once + asked De Monts for the grant, and on receiving it had returned to France, + at the end of August 1604, to recruit colonists. Thus he had escaped the + horrible winter at St Croix, but on account of lawsuits it had proved + impossible for him to return to Acadia in the following year. Hence the + noble roadstead of Port Royal was still unoccupied when De Monts, + Champlain, and Pontgrave took the people of St Croix thither in August + 1605. Not only did the people go. Even the framework of the houses was + shipped across the bay and set up in this haven of better hope. + </p> + <p> + The spot chosen for the settlement lay on the north side of the bay. It + had a good supply of water, and there was protection from the north-west + wind which had tortured the settlers at St Croix. 'After everything had + been arranged,' says Champlain, 'and the majority of the dwellings built, + Sieur de Monts determined to return to France, in order to petition His + Majesty to grant him all that might be necessary for his undertaking.' + Quite apart from securing fresh advantages, De Monts at this time was sore + pressed to defend his title against the traders who were clamouring for a + repeal of the monopoly. With him returned some of the colonists whose + ambition had been satisfied at St Croix. Champlain remained, in the hope + of making further explorations 'towards Florida.' Pontgrave was left in + command. The others numbered forty-three. + </p> + <p> + During the autumn they began to make gardens. 'I also,' says Champlain, + 'for the sake of occupying my time made one, which was surrounded with + ditches full of water, in which I placed some fine trout, and into which + flowed three brooks of very fine running water, from which the greater + part of our settlement was supplied. I made also a little sluice-way + towards the shore, in order to draw off the water when I wished. This spot + was entirely surrounded by meadows, where I constructed a summer-house, + with some fine trees, as a resort for enjoying the fresh air. I made + there, also, a little reservoir for holding salt-water fish, which we took + out as we wanted them. I took especial pleasure in it and planted there + some seeds which turned out well. But much work had to be laid out in + preparation. We resorted often to this place as a pastime; and it seemed + as if the little birds round took pleasure in it, for they gathered there + in large numbers, warbling and chirping so pleasantly that I think I have + never heard the like.' + </p> + <p> + After a busy and cheerful autumn came a mild winter. The snow did not fall + till December 20, and there was much rain. Scurvy still caused trouble; + but though twelve died, the mortality was not so high as at St Croix. + Everything considered, Port Royal enjoyed good fortune—according to + the colonial standards of the period, when a winter death-rate of + twenty-six per cent was below the average. + </p> + <p> + At the beginning of March 1606 Pontgrave fitted out a barque of eighteen + tons in order to undertake 'a voyage of discovery along the coast of + Florida'; and on the 16th of the month a start was made. Favoured by good + weather, he and Champlain would have reached the Hudson three years before + the Dutch. But, short of drowning, every possible mischance happened. They + had hardly set out when a storm cast them ashore near Grand Manan. Having + repaired the damage they made for St Croix, where fog and contrary winds + held them back eight days. Then Pontgrave decided to return to Port Royal + 'to see in what condition our companions were whom we had left there + sick.' On their arrival Pontgrave himself was taken ill, but soon + re-embarked, though still unwell. Their second start was followed by + immediate disaster. Leaving the mouth of the harbour, two leagues distant + from Port Royal, they were carried out of the channel by the tide and went + aground. 'At the first blow of our boat upon the rocks the rudder broke, a + part of the keel and three or four planks were smashed and some ribs stove + in, which frightened us, for our barque filled immediately; and all that + we could do was to wait until the sea fell, so that we might get ashore... + Our barque, all shattered as she was, went to pieces at the return of the + tide. But we, most happy at having saved our lives, returned to our + settlement with our poor savages; and we praised God for having rescued us + from this shipwreck, from which we had not expected to escape so easily.' + </p> + <p> + This accident destroyed all hope of exploration to the southward until + word came from France. At the time of De Monts' departure the outlook had + been so doubtful that a provisional arrangement was made for the return of + the colonists to France should no ship arrive at Port Royal by the middle + of July. In this event Pontgrave was to take his people to Cape Breton or + Gaspe, where they would find trading ships homeward bound. As neither De + Monts nor Poutrincourt had arrived by the middle of June, a new barque was + built to replace the one which had been lost on April 10. A month later + Pontgrave carried out his part of the programme by putting aboard all the + inhabitants of Port Royal save two, who were induced by promise of extra + pay to remain in charge of the stores. + </p> + <p> + Thus sorrowfully the remnant of the colonists bade farewell to the + beautiful harbour and their new home. Four days later they were nearly + lost through the breaking of their rudder in the midst of a tempest. + Having been saved from wreck by the skill of their shipmaster, Champdore, + they reached Cape Sable on July 24. Here grief became rejoicing, for to + their complete surprise they encountered Ralleau, De Monts' secretary, + coasting along in a shallop. The glad tidings he gave them was that + Poutrincourt with a ship of one hundred and twenty tons had arrived. From + Canseau the Jonas had taken an outer course to Port Royal, while Ralleau + was keeping close to the shore in the hope of intercepting Pontgrave. 'All + this intelligence,' says Champlain, 'caused us to turn back; and we + arrived at Port Royal on the 25th of the month, where we found the + above-mentioned vessel and Sieur de Poutrincourt, and were greatly + delighted to see realized what we had given up in despair.' Lescarbot, who + arrived on board the Jonas, adds the following detail: 'M. de Poutrincourt + ordered a tun of wine to be set upon end, one of those which had been + given him for his proper use, and gave leave to all comers to drink freely + as long as it lasted, so that there were some who made gay dogs of + themselves.' + </p> + <p> + Wine-bibbing, however, was not the chief activity of Port Royal. + Poutrincourt at once set men to work on the land, and while they were + sowing wheat, rye, and hemp he hastened preparations for an autumn cruise + 'along the coast of Florida.' On September 5 all was ready for this + voyage, which was to be Champlain's last opportunity of reaching the lands + beyond Cape Cod. Once more disappointment awaited him. 'It was decided,' + he says, 'to continue the voyage along the coast, which was not a very + well considered conclusion, since we lost much time in passing over again + the discoveries made by Sieur de Monts as far as the harbour of + Mallebarre. It would have been much better, in my opinion, to cross from + where we were directly to Mallebarre, the route being already known, and + then use our time in exploring as far as the fortieth degree, or still + farther south, revisiting upon our homeward voyage the entire coast at + pleasure.' + </p> + <p> + In the interest of geographical research and French colonization Champlain + was doubtless right. Unfortunately, Poutrincourt wished to see for himself + what De Monts and Champlain had already seen. It was the more unfortunate + that he held this view, as the boats were victualled for over two months, + and much could have been done by taking a direct course to Cape Cod. + Little time, however, was spent at the Penobscot and Kennebec. Leaving St + Croix on September 12, Poutrincourt reached the Saco on the 21st. Here and + at points farther south he found ripe grapes, together with maize, + pumpkins, squashes, and artichokes. Gloucester Harbour pleased Champlain + greatly. 'In this very pleasant place we saw two hundred savages, and + there are here a large number of very fine walnut trees, cypresses, + sassafras, oaks, ashes and beeches....There are likewise fine meadows + capable of supporting a large number of cattle.' So much was he charmed + with this harbour and its surroundings that he called it Le Beauport. + After tarrying at Gloucester two or three days Poutrincourt reached Cape + Cod on October 2, and on the 20th he stood off Martha's Vineyard, his + farthest point. + </p> + <p> + Champlain's chronicle of this voyage contains more detail regarding the + Indians than will be found in any other part of his Acadian narratives. + Chief among Poutrincourt's adventures was an encounter with the natives of + Cape Cod. Unlike the Micmacs, the Armouchiquois were 'not so much hunters + as good fishermen and tillers of the land.' Their numbers also were + greater; in fact, Champlain speaks of seeing five or six hundred together. + At first they did not interfere with Poutrincourt's movements, even + permitting him to roam their land with a body of arquebusiers. After a + fortnight, however, their suspicions began to become manifest, and on + October 15 four hundred savages set upon five Frenchmen who, contrary to + orders, had remained ashore. Four were killed, and although a rescue party + set out at once from the barque, the natives made their escape. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + To pursue them was fruitless, for they are marvellously + swift. All that we could do was to carry away the dead + bodies and bury them near a cross which had been set + up the day before, and then to go here and there to + see if we could get sight of any of them. But it was + time wasted, therefore we came back. Three hours + afterwards they returned to us on the sea-shore. We + discharged at them several shots from our little brass + cannon, and when they heard the noise they crouched + down on the ground to escape the fire. In mockery of + us they pulled down the cross and disinterred the + dead, which displeased us greatly and caused us to go + for them a second time; but they fled, as they had + done before. We set up again the cross and reinterred + the dead, whom they had thrown here and there amid + the heath, where they kindled a fire to burn them. We + returned without any result, as we had done before, + well aware that there was scarcely hope of avenging + ourselves this time, and that we should have to renew + the undertaking when it should please God. +</pre> + <p> + With a desire for revenge was linked the practical consideration that + slaves would prove useful at Port Royal. A week later the French returned + to the same place, 'resolved to get possession of some savages and, taking + them to our settlement, put them to grinding corn at the hand-mill, as + punishment for the deadly assault which they had committed on five or six + of our company.' As relations were strained, it became necessary to offer + beads and gewgaws, with every show of good faith. Champlain describes the + plan in full. The shallop was to leave the barque for shore, taking + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + the most robust and strong men we had, each one having + a chain of beads and a fathom of match on his arm; + and there, while pretending to smoke with them (each + one having an end of his match lighted so as not to + excite suspicion, it being customary to have fire at + the end of a cord in order to light the tobacco), coax + them with pleasing words so as to draw them into the + shallop; and if they should be unwilling to enter, + each one approaching should choose his man and, putting + the beads round his neck, should at the same time put + the rope on him to draw him by force. But if they + should be too boisterous and it should not be possible + to succeed, they should be stabbed, the rope being + firmly held; and if by chance any of them should get + away, there should be men on land to charge upon them + with swords. Meanwhile, the little cannon on our barque + was to be kept ready to fire upon their companions in + case they should come to assist them, under cover of + which firearms the shallop could withdraw in security. +</pre> + <p> + This plot, though carefully planned, fell far short of the success which + was anticipated. To catch a redskin with a noose required more skill than + was available. Accordingly, none were taken alive. Champlain says: 'We + retired to our barque after having done all we could.' Lescarbot adds: + 'Six or seven of the savages were hacked and hewed in pieces, who could + not run so lightly in the water as on shore, and were caught as they came + out by those of our men who had landed.' + </p> + <p> + Having thus taken an eye for an eye, Poutrincourt began his homeward + voyage, and, after three or four escapes from shipwreck, reached Port + Royal on November 14. + </p> + <p> + Champlain was now about to spend his last winter in Acadia. Mindful of + former experiences, he determined to fight scurvy by encouraging exercise + among the colonists and procuring for them an improved diet. A third + desideratum was cheerfulness. All these purposes he served through + founding the Ordre de Bon Temps, which proved to be in every sense the + life of the settlement. Champlain himself briefly describes the procedure + followed, but a far more graphic account is given by Lescarbot, whose + diffuse and lively style is illustrated to perfection in the following + passage: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + To keep our table joyous and well provided, an order + was established at the board of the said M. de + Poutrincourt, which was called the Order of Good Cheer, + originally proposed by Champlain. To this Order each + man of the said table was appointed Chief Steward in + his turn, which came round once a fortnight. Now, this + person had the duty of taking care that we were all + well and honourably provided for. This was so well + carried out that though the epicures of Paris often + tell us that we had no Rue aux Ours over there, as a + rule we made as good cheer as we could have in this + same Rue aux Ours, and at less cost. For there was no + one who, two days before his turn came, failed to go + hunting or fishing, and to bring back some delicacy + in addition to our ordinary fare. So well was this + carried out that never at breakfast did we lack some + savoury meat of flesh or fish, and still less at our + midday or evening meals; for that was our chief banquet, + at which the ruler of the feast or chief butler, whom + the savages called Atoctegic, having had everything + prepared by the cook, marched in, napkin on shoulder, + wand of office in hand, and around his neck the collar + of the Order, which was worth more than four crowns; + after him all the members of the Order carrying each + a dish. The same was repeated at dessert, though not + always with so much pomp. And at night, before giving + thanks to God, he handed over to his successor in the + charge the collar of the Order, with a cup of wine, + and they drank to each other. I have already said that + we had abundance of game, such as ducks, bustards, + grey and white geese, partridges, larks, and other + birds; moreover moose, caribou, beaver, otter, bear, + rabbits, wild-cats, racoons, and other animals such + as the savages caught, whereof we made dishes well + worth those of the cook-shop in the Rue aux Ours, and + far more; for of all our meats none is so tender as + moose-meat (whereof we also made excellent pasties) + and nothing so delicate as beaver's tail. Yea, sometimes + we had half a dozen sturgeon at once, which the savages + brought us, part of which we bought, and allowed them + to sell the remainder publicly and to barter it for + bread, of which our men had abundance. As for the + ordinary rations brought from France, they were + distributed equally to great and small alike; and, as + we have said, the wine was served in like manner. +</pre> + <p> + The results of this regime were most gratifying. The deaths from scurvy + dropped to seven, which represented a great proportionate decrease. At the + same time, intercourse with the Indians was put on a good basis thereby. + 'At these proceedings,' says Lescarbot, 'we always had twenty or thirty + savages—men, women, girls, and children—who looked on at our + manner of service. Bread was given them gratis, as one would do to the + poor. But as for the Sagamos Membertou, and other chiefs who came from + time to time, they sat at table eating and drinking like ourselves. And we + were glad to see them, while, on the contrary, their absence saddened us.' + </p> + <p> + These citations bring into view the writer who has most copiously recorded + the early annals of Acadia—Marc Lescarbot. He was a lawyer, and at + this date about forty years old. Having come to Port Royal less as a + colonist than as a guest of Poutrincourt, he had no investment at stake. + But contact with America kindled the enthusiasm of which he had a large + supply, and converted him into the historian of New France. His story of + the winter he passed at Port Royal is quite unlike other narratives of + colonial experience at this period. Champlain was a geographer and + preoccupied with exploration. The Jesuits were missionaries and + preoccupied with the conversion of the savages. Lescarbot had a literary + education, which Champlain lacked, and, unlike the Jesuits, he approached + life in America from the standpoint of a layman. His prolixity often + serves as a foil to the terseness of Champlain, and suggests that he must + have been a merciless talker. Yet, though inclined to be garrulous, he was + a good observer and had many correct ideas—notably the belief that + corn, wine, and cattle are a better foundation for a colony than gold or + silver mines. In temperament he and Champlain were very dissimilar, and + evidence of mutual coolness may be found in their writings. These we shall + consider at a later stage. For the present it is enough to note that both + men sat at Poutrincourt's table and adorned the Order of Good Cheer. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile De Monts was in France, striving with all the foes of the + monopoly. Thanks to the fur trade, his company had paid its way during the + first two years, despite the losses at St Croix. The third season had been + much less prosperous, and at the same moment when the Dutch and the + Basques [Footnote: Traders from the extreme south of France, whose chief + port was St Jean de Luz. Though living on the confines of France and + Spain, the Basques were of different racial origin from both Spaniards and + French. While subject politically to France, their remoteness from the + main ports of Normandy and Brittany kept them out of touch with the + mariners of St Malo and Havre, save as collision arose between them in the + St Lawrence. Among the Basques there were always interlopers, even when St + Jean de Luz had been given a share in the monopoly. They are sometimes + called Spaniards, from their close neighbourhood to the Pyrenees.] were + breaking the monopoly by defiance, the hatters of Paris were demanding + that it should be withdrawn altogether. To this alliance of a powerful + guild with a majority of the traders, the company of De Monts succumbed, + and the news which Poutrincourt received when the first ship came in 1607 + was that the colony must be abandoned. As the company itself was about to + be dissolved, this consequence was inevitable. Champlain in his + matter-of-fact way states that De Monts sent letters to Poutrincourt, 'by + which he directed him to bring back his company to France.' Lescarbot is + much more outspoken. Referring to the merits and struggles of De Monts, he + exclaims: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Yet I fear that in the end he may be forced to give + it all up, to the great scandal and reproach of the + French name, which by such conduct is made a + laughing-stock and a byword among the nations. For as + though their wish was to oppose the conversion of + these poor Western peoples, and the glory of God and + of the King, we find a set of men full of avarice and + envy, who would not draw a sword in the service of + the King, nor suffer the slightest ill in the world + for the honour of God, but who yet put obstacles in + the way of our drawing any profit from the province, + even in order to furnish what is indispensable to the + foundation of such an enterprise; men who prefer to + see the English and Dutch win possession of it rather + than the French, and would fain have the name of God + remain unknown in those quarters. And it is such + godless people who are listened to, who are believed, + and who win their suits. O tempora, O mores! +</pre> + <p> + On August 11, 1607, Port Royal was abandoned for the second time, and its + people, sailing by Cape Breton, reached Roscou in Brittany at the end of + September. The subsequent attempt of Poutrincourt and his family to + re-establish the colony at Port Royal belongs to the history of Acadia + rather than to the story of Champlain. But remembering the spirit in which + he and De Monts strove, one feels glad that Lescarbot spoke his mind + regarding the opponents who baffled their sincere and persistent efforts. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III. CHAMPLAIN AT QUEBEC + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + From the Island of Orleans to Quebec the distance is + a league. I arrived there on the third of July, when + I searched for a place suitable for our settlement, + but I could find none more convenient or better than + the point of Quebec, so called by the savages, which + was covered with nut-trees. I at once employed a + portion of our workmen in cutting them down, that we + might construct our habitation there: one I set to + sawing boards, another to making a cellar and digging + ditches, another I sent to Tadoussac with the barque + to get supplies. The first thing we made was the + storehouse for keeping under cover our supplies, which + was promptly accomplished through the zeal of all, + and my attention to the work. +</pre> + <p> + Thus opens Champlain's account of the place with which his name is linked + imperishably. He was the founder of Quebec and its preserver. During his + lifetime the results seemed pitifully small, but the task once undertaken + was never abandoned. By steadfastness he prevailed, and at his death had + created a colony which became the New France of Talon and Frontenac, of La + Salle and D'Iberville, of Brebeuf and Laval. If Venice from amid her + lagoons could exclaim, Esto perpetua, Quebec, firm based upon her cliff, + can say to the rest of Canada, Attendite ad petram unde excisi estis—'Look + unto the rock whence ye are hewn.' + </p> + <p> + Champlain's Quebec was very poor in everything but courage. The fact that + it was founded by the men who had just failed in Acadia gives proof of + this virtue. Immediately upon his return from Port Royal to France, + Champlain showed De Monts a map and plan which embodied the result of his + explorations during the last three years. They then took counsel regarding + the future, and with Champlain's encouragement De Monts 'resolved to + continue his noble and meritorious undertaking, notwithstanding the + hardships and labours of the past.' It is significant that once more + Champlain names exploration as the distinctive purpose of De Monts. + </p> + <p> + To expect a subsidy from the crown was futile, but Henry felt compunction + for his abrupt recall of the monopoly. The result was that De Monts, in + recognition of his losses, was given a further monopoly—for the + season of 1608 only. At the same time, he was expressly relieved from the + obligation to take out colonists. On this basis De Monts found partners + among the merchants of Rouen, and three ships were fitted out—one + for Acadia, the others for the St Lawrence. Champlain, as lieutenant, was + placed in charge of the Laurentian expedition. With him went the + experienced and invaluable Pontgrave. + </p> + <p> + Nearly seventy-five years had now passed since Jacques Cartier first came + to anchor at the foot of Cape Diamond. During this period no one had + challenged the title of France to the shores of the St Lawrence; in fact, + a country so desolate made no appeal to the French themselves. Roberval's + tragic experience at Cap Rouge had proved a warning. To the average + Frenchman of the sixteenth century Canada meant what it afterwards meant + to Sully and Voltaire. It was a tract of snow; a land of barbarians, + bears, and beavers. + </p> + <p> + The development of the fur trade into a staple industry changed this point + of view to a limited extent. The government, as we have seen, considered + it desirable that colonists should be established in New France at the + expense of traders. For the St Lawrence, however, the first and only + fruits of this enlightened policy had been Chauvin's sixteen derelicts at + Tadoussac. + </p> + <p> + The founding of Quebec represents private enterprise, and not an + expenditure of money by Henry IV for the sake of promoting colonization. + De Monts and Champlain were determined to give France a foothold in + America. The rights upon which the venture of 1608 was financed did not + run beyond the year. Thenceforth trade was to be free. It follows that De + Monts and his partners, in building a station at Quebec, did not rely for + their expenses upon any special favours from the crown. They placed their + reliance upon themselves, feeling confident of their power to hold a fair + share of the trade against all comers. For Champlain Quebec was a fixed + point on the way to the Orient. For De Monts it was a key to the commerce + of the great river. None of his rivals would begin the season of 1609 with + a permanent post in Canada. Thus part of the anticipated profits for 1608 + was invested to secure an advantage in the approaching competition. The + whole success of the plan depended upon the mutual confidence of De Monts + and Champlain, both of whom unselfishly sought the advancement of French + interests in America—De Monts, the courageous capitalist and + promoter; Champlain, the explorer whose discoveries were sure to enlarge + the area of trading operations. + </p> + <p> + Pontgrave sailed from Honfleur on April 5, 1608. Champlain followed eight + days later, reaching Tadoussac at the beginning of June. Here trouble + awaited him. The Basque traders, who always defied the monopoly, had set + upon Pontgrave with cannon and muskets, killing one man and severely + wounding two others, besides himself. Going ashore, Champlain found + Pontgrave very ill and the Basques in full possession. To fight was to run + the risk of ruining De Monts' whole enterprise, and as the Basques were + alarmed at what they had done, Darache, their captain, signed an agreement + that he would not molest Pontgrave or do anything prejudicial to the + rights of De Monts. This basis of compromise makes it clear that Pontgrave + was in charge of the season's trade, while Champlain's personal concern + was to found the settlement. + </p> + <p> + An unpleasant dispute was thus adjusted, but the incident had a still more + unpleasant sequel. Leaving Tadoussac on June 30, Champlain reached Quebec + in four days, and at once began to erect his storehouse. A few days later + he stood in grave peril of his life through conspiracy among his own men. + </p> + <p> + The ringleader was a locksmith named Jean Duval, who had been at Port + Royal and narrowly escaped death from the arrows of the Cape Cod Indians. + Whether he framed his plot in collusion with the Basques is not quite + clear, but it seems unlikely that he should have gone so far as he did + without some encouragement. His plan was simply to kill Champlain and + deliver Quebec to the Basques in return for a rich reward, either promised + or expected. Some of the men he had no chance to corrupt, for they were + aboard the barques, guarding stores till a shelter could be built. Working + among the rest, Duval 'suborned four of the worst characters, as he + supposed, telling them a thousand falsehoods and presenting to them + prospects of acquiring riches.' The evidence subsequently showed that + Champlain was either to be strangled when unarmed, or shot at night as he + answered to a false alarm. The conspirators made a mutual promise not to + betray each other, on penalty that the first who opened his mouth should + be poniarded. + </p> + <p> + Out of this deadly danger Champlain escaped through the confession of a + vacillating spirit named Natel, who regretted his share in the plot, but, + once involved, had fears of the poniard. Finally he confessed to Testu, + the pilot, who immediately informed Champlain. Questioned as to the + motive, Natel replied that 'nothing had impelled them, except that they + had imagined that by giving up the place into the hands of the Basques or + Spaniards they might all become rich, and that they did not want to go + back to France.' Duval, with five others, was then seized and taken to + Tadoussac. Later in the summer Pontgrave brought the prisoners back to + Quebec, where evidence was taken before a court-martial consisting of + Champlain, Pontgrave, a captain, a surgeon, a first mate, a second mate, + and some sailors. The sentence condemned four to death, of whom three were + afterwards sent to France and put at the discretion of De Monts. Duval was + 'strangled and hung at Quebec, and his head was put on the end of a pike, + to be set in the most conspicuous place on our fort, that he might serve + as an example to those who remained, leading them to deport themselves + correctly in future, in the discharge of their duty; and that the + Spaniards and Basques, of whom there were large numbers in the country, + might not glory in the event.' + </p> + <p> + It will be seen from the recital of Duval's conspiracy that Champlain was + fortunate to escape the fate of Hudson and La Salle. While this cause + celebre was running its course to a tragic end, the still more famous + habitation grew day by day under the hands of busy workmen. As fruits of a + crowded and exciting summer Champlain could point to a group of three + two-storeyed buildings. 'Each one,' he says, 'was three fathoms long and + two and a half wide. The storehouse was six fathoms long and three wide, + with a fine cellar six feet deep. I had a gallery made all round our + buildings, on the outside, at the second storey, which proved very + convenient. There were also ditches, fifteen feet wide and six deep. On + the outer side of the ditches I constructed several spurs, which enclosed + a part of the dwelling, at the points where we placed our cannon. Before + the habitation there is a place four fathoms wide and six or seven long, + looking out upon the river-bank. Surrounding the habitation are very good + gardens.' + </p> + <p> + Three dwellings of eighteen by fifteen feet each were a sufficiently + modest starting-point for continental ambitions, even when supplemented by + a storehouse of thirty-six feet by eighteen. In calling the gardens very + good Champlain must have been speaking with relation to the circumstances, + or else they were very small, for there is abundant witness to the + sufferings which Quebec in its first twenty years might have escaped with + the help of really abundant gardens. At St Croix and Port Royal an attempt + had been made to plant seeds, and at Quebec Champlain doubtless renewed + the effort, though with small practical result. The point is important in + its bearing on the nature of the settlement. Quebec, despite such gardens + as surrounded the habitation, was by origin an outpost of the fur trade, + with a small, floating, and precarious population. Louis Hebert, the first + real colonist, did not come till 1617. + </p> + <p> + Lacking vegetables, Quebec fed itself in part from the river and the + forest. But almost all the food was brought from France. At times there + was game, though less than at Port Royal. The river supplied eels in + abundance, but when badly cooked they caused a fatal dysentery. The first + winter was a repetition of the horrors experienced at St Croix, with even + a higher death-rate. Scurvy began in February and lasted till the end of + April. Of the eighteen whom it attacked, ten died. Dysentery claimed + others. On June 5, 1609, word came that Pontgrave had arrived at + Tadoussac. Champlain's comment is eloquent in its brevity. 'This + intelligence gave me much satisfaction, as we entertained hopes of + assistance from him. Out of the twenty-eight at first forming our company + only eight remained, and half of these were ailing.' + </p> + <p> + The monopoly granted to De Monts had now reached its close, and trade was + open to all comers. From 1609 until 1613 this unrestricted competition ran + its course, with the result that a larger market was created for beaver + skins, while nothing was done to build up New France as a colony. On the + whole, the most notable feature of the period is the establishment of + close personal relations between Champlain and the Indians. It was then + that he became the champion of the Algonquins and Hurons against the + Iroquois League or Five Nations, inaugurating a policy which was destined + to have profound consequences. + </p> + <p> + The considerations which governed Champlain in his dealings with the + Indians lay quite outside the rights and wrongs of their tribal wars. His + business was to explore the continent on behalf of France, and accordingly + he took conditions as he found them. The Indians had souls to be saved, + but that was the business of the missionaries. In the state of nature all + savages were much like wild animals, and alliance with one nation or + another was a question which naturally settled itself upon the basis of + drainage basins. Lands within the Laurentian watershed were inhabited + mainly by Algonquins and Hurons, whose chief desire in life was to protect + themselves from the Iroquois and avenge past injuries. The Five Nations + dwelt far south from the Sault St Louis and did not send their furs there + for the annual barter. Champlain, ever in quest of a route to the East, + needed friends along the great rivers of the wilderness. The way to secure + them, and at the same time to widen the trading area, was to fight for the + savages of the St Lawrence and the Ottawa against those of the Mohawk. + </p> + <p> + And Champlain was a good ally, as he proved in the forest wars of 1609 and + 1615. With all their shortcomings, the Indians knew how to take the + measure of a man. The difference between a warrior and a trader was + especially clear to their untutored minds, they themselves being much + better fighters than men of commerce. Champlain, like others, suffered + from their caprice, but they respected his bravery and trusted his word. + </p> + <p> + In the next chapter we shall attempt to follow Champlain through the + wilderness, accompanied by its inhabitants, who were his guides and + friends. For the present we must pursue the fortunes of Quebec, whose + existence year by year hung upon the risk that court intrigue would + prevail against the determination of two brave men. + </p> + <p> + From 1608 till 1611 De Monts had two partners, named Collier and Legendre, + both citizens of Rouen. It was with the money of these three that the post + at Quebec had been built and equipped. Champlain was their lieutenant and + Pontgrave the commander of their trading ships. After four years of + experience Collier and Legendre found the results unsatisfactory. 'They + were unwilling,' says Champlain, 'to continue in the association, as there + was no commission forbidding others from going to the new discoveries and + trading with the inhabitants of the country. Sieur de Monts, seeing this, + bargained with them for what remained at the settlement at Quebec, in + consideration of a sum of money which he gave them for their share.' + </p> + <p> + Thus the intrepid De Monts became sole proprietor of the habitation, and + whatever clustered round it, at the foot of Cape Diamond. But the property + was worthless if the fur trade could not be put on a stable basis. Quebec + during its first three years had been a disappointment because, contrary + to expectation, it gave its founders no advantage over their competitors + which equalled the cost of maintenance. De Monts was still ready to assist + Champlain in his explorations, but his resources, never great, were + steadily diminishing, and while trade continued unprofitable there were no + funds for exploration. Moreover, the assassination of Henry IV in 1610 + weakened De Monts at court. Whatever Henry's shortcomings as a friend of + Huguenots and colonial pioneers, their chances had been better with him + than they now were with Marie de Medicis [Footnote: The second and + surviving wife of Henry IV—an Italian by birth and in close sympathy + with Spain. As regent for her son, Louis XIII, she did much to reverse the + policy of Henry IV, both foreign and domestic.] Champlain states that De + Monts' engagements did not permit him to prosecute his interests at court. + Probably his engagements would have been less pressing had he felt more + sure of favour. In any event, he made over to Champlain the whole conduct + of such negotiations as were called for by the unsatisfactory state of + affairs on the St Lawrence. + </p> + <p> + Champlain went to France. What follows is an illuminating comment upon the + conditions that prevailed under the Bourbon monarchy. As Champlain saw + things, the merchants who clamoured for freedom of trade were greedy + pot-hunters. 'All they want,' he says, 'is that men should expose + themselves to a thousand dangers to discover peoples and territories, that + they themselves may have the profit and others the hardship. It is not + reasonable that one should capture the lamb and another go off with the + fleece. If they had been willing to participate in our discoveries, use + their means and risk their persons, they would have given evidence of + their honour and nobleness, but, on the contrary, they show clearly that + they are impelled by pure malice that they may enjoy the fruit of our + labours equally with ourselves.' Against folk of this sort Champlain felt + he had to protect the national interests which were so dear to him and De + Monts. As things then went, there was only one way to secure protection. + At Fontainebleau a great noble was not habituated to render help without + receiving a consideration. But protection could be bought by those who + were able to pay for it. + </p> + <p> + The patron selected by Champlain was the Comte de Soissons, a Bourbon by + lineage and first cousin of Henry IV. His kinship to the boy-king gave + him, among other privileges, the power to exact from the regent gifts and + offices as the price of his support. Possessing this leverage, Soissons + caused himself to be appointed viceroy of Canada, with a twelve-year + monopoly of the fur trade above Quebec. The monopoly thus re-established, + its privileges could be sublet, Soissons receiving cash for the rights he + conceded to the merchants, and they taking their chance to turn a profit + out of the transaction. + </p> + <p> + Such at least was the theory; but before Soissons could turn his post into + a source of revenue he died. Casting about for a suitable successor, + Champlain selected another prince of the blood—Henri de Bourbon, + Prince de Conde, who duly became viceroy of Canada and holder of the + monopoly in succession to his uncle, the Comte de Soissons. + </p> + <p> + The part of Champlain in these transactions is very conspicuous, and + justly so. There was no advantage in being viceroy of Canada unless the + post produced a revenue, and before the viceroy could receive a revenue + some one was needed to organize the chief Laurentian traders into a + company strong enough to pay Soissons or Conde a substantial sum. + Champlain was convinced that the stability of trade (upon which, in turn, + exploration depended) could be secured only in this way. It was he who + memorialized President Jeannin; [Footnote: One of the chief advisers of + Marie de Medicis. In the early part of his career he was President of the + Parlement of Dijon and an important member of the extreme Catholic party. + After the retirement of the Duc de Sully (1611) he was placed in charge of + the finances of France.] enlisted the sympathy of the king's almoner, + Beaulieu; appealed to the royal council; proposed the office of viceroy to + Soissons; and began the endeavour to organize a new trading company. + Considering that early in 1612 he suffered a serious fall from his horse, + this record of activity is sufficiently creditable for one twelve-month. + Meanwhile the Indians at Sault St Louis grieved at his absence, and his + enemies told them he was dead. + </p> + <p> + It was not until 1614 that the new programme in its entirety could be + carried out. This time the delay came, not from the court, but from the + merchants. Negotiations were in progress when the ships sailed for the + voyage of 1613, but Champlain could not remain to conclude them, as he + felt that he must keep faith with the Indians. However, on his return to + France that autumn, he resumed the effort, and by the spring of 1614. the + merchants of Rouen, St Malo, and La Rochelle had been brought to terms + among themselves as participants in a monopoly which was leased from the + viceroy. Conde received a thousand crowns a year, and the new company also + agreed to take out six families of colonists each season. In return it was + granted the monopoly for eleven years. De Monts was a member of the + company and Quebec became its headquarters in Canada. But the moving + spirit was Champlain, who was appointed lieutenant to the viceroy with a + salary and the right to levy for his own purposes four men from each ship + trading in the river. + </p> + <p> + Once more disappointment followed. Save for De Monts, Champlain's company + was not inspired by Champlain's patriotism. During the first three years + of its existence the obligation to colonize was wilfully disregarded, + while in the fourth year the treatment accorded Louis Hebert shows that + good faith counted for as little with the fur traders when they acted in + association as when they were engaged in cut-throat competition. + </p> + <p> + Champlain excepted, Hebert was the most admirable of those who risked + death in the attempt to found a settlement at Quebec. He was not a Norman + peasant, but a Parisian apothecary. We have already seen that he took part + in the Acadian venture of De Monts and Poutrincourt. After the capture of + Port Royal by the English he returned to France (1613) and reopened his + shop. Three years later Champlain was authorized by the company to offer + him and his family favourable terms if they would emigrate to Quebec, the + consideration being two hundred crowns a year for three years, besides + maintenance. On this understanding Hebert sold his house and shop, bought + an equipment for the new home, and set off with his family to embark at + Honfleur. Here he found that Champlain's shareholders were not prepared to + stand by their agreement. The company first beat him down from two hundred + to one hundred crowns a year, and then stipulated that he, his wife, his + children, and his domestic should serve it for the three years during + which the grant was payable. Even at the end of three years, when he found + himself at liberty to till the soil, he was bound to sell produce to the + company at the prices prevalent in France. The company was to have his + perpetual service as a chemist for nothing, and he must promise in writing + to take no part in the fur trade. Hebert had cut off his retreat and was + forced to accept these hard terms, but it is not strange that under such + conditions colonists should have been few. Sagard, the Recollet + missionary, says the company treated Hebert so badly because it wished to + discourage colonization. What it wanted was the benefit of the monopoly, + without the obligation of finding settlers who had to be brought over for + nothing. + </p> + <p> + A man of honour like Champlain could not have tricked Hebert into the bad + bargain he made, and their friendship survived the incident. But a company + which transacted its business in this fashion was not likely to enjoy long + life. Its chief asset was Champlain's friendship with the Indians, + especially after his long sojourn with them in 1615 and 1616. Some years, + particularly 1617, showed a large profit, but as time went on friction + arose between the Huguenots of La Rochelle and the Catholics of Rouen. + Then there were interlopers to be prosecuted, and the quarrels of Conde + with the government brought with them trouble to the merchants whose + monopoly depended on his grant. For three years (1616-19) the viceroy of + Canada languished in the Bastille. Shortly after his release he sold his + viceregal rights to the Duke of Montmorency, Admiral of France. The price + was 11,000 crowns. + </p> + <p> + In 1619 Champlain's company ventured to disagree with its founder, and, as + a consequence, another crisis arose in the affairs of New France. The + cause of dispute was the company's unwillingness to keep its promises + regarding colonization. Champlain protested. The company replied that + Pontgrave should be put in charge at Quebec. Champlain then said that + Pontgrave was his old friend, and he hoped they would always be friends, + but that he was at Quebec as the viceroy's representative, charged with + the duty of defending his interests. The leader of Champlain's opponents + among the shareholders was Boyer, a trader who had formerly given much + trouble to De Monts, but was now one of the associates. When in the spring + of 1619 Champlain attempted to sail for Quebec as usual, Boyer prevented + him from going aboard. There followed an appeal to the crown, in which + Champlain was fully sustained, and Boyer did penance by offering a public + apology before the Exchange at Rouen. + </p> + <p> + It was shortly after this incident that Conde abdicated in favour of + Montmorency. The admiral, like his predecessor, accepted a thousand crowns + a year and named Champlain as his lieutenant. He also instituted an + inquiry regarding the alleged neglect of the company to maintain the post + at Quebec. The investigation showed that abundant cause existed for + depriving the company of its monopoly, and in consequence the grant was + transferred, on similar terms, to William and Emery de Caen. Here + complications at once ensued. The De Caens, who were natives of Rouen, + were also Huguenots, a fact that intensified the ill-feeling which had + already arisen on the St Lawrence between Catholic and heretic. The + dispute between the new beneficiaries and the company founded by Champlain + involved no change in the policy of the crown towards trade and + colonization. It was a quarrel of persons, which eventually reached a + settlement in 1622. The De Caens then compromised by reorganizing the + company and giving their predecessors five-twelfths of the shares. + </p> + <p> + The recital of these intricate events will at least illustrate the + difficulties which beset Champlain in his endeavour to build up New + France. There were problems enough even had he received loyal support from + the crown and the company. With the English and Dutch in full rivalry, he + saw that an aggressive policy of expansion and settlement became each year + more imperative. Instead, he was called on to withstand the cabals of + self-seeking traders who shirked their obligations, and to endure the + apathy of a government which was preoccupied with palace intrigues. + </p> + <p> + At Quebec itself the two bright spots were the convent of the Recollets + [Footnote: The Recollets were a branch of the Franciscan order, noted for + the austerity of their rule.] and the little farm of Louis Hebert. The + Recollets first came to New France in 1615, and began at once by language + study to prepare for their work among the Montagnais and Hurons. It was a + stipulation of the viceroy that six of them should be supported by the + company, and in the absence of parish priests they ministered to the + ungodly hangers-on of the fur trade as well as to the Indians. Louis + Hebert and his admirable family were very dear to the Fathers. In 1617 all + the buildings which had been erected at Quebec lay by the water's edge. + Hebert was the first to make a clearing on the heights. His first domain + covered less than ten acres, but it was well tilled. He built a stone + house, which was thirty-eight feet by nineteen. Besides making a garden, + he planted apple-trees and vines. He also managed to support some cattle. + When one considers what all this means in terms of food and comfort, it + may be guessed that the fur traders, wintering down below on salt pork and + smoked eels, must have felt much respect for the farmer in his stone + mansion on the cliff. + </p> + <p> + We have from Champlain's own lips a valuable statement as to the condition + of things at Quebec in 1627, the year when Louis Hebert died. 'We were in + all,' he says, 'sixty-five souls, including men, women, and children.' Of + the sixty-five only eighteen were adult males fit for hard work, and this + small number must be reduced to two or three if we include only the + tillers of the soil. Besides these, a few adventurous spirits were away in + the woods with the Indians, learning their language and endeavouring to + exploit the beaver trade; but twenty years after the founding of Quebec + the French in Canada, all told, numbered less than one hundred. + </p> + <p> + Contrast with this the state of Virginia fifteen years after the + settlement of Jamestown. 'By 1622,' says John Fiske, 'the population of + Virginia was at least 4000, the tobacco fields were flourishing and + lucrative, durable houses had been built and made comfortable with + furniture brought from England, and the old squalor was everywhere giving + way to thrift. The area of colonization was pushed up the James River as + far as Richmond.' + </p> + <p> + This contrast is not to be interpreted to the personal disadvantage of + Champlain. The slow growth and poverty of Quebec were due to no fault of + his. It is rather the measure of his greatness that he was undaunted by + disappointment and unembittered by the pettiness of spirit which met him + at every turn. A memorial which he presented in 1618 to the Chamber of + Commerce at Paris discloses his dream of what might be: a city at Quebec + named Ludovica, a city equal in size to St Denis and filled with noble + buildings grouped round the Church of the Redeemer. Tributary to this + capital was a vast region watered by the St Lawrence and abounding 'in + rolling plains, beautiful forests, and rivers full of fish.' From Ludovica + the heathen were to be converted and a passage discovered to the East. So + important a trade route would be developed, that from the tolls alone + there would be revenue to construct great public works. Rich mines and fat + cornfields fill the background. + </p> + <p> + Such was the Quebec of Champlain's vision—if only France would see + it so! But in the Quebec of reality a few survivors saw the hunger of + winter yield to the starvation of spring. They lived on eels and roots + till June should bring the ships and food from home. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV. CHAMPLAIN IN THE WILDERNESS + </h2> + <p> + Champlain's journeyings with the Indians were the holiday of his life, for + at no other time was he so free to follow the bent of his genius. First + among the incentives which drew him to the wilderness was his ambition to + discover the pathway to China. In 1608 the St Lawrence had not been + explored beyond the Lachine Rapids, nor the Richelieu beyond Chambly—while + the Ottawa was known only by report. Beyond Lake St Louis stretched a + mysterious world, through the midst of which flowed the Great River. For + an explorer and a patriot the opportunity was priceless. The acquisition + of vast territory for the French crown, the enlargement of the trade zone, + the discovery of a route to Cathay, the prospect of Arcadian joys and + exciting adventures—beside such promptings hardship and danger + became negligible. And when exploring the wilderness Champlain was in full + command. Off the coast of Norumbega his wishes, as geographer, had been + subject to the special projects of De Monts and Poutrincourt. At + Fontainebleau he waited for weeks and months in the antechambers of + prelates or nobles. But when conducting an expedition through the forest + he was lord and master, a chieftain from whose arquebus flew winged death. + </p> + <p> + The story of Champlain's expeditions along these great secluded waterways, + and across the portages of the forest, makes the most agreeable page of + his life both for writer and reader, since it is here that he himself is + most clearly in the foreground. At no point can his narrative be thought + dull, compact as it is and always in touch with energetic action. But the + details of fur trading at Tadoussac and the Sault St Louis, or even of + voyaging along the Acadian seaboard, are far less absorbing than the tale + of the canoe and the war party. Amid the depths of the interior Champlain + reaped his richest experiences as an explorer. With the Indians for his + allies and enemies he reached his fullest stature as a leader. + </p> + <p> + It is not important to dwell upon the minor excursions which Champlain + made from his headquarters at Quebec into the country of the Montagnais. + [Footnote: An Algonquin tribe dwelling to the north of the St Lawrence, + for the most part between the Saguenay and the St Maurice.] He saw little + of the rocky northland which, with its myriad lakes and splendid streams, + sweeps from the St Lawrence to Hudson Bay. Southward and westward lay his + course to the cantons of the Iroquois south of Lake Ontario and the + villages of the Hurons north of Lake Simcoe. Above all, the expeditions of + 1609, 1613, and 1615 are the central episodes of his work as an explorer, + each marked by a distinct motive and abounding with adventures. In 1609 he + discovered Lake Champlain and fought his first battle with the Iroquois. + In 1613 he was decoyed by a lying guide into a fruitless search for the + North-West Passage by the route of the Ottawa. In 1615 he discovered Lake + Huron, traversed what is now Central Ontario, and attacked the Iroquois in + the heart of their own country. These three journeys make the sum of + Champlain's achievements as a pioneer of the interior. For all three, + likewise, we have his own story, upon which all other versions are based + and from which they draw their most striking details. + </p> + <p> + The discovery of Lake Champlain had its root in Champlain's promise to the + Algonquins that he would aid them in their strife with the Iroquois. In + turn this promise was based upon the policy of conciliating those savage + tribes from whom the French derived their supply of furs, and with whom + throughout the St Lawrence basin they most constantly came in contact. + </p> + <p> + It was the year which followed the founding of Quebec. Of the twenty-eight + who entered upon the first winter eight only had survived, and half of + these were ailing. On June 5 relief came in the person of Des Marais, who + announced that his father-in-law, Pontgrave, was already at Tadoussac. + Champlain at once set out to meet him, and it was arranged that Pontgrave + should take charge of the settlement for the coming year, while Champlain + fulfilled his promise to aid the Algonquins in their war with the + Iroquois. The full plan required that Pontgrave should spend the winter in + Canada, while Champlain, after his summer campaign, was to return to + France with a report of his explorations. + </p> + <p> + The Indians had stated that the route to the land of the Iroquois was + easy, and Champlain's original design was to proceed in a shallop capable + of carrying twenty Frenchmen. Early in July he reached the mouth of the + Richelieu, but on arriving at Chambly he found it quite impossible to pass + the falls with his shallop. Either the expedition must be abandoned or the + plan be radically changed, with the consequence of incurring much greater + risks. To advance meant sending back the shallop with its crew and stores, + embarking in a canoe, and trusting wholly to the good faith of the + savages. The decision was not easy. 'I was much troubled,' says Champlain. + 'And it gave me especial dissatisfaction to go back without seeing a very + large lake, filled with handsome islands and with large tracts of fine + land bordering on the lake, where their enemies lived, according to their + representations. After duly thinking over the matter I determined to go + and fulfil my promise and carry out my desire. Accordingly I embarked with + the savages in their canoes, taking with me two men, who went cheerfully. + After making known my plan to Des Marais and others in the shallop, I + requested the former to return to our settlement with the rest of our + company, giving them the assurance that in a short time, by God's grace, I + would return to them.' + </p> + <p> + Having convinced himself, Champlain was next forced to convince the + Indians, whose first impulse was to abandon the campaign when they found + that they would be accompanied by only three of the Frenchmen. Champlain's + firmness, however, communicated itself to them, and on July 12 they set + out from Chambly Basin to commence the portage. At the top of the rapid a + review of forces was held, and it proved that the Indians numbered sixty + men, equipped with twenty-four canoes. Advancing through a beautifully + wooded country, the little war-party encamped at a point not far below the + outlet of Lake Champlain, taking the precaution to protect themselves by a + rough fortification of tree trunks. + </p> + <p> + At this point Champlain introduces a graphic statement regarding the + methods which the Indians employ to guard against surprise. On three sides + they protect the camp by fallen trees, leaving the river-bank without a + barricade in order that they may take quickly to their canoes. Then, as + soon as the camp has been fortified, they send out nine picked men in + three canoes to reconnoitre for a distance of two or three leagues. But + before nightfall these scouts return, and then all lie down to sleep, + without leaving any pickets or sentries on duty. When Champlain + remonstrated with them for such gross carelessness, they replied that they + worked hard enough during the daytime. The normal formation of an Indian + war-party embraced three divisions—the scouts, the main body, and + the hunters, the last always remaining in the rear and chasing their game + in a direction from which they did not anticipate the appearance of the + enemy. Having arrived at a distance of two or three days' march from their + enemies, they united in a single party (save for the scouts) and advanced + stealthily by night. At this juncture their food became baked Indian meal + soaked in water. They hid by day and made no fire, save that required to + smoke their tobacco. + </p> + <p> + Thus does Champlain describe the savage as he is about to fall upon his + foe. He gives special prominence to the soothsayer, who on the eve of + battle enters into elaborate intercourse with the devil. Inside a wooden + hut the necromancer lies prostrate on the ground, motionless. Then he + springs to his feet and begins to torment himself, counterfeiting strange + tones to represent the speech of the devil, and carrying on violent antics + which leave him in a stream of perspiration. Outside the hut the Indians + sit round on their haunches like apes and fancy that they can see fire + proceeding from the roof, although the devil appears to the soothsayer in + the form of a stone. Finally, the chiefs, when they have by these means + learned that they will meet their enemy and kill a sufficient number, + arrange the order of battle. Sticks a foot long are taken, one for each + warrior, and these are laid out on a level place five or six feet square. + The leader then explains the order of battle, after which the warriors + substitute themselves for the sticks and go through the manoeuvres till + they can do them without confusion. + </p> + <p> + From this description of tactics we pass speedily to a story of real war. + Reaching Lake Champlain, the party skirted the western shore, with fine + views of the Green Mountains, on the summit of which Champlain mistook + white limestone for snow. On July 29, at Crown Point, the Iroquois were + encountered at about ten o'clock in the evening. Thus the first real + battle of French and Indians took place near that remarkable spot where + Lake Champlain and Lake George draw close together—the Ticonderoga + of Howe, the Carillon of Montcalm. + </p> + <p> + The Algonquins were in good courage, for, besides the muskets of the three + Frenchmen, they were inspired by a dream of Champlain that he had seen the + Iroquois drowning in a lake. As soon as the enemies saw each other, both + began to utter loud cries and make ready their weapons. The Algonquins + kept out on the water; the Iroquois went ashore and built a barricade. + When the Algonquins had made ready for battle + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + they dispatched two canoes to the enemy to inquire if + they wished to fight, to which the latter replied that + they wished nothing else; but they said that at present + there was not much light, and that it would be necessary + to wait for day so as to be able to recognize each + other; and that as soon as the sun rose they would + offer us battle. This was agreed to by our side. + Meanwhile the entire night was spent in dancing and + singing, on both sides, with endless insults and other + talk; as how little courage we had, how feeble a + resistance we should make against their arms, and that + when day came we should realize it to our ruin. Ours + also were not slow in retorting, telling them that + they would see such execution of arms as never before, + together with an abundance of such talk as is not + unusual in the siege of a town. +</pre> + <p> + Care had been taken by the Algonquins that the presence of Champlain and + his two companions should come to the Iroquois as a complete surprise. + Each of the Frenchmen was in a separate canoe, convoyed by the Montagnais. + At daylight each put on light armour and, armed with an arquebus, went + ashore. Champlain was near enough the barricade to see nearly two hundred + Iroquois, 'stout and rugged in appearance. They came at a slow pace + towards us, with a dignity and assurance which greatly impressed me, + having three chiefs at their head.' Champlain, when urged by his allies to + make sure of killing the three chiefs, replied that he would do his best, + and that in any case he would show them his courage and goodwill. + </p> + <p> + Then began the fight, which must be described in Champlain's own words, + for in all his writings there is no more famous passage. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + As soon as we had landed, they began to run for some + two hundred paces towards their enemies, who stood + firmly, not having as yet noticed my companions, who + went into the woods with some savages. Our men began + to call me with loud cries; and in order to give me + a passage way they opened in two parts and put me at + their head, where I marched some twenty paces in + advance of the rest, until I was within about twenty + paces of the enemy, who at once noticed me and, halting, + gazed at me, as I did also at them. When I saw them + make a move to fire at us, I rested my musket against + my cheek and aimed directly at one of the three chiefs. + With the same shot two fell to the ground; and one of + their men was so wounded that he died some time after. + I had loaded my musket with four balls. When our side + saw this shot so favourable for them, they began to + raise such loud cries that one could not have heard + it thunder. Meanwhile the arrows flew on both sides. + The Iroquois were greatly astonished that two men had + been so quickly killed, although they were equipped + with armour woven from cotton thread and with wood + which was proof against their arrows. This caused + great alarm among them. As I was loading again, one + of my companions fired a shot from the woods, which + astonished them anew to such a degree that, seeing + their chiefs dead, they lost courage and took to + flight, abandoning their camp and fort and fleeing + into the woods, whither I pursued them, killing still + more of them. Our savages also killed several of them + and took ten or twelve prisoners. The remainder escaped + with the wounded. Fifteen or sixteen were wounded on + our side with arrow shots, but they were soon healed. +</pre> + <p> + The spoils of victory included a large quantity of Indian corn, together + with a certain amount of meal, and also some of the native armour which + the Iroquois had thrown away in order to effect their escape. Then + followed a feast and the torture of one of the prisoners, whose sufferings + were mercifully concluded by a ball from Champlain's musket, delivered in + such wise that the unfortunate did not see the shot. Like Montcalm and + other French commanders of a later date, Champlain found it impossible to + curb wholly the passions of his savage allies. In this case his + remonstrances had the effect of gaining for the victim a coup de grace—which + may be taken as a measure of Champlain's prestige. The atrocious savagery + practised before and after death is described in full detail. Champlain + concludes the lurid picture as follows: 'This is the manner in which these + people behave towards those whom they capture in war, for whom it would be + better to die fighting or to kill themselves on the spur of the moment, as + many do rather than fall into the hands of their enemies.' + </p> + <p> + Beyond the point at which this battle was fought Champlain did not go. At + Ticonderoga he was within eighty miles of the site of Albany. Had he + continued, he would have reached the Hudson from the north in the same + summer the Half Moon [Footnote: Henry Hudson, an English mariner with a + Dutch crew, entered the mouth of the Hudson in a boat called the Half Moon + on September 4, 1609. As named by him, the river was called the 'Great + North River of New Netherland.'] entered it from the mouth. But the + Algonquins were content with their victory, though they candidly stated + that there was an easy route from the south end of Lake George to 'a river + flowing into the sea on the Norumbega coast near that of Florida.' The + return to Quebec and Tadoussac was attended by no incident of moment. The + Montagnais, on parting with Champlain at Tadoussac, generously gave him + the head of an Iroquois and a pair of arms, with the request that they be + carried to the king of France. The Algonquins had already taken their + departure at Chambly, where, says Champlain, 'we separated with loud + protestations of mutual friendship. They asked me whether I would not like + to go into their country to assist them with continued fraternal + relations; and I promised that I would do so.' + </p> + <p> + As a contribution to geographical knowledge the expedition of 1609 + disclosed the existence of a noble lake, to which Champlain fitly gave his + own name. Its dimensions he considerably over-estimated, but in all + essential respects its situation was correctly described, while his + comments on the flora and fauna are very interesting. The garpike as he + saw it, with amplifications from the Indians as they had seen it, gave him + the subject for a good fish story. He was deeply impressed, too, by the + richness of the vegetation. His attack on the Iroquois was not soon + forgotten by that relentless foe, and prepared a store of trouble for the + colony he founded. But the future was closed to his view, and for the + moment his was the glorious experience of being the first to gaze with + European eyes upon a lake fairer and grander than his own France could + show. + </p> + <p> + Four years elapsed before Champlain was enabled to plunge once more into + the depths of the forest—this time only to meet with the severest + disappointment of his life. Much has been said already regarding his + ambition to discover a short route to Cathay. This was the great prize for + which he would have sacrificed everything save loyalty to the king and + duty to the church. For a moment he seemed on the point of gaining it. + Then the truth was brutally disclosed, and he found that he had been + wilfully deceived by an impostor. + </p> + <p> + It was a feature of Champlain's policy that from time to time French + youths should spend the winter with the Indians—hunting with them, + living in their settlements, exploring their country, and learning their + language. Of Frenchmen thus trained to woodcraft during Champlain's + lifetime the most notable were Etienne Brule, Nicolas Vignau, Nicolas + Marsolet, and Jean Nicolet. Unfortunately the three first did not leave an + unclouded record. Brule, after becoming a most accomplished guide, turned + traitor and aided the English in 1629. Champlain accuses Marsolet of a + like disloyalty. [Footnote: Marsolet's defence was that he acted under + constraint.] Vignau, with more imagination, stands on the roll of fame as + a frank impostor. + </p> + <p> + Champlain, as we have seen, spent the whole of 1612 in France, and it was + at this time that Vignau appeared in Paris with a tale which could not but + kindle excitement in the heart of an explorer. The basis of fact was that + Vignau had undoubtedly passed the preceding winter with the Algonquins on + the Ottawa. The fable which was built upon this fact can best be told in + Champlain's own words. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + He reported to me, on his return to Paris in 1612, + that he had seen the North Sea; that the river of the + Algonquins [the Ottawa] came from a lake which emptied + into it; and that in seventeen days one could go from + the Falls of St Louis to this sea and back again; that + he had seen the wreck and debris of an English ship + that had been wrecked, on board of which were eighty + men who had escaped to the shore, and whom the savages + killed because the English endeavoured to take from + them by force their Indian corn and other necessaries + of life; and that he had seen the scalps which these + savages had flayed off, according to their custom, + which they would show me, and that they would likewise + give me an English boy whom they had kept for me. This + intelligence greatly pleased me, for I thought that + I had almost found that for which I had for a long + time been searching. +</pre> + <p> + Champlain makes it clear that he did not credit Vignau's tale with the + simple credulity of a man who has never been to sea. He caused Vignau to + swear to its truth at La Rochelle before two notaries. He stipulated that + Vignau should go with him over the whole route. Finally, as they were on + the point of sailing together for Canada in the spring of 1613, he once + more adjured Vignau in the presence of distinguished witnesses, saying + 'that if what he had previously said was not true, he must not give me the + trouble to undertake the journey, which involved many dangers. Again he + affirmed all that he had said, on peril of his life.' + </p> + <p> + After taking these multiplied precautions against deceit, Champlain left + the Sault St Louis on May 29, 1613, attended by four Frenchmen and one + Indian, with Vignau for guide. Ascending the Ottawa, they encountered + their first difficulties at the Long Sault, where Dollard forty-seven + years later was to lose his life so gloriously. Here the passage of the + rapids was both fatiguing and dangerous. Prevented by the density of the + wood from making a portage, they were forced to drag their canoes through + the water. In one of the eddies Champlain nearly lost his life, and his + hand was severely hurt by a sudden jerk of the rope. Having mounted the + rapids, he met with no very trying obstacle until he had gone some + distance past the Chaudiere Falls. His reference to the course of the + Gatineau makes no sense, and Laverdiere has had recourse to the not + improbable conjecture that the printer dropped out a whole line at this + point. Champlain also over-estimates considerably the height of the Rideau + Falls and is not very exact in his calculation of latitude. + </p> + <p> + The hardships of this journey were greatly and unnecessarily increased by + Vignau, whose only hope was to discourage his leader. In. the end it + proved that 'our liar' (as Champlain repeatedly calls him) had hoped to + secure a reward for his alleged discovery, believing that no one would + follow him long, even if an attempt were made to confirm the accuracy of + his report. But Champlain, undeterred by portages and mosquitoes, kept on. + Some savages who joined him said that Vignau was a liar, and on their + advice Champlain left the Ottawa a short distance above the mouth of the + Madawaska. Holding westward at some distance from the south shore, he + advanced past Muskrat Lake, and after a hard march came out again on the + Ottawa at Lake Allumette. + </p> + <p> + This was the end of Champlain's route in 1613. From the Algonquins on + Allumette Island he learned that Vignau had wintered with them at the time + he swore he was discovering salt seas. Finally, the impostor confessed his + fraud and, falling on his knees, asked for mercy. The Indians would gladly + have killed him outright, but Champlain spared his life, though how deeply + he was moved can be seen from these words: 'Overcome with wrath I had him + removed, being unable to endure him any longer in my presence.' After his + confession there was nothing for it but to return by the same route. An + astrolabe found some years ago near Muskrat Lake may have been dropped + from Champlain's luggage on the journey westward, though he does not + mention the loss. + </p> + <p> + Apart from disclosing the course of the Ottawa, the Voyage of 1613 is + chiefly notable for its account of Indian customs—for example, the + mode of sepulture, the tabagie or feast, and the superstition which leads + the Algonquins to throw pieces of tobacco into the cauldron of the + Chaudiere Falls as a means of ensuring protection against their enemies. + Of the feast given him by Tessouat, an Algonquin chief, Champlain says: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The next day all the guests came, each with his + porringer and wooden spoon. They seated themselves + without order or ceremony on the ground in the cabin + of Tessouat, who distributed to them a kind of broth + made of maize crushed between two stones, together + with meat and fish which was cut into little pieces, + the whole being boiled together without salt. They + also had meat roasted on the coals and fish boiled + apart, which he also distributed. In respect to myself, + as I did not wish any of their chowder, which they + prepare in a very dirty manner, I asked them for some + fish and meat, that I might prepare it my own way, + which they gave me. For drink we had fine, clear water. + Tessouat, who gave the tabagie, entertained us without + eating himself, according to their custom. + + The tabagie being over, the young men, who are not + present at the harangues and councils, and who during + the tabagie remain at the door of the cabins, withdrew, + when all who remained began to fill their pipes, one + and another offering me one. We then spent a full + half-hour in this occupation, not a word being spoken, + as is their custom. +</pre> + <p> + But for the dexterous arrangement by which Champlain managed to cook his + own food, the tabagie would have been more dangerous to health than the + portage. In any case, it was an ordeal that could not be avoided, for + feasting meant friendly intercourse, and only through friendly intercourse + could Champlain gain knowledge of that vast wilderness which he must + pierce before reaching his long-sought goal, the sea beyond which lay + China. + </p> + <p> + As for Vignau, his punishment was to make full confession before all the + French who had assembled at the Sault St Louis to traffic with the + Indians. When Champlain reached this rendezvous on June 17, he informed + the traders of all that had happened, including + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + the malice of my liar, at which they were greatly + amazed. I then begged them to assemble in order that + in their presence, and that of the savages and his + companions, he might make declaration of his + maliciousness; which they gladly did. Being thus + assembled, they summoned him and asked him why he had + not shown me the sea of the north, as he had promised + me at his departure. He replied that he had promised + something impossible for him, since he had never seen + the sea, and that the desire of making the journey + had led him to say what he did, also that he did not + suppose that I would undertake it; and he begged them + to be pleased to pardon him, as he also begged me + again, confessing that he had greatly offended, and + if I would leave him in the country he would by his + efforts repair the offence and see this sea, and bring + back trustworthy intelligence concerning it the + following year; and in view of certain considerations + I pardoned him on this condition. +</pre> + <p> + Vignau's public confession was followed by the annual barter with the + Indians, after which Champlain returned to France. + </p> + <p> + We come now to the Voyage of 1615, which describes Champlain's longest and + most daring journey through the forest—an expedition that occupied + the whole period from July 9, 1615, to the last days of June 1616. Thus + for the first time he passed a winter with the Indians, enlarging greatly + thereby his knowledge of their customs and character. The central incident + of the expedition was an attack made by the Hurons and their allies upon + the stronghold of the Onondagas in the heart of the Iroquois country. But + while this war-party furnishes the chief adventure, there is no page of + Champlain's narrative which lacks its tale of the marvellous. As a story + of life in the woods, the Voyage of 1615 stands first among all + Champlain's writings. + </p> + <p> + As in 1609, there was a mutuality of interest between Champlain and the + Indians who traded at the Sault. His desire was to explore and theirs was + to fight. By compromise they disclosed to him the recesses of their + country and he aided them against the Iroquois. In 1615 the Hurons not + only reminded him of his repeated promises to aid them, but stated flatly + that without such aid they could no longer attend the annual market, as + their enemies were making the route too unsafe. On their side they + promised a war-party of more than two thousand men. A further proof of + friendship was afforded by their willingness to receive a missionary in + their midst—the Recollet, Father Joseph Le Caron. + </p> + <p> + Champlain's line of exploration in 1615-16 took the following course. He + first ascended the Ottawa to the mouth of the Mattawa. Thence journeying + overland by ponds and portages he entered Lake Nipissing, which he skirted + to the outlet. French River next took him to Georgian Bay, or, as he calls + it for geographical definition, the Lake of the Attigouautan [Hurons]. His + own name for this vast inland sea is the Mer Douce. That he did not + explore it with any degree of thoroughness is evident from the terms of + his narrative as well as from his statement that its length, east and + west, is four hundred leagues. What he saw of Lake Huron was really the + east shore of Georgian Bay, from the mouth of French River to the bottom + of Matchedash Bay. Here he entered the country of the Hurons, which + pleased him greatly in comparison with the tract before traversed. 'It was + very fine, the largest part being cleared, and many hills and several + rivers rendering the region agreeable. I went to see their Indian corn, + which was at that time [early in August] far advanced for the season.' + </p> + <p> + Champlain's route through the district between Carmaron and Cahaigue can + best be followed in Father Jones's map of Huronia. [Footnote: This map + will be found in 'The Jesuit Missions 'in this Series, and also in vol. + xxxiv of 'The Jesuit Relations,' ed. Thwaites.] The points which Champlain + names are there indicated, in each case with as careful identification of + the locality as we are ever likely to get. For those who are not + specialists in the topography of Huronia it may suffice that Champlain + left Matchedash Bay not far from Penetanguishene, and thence went to + Carmaron at the very north of the peninsula. Returning, he passed through + some of the largest of the Huron villages, and after sixteen days came out + at Cahaigue, which was situated close to Lake Simcoe and almost on the + site of the modern Hawkestone. It was here that most of the Huron warriors + assembled for the great expedition against the Onondagas. Setting out on + their march, they first went a little to the northward, where they were + joined on the shores of Lake Couchiching by another contingent. The party + thus finally made up, Champlain's line of advance first took him to + Sturgeon Lake. Afterwards it pursued that important waterway which is + represented by the Otonabee river, Rice Lake, and the river Trent. Hence + the warriors entered Lake Ontario by the Bay of Quinte. + </p> + <p> + This country between Lake Simcoe and the Bay of Quinte seems to have + pleased Champlain greatly. He saw it in September, when the temperature + was agreeable and when the vegetation of the forest could be enjoyed + without the torment inflicted by mosquitoes. 'It is certain,' he says, + 'that all this region is very fine and pleasant. Along the banks it seems + as if the trees had been set out for ornament in most places, and that all + these tracts were in former times inhabited by savages who were + subsequently compelled to abandon them from fear of their enemies. Vines + and nut trees are here very numerous. Grapes mature, yet there is always a + very pungent tartness, which is felt remaining in the throat when one eats + them in large quantities, arising from defect of cultivation. These + localities are very pleasant when cleared up.' + </p> + <p> + From the Bay of Quinte the war-party skirted the east shore of Lake + Ontario, crossing the head of the St Lawrence, and thence following the + southern shore about fourteen leagues. At this point the Indians concealed + all their canoes and struck into the woods towards Lake Oneida. Though + made up chiefly of Hurons, the little army embraced various allies, + including a band of Algonquins. Whether from over-confidence at having + Champlain among them or from their natural lack of discipline, the allies + managed their attack very badly. On a pond a few miles south of Oneida + Lake lay the objective point of the expedition—a palisaded + stronghold of the Onondagas. At a short distance from this fort eleven of + the enemy were surprised and taken prisoners. What followed was much less + fortunate. Champlain does not state the number of Frenchmen present, but + as his drawing shows eleven musketeers, we may infer that his own + followers were distinctly more numerous than at the battle on Lake + Champlain. + </p> + <p> + The height of the palisade was thirty feet, and a system of gutters + supplied abundant water for use in extinguishing fire. Champlain's plan of + attack was to employ a cavalier, or protected scaffolding, which should + overtop the palisade and could be brought close against it. From the top + of this framework four or five musketeers were to deliver a fusillade + against the Iroquois within the fort, while the Hurons kindled a fire at + the foot of the palisade. Champlain's drawing shows the rest of the + musketeers engaged in creating a diversion at other points. + </p> + <p> + But everything miscarried. Though the cavalier was constructed, the allies + threw aside the wooden shields which Champlain had caused to be made as a + defence against the arrows of the Iroquois while the fire was being + kindled. Only a small supply of wood had been collected, and even this was + so placed that the flames blew away from the palisade instead of towards + it. On the failure of this attempt to fire the fort all semblance of + discipline was thrown to the winds. 'There also rose such disorder among + them,' says Champlain, 'that one could not understand another, which + greatly troubled me. In vain did I shout in their ears and remonstrate to + my utmost with them as to the danger to which they exposed themselves by + their bad behaviour, but on account of the great noise they made they + heard nothing. Seeing that shouting would only burst my head and that my + remonstrances were useless for putting a stop to the disorder, I did + nothing more, but determined, together with my men, to do what we could + and fire upon such as we could see.' + </p> + <p> + The fight itself lasted only three hours, and the casualties of the + attacking party were inconsiderable, since but two of their chiefs and + fifteen warriors were wounded. In addition to their repulse, the Hurons + suffered a severe disappointment through the failure to join them of five + hundred allies who had given their solemn promise. Although Champlain had + received two severe wounds, one in the leg and another in the knee, he + urged a second and more concerted attack. But in vain. The most the Hurons + would promise was to wait four or five days for the expected + reinforcements. At the end of this time there was no sign of the five + hundred, and the return began. 'The only good point,' says Champlain, + 'that I have seen in their mode of warfare is that they make their retreat + very securely, placing all the wounded and aged in their centre, being + well armed on the wings and in the rear, and continuing this order without + interruption until they reach a place of security.' + </p> + <p> + Champlain himself suffered tortures during the retreat, partly from his + wounds, but even more from the mode of transportation. The Indian method + of removing the wounded was first to bind and pinion them 'in such a + manner that it is as impossible for them to move as for an infant in its + swaddling-clothes.' They were then carried in a kind of basket, 'crowded + up in a heap.' Doubtless as a mark of distinction, Champlain was carried + separately on the back of a savage. His wound was so severe that when the + retreat began he could not stand. But the transportation proved worse than + the wound. 'I never found myself in such a gehenna as during this time, + for the pain which I suffered in consequence of the wound in my knee was + nothing in comparison with that which I endured while I was carried bound + and pinioned on the back of one of our savages. So that I lost my + patience, and as soon as I could sustain myself got out of this prison, or + rather gehenna.' + </p> + <p> + The enemy made no pursuit, but forced marches were kept up for twenty-five + or thirty leagues. The weather now grew cold, as it was past the middle of + autumn. The fight at the fort of the Onondagas had taken place on October + 10, and eight days later there was a snowstorm, with hail and a strong + wind. But, apart from extreme discomfort, the retreat was successfully + accomplished, and on the shore of Lake Ontario they found the canoes + intact. + </p> + <p> + It had been Champlain's purpose to spend the winter at Quebec, and when + the Hurons were about to leave the east end of Lake Ontario for their own + country he asked them for a canoe and an escort. Four Indians volunteered + for this service, but no canoe could be had, and in consequence Champlain + was forced reluctantly to accompany the Hurons. With his usual patience he + accepted the inevitable, which in this case was only unpleasant because he + was ill prepared for spending a winter among the Indians. After a few days + he perceived that their plan was to keep him and his companions, partly as + security for themselves and partly that he might assist at their councils + in planning better safeguards against their enemies. + </p> + <p> + This enforced residence of Champlain among the Hurons during the winter of + 1615-16 has given us an excellent description of Indian customs. It was + also the means of composing a dangerous quarrel between the Hurons and the + Algonquins. Once committed to spending the winter among the Indians, + Champlain planned to make Huronia a point of departure for still further + explorations to the westward. Early in 1616 there seemed to be a + favourable opportunity to push forward in the direction of Lake Superior. + Then came this wretched brawl of Hurons and Algonquins, which threatened + to beget bitter hatred and war among tribes which hitherto had both been + friendly to the French. Accepting his duty, Champlain gave up his journey + to the far west and threw himself into the task of restoring peace. But + the measure of his disappointment is found in these words: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + If ever there was one greatly disheartened, it was + myself, since I had been waiting to see this year what + during many preceding ones I had been seeking for with + great toil and effort, through so many fatigues and + risks of my life. But realizing that I could not help + the matter, and that everything depended on the will + of God, I comforted myself, resolving to see it in a + short time. I had such sure information that I could + not doubt the report of these people, who go to traffic + with others dwelling in those northern regions, a + great part of whom live in a place very abundant in + the chase and where there are great numbers of large + animals, the skins of several of which I saw, and + which I concluded were buffaloes from their + representation of their form. Fishing is also very + abundant there. This journey requires forty days as + well in returning as in going. +</pre> + <p> + Thus Champlain almost had a chance to see the bison and the great plains + of the West. As it was, he did his immediate duty and restored the peace + of Huron and Algonquin. In partial compensation for the alluring journey + he relinquished, he had a better opportunity to study the Hurons in their + settlements and to investigate their relations with their neighbours—the + Tobacco Nation, the Neutral Nation, les Cheveux Releves, and the Race of + Fire. Hence the Voyage of 1615 not only describes the physical aspects of + Huronia, but contains intimate details regarding the life of its people—their + wigwams, their food, their manner of cooking, their dress, their + decorations, their marriage customs, their medicine-men, their burials, + their assemblies, their agriculture, their amusements, and their mode of + fishing. It is Champlain's most ambitious piece of description, far less + detailed than the subsequent narratives of the Jesuits, but in comparison + with them gaining impact from being less diffuse. + </p> + <p> + It was on May 20, 1616, that Champlain left the Huron country, never again + to journey thither or to explore the recesses of the forest. Forty days + later he reached the Sault St Louis, and saw once more his old friend + Pontgrave. Thenceforward his life belongs not to the wilderness, but to + Quebec. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V. CHAMPLAIN'S LAST YEARS + </h2> + <p> + When Champlain reached the Sault St Louis on July 1, 1616, his career as + an explorer had ended. The nineteen years of life that still remained he + gave to Quebec and the duties of his lieutenancy. + </p> + <p> + By this time he had won the central position in his own domain. Question + might arise as to the terms upon which a monopoly of trade should be + granted, or as to the persons who should be its recipients. But whatever + company might control the trade, Champlain was the king's representative + in New France. When Boyer affronted him, the council had required that a + public apology should be offered. When Montmorency instituted the + investigation of 1620, it was Champlain's report which determined the + issue. Five years later, when the Duc de Ventadour became viceroy in place + of Montmorency, Champlain still remained lieutenant-general of New France. + Such were his character, services, and knowledge that his tenure could not + be questioned. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding this source of satisfaction, the post was difficult in the + extreme. The government continued to leave colonizing in the hands of the + traders, and the traders continued to shirk their obligations. The Company + of the De Caens did a large business, but suffered more severely than any + of its predecessors from the strife of Catholic and Huguenot. Those of the + reformed religion even held their services in the presence of the Indians, + thus anticipating the scandals of Kikuyu. Though the Duc de Ventadour gave + orders that there should be no psalm-singing after the outbound ships + passed Newfoundland, this provision seems not to have been effective. It + was a difficult problem for one like Champlain, who, while a loyal + Catholic, had been working all his life with Huguenot associates. + </p> + <p> + The period of the De Caens was marked by the presence at Quebec of Madame + Champlain. The romance of Champlain's life does not, however, revolve + about his marriage. In 1610, at the age of forty-three, he espoused Helene + Boulle, whose father was secretary of the King's Chamber to Henry IV. As + the bride was only twelve years old, the marriage contract provided that + she should remain two years longer with her parents. She brought a dowry + of six thousand livres, and simultaneously Champlain made his will in her + favour. Probably De Monts had some part in arranging the marriage, for + Nicholas Boulle was a Huguenot and De Monts appears as a witness to the + notarial documents. Subsequently, Madame Champlain became an enthusiastic + Catholic and ended her days as a nun. She had no children, and was only + once in Canada, residing continuously at Quebec from 1620 to 1624. No + mention whatever is made of her in Champlain's writings, but he named St + Helen's Island after her, and appears to have been unwilling that she + should enter a convent during his lifetime. + </p> + <p> + One need feel little surprise that Madame Champlain should not care to + visit Canada a second time, for the buildings at Quebec had fallen into + disrepair, and more than once the supply of food ran very low. During 1625 + Champlain remained in France with his wife, and therefore did not witness + the coming o the Jesuits to the colony. This event, which is a landmark in + the history of Quebec and New France, followed upon the inability of the + Recollets to cover the mission field with any degree of completeness. + Conscious that their resources were unequal to the task, they invoked the + aid of the Jesuits, and in this appeal were strongly supported by + Champlain. Once more the horizon seemed to brighten, for the Jesuits had + greater resources and influence than any other order in the Roman Catholic + Church, and their establishment at Quebec meant much besides a mere + increase in the population. The year 1626 saw Champlain again at his post, + working hard to complete a new factory which he had left unfinished, while + the buildings of the Jesuit establishment made good progress under the + hand of workmen specially brought from France. What still remained + imperfect was the fortification. The English had destroyed the French + settlements at Mount Desert and Port Royal. What was to hinder them from + bombarding Quebec? + </p> + <p> + This danger soon clouded the mood of optimism that had been inspired by + the coming of the Jesuits. The De Caens objected to any outlay on a fort, + and would not give Champlain the men he needed. In reply Champlain sent + the viceroy a report which was unfavourable to the company and its + methods. But even without this representation, the monopoly of the De + Caens was doomed by reason of events which were taking place in France. + </p> + <p> + At the court of Louis XIII Richelieu had now gained an eminence and power + such as never before had been possessed by a minister of the French crown. + Gifted with imagination and covetous of national greatness, he saw the + most desirable portions of other continents in the hands of the Spaniards, + the Portuguese, the English, and the Dutch. The prospect was not pleasing, + and he cast about for a remedy. + </p> + <p> + For Hanotaux, [Footnote: Gabriel Hanotaux, member of the French Academy, + is the author of the most authoritative work on the life and times of + Richelieu.] Richelieu is 'the true founder of our colonial empire,' and La + Ronciere adds: 'Madagascar, Senegal, Guiana' the Antilles, Acadia, and + Canada—this, to be exact, was the colonial empire for which we were + indebted to Richelieu.' Regarding his breadth of outlook there can be no + doubt, and in his Memoirs he left the oft-quoted phrase: 'No realm is so + well situated as France to be mistress of the seas or so rich in all + things needful.' Desiring to strengthen maritime commerce and to hold + distant possessions, he became convinced that the English and the Dutch + had adopted the right policy. Strong trading companies—not weak ones—were + what France needed. + </p> + <p> + Henry IV could have given the French a fair start, or even a lead, in the + race for colonies. He missed this great opportunity; partly because he was + preoccupied with the reorganization of France, and partly because Sully, + his minister, had no enthusiasm for colonial ventures. Twenty years later + the situation had changed. Richelieu, who was a man of wide outlook, was + also compelled by the activity of England and Holland to give attention to + the problem of a New France. The spirit of colonization was in the air, + and Richelieu, with his genius for ideas, could not fail to see its + importance or what would befall the laggards. His misfortune was that he + lacked certain definite qualifications which a greater founder of colonies + needed to possess. Marvellous in his grasp of diplomatic situations and in + his handling of men, he had no talent whatever for the details of + commerce. His fiscal regime, particularly after France engaged in her duel + with the House of Hapsburg, was disorganized and intolerable. Nor did he + recognize that, for the French, the desire to emigrate required even + greater encouragement than the commercial instinct. He compelled his + company to transport settlers, but the number was not large, and he + kindled no popular enthusiasm for the cause of colonization. France had + once led the crusade eastward. Under proper guidance she might easily have + contributed more than she did to the exodus westward. + </p> + <p> + At any rate Richelieu, 'a man in the grand style, if ever man was,' had + decided that New France should no longer languish, and the Company of One + Hundred Associates was the result. In 1627 he abolished the office of + viceroy, deprived the De Caens of their charter, and prepared to make + Canada a real colony. The basis of the plan was an association of one + hundred members, each subscribing three thousand livres. Richelieu's own + name heads the list of members, followed by those of the minister of + finance and the minister of marine. Most of the members resided in Paris, + though the seaboard and the eastern provinces were also represented. + Nobles, wealthy merchants, small traders, all figure in the list, and + twelve titles of nobility were distributed among the shareholders to help + in the enlistment of capital. The company received a monopoly of trade for + fifteen years, and promised to take out three hundred colonists annually + during the whole period covered by the grant. It also received the St + Lawrence valley in full ownership. One notable provision of the charter + was that only Roman Catholics should be sent to New France, and the + company was placed under special obligation to maintain three priests in + each settlement until the colony could support its own clergy. + </p> + <p> + Champlain was now sixty years of age, and he had suffered much. Suddenly + there burst forth this spontaneous enthusiasm of Richelieu the + all-powerful. Was Champlain's dream of the great city of Ludovica to come + true after all? + </p> + <p> + Alas, like previous visions, it faded before the glare of harsh, + uncompromising facts. The year in which Richelieu founded his Company of + New France was also the year of a fierce Huguenot revolt. Calling on + England for aid, La Rochelle defied Paris, the king, and the cardinal. + Richelieu laid siege to the place. Guiton, the mayor, sat at his + council-board with a bare dagger before him to warn the faint-hearted. The + old Duchesse de Rohan starved with the populace. Salbert, the most + eloquent of Huguenot pastors, preached that martyrdom was better than + surrender. Meanwhile, Richelieu built his mole across the harbour, and + Buckingham wasted the English troops to which the citizens looked for + their salvation. Then the town yielded. + </p> + <p> + The fall of La Rochelle was a great personal triumph for Richelieu, but + the war with England brought disaster to the Company of New France. At + Dieppe there had lived for many years an Englishman named Jarvis, or + Gervase, Kirke, who with his five sons—David, Lewis, Thomas, John, + and Jamesknew much at first hand about the French merchant marine. Early + in the spring of 1628 Kirke (who had shortly before moved to London) + secured letters of marque and sent forth his sons to do what damage they + could to the French in the St Lawrence. Champlain had spent the winter at + Quebec and was, of course, expecting his usual supplies with the opening + of navigation. Instead came Lewis Kirke, sent from Tadoussac by his + brother David, to demand surrender. + </p> + <p> + Champlain made a reply which, though courteous, was sufficiently bold to + convince the Kirkes that Quebec could be best captured by starvation. They + therefore sailed down the St Lawrence to intercept the fleet from France, + confident that their better craft would overcome these 'sardines of the + sea.' The plan proved successful even beyond expectation, for after a long + cannonade they captured without material loss the whole fleet which had + been sent out by the Company of New France. Ships, colonists, annual + supplies, building materials—all fell into the hands of the + enterprising Kirkes, who then sailed for England with their booty. Alike + to Champlain and to the Hundred Associates it was a crippling blow. + </p> + <p> + Thus, but for the war with England, Quebec would have seen its population + trebled in 1628. As it was, the situation became worse than ever. Lewis + Kirke had been careful to seize the cattle pastured at Cap Tourmente and + to destroy the crops. When winter came, there were eighty mouths to feed + on a scant diet of peas and maize, imperfectly ground, with a reserve + supply of twelve hundred eels. Towards spring anything was welcome, and + the roots of Solomon's seal were esteemed a feast. Champlain even gave + serious thought to a raid upon the Mohawks, three hundred miles away, in + the hope that food could be brought back from their granaries. Finally, on + the 19th of July 1629, Lewis Kirke returned with a second summons to + surrender. This time only one answer was possible, for to the survivors at + Quebec the English came less in the guise of foes than as human beings who + could save them from starvation. Champlain and his people received + honourable treatment, and were promised a passage to France. The family + Hebert, however, decided to remain. + </p> + <p> + We need not dwell upon the emotions with which Champlain saw the French + flag pulled down at Quebec. Doubtless it seemed the disastrous end of his + life-work, but he was a good soldier and enjoyed also the comforts of + religion. A further consolation was soon found in the discovery that + Quebec might yet be reclaimed. Ten weeks before Champlain surrendered, the + two countries were again at peace, and the Treaty of Suza embodied a + provision that captures made after the treaty was signed should be + mutually restored. This intelligence reached Champlain when he landed in + England on the homeward voyage. It is characteristic of the man, that + before going on to France he posted from Dover to London, and urged the + French ambassador that he should insistently claim Quebec. + </p> + <p> + As a result of the war Canada and Acadia were both in the possession of + England. On the other hand, the dowry of Henrietta Maria was still, for + the most part, in the treasury of France. When one remembers that 1628 saw + Charles I driven by his necessities to concede the Petition of Right, it + will be readily seen that he desired the payment of his wife's dowry. + Hence Richelieu, whose talents in diplomacy were above praise, had + substantial reason to expect that Canada and Acadia would be restored. The + negotiations dragged on for more than two years, and were complicated by + disputes growing out of the captures made under letter of marque. When all + was settled by the Treaty of St Germain-en-Laye (March 1632) Quebec and + Port Royal became once more French—to the profound discontent of the + Kirkes and Sir William Alexander, [Footnote: Alexander had received grants + from the British crown in 1621 and 1625 which covered the whole coast from + St Croix Island to the St Lawrence.] but with such joy on the part of + Champlain as only patriots can know who have given a lifelong service to + their country. + </p> + <p> + Having regained Canada, Richelieu was forced to decide what he would do + with it. In certain important respects the situation had changed since + 1627, when he founded the Company of New France. Then Gustavus Adolphus + and the Swedes were not a factor in the dire strife which was convulsing + Europe. [Footnote: At this period the largest interest in European + politics was the rivalry between France and the House of Hapsburg, which + held the thrones of Spain and Austria. This rivalry led France to take an + active part in the Thirty Years' War, even though her allies in that + struggle were Protestants. Between 1627, when the Company of New France + was founded, and 1632, when Canada was restored to France, the Swedes + under Gustavus Adolphus had won a series of brilliant victories over the + Catholic and Hapsburg forces in Germany, After the death of Gustavus + Adolphus in 1632, Richelieu attacked the Emperor Ferdinand II in great + force, thereby conquering Alsace.] In 1632 the political problems of + Western and Central Europe had assumed an aspect quite different from that + which they had worn five years earlier. More and more France was drawn + into the actual conflict of the Thirty Years' War, impelled by a sense of + new and unparalleled opportunity to weaken the House of Hapsburg. This, in + turn, meant the preoccupation of Richelieu with European affairs, and a + heavy drain upon the resources of France in order to meet the cost of her + more ambitious foreign policy. Thus the duel with Austria, as it + progressed during the last decade of the cardinal's life, meant a fresh + check to those colonial prospects which seemed so bright in 1627. + </p> + <p> + Richelieu's first step in resuming possession of Canada was to compose + matters between the De Caens and the Company of New France. Emery de Caen + and his associates were given the trading rights for 1632 and 79,000 + livres as compensation for their losses through the revocation of the + monopoly. Dating from the spring of 1633, the Company of New France was to + be placed in full possession of Canada, subject to specific obligations + regarding missions and colonists. Conformably with this programme, Emery + de Caen appeared at Quebec on July 5, 1632, with credentials empowering + him to receive possession from Lewis and Thomas Kirke, the representatives + of England. With De Caen came Paul Le Jeune and two other Jesuits, a + vanguard of the missionary band which was to convert the savages. 'We cast + anchor,' says Le Jeune, 'in front of the fort which the English held; we + saw at the foot of this fort the poor settlement of Quebec all in ashes. + The English, who came to this country to plunder and not to build up, not + only burned a greater part of the detached buildings which Father Charles + Lalemant had erected, but also all of that poor settlement of which + nothing is now to be seen but the ruins of its stone walls.' + </p> + <p> + The season of 1632 thus belonged to De Caen, whose function was merely to + tie up loose ends and prepare for the establishment of the new regime. The + central incident of the recession was the return of Champlain himself—an + old man who had said a last farewell to France and now came, as the king's + lieutenant, to end his days in the land of his labours and his hopes. If + ever the oft-quoted last lines of Tennyson's Ulysses could fitly be + claimed by a writer on behalf of his hero, they apply to Champlain as he + sailed from the harbour of Dieppe on March 23, 1633. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Come, my friends, + + 'Tis not too late to seek a newer world. + Push off, and sitting well in order smite + The sounding furrows; for my purpose holds + To sail beyond the sunset, and the baths + Of all the western stars until I die. + + Tho' much is taken, much abides; and tho' + We are not now that strength which in old days + Moved earth and heaven; that which we are, we are; + One equal temper of heroic hearts, + Made weak by time and fate, but strong in will + To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield. +</pre> + <p> + It was Champlain's reward that he saw Quebec once more under the + fleur-de-lis, and was welcomed by the Indians with genuine emotion. The + rhetorical gifts of the red man were among his chief endowments, and all + that eloquence could lavish was poured forth in honour of Champlain at the + council of the Hurons, who had come to Quebec for barter at the moment of + his return. The description of this council is one of the most graphic + passages in Le Jeune's Relations. A captain of the Hurons first arose and + explained the purpose of the gathering. 'When this speech was finished all + the Savages, as a sign of their approval, drew from the depths of their + stomachs this aspiration, HO, HO, HO, raising the last syllable very + high.' Thereupon the captain began another speech of friendship, alliance, + and welcome to Champlain, followed by gifts. Then the same captain made a + third speech, which was followed by Champlain's reply—a harangue + well adapted to the occasion. But the climax was reached in the concluding + orations of two more Huron chiefs. 'They vied with each other in trying to + honour Sieur de Champlain and the French, and in testifying their + affection for us. One of them said that when the French were absent the + earth was no longer the earth, the river was no longer the river, the sky + was no longer the sky; but upon the return of Sieur de Champlain + everything was as before: the earth was again the earth, the river was + again the river, and the sky was again the sky.' + </p> + <p> + Thus welcomed by the savages, Champlain resumed his arduous task. He was + establishing Quebec anew and under conditions quite unlike those which had + existed in 1608. The most notable difference was that the Jesuits were now + at hand to aid in the upbuilding of Canada. The Quebec of De Monts and De + Caen had been a trading-post, despite the efforts of the Recollets and + Jesuits to render it the headquarters of a mission. Undoubtedly there + existed from the outset a desire to convert the Indians, but as a source + of strength to the colony this disposition effected little until the + return of the Jesuits in 1632. + </p> + <p> + With the re-establishment of the Jesuit mission the last days of Champlain + are inseparably allied. A severe experience had proved that the colonizing + zeal of the crown was fitful and uncertain. Private initiative was needed + to supplement the official programme, and of such initiative the supply + seemed scanty. The fur traders notoriously shirked their obligations to + enlarge the colony, and after 1632 the Huguenots, who had a distinct + motive for emigrating, were forbidden by Richelieu to settle in Canada. + There remained the enthusiasm of the Jesuits and the piety of those in + France who supplied the funds for their work among the Montagnais, the + Hurons, and the Iroquois. As the strongest order in the Roman Catholic + Church, the Jesuits possessed resources which enabled them to maintain an + active establishment in Canada. Through them Quebec became religious, and + their influence permeated the whole colony as its population increased and + the zone of occupation grew wider. Le Jeune, Lalemant, Brebeuf, and Jogues + are among the outstanding names of the restored New France. + </p> + <p> + During the last two years of his life Champlain lived patriarchally at + Quebec, administering the public affairs of the colony and lending its + religious impulses the strength of his support and example. Always a man + of serious mind, his piety was confirmed by the reflections of advancing + age and his daily contact with the missionaries. In his household there + was a service of prayer three times daily, together with reading at supper + from the lives of the saints. In pursuance of a vow, he built a chapel + named Notre Dame de la Recouvrance, which records the gratitude he felt + for the restoration of Quebec to France. He was, in short, the ideal + layman—serving his king loyally in all business of state, and + demeaning himself as a pilgrim who is about to set forth for the City of + God. + </p> + <p> + It is not to be inferred from the prominence of Champlain's religious + interests that he neglected his public duties, which continued to be many + and exacting. One of his problems was to prevent the English from trading + in the St Lawrence contrary to treaty; another was to discourage the + Hurons from selling their furs to the Dutch on the Hudson. The success of + the mission, which he had deeply at heart, implied the maintenance of + peace among the Indians who were friendly to the French. He sought also to + police the region of the Great Lakes by a band of French soldiers, and his + last letter to Richelieu (dated August 15, 1635) contains an earnest + appeal for a hundred and twenty men, to whom should be assigned the duty + of marshalling the Indian allies against the English and Dutch, as well as + of preserving order throughout the forest. The erection of a fort at Three + Rivers in 1634 was due to his desire that the annual barter should take + place at a point above Quebec. A commission which he issued in the same + year to Jean Nicolet to explore the country of the Wisconsins, shows that + his consuming zeal for exploration remained with him to the end. + </p> + <p> + It was permitted Champlain to die in harness. He remained to the last + lieutenant of the king in Canada. At the beginning of October 1635 he was + stricken with paralysis, and passed away on Christmas Day of the same + year. We do not possess the oration which Father Paul Le Jeune delivered + at his funeral, but there remains from Le Jeune's pen an appreciation of + his character in terms which to Champlain himself would have seemed the + highest praise. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + On the twenty-fifth of December, the day of the birth + of our Saviour upon earth, Monsieur de Champlain, our + Governor, was reborn in Heaven; at least we can say + that his death was full of blessings. I am sure that + God has shown him this favour in consideration of the + benefits he has procured for New France, where we hope + some day God will be loved and served by our French, + and known and adored by our Savages. Truly he had led + a life of great justice, equity, and perfect loyalty + to his King and towards the Gentlemen of the Company. + But at his death he crowned his virtues with sentiments + of piety so lofty that he astonished us all. What + tears he shed! how ardent became his zeal for the + service of God! how great was his love for the families + here!—saying that they must be vigorously assisted + for the good of the Country, and made comfortable in + every possible way in these early stages, and that he + would do it if God gave him health. He was not taken + unawares in the account which he had to render unto + God, for he had long ago prepared a general Confession + of his whole life, which he made with great contrition + to Father Lalemant, whom he honoured with his friendship. + The Father comforted him throughout his sickness, + which lasted two months and a half, and did not leave + him until his death. He had a very honourable burial, + the funeral procession being farmed of the people, + the soldiers, the captains, and the churchmen. Father + Lalemant officiated at this burial, and I was charged + with the funeral oration, for which I did not lack + material. Those whom he left behind have reason to be + well satisfied with him; for, though he died out of + France, his name will not therefor be any less glorious + to posterity. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI. CHAMPLAIN'S WRITINGS AND CHARACTER + </h2> + <p> + There are some things that speak for themselves. In attempting to + understand Champlain's character, we are first met by the fact that he + pursued unflinchingly his appointed task. For thirty-two years he + persevered, amid every kind of hardship, danger, and discouragement, in + the effort to build up New France. He had personal ambitions as an + explorer, which were kept in strict subordination to his duty to the king. + He possessed concentration of aim without fanaticism. His signal + unselfishness was adorned by a patience which equalled that of + Marlborough. Inspired by large ideals, he did not scorn imperfect means. + </p> + <p> + Thus there are certain large aspects of Champlain's character that stand + forth in the high light of deed, and do not depend for their effect either + upon his own words or those of others. But when once we have paid tribute + to the fine, positive qualities which are implied by his accomplishment, + we must hasten to recognize the extraordinary value of his writings as an + index to his mind and soul. His narrative is not an epic of disaster. It + is a plain and even statement of great dangers calmly met and treated as a + matter of course. Largely it is a record of achievement. At points where + it is a record of failure Champlain accepts the inevitable gracefully and + conforms his emotions to the will of God. The Voyages reveal a strong man + 'well four-squared to the blows of fortune.' They also illustrate the + virtue of muscular Christianity. + </p> + <p> + At a time which, like ours, is becoming sated with cleverness, it is a + delight to read the unvarnished story of Champlain. In saying that the + adjective is ever the enemy of the noun, Voltaire could not have levelled + the shaft at him, for few writers have been more sparing in their use of + adjectives or other glowing words. His love of the sea and of the forest + was profound, but he is never emotional in his expressions. Yet with all + his soberness and steadiness he possessed imagination. In its strength and + depth his enthusiasm for colonization proves this, even if we omit his + picture of the fancied Ludovica. But as a man of action rather than of + letters he instinctively omits verbiage. In some respects we suffer from + Champlain's directness of mind for on much that he saw he could have + lingered with profit. But very special inducements are needed to draw him + from his plain tale into a digression. Such inducements occur at times + when he is writing of the Indians, for he recognized that Europe was eager + to hear in full detail of their traits and customs. Thus set passages of + description, inserted with a sparing hand, seemed to him a proper element + of the text, but anything like conscious embellishment of the narrative he + avoids—probably more through mere naturalness than conscious + self-repression. + </p> + <p> + From Marco Polo to Scott's Journal the literature of geographical + discovery abounds with classics, and standards of comparison suggest + themselves in abundance to the critic of Champlain's Voyages. Most + naturally, of course, one turns to the records of American exploration in + the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries—to Ramusio, Oviedo, Peter + Martyr, Hakluyt, and Purchas. No age can show a more wonderful galaxy of + pioneers than that which extends from Columbus to La Salle, and among the + great explorers of this era Champlain takes his place by virtue alike of + his deeds and writings. In fact, he belongs to the small and distinguished + class of those who have recorded their own discoveries in a suitable and + authentic narrative, for in few cases have geographical results of equal + moment been described by the discoverer himself. + </p> + <p> + Among the many writings which are available for comparison and contrast + one turns, singularly yet inevitably, to Lescarbot. The singularity of a + comparison between Champlain and Lescarbot is that Lescarbot was not a + geographer. At the same time, he is the only writer of importance whose + trail crosses that of Champlain, and some light is thrown on Champlain's + personality by a juxtaposition of texts. That is to say, both were in + Acadia at the same time, sat together at Poutrincourt's table, gazed on + the same forests and clearings, met the same Indians, and had a like + opportunity of considering the colonial problems which were thrust upon + the French in the reign of Henry IV. + </p> + <p> + It would be hard to find narratives more dissimilar,—and the + contrast is not wholly to the advantage of Champlain. Or rather, there are + times when his Doric simplicity of style seems jejune beside the flowing + periods and picturesque details of Lescarbot. No better illustration of + this difference in style, arising from fundamental difference in + temperament, can be found than the description which each gives of the + Ordre de Bon Temps. To Champlain belongs the credit of inventing this + pleasant means of promoting health and banishing ennui, but all he tells + of it is this: 'By the rules of the Order a chain was put, with some + little ceremony, on the neck of one of our company, commissioning him for + the day to go a-hunting. The next day it was conferred upon another, and + thus in succession. All exerted themselves to the utmost to see who would + do the best and bring home the finest game. We found this a very good + arrangement, as did also the savages who were with us.' + </p> + <p> + Such is the limit of the information which we receive from Champlain + regarding the Ordre de Bon Temps, his own invention and the life of the + company. It is reserved for Lescarbot to give us the picture which no one + can forget—the Atoctegic, or ruler of the feast, leading the + procession to dinner 'napkin on shoulder, wand of office in hand, and + around his neck the collar of the Order, which was worth more than four + crowns; after him all the members of the Order, carrying each a dish.' + Around stand the savages, twenty or thirty of them, 'men, women, girls, + and children,' all waiting for scraps of food. At the table with the + French themselves sits the Sagamos Membertou and the other Indian chiefs, + gladdening the company by their presence. And the food!—'ducks, + bustards, grey and white geese, partridges, larks, and other birds; + moreover moose, caribou, beaver, otter, bear, rabbits, wild-cats, racoons, + and other animals,' the whole culminating in the tenderness of moose meat + and the delicacy of beaver's tail. Such are the items which Champlain + omits and Lescarbot includes. So it is throughout their respective + narratives—Champlain ever gaining force through compactness, and + Lescarbot constantly illuminating with his gaiety or shrewdness matters + which but for him would never have reached us. + </p> + <p> + This difference of temperament and outlook, which is so plainly reflected + on the printed page, also had its effect upon the personal relations of + the two men. It was not that Lescarbot scandalized Champlain by his + religious views, for though liberal-minded, Lescarbot was not a heretic, + and Champlain knew how to live harmoniously even with Huguenots. The cause + of the coolness which came to exist between them must be sought rather in + fundamental contrasts of character. To Champlain, Lescarbot doubtless + seemed a mere hanger-on or protege of Poutrincourt, with undue levity of + disposition and a needless flow of conversation. To Lescarbot, Champlain + may well have seemed deficient in literary attainments, and so preoccupied + with the concerns of geography as to be an uncongenial companion. To + whatever cause conjecture may trace it, they did not become friends, + although such lack of sympathy as existed shows itself only in an + occasional pin-prick, traceable particularly in the later editions of + their writings. For us it is the more needful to lay stress upon the + merits of Lescarbot, because he tends to be eclipsed by the greater + reputation of Champlain, and also because his style is sometimes so + diffuse as to create prejudice. But at his best he is admirable, and + without him we should know much less than we do about that Acadian + experience which holds such a striking place in the career of Champlain. + </p> + <p> + The popular estimate of French character dwells overmuch upon the levity + or gaiety which undoubtedly marks the Gallic race. France could not have + accomplished her great work for the world without stability of purpose and + seriousness of mood. Nowhere in French biography are these qualities more + plainly illustrated than by the acts of Champlain. The doggedness with + which he clung to his patriotic and unselfish task is the most conspicuous + fact in his life. Coupled therewith is his fortitude, both physical and + moral. In times of crisis the conscript sets his teeth and dies without a + murmur. But Champlain enlisted as a volunteer for a campaign which was to + go on unceasingly till his last day. How incessant were its dangers can be + made out in full detail from the text of the Voyages. We may omit the + perils of the North Atlantic, though what they were can be seen from + Champlain's description of his outward voyage in the spring of 1611. The + remaining dangers will suffice. Scurvy, which often claimed a death-roll + of from forty to eighty per cent in a single winter; famine such as that + which followed the failure of ships from home to arrive at the opening of + navigation; the storms which drove the frail shallop on the rocks and + shoals of Norumbega; the risk of mutiny; the chances of war, whether + against the Indians or the English; the rapids of the wilderness as they + threatened the overloaded canoe on its swift descent; the possible + treachery of Indian guides—such is a partial catalogue of the + death-snares which surrounded the pathway of an explorer like Champlain. + Every one of these dangers is brought before us by his own narrative in a + manner which does credit to his modesty no less than to his fortitude. + Without embellishment or self-glorification, he recites in a few lines + hairbreadth escapes which a writer of less steadfast soul would have + amplified into a thrilling tale of heroism. None the less, to the + discriminating reader Champlain's Voyages are an Odyssey. + </p> + <p> + Bound up with habitual fortitude is the motive from which it springs. In + Champlain's case patriotism and piety were the groundwork of a conspicuous + and long-tested courage. The patriotism which exacted such sacrifices was + not one which sought to define itself even in the form of a justifiable + digression from the recital of events. But we may be sure that Champlain + at the time he left Port Royal had made up his mind that the Spaniards, + the English, and the Dutch were not to parcel out the seaboard of North + America to the exclusion of the French. As for the religious basis of his + fortitude, we do not need Le Jeune's story of his death-bed or the record + of his friendship with men of religion. His narrative abounds throughout + with simple and natural expressions of piety, not the less impressive + because they are free from trace of the theological intolerance which + envenomed French life in his age. And not only did Champlain's trust in + the Lord fortify his soul against fear, but religion imposed upon him a + degree of self-restraint which was not common among explorers of the + seventeenth century. It is far from fanciful to see in this one of the + chief causes of his hold upon the Indians. To them he was more than a + useful ally in war time. They respected his sense of honour, and long + after his death remembered the temperance which marked his conduct when he + lived in their villages. + </p> + <p> + As a writer, Champlain enjoyed the advantage of possessing a fresh, + unhackneyed subject. The only exception to this statement is furnished by + his early book on the West Indies and Mexico, where he was going over + ground already trodden by the Spaniards. His other writings relate to a + sphere of exploration and settlement which he made his own, and of which + he well merited to be the chronicler. + </p> + <p> + Running through the Voyages is the double interest of discovery and + colonization, constantly blending and reacting upon each other, but still + remaining matters of separate concern. It is obvious that in the mind of + the narrator discovery is always the more engaging theme. Champlain is + indeed the historian of St Croix, Port Royal, and Quebec, but only + incidentally or from chance. By temper he was the explorer, that is, the + man of action, willing to record the broad results, but without the + instinct which led Lescarbot to set down the minutiae of life in a small, + rough settlement. There is one side of Champlain's activity as a colonizer + which we must lament that he has not described—namely, his efforts + to interest the nobles and prelates of the French court in the upbuilding + of Canada. A diary of his life at Paris and Fontainebleau would be among + the choicest documents of the early colonial era. But Champlain was too + blunt and loyal to set down the story of his relations with the great, and + for this portion of his life we must rely upon letters, reports, and + memoranda, which are so formal as to lack the atmosphere of that painful + but valiant experience. + </p> + <p> + Excluding the brief notices of life at St Croix, Port Royal, and Quebec, + Champlain's Voyages present a story of discovery by sea and discovery by + land. In other words, the four years of Acadian adventure relate to + discoveries made along the seaboard, while the remaining narratives, + including the Des Sauvages of 1604, relate to the basin of the St + Lawrence. Mariner though he was by early training, Champlain achieved his + chief success as an explorer by land, in the region of the Great Lakes. + Bad fortune prevented him from pursuing his course past Martha's Vineyard + to the mouth of the Hudson and Chesapeake Bay. It was no small achievement + to accomplish what he did on the coast of Norumbega, but his most + distinctive discoveries were those which he made in the wilderness, + leading up to his fine experience of 1615-16 among the Hurons. + </p> + <p> + To single out Champlain's chief literary triumph, it was he who introduced + the Algonquin, the Huron, and the Iroquois to the delighted attention of + France. Ever since the days of Cartier the French had known that savages + inhabited the banks of the St Lawrence, but Champlain is the pioneer in + that great body of literature on the North American Indian, which + thenceforth continued without interruption in France to the Rene and Atala + of Chateaubriand. Above all other subjects, the Indians are Champlain's + chief theme. + </p> + <p> + To some extent the account of Indian life which is given in the Voyages + suffers by comparison with the Relations of the Jesuits. The Fathers, by + reason of their long residence among the Indians, undoubtedly came to + possess a more intimate knowledge of their character and customs than it + was possible for Champlain to acquire during the time he spent among them. + On the other hand, the Jesuits were so preoccupied with the progress of + the mission that they tended to view the life of the savages too + exclusively from one angle. Furthermore, the volume of their description + is so great as to overwhelm all readers who are not specially interested + in the mission or the details of Indian custom. Champlain wrote with + sufficient knowledge to bring out salient traits in high relief, while his + descriptive passages are sufficiently terse to come within the range of + those who are not specialists. When we remember the perpetual interest + which, for more than three hundred years, Europe has felt in the North + American Indian, the Voyages of Champlain are seen in their true + perspective. For he, with fresh eyes, saw the red man in his wigwam, at + his council, and on the war-path; watched his stoic courage under torture + and his inhuman cruelty in the hour of vengeance. Tales of the wilderness, + the canoe, the portage, and the ambush have never ceased to fascinate the + imagination of Europe. Champlain's narrative may be plain and unadorned, + but, with such a groundwork, the imagination of every reader could supply + details at will. + </p> + <p> + In all essential respects Champlain seems to have been a good observer and + an accurate chronicler. It is true that his writings are not free from + error involving facts of distance, altitude, and chronology. But such + slips as have crept into his text do not constitute a serious blemish or + tend to impugn the good faith of his statements on matters where there is + no other source of information. Everything considered, his substantial + accuracy is much more striking than his partial inaccuracy. In fact, no + one of his high character and disinterested zeal could write with any + other purpose than to describe truly what he had seen and done. The seal + of probity is set upon Champlain's writings no less than upon the record + of his dealings with his employers and the king. Unselfish as to money or + fame, he sought to create New France. + </p> + <p> + In national progress much depends on the auspices under which the nation + was founded and the tradition which it represents. Thus England, and all + the English world, has an imperishable tradition in the deeds and + character of Alfred the Great; thus Canada has had from the outset of the + present stage in her development a great possession in the equal + self-sacrifice of Montcalm and Wolfe. On the other hand, the nation is + doomed to suffer which bases its traditions of greatness upon such acts as + the seizure of Silesia by Frederick or Bismarck's manipulation of the Ems + telegram. + </p> + <p> + For Canada Champlain is not alone a heroic explorer of the seventeenth + century, but the founder of Quebec; and it is a rich part of our heritage + that he founded New France in the spirit of unselfishness, of loyalty, and + of faith. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0007" id="link2H_4_0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE + </h2> + <p> + Original Text + </p> + <p> + The best edition of Champlain's own works, in the original text, is that + of Laverdiere—'OEuvres de Champlain, pabliees sous le Patronage de + l'Universite Laval. Par l'Abbe C.-H. Laverdiere, M.A. Seconde Edition. 6 + tomes, 4to. Quebec: Imprime au Seminaire par Geo. E. Desbarats, 1870.' + </p> + <p> + The list of Champlain's writings includes: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +1. The 'Bref Discours,' describing his trip to the West + Indies. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +2. The 'Des Sauvages,' describing his first voyage to + the St Lawrence. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +3. The 'Voyages' of 1613, covering the years 1604-13 + inclusive. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +4. The 'Voyages' of 1619, covering the years 1615-18 + inclusive. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +5. The 'Voyages' of 1632, which represent a re-editing + of the early voyages from 1603 forward, and continue + the narrative from 1618 to 1629. +</pre> + <p> + 6. A general treatise on the duties of the mariner. + </p> + <p> + English Translations + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +1. The 'Bref Discours,' in a translation by Alice Wilmere, + was published by the Hakluyt Society in 1859. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +2. The Des Sauvages (1604) was translated in 'Purchas + His Pilgrimes' (1625). +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +3. The 'Voyages' of 1604-18 inclusive were translated by + C. P. Otis for the Prince Society of Boston, in three + volumes, 1878-82, with the Rev. E. F. Slafter as + editor. This is a fine work, but not easily accessible + in its original form. Fortunately, Professor Otis's + translation has been reprinted, with an introduction + and notes by Professor W. L. Grant, in the 'Original + Narratives of Early American History' (Scribners, + 1907). The passages quoted in the present volume are + taken from Otis's translation, with occasional changes. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +4. The 'Voyages' of 1604-16 inclusive have also been well + translated by Annie Nettleton Bourne, with an + introduction and notes by Professor E. G. Bourne + (A. S. Barnes and Co., 1906). This translation follows + the edition of 1632, and also gives the translation + of 'Des Souvages' which appears in Purchas. +</pre> + <p> + General Literature + </p> + <p> + The career of Champlain is treated in many historical works, of which the + following are a few: Parkman, 'Pioneers of France in the New World'; + Dionne, 'Samuel de Champlain' (in the Makers of Canada' series); Biggar, + 'Early Trading Companies of New France'; Slafter, 'Champlain' (in Winsor's + 'Narrative and Critical History of America,' vol. iv, part i, chap. iii); + Salone, 'La Colonisation de la Nouvelle France'; Sulte, 'Histoire des + Canadiens-Francais'; Ferland, 'Cours d'Histoire du Canada'; Garneau, + 'Histoire du Canada,' fifth edition edited by the author's grandson, + Hector Garneau. + </p> + <p> + Portrait + </p> + <p> + Unfortunately, there is no authentic portrait of Champlain. That ascribed + to Moncornet is undoubtedly spurious, as has been proved by V. H. Paltsits + in 'Acadiensis,' vol. iv, pp. 306-11. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Founder of New France: A Chronicle +of Champlain, by Charles W. Colby + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW FRANCE *** + +***** This file should be named 4213-h.htm or 4213-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/4/2/1/4213/ + +Produced by Gardner Buchanan, and David Widger + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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