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diff --git a/42124-0.txt b/42124-0.txt index fe20ea5..c6ca8ec 100644 --- a/42124-0.txt +++ b/42124-0.txt @@ -1,39 +1,4 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, American Forest Trees, by Henry H. Gibson, -Edited by Hu Maxwell - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - - - - -Title: American Forest Trees - - -Author: Henry H. Gibson - -Editor: Hu Maxwell - -Release Date: February 18, 2013 [eBook #42124] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN FOREST TREES*** - - -E-text prepared by Greg Bergquist, Harry Lamé, and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made -available by Internet Archive/American Libraries -(http://archive.org/details/americana) - - +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42124 *** Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this file which includes the original illustrations. @@ -23781,362 +23746,4 @@ Oxydendrum arboreum Page xiv: Tilia amerciana to Tilia americana, Robinia neomexicana to Robinia neo-mexicana, Salix sessifolia to Salix sessilifolia. - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN FOREST TREES*** - - -******* This file should be named 42124-0.txt or 42124-0.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/2/1/2/42124 - - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - - - - -Title: American Forest Trees - - -Author: Henry H. Gibson - -Editor: Hu Maxwell - -Release Date: February 18, 2013 [eBook #42124] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN FOREST TREES*** - - -E-text prepared by Greg Bergquist, Harry Lamé, and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made -available by Internet Archive/American Libraries -(http://archive.org/details/americana) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original illustrations. - See 42124-h.htm or 42124-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42124/42124-h/42124-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42124/42124-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive/American Libraries. See - http://archive.org/details/americanforestt00gibs - - -Transcriber's note: - - Text printed in italics in the original work are represented - here between underscores, as in _text_. - - Small capitals have been converted to ALL CAPITALS. - - The oe ligature is represented by [oe]. - - More Transcriber's notes may be found at the end of this text. - - - - - -[Illustration: HENRY H. GIBSON] - - -AMERICAN FOREST TREES - -by - -HENRY H. GIBSON - -Edited by Hu Maxwell - - - - - - - -Hardwood Record -Chicago -1913 - -Copyright 1913 by -Hardwood Record -Chicago, Ill. - -The Regan Printing House -Chicago. - - - - -PREFACE - - -The material on which this volume is based, appeared in Hardwood Record, -Chicago, in a series of articles beginning in 1905 and ending in 1913, -and descriptive of the forest trees of this country. More than one -hundred leading species were included in the series. They constitute the -principal sources of lumber for the United States. The present volume -includes all the species described in the series of articles, with a -large number of less important trees added. Every region of the country -is represented; no valuable tree is omitted, and the lists and -descriptions are as complete as they can be made in the limited space of -a single volume. The purpose held steadily in view has been to make the -work practical, simple, plain, and to the point. Trees as they grow in -the forest, and wood as it appears at the mill and factory, are -described and discussed. Photographs and drawings of trunk and foliage -are made to tell as much of the story as possible. The pictures used as -illustrations are nearly all from photographs made specially for that -purpose. They are a valuable contribution to tree knowledge, because -they show forest forms and conditions, and are as true to nature as the -camera can make them. Statistics are not given a place in these pages, -for it is no part of the plan to show the product and the output of the -country's mills and forests, but rather to describe the source of those -products, the trees themselves. However, suggestions for utilization are -offered, and the fitness of the various woods for many uses is -particularly indicated. The prominent physical properties are described -in language as free as possible from technical terms, and yet with -painstaking accuracy and clearness. Descriptions intended to aid in -identification of trees are given; but simplicity and clearness are held -constantly in view, and brevity is carefully studied. The different -names of commercial trees in the various localities where they are -known, either as standing timber or as lumber in the yard and factory, -are included in the descriptions as an assistance in identification. The -natural range of the forest trees, and the regions where they abound in -commercial quantities, are outlined according to the latest and best -authorities. Estimates of present and future supply are offered, where -such exist that seem to be authoritative. The trees are given the common -and the botanical names recognized as official by the United States -Forest Service. This lessens misunderstanding and confusion in the -discussion of species whose common names are not the same in different -regions, and whose botanical names are not agreed upon among scientific -men who mention or describe them. The forests of the United States -contain more than five hundred kinds of trees, ranging in size from the -California sequoias, which attain diameters of twenty feet or more and -heights exceeding two hundred, down to indefinite but very small -dimensions. The separating line between trees and shrubs is not -determined by size alone. In a general way, shrubs may be considered -smaller than trees, but a seedling tree, no matter how small, is not -properly called a shrub. It is customary, not only among botanists, but -also among persons who do not usually recognize exact scientific terms -and distinctions, to apply the name tree to all woody plants which -produce naturally in their native habitat one main, erect stem, bearing -a definite crown, no matter what size they may attain. - -The commercial timbers of this country are divided into two classes, -hardwoods and softwoods. The division is for convenience, and is -sanctioned by custom, but it is not based on the actual hardness and -softness of the different woods. The division has, however, a scientific -basis founded on the mechanical structures of the two classes of woods, -and there is little disagreement among either those who use forest -products or manufacture them, or those who investigate the actual -structure of the woods themselves, as to which belong in the hardwood -and which in the softwood class. - -_Softwoods_--The needleleaf species, represented by pines, hemlocks, -firs, cedars, cypresses, spruces, larches, sequoias, and yews, are -softwoods. The classification of evergreens as softwoods is erroneous, -because all softwoods are not evergreen, and all evergreens are not -softwoods. Larches and the southern cypress shed their leaves yearly. -Most other softwoods drop only a portion of their foliage each season, -and enough is always on the branches to make them evergreen. Softwoods -are commonly called conebearers, and that description fits most of them, -but the cedars and yews produce fruit resembling berries rather than -cones. Though the needleleaf species are classed as softwoods, there is -much variation in the absolute hardness of the wood produced by -different species. The white pines are soft, the yews hard, and the -other species range between. If there were no other means of separating -trees into classes than tests of actual hardness of wood, the line -dividing hardwoods from softwoods might be quite different from that now -so universally recognized in this country. - -_Hardwoods_--The broadleaf trees are hardwoods. Most, but not all, shed -their foliage yearly. It is, therefore, incorrect to classify deciduous -trees as hardwoods, since it is not true in all cases, any more than it -is true that softwoods are evergreen. Live oaks and American holly are -evergreen, and yet are true hardwoods. In a test of hardness they stand -near the top of the list. - -There are more species of hardwoods than of softwoods in this country; -but the actual quantity of softwood timber in the forests greatly -exceeds the hardwoods. Nearly two hundred species of the latter are -seldom or never seen in a sawmill, while softwoods are generally cut and -used wherever found in accessible situations. - -As in the case of needleleaf trees, there is much variation in actual -hardness of the wood of different broadleaf species. Some which are -classed as hardwoods are softer than some in the softwood list. It is -apparent, therefore, that the terms hardwood and softwood are commercial -rather than scientific. - -Palm, cactus, and other trees of that class are not often employed as -lumber, and it is not customary to speak of them as either hardwoods or -softwoods. - -_Sapwood and Heartwood_--Practically all mature trees contain two -qualities of wood known as sap and heart. The inner portion is the -heartwood, the outer the sap. They are usually distinguished by -differences of color. - -The terms are much used in lumber transactions and are well understood -by the trade. The two kinds of wood need be described only in the most -general way, and for the guidance and information of those who are not -familiar with them. Differences are many and radical in the relative -size and appearance of the two kinds of wood in different species, and -even between different trees of the same species. No general law is -followed, except that the heartwood forms in the interior of the tree, -and the sapwood in a band outside, next to the bark. In the majority of -cases young trees have little heartwood, often none. It is a development -attendant on age, yet age does not always produce it. Some mature trees -have no heartwood, others very little. - -The two kinds of wood belong to needleleaf and broadleaf trees alike; -but palms, owing to their manner of growth, have neither. Their size -increases in height rather than in diameter. With palms, the oldest wood -is in the base of the trunk, the newest in the top; but in the ordinary -timber tree the oldest wood is in the center of the trunk, the youngest -in the outside layers next the bark. It is the oldest that becomes -heartwood, and it is, of course, in the center of the tree. The band of -sapwood is of no certain thickness, but averages much thicker in some -species than in others. The sapwood of Osage orange is scarcely half an -inch thick, and in loblolly pine it may be six inches or more. - -Heartwood is known by its color. The eye can detect no other difference -between it and the surrounding band of sapwood. There is no fundamental -difference. The heart was once sapwood, and the latter will sometime -become heartwood if the tree lives long enough. As the trunk increases -in size and years, the wood near the heart dies. It no longer has much -to do with the life of the tree, except that it helps support the weight -of the trunk. The heartwood is, therefore, deadwood. The activities of -tree life are no longer present. The color changes, because mineral and -chemical substances are deposited in the wood and fill many of the -cavities. That process begins at the center of the trunk and works -outward year by year, forming a pretty distinct line between the living -sapwood and the dead and inert heartwood. - -For some reason, the heartwood of certain species is prone to decay. -Sycamore is the best example. The largest trunks are generally hollow. -The heart has disappeared, leaving only the thin shell of sapwood, and -this is required not only to maintain the tree's life and activities, -but to support the trunk's weight. In most instances the substances -deposited in the heartwood, and associated with the coloring matter, -tend to preserve the wood from decay. For that reason heart timber lasts -longer than sap when exposed in damp situations. The dark and variegated -shades of the heartwood of some species give them their chief value as -cabinet and furniture material. The sapwood of black walnut is not -wanted by anybody, for it is light in color and is characterless; but -when the sap has changed to heart, and its tones have been deepened by -the accumulation of pigments, it becomes a choice material for certain -purposes. The same is true of many other timbers, notably sweet and -yellow birch, black cherry, and several of the oaks. - -It sometimes happens that when sapwood is transformed into heart, a -physical change, as well as a coloring process, affects it. Persimmon -and dogwood are examples, and hickory in a less degree. The sapwood of -persimmon and dogwood makes shuttles and golf heads, but after the -change to heartwood occurs, it is considered unsuitable. Handle makers -and the manufacturers of buggy spokes prefer hickory sapwood, but use -the red heartwood if it is the same weight as the sap. - -_Annual Rings_--The trunks of both hardwoods and softwoods are made up -of concentric rings. In most instances the eye easily detects them. They -are more distinct in a freshly cut trunk than in weathered wood, though -in a few instances weathering accentuates rather than obliterates them. -A count of the rings gives the tree's age in years, each ring being the -growth of one year. An occasional exception should be noted, as when -accident checks the tree's growth in the middle of the season, and the -growth is later resumed. In that case, it may develop two rings in one -year. A severe frost late in spring after leaves have started may -produce that result; or defoliation by caterpillars in early summer may -do it. Perhaps not one tree in a thousand has that experience in the -course of its whole life. Trees in the tropics where seasons are nearly -the same the year through, seldom have rings. Imitations of mahogany are -sometimes detected by noting clearly marked annual rings. It is -difficult for the woodfinisher to obliterate the annual rings, but some -of the French woodworkers very nearly accomplish it. - -No law of growth governs the width of yearly rings, but circumstances -have much to do with it. When the tree's increase in size is rapid, -rings are broad. An uncrowded tree in good soil and climate grows much -faster than if circumstances are adverse. Carolina poplar and black -willow sometimes have rings nearly three-fourths of an inch broad, while -in the white bark pine, which grows above the snow line in California, -the rings may be so narrow as to be invisible to the naked eye. - -There is no average width of yearly rings and no average age of trees. A -few (very few) of the sequoias, or "big trees" of California, are two -thousand years old. An age of six or seven centuries appears to be about -the limit of the oldest of the other species in this country, though an -authentic statement to that effect cannot be made. There are species -whose life average scarcely exceeds that of men. The aspen generally -falls before it is eighty; and fire cherry scarcely averages half of -that. Of all the trees cut for lumber, perhaps not one in a hundred has -passed the three century mark. That ratio would not hold if applied to -the Pacific coast alone. - -_Spring and Summerwood_--These are not usual terms with lumbermen and -woodworkers, but belong more to the engineer who thinks of physical -properties of timber, particularly its strength. Yet, sawmill and -factory men are well acquainted with the two kinds of wood, but they are -likely to apply the term "grain" to the combination of the two. - -Spring and summerwood make the annual ring. Springwood grows early in -the season, summerwood later. In fact, it usually is the contrast in -color where the summerwood of one season abuts against the springwood of -the next which makes the ring visible. The inside of the ring--that -portion nearest the heart of the tree--is the springwood, the rest of -the ring is the summerwood. The former is generally lighter in color. -Sometimes, and with certain species, the springwood is much broader than -the other. The summerwood may be a very narrow band, not much wider than -a fine pencil mark, but its deeper color makes it quite distinct in most -instances. In other instances, as with some of the oaks, the summerwood -is the wider part of the annual ring. The figure or "grain" of southern -yellow pine is largely due to the contrast between the dark summerwood -and light springwood of the rings. The same is true of ash, chestnut, -and of many other woods. - -_Pores_--Wood is not the solid substance it seems to be when seen in the -mass. If magnified it appears filled with cavities, not unlike a piece -of coral or honeycomb; but to the unaided eye only a few of the largest -openings are visible, and in some woods like maple, none can be seen. -The large openings are known as pores. They are so prominent in some of -the oaks that in a clean cut end or cross section they look like pin -holes. Very little magnifying is required to bring them out distinctly. -A good reading glass is sufficient. - -Pores belong to hardwoods only. The resin ducts in some softwoods -present a similar appearance, but are far less numerous. All pores are, -of course, situated in the annual rings, but in different species they -are differently located as to spring and summerwood. In some woods the -largest pores are in the springwood only and therefore run in rings. -Such woods are called "ring porous," and the oaks are best examples. In -other species the pores are scattered through all parts of the ring in -about the same proportion, and such woods are called "diffuse porous," -as the birches. Softwoods have no pores proper, and are classed -"non-porous." - -_Medullary Rays_--A smoothly-cut cross section of almost any oak, but -particularly white oak and red oak, exhibits to the unaided eye narrow, -light-colored lines radiating from the center of the tree toward the -bark like spokes of a wheel. They are about the breadth of a fine pencil -mark, and are generally a sixth of an inch or less apart. They are among -the most conspicuous and characteristic features of oak wood, and are -known as medullary or pith rays. - -Oak is cited as an example because the rays are large and prominent, but -they are present in all wood, and constitute a large part of its body. -They vary greatly in size. In some woods a few are visible unmagnified; -but even in oak a hundred are invisible to the naked eye to one that can -be seen. Some species show none until a glass is used. Some pines have -fifteen thousand to a square inch of cross section, all of which are so -small as to elude successfully the closest search of the unaided eye. - -The medullary rays influence the appearance of most wood. They determine -its character. Oak is quarter-sawed for the purpose of bringing out the -bright, flat surfaces of these rays. The prominent flecks, streaks, and -patches of silvery wood are the flat sides of medullary rays. In cross -section, only the line-like ends are seen, but quarter-sawing exposes -their sides to view. - -That explains in part why some species are adapted to quarter-sawing and -others are not. If no broad rays exist in the wood, as with white pine, -red cedar, and cottonwood, quarter-sawing cannot add much to the wood's -appearance. - -_Grain_--The grain of wood is not a definite quality. The word does not -mean the same thing to all who use it. It sometimes refers to rings of -yearly growth, and in that sense a narrow-ringed wood is fine grained, -and one with wide rings is coarse grained. A curly, wavy, smoky, or -birdseye wood does not owe its quality to annual rings, yet with some -persons, all of these figures are called grain. The term sometimes -refers to medullary rays, again to hardness, or to roughness. Some -mahogany is called "woolly grained" because the surface polishes with -difficulty. The pattern maker designates white pine as "even grained", -because it cuts easily in all directions. The handle maker classes -hickory as "smooth grained", because it polishes well and the sole idea -of the maker is smoothness to the touch. There are other grains almost -as numerous as the trades which use wood. In numerous instances "figure" -is a better term than "grain." Feather mahogany, birdseye birch, burl -ash, are figures rather than grains. There is no authority to settle and -decide what the real meaning of grain is in wood technology. It has a -number of meanings, and one man has as much authority as another to -interpret it in accordance with his own ideas, and the usage in his -trade. It is a loose term which covers several things in general and -nothing in particular. - -_Weight_--The weight of wood is calculated from different standpoints. -It has a green weight, an air-dry weight, a kiln-dry weight, and an -oven-dry weight. All are different, but the differences are due to the -relative amounts of water weighed. Sawlogs generally go by green weight; -yard lumber by air-dry or partly air-dry weight; while the wood used in -ultimate manufacture, such as furniture, is supposed to be kiln-dry. - -The absolute weight of wood, with all air spaces, moisture, and other -foreign material removed, is about 100 pounds per cubic foot, which is -1.6 times heavier than water; but that is not a natural form of wood. It -is known only in the laboratory. - -The actual wood substance of one species weighs about the same as -another. Dispense with all air spaces, all water, and all other foreign -substance, and pine and ebony weigh alike. It is apparent that the -different weights of woods, as between cedar and oak for example, are -due chiefly to porosity. The smaller the aggregate space occupied by -pores and other cavities, the heavier the wood. That accounts for the -differences in weights of absolutely dry woods of different kinds, -except that a small amount of other foreign material may remain after -water has been driven off. Florida black ironwood is rated as the -heaviest in the United States, and it weighs 81.14 pounds per cubic -foot, oven-dry. The lightest in this country is the golden fig which is -a native of Florida also. It weighs 16.3 pounds per cubic foot, -oven-dry. When weights of wood are given, the specimen is understood to -be oven-dry, unless it is stated to be otherwise: it is a laboratory -weight, calculated from small cubes of the wood. Such weights are always -a little less than that of the dryest wood of the same kind that can be -obtained in the lumber market. - -_Moisture in Wood_--The varying weights of the same wood indicate that -moisture plays an important part. No man ever saw absolutely dry wood. -If heated sufficiently to drive off all the moisture, the wood is -reduced to charcoal and other products of destructive distillation. - -The pores and other cavities in green timber are more or less filled -with water or sap. This may amount to one-third, one-half, or even more, -of the dry weight of the wood. The water is in the hollow vessels and -cell walls. A living tree contains about the same quantity of water in -winter as in summer, though the common belief is otherwise. It is -misleading to say that the sap is "down" in one season and "up" in -another, although there is more activity at certain times than in -others. Strictly speaking, there is a difference between the water in a -tree, and the tree's sap; but in common parlance they are considered -identical. What takes place is this: water rises from the tree's roots, -through the wood, carrying certain minerals in solution. Some of it -reaches the leaves in summer where it mixes with certain gases from the -air, and is converted into sap proper. Most of the surplus water, after -giving up the mineral substance held in solution, is evaporated through -the leaves into the air; but the sap, starting from the leaves which act -as laboratories for its manufacture, goes down through the newly-formed -(and forming), layer of wood just beneath the bark, and is converted -into wood. This newly-formed wood is colorless at first. It builds up -the annual ring, first the springwood very rapidly, and then the -summerwood more slowly. - -The force which causes water to rise through the trunk of a tree is not -fully understood. It is one of nature's mysteries which is yet to be -solved. Forces known as root pressure, capillary attraction, and -osmosis, are believed to be active in the process, but there seems to be -something additional, and no man has yet been able to explain what it -is. - -The seasoning of wood is the process of getting rid of some of the -water. As soon as lumber is exposed to air, the water begins to escape. -Long exposure to dry air takes out a large percentage of the moisture -which green wood holds, and the lumber is known as air-dry. But some of -the original moisture remains, and air at climatic temperature is unable -to expel it. The greater heat of a drykiln drives away some more of it, -but a quantity yet remains. The lumber is then kiln-dry. Greater heat -than the drykiln's is secured in an oven, and a little more of the -wood's moisture is expelled; but the only method of driving all the -moisture out is to heat the wood sufficiently to break down its -structure, and reduce it to charcoal. - -Wood warps in the process of drying unless it seasons equally on all -sides. It curls or bends toward the side which dries most rapidly. Dry -wood may warp if exposed to dampness, if one side is more exposed and -receives more moisture than another. It curls or bends toward the dryer -side. - -Warping is primarily due to the more rapid contraction or expansion of -wood cells on one side of the piece than on the other. Saturated cells -are larger than dry ones. - -Moisture in wood affects its strength, the dryer the stronger, at least -within certain limits. Architects and builders carefully study the -seasoning of timber, because it is a most important factor in their -business. The moisture which most affects a wood's strength is that -absorbed in the cell walls, rather than that contained in the cell -cavities themselves. - -Some woods check or split badly in seasoning unless attended with -constant care. Checking is due chiefly to lack of uniformity in -seasoning. One part of the stick dries faster than another, the dryer -fibers contract, and the pull splits the wood. The checks may be small, -even microscopic, or they may develop yawning cracks such as sometimes -appear in the ends of hickory and black walnut logs. Greenwood checks -worse in summer than in winter, because the weather is warmer, the -wood's surface dries faster, and the strain on the fibers is greater. -Phases of the moon have no influence on the seasoning, checking, -warping, or lasting properties of timber. - -_Stiffness, Elasticity, and Strength_--Rules for measuring the stiffness -of timber are involved in mathematical formulas; but the practical -quality of stiffness is not difficult to understand. Wood which does not -bend easily is stiff. If it springs back to its original position after -the removal of the force which bends it, the wood is elastic. The -greatest load it can sustain without breaking, is the measure of its -strength. The load required to produce a certain amount of bending is -the measure of its stiffness. Flexibility, a term much used by certain -classes of workers in wood, is the opposite of stiffness. A brittle wood -is not necessarily weak. It may sustain a heavy load without breaking, -but when it fails, the break is sudden and complete. A tough wood -behaves differently, though it may not be as strong as a brittle one. -When a tough wood breaks, the parts are inclined to adhere after they -have ceased to sustain the load. Hickory is tough, and in breaking, the -wood crushes and splinters. Mesquite is brittle, and a clean snap severs -the stick at once. - -Builders of houses and bridges, and the manufacturers of articles of -wood, study with the greatest care the stiffness, elasticity, strength, -toughness, and brittleness of timber. Its chief value may depend upon -the presence or absence of one or more of these properties. Take away -hickory's toughness and elasticity and it would cease to be a great -vehicle and handle material. Reduce the stiffness and strength of -longleaf pine and Douglas fir and they would drop at once from the high -esteem in which they are held as structural timbers. Destroy the -brittleness of red cedar and it would lose one of the chief qualities -which make it the leading lead pencil wood of the world. - -There are recognized methods of measuring these important physical -properties of woods, but they are expressed in language so technical -that it means little to persons who are not specialists. For ordinary -purposes, it is unnecessary to be more explicit than to state a certain -wood is or is not strong, stiff, tough and elastic. Some species possess -one or more of these properties to double the degree that others possess -them. Different trees of the same species differ greatly, and even -different parts of the same tree. Most tables of figures which show the -various physical properties of woods, give averages only, not absolute -values. - -_Hardness_--In some woods hardness is considered an advantage, but not -in others. If sugar maple were as soft as white pine, it would not be -the great floor material it is; and if white pine were as hard as maple, -pattern makers would not want it, door and sash manufacturers would get -along with less, and it would not be the leading packing box material in -so wide a region. - -It is generally the summer growth in the annual rings which makes a wood -hard. The summerwood is dense. A given bulk of it contains more actual -wood substance and less air and water than the springwood. For the same -reason, summerwood gives weight, and a relationship between hardness and -weight holds generally. It may be added that strength goes with weight -and hardness, but it is not a rule without apparent exceptions. - -Some woods possess twice or three times the hardness of others. Among -some of the hardest in the United States are hickory, sugar maple, -mesquite, the Florida ironwoods, Osage orange, locust, persimmon, and -the best oak and elm. Among the softest species are buckeye, basswood, -cedar, redwood, some of the pines, spruce, hemlock, and chestnut. - -The hardness of wood is tested with a machine which records the pressure -required to indent the surface. The condition of the specimen, as to -dryness, has much to do with its hardness. So many other factors -exercise influence that nothing less than an actual test will determine -the hardness of a sample. A table of figures can show it only -approximately and by averages. - -_Cleavability_--Wood users generally demand a material which does not -split easily, but the reverse is sometimes required. Rived staves must -come from timbers which split easily. Many handles are from billets -which are split in rough form and are afterwards dressed to the required -size and shape. In these instances, splitting is preferable to sawing, -because a rived billet is free from cross grain. - -The cleavability of woods differs greatly. Some can scarcely be split. -Black gum is in that list, and sycamore to a less extent. Young trees of -some species split more readily than old, while with others, the -advantage is with the old. Young sycamore may generally be split with -ease, but old trunks seem to develop interlocked fibers which defy the -wedge. A white oak pole is hard to split, but the old tree yields -readily. Few woods are more easily split than chestnut. With most -timbers cleavage is easiest along the radial lines, that is, from the -heart to the bark. The flat sides of the medullary rays lie in that -plane. Cleavage along tangential lines is easy with some woods. The line -of cleavage follows the soft springwood. Green timber is generally, but -not always, more easily split than dry. As a rule, the more elastic a -wood is, the more readily it may be split. - -_Durability_--In Egypt where climatic conditions are highly favorable, -Lebanon cedar, North African acacia, East African persimmon, and -oriental sycamore have remained sound during three or four thousand -years. In the moist forests of the northwestern Pacific coast, an alder -log six or eight inches in diameter will decay through and through in a -single year. No wood is immune to decay if exposed to influences which -induce it, but some resist for long periods. Osage orange and locust -fence posts may stand half a century. Timber from which air is excluded, -as when deeply buried in wet earth or under water, will last -indefinitely; but if it is exposed to alternate dampness and dryness, -decay will destroy it in a few years. - -It is apparent that resistance to decay is not a property inherent in -the wood, but depends on circumstances. However, the ability to resist -decay varies greatly with different species, under similar -circumstances. Buckeye and red cedar fence posts, situated alike, will -not last alike. The buckeye may be expected to fall in two or three -years, and the cedar will stand twenty. Timbers light in weight and -light in color are, as a class, quick-decaying when exposed to the -weather. - -The rule holds in most cases that sapwood decays more quickly than heart -when both are subject to similar exposure. The matter of decay is not -important when lumber and other products intended for use are in dry -situations. Furniture and interior house finish do not decay under -ordinary circumstances, no matter what the species of wood may be; but -resistance to decay overshadows almost any other consideration in -choosing mine timbers, crossties, fence posts, and tanks and silos. - -Decay in timber is not simply a chemical process, but is due primarily -to the activities of a low order of plants known as fungi, sometimes -bacteria. The fungi produce thread-like filaments which penetrate the -body of the wood, ramifying in and passing from cell to cell, absorbing -certain materials therein, and ultimately breaking down and destroying -the structure of the wood. Both air and dampness are essential to the -growth of fungus. That is the reason why timbers deep beneath ground or -water do not decay. Air is absent, though moisture is abundant; while in -the dry Egyptian tombs, air is abundant but moisture is wanting, fungus -cannot exist, and consequently decay of the wood does not occur. Nothing -is needed to render timber immune to decay except to keep fungus out of -the cells. Some of the fungus concerned in wood rotting is microscopic, -while other appears in forms and sizes easily seen and recognized. - -Timber may be protected for a time against the agencies of decay by -covering the surface with paint, thereby preventing the entrance of -fungus. By another process, certain oils or other materials which are -poisonous to the insinuating threads of fungus, are forced into the -pores of the wood. Creosote is often used for this purpose. Attacks are -thus warded off, and decay is hindered. The preservative fluid will not -remain permanently in wood exposed to weather conditions, but the period -during which it affords protection and immunity extends over some years; -but different woods vary greatly in their ability to receive and retain -preservative mixtures. - -The better seasoned, the less liable is timber to decay, because it -contains less moisture to support fungi. It is generally supposed that -timber cut in the fall of the year is less subject to decay than if -felled in summer. If it is so, the reason for it lies in the fact that -fungus is inactive during winter, and before the coming of warm weather -the timber has partly dried near the surface, and fungi cannot pass -through the dry outside to reach the interior. Timber cut in warm -weather may be attacked at once, and before cold weather stops the -activities of fungus it has reached the interior of the wood and the -process of rotting is under way. When the agents of decay have begun to -grow in the wood, destruction will go on as long as air and moisture -conditions are favorable. - -The bluing of wood is an incipient decay and is generally due to fungus. -Some kinds of wood are more susceptible to bluing than others. Though -boards may quickly season sufficiently to put a stop to the bluing -process before it has actually weakened the material, the result is more -or less injurious. The wood's natural color and luster undergo -deterioration; it does not reflect light as formerly, and seems dead and -flat. - -Decay affects sapwood more readily than heart. The reason may be that -sapwood contains more food for fungus, thereby inducing greater -activity. The sapwood is on the outside of timbers and is often more -exposed than the heart. In some instances greater decay may be due to -greater exposure. Another reason for more rapid decay of sapwood than -heart is the fact that the pores of the heartwood are more or less -filled with coloring matter deposited while the growth of the tree was -in progress. The coloring matter, in many cases, acts as a preservative; -it shuts the threads of fungus out. Sometimes the sapwood of a dead tree -or a log is totally destroyed while the heart remains sound. This often -happens with red cedar and sometimes with black walnut, yellow poplar, -and cherry. Occasionally a tree's bark is more resistant to decay than -its wood. Paper birch and yellow birch logs in damp situations -occasionally show this. What appears to be a solid fallen trunk, proves -to be nothing more than a shell of bark with a soft, pulpy mass of -decayed wood within. - - - - -WHITE PINE - -[Illustration: WHITE PINE] - - - - -WHITE PINE[1] - -(_Pinus Strobus_) - - [1] The following 12 species are usually classed soft pines: White - Pine (_Pinus strobus_); Sugar Pine (_Pinus lambertiana_); Western - White Pine (_Pinus monticola_); Mexican White Pine (_Pinus - strobiformis_); Limber Pine (_Pinus flexilis_); Whitebark Pine - (_Pinus albicaulis_); Foxtail Pine (_Pinus balfouriana_); Parry Pine - (_Pinus quadrifolia_); Mexican Pinon (_Pinus cembroides_); Pinon - (_Pinus edulis_); Singleleaf Pinon (_Pinus monophylla_); Bristlecone - Pine (_Pinus aristata_). - - -The best known wood of the United States has never been burdened with a -multitude of names, as many minor species have. It is commonly known as -white pine in every region where it grows, and in many where the living -tree is never seen, except when planted for ornament. The light color of -the wood suggests the name. The bark and the foliage are of somber hue, -though not as dark as hemlock and many of the pines. The name Weymouth -pine is occasionally heard, but it is more used in books than by -lumbermen. It is commonly supposed that the name refers to Lord Weymouth -who interested himself in the tree at an early period, but this has been -disputed. In Pennsylvania it is occasionally called soft pine to -distinguish it from the harder and inferior pitch pine and table -mountain pine with which it is sometimes associated. It is the softest -of the pines, and the name is not inappropriate. In some regions of the -South, where it is well known, it is called northern spruce pine in -recognition of the fact that it is a northern species which has followed -the Appalachian mountain ranges some hundreds of miles southward. There -is no good reason for this name when applied to white pine. It should be -remembered, however, that no less than a dozen tree species in the -United States are sometimes called spruce pine. Cork pine is a trade -name applied more frequently to the wood than to the living tree. It is -the wood of old, mature, first class trunks, as nearly perfect as can be -found. Pumpkin pine is another name given to the same class of wood. It -is so named because the grain is homogeneous, like a pumpkin, and may be -readily cut and carved in any direction. It is the ideal wood for the -pattern maker, but it is now hard to get because the venerable white -pines, many hundred years old, are practically gone. - -The northern limit of the range of white pine stretches from -Newfoundland to Manitoba, more than 1800 miles east and west across the -Dominion of Canada, and southward to northern Georgia, 1200 miles in a -north and south direction. But white pine does not grow in all parts of -the territory thus delimited. It attained magnificent development in -certain large regions before lumbering began, and in others it was -scarce or totally wanting. Its ability to maintain itself on land too -thin for vigorous hardwood growth gave it a monopoly of enormous -stretches of sandy country, particularly in the Lake States. It occupied -large areas in New England and southern Canada; developed splendid -stands in New York and Pennsylvania; and it covered certain mountains -and uplands southward along the mountain ranges across Maryland, West -Virginia, and the elevated regions two or three hundred miles farther -south. - -A dozen or more varieties of white pine have been developed under -cultivation, but they interest the nurseryman, not the lumberman. In all -the wide extension of its range, and during all past time, nature was -never able to develop a single variety of white pine which departed from -the typical species. For that reason it is one of the most interesting -objects of study in the tree kingdom. True, the white pine in the -southern mountains differs slightly from the northern tree, but -botanically it is the same. Its wood is a little heavier, its branches -are more resinous and consequently adhere a longer time to the trunk -after they die, resulting in lumber with more knots. The southern wood -is more tinged with red, the knots are redder and usually sounder than -in the North. - -It is unfortunately necessary in speaking of white pine forests to use -the past tense, for most of the primeval stands have disappeared. The -range is as extensive as ever, because wherever a forest once grew, a -few trees remain; but the merchantable timber has been cut in most -regions. The tree bears winged seeds which quickly scatter over vacant -spaces, and new growth would long ago, in most cases, have taken the -place of the old, had not fires persistently destroyed the seedlings. In -parts of New England where fire protection is afforded, dense stands of -white pine are coming on, and in numerous instances profitable lumber -operations are carried on in second growth forests. That condition does -not exist generally in white pine regions. Primeval stands were seldom -absolutely pure, but sometimes, in bodies of thousands of acres, there -was little but white pine. Generally hardwoods or other softwoods grew -with the pine. At its best, it is the largest pine of the United States, -except the sugar pine of California. The largest trees grew in New -England where diameters of six or more feet and heights exceeding 200 -feet were found. A diameter of four and five feet and a height of 150 -feet are about the size limits in the Lake States and the southern -mountains. Trees two or three feet through and ninety and 120 tall are a -fair average for mature timber. - -The wood of white pine is among the lightest of the commercial timbers -of this country, and among the softest. While it is not strong, it -compares favorably, weight for weight, with most others. It is of rather -rapid growth, and the rings of annual increase are clearly defined, and -they contain comparatively few resin ducts. For that reason it may be -classed as a close, compact wood. It polishes well, may be cut with -great ease, and after it is seasoned it holds its form better than most -woods. That property fits it admirably for doors and sash and for -backing of veneer, where a little warping or twisting would do much -harm. - -The medullary rays are numerous but are too small to be easily seen -separately, and do not figure much in the appearance of the wood. The -resin passages are few and small, but the wood contains enough resin to -give it a characteristic odor, which is not usually considered injurious -to merchandise shipped in pine boxes. The white color of the wood gives -it much of its value. Though rather weak, white pine is stiff, rather -low in elasticity, is practically wanting in toughness, has little -figure, and when exposed to alternate dryness and dampness it is rated -poor in lasting properties; yet shingles and weather boarding of this -wood have been known to stand half a century. The sapwood is lighter in -color than the heart, and decays more quickly. - -As long as white pine was abundant it surpassed all other woods of this -country in the amount used. It was one of the earliest exports from New -England, and it went to the West Indies and to Europe. England attempted -to control the cutting and export of white pine, but was unsuccessful. -At an early period the rivers were utilized for transporting the logs -and the lumber to market, and that method has continued until the -present time. Spectacular log drives were common in early times in New -England, later in New York and Pennsylvania, and still later in Michigan -and the other Lake States. Many billions of feet of faultless logs have -gone down flooded rivers. The scenes in the woods and the life in lumber -camps have been written in novels and romances, and the central figure -of it all was white pine. - -There are a few things for which this wood is not suitable; otherwise -its use has been nearly universal in some parts of this country. It went -into masts and matches, which are the largest and smallest commodities, -and into almost every shape and size of product between. Most of the -early houses and barns in the pine region were built of it. Hewed pine -was the foundation, and the shingles were of split and shaved pine. It -formed floors, doors, sash, and shutters. It was the ceiling within and -the weather boarding without. It fenced the fields and bridged the -streams. It went to market as rough lumber, and planing mills turned it -out as dressed stock in various forms. It has probably been more -extensively employed by box makers than any other wood, and though it is -scarcer than formerly, hundreds of millions of feet of it are still used -annually by box makers. Scores of millions of feet yearly are demanded -by the manufacturers of window shade rollers, though individually the -roller is a very small commodity. In this, as for patterns and many -other things, no satisfactory substitute for white pine has been found. - -As a timber tree, it will not disappear from this country, though the -days of its greatest importance are past. Enormous tracts where it once -grew will apparently never again produce a white pine sawlog. The -prospect is more encouraging in other regions, and there will always be -a considerable quantity of this lumber in the American market, though -the high percentage of good grades which prevailed in the past will not -continue in the future. - -White pine belongs in the five needle group, that is, five leaves grow -in a bundle. They turn yellow and fall in the autumn of the second year. -The cones are slender, are from five to eleven inches in length, and -ripen and disperse their seeds in the autumn of the second year. - -[Illustration] - - - - -WESTERN WHITE PINE - -[Illustration: WESTERN WHITE PINE] - - - - -WESTERN WHITE PINE - -(_Pinus Monticola_) - - -The silvery luster of the needles of this tree gives it the name silver -pine, by which many people know it. It appears in literature as mountain -Weymouth pine, the reference being to the eastern white pine (_Pinus -strobus_), which is sometimes called Weymouth pine. Finger-cone pine is -a California name; so are mountain pine and soft pine. In the same state -it is called little sugar pine, to distinguish it from sugar pine -(_Pinus lambertiana_), which it resembles in some particulars but not in -all. It is thus seen that California is generous in bestowing names on -this tree, notwithstanding it is not abundant in any part of that state -and is unknown in most parts. - -The botanical name means "mountain pine," and that describes the -species. It does best among the mountains, and it ranges from an -altitude of from 4,000 feet to 10,000 on the Sierra Nevada mountains. -Sometimes trees of very large size are found near the upper limits of -its range, but the best stands are in valleys and on slopes at lower -altitudes. Its range lies in British Columbia, Montana, Idaho, -Washington, Oregon, and California. In the latter state it follows the -Sierra Nevada mountains southward to the San Joaquin river. - -This species has been compared with the white pine of the East oftener -than with any other species. The weights of the two woods are nearly the -same, and both are light. Their fuel values are about the same. The -strength of the eastern tree is a little higher, but the western species -is stiffer. The woods of both are light in color, but that of the -eastern tree is whiter; both are soft, but again the advantage is with -the eastern tree. The western pine generally grows rapidly and the -annual rings are wide; but, like most other species, it varies in its -rate of growth, and trunks are found with narrow rings. The summerwood -is thin, not conspicuous, and slightly resinous. The small resin -passages are numerous. The heartwood is fairly durable in contact with -the soil. - -The western white pine has entered many markets in recent years, but it -is difficult to determine what the annual cut is. Statistics often -include this species and the western yellow pine under one name, or at -least confuse one with the other, and there is no way to determine -exactly how much of the sawmill output belongs to each. The bulk of -merchantable western white pine lumber is cut in Idaho and Montana. The -stands are seldom pure, but this species frequently predominates over -its associates. When pure forests are found, the yield is sometimes -very high, as much as 130,000 feet of logs growing on a single acre. -That quantity is not often equalled by any other forest tree, though -redwood and Douglas fir sometimes go considerably above it. - -The western white pine's needles grow in clusters of five and are from -one and a half to four inches long. The cones are from ten to eighteen -inches long. The seeds ripen the second year. Reproduction is vigorous -and the forest stands are holding their own. Trees about one hundred and -seventy-five feet high and eight feet in diameter are met with, but the -average size is one hundred feet high and from two to three feet in -diameter, or about the size of eastern white pine. - -The wood is useful and has been giving service since the settlement of -the country began, fifty or more years ago. Choice trunks were split for -shakes or shingles, but the wood is inferior in splitting qualities to -either eastern white pine or California sugar pine, because of more -knots. The western white pine does not prime itself early or well. Dead -limbs adhere to the trunk long after the sugar pine would shed them. In -split products, the western white pine's principal rival has been the -western red cedar. The pine has been much employed for mine timbers in -the region where it is abundant. Miners generally take the most -convenient wood for props, stulls, and lagging. A little higher use for -pine is found among the mines, where is it made into tanks, flumes, -sluice boxes, water pipes, riffle blocks, rockers, and guides for stamp -mills. However, the total quantity used by miners is comparatively -small. Much more goes to ranches for fences and buildings. It is -serviceable, and is shipped outside the immediate region of production -and is marketed in the plains states east of the Rocky Mountains, where -it is excellent fence material. - -A larger market is found in manufacturing centers farther east. Western -white pine is shipped to Chicago where it is manufactured into doors, -sash, and interior finish, in competition with all other woods in that -market. It is said to be of frequent occurrence that the very pine which -is shipped in its rough form out of the Rocky Mountain region goes back -finished as doors and sash. When the mountain regions shall have better -manufacturing facilities, this will not occur. In the manufacture of -window and hothouse sash, glass is more important than wood, although -each is useless without the other. The principal glass factories are in -the East, and it is sometimes desirable to ship the wood to the glass -factory, have the sash made there, and the glazing done; and the -finished sash, ready for use, may go back to the source of the timber. - -The same operation is sometimes repeated for doors; but in recent years -the mountain region where this pine grows has been supplied with -factories and there is now less shipping of raw material out and of -finished products back than formerly. The development of the fruit -industry in the elevated valleys of Idaho, Montana, Washington, and -Oregon has called for shipping boxes in large numbers, and western white -pine has been found an ideal wood for that use. It is light in weight -and in color, strong enough to satisfy all ordinary requirements, and -cheap enough to bring it within reach of orchardists. It meets with -lively competition from a number of other woods which grow abundantly in -the region, but it holds its ground and takes its share of the business. - -Estimates of the total stand of western white pine among its native -mountains have not been published, but the quantity is known to be -large. It is a difficult species to estimate because it is scattered -widely, large, pure stands being scarce. Some large mills make a -specialty of sawing this species. The annual output is believed to reach -150,000,000 feet, most of which is in Idaho and Montana. - -MEXICAN WHITE PINE (_Pinus strobiformis_) is not sufficiently abundant -to be of much importance in the United States. The best of it is south -of the international boundary in Mexico, but the species extends into -New Mexico and Arizona where it is most abundant at altitudes of from -6,000 to 8,000 feet. The growth is generally scattering, and the trunks -are often deformed through fire injury, and are inclined to be limby and -of poor form. The best trees are from eighty to one hundred feet high, -and two in diameter; but many are scarcely half that size. The lumbermen -of the region, who cut Mexican white pine, are inclined to place low -value on it, not because the wood is of poor quality, but because it is -scarce. It is generally sent to market with western yellow pine. -Excellent grades and quality of this wood are shipped into the United -States from Mexico, but not in large amounts. An occasional carload -reaches door and sash factories in Texas, and woodworkers as far east as -Michigan are acquainted with it, through trials and experiments which -they have made. It is highly recommended by those who have tried it. -Some consider it as soft, as easy to work, and as free from warping and -checking as the eastern white pine. In Arizona and New Mexico the tree -is known as ayacahuite pine, white pine, and Arizona white pine. The -wood is moderately light, fairly strong, rather stiff, of slow growth, -and the bands of summerwood are comparatively broad. The resin passages -are few and large. The wood is light red, the sapwood whiter. The leaves -occur in clusters of five, are three or four inches long, and fall -during the third and fourth years. The seeds are large and have small -wings which cannot carry them far from the parent tree. - -PINON (_Pinus edulis_). This is one of the nut pines abounding among the -western mountains, and it is called pinon in Texas, nut pine in Texas -and Colorado, pinon pine and New Mexican pinon in other parts of its -range, extending from Colorado through New Mexico to western Texas. It -has two and three leaves to the cluster. They begin to fall the third -year and continue through six or seven years following. The cones are -quite small, the largest not exceeding one and one-half inches in -length. Trees are from thirty to forty feet high, and large trunks may -be two and one-half feet in diameter. The tree runs up mountain sides to -altitudes of 8,000 or 9,000 feet. It exists in rather large bodies, but -is not an important timber tree, because the trunks are short and are -generally of poor form. It often branches near the ground and assumes -the appearance of a large shrub. Ties of pinon have been used with -various results. Some have proved satisfactory, others have proved weak -by breaking, and the ties occasionally split when spikes are driven. The -wood's service as posts varies also. Some posts will last only three or -four years, while others remain sound a long time. The difference in -lasting properties is due to the difference in resinous contents of the -wood. Few softwoods rank above it in fuel value, and much is cut in some -localities. Large areas have been totally stripped for fuel. Charcoal -for local smithies is burned from this pine. The wood is widely used for -ranch purposes, but not in large quantities. The edible nuts are sought -by birds, rodents, and Indians. Some stores keep the nuts for sale. The -tree is handicapped in its effort at reproduction by weight, and the -small wing power of the seeds. They fall near the base of the parent -tree, and most of them are speedily devoured. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SUGAR PINE - -[Illustration: SUGAR PINE] - - - - -SUGAR PINE - -(_Pinus Lambertiana_) - - -This is the largest pine of the United States, and probably is the -largest true pine in the world. Its rival, the Kauri pine of New -Zealand, is not a pine according to the classification of botanists; and -that leaves the sugar pine supreme, as far as the world has been -explored. David Douglas, the first to describe the species, reported a -tree eighteen feet in diameter and 245 feet high, in southern Oregon. No -tree of similar size has been reported since; but trunks six, ten, and -even twelve feet through, and more than 200 high are not rare. - -The range of sugar pine extends from southern Oregon to lower -California. Through California it follows the Sierra Nevada mountains in -a comparatively narrow belt. In Oregon it descends within 1,000 feet of -sea level, but the lower limit of its range gradually rises as it -follows the mountains southward, until in southern California it is -8,000 or 10,000 feet above the sea. Its choice of situation is in the -mountain belt where the annual precipitation is forty inches or more. -The deep winter snows of the Sierras do not hurt it. The young trees -bear abundant limbs covering the trunks nearly or quite to the ground, -and are of perfect conical shape. When they are ten or fifteen feet tall -they may be entirely covered in snow which accumulates to a depth of a -dozen feet or more. The little pines are seldom injured by the load, but -their limbs shed the snow until it covers the highest twig. The -consequence is that a crooked sugar pine trunk is seldom seen, though a -considerable part of the tree's youth may have been spent under tons of -snow. Later in life the lower limbs die and drop, leaving clean boles -which assure abundance of clear lumber in the years to come. - -The tree is nearly always known as sugar pine, though it may be called -big pine or great pine to distinguish it from firs, cedars, and other -softwoods with which it is associated. The name is due to a product -resembling sugar which exudes from the heartwood when the tree has been -injured by fires, and which dries in white, brittle excrescences on the -surface. Its taste is sweet, with a suggestion of pitch which is not -unpleasant. The principle has been named "pinite." - -The needles of sugar pine are in clusters of five and are about four -inches long. They are deciduous the second and third years. The cones -are longer than cones of any other pine of this country but those of the -Coulter pine are a little heavier. Extreme length of 22 inches for the -sugar pine cone has been recorded, but the average is from 12 to 15 -inches. Cones open, shed their seeds the second year, and fall the -third. The seeds resemble lentils, and are provided with wings which -carry them several hundred feet, if wind is favorable. This affords -excellent opportunities for reproduction; but there is an offset in the -sweetness of the seeds which are prized for food by birds, beasts and -creeping things from the Piute Indian down to the Douglas squirrel and -the jumping mouse. - -Sugar pine occupies a high place as a timber tree. It has been in use -for half a century. The cut in 1900 was 52,000,000 feet, in 1904 it was -120,000,000; in 1907, 115,000,000, and the next year about 100,000,000. -Ninety-three per cent of the cut is in California, the rest in Oregon. -Its stand in California has been estimated at 25,000,000,000 feet. - -The wood of sugar pine is a little lighter than eastern white pine, is a -little weaker, and has less stiffness. It is soft, the rings of growth -are wide, the bands of summerwood thin and resinous; the resin passages -are numerous and very large, the medullary rays numerous and obscure. -The heart is light brown, the sapwood nearly white. - -Sugar pine and redwood were the two early roofing woods in California, -and both are still much used for that purpose. Sugar pine was made into -sawed shingles and split shakes. The shingle is a mill product; but the -shake was rived with mallet and frow, and in the years when it was the -great roofing material in central and eastern California, the shake -makers camped by twos in the forest, lived principally on bacon and red -beans, and split out from 200,000 to 400,000 shakes as a summer's work. -The winter snows drove the workers from the mountains, with from eight -to twelve hundred dollars in their pockets for the season's work. - -The increase in stumpage price has practically killed the shake maker's -business. In the palmy days when most everything went, he procured his -timber for little or nothing. He sometimes failed to find the surveyor's -lines, particularly if there happened to be a fine sugar pine just -across on a government quarter section. His method of operation was -wasteful. He used only the best of the tree. If the grain happened to -twist the fraction of an inch, he abandoned the fallen trunk, and cut -another. The shakes were split very thin, for sugar pine is among the -most cleavable woods of this country. Four or five good trees provided -the shake maker's camp with material for a year's work. - -Some of the earliest sawmills in California cut sugar pine for sheds, -shacks, sluiceboxes, flumes among the mines; and almost immediately a -demand came from the agricultural and stock districts for lumber. From -that day until the present time the sugar pine mills have been busy. As -the demand has grown, the facilities for meeting it have increased. The -prevailing size of the timber forbade the use of small mills. A saw -large enough for most eastern and southern timbers would not slab a -sugar pine log. From four to six feet were common sizes, and the -lumberman despised anything small. - -In late years sugar pine operators have looked beyond the local markets, -and have been sending their lumber to practically every state in the -Union, except probably the extreme South. It comes in direct competition -with the white pine of New England and the Lake States. The two woods -have many points of resemblance. The white pine would probably have lost -no markets to the California wood if the best grades could still be had -at moderate prices; but most of the white pine region has been stripped -of its best timber, and the resulting scarcity in the high grades has -been, in part, made good by sugar pine. Some manufacturers of doors and -frames claim that sugar pine is more satisfactory than white pine, -because of better behavior under climatic changes. It is said to shrink, -swell, and warp less than the eastern wood. - -Sugar pine has displaced white pine to a very small extent only, in -comparison with the field still held by the eastern wood, whose annual -output is about thirty times that of the California species. Their uses -are practically the same except that only the good grades of sugar pine -go east, and the corresponding grades of white pine west, and therefore -there is no competition between the poor grades of the two woods. The -annual demand for sugar and white pine east of the Rocky Mountains is -probably represented as an average in Illinois, where 2,000,000 feet of -the former and 175,000,000 of the latter are used yearly. - -While there is a large amount of mature sugar pine ready for lumbermen, -the prospect of future supplies from new growth is not entirely -satisfactory. The western yellow pine is mixed with it throughout most -of its range, and is more than a match for it in taking possession of -vacant ground. It is inferred from this fact that the relative positions -of the two species in future forests will change at the expense of sugar -pine. It endures shade when small, and this enables it to obtain a start -among other species; but as it increases in size it becomes intolerant -of shade, and if it does not receive abundance of light it will not -grow. A forest fire is nearly certain to kill the small sugar pines, but -old trunks are protected by their thick bark. Few species have fewer -natural enemies. Very small trees are occasionally attacked by mistletoe -(_Arceuthobium occidentale_) and succumb or else are stunted in their -growth. - - MEXICAN PINON (_Pinus cembroides_) is known also as nut pine, pinon - pine and stone-seed Mexican pinon. It is one of the smallest of the - native pines of this country. The tree is fifteen or twenty feet - high and a few inches in diameter, but in sheltered canyons in - Arizona it sometimes attains a height of fifty or sixty feet with a - corresponding diameter. It reaches its best development in northern - Mexico and what is found of it in the United States is the species' - extreme northern extension, in Arizona and New Mexico at altitudes - usually above 6,000 feet. It supplies fuel in districts where - firewood is otherwise scarce, and it has a small place as ranch - timber. The wood is heavy, of slow growth, the summerwood thin and - dense. The resin passages are few and small; color, light, clear - yellow, the sapwood nearly white. If the tree stood in regions - well-forested with commercial species, it would possess little or no - value; but where wood is scarce, it has considerable value. The - hardshell nuts resemble those of the gray pine, but are considered - more valuable for food. They are not of much importance in the - United States, but in Mexico where the trees are more abundant and - the population denser, the nuts are bought and sold in large - quantities. Its leaves are in clusters of three, sometimes two. They - are one inch or more in length, and fall the third and fourth years. - Cones are seldom over two inches in length. The species is not - extending its range, but seems to be holding the ground it already - has. It bears abundance of seeds, but not one in ten thousand - germinates and becomes a mature tree. - -[Illustration] - - - - -WHITEBARK PINE - -[Illustration: WHITEBARK PINE] - - - - -WHITEBARK PINE - -(_Pinus Albicaulis_) - - -This interesting and peculiar pine has a number of names, most of which -are descriptive. The whiteness of the bark and the stunted and recumbent -position which the tree assumes on bleak mountains are referred to in -the names whitestem pine in California and Montana, scrub pine in -Montana, whitebark in Oregon, white in California, and elsewhere it is -creeping pine, whitebark pine, and alpine whitebark pine. It is a -mountain tree. There are few heights within its range which it cannot -reach. Its tough, prostrate branches, in its loftiest situations, may -whip snow banks nine or ten months of the year, and for the two or three -months of summer every starry night deposits its sprinkle of frost upon -the flowers or cones of this persistent tree. It stands the storms of -centuries, and lives on, though the whole period of its existence is a -battle for life under adverse circumstances. At lower altitudes it fares -better but does not live longer than on the most sterile peak. Its range -covers 500,000 square miles, but only in scattered groups. It touches -the high places only, creeping down to altitudes of 5,000 or 6,000 feet -in the northern Rocky Mountains. It grows from British Columbia to -southern California, and is found in Montana, Idaho, Washington, Oregon, -Nevada, Arizona, and California. Its associates are the mountain -climbers of the tree kingdom, Engelmann spruce, Lyall larch, limber -pine, alpine fir, foxtail pine, Rocky Mountain juniper, knobcone pine, -and western juniper. Its dark green needles, stout and rigid, are from -one and one-half to two and one-half inches long. They hang on the twigs -from five to eight years. In July the scarlet flowers appear, forming a -beautiful contrast with the white bark and the green needles. In August -the seeds are ripe. The cones are from one and one-half to three inches -long. The seeds are nearly half an inch long, sweet to the taste. The -few squirrels and birds which inhabit the inhospitable region where the -whitebark pine grows, get busy the moment the cones open, and few -escape. Nature seems to have played a prank on this pine by giving wings -to the seeds and rendering their use impossible. The wing is stuck fast -with resin to the cone scales, and the seed can escape only by tearing -its wing off. The heavy nut then falls plumb to the ground beneath the -branches of its parent. It might be supposed that a tree situated as the -whitebark pine is would be provided with ample means of seedflight in -order to afford wide distribution, and give opportunity to survive the -hardships which are imposed by surroundings; but such is not the case. -The willow and the cottonwood which grow in fertile valleys have the -means of scattering their seeds miles away; but this bleak mountain tree -must drop its seeds on the rocks beneath. In this instance, nature seems -more interested in depositing the pine nuts where the hungry squirrels -can get them, than in furnishing a planting place for the nuts -themselves--therefore, tears off their wings before they leave the cone. -The battle for existence begins before the seeds germinate, and the -struggle never ceases. The tree, in parts of its range, survives a -temperature sixty degrees below zero. Its seedlings frequently perish, -not from cold and drought, but because the wind thrashes them against -the rocks which wear them to pieces. Trees which survive on the great -heights are apt to assume strange and fantastic forms, with less -resemblance to trees than to great, green spiders sprawling over the -rocks. Trees 500 years old may not be five feet high. Deep snows hold -them flat to the rocks so much of the time that the limbs cannot lift -themselves during the few summer days, but grow like vines. The growth -is so exceedingly slow that the new wood on the tips of twigs at the end -of summer is a mere point of yellow. John Muir, with a magnifying glass, -counted seventy-five annual rings in a twig one-eighth of an inch in -diameter. Trunks three and one-half inches in diameter may be 225 years -old; one of six inches had 426 rings; while a seventeen-inch trunk was -800 years old, and less than six feet high. Such a tree has a spread of -branches thirty or forty feet across. They lie flat on the ground. Wild -sheep, deer, bear, and other wild animals know how to shelter themselves -beneath the prostrate branches by creeping under; and travelers, -overtaken by storms, sometimes do the same; or in good weather the -sheepherder or the hunter may spread his blankets on the mass of limbs, -boughs, and needles, and spend a comfortable night on a springy -couch--actually sleeping in a tree top within two feet of the ground. In -regions lower down, the whitebark pine reaches respectable tree form. -Fence posts are sometimes cut from it in the Mono basin, east of the -Sierra Nevada mountains. In the Nez Perce National Forest trees forty -feet high have merchantable lengths of twenty-four feet. Similar growth -is found in other regions. In its best growth, the wood of whitebark -pine resembles that of white pine. It is light, of about the same -strength as white pine, but more brittle. The annual rings are very -narrow; the small resin passages are numerous. The sapwood is very thin -and is nearly white. Men can never greatly assist or hinder this tree. -It will continue to occupy heights and elevated valleys. - -BRISTLECONE PINE (_Pinus aristata_) owes its name to the sharp bristles -on the tips of the cone scales. It is known also as foxtail pine and -hickory pine. The latter name is given, not because of toughness, but -on account of the whiteness of the sapwood. It is strictly a high -mountain tree, running up to the timber line at 12,000 feet, and seldom -occurring below 6,000 or 7,000 feet. It maintains its existence under -adverse circumstances, its home being on dry, stony ridges, cold and -stormy in winter, and subject to excessive drought during the brief -growing season. Trees of large trunks and fine forms are impossible -under such conditions. The bristlecone pine's bole is short, tapers -rapidly and is excessively knotty. The species reaches its best -development in Colorado. Though it is seldom sawed for lumber, it is of -much importance in many localities where better material is scarce. In -central Nevada many valuable mines were developed and worked by using -the wood for props and fuel. Charcoal made of it was particularly -important in that region, and it was carried long distances to supply -blacksmith shops in mining camps. Railways have made some use of it for -ties. Though rough, it is liked for fence posts. The resin in the wood -assists in resisting decay, and posts last many years in the dry regions -where the tree grows. Ranchmen among the high mountains build corrals, -pens, sheds, and fences of it; but the fibers of the wood are so twisted -and involved that splitting is nearly impossible, and round timbers only -are employed. The bristlecone pine can never be more important in the -country's lumber supply than it is now. It occupies waste land where no -other tree grows, and it crowds out nothing better than itself. It -clings to stony peaks and wind-swept ridges where the ungainly trunks -are welcome to the traveler, miner, or sheepherder who is in need of a -shed to shelter him, or a fire for his night camp. In situations exposed -to great cold and drying winds, the bristlecone pine is a shrub, with -little suggestion of a tree, further than its green foliage and small -cones. The needles are in clusters of five. They cling to the twigs for -ten or fifteen years. The seeds are scattered about the first of -October, and the wind carries them hundreds of feet. They take root in -soil so sterile that no humus is visible. Young trees and the small -twigs of old ones present a peculiar appearance. The bark is chalky -white, but when the trees are old the bark becomes red or brown. - - FOXTAIL PINE (_Pinus balfouriana_) owes its name to the clustering - of its needles round the ends of the branches, bristling like a - fox's tail. The needles are seldom more than one and one-half inches - in length, and are in clusters of fives. They cling to the branches - ten or fifteen years before falling. The cones are about three - inches long, and are armed with slender spines. The tree is strictly - a mountain species and grows at a higher altitude than any other - tree in the United States, although whitebark pine is not much - behind it. It reaches its best development near Mt. Whitney, - California, where it is said to grow at an altitude of 15,000 feet - above sea level. It has been officially reported at Farewell Gap, in - the Sierra Nevada mountains, at an altitude of 13,000. At high - altitudes it is scrubby and distorted, but in more favorable - situations it may be sixty feet high and two in diameter. On high - mountains it is generally not more than thirty feet high and ten - inches in diameter. It is of remarkably slow growth, and - comparatively small trees may be 200 or 300 years old. The wood is - moderately light, is soft, weak, brittle. Resin passages are few and - very small. The wood is satiny and susceptible of a good polish, and - would be valuable if abundant. The seeds are winged and the wind - scatters them widely, but most of them are lost on barren rocks or - drifts of eternal snow. The untoward circumstances under which the - tree must live prevent generous reproduction. It holds its own but - can gain no new foothold on the bleak and barren heights which form - its environment. The dark green of its foliage makes the belts of - foxtail pines conspicuous where they grow above the timber line of - nearly all other trees. Its range is confined to a few of the - highest mountains of California, particularly about (but not on) Mt. - Shasta and among the clusters of peaks about the sources of Kings - and Kern rivers. Those who travel and camp among the highest - mountains of California are often indebted to foxtail pine for their - fuel. Near the upper limit of its range it frequently dies at the - top, and stands stripped of bark for many years. The dead wood, - which frequently is not higher above the ground than a man's head, - is broken away by campers for fuel, and it is often the only - resource. - -[Illustration] - - - - -LONGLEAF PINE - -[Illustration: LONGLEAF PINE] - - - - -LONGLEAF PINE - -(_Pinus Palustris_) - - -Longleaf is generally considered to be the most important member of the -group of hard or pitch pines in this country[2]. It is known by many -names in different parts of its range, and outside of its range where -the wood is well known. - - [2] There is no precise agreement as to what should be included in - the group of hard pines in the United States, but the following - twenty-two are usually placed in that class: Longleaf Pine (_Pinus - palustris_), Shortleaf Pine (_Pinus echinata_), Loblolly Pine - (_Pinus tæda_), Cuban Pine (_Pinus heterophylla_), Norway Pine - (_Pinus resinosa_), Western Yellow Pine (_Pinus ponderosa_), - Chihuahua Pine (_Pinus chihuahuana_), Arizona Pine (_Pinus - arizonica_), Pitch Pine (_Pinus rigida_), Pond Pine (_Pinus - serotina_), Spruce Pine (_Pinus glabra_), Monterey Pine (_Pinus - radiata_), Knobcone Pine (_Pinus attenuata_), Gray Pine (_Pinus - sabiniana_), Coulter Pine (_Pinus coulteri_), Lodgepole Pine (_Pinus - contorta_), Jack Pine (_Pinus divaricata_), Scrub Pine (_Pinus - virginiana_), Sand Pine (_Pinus clausa_), Table Mountain Pine - (_Pinus pungens_), California Swamp Pine (_Pinus muricata_), Torry - Pine (_Pinus torreyana_). - -The names southern pine, Georgia pine, and Florida pine are not well -chosen, because there are other important pines in the regions named. -Turpentine pine is a common term, but other species produce turpentine -also, particularly the Cuban pine. Hard pine is much employed in -reference to this tree, and it applies well, but it describes other -species also. Heart pine is a lumberman's term to distinguish this -species from loblolly, shortleaf, and Cuban pines. The sapwood of the -three last named is thick, the heartwood small, while in longleaf pine -the sap is thin, the heart large, hence the name applied by lumbermen. -In Tennessee where it is not a commercial forest tree, it is called -brown pine, and in nearly all parts of the United States it is spoken of -as yellow pine, usually with some adjective as "southern," "Georgia," or -"longleaf." The persistency with which Georgia is used as a portion of -the name of this tree is due to the fact that extensive lumbering of the -longleaf forests began in that state. The center of operations has since -shifted to the West, and is now in Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. -The tree has many other names, among them being pitch pine and fat pine. -These have reference to its value in the naval stores industry. The name -longleaf pine is now well established in commercial transactions. It has -longer leaves than any other pine in this country. They range in length -from eight to eighteen inches. The needles of Cuban pine are from eight -to twelve inches; loblolly's are from six to nine; and those of -shortleaf from three to five. - -Longleaf pine's geographic range is more restricted than that of -loblolly and shortleaf, but larger than the range of Cuban pine. -Longleaf occupies a belt from Virginia to Texas, following the tertiary -sandy formation pretty closely. The belt seldom extends from the coast -inland more than 125 miles. The tree runs south in Florida to Tampa bay. -It disappears as it approaches the Mississippi, but reappears west of -that river in Louisiana and Texas. Its western limit is near Trinity -river, and its northern in that region is near the boundary between -Louisiana and Arkansas. - -Longleaf attains a height of from sixty to ninety feet, but a few trees -reach 130. The diameters of mature trunks range from one foot to three, -usually less than two. The leaves grow three in a bundle, and fall at -the end of the second year. They are arranged in thick, broom-like -bunches on the ends of the twigs. It is a tree of slow growth compared -with other pines of the region. Its characteristic narrow annual rings -are usually sufficient to distinguish its logs and lumber from those of -other southern yellow pines. Its thin sapwood likewise assists in -identification. The proportionately high percentage of heartwood in -longleaf pine makes it possible to saw lumber which shows little or no -sapwood. It is difficult to do that with other southern pines. - -The wood is heavy, exceedingly hard for pine, very strong, tough, -compact, durable, resinous, resin passages few, not conspicuous; -medullary rays numerous, not conspicuous; color, light red or orange, -the thin sapwood nearly white. The annual rings contain a large -proportion of dark colored summerwood, which accounts for the great -strength of longleaf pine timber. The contrast in color between the -springwood and the summerwood is the basis of the figure of this pine -which gives it much of its value as an interior finish material, -including doors. The hardness of the summerwood provides the wearing -qualities of flooring and paving blocks. The coloring matter in the body -of the wood protects it against decay for a longer period than most -other pines. This, in connection with its hardness and strength, gives -it high standing for railroad ties, bridges, trestles, and other -structures exposed to weather. - -Longleaf pine is as widely used as any softwood in this country. It -serves with hardwoods for a number of purposes. It has been a timber of -commerce since an early period, and was exported from the south Atlantic -coast long before the Revolutionary war; but it was later than that when -it came into keen competition with the Riga pine of northern Europe. It -has since held its own in the European markets, and its trade has -extended to many other foreign countries, particularly to the republics -of South and Central America, Mexico, and the West Indies. - -It did not attain an important position in the commerce of this country -until after the Civil war, but it had a place in shipbuilding before -that time, and it has held that place. The builders of cars employ large -quantities for frames and other parts of gondolas, box cars, and -coaches. Over 175,000,000 feet were so used in 1909 in Illinois. It is -the leading car building timber in this country. Its great strength, -hardness, and stiffness give it that place. - -It is scarcely less important as an interior wood for house finish. It -is not so much its strength as its beauty that recommends it for that -purpose. Its beauty is due to a combination of figure and color. -Splendid variety is possible by carefully selecting the material. -Manufacturers of furniture, fixtures, and vehicles are large users of -longleaf pine. In these lines its chief value is due to strength. - -In the naval stores industry in this country, it is more important than -all other species combined. For a century and a half it has supplied -this country and much of the rest of the world. The principal -commodities made from the resin of this tree are spirits of turpentine -and rosin. These two articles are produced by distilling the resin which -exudes from wounds in the tree. The distillate is spirits of turpentine, -the residue is rosin. The manufacture of naval stores has destroyed tens -of thousands of trees in the past; but better methods are now in use and -loss is less. Georgia and South Carolina were once the center of naval -stores production; but it has now moved to Louisiana and Florida. - -The supply of longleaf pine has rapidly decreased during the past twenty -years, and though the end is not yet at hand, it is approaching. Young -trees are not coming on to take the place of those cut for lumber. They -grow slowly at best, and a new forest could not be produced in less than -a hundred years. Both protection and care have been lacking. Fire -usually kills seedlings in their first or second year. The result is -that many extensive tracts where longleaf pine once grew in abundance -have few young and scarcely any old trees now. As far as can be -foreseen, this valuable timber will reach its end when existing stands -have been cut. - -CUBAN PINE (_Pinus heterophylla_). The Cuban pine has several local -names; slash pine in Georgia, Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi; swamp -pine in Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi; meadow pine in Florida and -Mississippi; pitch pine in Florida; and spruce pine in Alabama. Its -range is confined to the coast region from South Carolina to Louisiana, -from sixty to one hundred miles inland. It is the only pine in the -extreme south of Florida. The wood is heavy, hard, very strong, tough, -compact, durable, resinous, the resin passages few but conspicuous, rich -dark orange color, the sapwood often nearly white. The annual ring is -usually more than half dark colored summerwood. The Cuban pine grows -rapidly, quickly appropriates vacant ground, and the species is -spreading. Its needles, from eight to twelve inches long, fall the -second year. The wood possesses nearly the strength, hardness, and -stiffness of longleaf pine, and the trunks are as large. The two woods -which are so similar in other respects differ in figure, owing to the -wider annual rings of the Cuban pine. The sapwood of the latter species -greatly exceeds in thickness that of longleaf pine. For that reason it -is often mistaken for loblolly pine. Cuban pine never goes to market -under its own name, but is mixed with and passes for one of the other -southern yellow pines. - -SAND PINE (_Pinus clausa_). This tree is generally twenty or thirty feet -high, and eight or twelve inches in diameter. Under favorable conditions -it attains a height of sixty or eighty feet and a diameter of two. The -leaves are two or three inches long, and fall the third and fourth -years. Its range is almost wholly in Florida but extends a little over -the northern border. It grows as far south as Tampa on the west coast, -and nearly to Miami on the east. It is not much cut for lumber because -of its small size and generally short, limby trunk. In a few localities -shapely boles are developed, and serviceable lumber is made. It is a -poor-land tree, as its name implies. The cones adhere to the branches -many years, and may be partly enclosed in the growing wood. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SHORTLEAF PINE - -[Illustration: SHORTLEAF PINE] - - - - -SHORTLEAF PINE - -(_Pinus Echinata_) - - -In the markets the lumber of this species is known as yellow pine, -southern yellow pine, and sap pine, and in some localities the term -shortleaf is used. The latter is descriptive, and can be easily -understood when reference is made to the living tree, because its short -needles distinguish it from its associates in the pine forest; but in -speaking of lumber only, the reference to the leaves has less meaning, -particularly to one who is not acquainted with the tree's appearance. -Its wood so closely resembles that of Cuban and loblolly pine that they -are not easily distinguished by sight alone. In the East the name -Carolina pine or North Carolina pine is much used, but it is not often -heard west of the Allegheny mountains. Referring to the manner and -locality of its growth it is called slash pine in North Carolina and -Virginia, old-field pine in Alabama and Mississippi, and poor-field pine -in Florida. Its tendency to take possession of abandoned ground has -given it these names. It is occasionally called pitch pine in Missouri. -That name would not distinguish it in most parts of the South where -several species of pitch pine grow. In some regions it is known as -spruce pine, but the name is not based on any characteristic of the -living tree or of its wood. In North Carolina and Alabama, and in -literature, it is sometimes known as rosemary pine, but that name -applies rather to fine timber cut from any southern yellow pine, than to -this species in particular. In Delaware it is known as shortshat and in -Virginia as bull pine. To those who are familiar with the tree's -appearance, the name shortleaf pine is most accurate in definition. - -The commercial range of shortleaf pine has contracted to a considerable -extent since the settlement of the country. It once grew as far north as -Albany, New York, and from fifty to a hundred years ago it was lumbered -in Pennsylvania, Maryland, and West Virginia in regions where it has now -ceased to exist, or is found only as scattered trees. Its geographical -range is now usually given from New York to Florida, west to Missouri -and Oklahoma and northeastern Texas. It is important in lumber -operations in North Carolina and southward, and westward to the limits -of its range. The tree reaches its largest size and attains its finest -stands west of the Mississippi river. In average size it exceeds -longleaf pine. It may reach a height above 100 feet and a trunk diameter -of three or four. Squared timbers of large size were formerly exported -from Virginia and North Carolina. Similar sizes cannot now be procured -there. - -Shortleaf pine varies greatly in the quality and amount of sapwood. It -is normally a thick sap tree, but midway between loblolly and longleaf. -The young tree increases rapidly in size until it is from six to ten -inches in diameter, and the yearly rings are wide. The rate of growth -then decreases and during the rest of its life the rings are narrow. -This feature is often of assistance in identifying southern yellow pine -logs or large timbers which contain the heart and also the sap. Wide -rings near the heart, followed by narrow ones, and a thick sapwood are -pretty good evidence that the timber--if a southern yellow pine--is -shortleaf pine. The rule is not absolute; for a high authority on timber -has said that no infallible rule can be laid down for distinguishing by -sight alone the woods of the four southern yellow pines--longleaf, -shortleaf, Cuban, and loblolly. - -The wood of shortleaf pine is strong, heavy, hard, and compact; very -resinous, resin passages large and numerous; medullary rays numerous, -conspicuous; color, orange, the sapwood nearly white. The thoroughly -seasoned wood weighs thirty-eight pounds per cubic foot. It is about -five pounds heavier than loblolly pine, five pounds lighter than -longleaf, and nearly nine pounds lighter than Cuban pine. There is so -great a variation in weight of shortleaf pine that only general averages -have value. - -Shortleaf pine is not as strong as longleaf, and is not so extensively -employed in heavy structural work, but in certain other lines it has the -advantage of longleaf. It is softer, and door and sash makers like it -better. It is easier to work, and when manufactured into doors and -interior finish many consider it superior to longleaf. The wide rings of -annual growth in the heartwood show fine contrast in color, and when -these are developed by stains and fillers, the grain or figure of the -wood is very pleasing. Where hardness is not an essential, it is much -used for floors. It is in great demand by builders of freight cars, but -less for frames and heavy beams than for siding and decking. Car -builders in Illinois bought 77,000,000 feet of it in 1909. That was -nearly half of the entire quantity of this wood used in the state. The -second largest users in Illinois were manufacturers of sash, doors, -blinds, and general millwork. If the whole country is considered, this -is probably the largest use of the wood. Makers of boxes and crates in -the South employ large quantities. - -The depletion of shortleaf forests has progressed rapidly, but in the -absence of reliable statistics it is impossible to give figures by -decades or years. In 1880 an estimate placed the amount west of the -Mississippi at 95,000,000,000 feet. That was probably less than half of -the country's supply at that time. In 1911 the Commissioner of -Corporations estimated that the combined remaining stand of loblolly -and shortleaf pine in the South was 152,000,000,000 feet. It is doubtful -if half of it was shortleaf. In that case, there was less shortleaf pine -in the entire South in 1911 than there was west of the Mississippi river -thirty years before. - -Rapid decrease in total stand of a species does not necessarily imply -exhaustion. The cut will fall off as scarcity pinches. In the case of -shortleaf pine, an influence is active which will bring good results in -the future. This pine reproduces with vigor. Its small triangular seeds -are equipped with wings which carry them into vacant areas where they -quickly germinate if they fall on mineral soil. The seedling trees -suffer much from fire, but their power of resistance is fairly good, and -dense new growth is coming on in many localities. A good many years are -required to bring a seedling to maturity, but it will reach sawlog size -sometime, and there is no question but that the market will welcome it. - -The shortleaf pine is peculiar among eastern softwoods in one respect. -Stumps will sprout. That occurs oftener west of the Mississippi than -east. However, the tree's ability to send up sprouts from the stump is -of little practical value, since the sprouts seldom or never develop -into merchantable trees. In that respect it differs from the other -well-known sprouting softwood of this country, the California redwood, -whose numerous sprouts grow into large trunks. - -SPRUCE PINE (_Pinus glabra_). This is one of the softest and the whitest -of the hard pines of this country. Nothing but its scarcity stands in -the way of its becoming an important timber tree. The best of it is a -satisfactory substitute for white pine in the manufacture of doors. It -grows rapidly, and the wide rings contain a high percentage of light -colored springwood, though there is enough summerwood of darker color to -give the dressed lumber a character. It weighs about the same as -northern white pine, but is weaker. In South Carolina and Florida it is -called white pine, but the name spruce is more general. It is known also -as kingstree, poor pine, Walter's pine, and lowland spruce pine. Its -range is restricted to southern South Carolina, northern Florida and -southern Alabama and Mississippi, and northeastern Louisiana. Its leaves -are from one and a half to three inches in length, grow two in a bundle, -and fall the second and third years. Large and well-formed trunks attain -a height of from eighty to 100 feet and a diameter from two to nearly -three. It reaches its best development in northwestern Florida, and its -light, symmetrical trunks have long been in use there as masts for small -vessels. It is too scarce to attract much attention from lumbermen, but -they are well acquainted with its good qualities, and some of them take -pains to keep the lumber separate from associated pines, and sell it to -manufacturers of doors and interior finish. The bark bears considerable -resemblance to spruce, which probably accounts for the name of the tree. - - TABLE MOUNTAIN PINE (_Pinus pungens_). The French botanist, Michaux - the younger, has been criticized for the statement which he made - more than a hundred years ago that this species was confined to a - certain flat-topped mountain in the southern Appalachian ranges, and - he called it table mountain pine. It lacked much of being confined - within the narrow limits where it was discovered. It grows in New - Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, District of Columbia, Virginia, West - Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina, and Georgia. Its - other names are prickly pine, hickory pine, and southern mountain - pine. It supplies timber in all parts of its range, but, except in - very restricted localities, it is not abundant. The lumber in the - market is seldom distinguished from other pines, but some of the - Tennessee mills sell it separately to local customers. The wood is - medium light, rather strong (about like _Pinus rigida_, or pitch - pine, which it resembles in other respects), is less stiff than - white pine, and is resinous. The thick sapwood is nearly white, the - heartwood brown. It is not a durable timber in contact with the - ground. Its fuel value is low. Its needles grow in clusters of two, - and are generally less than two inches long. The cones which are in - clusters of from three to eight, and from two to three and a half - inches long, are armed with stout, curved hooks. The cones shed - their seeds irregularly during two or three years, and sometimes - hang on the trees for twenty years. In open ground this pine - occasionally produces fertile seeds when only a few feet high. Its - forest form and open-ground form are quite different. In thick woods - the tree is tall, with good bole, but in open ground it is only - twenty or thirty feet high, and is covered with limbs almost to the - ground. - -[Illustration] - - - - -LOBLOLLY PINE - -[Illustration: LOBLOLLY PINE] - - - - -LOBLOLLY PINE - -(_Pinus Tæda_) - - -Few trees have more names than this. The names, however, may be -separated into groups, one group referring to the foliage, another to -the situations in which the tree grows, and a third to certain -characters or uses of the wood. Names descriptive of the leaves are -longschat pine, longshucks pine, shortleaf pine, foxtail pine, and -longstraw pine. The names which refer to locality or situation are -loblolly pine, old-field pine, slash pine, black slash pine, Virginia -pine, meadow pine and swamp pine. Names which refer to the character of -the wood or of the standing tree are torch pine, rosemary pine, -frankincense pine, cornstalk pine, spruce pine, and yellow pine. Not one -of these names is applied to the tree in its entire range, and it has -several names other than those listed. Sap pine is widely applied to the -lumber, because the tree's sapwood is very thick, sometimes amounting to -eighty per cent of a trunk. It has borne the name old-field pine for a -hundred and fifty years in Virginia, and the name suggests a good deal -of history. Some of the improvident early Virginia tobacco growers -neglected to fertilize their fields, and the land wore out under -constant cropping, and was abandoned. The pine quickly took possession, -for the fields which were too far exhausted to produce tobacco or corn -were amply able to grow dense stands of loblolly pine, and the farmers -noticing this, called it old-field pine. It has been taking possession -of abandoned fields in Virginia and North Carolina ever since, and the -name still applies. The tree grows from New Jersey to Florida, west to -Texas, north to Oklahoma, Tennessee, and West Virginia, but it does not -cover the whole territory thus outlined. It is very scarce near its -northern limit. There is evidence that the range of loblolly has -extended in historic times, not into new or distant regions, but outside -the borders which once marked its range. Since white men in Texas -stopped the Indians' grass fires, the pine has encroached upon the -prairie. Early writers in Virginia and North Carolina spoke of pine as -scarce or totally wanting, except on the immediate coast. It is now -found from one hundred to two hundred miles inland, and many sawmills -now cut logs which have grown in fields abandoned since the -Revolutionary war. This has occurred on the Atlantic coast rather than -west of the Appalachian ranges of mountains. Virginia has more sawmills -than any other state, and many of them are working on loblolly pine -which has grown in the last hundred years. - -The tree bears seeds abundantly and scatters them widely. It is -vigorous, grows with great rapidity, and is able to fight its way if it -finds conditions in any way favorable. Turpentine operators have not -found the working of loblolly pine profitable, and this has relieved it -of a drain which has done much to deplete the southern forests of -longleaf pine. - -Loblolly's leaves are from six to nine inches long, and fall the third -year. This species, in common with other southern yellow pines, is -disposed to grow tall, clear trunks, with a meager supply of limbs and -foliage at the top. The lumber sawed from trunks of that kind is clear -of knots. No other important forest tree of the United States comes as -nearly being a cultivated tree as the loblolly pine. This is -particularly true in the northeastern part of its range, in North -Carolina, Virginia, and Maryland. Though nature has done the actual -planting, men provided the seed beds by giving up old fields to that -use; and many of the stands are as thick and even as if they had been -planted and cared for by regular forestry methods. Trees are from eighty -to one hundred feet tall, and from two to four in diameter, some very -old ones being a little larger. - -The annual rings of loblolly pine are broad, with good contrast between -the spring and summer growth. The wood is light, not strong, brittle, -not durable, very resinous, the resin passages are few and not -conspicuous; medullary rays are numerous and obscure; color, light -brown, the thick sapwood orange or nearly white. When this tree is of -slow growth it is lighter, less resinous, and has thinner sapwood. It is -sometimes known as rosemary pine. - -The use of loblolly pine lumber was greatly stimulated when the custom -of drying it in kilns became general. It is largely sapwood and dries -slowly in air. Its market is found in all eastern and central parts of -the United States, and it is exported to Europe and Central and South -America. It is a substantial material for many common purposes and its -use is very large on the Atlantic coast. In quantity it exceeds any -other species in the wood-using industries of Maryland, and all others -combined in North Carolina. It is not as often employed in heavy -structural timbers as longleaf pine, but in the market of which -Baltimore is the center, much use is made of it for that purpose. It is -ten pounds a cubic foot lighter than longleaf, has about three-fourths -of the strength, and nearly four-fifths of longleaf's elasticity. It is -thus seen to be considerably inferior to it as a structural timber where -heavy loads must be sustained; but builders use it for many purposes in -preference to or on an equality with longleaf. It is fine for interior -finish and doors. Railroads employ large quantities in building freight -cars, much for crossties, and bridge builders find many places for it. -It is not a long lasting wood when exposed to weather, unless it has -been treated with creosote to preserve it from decay. It is one of the -most easily treated woods. - -In North Carolina and Virginia loblolly tobacco hogsheads are common; -and box factories within easy reach of it use much. A list of its uses, -compiled from reports of factory operations in Maryland, will give an -idea of the range it covers: Basket bottoms, beer bottle boxes, boats, -cart bodies, crates, flooring, frames for doors and windows, fruit -boxes, interior finish, nail kegs, oyster boxes, seats for boats, siding -for houses, staves for slack cooperage, store fixtures, wagon beds, -balusters, brackets, chiffoniers, mantels, molding, picture frames, -stair railing, sash, scrollwork, sideboards, tables. - -The amount of loblolly pine timber in this country is not known. No -other important species comes so near growing as much as is cut from -year to year. It covers 200,000 square miles with stands ranging from -little or nothing in some parts to 20,000 feet per acre in others, or -more in exceptional cases. The area of fully stocked loblolly pine is -believed to be as large now as it ever was. Before the Civil war it was -predicted that its period of greatest production was over; but large -tracts are now being logged on which the pine seeds had not been sown in -1860. - -POND PINE (_Pinus serotina_). Sargent's table of weights of woods shows -this to be the heaviest pine of the United States; but, as his -calculations were made from a single sample which grew in Duval county, -Florida, further data should be secured before his figures, 49.5 pounds -per cubic foot, are accepted as an average weight for the species. It is -rated in strength about equal to longleaf and Cuban pine. Its structure -shows a large percentage of dense summerwood in the yearly ring. The -leaves are in clusters of three, rarely four, and are six or eight -inches long, and fall in their third and fourth years. The name suggests -that the cones are tightly closed, and that they adhere tenaciously to -the twigs on which they grow. This is found true. The principal -impression made on a person who sees the pond pine for the first time is -that it is overloaded with cones, and that it must be a prolific seeder. -Better acquaintance modifies the latter part of that impression. It is -overloaded with cones, but most of them are many years old, and have -long been seedless, although most of the trees have the seed crops of -two years on the branches at one time. Enough seed is shed to perpetuate -the species, but too little to insure an aggressive spread into -surrounding vacant ground. The pond pine may reach a diameter of three -feet and a height of eighty, but that is twice the average size. The -wood is very resinous, and is brittle. - - SCRUB PINE (_Pinus virginiana_). This tree is often called Jersey - pine because it is a prominent feature of the landscapes in the - southern part of that state where it has spread extensively since - the settlement of the country. Its short needles have been - responsible for several of its names, among them being shortshuck - pine in Maryland and Virginia, shortshat pine in Delaware, - shortleaved pine in North Carolina, and spruce pine and cedar pine - in some parts of the South. In Tennessee it is known as nigger pine, - and in some parts of North Carolina as river pine. The range is - fairly well outlined by the above discussion of its names. It grows - from New York to South Carolina, and west of the mountains it is - found in northern Alabama and middle Tennessee, in Kentucky and West - Virginia. It reaches its largest size in southern Indiana where it - is sometimes 100 feet high and three in diameter. It is there a - valuable tree for many purposes, but is not abundant. Its average - size is small in the eastern states, usually not over fifty feet - high, and often little more than half of that. Few trunks east of - the Allegheny mountains are more than eighteen inches in diameter. - The name scrub pine is an index to the opinions held by most people - regarding this tree. It is often considered an encumbrance rather - than an asset; yet statistics of wood-using industries hardly - justify that view. Millions of feet of it are employed annually in - each of the states of New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia, and North - Carolina, for boxes, slack cooperage, and common lumber. The wood is - moderately strong, but is not stiff. It is medium light, soft, - brittle, with summerwood narrow and very resinous. Its color is - light orange or yellow, the thick sapwood ivory white. The needles - are from one and a half to three inches long, and fall in the third - and fourth years. Cones are two or three inches long, and scatter - their seeds in autumn. The wings are too small to carry the seeds - far, yet the tree succeeds in quickly spreading into surrounding - vacant spaces. Cones adhere to the branches three or four years. Tar - makers and charcoal burners utilized scrub pine in New Jersey, - northeastern Maryland and southeastern Pennsylvania a century and a - half ago. The tree seems to be as abundant now as it ever was. - Unless it occupies very poor land--which it generally does--the - growth is liable to be suppressed and crowded to death by broadleaf - trees before the stands become very old. As a species, it is weak in - self-defense, and it owes its survival to its habit of retreating to - poor soils where enemies cannot follow. It may be said of it as the - Roman historian Tacitus said of certain men: "The cowards fly the - farthest, and are the longest survivors." - -[Illustration] - - - - -NORWAY PINE - -[Illustration: NORWAY PINE] - - - - -NORWAY PINE - -(_Pinus Resinosa_) - - -Early explorers who were not botanists mistook this tree for Norway -spruce, and gave it the name which has since remained in nearly all -parts of its range. It is called red pine also, and this name is -strictly descriptive. The brown or red color of the bark is instantly -noticed by one who sees the tree for the first time. In the Lake States -it has been called hard pine for the purpose of distinguishing it from -the softer white pine with which it is associated. In England they call -it Canadian red pine, because the principal supply in England is -imported from the Canadian provinces. - -Its chief range lies in the drainage basin of the St. Lawrence river, -which includes the Great Lakes and the rivers which flow into them. -Newfoundland forms the eastern and Manitoba the western outposts of this -species. It is found as far south as Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, -northern Ohio, central Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. It conforms -pretty generally to the range of white pine but does not accompany that -species southward along the Appalachian mountain ranges across West -Virginia, Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee. Where it was left to -compete in nature's way with white pine, the contest was friendly, but -white pine got the best of it. The two species grew in intermixture, but -in most instances white pine had from five to twenty trees to Norway's -one. As a survivor under adversity, however, the Norway pine appears to -surpass its great friendly rival, at least in the Lake States where the -great pineries once flourished and have largely passed away. Solitary or -small clumps of Norway pines are occasionally found where not a white -pine, large or small, is in sight. - -The forest appearance of Norway pine resembles the southern yellow -pines. The stand is open, the trunks are clean and tall, the branches -are at the top. The Norway's leaves are in clusters of two, and are five -or six inches long. They fall during the fourth or fifth year. Cones are -two inches long, and when mature, closely resemble the color of the -tree's bark, that is, light chestnut brown. Exceptionally tall Norway -pines may reach a height of 150 feet, but the average is seventy or -eighty, with diameters of from two to four. Young trees are limby, but -early in life the lower branches die and fall, leaving few protruding -stubs or knots. It appears to be a characteristic that trunks are seldom -quite straight. They do not have the plumb appearance of forest grown -white pine and spruce. - -The wood of Norway pine is medium light, its strength and stiffness -about twenty-five per cent greater than white pine, and it is moderately -soft. The annual rings are rather wide, indicating rapid growth. The -bands of summerwood are narrow compared with the springwood, which gives -a generally light color to the wood, though not as light as the wood of -white pine. The resin passages are small and fairly numerous. The -sapwood is thick, and the wood is not durable in contact with the soil. - -Norway pine has always had a place of its own in the lumber trade, but -large quantities have been marketed as white pine. If such had not been -the case, Norway pine would have been much oftener heard of during the -years when the Lake State pineries were sending their billions of feet -of lumber to the markets of the world. - -Because of the deposit of resinous materials in the wood, Norway pine -stumps resist decay much better than white pine. In some of the early -cuttings in Michigan, where only stumps remain to show how large the -trees were and how thick they stood, the Norway stumps are much better -preserved than the white pine. Using that fact as a basis of estimate, -it may be shown that in many places the Norway pine constituted -one-fifth or one-fourth of the original stand. The lumbermen cut clean, -and statistics of that period do not show that the two pines were -generally marketed separately. In recent years many of the Norway stumps -have been pulled, and have been sold to wood-distillation plants where -the rosin and turpentine are extracted. - -At an early date Norway pine from Canada and northern New York was -popular ship timber in this country and England. Slender, straight -trunks were selected as masts, or were sawed for decking planks thirty -or forty feet long. Shipbuilders insisted that planks be all heartwood, -because when sapwood was exposed to rain and sun, it changed to a green -color, due to the presence of fungus. The wood wears well as ship -decking. The British navy was still using some Norway pine masts as late -as 1875. - -The scarcity of this timber has retired it from some of the places which -it once filled, and the southern yellow pines have been substituted. It -is still employed for many important purposes, the chief of which is car -building, if statistics for the state of Illinois are a criterion for -the whole country. In 1909 in that state 24,794,000 feet of it were used -for all purposes, and 14,783,000 feet in car construction. - -For many years Chicago has been the center of the Norway pine trade. It -is landed there by lake steamers and by rail, and is distributed to -ultimate consumers. The uses for the wood, as reported by Illinois -manufacturers, follow: Baskets, boxes, boats, brackets, casing and -frames for doors and windows, crating, derricks for well-boring -machines, doors, elevators, fixtures for stores and offices, foot or -running boards for tank cars, foundry flasks, freight cars, hand rails, -insulation for refrigerator cars, ladders, picture moldings, roofing, -sash, siding for cattle cars, sign boards and advertising signs, tanks, -and windmill towers. - -As with white pine, Norway pine has passed the period of greatest -production, though much still goes to market every year and will long -continue to do so. The land which lumbermen denuded in the Lake States, -particularly Michigan and Wisconsin, years ago, did not reclothe itself -with Norway seedlings. That would have taken place in most instances but -for fires which ran periodically through the slashings until all -seedlings were destroyed. In many places there are now few seedlings and -few large trees to bear seeds, and consequently the pine forest in such -places is a thing of the past. The outlook is better in other -localities. - -The Norway pine is much planted for ornament, and is rated one of the -handsomest of northern park trees. - - PITCH PINE (_Pinus rigida_). The name pitch pine is locally applied - to almost every species of hard, resinous pine in this country. The - _Pinus rigida_ has other names than pitch pine. In Delaware it is - called longleaved pine, since its needles are longer than the scrub - pine's with which it is associated. For the same reason it is known - in some localities as longschat pine. In Massachusetts it is called - hard pine, in Pennsylvania yellow pine, in North Carolina and - eastern Tennessee black pine, and black Norway pine in New York. The - botanical name is translated "rigid pine," but the rigid refers to - the leaves, not the wood. Its range covers New England, New York, - Pennsylvania, southern Canada, eastern Ohio, and southward along the - mountains to northern Georgia. It has three leaves in a cluster, - from three to five inches long, and they fall the second year. Cones - range in length from one to three inches, and they hang on the - branches ten or twelve years. The wood is medium light, moderately - strong, but low in stiffness. It is soft and brittle. The annual - rings are wide, the summerwood broad, distinct, and very resinous. - Medullary rays are few but prominent; color, light brown or red, the - thick sapwood yellow or often nearly white. The difference in the - hardness between springwood and summerwood renders it difficult to - work, and causes uneven wear when used as flooring. It is fairly - durable in contact with the soil. - - The tree attains a height of from forty to eighty feet and a - diameter of three. This pine is not found in extensive forests, but - in scattered patches, nearly always on poor soil where other trees - will not crowd it. Light and air are necessary to its existence. If - it receives these, it will fight successfully against adversities - which would be fatal to many other species. In resistance to forest - fires, it is a salamander among trees. That is primarily due to its - thick bark, but it is favored also by the situations in which it is - generally found--open woods, and on soil so poor that ground litter - is thin. It is a useful wood for many purposes, and wherever it is - found in sufficient quantity, it goes to market, but under its own - name only in restricted localities. Its resinous knots were once - used in place of candles in frontier homes. Tar made locally from - its rich wood was the pioneer wagoner's axle grease, and the - ever-present tar bucket and tar paddle swung from the rear axle. - Torches made by tying splinters in bundles answered for lanterns in - night travel. It was the best pine for floors in some localities. - It is probably used more for boxes than for anything else at - present. In 1909 Massachusetts box makers bought 600,000 feet, and a - little more went to Maryland box factories. Its poor holding power - on spikes limits its employment as railroad ties and in - shipbuilding. Carpenters and furniture makers object to the numerous - knots. Country blacksmiths who repair and make wagons as a side - line, find it suitable for wagon beds. It is much used as fuel where - it is convenient. - - TORREY PINE (_Pinus torreyana_), called del mar pine and Soledad - pine, is an interesting tree from the fact that its range is so - restricted that the actual number of trees could be easily known to - one who would take the trouble to count them. A rather large - quantity formerly occupied a small area in San Diego county, - California, but woodchoppers who did not appreciate the fact that - they were exterminating a species of pine from the face of the - earth, cut nearly all of the trees for fuel. Its range covered only - a few square miles, and fortunately part of that was included in the - city limits of San Diego. An ordinance was passed prohibiting the - cutting of a Torrey pine under heavy penalty, and the tree was thus - saved. A hundred and fifty miles off the San Diego coast a few - Torrey pines grow on the islands of Santa Cruz and Santa Rosa, and - owing to their isolated situation they bid fair to escape the - cordwood cutter for years to come. Those who have seen this tree on - its native hills have admired the gameness of its battle for - existence against the elements. Standing in the full sweep of the - ocean winds, its strong, short branches scarcely move, and all the - agitation is in the thick tufts of needles which cling to the ends - of the branches. Trees exposed to the seawinds are stunted, and are - generally less than a foot in diameter and thirty feet high; but - those which are so fortunate as to occupy sheltered valleys are - three or four times that size. The needles are five in a cluster. - The cones persist on the branches three or four years. The wood is - light, soft, moderately strong, very brittle; the rings of yearly - growth are broad, and the yellow bands of summerwood occupy nearly - half. The sapwood is very thick and is nearly white. - -[Illustration] - - - - -WESTERN YELLOW PINE - -[Illustration: WESTERN YELLOW PINE] - - - - -WESTERN YELLOW PINE - -(_Pinus Ponderosa_) - - -The range of western yellow pine covers a million square miles. Its -eastern boundary is a line drawn from South Dakota to western Texas. The -species covers much of the country between that line and the Pacific -ocean. It is natural that it should have more names than one in a region -so extensive. It is best known as western yellow pine, but lumbermen -often call it California white pine. The standing timber is frequently -designated bull pine, but that name is not often given to the lumber. -Where there is no likelihood of confusing it with southern pines, it is -called simply yellow pine. The name heavy-wooded pine, sometimes applied -to the lumber in England, is misleading. When well seasoned it weighs -about thirty pounds per cubic foot, and ordinarily it would not be -classed heavy. In California it is called heavy pine, but that is to -distinguish it from sugar pine which is considerably lighter. The color -of its bark has given it the name Sierra brownbark pine. The same tree -in Montana is called black pine. - -The tree has developed two forms. Some botanists have held there are two -species, but that is not the general opinion. In the warm, damp climate -of the Pacific slope the tree is larger, and somewhat different in -appearance from the form in the Rocky Mountain region. The same -observation holds true of Douglas fir. - -The wood of western yellow pine is medium light, not strong, is low in -elasticity, medullary rays prominent but not numerous; resinous, color -light to reddish, the thick sapwood almost white. The annual rings are -variable in width, and the proportionate amounts of springwood and -summerwood also vary. It is not durable in contact with the ground. - -The wood is easy to work and some of the best of it resembles white -pine, but as a whole it is inferior to that wood, though it is -extensively employed as a substitute for it in the manufacture of doors, -sash, and frames. It is darker than white pine, harder, heavier, -stronger, almost exactly equal in stiffness, but the annual rings of the -two woods do not bear close resemblance. - -The tree reaches a height of from 100 to 200 feet, a diameter from three -to seven. It is occasionally much larger. Its size depends much on its -habitat. The best development occurs on the Sierra Nevada mountains in -California and the best wood comes from that region, though certain -other localities produce high-grade lumber. - -Western yellow pine holds and will long hold an important place in the -country's timber resources. The total stand has been estimated at -275,000,000,000 feet, and is second only to that of Douglas fir, though -the combined stand of the four southern yellow pines is about -100,000,000,000 feet larger. It is a vigorous species, able to hold its -ground under ordinary circumstances. Next to incense cedar and the giant -sequoias which are associated with it in the Sierra Nevada mountains, it -is the most prolific seed bearer of the western conifers, and its seeds -are sufficiently light to insure wide distribution. It is gaining ground -within its range by taking possession of vacant areas which have been -bared by lumbering or fire. In some cases it crowds to death the more -stately sugar pine by cutting off its light and moisture. It resists -fire better than most of the forest trees with which it is associated. -On the other hand, it suffers from enemies more than its associates do. -A beetle (_Dendroctonus ponderosæ_), destroys large stands. In the Black -Hills in 1903 its ravages killed 600,000,000 feet. - -This splendid pine has run the gamut of uses from the corral pole of the -first settler to the paneled door turned out by the modern factory. It -has almost an unlimited capacity for usefulness. It grows in dry regions -of the Rocky Mountains where it is practically the only source of wood -supply; and it is equally secure in its position where forests are -abundant and fine. It has supplied props, stulls, and lagging for mines -in nearly every state touched by its range. Without its ties and other -timbers some of the early railroads through the western mountains could -scarcely have been built. It has been one of the leading flume timbers -in western lumber and irrigation development. It fenced many ranches in -early times and is still doing so. It is used in general construction, -and in finish; from the shingle to the foundation sill of houses. It -finds its way to eastern lumber markets. Almost 20,000,000 feet a year -are used in Illinois alone. Competition with eastern white pine is met -in the Lake States because, grade for grade, the western wood is -cheaper, until lower grades are reached. The western yellow pine, in the -eastern market, is confused with the western white pine of Idaho and -Montana (_Pinus monticola_) and separate statistics of use are -impossible. - -The makers of fruit boxes in California often employ the yellow pine in -lieu of sugar pine which once supplied the whole trade. It is also used -by coopers for various containers, but not for alcoholic liquors. - -The leaves are in clusters of twos and threes, and are from five to -eleven inches long. Most of them fall during the third year. The cones -are from three to six inches long, and generally fall soon after they -reach maturity. - - COULTER PINE (_Pinus coulteri_) is also known as nut pine, big cone - pine, and long cone pine. It is a California species, scarce, but of - much interest because of its cones. They are larger than those of - any other American pine and are armed with formidable curved spines - from half an inch to an inch and a half in length. The cones are - from ten to fourteen inches long. The tree is found on the Coast - Range mountains from the latitude of San Francisco to the boundary - between California and Mexico. It thrives at altitudes of from 3,000 - to 6,000 feet. It never occurs in pure stands and the total amount - is small. It looks like the western yellow pine, but is much - inferior in size. Trunks seldom attain a length of fifteen feet or a - diameter of two. There is no evidence that Coulter pine is - increasing its stand on the ground which it already occupies, or - spreading to new ground. The wood is light, soft, moderately strong, - and very tough. The annual rings are narrow and consist largely of - summerwood. The heartwood is light red, the thick sapwood nearly - white. It is a poor tree for lumber, and it has been little used in - that way, but has been burned for charcoal for blacksmith shops, and - much is sold as cordwood. The leaves of Coulter pine are in clusters - of three, and they fall during the third and fourth years. - - CALIFORNIA SWAMP PINE (_Pinus muricata_) clearly belongs among minor - species listed as timber trees. It meets a small demand for skids, - corduroy log roads, bridge floors, and scaffolds in the redwood - logging operations in California. It is scattered along the Pacific - coast 500 miles, beginning in Lower California and ending a hundred - miles north of San Francisco. It is known as dwarf marine pine, - pricklecone pine, bishop pine, and obispo pine. The last name is the - Spanish translation of the English word bishop. The largest trees - seldom exceed two feet in diameter, and a height of ninety feet. The - average size is little more than half as much. The wood is very - strong, hard, and compact, and the annual growth ring is largely - dense summerwood. Resin passages are few, but the wood is resinous, - light brown in color, and the thick sapwood is nearly white. The - needles are in clusters of two, and are from four to six inches - long. They begin to fall the second year. Some of the trees retain - their cones until death, but the seeds are scattered from year to - year. Under the stimulus of artificial conditions in the redwood - districts this pine seems to be spreading. Its seeds blow into - vacant ground from which redwood has been removed, and growth is - prompt. The seedlings are not at all choice as to soil, but take - root in cold clay, in peat bogs, on barren sand and gravel, and on - wind-swept ridges exposed to ocean fogs. Its ability to grow where - few other trees can maintain themselves holds out some hope that its - usefulness will increase. - - MONTEREY PINE (_Pinus radiata_). This scarce and local species is - restricted to the California coast south of San Francisco, and to - adjacent islands. Under favorable circumstances it grows rapidly and - promises to be of more importance as a lumber source in the future - than it has been in the past. It is, however, somewhat particular as - to soil. It must have ground not too wet or too dry. If these - requirements are observed, it is a good tree for planting. Its - average height is seventy or ninety feet, diameter from eighteen to - thirty inches. Trunks six feet in diameter are occasionally heard - of. The wood is light, soft, moderately strong, tough, annual rings - very wide and largely of springwood; color, light brown, the very - thick sapwood nearly white. The leaves are from four to six inches - long, in clusters of two and three, and fall the third year. Cones - are from three to five inches long. The lumber is too scarce at - present to have much importance, but its quality is good. In - appearance it resembles wide-ringed loblolly pine, and appears to be - suitable for doors and sash, and frames for windows and doors. Its - present uses are confined chiefly to ranch timbers and fuel. If it - ever amounts to much as a lumber resource, it will be as a planted - pine, and not in its natural state. - - JACK PINE (_Pinus divaricata_) is a far northern species which - extends its range southward in the United States, from Maine to - Minnesota, and reaches northern Indiana and Illinois. It grows - almost far enough north in the valley of Mackenzie river to catch - the rays of the midnight sun. It must necessarily adapt itself to - circumstances. When these are favorable, it develops a trunk up to - two feet in diameter and seventy feet tall; but in adversity, it - degenerates into a many-branched shrub a few feet high. The average - tree in the United States is thirty or forty feet tall, and a foot - or more in diameter. Its name is intended as a term of contempt, - which it does not deserve. Others call it scrub pine which is little - better. Its other names are more respectful, Prince's pine in - Ontario, black pine in Wisconsin and Minnesota, cypress in Quebec - and the Hudson Bay country, Sir Joseph Banks' pine in England, and - juniper in some parts of Canada. "Chek pine" is frequently given in - its list of names, but the name is said to have originated in an - attempt of a German botanist to pronounce "Jack pine" in dictating - to a stenographer. The tree straggles over landscapes which - otherwise would be treeless. It is often a ragged and uncouth - specimen of the vegetable kingdom, but that is when it is at its - worst. At its best, as it may be seen where cared for in some of the - Michigan cemeteries, it is as handsome a tree as anyone could - desire. The characteristic thinness and delicacy of its foliage - distinguish it at once from its associates. The peculiar green of - its soft, short needles wins admiration. The wood is light, soft, - not strong; annual rings are moderately wide, and are largely - composed of springwood. The thin bands of summerwood are resinous, - and the small resin ducts are few. The thick sapwood is nearly - white, the heartwood brown or orange. It is not durable. - - Jack pine can never be an important timber tree, because too small; - but a considerable amount is used for bed slats, nail kegs, - plastering lath, barrel headings, boxes, mine props, pulpwood, and - fuel. Aside from its use as lumber and small manufactured products, - it has a value for other purposes. It can maintain its existence in - waste sands; and its usefulness is apparent in fixing drifting dunes - along some of the exposed shores of Lake Michigan and Lake Superior. - It lives on dry sand and sends its roots several feet to water; or, - under circumstances entirely different, it thrives in swamps where - the watertable is little below the surface of the ground. It fights - a brave battle against adversities while it lasts, but it does not - live long. Sixty years is old age for this tree. It grows fast while - young, but later it devotes all its energies to the mere process of - living, and its increase in size is slow, until at a period when - most trees are still in early youth, it dies of old age, and the - northern winds quickly whip away its limbs, leaving the barkless - trunk to stand a few years longer. - -[Illustration] - - - - -LODGEPOLE PINE - -[Illustration: LODGEPOLE PINE] - - - - -LODGEPOLE PINE - -(_Pinus Contorta_) - - -The common name of this tree was given it because its tall, slender, -very light poles were used by Indians of the region in the construction -of their lodges. They selected poles fifteen feet long and two inches in -diameter, set them in a circle, bent the tops together, tied them, and -covered the frame with skins or bark. The poles were peeled in early -summer, when the Indians set out upon their summer hunt, and were left -to season until fall, when they were carried to the winter's camping -place, probably fifty miles distant. Tamarack is a common name for this -pine in much of its range; it is likewise known as black pine, spruce -pine, and prickly pine. Its leaves are from one to two inches long, in -clusters of two. The small cones adhere to the branches many -years--sometimes as long as twenty--without releasing the seeds, which -are sealed within the cone by accumulated resin. The vitality of the -seeds is remarkable. They don't lose their power of germination during -their long imprisonment. - -The lodgepole pine has been called a fire tree, and the name is not -inappropriate. It profits by severe burning, as some other trees of the -United States do, such as paper birch and bird cherry. The sealed cones -are opened by fire, which softens the resin, and the seeds are liberated -after the fire has passed, and wing their flight wherever the wind -carries them. The passing fire may be severe enough to kill the parent -tree without destroying or bringing down the cones. The seeds soon fall -on the bared mineral soil, where they germinate by thousands. More than -one hundred thousand small seedling trees may occupy a single acre. Most -of them are ultimately crowded to death, but a thick stand results. Most -lodgepole pine forests occupy old burns. The tree is one of the slowest -of growers. It never reaches large size--possibly three feet is the -limit. It is very tall and slender. A hundred years will scarcely -produce a sawlog of the smallest size. - -The range of this tree covers a million square miles from Alaska to New -Mexico, and to the Pacific coast. Its characters vary in different parts -of its range. A scrub form was once thought to be a different species, -and was called shore pine. - -The wood is of about the same weight as eastern white pine. It is light -in color, rather weak, and brittle, annual rings very narrow, summerwood -small in amount, resin passages few and small; medullary rays numerous, -broad, and prominent. The wood is characterized by numerous small knots. -It is not durable in contact with the ground, but it readily receives -preservative treatment. In height it ranges from fifty to one hundred -feet. - -The government's estimate of the stand of lodgepole pine in the United -States in 1909 placed it at 90,000,000,000 feet. That makes it seventh -in quantity among the timber trees of this country, those above it being -Douglas fir, the southern yellow pines (considered as one), western -yellow pine, redwood, western hemlock, and the red cedar of Washington, -Oregon, and Idaho. - -Lodgepole pine has been long and widely used as a ranch timber in the -Far West, serving for poles and rails in fences, for sheds, barns, -corrals, pens, and small bridges. Where it could be had at all, it was -generally plentiful. Stock ranges high among the mountains frequently -depend almost solely upon lodgepole pine for necessary timber. - -Mine operators find it a valuable resource. As props it is cheap, -substantial, and convenient in many parts of Colorado, New Mexico, -Wyoming, and Montana. A large proportion of this timber which is cut for -mining purposes has been standing dead from fire injury many years, and -is thoroughly seasoned and very light. It is in excellent condition for -receiving preservative treatment. - -Sawmills do not list lodgepole pine separately in reports of lumber cut, -and it is impossible to determine what the annual supply from the -species is. It is well known that the quantity made into lumber in -Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho is large. Its chief market is -among the newly established agricultural communities in those states. -They use it for fruit and vegetable shipping boxes, fencing plank, -pickets, and plastering lath. - -Railroads buy half a million lodgepole pine crossties yearly. When -creosoted, they resist decay many years. Lodgepole pine has been a tie -material since the first railroads entered the region, and while by no -means the best, it promises to fill a much more important place in the -future than in the past. It is an ideal fence post material as far as -size and form are concerned, and with preservative treatment it is bound -to attain a high place. It is claimed that treated posts will last -twenty years, and that puts them on a par with the cedars. - -In Colorado and Wyoming much lodgepole was formerly burned for charcoal -to supply the furnaces which smelted ore and the blacksmith shops of the -region. This is done now less than formerly, since railroad building has -made coal and coke accessible. - -In one respect, lodgepole pine is to the western mountains what loblolly -pine is to the flat country of the south Atlantic and other southern -states. It is aggressive, and takes possession of vacant ground. -Although the wood is not as valuable as loblolly, it is useful, and has -an important place to fill in the western country's development. Its -greatest drawback is its exceedingly slow growth. A hundred years is a -long time to wait for trees of pole size. Two crops of loblolly sawlogs -can be harvested in that time. However, the land on which the lodgepole -grows is fit only for timber, and the acreage is so vast that there is -enough to grow supplies, even with the wait of a century or two for -harvest. The stand has increased enormously within historic time, the -same as loblolly, and for a similar reason. Men cleared land in the -East, and loblolly took possession; fires destroyed western forests of -other species and lodgepole seized and held the burned tracts. - -If fires cease among the western mountains, as will probably be the case -under more efficient methods of patrol, and with stricter enforcement of -laws against starting fires, the spread of lodgepole pine will come to a -standstill, and existing forests will grow old without much extension of -their borders. - -JEFFREY PINE (_Pinus jeffreyi_) is often classed as western yellow pine, -both in the forest and at the mill. Its range extends from southern -Oregon to Lower California, a distance of 1,000 miles, and its width -east and west varies from twenty to one hundred and fifty miles. It is a -mountain tree and generally occupies elevations above the western yellow -pine. In the North its range reaches 3,600 feet above sea level; in the -extreme South it is 10,000 feet. The darker and more deeply-furrowed -bark of the Jeffrey pine is the usual character by which lumbermen -distinguish it from the western yellow pine. It is known under several -names, most of them relating to the tree's appearance, such as black -pine, redbark pine, blackbark pine, sapwood pine, and bull pine. It -reaches the same size as the western yellow pine, though the average is -a little smaller. The leaves are from four to nine inches long, and fall -in eight or nine years. The cones are large, and armed with slender, -curved spines. The seeds are too heavy to fly far, their wing area being -small. It is a vigorous tree, and in some regions it forms good forests. -Some botanists have considered the Jeffrey pine a variety of the western -yellow pine. - - GRAY PINE (_Pinus sabiniana_), called also Digger pine because the - Digger Indians formerly collected the seeds, which are as large as - peanuts, to help eke out a living, is confined to California, and - grows in a belt on the foothills surrounding the San Joaquin and - Sacramento valleys. Its cones are large and armed with hooked - spines. When green, the largest cones weigh three or four pounds. - Leaves are from eight to twelve inches long, in clusters of two and - three, and fall the third and fourth years. The wood is remarkable - for the quickness of its decay in damp situations. It lasts one or - two years as fence posts. A mature gray pine is from fifty to - seventy feet high, and eighteen to thirty inches in diameter. Some - trees are much larger. It is of considerable importance, but is not - in the same class as western yellow and sugar pine. The wood is - light, soft, rather strong, brittle. The annual rings are generally - wide, indicating rapid growth. Very old gray pines are not known. An - age of 185 years seems to be the highest on record. The wood is - resinous, and it has helped in a small way to supply the Pacific - coast markets with high-grade turpentine, distilled from roots. It - yields resin when boxed like the southern longleaf pine. There are - two flowing seasons. One is very early, and closes when the weather - becomes hot; the other is in full current by the middle of August. - It maintains life among the California foothills during the long - rainless seasons, on ground so dry that semi-desert chaparral - sometimes succumbs; but it is able to make the most of favorable - conditions, and it grows rapidly under the slightest encouragement. - The seedlings are more numerous now than formerly, which is - attributed to decrease of forest fires. The tree has enemies which - generally attack it in youth. Two fungi, _Peridermium harknessi_, - and _Dædalia vorax_, destroy the young tree's leader or topmost - shoot, causing the development of a short trunk. The latter fungus - is the same or is closely related to that which tunnels the trunk of - incense cedar and produces pecky cypress. - - Gray pine has been cut to some extent for lumber, but its principal - uses have been as fuel and mine timbers. Many quartz mines have been - located in the region where the tree grows; and the engines which - pumped the shafts and raised and crushed the ore were often heated - with this pine. Thousands of acres of hillsides in the vicinity of - mines were stripped of it, and it went to the engine house ricks in - wagons, on sleds, and on the backs of burros. In two respects it is - an economical fuel for remote mines: it is light in weight, and - gives more heat than an equal quantity of the oak that is associated - with it. - - CHIHUAHUA PINE (_Pinus chihuahuana_) is not abundant, but it exists - in small commercial quantities in southwestern New Mexico and - southern Arizona. Trees are from fifty to eighty feet high, and from - fifteen to twenty inches in diameter. The wood is medium light, - soft, rather strong, brittle, narrow ringed and compact. The resin - passages are few, large, and conspicuous; color, clear light orange, - the thick sapwood lighter. The tree reaches best development at - altitudes of from 5,000 to 7,000 feet. When the wood is used, it - serves the same purposes as western yellow pine; but the small size - of the tree makes lumber of large size impossible. The leaves are in - clusters of three, and fall the fourth year. The cones have long - stalks and are from one and a half to two inches long. - -[Illustration] - - - - -TAMARACK - -[Illustration: TAMARACK] - - - - -TAMARACK - -(_Larix Laricina_) - - -There are three species of tamarack or larch in the United States, and -probably a fourth is confined to Alaska. One has its range in the -northeastern states, extending south to West Virginia and northwestward -to Alaska. Two are found in the northwestern states. Other species are -native of the eastern hemisphere, and some of them have been planted to -some extent in this country. A species of Europe is of much importance -in that country. The tamaracks lose their leaves in the fall and the -branches are bare during the winter. The name tamarack or larch should -be applied only to trees of the genus _larix_. This rule is not observed -in some parts of the West where the noble fir (_Abies nobilis_) is -occasionally called larch by lumbermen. It is not entitled to that name, -and confusion results from such use. - -The larches are easily identified. They have needle leaves like those of -pines and firs, but they are differently arranged. They are produced in -little brush-like bundles, from twelve to forty leaves in each, on all -the shoots, except the leaders. On these the leaves occur singly. The -little brushes are so conspicuous, and so characteristic of this genus, -including all its species, that there should be little difficulty in -identifying the larches when the leaves are on. In winter, when the -branches are bare, there are other easy marks of identification. - -The little brushes are interesting objects of study. Botanists tell us -that the excrescence or bud-like knob from which the leaves grow is -really a suppressed or aborted branch, with all its leaves crowded -together at the end. If it were developed, it would bear its leaves -singly, scattered along its full length, as they occur on the leading -shoots. The warty appearance of the branches in winter is a very -convenient means of identification when the leaves are down. - -The cones of larches mature in a single season, and often hang on the -trees several years. They are conspicuous in winter when the branches -are bare of foliage. The adhering cones are generally seedless after the -first season, since they quickly let their winged seeds go. The male and -female flowers are produced singly on branches of the previous year. - -The eastern and northern larch (_Larix laricina_) has a number of names. -It is commonly known as tamarack in the New England states and in New -York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Michigan, -Minnesota, Ohio, and in Canada. The name larch is applied in practically -all the regions where it grows, but it is not used as frequently as -tamarack. Hackmatack, which was the Indian name for the tree in part of -its eastern range, is still in use in Maine, New Hampshire, -Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Delaware, Illinois, Minnesota, and Ontario. -Nurserymen call it American larch to distinguish it from other larches -on the market, particularly the European larch. Michaux, an early French -botanist who explored American forests, called it American larch (_Larix -americana_), and the name which he gave has been retained by many -scientists to this day. In the Canadian provinces north of the Great -Lakes, and also in Maine and New Brunswick, it is frequently called -juniper, but without good reason, for it has little of the appearance -and few of the qualities of the junipers. In some localities it is -called black larch, and in others red larch. The first name refers to -the color of its bark, the last to the leaves when about to fall, for -they then change to a brown or reddish color. They fall in the autumn, -and the branches are bare until the next spring. Some of the New York -Indians observed that peculiarity of the tree which they thought should -be an evergreen like the balsam and pines with which it was often -associated, and they named it kenehtens, meaning "the leaves fall". -Indians did not, as a rule, give separate names to tree species, and -when they did so, it was because of food value, or from some peculiarity -which could not fail to attract the notice of a savage. - -The tamarack's geographical range is remarkable. It is said to be best -developed in the region east of Manitoba, but it extends southward into -West Virginia and northward to the land of the midnight sun. It -maintains its place almost to the arctic snows, and the willow is about -the only tree that pushes farther north. It is found from Newfoundland -and Labrador far down toward the mouth of the Mackenzie river, north of -the arctic circle. It grows on dry land as well as wet, but is oftenest -found in cold swamps, particularly in the southern part of its range. -Silted-up lakes are favorite situations, and on the made-land above old -beaver dams. - -Tamarack forests frequently stand on ground so soft that a pole may be -thrust ten feet deep in the mud. The moist, monotonous sphagnum moss -generally furnishes ground cover in such places. A tamarack swamp in -summer is cool and pleasant--provided there is not too much water on the -ground--but in winter a more desolate picture can scarcely be imagined. -The leafless trees appear to be dead, and covered with lifeless cones; -but the first warm days bring it to life. - -The average height of tamarack trees is from forty to sixty feet, -diameter twenty inches or less. Leaves are one-half or one and a half -inches long; cones one-half or three-quarter inches, and bright chestnut -brown at maturity. They fall when two years old. The winged seeds are -very small. The tree is neither a frequent nor abundant seeder. The -foliage is thin, and is not sufficient to shut much sunlight from the -ground. - -The wood is heavy, hard, very strong, and is durable in contact with the -soil. The growth is slow, annual rings narrow, summerwood occupies -nearly half the ring, and is dark-colored, resinous, and conspicuous; -resin passages few and obscure; medullary rays numerous and obscure; -color of wood light brown, the sapwood nearly white. - -The uses of tamarack go back to prehistoric times. The Indians of Canada -and northeastern United States drew supplies from four forest trees when -they made their bark canoes. The bark for the shell came from paper -birch, threads for sewing the strips of bark together were tamarack -roots, resin for stopping leaks was a product of balsam fir, and the -light framework of wood was northern white cedar. - -The roots which best suited the Indian's purpose came from trees which -grew in soft, deep mud, where lakes and beaver ponds had silted up. Such -roots are long, slender, and very tough and pliant, and may be gathered -in large numbers, particularly where running streams have partly -undermined standing trees. - -White men likewise made use of tamarack roots in boat building, but the -roots were different from what the Indians used. "Instep" crooks were -hewed for ship knees. These were large roots, the larger the better. -Trees which produced them did not grow in deep mud, for there the roots -did not develop crooks. The ship knee operator hunted for tamarack -forests growing on a soft surface soil two or three feet deep, underlaid -by stiff clay or rock which roots could not penetrate. In situations -like that the roots go straight down until they reach the hard stratum, -and then turn at right angles and grow in a horizontal direction. The -turning point in the root develops the crook of which the ship knee is -made. - -Tamarack is seldom of sufficient size for the largest ship knees. Such -were formerly supplied by southern live oak; and in that case crooks -formed by the union of trunk and large branches were as good as those -produced by the union of trunk and large roots. - -Tamarack is still employed in the manufacture of boat knees, but not as -much as formerly. Steel frames have largely taken the place of wood in -the construction of ship skeletons. Boat builders use tamarack now for -floors, keels, stringers, and knees. - -Tamarack has come into much use in recent years. Sawmills cut from it -more than 125,000,000 feet of lumber a year. Fourteen states contribute, -but most of the lumber is produced in Minnesota, Michigan, and -Wisconsin. Railroads in the United States buy 5,000,000 or more -tamarack ties a year, which reduced to board measure amount to over -150,000,000 feet. Fence posts and telegraph poles come in large numbers -from tamarack forests. - -The wood is stiff and strong, its stiffness being eighty-four per cent -of that of long leaf pine, and its strength about eighty per cent. -Unusual variations in both strength and stiffness are found. One stick -of tamarack may rate twice as high as another. - -The wood-using factories of Michigan consume nearly 20,000,000 feet of -this wood yearly. It is made into boxes, excelsior, pails, tanks, tubs, -house finish, refrigerators, windmills, and wooden pipes for waterworks -and for draining mines. - -There is little likelihood that the supply of tamarack will run short in -the near future. While it is not in the first rank of the important -trees in this country, it is useful, and it is fortunate that it -promises to hold its ground against fires which do grave injury to -northern forests. In the swamps where the most of it is found the ground -litter is too damp to burn. The tree does not grow rapidly, but it -usually occupies lands which cannot be profitably devoted to -agriculture, and it will, therefore, be let alone until it reaches -maturity. - -Tamarack is a familiar tree in parks, and it grows farther south than -its natural range extends. It is not as desirable a park tree as -hemlock, spruce, fir, the cedars, and some of the pines, because its -foliage is thin in summer and wanting in winter. It is in a class with -cypress. In the early spring, however, while its soft green needles are -beginning to show themselves in clusters along the twigs, its delicate -and unusual appearance attracts more attention than its companion trees -which are always in full leaf and for that reason are somewhat -monotonous. - -[Illustration] - - - - -WESTERN LARCH - -[Illustration: WESTERN LARCH] - - - - -WESTERN LARCH - -(_Larix Occidentalis_) - - -This is a magnificent tree of the Northwest, and its range lies -principally on the upper tributaries of the Columbia river, in Idaho, -Montana, and British Columbia, but it occurs also among the Blue -Mountains of Washington and Oregon. It is the largest member of the -larch genus, either in the old world or the new. The finest trees are -250 feet high with diameters of six or eight feet, but sizes half of -that are nearer the average. The trunk is of splendid form. In early -life it is limby, but later it prunes itself, and a long, tapering bole -is developed with a very small crown of thin foliage. No other tree of -its size, with the possible exception of old sequoias, has so little -foliage in proportion to the trunk. - -The result is apparent in the rate of growth after the larch has passed -its youth. Sometimes such a tree does not increase its trunk diameter as -much in seventy-five years as a vigorous loblolly pine or willow oak -will in one year. The trunk of a tree, as is well known, grows by means -of food manufactured by the leaves and sent down to be transformed into -wood. With so few leaves and a trunk so large, the slowness of growth is -a natural consequence. Though the annual rings are usually quite narrow, -the bands of summerwood are relatively broad. That accounts for the -density of larchwood and its great weight. It is six per cent heavier -than longleaf pine, and is not much inferior in strength and elasticity. -The leaves are from one to one and three-quarter inches long, the cones -from one to one and a half inches, and the seeds nearly one-quarter inch -in length. They are equipped with wings of sufficient power to carry -them a short distance from the parent tree. - -The bark on young larches is thin, but on large trunks, and near the -ground, it may be five or six inches thick. When a notch is cut in the -trunk it collects a resin of sweetish taste which the Indians use as an -article of food. - -The western larch reaches its best development in northern Idaho and -Montana on streams which flow into Flathead lake. The tree prefers moist -bottom lands, but grows well in other situations, at altitudes of from -2,000 to 7,000 feet. The figures given above on the wood's weight, -strength, and stiffness show its value for manufacturing purposes. Its -remoteness from markets has stood in the way of large use, but it has -been tried for many purposes and with highly satisfactory results. In -1910 sawmills in the four western states where it grows cut 255,186,000 -feet. Most of this is used as rough lumber, but some is made into -furniture, finish, boxes, and boats. The wood has several names, though -larch is the most common. It is otherwise known as tamarack and -hackmatack, which names are oftener applied to the eastern tree; red -American larch, western tamarack, and great western larch. - -Some of the annual cut of lumber credited to western larch does not -belong to it. Lumbermen have confused names and mixed figures by -applying this tree's name to noble fir, which is a different tree. If -the fir lumber listed as larch were given its proper name, it would -result in lowering the output of larch as shown in statistical figures. -In spite of this, however, larch lumber fills an important place in the -trade of the northern Rocky Mountain region. - -There is little doubt that it will fill a much more important place in -the future, for a beginning has scarcely been made in marketing this -timber. The available supply is large, but exact figures are not -available. Some stands are dense and extensive, and the trees are of -large size and fine form. It is not supposed, however, that there will -be much after the present stand has been cut, because a second crop from -trees of so slow growth will be far in the future. Sudworth says that -larch trees eighteen or twenty inches in diameter are from 250 to 300 -years old, and that the ordinary age of these trees in the forests of -the Northwest is from 300 to 500 years; while larger trees are 600 or -700. Much remains to be learned concerning the ages of these trees in -different situations and in different parts of its range. It is -apparent, however, that when a period covering two or three centuries is -required to produce a sawlog of only moderate size, timber owners will -not look forward with much eagerness to a second growth forest of -western larch. - -The value of the wood of western larch has been the subject of much -controversy. In the tables compiled for the federal census of 1880, -under direction of Charles S. Sargent, its strength and elasticity were -shown to be remarkably high. The figures indicate that it is about -thirty-nine per cent stronger than white oak and fifty-one per cent -stiffer. This places it a little above longleaf pine in strength and -nearly equal to it in stiffness or elasticity. Engineers have expressed -doubts as to the correctness of Sargent's figures. They believe them too -high. The samples tested by Sargent were six in number, four of them -collected in Washington and two in Montana. - -The wood of western larch is heavier than longleaf pine, and -approximately of the same weight as white oak. It is among the heaviest, -if not actually the heaviest, of softwoods of the United States. Sargent -thus described the physical properties of the wood: "Heavy, exceedingly -hard and strong, rather coarse grained, compact, satiny, susceptible of -a fine polish, very durable in contact with the soil; bands of small -summer cells broad, occupying fully half the width of the annual growth, -very resinous, dark-colored, conspicuous resin passages few, obscure; -medullary rays few, thin; color, light bright red, the thin sapwood -nearly white." The wood is described by Sudworth: "Clear, reddish brown, -heavy, and fine grained; commercially valuable; very durable in an -unprotected state, differing greatly in this respect from the wood of -the eastern larch." - -The seasoning of western larch has given lumbermen much trouble. It -checks badly and splinters rise from the surface of boards. It is -generally admitted that this is the most serious obstacle in the way of -securing wide utilization for the wood. The structure of the annual ring -is reason for believing that there is slight adhesion between the -springwood and that of the late season. Checks are very numerous -parallel with the growth rings, and splinters part from the board along -the same lines. Standing timber is frequently windshaken, and the cracks -follow the rings. - -All of this is presumptive evidence that the principle defect of larch -is a lack of adhesion between the early and the late wood. If that is -correct, it is a fundamental defect in the growing tree, and is inherent -in the wood. No artificial treatment can wholly remove it. It should not -be considered impossible, however, to devise methods of seasoning which -would not accentuate the weaknesses natural to the wood. - -The form of the larch's trunk is perfect, from the lumberman's -viewpoint, and its size is all that could be desired. It is amply able -to perpetuate its species, though it consumes a great deal of time in -the process. Abundant crops of seeds are borne, but only once in several -years. It rarely bears seeds as early as its twenty-fifth year, and -generally not until it passes forty; but its fruitful period is long, -extending over several centuries. The seeds retain their vitality -moderately well, which is an important consideration in view of the -tree's habit of opening and closing its cones alternately as the weather -happens to be damp or dry. The dispersion of seeds extends over a -considerable part of the season, and the changing winds scatter them in -all directions. Many seeds fall on the snow in winter to be let down on -the damp ground ready to germinate during the early spring. The best -germination occurs on mineral soil, and this is often found in areas -recently bared by fire. Lodgepole pine contends also for this ground; -but the race between the two species is not swift after the process of -scattering seeds has been completed; for both are of growth so -exceedingly slow that a hundred years will scarcely tell which is -gaining. In the long run, however, the larch outstrips the pine and -becomes a larger tree. If both start at the same time, and there is not -room for both, the pine will kill the larch by shading it. The latter's -thin foliage renders it incapable of casting a shadow dense enough to -hurt the pine. The best areas for larch are those so thoroughly burned -as to preclude the immediate heavy reproduction of lodgepole pine. - -Much of the natural ranges of larch and lodgepole pine lie in the -national forests owned by the government, and careful studies have been -made in recent years to determine the requirements, and the actual and -comparative values of the two species. It has been shown that larch is -one of the most intolerant of the western forest trees. It cannot endure -shade. Its own thin foliage, where it occurs in pure stands, is -sufficient to shade off the lower limbs of boles, and produce tall, -clean trunks; but if a larch happens to stand in the open, where light -is abundant, it retains its branches almost to the ground. It is more -intolerant, even, than western yellow pine, which so often grows in -open, parklike stands. - -ALPINE LARCH (_Larix lyallii_) never grows naturally below an altitude -of 4,000 feet, and near the southern border of its range it climbs to -8,000, where it stands on the brink of precipices, faces of cliffs, and -on windswept summits. It is too much exposed to storms, and has its -roots in soil too sterile to develop symmetrical forms. It is found in -Montana, Idaho, Washington, and Oregon. The finest trees are sometimes -seventy-five feet high and three or four in diameter, but the average -height ranges from forty to fifty, with diameters of twenty inches or -less. Its leaves are one and a half inches or less in length; cones one -and a half inches long, and bristling with hair; seeds one-eighth of an -inch long with wings one-fourth inch; wood heavy, hard, and of a light, -reddish brown color. It is seldom used except about mountain camps where -it is sometimes burned for fuel or is employed in constructing corrals -for sheep and cattle. It is impossible for lumbermen ever to make much -use of it, because it is scarce and hard to get at. - -[Illustration] - - - - -RED CEDAR - -[Illustration: RED CEDAR] - - - - -RED CEDAR - -(_Juniperus Virginiana_) - - -This widely distributed tree is called red cedar in New Hampshire, -Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, -Pennsylvania, Delaware, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, -Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Kentucky, Missouri, -Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, and -Ontario; cedar in Connecticut, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, South Carolina, -Kentucky, Illinois, Iowa, and Ohio; savin in Massachusetts, Rhode -Island, New York, Pennsylvania and Minnesota; juniper in New York and -Pennsylvania; juniper bush in Minnesota; cedre in Louisiana. - -The names as given above indicate the tree's commercial range. It -appears as scattered growth and in doubtful forms outside of that range, -particularly in the West where several cedars closely resemble the red -cedar, yet differ sufficiently from it to give them places as separate -species in the lists of some botanists. They are so listed by the United -States Forest Service; and the following names are given: Western -Juniper, Rocky Mountain Juniper, One Seed Juniper, Mountain Juniper, -California Juniper, Utah Juniper, Drooping Juniper, Dwarf Juniper, and -Alligator Juniper. These species are not of much importance from the -lumberman's viewpoint, yet they are highly interesting trees, and in -this book will be treated individually. - -The red cedar grows slowly, and thrives in almost any soil and situation -except deep swamps. It is often classed as a poor-land species, yet it -does not naturally seek poor land. That it is often found in such -situations is because it has been crowded from better places by stronger -trees, and has retreated to rocky ridges, dry slopes, and thin soils -where competitors are unable to follow. The trees often stand wide apart -or solitary, yet they can grow in thickets almost impenetrable, as they -do in Texas and other southern states. It is an old-field tree in much -of its range. Birds plant the seeds, particularly along fence rows. That -is why long lines of cedars may often be seen extending across old -fields or deserted plantations. - -The extreme size attained by this cedar is four feet in diameter, and -one hundred in height, but that size was never common, and at present -the half of it is above the average. That which reaches market is more -often under than over eighteen inches in diameter. The reddish-brown and -fibrous bark may be peeled in long strips. Stringiness of bark is -characteristic of all the cedars, and typical of red cedar. - -The wood is medium light and is strong, considering that it is very -brittle. Tests show it to be eighty per cent as strong as white oak. The -grain is very fine, even, and homogeneous, except as interfered with -by knots. The annual rings are narrow, the summerwood narrow and -indistinct; medullary rays numerous but very obscure. The color -is red, the thin sapwood nearly white. The heart and sap are -sometimes intermingled, and this characteristic is prominent in the -closely-related western species of red cedar. The wood is easily worked, -gives little trouble because of warping and shrinking, and the heart is -considered as durable as any other American wood. It has a delicate, -agreeable fragrance, which is especially marked. This odor is -disagreeable to insects, and for that reason chests and closets of cedar -are highly appreciated as storage places for garments subject to the -ravages of the moth and buffalo bug. An extract from the fruit and -leaves is used in medicine, while oil of red cedar, distilled from the -wood, is used in making perfume. Cedar has a sweet taste. It burns -badly, scarcely being able to support a flame; it is exceedingly -aromatic and noisy when burning and the embers glow long in still air. -Some of the bungalow owners in Florida buy cedar fuel in preference to -all others for burning in open fireplaces. - -Its representative uses are for posts, railway ties, pails, sills, cigar -boxes, interior finish and cabinet making, but its most general use is -in the manufacture of lead pencils, for which its fine, straight grain -and soft texture are peculiarly adapted. The farther south cedar is -found, the softer and clearer it is. In the North, in ornamental trees, -it is very hard, slow-growing, and knotty. It shows but a small -percentage of clear lumber. In eastern Tennessee there were considerable -quantities of red cedar brake that were for years considered of little -value. About the only way the wood was employed a few years ago was in -fence rails and posts, fuel, and charcoal. Of late people in localities -where cedar grows in any abundance have awakened to its value, and cedar -fences are rapidly disappearing, owing to the high prices now paid for -the wood, and the excellent demand. On no other southern wood has such -depredation been practiced. Because of its lightness and the ease with -which it can be worked, it has been used for purposes for which other -and less valuable woods were well adapted. On account of its slow -growth, its complete exhaustion has often been predicted, but a second -growth has appeared which, though much inferior to the virgin timber, -can be used in many ways to excellent advantage. Instead of the huge -piles of cedar flooring, chest boards, and smooth railings of the old -days, one now sees at points of distribution great piles of knotty, -rough poles, ten to forty feet long, which years ago would have been -discarded. Today they represent bridge piling, the better and smoother -among them being used for telephone and telegraph poles. - -Middle Tennessee has produced more red cedar than any other part of the -United States, but the bulk of production has been confined to a few -counties, which produce a higher class and more aromatic variety of wood -than that found elsewhere. A century ago these counties abounded in -splendid forests of cedar. The early settlers built their cabins of -cedar logs, sills, studding, and rafters; their smoke houses were built -of them; their barns; even the roofs were shingled with cedar and the -rooms and porches floored with the sweet-scented wood. Not many years -ago trees three feet or more in diameter were often found, but the days -are past when timber like that can be had anywhere. - -Although the most general use at the present time is for lead pencils, -few people who sharpen one and smell the fragrant wood, stop to wonder -where it came from. One would smile were it suggested to him that -perhaps his pencil was formerly part of some Tennessee farmer's worm -fence. The best timber obtained now is hewn into export logs and shipped -to Europe, particularly Germany, where a great quantity is converted -into pencils. The red wood is made into the higher grades and the sap or -streaked wood is used for the cheaper varieties and for pen holders. The -smaller and inferior logs are cut into slats, while odds and ends, -cutoffs, etc., are collected and sold by the hundred pounds to pencil -factories. There are many such factories in the United States now, as -well as in Europe, and pencil men are scouring the cedar sections to buy -all they can. The farmer who has a red cedar picket or worm fence can -sell it to these companies at a round price. Pencil men are even going -back over tracts from which the timber was cut twenty-five years ago, -buying up the stumps. When the wood was plentiful lumbermen were not -frugal, and usually cut down a tree about two feet above the ground, -allowing the best part of it to be wasted. - -The German and Austrian pencil makers foresaw a shortage in American red -cedar, and many years ago planted large areas to provide for the time of -scarcity. The planted timber is now large enough for use, but the wood -has been a disappointment. It does not possess the softness and -brittleness which give so high value to the forest cedar of this -country. As far as can be seen, when present pencil cedar has been -exhausted, there will be little more produced of like grade. It grows so -slowly that owners will not wait for trees to become old, but sell them -while young for posts and poles. - -One of the earliest demands for red cedar was for woodenware made of -staves, such as buckets, kegs, keelers, small tubs, and firkins. -Material for the manufacture of such wares was among the exports to the -West Indies before the Revolutionary war. The ware was no less popular -in this country, and the home-made articles were in all neighborhoods in -the red cedar's range. Scarcity of suitable wood limits the manufacture -of such wares now, but they are still in use. - -Cedar was long one of the best woods for skiffs and other light boats, -and it was occasionally employed in shipbuilding for the upper parts of -vessels. A little of it is still used as trim and finish, particularly -for canoes, motor boats, and yachts. - -The early clothes chest makers selected clear lumber, because it could -be had and was considered to be better; but modern chest manufacturers -who cannot procure clear stock, make a merit of necessity, and use -boards filled with knots. The wood is finished with oils, but the -natural colors remain, and the knots give the chest a rustic and -pleasing appearance. - - SOUTHERN RED JUNIPER (_Juniperus barbadensis_) so closely resembles - the red cedar with which it is associated that the two were formerly - considered the same species, and most people familiar with both - notice no difference. However, botanists clearly distinguish the - two. The southern red cedar's range is much smaller than the - other's. It grows from Georgia to the Indian river, Florida, in - swamps. It is found in the vicinity of the Apalachicola river, - forming dense thickets. Its average size is much under that of the - red cedar, but its wood is not dissimilar. It has been used for the - same purposes as far as it has been used at all. One of the largest - demands upon it has been for lead pencils. Those who bought and sold - it, generally supposed they were dealing in the common red cedar. - -[Illustration] - - - - -NORTHERN WHITE CEDAR - -[Illustration: NORTHERN WHITE CEDAR] - - - - -NORTHERN WHITE CEDAR - -(_Thuja Occidentalis_) - - -This tree is designated as northern white cedar because there is also a -southern white cedar, (_Chamæcyparis thyoides_) and the boundaries of -their ranges approach pretty closely. The name _occidentalis_, meaning -western, applied to the northern white cedar is employed by botanists to -distinguish it from a similar cedar in Asia, which is called -_orientalis_, or eastern. - -The American species has several names, as is usual with trees which -grow in different regions. It is called arborvitæ in Maine, Vermont, -Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, -Pennsylvania, Delaware, Virginia, West Virginia, Indiana, Illinois, -Wisconsin, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, and Ontario. White cedar is a name -often used in Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Rhode Island, -Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, -Wisconsin, Michigan, Minnesota, and Ontario. In Maine, Vermont, and New -York it is called cedar. In New York, and where cultivated in England, -American arborvitæ is the name applied to it. The Indians in New York -knew it as feather-leaf. In Delaware the name is abridged to vitæ. - -The tree has been widely planted, and under the influence of cultivation -it runs quickly into varieties, of which forty-five are listed by -nurserymen. It is a northern species which follows the Appalachian -mountains southward to North Carolina and Tennessee. It grows from New -Brunswick to Manitoba, and is abundant in the Lake States. - -The bark of arborvitæ is light brown, tinged with red on the branchlets; -it is thin, and cracks into ridges with stringy, rough edges; the -branchlets are very smooth. - -In general appearance the tree is conical and compact, with short -branches; it attains a height of from twenty-five to seventy feet, and a -diameter of from one to three feet. It thrives best in low, swampy land, -along the borders of streams. - -The wood of arborvitæ is soft, brittle, light and weak; it is very -inflammable. The fact that it is durable, even in contact with the soil, -permits its use for railway ties, telegraph poles, posts, fencing, -shingles and boats. However, the trunk is so shaped that it is seldom -used for lumber, but oftener for poles and posts, the lower section -being flattened into ties. A cubic foot of the seasoned wood weighs -approximately nineteen pounds. The heartwood is light brown, becoming -darker with exposure; the sapwood is thin and nearly white, with fine -grain. - -The northern white cedar varies greatly in size and shape, depending on -the soil, climate, and situation. Though it is usually associated with -swamps in the North, it adapts itself to quite different situations. It -grows in narrow, rocky ravines, on stony ridges, and it clings to the -faces of cliffs, or hangs on their summits as tenaciously as the western -juniper of the Sierra Nevada mountains. However, little good timber is -produced by this species on rocky soils. Trees in such situations are -short, crooked, and limby. - -The wood of the northern white cedar possesses a peculiar toughness -which is seen in its wearing qualities. A thin shaving, such as a -carpenter's plane makes, may be folded, laid on an anvil, and struck -repeatedly with a hammer, without breaking. It is claimed for it that it -will stand a severer test of that kind than any other American wood. -Toughness and wearing qualities combined make it an admirable wood for -planking and decking for small boats. Its exceptionally light weight is -an additional factor as a boat building material. The Indians knew how -to work it into frames for bark canoes. Its lightness appealed to them; -but the ease with which they could work it with their primitive tools -was more important. It is a characteristic of the wood to part readily -along the rings of annual growth. The Indian was able to split canoe -ribs with a stone maul, by pounding a cedar billet until it parted along -the growth rings and was reduced to very thin slats. - -The property of this cedar which appealed to the Indians is disliked by -the sawmill man. It is hard to make thin lumber that will hang together. -The tendency to part along the growth rings develops wind-shake while -the tree is standing. About nine trees in ten are so defective from -shake that little good lumber can be made from them. It is a common -saying, which probably applies in certain localities only, that a -thousand feet of white cedar must be sawed to get one hundred feet of -good lumber. - -It is good material for small cooperage such as buckets, pails, and -tubs, and has been long used for that purpose in the northern states. - -It was once laid in large quantities for paving blocks. Hundreds of -miles of streets of northern cities were paved with round blocks sawed -from trunks of trees from five to ten inches in diameter. They were not -usually treated with chemicals to prevent decay, but they gave service -ranging from six to twelve years. They are less used now than formerly. -Southern yellow pine has largely taken the cedar's place as paving -material. Much northern cedar has been used in the manufacture of bored -pipe for municipal waterworks, shops, salt works, paper mills, and other -factories. - -The early settlers of New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania made a -rheumatism ointment by bruising the leaves and molding them with lard. -This is probably not made now, but pharmacists distill an oil from twigs -and wood, and make a tincture of the leaves which they use in the -manufacture of pulmonary and other medicines. - -There is little likelihood that northern white cedar will ever cease to -be a commercial wood in this country. It will become scarcer, but its -manner of growth is the best guarantee that it will hold its place. It -lives in swamps, and the land is not in demand for any other purpose. - - ONE-SEED JUNIPER (_Juniperus monosperma_) is also called naked-seed - juniper. Its range lies in Colorado, New Mexico, Texas, Utah, and - Arizona. It attains its greatest development in the bottoms of - canyons in northern Arizona. It is a scrawny desert tree which lives - in adversity but holds its ground for centuries, if fire does not - cut its career short. Its growth is too scattered to attract - lumbermen, and the form of its trunk is uninviting. It may reach a - height of forty or fifty feet, and a diameter of three, but that is - above the average in the best of its range. The desert Indians make - the most of one-seed juniper. They weave its stringy bark into - sleeping mats, rough blankets, and saddle girts. They make cords and - ropes of it for use where great strength is not required, such as - leashes for leading dogs, strands with which to tie bundles on the - backs of their squaws, and cords for fastening their wigwam poles - together. They likewise weave the bark into pokes and pouches for - storing and carrying their dried meat and mesquite beans. The - juniper berries are an article of diet and commerce with the - Indians, who mix them with divers ingredients, pulp them in stone - mortars, and bake them in cakes which become the greatest delicacy - on their bill of fare. White men, when driven to it by starvation, - have sustained life by making food of the berries. A small quantity - of one-seed juniper reaches woodworkers in Texas. The lumber is - short and rough. The numerous knots are generally much darker than - the body of the wood. That is not necessarily a defect, for in - making clothes chests, the striking contrast in color between the - knots, and the other wood gives the article a peculiar and - attractive appearance. The trunks are sharply buttressed and deeply - creased. Sometimes the folds of bark within the creases almost reach - the center of the tree. The sapwood is thin, the heartwood irregular - in color. Some is darker than the heartwood of southern red cedar, - other is clouded and mottled, pale yellow, cream-colored, the shade - of slate, or streaked with various tints. The wood can be - economically worked only as small pieces. It takes a soft and - pleasing finish. It is a lathe wood and shows to best advantage as - balusters, ornaments, grill spindles and small posts, Indian clubs, - dumb-bells, balls, and lodge gavels. It has been made into small - game boards with fine effect, and it is an excellent material for - small picture frames. Furniture makers put it to use in several - ways, and it has been recommended for small musical instruments - where the variegated colors can be displayed to excellent advantage. - At the best it can never be more than a minor species, because it is - difficult of access in the remote deserts, and it is not abundant. - - MOUNTAIN JUNIPER (_Juniperus sabinoides_) is a Texas tree, occupying - a range southward and westward of the Colorado river. It has several - local names, rock cedar being a favorite. This name is due to the - tree's habit of growing on rocky ridges and among ledges where soil - is scarce. It is called juniper cedar, and juniper. Under the most - favorable circumstances the tree may attain a height of 100 feet and - a diameter of two, but it nearly always grows where conditions are - adverse, and its size and form change to conform to circumstances. - It is often small and ragged. Its lead-colored bark is apt to - attract attention on account of its woeful appearance, hanging in - strings and tatters which persistently cling to the trunk in spite - of whipping winds. When the tree is cut for fuel, or for any other - purpose, the ragged bark is occasionally pulled off and is tied in - bales or bundles to be sold for kindling. When the mountain juniper - is taken from its native wilds and planted where environments are - different, it sometimes assumes fantastic forms. It has been planted - for ornament on the low, flat coast in the vicinity of the Gulf of - Mexico, and though it lives and grows, it often takes on a peculiar - appearance. The trunks resemble twisted and interwoven bundles of - lead-colored vines, buttressed, fluted, and gnarled. The branches - lose their upright position, and hang in careless abandon, with - drooping festoons. In winter the wind whips most of the foliage from - them. The leaves become brittle and may be easily brushed from the - twigs by a stroke of the hand. Some of the planted trees have trunks - so deeply creased as to be divided in two separate stems. This very - nearly happens with some of the wild trees among the western - mountains. The sapwood of mountain juniper is very thin. The average - tree cannot be profitably cut into lumber of the usual dimensions - because of the odd-shaped and irregular trunk. It lends itself more - economically to the manufacture of articles made up of small pieces. - Some of the wood is extremely beautiful, having the color and figure - of French walnut; but there is great difference in the figure and - color, and the wood of one tree is not a sure guide to what another - may be. Boards a foot wide, or even less, may show several figures - and colors. Some pieces suggest variegated marble; others are like - plain red cedar; some are light red in color, others have a tinge of - blue. It varies greatly in hardness, even in the same tree. Part of - it may be soft and brittle enough for lead pencils; another part may - be hard and tough. Clothes chests have been made of it, of most - peculiar appearance--resembling crazy quilts of subdued colors. - Sometimes the heartwood and the sapwood are inextricably mixed, both - being found in all parts of the trunk from the heart out. On the - whole, the tree can never have much importance as a source of - lumber, but it is a most interesting member of the cedar group. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SOUTHERN WHITE CEDAR - -[Illustration: SOUTHERN WHITE CEDAR] - - - - -SOUTHERN WHITE CEDAR - -(_Chamæcyparis Thyoides_) - - -This tree is called southern white cedar to distinguish it from northern -white cedar or arborvitæ. When there is little likelihood of confusion, -the name white cedar is applied locally in different parts of its range -from Massachusetts to Florida. It is a persistent swamp tree and on that -account has been called swamp cedar; but that name alone would not -distinguish it from the northern white cedar, for both grow in swamps; -but it does separate it from red cedar which keeps away from swamps. The -ranges of the two are side by side from New England to Florida. Post -cedar is a common name for it in Delaware and New Jersey, because of the -important place it has long filled as fence material; but again, the -name does not set it apart from red cedar or northern white cedar, for -both are used for posts. The only name thus far applied, which clearly -distinguishes it from associated cedars, is southern white cedar. Its -range extends northward to Maine, but the tree's chief commercial -importance has been in New Jersey and southward to North Carolina, very -near the coast. Somehow, it seems to skip Georgia where no one has -reported it for many years, though there is historical evidence that it -once grew in that state. It grows as far west as Mississippi, but is -scarce. - -The small leaves remain green two years and then turn brown but adhere -to the branches several years longer. The fruit is about one-fourth inch -in diameter, and the small seeds are equipped with wings. - -The wood is among the lightest in this country. It is only moderately -strong and stiff. The tree usually grows slowly. Fifty years may be -required to produce a fence post, but under favorable conditions results -somewhat better than that may be expected. The summerwood of the yearly -ring is narrow, dark in color, and conspicuous, making the counting of -the rings an easy matter. The medullary rays are numerous but thin. When -the sap is cut tangentially in very thin layers it is white and -semi-transparent, presenting somewhat the appearance of oiled paper. The -heartwood is light brown, tinged with red, growing darker with exposure. -The wood is easily worked, and is very durable in contact with the soil. -Fence posts of this wood have been reported to stand fifty years, and -shingles are said to last longer. Trees reach a height of eighty feet -and diameter of four; but such are of the largest size. Great numbers -are cut for poles and posts which are little more than a foot in -diameter. Few forest trees grow in denser stands than this. It often -takes possession of swamps, crowds out all other trees, and develops -thickets so dense as to be almost impenetrable. Southern white cedar is -cut in ten or twelve states, but the annual supply is not known, because -mills generally report all cedars as one, and the regions which produce -this, produce one or more other species of cedar also. It has held its -place nearly three hundred years, and much interesting history is -connected with it. A considerable part of the Revolutionary war was -fought with powder made from white cedar charcoal burned in New Jersey -and Delaware. However, that was by no means the earliest place filled by -this wood. - -Two hundred years ago in North Carolina John Lawson wrote of its use for -"yards, topmasts, booms, bowsprits for boats, shingles, and poles." It -was cut for practically the same purposes in New Jersey at an earlier -period, and 160 years ago Gottlieb Mittelberger, when he visited -Philadelphia, declared that white cedar was being cut at a rate which -would soon exhaust the supply. But that prophecy, like similar -predictions that oak and red cedar were about gone, proved not well -founded. Seventy years after the imminent exhaustion of this wood was -foretold, William Cobbett, an English traveler, declared with evident -exaggeration that "all good houses in the United States" were roofed -with white cedar shingles. - -After boat building, the first general use of the southern white cedar -was for fences and farm buildings, and doubtless twenty times as much -went to the farms as to the boat yards. In all regions where the wood -was convenient, little other was employed as fencing material, and many -of the earliest houses in New Jersey and some in Pennsylvania were -constructed almost wholly of this wood. Small trees which would split -two, three, and four rails to the cut, were mauled by thousands to -enclose the farms. The bark soon dropped off, or was removed, and the -light rails quickly air-dried, and decay made little impression on them -for many years. The larger trunks were rived for shingles or were sawed -into lumber. About 1750 the use of round cedar logs for houses and barns -began to give way to sawed lumber. It was an ideal milling timber, for -the logs were symmetrical, clear, and easily handled. North Carolina -sawmills were at work on this timber many years before the Revolution. -It was acceptable material for doors, window frames, rafters, and -floors, but especially for shingles which were split with frow and -mallet, and were from twenty-four to twenty-seven inches long. They were -known in market as juniper shingles and sold at four and five dollars a -thousand. About 1750 builders in Philadelphia were criticized because -they constructed houses with no provision for other than white cedar -roofs; the walls being too weak for heavier material which would have to -be substituted when cedar could be no longer procured. Philadelphia was -not alone in its preference for cedar roofs. Large shipments of shingles -were going from New Jersey to New York, and even to the West Indies -earlier than 1750. - -Southern white cedar is said to have been the first American wood used -for organ pipes. The resonance of cedar shingles under a pattering rain -suggested this use to Mittelberger when he visited America, and he tried -the wood with such success that he pronounced it the best that he knew -of for organ pipes. - -Coopers were among the early users of white cedar. The "cedar coopers of -Philadelphia" were famous in their day. They used this wood and also red -cedar (_Juniperus virginiana_), and their wares occupied an important -place in domestic and some foreign markets. Small vessels prevailed, -such as pails, churns, firkins, tubs, keelers, piggins, noggins, and -kegs. The ware was handsome, strong, durable, and light in weight. Oil -merchants, particularly those who dealt in whale oil which was once an -important commodity, bought tanks of southern white cedar. It is a dense -wood and seepage is small. - -A peculiar superstition once prevailed, and has not wholly disappeared -at this day, that white cedar possessed powerful healing properties. It -was thought that water was purified by standing in a cedar bucket, and -even that a liquid was improved by simply running through a spigot of -this wood. Some eastern towns at an early period laid cedar water mains, -partly because the wood was known to be durable, and partly because it -was supposed to exercise some favorable influence upon the water flowing -through the pipes. It was even believed that standing trees purified the -swamps in which they grew. Vessels putting to sea from Chesapeake bay, -sometimes made special effort to fill their water casks with water from -the Dismal swamp, where cedars grew abundantly in the stagnant lagoons. - -About 100 years ago it was found that whole forests of cedar had been -submerged in New Jersey during prehistoric times, and that deep in -swamps the trunks of trees were buried out of sight. No one knows how -long the prostrate trees had lain beneath the accumulation of peat and -mud, but the wood was sound. Mining the cedar became an important -industry in some of the large swamps, and it has not ended yet. The wood -is sound enough for shingles and lumber, though it has been buried for -centuries, as is proved by the age of the forests which grew over the -submerged logs. Sometimes a log which has lain under water hundreds of -years, rises to the surface by its own buoyancy when pressure from above -is removed. This is remarkable and shows how long a time this cedar -resists complete waterlogging. The wood of green cedar has a strong -odor, and that characteristic remains with the submerged trunks. -Experienced men who have been long engaged in mining the timber, are -able to tell by the odor of a chip brought to the surface from a deeply -submerged log whether the wood is sufficiently well preserved to be -worth recovering and manufacturing. Trunks six feet in diameter have -been brought to the surface. Few if any living white cedars of that size -exist now. - -Many of the early uses of southern white cedar have continued till the -present time, but in much smaller quantities. Fence rails are no longer -made of it; shingles and cooperage have declined. On the other hand, it -now has some uses which were unknown in early times, such as telephone -and telegraph poles, crossties, and piling for railroad bridges and -culverts. - -The supply of southern white cedar is not large, and it is being cut -faster than it is growing. The deep swamps where it grows protect white -cedar forests from fire, and for that reason it is more fortunate than -many other species. Not even cypress can successfully compete with it -for possession of water soaked morasses. It does not promise great -things for the future, for it will never be extensively planted. Its -range has been pretty definitely fixed by nature to deep swamps near the -Atlantic coast. Within those limits it will be of some importance for a -long time. Where it finds its most congenial surroundings, little else -that is profitable to man will grow. This will save it from utter -extermination, because much of the land which it occupies will never be -wanted for anything else. - -[Illustration] - - - - -INCENSE CEDAR - -[Illustration: INCENSE CEDAR] - - - - -INCENSE CEDAR - -(_Libocedrus Decurrens_) - - -In California and Oregon this tree is known as white cedar, cedar, and -incense cedar; in Nevada and California it is called post cedar and -juniper, and in other localities it is red cedar and California post -cedar. It is a species of such strong characteristics that it is not -likely to be confused with any other. Though different names may be -applied to it, the identity of the tree is always clear. - -Its range extends north and south nearly 1,000 miles, from Oregon to -Lower California. It is a mountain species, and it faces the Pacific -ocean in most of its range. In the North it occupies the western slope -of the Cascade mountains in southern Oregon and northern California; and -it grows on the western slope of the Sierras for five hundred miles, at -altitudes of from 4,000 to 8,000 feet, where it is mixed with sugar -pine, western yellow pine, white fir, and sequoias. - -It is a fine, shapely tree, except that the butt is much enlarged. It -has the characteristic form of a deep swamp tree, but it has nothing to -do with swamps. Its best development is on the Sierra Nevada mountains, -where swamps are few, and the incense cedar avoids them. It occupies dry -ridges and slopes, but not sterile ones. It must have as good soil as -the sugar pine demands. Its height when mature ranges from seventy-five -to 125 feet, diameter four feet from the ground, from three to six feet, -but some trees are larger. It is not a rapid grower, but it maintains -its vigor a long time. As an average, it increases its diameter an inch -in from seven to ten years. - -The wood is dense. It contains no pores large enough to be seen with an -ordinary reading glass. The medullary rays are so small as to be -generally invisible to the naked eye, but when magnified they are shown -to be thin and numerous. The summerwood forms about one-fourth of the -annual ring. The wood is nearly as light as white pine, is moderately -strong, is brittle, straight grained, the heartwood is reddish, the -thick sapwood nearly white. It is an easy wood to work, and in contact -with the soil it is very durable. - -The incense cedar is the only representative of its genus in the United -States. It has many relatives in the pine family, but no near ones. Its -kin are natives of Formosa, China, New Zealand, New Guinea, and -Patagonia. - -The name incense cedar refers to the odor of the wood rather than of the -leaves. Those who work with freshly cut wood are liable to attacks of -headache, due to the odor; but some men are not affected by it. - -The forest grown tree is of beautiful proportions. Unless much crowded -for room, it is a tall, graceful cone, the branches drooping slightly, -and forming thick masses. In the Sierra Nevada mountains, within the -range of this cedar, the winter snows are very heavy. It is not unusual -for two or three feet of very wet snow to fall in a single day. The -incense cedar's drooping branches shed the snow like a tent roof, and a -limb broken or seriously deformed by weight of snow is seldom seen. Deer -and other wild animals, when surprised by a heavy fall of snow, seek the -shelter of an incense cedar, if one can be found, and there lie in -security until the storm passes. - -It is a tree which does fairly well in cultivation, and several -varieties have been developed. It lives through the cold of a New -England winter. Its cones are about three-fourths inch in length, and -ripen in the autumn. - -Incense cedar has filled an important place in the development of the -great central valley of California, where it has supplied more fence -posts than any other tree. Posts of redwood have been its chief -competitor, but generally the region has been divided, and each tree has -supplied its part. The redwood's field has been the coast, the cedar's -the inland valley within reach of the Sierras. It has been nothing -unusual for ranchmen to haul cedar posts on wagons forty or fifty miles. - -The manufacture of posts from incense cedar has entailed an enormous -waste of timber. The thick sapwood is not wanted, and in the process of -converting a trunk into posts, the woodsman first splits off the sap and -throws it away. In trunks of small and medium size, the sapwood may -amount to more than the heartwood, and is a total loss. - -The tree's bark is thick and stringy, and it is generally wasted; but in -some instances it is used as a surface dressing for mountain roads. It -wears to pieces and becomes a pulpy mass, and it protects the surface of -the road from excessive wear, and from washing in time of heavy rain. - -Approximately one-half of the incense cedar trees, as they stand in the -woods, are defective. A fungus (_Dædalia vorax_) attacks them in the -heartwood and excavates pits throughout the length of the trunks. The -galleries resemble the work of ants, and as ants often take possession -of them and probably enlarge them, it is quite generally believed that -the pits are due to ants. The excavations are frequently filled with -dry, brown dust, sometimes packed very hard and tight. The cedar thus -affected resembles "pecky cypress," and it is believed that the same -species of fungus, or a closely related species, is responsible for the -injury to both cypress in the South and incense cedar on the Pacific -coast. It is not generally regarded by users of cedar posts that the -honey-combed condition of the wood lessens the service which the post -will give, unless by weakening it and causing it to break, or by -rendering it less able to hold the staples of wire fences, or nails of -plank and picket fences. - -Post makers often prefer fire-killed timber. If a tree is found with the -sapwood consumed, as is not unusual, it is nearly always free from -fungous attack. The reason it stands through the fire which burns the -sapwood off, is that the heart is sound--if it were not sound, the whole -tree would be consumed. - -The wood of the incense cedar is serviceable for many purposes. The -rejection of the sapwood by so many users is the most discouraging -feature. The heart, when free from fungus, is a fine, attractive -material that does not suffer in comparison with the other cedars, -though it may not equal some of them for particular purposes. Tests show -it fit for lead pencils, and recent purchases of large quantities have -been made by pencil makers. Clothes chests and wardrobes are -manufactured from this wood on the assumption that the odor will keep -moths out of furs and other clothing stored within. It has been used for -cigar boxes, but has not in all instances proven satisfactory. The odor -of the wood is objected to by some smokers. Another objection and a -somewhat peculiar one, has been filed against incense cedar as a cigar -box material. It is claimed that the boxes are attacked voraciously by -rats which gnaw the wood, to which they are doubtless attracted by the -odor. - -Sawmills turn out incense cedar lumber which is worked into frames for -doors and windows, and doors are made of it, and also interior finish. -Shipments of inch boards are sold in New York and Boston, and exports go -to London, Paris, and Berlin. - -The long period during which incense cedar has been used and wasted, has -reduced the supply in most regions, but there is yet much in the forest. -It is never lumbered separately, but only in connection with pine and -fir; but post makers have always gone about picking trees of this -species and passing by the associated species. - -ALLIGATOR JUNIPER (_Juniperus pachyphl[oe]a_) is so named from its bark -which is patterned like the skin of an alligator. It is called -oak-barked cedar in Arizona, mountain cedar in Texas, and -checkered-barked juniper in other places. Its range lies in southwestern -Texas, about Eagle pass and Limpia mountains, and westward on the desert -ranges of New Mexico and Arizona, south of the Colorado plateau, and -among the mountains of northern Arizona. Its range extends southward -into Mexico. It is one of the largest of the junipers, but only when -circumstances are wholly favorable. It is then sixty feet high, and four -or five feet in diameter; but it is generally small and of poor form for -lumber, because of its habit of separating into forks near the ground. -It does best at elevations of from 4,000 to 6,000 feet in bottoms of -canyons and ravines. The grayish green color of the foliage is due to -the conspicuous white glands which dot the center of each leaf. The -berries are small and blue, of sweetish taste which does not -particularly appeal to the palate of civilized man, but the Indians of -the region, whose normal state is one of semi-starvation, eat them with -relish. The line separating heartwood from sap in alligator juniper is -frequently irregular and vague, and like some of its kindred junipers of -the West, patches of sap are sometimes buried deep in the heartwood, -while streaks of heartwood occur in the sap. This heartwood is usually -of a dirty color, suggesting red rocks and soil of the desert where it -grows. Small articles which can be made of wood selected for its color -are attractive. They may be highly polished, and the surface takes a -satiny finish; but the wood does not show very well in panel or body -work where wide pieces are used. The best utilization of alligator -juniper appears to lie in small articles. It is fine for the lathe, and -goblets, napkin rings, match safes, and handkerchief boxes are -manufactured from the wood in Texas. Its rough uses are as fence posts -and telephone poles. It is durable in contact with the soil. - -CALIFORNIA JUNIPER (_Juniperus californica_) is called white cedar, -juniper, sweet-fruited juniper, and sweet-berried cedar. Its range is in -California south of Sacramento, among the ranges of the coast mountains, -and the foothills of the Sierra Nevadas. Its height runs from twenty to -forty feet, diameter one to two. The leaves fall in the second or third -year. This tree is of poor form and size for lumber. Trunks frequently -divide into branches near the ground. The wood resembles that of other -western junipers, and usually the fine color which distinguishes the red -cedar of the East is wanting, and in its stead is a dull brown, tinged -with red. The wood is soft and durable, and is strongly odorous. The -sapwood is thin and is nearly white. Fuel and fence posts are the most -important uses of the California juniper. Indians eat the berries raw or -dry them and pound them to flour. - -[Illustration] - - - - -WESTERN RED CEDAR - -[Illustration: WESTERN RED CEDAR] - - - - -WESTERN RED CEDAR - -(_Thuja Plicata_) - - -In the eastern markets the lumber from this tree is usually called -western cedar without further description, but that name does not always -sufficiently identify it. There are other western cedars, notably -incense and yellow; but they have not generally appeared in eastern -markets. Western red cedar is the name given it when the purpose is to -separate it from other western cedars. It is the only red cedar in the -far West, except the scarce junipers which are totally unknown as its -competitors in lumber centers. Gigantic cedar is a name which takes size -into account. It is the largest of American cedars. Trunks fifteen feet -in diameter and 200 feet high are sometimes seen, but the usual size is -100 high, from two to four in diameter. Canoe cedar is a name bestowed -upon this western tree for the same reason that canoe wood is one of the -yellow poplar's names in the East. It is one of the best woods for -dugout canoes. Botanists have called the tree giant arborvitæ, but the -name never got beyond books. When the people of Washington and Oregon -speak of cedar without a qualifying term, they mean this species. It is -widely known as shingle wood or shingle cedar, because more shingles are -made of it than of all other kinds of timber in the United States -combined. - -The western red cedar's range covers 300,000 square miles, not counting -regions of small or scattered growth. For a timber tree, that range is -large, but not nearly as large as some others. It exceeds one-hundred -fold the commercial range of redwood, and probably a thousand fold that -of Port Orford cedar, but its range is not one-third that of the eastern -red cedar, though in total quantity of available lumber it surpasses the -eastern tree a hundred fold. Its range begins in Alaska on the north, -and follows the coast to northern California, and extends eastward into -Idaho. The best development occurs in the regions of warm, moist Pacific -winds, but not in the immediate fog belts. The largest quantity of this -wood, and probably the largest trees also, are in Washington. Abundant -rainfall is essential to western red cedar's development. It would be -difficult to approximate the amount of the remaining stand. This cedar -does not form pure forests, and estimates of so many feet per acre or -square mile cannot be based on fairly exact information as may be done -with redwood, and some of the southern pines. Though the drain upon the -cedar forests is heavy, it is generally believed there is enough of this -species to meet demands for a long period of years. - -Nature made ample provision for the spread and perpetuation of this -tree. The seeds are fairly abundant, are light, have good wing power, -and are great travelers in search of suitable places to germinate and -take root. The tree's greatest enemy is fire. The cedar's bark is thin, -even when trunks are mature, and a moderate blaze often proves fatal to -large trees; but small ones, with all their branches close to the -ground, have no chance when the fire burns the litter among them. Some -tree seeds germinate readily on soil bared by fire--such as lodgepole -pine, wild red cherry, and paper birch--but the western red cedar's do -not, if the humus is sufficiently burned to lessen the soil's capacity -to retain moisture. For that reason, this cedar seldom follows fire, and -the result is that it constantly loses ground. Under normal conditions, -it is not exacting in its requirements; but anything that disturbs -natural conditions is more likely to harm than help this cedar. In that -respect it is like beech and hemlock, which suffer when forest -conditions are disturbed. - -Trunks are large but not shapely. They are generally fluted, and greatly -swelled at the base. These deformities develop rather late in the tree's -life; at least, they are not prominent in young timber. Western cedar -poles of large size are beautiful in outline; but when maturity -approaches, the trunk grows faster near the ground than some distance -above; the annual rings are wider near the base than twenty feet above, -resulting in great enlargement near the ground. At the same time ribs -and creases slowly develop, and by the time the tree is old, it is as -ungainly as one of the giant sequoias. Its appearance is hurt by -characteristics other than the swelled base and the buttresses. While -the tree is small, the limbs ascend, and maintain a graceful upright -position. Toward middle life they begin to droop, and the limbs of old -trees hang down the trunks--the reverse of their attitude in early life. - -The western red cedar lives to an old age, from 600 to 1,000 years. The -oldest are liable to be hollow near the ground. The tree is remarkable -for what happens after it falls. Often the trunk crashes down in a bed -of moss, which in a few years buries it from sight. The moss holds so -much water that the buried log is constantly too wet for fungous attack. -Consequently decay does not take place. Fallen trees have lain for -hundreds of years--as much as 800 having been claimed in one -instance--and at the end of that time they are sound enough for -shingles. The position of living trees growing upon buried logs -furnishes the key to the length of time since the trunks fell. The long -period during which the moss-buried wood has remained sound has led to -the claim that western red cedar is the most enduring wood in America. -Such is not necessarily the case. A good many others would probably last -as long if protected in the same way. - -Western red cedar is strong and stiff but falls from twenty to thirty -per cent below white oak in these factors. It is light, and the texture -of the wood is rather coarse. The springwood and summerwood are -distinct, the latter constituting one-half or less of the annual ring. -The medullary rays are numerous and obscure. The wood's color is dull -brown, tinged with red. The thin sapwood is nearly white. - -The ease with which western red cedar may be worked led the Indians to -use it in their most ambitious woodcraft. The gigantic totem poles which -have excited the curiosity and admiration of travelers near the coast in -Alaska and southward have nearly all been of this wood. Some of them are -the largest single pieces of wood carving in the world. Trunks three or -four feet in diameter and forty or fifty feet long have been hewed and -whittled in weird, uncouth, and fantastic forms, decorated with eagle -heads, bear mouths, and with various creatures of the forest or sea, or -from the realms of imagination. Before the northern Pacific coast -Indians procured tools from white men they executed their carving by -means of bone, stone, shell, and wooden tools, assisted by fire. - -The making of canoes was in some ways a work more laborious for the -Indians than the manufacture of totem poles. Their canoes were dugouts -of all sizes, from the small trough which carried one or two persons, to -the enormous canoe which carried fifty warriors with all their -equipment. Such a canoe, now in the National Museum at Washington, D. -C., is fifty-nine feet long, seven feet, three inches deep at the bow, -five feet three inches at the stern, and three feet seven inches in the -middle, and eight feet wide. It was made on Vancouver island, and is -capable of carrying 100 persons. The capacity of the canoe is -thirty-five tons. Civilized man has produced no vessel with lines more -perfect than are seen in some of these canoes made by savages; but all -the canoes are not alike: some are crude and clumsy. It is claimed that -large cedar canoes of Indian manufacture were early carried from the -Pacific coast by fur traders, and New York and Boston shipbuilders took -them as models in constructing the celebrated clipper ships which -formerly sailed between New York and San Francisco. - -The Indians formerly made much use of western red cedar bark which they -twisted into ropes and cords, braided for mats, wove for cloth, used in -making baskets, roofing wigwams, constructing fish nets and bird snares, -ladders for climbing cliffs, and they even pulped the inner bark by -pounding it in mortars, and mixed it with their food. - -White men have put western red cedar to many uses, as shingles, lumber, -cooperage, poles, posts, piles, car siding and roofing, boat building -from skiffs to ships, and general furniture and interior finish. - -WESTERN JUNIPER (_Juniperus occidentalis_) is a high mountain tree with -all the characteristics belonging to that class of timber. The trunks -are short and strong, the limbs wide-spreading, the wood of slow growth, -and dense. The tree attains a diameter of ten inches in about 130 years. -Trunks ten feet in diameter have been reported, but trees that large -would be hard to find now. John Muir said that the western juniper lives -2,000 years, and that the tree is never uprooted by wind. The trunk is -usually short, six or eight feet being a fair average, and very knotty. -However, when a block of clear wood is found, it is high class, the -heaviest of the cedars, straight grain, soft, compact, brittle. The -summerwood is so narrow that it resembles a fine, black line. The -medullary rays are numerous and very obscure. The wood is slightly -aromatic, splits easily, works nicely, and in color is brown, tinged -with red. In appearance, the sapwood suggests spruce. The average height -of the trees is from twenty-five to forty-five feet, diameter two to -four feet. The range of this tree is in Idaho, eastern Oregon, and -through the Cascades and Sierras to southern California. It seldom -occurs below an altitude of 6,000 feet, and ascends to 10,000 or more. -On the highest summits it is deformed and stunted. Its fruit is eaten by -Indians, and it furnishes fuel for mountain camps and ranches, timber -for mines, and sometimes a little lumber. The crooked limbs and trunks -are made into corral fences where better material cannot be had. The -wood has been found suitable for lead pencils, but that of proper -quality is too scarce to attract manufacturers. Other names for this -tree are juniper cedar, yellow cedar, western cedar, western red cedar, -and western juniper. Some of these names are applied to other species of -the same region. - -[Illustration] - - - - -PORT ORFORD CEDAR - -[Illustration: PORT ORFORD CEDAR] - - - - -PORT ORFORD CEDAR - -(_Chamæcyparis Lawsoniana_) - - -Port Orford cedar of the northwestern coast is an interesting member of -the cedar group with a very limited range. Specimens are found -throughout an area of about 10,000 square miles, but the district -moderately heavily timbered does not exceed 300 or 400 miles in area. It -lies near Coos bay in southwestern Oregon. The tree is found as far -south in California as the mouth of Klamath river, and it was once -reported on Mt. Shasta, but it is very scarce there if it exists at all. -In the best of its range Port Orford cedar runs 20,000 feet to the acre, -and a single acre has yielded 100,000 feet. Trees run from 135 to 175 -feet in height and three to seven in diameter. The largest on record -were about 200 feet high and twelve in diameter. Few trees of any -species have smaller leaves. They often are only one-sixteenth of an -inch in length. They die the third year and change to a bright brown. -The cones are about one-third of an inch in diameter. Two or four seeds -lie under each fertile cone scale, and ripen in September and October. -The seeds are one-eighth inch in length, and are winged for flight. The -bark of the tree is much thicker than of most cedars, being ten inches -near the base of large trees. This ought to protect the trunks against -fire but it falls short of expectations. About sixty years ago much of -the finest timber was killed by a great fire which swept the region. -Some of the dead trunks stood forty years without exhibiting much -evidence of decay, and those that fell remained sound many years. - -The whole history of this interesting tree, from its first announced -discovery by white men until the present time, is embraced in the memory -of living men. It had not been heard of prior to 1855. Though fire and -storm have destroyed large quantities, it has been estimated that -4,000,000,000 feet of merchantable timber remain, an average of 15,000 -feet per acre for an area of 400 square miles. The wood is moderately -light, is nearly as strong as white oak, and falls only sixteen per cent -below it in stiffness. The annual rings are generally narrow, but -distinct. The summerwood is narrow, but dark in color in the heartwood. -The medullary rays are numerous and obscure. The wood abounds in odorous -resin. The odor persists long after the wood has ceased to be fresh. -Workmen in mills where this cedar is cut, and on board of vessels -freighted with it, are sometimes seriously affected by the odor. It is -reputed to repel insects, and is made into clothes chests, wardrobes, -and shelves, with the expectation that moths will be kept at a distance. -Several other cedars bear similar reputations. - -One of the first uses to which the people of the Pacific coast put Port -Orford cedar was boat building. The industry was important at Coos bay -at an early day, and vessels constructed there sailed the seas thirty or -forty years. Trunks of this cedar turn out a high percentage of clear -lumber. The wood takes a good polish, and is manufactured into -furniture, doors, sash, turnery, and matches. The latter article is -esteemed by many persons for the peculiar odor of the burning wood. It -has been found practicable to finish this cedar in imitation of -mahogany, oak, and several other cabinet woods. In its natural state it -sometimes bears some resemblance to yellow pine, and sometimes to -spruce, there being considerable variation in the appearance of wood -from different trees. When the visible supply of Port Orford cedar has -been cut, the end will be reached, for not much young growth is coming -on. Sixty-eight varieties of Port Orford cedar are recognized in -cultivation. - -YELLOW CEDAR (_Chamæcyparis nootkatensis_) describes this tree quite -well. The small twigs are of that color, and so is the heartwood. Many -give it the name yellow cypress. Others know it as Alaska cypress, -Alaska ground cypress, Nootka cypress, or Nootka sound cypress. The name -of the species, _nootkatensis_, was given it by Archibald Menzies, a -Scotch botanist who discovered it on the shore of Nootka sound in -Alaska. - -Yellow cedar's geographic range extends from southeastern Alaska to -Oregon, a distance of 1,000 miles. It does not usually go far inland, -and consequently the range is narrow in most places. North of the -international boundary the tree seldom reaches an altitude of more than -2,000 or 3,000 feet, but in Washington and Oregon it is occasionally met -with at elevations of 4,000 and 5,000 feet. The species reaches its best -development on the islands off the coast of southern Alaska and British -Columbia, where the air is moist, the winds warm in winter, the rainfall -abundant, and the snowfall often deep. Well developed trees under such -circumstances are from ninety to 120 feet high, from two to six in -diameter. The blue-green leaves remain active two years, and then die, -but they do not usually fall until a year later. The presence of the -dead leaves on the twigs tones down the general color of the tree -crowns. - -The cones are about half an inch long and have four, five, or six -scales. From two to four seeds lie beneath each scale until September or -October when they ripen and escape. Their wings are large enough to -carry them away from the immediate vicinity of the parent tree, and -reproduction under natural conditions is generally good. Yellow cedar is -abundant within its range, but nature has circumscribed its range, and -it shows no disposition to pass the boundary line. - -The bark is thin and exhibits cedar's characteristic stringiness. It is -shed in thin strips. - -The wood is moderately light, and is strong and stiff. It is probably -the hardest of the cedars, and the grain is so regular that high polish -is possible. Under favorable circumstances trees grow with fair -rapidity, but when conditions are unfavorable, as on high mountains -where summers are short and winters severe, growth is remarkably slow, -and twenty years or more may be required for one inch increase in trunk -diameter. The wood of such trees is hard, dense, and strong. - -The grain of yellow cedar is usually straight. The bands of summerwood -are narrow, the annual rings are indistinct, and an attempt to count -them is often attended with considerable difficulty. The wood is easily -worked, satiny, susceptible of a beautiful polish, and possesses an -agreeable resinous odor. The heartwood is bright, clear yellow, and the -thin sapwood is a little lighter in color. In common with all other -cedars, yellow cedar resists decay many years. Logs which have lain in -damp woods half a century remain sound inside the sapwood. Sometimes -fallen timber in that region is quickly buried under deep beds of moss -which preserves it from decay much longer than if the logs lie exposed -to alternate dampness and dryness. - -Statistics of sawmill operations in the Northwest do not distinguish -between the different cedars, and the cut of yellow cedar is unknown. It -is considerable, but of course not to be compared with the more abundant -western red cedar. Statistics of uses are as meager as of the lumber -output. In Washington the factories which use wood as raw material -report only 7,500 feet of yellow cedar a year. Doubtless much more than -that is used, but under other names. There is no occasion to disguise -this wood under other names. It has a striking individuality and -deserves a place of its own. In some respects it is one of the best -woods of the Pacific Northwest. In nearly every situation where it has -been tried, it has been found satisfactory. Its rich yellow presents a -fine appearance in furniture and interior finish, and the polish which -it takes surpasses that possible with any other cedar, with the probable -exception of some of the scarce, high mountain junipers. It has been -used for pyrography and patterns, two hard places to fill, and for which -few woods are suitable. Indians long ago in Alaska learned that it was -the best material for boat paddles which their forests afforded. It -possesses the requisite stiffness and strength, and it wears to a -smoothness almost like ebony. Boat factories have many uses for the -wood, decking, railing, and interior finish being among the most -important. It is said to be a satisfactory substitute for Spanish cedar -in the manufacture of cigar boxes, but its use for that purpose is not -yet large. - -It is said that occasional exports of this wood go to China where it is -finished in imitation of scarce and expensive woods of that country. - -Yellow cedar is a wood with a future. Its splendid properties cannot -fail to give it a place of no small importance in factories and in -general building operations. The supply has scarcely yet been touched, -but it cannot much longer remain an undeveloped asset. It is apparently -a high-class cooperage material, but it does not seem to have been used -much if at all in that industry. The same might be said of it for doors. -It is heavier than spruce, white pine, and redwood, but where weight is -not a matter for objection, it ought to equal them in all desirable -qualities. - -In much of its range it is generally exempt from forest fire injury, -because its native woods are nearly always too wet to burn. - - ROCKY MOUNTAIN JUNIPER (_Juniperus scopulorum_) is scattered over - the mountains from Dakota and Nebraska to Washington and British - Columbia, and southward to western Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. - Except near the Pacific coast, it is usually found at altitudes - above 5,000 feet. It clings closely to dry, rocky ridges where it - attains a height of thirty or forty feet, and a diameter of three - feet or less. The trunk usually divides near the ground into several - stems. The bright blue berries ripen the second year. The wood - resembles that of red cedar, and is used in the same way, as far as - it is used at all. It is not a source of lumber. A little is sawed - occasionally on mountain mills, and the lumber is used locally in - house building, particularly for window and door frames; but sawlogs - are short, and because of their poor form, the output of lumber is - negligible. Some of it finds its way into Texas where it is - manufactured into clothes chests and wardrobes, and these are sold - as red cedar. A choice mountain juniper log, with large, sound - heartwood, produces lumber with a delicate grain and is more - attractive than red cedar when made into chests and boxes. By habit - of growth, it includes patches of white sapwood in the darker - heartwood. When these are sawed through in converting the logs into - boards, the islands of white wood scattered over the surface produce - a unique effect not wanting in artistic value. Some of the other - western junipers possess similar characteristics. Sometimes patches - of bark are also found imbedded in the interior of the trees. - -[Illustration] - - - - -RED SPRUCE - -[Illustration: RED SPRUCE] - - - - -RED SPRUCE - -(_Picea Rubens_) - - -In New York the tree is called yellow spruce, while in foreign -literature it is known as North American red spruce. The tree is -sometimes difficult to distinguish from black spruce (_Picea nigra_), -the main points of difference in the appearance of the two trees being -the size and shape of the cones and of the staminate blossoms. The cones -of red spruce are larger than those of black, and they mature and drop -from the branches during their first winter, while those of the latter -named species frequently remain on the trees for several seasons. -Certain eminent botanists incline to the belief that the two are -different varieties of one species, inasmuch as even the timber of red -spruce bears a close resemblance to that of the black spruce. Other -botanists dispute this theory, saying that the trees are entirely -different in appearance; that the red spruce is a light olive-green, -while black spruce is inclined to a darker olive with perhaps a purplish -tinge, so that when seen together they have no resemblance in point of -color. They further say that the cones are not only different in size -but that the scales are quite unlike in texture, those of black spruce -being much thinner and more brittle. The same authorities maintain that -the tiny twigs of red spruce are more conspicuous on account of their -reddish tinge. - -Generally speaking the principal spruce growth of northern New England -and New York is black spruce, although interspersed with it in some -localities is a considerable quantity of red spruce. On the contrary the -chief stand of spruce in West Virginia, Virginia, western North -Carolina, and eastern Tennessee and the other high altitudes over the -South Carolina line, is largely red spruce. This botanical analysis of -the two species of wood is based entirely on the authority of botanists, -but from the viewpoint of the average lumberman there is absolutely no -difference between red and black spruce and none in the physics of the -two woods except that which rises from varying conditions of growth as -soil, rainfall, altitude or latitude, or general environment. The larger -spruce of West Virginia and the mountain region farther south, has -certain qualities of strength and texture, combined with a large -percentage of clear lumber that is not approximated by the spruce of New -England and the British maritime provinces. In shape the tree is -pyramidal, with spreading branches. It reaches a height of from seventy -to a hundred feet. Its bark is reddish brown, slightly scaly. The twigs -are light colored when young and are covered with tiny hairs. The leaves -are thickly clustered along the branches, and are simple and slender, -pointed at the apex. They become lustrous at maturity. The staminate -flowers are oval, bright red in color; the pistillate ones are oblong, -with thin rounded scales. The fruit of the red spruce is a cone, from -one to two and a half inches in length; it is green when young, turning -dark with age, and falling from the branches when the scales open. The -seeds are dark brown, and winged. - -Formerly spruce was little thought of for lumber and manufacturing -purposes in this country, though some use was made of it from the -earliest settlements in the regions where it grew. White pine could -generally be had where spruce was abundant, and the former wood was -preferred. As pine became scarce, spruce was worked in for a number of -purposes. The tree's form is all that a sawmill man could desire. The -trunk has more knots than white pine, for the reason that limbs are a -longer time in dying and in dropping off; but knots are small and -generally sound. By careful culling, a moderate amount of clear lumber -may be obtained. The wood is light, soft, narrow-ringed, strong in -proportion to its weight, elastic, and its color is pale with a slight -tinge of red, the sapwood whiter and usually about two inches thick. The -contrast between heart and sapwood is not strong. The medullary rays are -numerous, but small and obscure. The summerwood is thin and not -conspicuous. It is the wood's red tinge which gives the tree its -commercial name. - -It is believed that the yearly cut of red spruce in the United States -for lumber is about 500,000,000 feet, one-half of which comes from West -Virginia and southward, where this species reaches its highest -development; and the pulpwood cut in the same region is about one-tenth -as much in quantity. The long fiber and white color of spruce make it -one of the most satisfactory woods for pulp in this country. Red spruce -is only one of several species of spruce which contribute to the supply. -The total output of spruce pulpwood in the United States yearly is -equivalent to about 1,000,000,000 feet of lumber. - -Red spruce lumber has a long list of uses. Much flooring is made of it, -and it wears well, but not as well as hard pine from the South. It is -more used for shipping boxes in the northeastern part of the United -States than any other wood, except white pine. Its good stenciling -qualities recommend it. Manufacturers of sash, doors, and blinds find it -excellent material, combining lightness, strength, and small tendency to -warp, shrink, or swell. Coopers make buckets, tubs, kegs, and churns of -it; manufacturers of refrigerators use it for doors and frames; and -makers of furniture use it for many interior parts of bureaus, tables, -and sideboards. Textile mills use spruce clothboards as center pieces -round which to wind fabrics; and a further use in mills is for bobbins. -It has many places in boat building, notably as spars and yards; and -for window and door frames. - -The makers of piano frames employ red spruce for certain parts; but as -material for musical instruments its most important use is as sounding -boards. All the commercial spruces are so used. Wood for this purpose -must be free from defects of all kinds, and of straight and even grain. -The sounding board's value lies in its ability to vibrate in unison with -the strings of the instrument. Spruce has no superior for that place. - -Red spruce bears abundance of seeds, the best on the highest branches. -The seeds are winged, and the wind scatters them. They germinate best on -humus. In spruce forests, clumps of seedlings are often seen where logs -have decayed and fallen to dust. Seedlings do not thrive on mineral -soil, and for that reason red spruce makes a poor showing where fires -have burned. It does not spread vigorously in old fields as white pine -does. It must have forest conditions or it will do little good. For that -reason it does not promise great things for the future. It grows very -slowly, and land owners prefer white pine, where that species will grow. -If spruce is to be planted, most persons prefer Norway spruce (_Picea -excelsa_) of Europe. It grows faster than native spruces. It is the -spruce usually seen in door yards and parks. - - BLACK SPRUCE (_Picea mariana_) grows much farther north than red - spruce, but the two species mingle in a region of 100,000 square - miles or more northward of Pennsylvania and in New England and - southern and eastern Canada. Black spruce grows from Labrador to the - valley of the Mackenzie river, almost to the arctic circle. It is - found as far south as the Lake States where it constitutes the - principal spruce of commerce. In some of the swamps of northern - Minnesota and in the neighboring parts of Canada it is little more - than a shrub, and trees three or four feet high bear cones. On - better land in that region the tree is large enough for sawlogs. It - passes under several names, among which are double spruce, blue - spruce, white spruce, and water spruce. The common name black spruce - probably refers to the general appearance of the crown. The small - cones (the smallest of the spruces) adhere to the branches many - years, and give a ragged, black appearance to the tree when seen - from a distance. The wood is as white as other spruces. Trees vary - greatly in size. The best are 100 feet high and two and a half feet - in diameter; but the average size is about thirty feet high and - twelve inches in diameter. That size is not attractive to lumbermen; - but cutters of pulpwood find it valuable and convenient, and much of - it is manufactured into paper. The wood weighs 28.57 pounds per - cubic foot, and is moderately strong, and high in elasticity. It is - pale yellow-white with thin sapwood. In Manitoba, lumber is sawed - from black spruce, and it is cut also in the Lake States, but it is - preferred for pulp. It gives excellent service as canoe paddles. - Spruce chewing gum is made of resinous exudations from this tree, - and is an article of considerable importance. Spruce beer is another - by-product which has long been manufactured in New England and the - eastern Canadian provinces. It was made in Newfoundland three - hundred years ago and has been bought and sold in the markets of - that region ever since. Fishing vessels carry supplies of the - beverage on long voyages as a preventive of scurvy. The beer is - made by boiling leaves and twigs, and adding molasses to the - concoction which is allowed to pass through mild fermentation. - Foresters will probably never pay much attention to black spruce - because other species promise more profit. It is little planted for - ornamental purposes, as it does not grow rapidly, is of poor form, - and the accumulation of dead cones on the branches gives it a poor - appearance. Besides, planted trees do not live long. - - WHITE SPRUCE (_Picea canadensis_) is of more importance in Canada - than in the United States, because more abundant. It is one of the - most plentiful timber trees of Alaska, and it is found west to - Bering strait and north of the arctic circle. It is said to approach - within twenty miles of the Arctic ocean. Its eastern limit is in - Labrador, its southern in the northern tier of states from Maine to - Idaho. A little of this species is cut for lumber in northern New - England and in upper Michigan, and westward, just south of the - Canadian line. The light blue-green foliage gives the tree its name. - It is known by other names as well, single spruce, bog spruce, skunk - spruce, cat spruce, double spruce, and pine. Some of its names are - due to the odor of its foliage. The largest trees are 100 feet high - and three in diameter, but most are smaller. Having a range so - extensive, and in climates and situations so different, the tree - naturally varies greatly in size and form. The wood of - well-developed trees is white and handsome, the thin, pencil-like - bands of summerwood having a slightly darker tone than the - springwood. The two parts of the annual ring possess different - degrees of hardness. The springwood is softer than the summerwood. - The medullary rays are numerous, and the surface of quarter-sawed - lumber has a silvery appearance, due to the exposed flat surfaces of - the rays. In the markets, no distinction is made between white - spruce lumber, and that cut from other species. The uses of the - different species are much the same. As a pulpwood, white spruce is - in demand wherever it is available. The largest output in the United - States comes from northern New England. The tree is often planted - for ornamental purposes in Europe and in northern states. When grown - in the open, the crown is pyramidal, like that of balsam fir. It - does not thrive where summers are warm and dry. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SITKA SPRUCE - -[Illustration: SITKA SPRUCE] - - - - -SITKA SPRUCE - -(_Picea Sitchensis_) - - -This is largest of the spruces. In height and in girth of trunk no other -approaches it. The moist, warm climate of the north Pacific slope is its -favorite home, though its range extends far northward along the islands -and coast of Alaska. Toward the extreme limit of its habitat it loses -its splendid form and size and degenerates into a sprawling shrub. The -limit of the species southward lies in Mendocino county, California. Its -range in a north and south direction is not less than 2,000 miles; but -east and west the growth covers a mere ribbon facing the sea. It climbs -some of the British Columbia mountains, 5,000 feet, but it prefers the -low, wet valleys and flatlands, or the rainy and snowy slopes set to -catch the sea winds. There it is at its best, and the largest trunks are -200 feet high, fifteen feet in diameter, and about 850 years old. All -sizes less than this are found. It is not easy to name an average size -when variation runs from giants to dwarfs; but in regions where this -spruce is cut for lumber, the average height of mature trees is about -125 feet, with a diameter of four feet. - -Tideland spruce is one of its names. That has reference to its habit of -sticking close to the sea. Its other names are Menzies' spruce, great -tideland spruce, and western spruce. The last may be considered its -trade name in lumber markets, for it is seldom called anything else when -it is shipped east of the Rocky Mountains. The name is appropriate, -except that other spruces grow in the West, and are equally entitled to -the name. This applies particularly to Engelmann spruce of the northern -Rocky Mountain region; but its lumber and that cut from Sitka spruce are -not liable to be confused in the mind of anyone who is acquainted with -the two woods. The name Sitka refers to the town of that name in Alaska. - -The leaves of this species are usually less than one inch in length, and -in color are light yellowish green. They stand out like bristles on all -sides of the twigs. Cones are from two to four inches long, and hang by -short stems, usually at the ends of twigs. They ripen the first year, -release their seeds, which fly away on small but ample wings, and the -cones drop during the fall and winter. Sitka spruce bark is generally -less than half an inch in thickness. Trunks which grow in forests prune -themselves well, and are usually clear of limbs from forty to eighty -feet. The bases of trees which grow on wet land are much enlarged like -cypress and tupelo, and lumbermen frequently cut above the swell, -leaving from 1,000 to 5,000 feet or more of lumber in the stump. Sitka -spruce's characteristic root system is shallow; but on mountain sides -where soil is dry, roots penetrate deep in search of moisture. - -The wood of this spruce varies greatly in color, but it is usually a -very pale brown, with the faintest tinge of red. It is a little heavier -than white pine, considerably weaker, and with less elasticity. The size -of the trunks, with their freedom from limbs, insures a high percentage -of clear lumber when Sitka spruce is manufactured. The tree grows -slowly, the annual rings are narrow, and the bands of summer growth are -comparatively broad, to which fact the rather dark color of the wood of -the spruce is due. - -Sitka spruce is an important source of lumber. The total cut in -Washington, Oregon, and California in 1910 was about 255,000,000 feet. -It is below red spruce in quantity of sawmill cut, but above all other -spruces in the United States. The people of the Pacific coast use much -of it at home, but large quantities are shipped to markets in eastern -states, and some to foreign countries. Nearly 4,000,000 feet were bought -by Illinois manufacturers in 1909, in addition to what was used rough in -the state. The commodities manufactured of this spruce in Illinois -indicate with a fair degree of accuracy the uses made of the wood in -most parts of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains and north of -the Ohio river and the Potomac. Among articles so manufactured in -Illinois are playground apparatus, porch and stair balusters, doors, -blinds, sash and frames, poultry brooders, sounding boards for pianos -and other musical instruments, parts of mandolins and guitars, pipes for -organs, cornice brackets, store and office fronts, decking and spars for -boats, wagon beds and windmill wheel slats, refrigerators and cold -storage rooms, ironing boards and other wooden ware. - -Twenty times as much Sitka spruce is made into finished commodities in -Washington as in Illinois. That is to be expected, since Washington is -the home of the tree and the center of supply. A partial list of its -uses in that state will show that the wood is liked at home. Douglas fir -was the only wood bought in larger amounts by Washington manufacturers. -They made 55,429,000 feet of it into boxes, and coopers employed -12,000,000 more. The next largest users were pulpmills, while 2,000,000 -feet went into sounding boards, many of which were for shipment abroad. -Other users were basket makers, and the manufacturers of furniture, -fixtures, finish, caskets, veneer, trunks, pulleys, vehicles, boats, and -patterns. Sitka spruce decays quickly when exposed to rain and weather. - -Sitka spruce can be depended upon for the future. Though it grows slowly -it may be expected to keep growing. Its range lies in regions generally -too wet for woods to burn, and it will suffer less from forest fires -than trees of inland regions. It is an abundant seeder, and its favorite -seedbed is moss, muck, decayed wood, and wet ground litter of various -kinds. For the first few years seedlings are sensitive to frost, but not -in later life. - -Sitka spruce is often planted as an ornamental tree in western Europe, -and occasionally in the middle Atlantic states. The New England climate -is too severe for it. - -ENGELMANN SPRUCE (_Picea engelmanni_) was named for Dr. George -Engelmann. It has other names. In Utah it is called balsam, white spruce -in Oregon, Colorado, Utah, and Idaho, mountain spruce in Montana, -Arizona spruce farther south, while in Idaho it is sometimes known as -white pine. That name is misleading, for Idaho has a species of white -pine (_Pinus monticola_). In eastern markets the wood is known as -western spruce; but that, also, is indefinite, for Sitka spruce is also -a western species and is found in the same markets as Engelmann spruce. -This tree's range extends from Yukon territory to Arizona, fully 3,000 -miles. It is a mountain species and is found in elevated ranges. In the -southern part of its habitat it ascends mountains to heights of nearly -12,000 feet. It grows in the Cascade mountain ranges in Washington and -Oregon. The species' best development occurs in British Columbia. At its -best, trees are 150 feet high and four or five in diameter; but every -size less than that occurs in different parts of its range, down to a -height of two or three feet for fully matured trees. Such are found on -lofty and sterile mountains where frost occurs practically every night -in summer, and winter snows bury all objects for months at a time. -Though the stunted spruce trees may be only two or three feet high, -their branches spread many feet, and lie flat on the rocks. Though such -situations are exceedingly unfavorable to tree growth, the stunted -spruces survive sometimes for two hundred years, and during that long -period may not grow a trunk above five inches in diameter and four feet -high. The Engelmann spruce is naturally a long-lived tree, and large -trunks are 500 or 600 years old; and trees ordinarily cut for lumber are -300 or 400 years old. When the tree is young, its form is symmetrical, -the longest branches being near the ground, the shortest near the top; -but in crowded stands the trunk finally clears itself. Engelmann spruce -lumber is usually full of small knots, each of which represents a limb -which was shaded off as the tree advanced in age. The wood is lighter -than white pine, and is the lightest of the spruces, the weight being -21.49 pounds per cubic foot. It is not strong, and it rates low in -elasticity. The wood is pale yellow, tinged with red. The thick sapwood -is hardly distinguishable from the heart. It would be difficult to -compile a list of this tree's uses, because in markets it hardly ever -carries its right name. It is used for fuel and charcoal in the region -of its growth; also as farm timber, and as props and lagging in mines. -When it goes to market, it is manufactured into doors, window frames, -sash, interior finish for houses, and for purposes along with other -spruces. Large quantities of this wood will be accessible when lumbermen -penetrate remote mountain regions where it grows. It may be expected to -increase in importance. It is occasionally planted in eastern states as -an ornament. - - BLUE SPRUCE (_Picea parryana_) is found among mountains in Colorado, - Utah, and Wyoming, from 6,500 to 10,000 feet above sea level. It - attains a height of 150 feet and a diameter of three under favorable - circumstances, but its usual size is little more than half of that. - Its name is given on account of the color of its foliage, but it has - other names, among them being Parry's spruce, balsam, white spruce, - silver spruce, Colorado blue spruce, and prickly spruce, the last - name referring to the sharp-pointed leaves which are an inch or more - in length. Cones are three inches long, and usually grow near the - top of the tree. It is not unusual for blue spruce trees to divide - near the ground in three or four branches. In its youth, - particularly in open ground, blue spruce develops a conical crown. - The wood is lighter than white pine, is soft, weak, and pale brown - or nearly white in color. The sapwood is hardly distinguishable from - the heart. This is a valuable tree for ornamental planting; but in - later years it loses its lower limbs, and becomes less desirable. - - WEEPING SPRUCE (_Picea breweriana_) is of little commercial - importance because of scarcity. It grows among the mountains of - northern California and southern Oregon, at elevations of from 4,000 - to 8,000 feet above sea level. The leaves are an inch or less in - length, the cones from two to four inches long. They fall soon after - they scatter their seeds. This tree is named on account of its - drooping branchlets, some of which hang down eight feet. The wood - seems not to have been investigated, but its color is pale yellowish - to very light brown, and the annual rings are rather narrow. The - tree ought to be valuable for ornamental planting, but nurseries - have experienced much difficulty in making it grow. It grows on high - and dry mountains where few ever see it, but refuses to become - domesticated or to grace eastern parks. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CYPRESS - -[Illustration: CYPRESS] - - - - -CYPRESS - -(_Taxodium Distichum_) - - -The name cypress has been used quite loosely in this country and the old -world, and botanists have taken particular care to explain what true -cypress is. It is of no advantage in the present case to join in the -discussion, and it will suffice to give the American cypresses according -to the authorized list published by the United States Forest Service. -Two genera, one having two and the other six species, are classed as -cypress. These are Bald Cypress (_Taxodium distichum_), Pond Cypress -(_Taxodium imbricarium_), Monterey Cypress (_Cupressus macrocarpa_), -Gowen Cypress (_Cupressus goveniana_), Dwarf Cypress (_Cupressus -pygmæa_) Macnab Cypress (_Cupressus macnabiana_), Arizona Cypress -(_Cupressus arizonica_), and Smooth Cypress (_Cupressus glabra_). The -first two grow in the southern states, and the others in the Far West. -Bald cypress, which is generally known simply as cypress in the region -where it grows, is more important as a source of lumber than are all the -others combined. It probably supplies ninety-nine per cent of all -cypress sold in this country. Its range is from southern Delaware to -Florida, westward to the Gulf coast region of Texas, north through -Louisiana, Arkansas, eastern Mississippi and Tennessee, southeastern -Missouri, western Kentucky and sparsely in southern Illinois and -southwestern Indiana. It is a deep swamp tree, and it is never of much -importance far from lagoons, inundated tracts, and the low banks of -rivers. Water that is a little brackish from the inwash of tides does -not injure the tree, but the presence of a little salt is claimed by -some to improve the quality of the wood. It is lumbered under -difficulties. The deep water and miry swamps where it grows best must be -reckoned with. Some of the ground is not dry for several years at a -time. Neither felling nor hauling is possible in the manner practiced in -the southern pineries. Owing to the great weight of the green wood, it -will not float unless killed by being girdled for a year or more in -advance of its being felled. In the older logging operations, cypress -was girdled and snaked out to waterways and floated to the mills. Lately -many cypress operations are carried on by the building of railroads -through the swamps, which are largely on piling and stringers, although -occasionally earth fills are utilized. The usual size of mature cypress -ranges from seventy-five to 140 feet in height and three to six in -diameter. - -The wood is light, soft, rather weak, moderately stiff, and the grain is -usually straight. The narrow annual rings indicate slow growth. The -summerwood is comparatively broad and is slightly resinous; medullary -rays are numerous and obscure. The wood is light to dark brown, the -sapwood nearly white. At one time specimens of the wood in the markets -of the world were known as black or white cypress, according as they -sank or floated. Much of the dark cypress wood is now known as black -cypress in the foreign markets, where it is employed chiefly for tank -and vat building. Individual specimens of the wood in some localities -are tinted in a variety of shades and some of the natural designs are -extremely beautiful. - -The wood is reputed to be among the most durable in this country when -exposed to soil and weather. Some of it deserves that reputation, but -other does not. Well-authenticated cases are cited where cypress has -remained sound many years--in some instance a hundred or more--when -subjected to alternate dampness and dryness. Such conditions afford -severe tests. In other cases cypress has been known to decay as quickly -as pine. - -Historical cases from the old world are sometimes cited to show the -wonderful lasting properties of cypress. Doors and statues, exposed more -or less to weather, are said to have stood many centuries. The evidence -has little value as far as this wood is concerned. In the first place, -the long records claimed are subjects for suspicion; and in the second -place, it was not the American cypress that was used--and probably no -cypress--but the cedar of Lebanon. - -Sound cypress logs have been dug from deep excavations near New Orleans, -and geologists believe they had lain there 30,000 years. That would be a -telling testament to endurance were it not that any other wood -completely out of reach of air would last as long. - -The estimated stand of cypress in the South is about 20,000,000,000 -feet. The annual cut, including shingles, exceeds 1,000,000,000 feet. -New growth is not coming on. The traveler through the South occasionally -sees a small clump of little cypresses, but such are few and far -between. It was formerly quite generally believed that cypress in deep -swamps, where old and venerable stands are found, was not reproducing, -and that no little trees were to be seen. It was argued from this, that -some climatic or geographic change had taken place, and that the present -stand of cypress would be the last of its race. More careful -investigation, however, has shown that the former belief was erroneous. -Seedling cypresses are found occasionally in the deepest swamps. -Probably cypress which has not been disturbed by man is reproducing as -well now as at any time in the past. The tree lives three or four -centuries, and if it leaves one seedling to take its place it has done -its part toward perpetuating the species. Fire, the mortal enemy of -forests, seldom hurts cypress, because the undergrowth is not dry enough -to burn. - -The uses of cypress are so nearly universal that a list is impossible. -In Illinois alone it is reported for seventy-eight different purposes. -There is not a state, and scarcely a large wood-using factory, east of -the Rocky Mountains which does not demand more or less cypress. - -The tree is graceful when young, but ragged and uncouth when old. Though -a needleleaf tree, it yearly sheds its foliage and most of its twigs. -The fruit is a cone about one inch in diameter; and the seed is equipped -with a wing one-fourth inch long and one-eighth inch wide. - -When cypress stands in soft ground which most of the time is under -water, the roots send up peculiar growths known as knees. They rise from -a few inches to several feet above the surface of the mud, and extend -above the water at ordinary stages. They are sharp cones, generally -hollow. It is believed their function is to furnish air to the tree's -roots, and also to afford anchorage to the roots in the soft mud. When -the water is drained away, the knees die. - -Cypress is widely planted as an ornament, and a dozen or more varieties -have been developed in cultivation. - - POND CYPRESS (_Taxodium imbricarium_) so closely resembles bald - cypress with which it is associated that the two were once supposed - to be the same. Pond cypress averages smaller and its range is more - circumscribed. The name pond cypress, by which it is popularly known - in Georgia, indicates the localities where it is oftenest found. It - is the prevailing cypress in the Okefenoke swamp in southeastern - Georgia. The general aspect of the foliage and fruit is the same as - of bald cypress. No detailed examination of the wood seems to have - been made, but in general appearance it is like the other cypress. - It is said that little of it ever gets to sawmills because it grows - in situations where logging is inconvenient. - - MONTEREY CYPRESS (_Cupressus macrocarpa_). This tree has only one - name and that is due to its place of growth on the shores of - Monterey bay, California. Its range is more restricted than that of - any other American softwood. It does not much exceed 150 acres, - though the trees are scattered in a narrow strip for two miles along - the coast. They approach so close the breakers that spray flies over - them in time of storm. Trees exposed to the sweep of the wind are - gnarled and of fantastic shapes. Their crowns are broad and flat - like an umbrella, but ragged and unsymmetrical in outline. That form - offers least resistance to wind, and most surface to the sun. The - trees take the best possible advantage of their opportunities. Tall - crowns would be carried away by wind; and the flat tops, with a mass - of green foliage, catch all the sunlight possible. They need it, for - they grow in fog, and sunshine is scarce. Sheltered trees develop - pyramidal tops. It is widely planted in this and other countries, - and when conditions are favorable, it is graceful and symmetrical. - The largest trees are from sixty to seventy feet tall, others are - five or six in diameter; but the tallest trees and the largest - trunks seldom go together. The cones are an inch or more in length, - and each contains about 100 seeds. The leaves fall the third and - fourth years. Wood is heavy, hard, strong, and durable, but is too - scarce to be of value as lumber, even if the trunks were suitable - for sawlogs. The Monterey cypress is of peculiar interest to - botanists and also to physical geographers. The few trees on the - shore of Monterey bay appear to be the last remnant of a species - which was once more extensive. The ocean is eating away the coast at - that point. Fragments of hills, cut sheer down from top to the - breakers beneath, are plainly the last remnants of ranges which once - extended westward, but have been washed away by the encroaching - waves. No one knows how much of the former coast has been destroyed. - Apparently the former range of the cypress was principally on land - now swallowed up by the encroaching ocean. A mere fringe of the - trees--a belt about 200 yards wide along the beach--remains, and the - sea is undermining them one by one and carrying them down. So - rapidly is the undermining process going on that many large roots of - some of the trees are exposed to view. - - ARIZONA CYPRESS (_Cupressus arizonica_), as its name implies, is an - Arizona tree. It forms considerable forests in the eastern, central, - and southern parts of the state, and is found also in Mexico. It - grows at elevations up to 6,000 feet. Because of the small - population in the region where this cypress grows, it has never been - much used, but the size of the trees and the character of the wood - fit it for many purposes. Its growth is often quite rapid, and the - timber is soft, light, and with well-defined summerwood. Its usual - color is gray, but occasionally faint streaks of yellow appear. The - leaves fall during the fourth and fifth years; cones are small and - flat; and the small seeds are winged. It is believed by persons - familiar with Arizona cypress that it will attain considerable - importance when the building of railroads and the settlement of the - country make the forests accessible. The wood is durable in contact - with the soil. - - SMOOTH CYPRESS (_Cupressus glabra_) ranges in Arizona and is not - believed to have or to promise much importance as a source of lumber - supply. Its name was given on account of the smoothness of the bark. - It is one of the latest species to be given a place among the - cypresses, and was described and named by George B. Sudworth of the - United States Forest Service. - -[Illustration] - - - - -BALSAM FIR - -[Illustration: BALSAM FIR] - - - - -BALSAM FIR - -(_Abies Balsamea_) - - -Balsam fir is the usual name applied to this tree in New England, New -York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Ontario. The -shorter name balsam suffices in some parts of that region, and -particularly in New York, New Hampshire, and Vermont. Because it is -common north of the international boundary, the name Canada balsam has -been given it in some regions. In Delaware it is known as balm of -Gilead, but that name belongs to a tree of the cottonwood group, -(_Populus balsamifera_) which is a broadleaf species. In New York and -Pennsylvania a word of distinction is added, and it is called balm of -Gilead fir. Toward the southern limit of its range it is spoken of as -fir pine and blister pine. New York Indians knew the tree as blisters. -They referred to the pockets under the bark of young trees and near the -tops of mature trunks, in which resin collected. The name balsam refers -to that characteristic also, as does the word balm. In some parts of -Canada the tree is known as silver pine, and as silver spruce. The -secretion of resin in bark blisters is a characteristic of several firs. - -The list of names and the locality of their use indicate fairly well the -geographical range of balsam fir. Its northern limit forms a line across -eastern Canada from Labrador to Hudson bay. From Hudson bay its northern -boundary trends northwestward and reaches the vicinity of Great Bear -lake. In the United States it grows westward to Minnesota and southward -to Pennsylvania. It is cut for lumber in eleven states. - -In a range so large and including situations so various, it is natural -that the tree should vary greatly in size. In the Lake States the common -height is fifty or sixty feet, and the diameter is twelve or fifteen -inches. Young balsam firs grow vigorously when the ground is suitable -and their tops receive sufficient light. In lumbered regions in the Lake -States, this fir gets a foothold in the shade of a dense growth of paper -birch and other quickly-growing species; and in a few years the pointed, -intensely green spires of the balsams may be seen piercing the canopy of -other young tree tops, and shooting above into the light. This is -accomplished after a struggle of some years in the shade; but the firs -ultimately win their way upward, and in a few years they shade to death -most of their broadleaf associates. If they are in competition with -northern white cedar or tamarack, they are not always successful in -winning first place. - -The leaves of balsam fir are from one-half to one and one-fourth inches -long. They are green and lustrous above and silver white below, the -whiteness due to stomata on their undersides. On young twigs the leaves -bristle out on all sides and are very numerous and crowded together, but -on older branches the leaves are more scattered, due to the dropping of -some of them. It is their habit to adhere to the stems about eight -years. - -The leaves of balsam fir possess a pleasing and characteristic odor -which is turned to account in a practical way. The small needles are -stripped from the branches in large quantities, cleaned, dried, and are -used for stuffing sofa pillows, cushions, and other kinds of upholstery. -The odor persists a long time. Much of the collecting of the needles is -done in summer as a pastime by summer campers in the northern woods. The -needles are sufficiently tough to stand much wear in pillows, and they -are still odorous when long use has ground them to powder. - -The cones of balsam fir follow the fashion of all species of fir, and -stand erect on the branches. Seeds are one-fourth inch in length and are -winged. The wood is of approximately the same weight as white pine, but -it falls considerably below white pine in strength and stiffness. It is -of moderately rapid growth when conditions are favorable, and the annual -ring has a fair proportion of summerwood. The yearly rings are quite -distinct. The medullary rays are numerous, and for a softwood they are -prominent. When a log is quarter-sawed, and the surfaces of the boards -are planed, the wood presents a silvery appearance, but it is too -monotonous to be very attractive. The heartwood is pale brown, streaked -with yellow, the thick sapwood much lighter in color. It is perishable -in contact with the soil. - -Pulp manufacturers are the largest users of balsam fir. About three per -cent of all the pulpwood cut in the United States in 1910 was from this -species. Its use is on the increase, or appears to be; but recent -statistics relating to this wood cannot be safely compared with returns -for former years, because the custom of mixing fir with spruce and other -pulpwoods formerly prevailed in New England, and it was then not -possible to determine exactly how much fir reached the market. At the -present time fir goes under its own name, and the output exceeds 132,000 -cords, which is equivalent to 105,000,000 feet, board measure, yearly. - -Eleven states contribute to the balsam fir lumber cut, but most is -supplied by Maine, Minnesota, Vermont, Michigan, and Wisconsin. The -total for 1910 was 74,580,000 feet. Much of it is employed in rough form -for fences and buildings, while other is further manufactured by planing -mills and factories. Car builders employ it in several ways. It serves -as doors, siding, lining, and roofing for freight cars. It is not a -durable wood when exposed to weather. The largest reported use of the -wood in New England is by box makers. Massachusetts alone works nearly -15,000,000 feet a year into crates and shipping boxes. Its uses in the -Lake States are more varied. The makers of berry, fruit, and vegetable -baskets draw supplies from the wood. Some of the product is of thin -split slats, and other of veneer or sawed material. - -The light weight and white color of balsam fir make it acceptable to the -manufacturers of excelsior. The product is employed in packing -merchandise for shipment, and to a small extent in upholstery. The wood -fills a rather important place in the woodenware industry, where its -white color and light weight constitute its most important -recommendations. It is sawed into staves for pails and tubs. - -Though balsam fir has little figure and its appearance is rather common, -it finds its way to planing mills and woodworking shops where it is made -into ceiling, newel posts, molding, railing, spindles, chair-boards, and -other interior finish. - -The most widely known commercial product manufactured from this tree is -Canada balsam. Strictly speaking, it is not a manufactured article -except what is done in nature's laboratory, and the product is the resin -stored under bark blisters. The resin is transparent, and is employed by -microscopists in mounting objects for examination. Little machinery or -apparatus is used in removing the viscid fluid from the pockets in the -bark. With a knife the thin, soft blister is slit and the resin is -scraped out. All kinds of claims of medicinal virtue are made for balsam -resin in the region where the tree grows; but the treatment in most -cases effects cures--if any cures are really effected--by appeals to -faith and the imagination. - -Balsam fir owes a large part of its importance to its abundance. It is -not exactly a swamp tree, but it does best in damp situations where the -ground is moist and cool in summer. Only in periods of protracted -drought does the ground litter become sufficiently dry to burn fiercely, -and to that fact is due much of the promise of future supply of balsam -fir. That which grows on the dry uplands may fall prey to forest fires, -but that in the damp flats, associated with northern white cedar and -tamarack, will hold its ground and continue to supply demand. - -Balsam fir has an importance which can not be wholly measured in feet, -pounds, cords, or dollars. Many of the choicest Christmas trees which in -December go by tens of thousands to the cities, are of this tree. Its -form is almost perfect, being conical, broad near the bottom, and -running to a sharp apex. The deep green of the needles, which retain -their color from two weeks to a month after the trunk is severed, gives -balsam Christmas trees much of their popularity. The trees are cut from -Maine to Michigan, and many are shipped across the international -boundary from Canada. The custom of cutting Christmas trees is often -condemned as a waste of resources. It has been argued that the -destruction in one month of 1,000,000 young trees is equivalent to the -destruction of 500,000,000 feet of lumber, because, if allowed to reach -maturity, they would yield that much lumber. That argument does not take -into consideration the fact that not one of the young trees in ten would -reach maturity if left to the course of nature. - -When Gifford Pinchot was United States forester, a protest against the -cutting of Christmas trees was formally laid before him. It was -generally believed that he would declare that the waste ought to be -stopped and would set his disapproval on the practice; but he did -nothing of the sort. He declared that the forests are for the use of the -people and that they can serve in no better way than by supplying every -child in the land with a Christmas tree once a year. - -[Illustration] - - - - -FRASER FIR - -[Illustration: FRASER FIR] - - - - -FRASER FIR - -(_Abies Fraseri_) - - -The people who are acquainted with this interesting and somewhat rare -tree have seen to it that it does not want for names. Some of these -names are both definitive and descriptive, while others are neither. -Tennessee, North Carolina, and West Virginia furnish the names. Within -the tree's range in Tennessee and North Carolina it is often known as -balsam without any qualifying word, and that is quite sufficient, for no -other fir or balsam grows within its range. In the same region it is -called balsam fir. That is the common name of its northern relative, but -there is little likelihood of confusing the two species, for their -ranges do not overlap much, if they touch at all, which they probably do -not. In Tennessee the name is reversed and instead of balsam fir it is -fir balsam. It is likewise known as double fir balsam, but why "double" -is added to the name is not clear. Similar mystery attaches to the name -"single spruce," which is applied to the balsam fir in the interior of -British America. The southern Appalachian tree is called she balsam and -she balsam fir. These names have no scientific basis, and they appear to -have originated in a desire to distinguish this tree from the red spruce -with which it is associated. The spruce is called "he balsam." -Artificial names like these are not necessary to distinguish red spruce -from Fraser fir, as very slight acquaintance should enable anybody to -tell one from the other at sight, and to see clearly that they are not -of the same species. Mountain balsam, a North Carolina name for this -fir, is well taken, for it is distinctly a mountain species. The name -healing balsam is given in acknowledgment of the supposed medicinal -properties of the resin which collects in blisters or pockets under the -bark of young trees and near the tops of old. In West Virginia, where -this tree reaches the northern limits of its habitat, it is called -blister pine, on account of the resin pockets. In the same region it is -called stackpole pine, because farmers who mow mountain meadows use -straight, very light poles cut from this fir round which to build -haystacks. - -This tree is decidedly an inhabitant of the high, exposed localities, -being found entirely in the upper elevations of the southern Appalachian -mountains, either forming extensive pure stands or growing in the -company of red spruce (_Picea rubens_), with a scattering of various -stunted hardwoods, as birch, mountain ash, cherry and usually with an -undergrowth of rhododendron. - -Fraser fir's range extends from the high mountains of North Carolina, -where it grows 6,000 feet above sea level, northward into West -Virginia, within a few miles of the Maryland line, at an altitude of -3,300 feet. The tree is not found in all regions between its northern -and southern limits. Its best development is in the southern part of its -range. - -On the upper limits of its habitat the tree presents a decidedly -picturesque appearance, being gnarled and twisted and plainly showing -the results of its long struggle for life and development. It is always -noticeable that on the exposed side the limbs are so short as to be -almost missing and on the opposite side they grow out straight and long, -appearing to fly before the wind. These limbs are sometimes of as great -a girth for five or six feet of their length as any part of the main -stem, and have a singular look, seeming to be all out of proportion to -the rest of the tree. The older trees are vested in a smooth, -yellowish-gray, mossy bark, which is quite different from that of the -balsam fir. The bark is thin, about one-fourth of an inch on young -trunks, and half an inch near the ground on old ones. The leaves are -usually half an inch long, sometimes one inch, and their lower sides are -whitish, which tint is due to abundant white stomata. In that respect -they resemble leaves of balsam fir and hemlock. - -The cones, like those of other species of fir, stand erect on the -branches, and average about two and a half inches in length. They are -smoother than the cones of most pines. They mature in September. The -winged seeds average one-eighth inch in length, and are fairly abundant. -The Fraser fir grows as tall as balsam fir, from forty to sixty feet, -and the trunk diameter is greater, being sometimes thirty inches, though -half of that is nearer an average. When of pole size, that is, from five -to eight inches in diameter, Fraser fir is often tall, straight and -shapely. Its form, however, depends upon the situation in which it -grows. If in the open, it develops a relatively short trunk and a broad, -pyramidal crown. This fir differs from balsam fir in its choice of -situation. The latter, though not exactly a swamp tree, prefers damp -ground, while Fraser fir flourishes on slopes and mountain tops. - -On the mountains of western North Carolina fir grows in mixture with red -spruce. Sometimes the fir is fifty per cent of the stand, but usually it -is less, and frequently not more than fifteen per cent. Few fir trees in -that locality are two feet in diameter. They grow with fair rapidity in -their early years, but decline in rate as age comes on. It may be -observed in traveling through the stands of mixed spruce and fir among -the high ranges of the southern Appalachian mountains that the -proportion of spruce is much higher in old stands than in young. That is -due to the greater age to which spruce lives. Trees of that species -continue to stand after the firs have died of old age. On the other -hand, fir outnumbers spruce in many young stands. That is because fir -reproduces better than spruce, and grows with more vigor at first. In -stands of second growth the fir often predominates. It depends to some -extent upon the conditions under which the second growth has its start. -Fir does not germinate well if the ground has been bared by fire and the -humus burned. Consequently, old burns do not readily grow up in fir. The -best stands occur where the natural conditions have not been much -disturbed further than by removing the growth. Fortunately conditions on -the summit and elevated slopes of the southern Appalachians do not favor -destructive forest fires. Rain is frequent and abundant, and the shade -cast by evergreen trees keeps the humus too moist for fire. To this -condition is due the comparative immunity from fire of the high mountain -forests of fir and spruce. Sometimes, however, fires sweep through fine -stands with disastrous results. The destruction is more serious because -no second forest of evergreens is likely on tracts which have been -severely burned. - -A report by the State Geological Survey on forest conditions in western -North Carolina, issued in 1911, predicted that spruce and fir forests -aggregating from 100,000 to 150,000 acres among the high mountain -ranges, will become barren tracts, because of the destructive effect of -fires stripping the ground of humus. - -The cutters of pulpwood in the southern Appalachian mountains take -Fraser fir wherever they find it, mix it with spruce, and the two woods -go to market as one. Statistics show the annual cut of both, but do not -give them separately. The output of spruce, including fir, south of -Pennsylvania, in 1910 was 115,993 cords, equivalent to about 80,000,000 -feet, board measure. Most of it was red spruce, but some was fir, and in -North Carolina probably twenty-five per cent was of that species. The -total pulpwood cut in that state was 14,509 cords of the two woods -combined, and probably 3,800 cords were Fraser fir. - -The wood of Fraser fir is very light. An air dry sample from Roan -mountain, N. C., weighed 22.22 pounds per cubic foot. That is lighter -than balsam fir, which is classed among the very light woods. It is -stronger than balsam fir by twenty-five per cent. The wood is soft, -compact and the bands of summerwood in the annual rings are rather broad -and light colored and are not conspicuous. The medullary rays are thin -but numerous. The color is light brown, the sapwood mostly white. - -This wood is not of much commercial value except for pulp. It is not -abundant, and it is not suited to many purposes. It is suitable for -boxes, being light in weight and moderately strong; but other woods -which grow in the same region are as good in all respects and are more -abundant, and will be used in preference to fir for that purpose. The -decrease in area on account of fires, and in quantity because of -pulpwood operations, indicates that forest grown Fraser fir has seen its -best days. On the other hand, the United States Forest Service has -acquired tracts of land on the summits of the mountains where this -species has its natural home, and the growth will be protected from -fires and from destructive cutting, and there is no danger that the -species will be exterminated. - -It is an interesting tree. It contributes to the pleasure of tourists -and campers among the southern mountains. The fragrance of its leaves -and young branches add a zest to the summer camp. The traveler who is -overtaken in the woods by the coming of night, prepares his bed of the -boughs of this tree and of red spruce and sleeps soundly beneath an -evergreen canopy. Pillows and cushions stuffed with fir needles carry -memories of the mountains to distant cities. - -In one respect this tree of the high mountains is like the untamed -Indians who once roamed in that region: it refuses to be civilized. The -tree has been planted in parks in this country and in Europe, but it -does not prosper. Its form loses something of the grace and symmetry -which it exhibits in its mountain home, and its life is short. Those who -wish to see Fraser fir at its best must see it where nature planted it -high on the southern mountains. - - ARIZONA CORK FIR (_Abies arizonica_) very closely resembles forms of - the alpine fir, and may not be a separate species. Sudworth was - unable to distinguish its foliage and cones from those of alpine - fir, but the bark is softer. Its range is on the San Francisco - mountains in Arizona. It is very scarce, and only local use of its - wood is possible. - -[Illustration] - - - - -NOBLE FIR - -[Illustration: NOBLE FIR] - - - - -NOBLE FIR - -(_Abies Nobilis_) - - -This tree's name is justified by its appearance when growing at its best -in the forests of the northwest Pacific coast. It is tall, shapely, and -imposing. It often exceeds a height of 250 feet, and a trunk diameter of -six feet. It is sometimes eight feet in diameter. No tree is more -shapely and symmetrical. When grown in dense stands the first limb may -be 150 feet from the ground, and from that point to the base there is -little taper. It over-reaches so many of its forest companions that it -is sometimes designated locally as bigtree; but it is believed that -lumber is never so spoken of, and that the name applies to the standing -tree only. The Indians of the region where it grows call it tuck-tuck, -but information as to the meaning of these words is not at hand. In -northern California, and probably still farther north, this species is -often called red fir, feather-cone red fir, or bracted red fir. The -color of the heartwood and the appearance of the cone, doubtless are -responsible for these names. There is a tendency in the fir-growing -regions of the West to call all firs either white or red, depending upon -the color of the heartwood. There are ten or more species of fir west of -the Rocky Mountains, and to the layman they all look much alike, but to -botanists they are interesting objects of study. - -The range of noble fir covers parts of three states, but the whole of no -one. Its northern limit is in Washington, its southern in northern -California, and it follows the mountains across western Oregon. It often -forms extensive forests on the Cascade mountains of Washington. It is -most abundant at elevations of from 2,500 to 5,000 feet in southwestern -Washington and northwestern Oregon. On the eastern and northern slopes -of those mountains it is of smaller size and is less abundant. Like -several other of the extraordinarily large western trees, it keeps -pretty close to the warm, moist coast of the Pacific. - -The shining, blue-green color of the leaves is a conspicuous -characteristic of noble fir as it appears in the forest. They vary in -length from an inch to an inch and a half. They usually curl, twist, and -turn their points upward and backward, away from the end of the branch -which bears them. The cones, following the fashion of firs, stand -upright on the twigs, and are conspicuous objects. They are four or five -inches in length, which is rather large for firs, but not the largest. -The seeds are half an inch long, and are winged. They are well provided -with the means of flight, but many of them never have an opportunity to -test their wings, for the dextrous Douglas squirrel cuts the cones from -the highest trees, and when they fall to the ground he pulls them apart -with his feet and teeth, and the seeds pay him for his pains. If cones -ripen on the trees and the released seeds sail away, there are birds of -various feather waiting to receive them. Consequently, the noble fir -plants comparatively few seeds. Their ratio of fertility is low at best, -but that is partly compensated for by the large numbers produced. - -Thick stands of noble fir are not common. It generally is found, a few -trees here and there, mixed with other species. Sawmills find it -unprofitable to keep the lumber separate from other kinds. It does not -pay to do so for two reasons. Extra labor is required to handle it in -that way, and there is a prejudice against fir lumber. It does not -appeal to buyers. For that reason some operators have called this timber -Oregon larch, and have sent it to market under that name. That is a -trick of the trade which has been put into practice many times and with -many woods. The purpose in the instance of noble fir was to pass it for -the larch which grows in the northern Rocky Mountain region. The two -woods are so different that no person acquainted with one would mistake -it for the other. A recent government report of woods used for -manufacturing purposes in Washington does not list a foot of noble fir. -The inference is that it must be going to factories under some other -name, for it is incredible that this wood should be put to no use at all -in the region of its best development. - -Noble fir is of slow growth, and the large trunks are very old, the -oldest not less than 800 years. The summerwood forms a narrow, dark band -in the annual ring. Medullary rays are numerous, but very thin and -inconspicuous. The wood possesses little figure. It weighs twenty-eight -pounds per cubic foot, which is four pounds less than the average -Douglas fir. It is very low in fuel value, as softwoods usually are -which have little resin. It is very weak, and it bends easily. It is -soft, easily worked, and polishes well. This is one of its most valuable -qualities. It is deficient in a number of properties which are desirable -in wood, but partly makes up for them in its ability to take a smooth -finish. It is pale brown, streaked with red, the sapwood darker. In that -particular it is unusual, for most softwoods have sap lighter in color -than the heart. - -It has been already pointed out that difficulty is met when an attempt -is made to list the uses of noble fir, because it loses its name before -it leaves the sawmill yard and takes the name of some other wood, and -those who put it to use often do so without knowing what the wood really -is. It is known that some of it is manufactured into house siding. It -works nicely and looks well, but since it is liable to quick decay it -must be kept well painted when it is exposed to weather. It serves as -interior finish, and this seems to be one of its best uses. It is so -employed for steamboats and for houses, and many shipments of it have -been made to boat builders on the Atlantic coast. It is used for -shipping boxes, and its light color fits it for that purpose, as the -wood shows painting and stenciling to good advantage. - -European nurseries have propagated noble fir with success, but it does -not do so well in the eastern part of the United States, though it lives -through winters as far north as Massachusetts. It is not known to have -been planted for other than ornamental purposes. Unless it would grow -much faster in plantations than in its wild state, it will be too long -in maturing to make it attractive to the timber planter. - - WHITE FIR (_Abies concolor_). The whiteness of the wood and the - silver color of the young branches give this species its name, but - it is not the sole possessor of that name, but shares it with three - other firs. In California, Idaho, and Utah it is called balsam fir. - The branches and upper parts of the trunk where the bark is thin, - are covered with blisters which contain white resin. In Utah it is - known as white balsam, as silver fir in some parts of California, - and as black gum in Utah. The reason for that name is not apparent, - unless it refers to the black bark on old trees. It has several - other names which are combinations of white and silver with some - other term. Its range is mostly in the Sierras and in the Rocky - Mountain ranges, extending from southern Colorado to the mountains - of California, north through Oregon, and south through New Mexico - and Arizona. The immense proportions are reached only in the Sierra - growth, those trees in the Rockies being hardly above ordinary size. - In its free growth the tree is reputed to be the only one of its - genus found in the arid regions of the Great Basin, and similar - localities in Arizona and New Mexico. It is not distinguished by all - botanists from the similar species, _Abies grandis_. - - White fir attains a height of 250 feet and a diameter of six in some - instances, but the average size of mature trees among the Sierra - Nevadas is 150 feet tall and three or four in diameter. In the Rocky - Mountain region the tree is smaller. It grows from 3,000 to 9,000 - feet above sea level. The leaves are long for the fir genus, and - vary from two to three inches. The tree's bark is black near the - base of large trunks but of less somber color near the top. Near the - base of large trees the bark is sometimes six inches thick. The wood - of this species is light and soft. Carpenters consider it coarse - grained, by which they mean that it does not polish nicely. It is - brittle and weak. The rings of annual growth are generally broad, - with the bands of darker colored summerwood prominent. In lumber - sawed tangentially, rings produces distinct figure, but it is not - generally regarded as pleasing. The medullary rays are prominent for - a softwood, but quarter-sawing does not add much to the wood's - appearance. It decays quickly in alternate wet and dry situations. - Trees are apt to be affected with wind shake, and the wood's - disposition to splinter in course of manufacture has prejudiced many - users against it. However, it has some good qualities. The wood is - free from objectionable odor, and this qualifies it as box material. - Fruit shippers can use it without fear of contaminating their wares. - It is light in color, and stenciling looks well on it. Its weight is - likewise in its favor. - - Trees of this species seldom occur in pure stands of large extent, - but are scattered among forests of other kinds. Sawmills cut the fir - as they come to it, but seldom go much out of their way to get it. - The United States census for 1910 showed that 132,327,000 feet of - white fir lumber were cut in the whole country, but as several - species pass by that name it is not possible to determine how much - belonged to the one under discussion, but probably about half, as - that much was credited to California where this tree is at its best. - The fir does not suffer in comparison with trees associated with it. - Its trunk does not average quite as large as the pines, yet larger - than most of the cedars; but in height it equals the best of its - associates, and in symmetrical form, and beauty of color of foliage, - it must be acknowledged superior. The dark intensity of its green - crown when thrown against the blue summer skies of the Sierras forms - a picture which probably no tree in the world can surpass and few - can equal. Its cones suffer from the depredations of the ever-hungry - Douglas squirrel which is too impatient to wait for nature's slow - process to ripen and scatter the seeds; but he climbs the trunks - which stand as straight as plummet lines two hundred feet or more, - and clinging to the topmost swaying branches, clips the cone stems - with his teeth, and the cone goes to the ground like a shot. A - person who will stand still in a Sierra forest in late summer, where - firs abound, will presently hear the cones thumping the ground on - all sides of him. If his eyes are good, and he looks carefully, he - may see the squirrels, silhouetted against the sky on far-away tree - tops, seeming so small in the distance that they look the size of - mice; yet the Douglas squirrel is about the size of the eastern red - squirrel. He does not always let the cones fall when he cuts their - stems, but sometimes carries them down the long trunk to the ground, - then goes back for another. The squirrel hoards the cones for - winter, but does not neglect to fully satisfy his appetite while - about the work. A single hoard--carefully covered with pine needles - as a roof against winter snow--may contain five or ten bushels of - cones, which are not all fir cones, but these predominate in most - hoards. - -[Illustration] - - - - -GRAND FIR - -[Illustration: GRAND FIR] - - - - -GRAND FIR - -(_Abies Grandis_) - - -In California, Oregon, and Idaho this tree is called white fir, but it -has several other names, silver fir and yellow fir in Montana and Idaho. -In California some know it as Oregon fir, western white fir, and great -California fir. Grand fir is more a botanist's than a lumberman's name. - -The range extends from British Columbia to Mendocino county, California, -and to the western slopes of the continental divide in Montana. The -coastal growth lies in a comparatively narrow strip. In the mountains an -altitude of 7,000 feet is sometimes reached, the soil and moisture -requirements, however, being the same. The largest trees are found in -bottom lands near the coast where trunks 300 feet tall and six feet in -diameter are found, but the average is much less. In mountain regions at -considerable altitudes a height of 100 feet and a diameter of two or -three is an average size. The leaves are about an inch and a half in -length, occasionally two and a half. They are arranged in rows along the -sides of the long, flexible branches. Cones are from two to four inches -long, and bear winged seeds three-eighths of an inch long, the wings -being half an inch or more in length. The bark of old trunks may be two -inches thick, but generally is thinner. It is unfortunate that the wood -of the large western firs lacks so many qualities which make it -valuable. It is generally inferior to the woods of Douglas fir, western -hemlock, Sitka spruce and the western cedars, sugar pine, and western -yellow pine. The wood of grand fir is light, soft, weak, brittle, and -not durable in contact with the soil. Its light color and the abundance -of clear material in the giant trunks are redeeming features. These -ought to open the way for much use in the future. It cannot find place -in heavy construction, because it is not strong enough. That shuts it -from one important place for which it is otherwise fitted. Box makers -find it suitable, as all fir woods are, and large demand should come -from that quarter. Trunks that will cut from 15,000 to 20,000 feet of -lumber that is practically clear, and of good color, and light in -weight, are bound to have value for boxes and slack cooperage. Trees -grow with fair rapidity. Annual rings are usually broad, and the bands -of summerwood are wide and distinct. This guarantees a certain figure in -lumber sawed tangentially, but it is not a figure to compare in beauty -with some of the hardwoods, or even with Douglas fir, or the southern -yellow pines. It ought to be a first class material for certain kinds -of woodenware, particularly for tubs, pails, and small stave vessels, -and as far as it has been used in that way it has been satisfactory. -It cannot be recommended for outside house finish, such as -weather-boarding, cornice, and porch work, because of its susceptibility -to decay; but it meets requirements for plain interior finish, and tests -have shown it to be good material for cores or backing over which to -glue veneers of hardwood. - -While the eastern states have not yet wakened up to the fact that this -tree is of value in ornamental planting, its decorative qualities in -open stands have been recognized for some time in eastern Europe, where -trees of considerable size, promising to attain almost primeval -proportions, are already flourishing. - -RED FIR (_Abies magnifica_) is the largest fir in America. At its best -it attains a height of 250 feet and a diameter of ten, but that size is -rare. It has several names, magnificent fir, which is a translation of -its botanical name; redbark fir, California red fir, and golden fir. The -reference to red which occurs in its several names, is descriptive of -its heartwood. Its range lies on the Cascade mountains of southern -Oregon, and along the entire length of the western slope of the Sierra -Nevadas in California. It is common in southern Oregon and sometimes -forms nearly pure forests at elevations of 5,000 or 7,000 feet. It is -plentiful in the Sierra Nevada ranges at altitudes of from 6,000 to -9,000 feet. In southern California it ascends 10,000 feet. On old trees -the limbs, regularly whorled in collars of five, are usually pendulous -or down-growing and are regularly and precisely subdivided into branches -and twigs, the short, stiff blue-green leaves, which persist for ten -years, closely covering the upper side of the latter. Its cones are the -largest of the firs, are dark purple in color and grow erect on the -branches. - -The cones are six or eight inches long, and three or four in diameter. -They present a fine appearance as they stand erect on the branches. The -seeds are large, but their strong wings are able to carry them away from -the immediate presence of the parent tree. The wings are extremely -beautiful, and flash light with the colors of the rainbow. Old trees are -protected by hard, dark-colored bark five or six inches thick. A forest -fire may pass through a stand of old firs without burning through the -bark, but young trees are not so protected, and are liable to be killed. - -A study of the wood of the red fir reveals rather more favorable -qualities than the other firs afford. Sap and heartwood are more easily -distinguished than in the other species, the sapwood being much lighter -in color than the reddish heart. Contrary to the general rule among the -firs, this wood possesses considerable durability, especially when used -for purposes which bring it in contact with the soil. It is, however, -light, soft and weak, but has a close, fine grain and compact structure. -Seasoning defects, such as checking and warping, are liable to occur -unless properly guarded against. It weighs 29.30 pounds per cubic foot, -or nearly three pounds less than Douglas fir. It is used for rough -lumber, packing boxes, bridge floors, interior house finish, and fuel. - -SHASTA RED FIR (_Abies magnifica shastensis_) is pronounced by George B. -Sudworth to be only a form of red fir (_Abies magnifica_) and not a -separate species. The principal difference is in the cones. The Shasta -form was discovered on the mountain of that name in northern California -in 1890 by Professor J. G. Lemmon. It was supposed to be confined to -that locality, but was subsequently found on the Cascade mountains in -Oregon, and also at several points in northern California. It was later -found in the Sierras five hundred miles south of Mount Shasta. - - LOVELY FIR (_Abies amabilis_) is known by a number of names, red - fir, silver fir, red silver fir, lovely red fir, amabilis fir, and - larch. The last name is applied to this tree by lumbermen who have - discovered that fir lumber sells better if it is given some other - name. The range of this species extends from British Columbia - southward in the Cascade mountains through Washington to Oregon. It - is the common fir of the Olympic mountains and there reaches its - best development, sometimes a height of 250 feet and a diameter of - five or six; but the average, even in the best part of its range, is - much under that size, while in the northern country, and high on - mountains, it is a commonplace tree, averaging less than 100 feet - high, and scarcely eighteen inches in diameter. When this fir stands - in open ground, the whole trunk is covered with limbs from base to - top; but in dense stands, the limbs drop off, and a clean trunk - results. - - Some of the largest trees rise with scarcely a limb 150 feet, and - above that is the small crown. The bark of young trees is covered - with blisters filled with resin. The bark is thin and smooth until - the tree is a century or more old, after which it becomes rougher, - and near the base may be two and a half inches thick. It is of very - slow growth, and a century hardly produces a trunk of small sawlog - size. The leaves are dark green above, and whitish below. They are - much crowded on the twigs, those on the underside rising with a - twist at the base, and standing nearly erect. They are longer than - those on the twig's upper side. The purple cones are conspicuous - objects on the tree, are from three and a half to six inches long, - and bear abundance of seeds which are well dispersed by wind. - However, the reproduction of this tree is not plentiful. The species - holds its own, and not much more. When artificial reforestation - takes place in this country, if that time ever comes, lovely fir - will receive scant consideration, because of its discouragingly slow - growth. It ranks with lodgepole pine in that respect. Nature can - afford to wait two hundred years for a forest to mature, but men - will not plant and protect when the prospect of returns is so - remote. The wood is light, weak, moderately stiff and hard. The - heartwood is pale brown, the sap nearly white. The summerwood - appears in thin but well-marked bands in the annual rings, and the - medullary rays are large enough to show slightly in quarter-sawed - lumber. Growing as it does, interspersed with really valuable woods, - the lovely fir is not highly thought of from a commercial - standpoint. However, it is exploited in conjunction with the other - species and turned into lumber and general structural material. A - considerable quantity finds a market as interior finish and other - millwork. It has many of the properties which fit it for the - manufacture of packing boxes, particularly those intended for dried - fruit and light merchandise. It bears considerable resemblance to - spruce. The utilization of this and similar species of western fir - for pulp has been suggested, but little has been done. It has been - planted ornamentally in parts of Europe, but there is no comparison - between the decorative appearance of this fir and its associated - species, the others which are in cultivation being much superior. - Removal from the old habitat militates greatly against its natural - beauty and reduces it to the level of the ordinary. - - ALPINE FIR (_Abies lasiocarpa_) is so called because it thrives on - high mountains and in the far North. It grows in southern Alaska, up - to latitude 60°, and southward to Oregon and Colorado. Its other - names are balsam, white balsam, Oregon balsam, mountain balsam, - white fir, pumpkin tree, down-cone, and downy-cone subalpine fir. It - grows from sea level in Alaska up to 7,000 feet or more in the - South. It is not abundant, and not very well known. However, its - slender, spirelike top distinguishes it from all associates and it - may be recognized at long distances by that characteristic. It - endures cold at 40 degrees below zero, and summer climate at 90 - degrees. Trees are usually small, and the trunks are covered with - limbs to the ground. On high mountains the lower limbs often lie - flat on the ground, and the twigs sometimes take root. Under very - favorable circumstances this fir may reach a height of 160 feet and - a diameter of four, but the usual size is less than half of it, even - when conditions are fair, while on bleak mountains mature trees may - be only three or four feet high, with most of the limbs prostrate. - The sprawling form of growth makes the tree peculiarly liable to be - killed by fire. The bark is thin, smooth, and flinty; and in color - it is ashy gray or chalky white. Leaves are one and a half inches or - less long; the purple cones from two to four inches. Trees bear - cones at about twelve years of age. The seeds are equipped with - violet or purplish wings, and they fly far enough to find the best - available places to plant themselves. The wood is narrow-ringed, - light, soft, and in color from pale straw to light yellowish-brown. - It is fairly straight grained, and splits and works easily; but - trunks are very knotty. Its best service in the past has consisted - in supplying fuel to mining camps and mountain stock ranges. - -[Illustration] - - - - -DOUGLAS FIR - -[Illustration: DOUGLAS FIR] - - - - -DOUGLAS FIR - -(_Pseudotsuga Taxifolia_) - - -During one hundred and ten years, from 1803 until the present time, -botanists and others have proposed and rejected names for this tree. It -has been called a fir, pine, and spruce, with various combinations, but -the name now seems to be fixed. Laymen have disputed almost as much as -botanists as to what the tree should be named. It has been called red -fir, Douglas spruce, Douglas fir, yellow fir, spruce, fir, pine, red -pine, Puget Sound pine, Oregon pine, cork-barked Douglas spruce, and -Douglas tree. More than a dozen varieties are distinguished in -cultivation. - -The range of Douglas fir covers most of the Rocky Mountain region in the -United States and northward to central British Columbia; on the coast -from the latitude of southern Alaska to the Sierra Nevada mountains in -central California. It reaches its maximum development in western -Washington and Oregon, particularly between the Cascade mountains and -the Pacific ocean. In these Cascade forests, stands are found which -yield from 50,000 to 100,000 feet per acre, and mills in that region cut -the longest timbers in the world, some two feet square and 100 feet -long. - -Two forms of Douglas fir are recognized by botanists, not essentially -different except in size and habit of growth. One is the finely -developed form on the Pacific coast where the climate is warm and the -air moist. The other is the Rocky Mountain form which is smaller and -shows the effect of cold, dryness, and other adverse circumstances. When -the seeds of the two forms are planted in nurseries, where they enjoy -identical advantages, the coast form outgrows the other in Europe, but -the Rocky Mountain form thrives best in the eastern part of the United -States. - -Douglas fir needles are from three-quarters to one and a quarter inches -long, and of a dark, yellow-green color. They remain on the twigs about -eight years. Cones are from two to four and a half inches long, and are -borne on long stems. The seeds, which ripen in August, are of light, -reddish-brown color with irregular white spots on the lower side; are -about a quarter of an inch long, and are provided with wings. Trees of -this species in the moist climate of the Pacific slope average much -larger than those in the mountains farther east. The largest are 300 -feet high, occasionally more, and from eight to ten in diameter. The -average among the Rocky Mountains is from eighty to 100 feet high, and -two to four in diameter. Young trees are slender with crowded branches. -In thick stands the lower limbs die and the trunks remain bare, except -an occasional small branch. Douglas fir at its best grows in thick -stands, with crowns forming a canopy so dense that sunlight can scarcely -reach the ground. The result of this is that other species have little -show where Douglas fir prevails. - -The bark of large trunks attains a thickness of eight or ten inches near -the base. Young bark contains blisters filled with resin, similar to -those of balsam and other species of fir. - -The wood is light red or yellow, the sap much whiter. Lumbermen -recognize two kinds of wood, yellow and red. The former is considered -more valuable. Both may come from the same trunk, and the reason for the -difference in color and quality is not well understood. It cannot be -attributed to soil or climate, or to the age of the tree, and it does -not seem to depend upon rate of growth. The bands of summerwood are -broad and quite distinct. A few scattered resin ducts are visible under -a magnifying glass of low power. The medullary rays are numerous, rather -large, frequently yellow, conspicuous when wood is split radially. The -wood's average weight is given by Sargent at 32.14 pounds per cubic -foot, yet some specimens exceed forty pounds. It is hard, strong, and -stiff. In mechanical properties it rates about the same as longleaf pine -of the South. Elaborate tests have been made to determine which of these -woods is the better for heavy construction, and neither appears to win -over the other. In one respect, however, Douglas fir has a clear -advantage over its southern rival: it may be had in much larger pieces. -No other commercial wood of the world equals it in that particular. The -Douglas fir flagstaff at the Kew gardens in England was 159 feet long, -eight inches in diameter at the top, more than three feet at the base. -The extraordinary size of squared beams cut from this species has led to -great demand for it for heavy construction in Europe and this country. -The pines from the Baltic sea region of northern Europe, which held -undisputed place in heavy work during centuries, has now yielded that -place to Douglas fir and longleaf pine. - -No other single species in the United States or in the world equals the -annual sawmill cut of Douglas fir. The four species of southern yellow -pines, if counted as one, surpass it; but singly, not one comes up to -it. In 1910 the lumber cut from this fir amounted to 5,203,644,000 feet, -which exceeded one-eighth of the total lumber cut in the United States. -The importance of such a timber tree can scarcely be estimated. The -available supply in the western forests is very large and will last many -years, even if the demand for more than 5,000,000,000 feet a year -continues to be met. - -The timber is exported to practically every civilized nation in the -world. Shipbuilding creates a heavy demand. Some of the leading European -nations use it as deck lining for battleships, and except mahogany and -teak, it is said to have no equal for that purpose. Its cheapness gives -it a decided advantage over those woods. - -Every important lumber market in the United States handles Douglas fir, -and its uses are so many that it would be easier to list industries -which do not use it than those which do. It is manufactured into more -than fifty classes of commodities, in Illinois alone. Among these are -boats, railroad cars, electrical apparatus, farm machinery, laundry -supplies, ladders, refrigerators, musical instruments, fixtures for -offices, stores, and banks, and sash, doors, and blinds. This list of -uses shows that its place in the country's industries includes much more -than rough construction. It may be stained in imitation of valuable -foreign and domestic woods, including walnut, mahogany, and oak. The -natural grain and figure of the wood may be deepened and improved by -stains, and this is much done by manufacturers of interior finish, -panels, and store and office fixtures. There is practically no limit to -the size of panels which may be cut in single pieces. It is easy to -procure planks large enough for whole counter tops. - -The best grain of Douglas fir is not brought out by quarter-sawing. The -figures desired are not those produced by the medullary rays, but by the -rings of annual growth. Therefore, the sawyer at the mill cuts his best -logs--if intended for figured lumber--tangentially, as far as possible. -In the state of Washington, which leads all other states in the -production of Douglas fir, its chief use as a manufactured product is -for doors, sash, and blinds, and the annual consumption in that industry -exceeds 50,000,000 feet. It is cut in veneers, and it is likewise used -as corewood to back veneers. Crossarms for telegraph and telephone poles -demand 35,000,000 feet yearly in Washington alone, and many thousands of -poles are of this wood. It is third among the crosstie woods of the -United States, the combined cut of oaks standing first, and the pine -second. It is rapidly taking high position as material for large water -pipes and for braces, props, stulls, and lagging in mines and for paving -blocks for streets. - - BRISTLECONE FIR (_Abies venusta_) is pronounced by George B. - Sudworth to be "the most curious fir tree in the world." It is found - almost exclusively in Monterey county, California, but a few trees - grow outside of that circumscribed area. It has been called Santa - Lucia fir, because it was once supposed to exist only in canyons of - Santa Lucia mountains, but its range is now known to be more - extensive. Monterey county, California, is of peculiar interest to - dendrologists. Three species of trees are either confined to that - area, or have their best development there. They are Monterey - cypress (_Cupressus macrocarpa_), Monterey pine (_Pinus radiata_), - and bristlecone fir. All are peculiar trees: the cypress because of - its ragged form and extremely limited range, the pine because of - its exceedingly rapid growth when given a chance, and the fir, - because of its peculiar form of crown, odd appearance of cone, and - extraordinary weight of wood. No reason is apparent why that - particular point on the California coast should have brought into - existence--or at least should have gathered to itself--three - peculiar tree species. Bristlecone fir is well named from the - bristles an inch long covering the cone. The leaves, too, are - peculiar, bearing much resemblance to small willow leaves. Their - upper sides are deep yellow-green and the under sides silvery. The - largest leaves are two inches long, cones three inches. They ripen - in August, and soon afterwards scatter their seeds. The tree is not - a prolific seeder, and it is believed that its range is becoming - smaller. Bristlecone's form of crown has been compared to an Indian - club, the large end on the ground and the handle pointing upward. - Trees from sixty to eighty feet high have such "handles" twenty or - thirty feet long. That peculiarity of shape makes the tree - recognizable among associated species at a distance of several - miles. The recorded weight of the wood is 42.27 pounds per cubic - foot, which is nearly twice the weight of some other firs. The wood - is moderately soft, but very firm. Few uses for it have been - reported. Trunks are very knotty, and are too few in number to be of - importance as a source of lumber. The tree has been planted - successfully for ornament in the south of Europe. - - BIGCONE SPRUCE (_Pseudotsuga macrocarpa_) is of the same genus as - Douglas fir and bears much resemblance to it, but is smaller, and - its range lies wholly outside that of its northern relative. It is a - southern California species, occupying mountain slopes and canyons - in Santa Barbara and San Diego counties. It is found from 3,000 to - 5,000 feet above sea level. Trees average forty or fifty feet in - height and two or three in diameter. The leaves are approximately of - the same size as those of Douglas fir; but the cones are much - larger, hence the name by which the tree is known. It is called - hemlock as often as spruce. The cones are from four to seven inches - long, hang down, and usually occupy the topmost branches of trees. - The winged seeds are half an inch long. The bark is six inches or - less in thickness. The wood is inferior in most ways to that of - Douglas fir, lighter, weaker, and less elastic. Its color is reddish - brown. It has never contributed much lumber to the market and never - will. Its range is local and the form of the tree is not of the - best. An occasional log reaches a sawmill, but the principal demand - is for fuel. - -[Illustration] - - - - -BIGTREE - -[Illustration: BIGTREE] - - - - -BIGTREE - -(_Sequoia Washingtoniana_) - - -Botanists have had a hard time giving this tree a Latin name which will -meet the requirements of technical classification, but an English name -acceptable everywhere was early found for it--bigtree. No fewer than a -dozen names have been proposed by botanists. Most of them attempt to -express the idea of vastness or grandeur; but the simple English name -comes directly to the point and ends the controversy as far as the -common name is concerned. - -Everything connected with this tree is interesting. Geologically, it is -as old as the yellow poplar. There were five species of sequoias in the -northern hemisphere, in Europe and America, before the ice age. They -grew in the North, nearly to the Arctic circle, at a time when the -climate of those regions was milder than it is now. The later advance of -the ice southward overwhelmed three species of bigtrees, and pushed two -survivors into the region which is now California. These are the bigtree -and the redwood. It is not known how long ago it was that the ice sheet -did its destructive work, but it antedated human history, and the -gigantic trees have been in California since that time. - -Long after the ice age ceased generally in North America it continued -among the high Sierras of California, and the bigtrees to this day give -a hint of it in the peculiar outlines of their range. They are scattered -north and south along the face of the Sierra Nevada mountains in -California, a distance of 260 miles, and at elevations from 4,500 to -8,000 feet. - -The aggregate of the total areas is about fifty square miles. The stand -is not continuous, but consists of "groves," that is, isolated stands -with wide intervals between, where no trees of this species are found. -The arrangement suggests that the bigtree forest was cut in sections by -glaciers which descended from the high mountains to the plains, a -distance of one hundred miles or more, crossing the belt of sequoias at -right angles. The glaciers withdrew thousands of years ago, and their -tracks down the mountain slopes have long been covered by forests; but -the bigtree groves, for some unknown reason, never spread into the -intervening spaces, but today are separated by wide tracts in which not -a seedling or an old trunk or log of that species is to be found. This -is one of the mysteries which add interest to those wonderful trees--why -they cannot extend their range beyond the circumscribed limits which -they occupied thousands of years ago. - -It was claimed for a long time and was quite generally believed that -bigtrees were not reproducing, that there "were no little bigtrees." -That was conclusively disproved by Fred G. Plummer, geographer of the -United States Forest Service, who made a scientific study of a small -grove, measured the trees, and actually counted and classified them. His -work showed that there were in the area which he investigated: - - Trees containing 100,000 to 120,000 feet each 2 - Trees containing 80,000 to 100,000 feet each 13 - Trees containing 60,000 to 80,000 feet each 49 - Trees containing 40,000 to 60,000 feet each 112 - Trees containing 20,000 to 40,000 feet each 251 - Trees containing less than 20,000 feet each 353 - "Little bigtrees" 2,682 - ----- - Total 3,462 - -Bigtree is distantly related to southern cypress, and the shapes of very -old trees of both species bear some resemblance. Bigtree leaves do not -fall annually as those of bald cypress do. They are from one-eighth to -one-fourth of an inch long, and on the leading shoots they may be half -an inch in length. Cones are from two to three and a half inches long, -and they ripen their seeds the second year, but the empty cones may -adhere to the branches several years. The seeds are a quarter of an inch -long, and have wings sufficient to carry them a hundred yards or more. -The trees bear abundance of seeds, in proportion to the small number of -branches. Though shapely and well clothed with limbs when young, the -crown contracts with age, and consists of a few enormous, crooked limbs, -almost destitute of twigs and small branches. One of these trees may -actually bear more twigs when the trunk is only a foot in diameter than -will be on the same trunk when it is fifteen or twenty feet in diameter. -The old tree trunks are often without limbs to a height of 100 or 150 -feet. - -The Douglas squirrel is the bigtree's greatest enemy. In proportion to -size, this little creature probably eats ten times as many tree seeds as -the most ravenous hog that roams the forest. One of the first things -that impresses a visitor in a grove of bigtrees is the rich brown of the -bark of some of the trunks. All are not brown alike, or at all seasons. -The trees on which the seed harvest is ready are the brownest, thanks to -the sharp claws, the tireless energy, and keen appetite of the Douglas -squirrel. He goes up and down the trunks for three square meals a day -among the clusters of cone-bearing branches two hundred or three hundred -feet above, and makes several extra trips for exercise; and at each -scratch of his briery foot he kicks off scales of bark, until the whole -trunk is "scratched raw." The detached scales of bark accumulate in a -mound about the base of the tree, where they have been so accumulating -for centuries. It is fortunate that those old trees have bark from one -to two feet thick. They can afford to be scratched for a month or two -each year. - -These are the heaviest trees in America, notwithstanding their wood is -light. It weighs less than northern white cedar. The largest bigtree -trunks weigh more than 2,000,000 pounds. In order to stand at all, they -must stand plumb. It is a provision of nature that the old trees are -almost branchless, otherwise the wind would force them out of plumb and -they would go down. It has been claimed that the overthrow of one of -these giants is always brought about by one of two causes. The -development of larger limbs on one side than on another unbalances them; -or the wash of gullies undermines the roots on one side, and draws the -tree that way. It is currently believed that no bigtree ever dies from -natural causes. - -A good deal of pure fiction has been published regarding the size and -age of the largest of these trees. They are old enough and large enough -without drawing upon the imagination. The tree's base is greatly -enlarged, but tapers rapidly the first few feet. There is little doubt -that some of the trunks are over forty feet in diameter, one foot above -ground, but that is not a fair measurement. The point should be five or -six feet at least. Measured thus, about twenty-five feet inside the bark -would represent the largest. With the bark added, the diameter would be -nearly thirty feet. Probably not one tree in fifty, taking them as they -occur in the whole range and counting veterans only, is fifteen feet in -diameter five feet from the ground. - -There is also some extravagant guessing as to height. Too many tourists -measure with the unaided eye, or accept a guidebook's figures. An -authentic height of 365 feet--the measurement of a fallen trunk--is -probably the greatest. Very few reach three hundred feet. Many -unreliable figures have been published concerning the age of bigtrees. -One thing can be accepted without question; size is no proof of age, in -comparing one tree with another; neither is the number of annual rings -in a block cut from the side of a tree a reliable factor to determine -age. The only sure way to determine the age of one of these trees is by -counting all the rings from the pith to bark. Care should be taken not -to count the same ring twice, as may be done when the wood is curly. -John Muir counted 4,000 rings in a bigtree stump. It is believed that no -higher age is backed by the evidence of yearly rings. It was twenty-four -feet in diameter. The count of another of like size made it 2,200 years -old; and of still another of the same size placed its age at 1,300 -years. The Forest Service has made accurate measurement and record of -every ring of growth in a tree that was over twenty-four feet in -diameter, and it is shown that during certain periods of years the tree -grew three or four times as rapidly as during other periods. - -The wood of bigtree is very light, soft, moderately strong, brittle, -summerwood thin and dark rendering the rings of annual growth easily -seen; the medullary rays are thin, numerous, and very obscure. The wood -is light to dark red, the thin sapwood nearly white; it works easily, -splits readily, and polishes well. It is very durable in contact with -the soil. Trunks lie in the woods long periods before decay seriously -attacks them; but forest fires hollow them, and finally burn them up. -Enormous depressions are found in the forest where logs once lay, but -which disappeared long ago, judging by the size of trees which have -since grown in the depressions. The interior of some large trunks which -have been worked up on sawmills showed the scars of forest fires -centuries ago. The annual rings which covered one such scar showed that -the burning took place 1,700 years ago. - -Not much can be said for the commercial uses of bigtree. Many a species -of insignificant size is much more useful. Considerable quantities have -been cut by sawmills. The waste is great, heavy trunks crushing badly in -fall. Logs are so large that many of them are split with gunpowder to -facilitate handling them. Some of the wood has been exported for lead -pencils; other has been used for fence posts, shingles, and grapevine -stakes, while the soft bark has been worked into novelties. - - MACNAB CYPRESS (_Cupressus macnabiana_) is a California tree of - limited range and little commercial value. It grows in Napa, Lake, - Mendocino, and Trinity counties; is often little more than a - branching shrub, but the largest specimens may be thirty feet high - and fifteen inches in diameter. The wood is light, soft, and usually - of slow growth. The medullary rays are numerous but thin, and the - bands of summerwood are distinct. The cones are generally less than - one inch long, and the seeds have narrow wings. The foliage is - grayish which is due to white glands in the leaves. Forest foliage - is fragrant. The tree is known as white cedar, Shasta cypress, and - California mountain cypress. - -[Illustration] - - - - -REDWOOD - -[Illustration: REDWOOD] - - - - -REDWOOD - -(_Sequoia Sempervirens_) - - -This tree's color is responsible for its name. It is sometimes spoken of -as coast redwood to distinguish it from bigtree which grows in the -interior of California. In European markets it is known as California -redwood to distinguish it from other redwoods growing in distant parts -of the world. Its botanical name, _Sequoia sempervirens_, means -evergreen sequoia. The other species of sequoia is also evergreen. In -reality, the coast redwood is less of an evergreen than the bigtree is, -because the leaves of redwood turn brown two years before they fall, but -there are always plenty of green leaves on the branches. The leaves are -from one-quarter to one-half inch in length. - -The geographical range of redwood covers about 6,000 square miles, but -the commercial range is scarcely one-fifth as much. The redwood belt -extends 500 miles along the Pacific coast from southern Oregon to -central California. It varies from ten to thirty miles in width. It is -strictly a fog belt tree, and grows poorly outside the region of ocean -fog, which seldom reaches an altitude more than 2,800 feet above sea -level. Where fog is thick and frequent, and soil is moist and otherwise -suitable, redwood forests have grown in such luxuriance that no species -in this country exceeds it. Stands running much over 100,000 feet per -acre are frequent, and it is said 1,000,000 feet have been cut from a -single acre. - -Redwood cones are one inch or less in length. They ripen in one season. -Seeds are quite small, and are equipped with wings. The bark is thick, -but is much thinner than the bark of bigtrees, though it is in great -ridges like the bark of that species. The habits of the two species, as -to form of crown, are similar. Young redwoods, particularly if they grow -in the open, develop symmetrical and conical crowns which they retain -until the trunks are a foot or more in diameter. Lower limbs die and -fall off after that, and old trees have crowns so small that it would -seem impossible that they could supply the wood-building material for -trunks so large. That the growth should be slow under such circumstances -is to be expected. The ages of mature trees vary from 500 to 800 years, -but an extreme age of 1,373 years is on record. The average is, -therefore, considerably below that of bigtrees. - -Redwoods grow as tall as bigtrees, but do not equal them in diameter of -trunk, though trees twenty feet in diameter occur. - -A noticeable feature of the forests is that, in a given stand, nearly -all trees are of the same height, irrespective of size of trunk. The -crowns go up to the light and when they reach the common level of -others, and secure a share of light, they show no disposition to go -higher. The doctrine which they silently put into practice is to live -and let others live. That habit makes it possible for redwoods to grow -in very dense stands, which they could not do if a few trees domineered -over the others, and appropriated the light to themselves. - -When old age overtakes the giant redwoods, they exhibit the first -symptoms of weakened vitality by dying at the top. Most trees over five -hundred years old are "stag-headed." From that period they die slowly, -but usually survive two or three hundred years after the visible signs -of approaching death strike them. - -Redwood has an advantage over nearly all other needle-leaf trees in that -it propagates by both seeds and sprouts. Few softwoods send up sprouts -from stumps or roots. Redwoods of large size are produced that way, and -the stumps of very old trees send up many vigorous shoots. Sometimes a -ring of large trees surrounds a depression in the ground where the -parent tree grew, died, and decayed. - -Sprouts are of course confined to the immediate proximity of the parent -tree, but redwood seeds are scattered by the wind over vacant spaces. -This results in dense stands where other conditions are favorable, but -the species has never been able to establish itself far inland or high -on mountains. - -In 1880 the Federal census made a rough estimate of the available -redwood, and placed it at 25,825,000,000 feet. More than twenty years -later, with heavy cutting all the time, private estimates placed the -remaining stand at over 50,000,000,000 feet. The second estimate was -unquestionably nearer correct than the first. The stand of no important -timber tree in this country is more easily estimated than redwood. The -forests are compact, the trees large, the trunks similar in form, and -the well-timbered area is comparatively small. Redwood has been called -the most important timber tree of the Pacific coast. The title probably -confers too much, though the tree's importance is beyond question. The -annual cut of Douglas fir is nearly ten times as large as of redwood, -and the supply still in the forests is much greater than that of -redwood. The cut of western yellow pine likewise exceeds the output of -redwood, and the remaining supply is larger. The cut of western red -cedar, including shingles, is about the same, and the remaining stand of -cedar is very large. Western hemlock, too, exists in large quantity, and -its importance as a source of timber supply may be equal to redwood. - -Redwood is frequently referred to as one of the lightest in this -country. Its weight per cubic foot, oven-dry, is 26.2 pounds. On the -same basis, white pine is 24, southern white cedar 20.7, northern white -cedar 19.7, and bigtree 18.2. There are woods in Florida lighter than -any of these. Redwood is very soft, yet it dulls tools quickly. It is -moderately strong, a little below white pine; it is brittle, again -ranking below white pine; it splits and works easily and polishes well. -Few, if any woods surpass this one in splitting properties. Boards -twelve feet long and a foot wide may be rived from selected logs, and -they present surfaces nearly as smooth as if cut with a saw. However, -curly and wavy redwood is not uncommon, and that, too, splits well, but -the surface is not smooth. The width of annual rings varies, usually -wide in young timber and narrow in old. The bands of summerwood are -narrow and clearly defined. The surface of redwood lumber absorbs water -quickly, yet, for some reason, creosote and other preservatives can be -forced into the wood only with the greatest difficulty. Fortunately, it -is not necessary to treat this timber to prevent decay, for, in almost -any position, it wears out before it rots. Shingles, and window and door -frames of the old barracks buildings at Eureka, California, remained in -place until fifty years of wind and driven sand wore them away. -Railroads use the wood for ties until they wear out, not until they rot -out. Farmers near some of the California railroads gather up the -rejected worn ties by thousands and use them for fence posts. When -redwood is employed as city paving blocks it is wear and not decay that -puts them out of commission. - -The medullary rays of redwood are thin and very obscure, but numerous. -Few woods show them to less advantage in quarter-sawing. The lack of -luster in the surface of polished panels is well known. The wood's -beauty is in its sameness and richness of color. Except curly specimens -and burls, the wood may be said to have no figure, though in planks cut -tangentially, the contrast of spring and summerwood displays some figure -in a modest way. It is possible to wash much of the coloring matter out -of the wood, if it is first chipped fine. It washes from the surface by -ordinary exposure to weather. Red rainwater runs from a roof of new -redwood shingles, and weatherboarding, posts, and picket fences fade -perceptibly in a few months. This coloring matter when washed out in -large amounts in the process of paper making has been manufactured into -fuel gas. - -A complete list of the uses of redwood is not practicable, for this -material goes into most of the large wood-using factories of this -country, and much is exported--nearly 60,000,000 feet annually going to -foreign countries. It has been much employed in California cities and -towns for picket fences, and as posts for wire and plank fences. It is, -next to western red cedar, the most important shingle wood of the -Pacific coast. One western railroad alone had in its tracks 12,000,000 -redwood ties at one time. Builders of tanks, flumes, and water pipes -procure some of their best material, and large quantities of it, from -redwood sawmills. Few woods are more universally found in furniture -factories. - - GOWEN CYPRESS (_Cupressus goveniana_) follows the California coast - from Mendocino county, California, to San Diego, and ascends - mountains to the height of 3,000 feet in some localities. At its - best it is fifty feet high and two feet in diameter; but it extends - as a shrub over many sandy tracts. Specimens no more than a foot - high sometimes bear cones. The Gowen cypress sheds its leaves the - third and fourth years. Cones are from one-half to one inch long, - and each bears about 100 seeds. The wood is light, soft, weak, light - brown in color, the thick sapwood nearly white. The medullary rays - are numerous but obscure. The wood is used for posts and other ranch - purposes. Woodpeckers attack the trunks, picking holes through the - bark to suck the juice from the cambium layer beneath. - - DWARF CYPRESS (_Cupressus pygmæa_) was formerly supposed to be a - stunted form of Gowen cypress. The ranges of both lie in the same - region, on the coast of California in Mendocino county. The average - height of dwarf cypress is from ten to twenty feet, with trunk - diameter from six to twelve inches; but in peat swamps and on - sterile sands it may not exceed three or four feet in height. It - bears abundant cones at that size, and sometimes a tree no more than - a foot high has mature cones. They ripen the second year, but remain - a long time on the branches. The trees thrive in the most forbidding - places, and are sometimes the only occupants of bogs or sand dunes. - The wood is necessarily of little value, because of the small size - of trees. There seems to be no record of a dwarf cypress over sixty - years of age; but it is believed that much older trees have fallen - victims to fire. - -[Illustration] - - - - -HEMLOCK - -[Illustration: HEMLOCK] - - - - -HEMLOCK - -(_Tsuga Canadensis_) - - -Seven hemlocks are known in the world, four of them in America. Two of -these are in the East, two in the West. The eastern species are the -Canadian and Carolinian. The former is _Tsuga canadensis_, the latter -_Tsuga caroliniana_. The western species are, mountain hemlock (_Tsuga -mertensiana_), and western hemlock (_Tsuga heterophylla_). The word -_tsuga_ is Japanese and means hemlock. - -The hemlock lumber in eastern markets is practically all from one -species, which is known as hemlock in Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, -Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, -Pennsylvania, Delaware, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, -Kentucky, Wisconsin, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, Ontario. In Vermont, -Rhode Island, New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, West Virginia, North -Carolina, South Carolina; in England it is called hemlock spruce; spruce -tree in Pennsylvania and West Virginia; spruce pine in Pennsylvania, -Delaware, Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia; to the New York Indians it -was known as oh-neh-tah, which being interpreted means "greens on the -stick." - -The range of hemlock extends east and west more than fifteen hundred -miles, from Nova Scotia to western Wisconsin; south to Delaware and -southern Michigan, and along the Appalachian mountains to northern -Alabama and Georgia. The original quantity of timber was enormous, for -large areas were covered with dense stands. The largest trees are found -near the southern part of its range, among the mountains of Tennessee -and North Carolina; but the bulk of the timber has always been in the -North. It thrives best in well drained soil, but it likes cool -situations and often develops dense forests on northern slopes or in -deep ravines; but it maintains a foothold on ridges, on the banks of -streams, and around the borders of swamps. - -The cones are very small, about a half inch in length, growing singly -from the lower side of the branchlet. Their scales are rounded and thin, -light brown in color. The seeds are winged and even when ripe the cones -do not spread apart perceptibly. The seeds escape, however, slowly -during the winter following their maturity. They are very small, and -their wings distribute them a hundred feet or more. The seeds germinate -best on leaf mold, but the seedling takes several years to thrust its -roots deep into the mineral soil. During that time, growth is very slow. -A seedling five years old may not exceed five inches in height; but when -its roots have developed, growth is fairly rapid. The distribution of -seeds is often facilitated by the activities of red squirrels, and -perhaps other small mammals, which climb the trees in winter and tear -the cones apart to get at the seeds. Many of the seeds are devoured, but -more escape and fly away on the winter winds. - -Hemlock leaves are narrow and about half an inch long. Examined closely, -particularly with a magnifying glass, rows of white dots extend from end -to end on the under side. Small as these white points are separately, -when seen in the aggregate they change the color of the whole crown of -the tree. This is illustrated by looking at a hemlock from a -distance--the upper sides of the leaves on the drooping twigs being then -visible and the tree's aspect dark green. Approach the tree, and look up -from its base--the under side of the leaves being then visible--and the -dark color changes to a light silvery tint. The whiteness is due to the -white spots on the leaves. The spots are stomata (mouths), and are parts -of the chemical laboratory which carries on the tree's living processes. -All tree leaves have stomata, but all are not arranged in the same way -and are not visible alike. Few trees have them as prominent as the -hemlocks. - -Hemlock attains a height from sixty to 100 feet and a diameter from two -to four. When it grows in the open, it is one of the handsomest and most -symmetrical evergreens of any country. Its dark, dense foliage will -permit scarcely any sunlight to filter through. When forest-grown, it -loses its lower limbs. In the forester's language, they are "shaded -off," and long, smooth trunks are developed; but the stubs from which -the branches fall remain buried deep inside the smoothest bole, and the -saws will find them when the logs are converted into lumber. - -Reference has been made to hemlock's slow growth during the seedling's -first four or five years. That takes place in the dense shade of the -hemlock forest. If the seed falls on open ground, in full sunlight, the -chance is that it will not germinate; but if it does, the seedling is -doomed to an early death. It cannot endure strong light. This fact is of -great importance, for it means the end of hemlock forests. When a stand -is cut and the sunshine reaches the ground, no seedlings bring on a new -forest. White pine seeds grow in open ground, in old fields, in burnt -woods, wherever they reach soil, but hemlock must scatter its seeds in -cool, deep shade or they will do little good. Strong, vigorous, and -healthy as hemlock trees are, they are killed more easily than almost -any other. Cut a few trees from the center of a mature hemlock clump, -and the chance is that several trees next to the open space thus made -will die. The unusual light proves too much for their roots which had -always been cool and damp; but when young hemlocks are protected until -they get a start, they thrive nicely in the open. - -The wood of hemlock is light, soft, not strong, brittle, coarse and -crooked grained, difficult to work, liable to windshake, splinters -badly, not durable. The summerwood of the annual ring is conspicuous; -and the thin medullary rays are numerous. The color of hemlock heartwood -is light brown, tinged with red, often nearly white. The sapwood is -darker. Lumbermen recognize two varieties, red and white, but botanists -do not recognize them. - -The physical characters of hemlock are nearly all unfavorable, yet it -has become a useful and widely used wood. It is largely manufactured -into coarse lumber and used for outside work--railway ties, joists, -rafters, sheathing, plank walks, laths, etc. It is rarely used for -inside finishing, owing to its brittle and splintery character. Clean -boards made into panels or similar work and finished in the natural -color often present a very handsome appearance, owing to the peculiar -pinkish tint of the wood, ripening and improving with age. - -With the growing scarcity of white and Norway pine, hemlock has become -the natural substitute for these woods for many purposes. It has never -been conceded that hemlock possesses the intrinsic merit of either of -the northern pines for structural purposes, but it has proven a suitable -substitute for a variety of uses, notably for framing and sheathing of -medium priced structures. - -In 1910 hemlock lumber was cut in twenty-one states, the total output -exceeding 2,500,000,000 feet. Only four species or groups of species -exceeded it in amount. They were southern yellow pines, Douglas fir, the -oaks, and white pine. The principal cut of hemlock lumber was in the -following states in the order named: Wisconsin, Michigan, Pennsylvania, -West Virginia, New York, Maine, Vermont, Virginia, New Hampshire, -Tennessee, and North Carolina. Ten other states produced smaller -amounts. - -Hemlock possesses remarkable holding power on nails and spikes, and that -is one reason for its large use for railroad ties. It does not easily -split, and there is no likelihood that spikes will work loose; but the -wood decays quickly in damp situations, and unless given preservative -treatment, hemlock ties do not last long. They are pretty soft anyway, -and where traffic is heavy, rails cut them badly. - -Manufacturers of boxes and crates use much hemlock. The annual use for -that purpose in Massachusetts is about 27,000,000 feet, in Michigan -practically the same quantity, in Illinois 34,000,000, and varying -quantities in many other states. Michigan converts nearly 100,000,000 -feet a year into flooring and other planing mill products, and Wisconsin -and other hemlock states follow it in lesser amounts. The wood is -employed by car builders, slack coopers, manufacturers of -refrigerators, silos, and farm implements; but the largest demand comes -from those who use the rough lumber. - -Hemlock bark is the most important tanning material in this country. It -has long been used by leather makers who generally mix it with some -other bark or extract because leather tanned with hemlock alone has a -redder color than is desired. - -Large areas of hemlock forests have been cut for the bark alone. -Formerly the wood was of so little value that it was cheaper to leave it -in the forest than to take it out. The peelers worked in early summer, -cutting trees and removing the bark in four-foot lengths, which was -measured by the cord, though often sold by weight. Care was taken that -the bark be removed from the slashings before the dry weather of autumn, -for fire was to be expected then, and anything combustible in the woods -at that time was likely to be lost. The tracts on which bark peelers -worked were called "slashings," and they were fire traps of the worst -kind with their tangled masses of tops and branches. - -Large quantities of hemlock bark are still peeled every summer, but the -practice is less destructive than formerly. The trunks are worth taking -out, and when the fire comes late in the season it consumes little -valuable hemlock. A permanent decline in the annual production of this -wood has not yet begun, but it must soon set in, for the demand cannot -be indefinitely met. - -[Illustration] - - - - -WESTERN HEMLOCK - -[Illustration: WESTERN HEMLOCK] - - - - -WESTERN HEMLOCK - -(_Tsuga Heterophylla_) - - -When this wood began to go to market, its promoters found difficulties -in securing a trial for it in eastern states, because of its name. The -eastern hemlock was known to be a substantial wood, but a rough one with -many faults linked with its virtues. It was naturally supposed that the -western hemlock had all the faults of its eastern relative with possibly -some of the good qualities left out; and there was general hesitancy to -put the new comer to a trial. That caused a movement among western -lumbermen to sell their hemlock under some other name. They were -confident the wood had only to be given a trial and it would win its -way, after which the name would make little difference. Accordingly, it -was started to market under the name of Alaska pine, although Alaska has -no pine large enough for good lumber. Other lumbermen thought it -advisable to choose a name less likely to excite suspicion, and they -called it Washington pine. Others designated it as spruce, and still -others as fir. It was more likely to pass for fir than for pine or -spruce. - -The lumber is now generally known as western hemlock, but in California -some call it hemlock spruce or California hemlock spruce. In Idaho, -Washington, and Oregon the name hemlock usually suffices; while western -hemlock spruce, and western hemlock fir, and Prince Albert's fir are -names used in speaking of lumber and of the tree in the forest. - -Western hemlock's range extends north and south a thousand miles, from -southern Alaska to California south of San Francisco. It grows from the -Pacific coast eastward to Montana, five hundred miles or more. It -ascends to altitudes of 6,000 feet, but it is not at its best on high -mountains, but in the warm, damp region near the coast in Washington and -Oregon. Trees 200 feet high and eight or ten in diameter are found, but -the average size is much less. - -The leaves of western hemlock are dark green and very lustrous above. -The flowers are yellow and purple. Cones are one inch or less in length, -and the small seeds are equipped with wings which carry them some -distance from the base of the parent tree. The seeds will germinate and -develop a root system without touching mineral soil. Their ability to do -so assists them greatly in maintaining the tree's position in the damp -climate where this hemlock reaches its best development. The ground in -the forest, with all objects that lie upon it, is often covered with wet -moss a foot or more thick. The seeds of most trees would inevitably -perish if they fell upon such a bed of moss; but the seeds of western -hemlock germinate, and the rootlets strike through the moss until they -reach the soil beneath, and seedling trees are soon growing vigorously. -Seeds often germinate in the moss on logs and stumps, but the roots -strike for the ground, and generally reach it. In this habit the western -hemlock resembles the yellow birch of the East whose seeds seem to -germinate best on mossy logs and stumps. - -Western hemlock has one of the bad habits of its eastern relative: it -does not prune itself very well, even in dense forests, and the lumber -is apt to be knotty, but the knots are usually sound, though dark in -color. - -The wood of western hemlock is moderately light, but twenty per cent -heavier than eastern hemlock; stronger than the wood of other American -hemlocks, and nearly twenty-five per cent stronger than the eastern -commercial species, and nearly fifty per cent stiffer. It is tough and -hard, but has little of the flinty texture of other hemlocks. Its color -is pale brown, tinged with yellow, the thin sapwood nearly white. It is -fairly durable in contact with the soil. Its growth is usually rapid, -and trees live to a great age. Some of the largest are said to reach 800 -years. The summerwood often constitutes half of the yearly ring, and is -dark yellow. The medullary rays are numerous and rather prominent. When -cut radially, the appearance, size, and arrangement of the exposed -medullary rays suggest those of sugar maple when exposed in the same -way. - -The annual sawmill output of western hemlock is about 170,000,000 feet. -The largest market for it is in the region where it grows, and it is -used as rough lumber for ranch purposes and for buildings in towns; but -a considerable quantity is further manufactured. About one-fourth of the -entire sawmill output goes to the factories of Idaho, Washington, and -Oregon. A list of the wood's principal uses in those states shows its -intrinsic value. The largest quantity is demanded by box factories. The -wood's nail-holding power commends it for that use, but of no less -importance is its strength. Eighty-three per cent of all the wood used -for boxes in Washington is western hemlock. Cooperage calls for much of -this wood also. Fruit and vegetable barrels are made of it. Its place in -furniture manufacture corresponds to that of the other hemlock in the -East. The pulp business is not very extensive on the Pacific coast, but -western hemlock is a respectable contributor. It is suitable for burial -boxes, and probably ranks about third among the woods within its range, -those used in larger amounts being Sitka spruce and western red cedar. -It is coming into use as interior finish, particularly as door and -window frame material. Fixture manufacturers employ it for drawers and -shelves. It is made into flooring, ceiling, molding, and wainscoting. -Door makers use a little of it as core material over which to glue -veneers. It is made into veneer, but of the cheaper sorts, such as are -suitable for crates and berry boxes. - -The Pacific coast is so abundantly supplied with excellent softwoods -that only those of good quality have any chance in the local markets. -The fact that western hemlock has won and is holding an important place -in active competition with such woods as western red cedar, yellow -cedar, Sitka spruce, and Douglas fir, is proof that it is valuable -material. It is winning its way in the central part of the United States -also, but not as rapidly as it has won in the West. - -The bark of western hemlock is rated high as a tanning material. The -bark on young trees is thin, but as the trunks increase in size and age -the bark thickens. It is richer in tannin than the bark of eastern -hemlock, but is not so extensively used because the demand is less on -the Pacific coast. - -The future of the western hemlock is fairly well assured. Its range is -extensive and varied, and lumbermen will be a long time in cutting the -last of the present stand. Reproduction is satisfactory. It will be -important in future forestry, when people will grow much of the timber -they need; but this tree will stick pretty close to the range where -nature planted it. - -MOUNTAIN HEMLOCK (_Tsuga mertensiana_) is a near relative of western -hemlock, and occupies the same geographical ranges but higher on the -mountains. Near Sitka, Alaska, it occurs at sea level, but southward it -rises higher until on the Sierra Nevada mountains in California it is -10,000 feet above sea level. It is one of the timber line trees in many -parts of its range, though it is nowhere above all others. It is a -difficult matter to state what its average size is. That depends upon -the particular region considered. At its best it is 100 feet high or -even more; at its poorest it sprawls on the rocks like a shrub. -Specimens of fair size are from twenty-five to sixty feet high, and ten -to twenty inches in diameter. Cones vary in size fully as much as the -trunks. Some are one-half inch in length, others are three inches. The -leaves vary no less, some being a one-twelfth inch long, others one -inch. The leaves stand out on all sides of the twig, and fall during the -third and fourth years. They are bluish-green. The seeds fall in -September and October, and are provided with large wings. The wood is -light in weight, soft, and pale reddish-brown. The mountain hemlock is -nearly always spoken of as spruce by persons who are not botanists. The -arrangement of the leaves on the twigs gives the impression that it is a -spruce, and among the names by which it is known in its native region -are Williamson's spruce, weeping spruce, alpine spruce, hemlock spruce, -Patton's spruce, and alpine western spruce. There is little prospect -that this tree will ever become important as a source of lumber. It is -nowhere very abundant, and what timber there is generally stands so -remote from mills that little of it will ever be taken out. Botanists -and mountain travelers who have made the acquaintance of the mountain -hemlock in the wildness of its natural surroundings have spoken and -written much in its praise. It has been called the loveliest -cone-bearing tree of the American forest. That praise, however, applies -only when the tree is at its best, with its broad, pyramidal crown, -balanced and proportioned with geometrical accuracy, outlined against a -background of rocks, peaks, snow, or sky. Its other form, prostrate and -angular where the tree occurs on cold, bleak mountains, has never -inspired praise from anybody, though its defiance of the elements and -its persistence in spite of adversity, cannot but challenge the -admiration of all who like a fair and square fighter. There are many -intermediate forms. On mountains facing the Pacific, and at altitudes of -6,000 or 7,000 feet, the young hemlocks are buried under deep snow weeks -or months at a time. They are pressed down by the weight of tons, and it -might be supposed that not a whole branch would be left on them, and -that the main stems would be deformed the rest of their lives. But when -the early summer sun melts the snow, the young trees spring back to -their former faultless forms, without a twig missing or a twisted -branch. - -[Illustration] - - - - -WESTERN YEW - -[Illustration: WESTERN YEW] - - - - -WESTERN YEW - -(_Taxus Brevifolia_) - - -The Pacific yew is an interesting tree, useful for many minor purposes, -but it is not procurable in large quantities. Its north and south range -covers more than 1,000 miles, from Alaska to central California; while -the species occurs from the Pacific coast eastward to Montana. It -approaches sea level on some of the Alaskan islands, and toward the -southern part of its range it reaches an altitude of 8,000 feet. - -In Idaho it is called mountain mahogany, but apparently without good -reason. Its color may bear some resemblance to that wood, but it is -different in so many particulars that the name is not appropriate. The -names western yew and Pacific yew are used interchangeably. Sometimes it -bears the simple name yew; but since there is a yew in Florida, and -another in Europe, it is well to give the western species a name which -will distinguish it from others. The northwestern Indians called it -"fighting wood," which was the best description possible for them to -give. They made bows of it, and it was superior to any other wood within -their reach for that purpose. In fact, if they could have picked from -all the woods of the United States they could scarcely have found its -equal. It is very strong, though in elasticity its rating is under many -other woods. It is of interest to note that five hundred or more years -ago, the European yew (a closely related but different species) had -nearly the same name in England that the northwestern Indians gave the -western yew. It was called "the shooter yew," because it was the bow -wood of that time, and "bow staves," which were rough pieces to be -worked out by the bow makers, were articles of commerce. The search for -it was so great, and so long-continued, that yew trees were well-nigh -exterminated in the British Isles. It was, next to oak, and possibly -above oak, the most indispensable wood in England at that time. It is -instructive to observe that Indians who used the bow found the western -yew as indispensable in their life as the English armies found the -European yew at a time when the bow was the best weapon. - -The northwestern Indians put this remarkable wood to other uses. They -made spears of it, and sometimes employed them as weapons of war, but -generally as implements of the chase, particularly in harpooning salmon -which in summer ascend the northwestern rivers from the Pacific ocean in -immense schools. The Indians whittled fishhooks of yew before they were -able to buy steel hooks from traders. Some of those unique hooks are -still in existence, and speak well of the inventive genius of the wild -fisherman of the wilderness. A proper crook was selected where a branch -joined the trunk, and serviceable fish hooks were made without any cross -grain. They were strong enough to hold the largest fish that ascended -the rivers. Sometimes a bone barb was skillfully inserted. The Indians -found a further use for this wood as material for canoe paddles. It is -so strong that handles can be made small and blades thin without passing -the limit of safety. The manufacture of boat paddles from yew continues. - -More is used for fence posts than for any other one purpose. It is one -of the most durable woods known where it must resist conditions -conducive to decay. The name yew is said to be derived from a word in a -north Europe language meaning everlasting. Yew fence posts are not named -in statistics, and it is impossible to quote numbers. Their use is -confined to the districts where they grow. - -The manufacturers of small cabinets draw supplies from this wood, but -the fact is not mentioned in Pacific states wood-using statistics. It is -particularly liked for turnery, such as small spindles used in furniture -and in grill work. It takes an exceptionally fine polish, and the wood's -great strength makes the use of slender pieces practicable. Experiments -have shown that this wood may be stained with success, but its natural -color is so attractive that there is little need of staining unless the -purpose is to imitate some more costly wood. If stained black it is an -excellent substitute for ebony. - -Western yew figures little in lumber output. It is not listed in the -markets. The few logs which reach sawmills are never again heard of, but -probably most of the lumber is disposed of locally to those who need it. -The tree is not of good form for saw timber. Burls are said to make -beautiful veneer. Trunks are seldom round, but usually grow lopsided. -Most of them are too small for sawlogs. The largest are seldom two feet -in diameter, and generally not half that large. They are short and -branched, the tree often dividing near the ground in several stems. The -average tree is scarcely thirty feet high, but a few are twice that. Its -growth is very slow. A six-inch trunk is seventy-five or 100 years old, -and the largest sizes are from 200 to 350 years. It is evident, -therefore, that efforts to grow western yew for commercial purposes will -be few. Wild trees will be occasionally cut as long as they last, and -they will probably last as long as any of their associates, for they are -scattered sparingly over several hundred thousand square miles of -country, and some of it rough and almost inaccessible. The best -development of the species is in western Oregon, Washington, and British -Columbia. - -The leaves of western yew are one-half or five-eighths inch long. The -fruit consists of red pulp enclosing a hard seed. Birds devour it -eagerly. The fruit is not poisonous, as the yew berries of the Old World -are. It ripens in September and falls in October. The wood is fine -grained, clear rose red, becoming gradually duller on exposure. It -weighs 39.83 pounds per cubic foot. Its fuel value is high. - -FLORIDA YEW (_Taxus floridana_) is extremely local in its range, and -small in size. Few trees are more than twenty-five feet high and one -foot in diameter. They are bushy and of poor form for manufacturing. The -only reported use is as fence posts. The wood's durability fits it for -that place. The species is found in Gadsden county, Florida. The leaves -are one inch or less in length; flowers appear in March, and the fruit -ripens in October. The wood is moderately heavy, hard, and -narrow-ringed, for the trees grow slowly. Its color is dark, tinged with -red, the thin sapwood being whiter. There is little prospect that the -wood of this yew will ever be more important than it is now. It is often -spoken of locally as savin, which name is likewise given to the red -cedar (_Juniperus virginiana_), which is abundant in this yew's range. - -CALIFORNIA NUTMEG (_Tumion californicum_) is an interesting tree which -ranges over a considerable portion of California, but is at its best in -Mendocino county and the coast region north of San Francisco. It occurs -also on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada mountains, in central -California, at altitudes up to 5,000 feet. It receives its name from the -resemblance of its seeds to nutmegs. Their surface is shriveled, but -they do not have the nutmeg odor. The wood and the leaves, when bruised, -give off an odor not altogether pleasing. On account of this, the tree -has been called stinking cedar. In some localities it is called yew, and -in others California false nutmeg, and coast nutmeg. Trees are generally -small, with trunks of irregular form. The crown is open and usually -extends to the ground; but in crowded situations, a rather shapely bole -is developed, and the crown is small. The usual size of the tree does -not exceed a height of fifty feet and a diameter of twenty inches. More -trees are below than above that size; but in extreme cases the tree may -reach a height of eighty-five feet and a diameter of four. The leaves in -form and size resemble the foliage of yew, but their points are stiff -and sharp, and if approached carelessly they will wound like cactus -thorns. The fruit is an inch or more in length, a pulpy substance -surrounding the seed. The wood possesses properties which ought to make -it valuable, though reported uses are strictly local, such as small -cabinet work and skiff making. It is bright lemon, yellow, rather hard, -takes good polish, is of slow growth, with bands of summerwood thin but -distinct, and medullary rays small, numerous, and obscure. Its weight is -29.66 pounds per cubic foot; it is not stiff or strong. It cannot attain -high place as a manufacturing material, because it is too scarce, but -it possesses a beauty which must bring it recognition as a fine -furniture, finish, and novelty wood. A few sawlogs go to mills in the -region north of San Francisco, but the lumber is probably mixed with -other kinds and it goes to market without a name. It ought to be put to -a better use. - -FLORIDA TORREYA (_Tumion taxifolium_) is often called Chattahoochee pine -in the region where it grows. That name is generally given to the tree -when planted for ornament in yards, parks, and along streets of towns in -northwestern Florida. It is known also as stinking cedar, stinking -savin, and fetid yew. These names are generally applied to the -forest-grown tree, particularly by those who cut it for fence posts, -which is its principal use. Its range is local, being confined largely, -if not wholly, to Gadsden county, Florida, where it grows on limestone -soil. It can never have much importance as a commercial timber, because -it is too scarce. In fact, it is in danger of extermination. Post -cutters never spare it, and its range being so limited, there is not -much hope for it. The interesting and beautiful tree is making a game -fight for life. Many seedlings appear in the vicinity of old trees, -while stumps, and even prostrate trunks, send up sprouts which, if let -alone, grow to tree size. Sprouts on logs and stumps send roots to the -ground as the seedling yellow birch does in damp northern woods. The -yew-like leaves of Florida torreya are one and a half inch or less in -length. The tree blooms in March and April, and the drupe-like fruit, an -inch or more in length, is ripe by midsummer. The tree is from forty to -sixty feet in height, and one to two feet in diameter. It is clothed in -whorls of limbs, beginning near the ground, and tapering to the top. The -wood is clear, bright yellow, the thin sapwood of lighter color; soft, -easily worked, and susceptible of fine polish. It is very durable in -contact with the soil. The green wood, and the bruised leaves and -branches give off an odor suggesting the tomato vine. The texture and -color of the wood indicate that it is well suited for fine cabinet work, -but it is not a figured wood. - -[Illustration] - - - - -WHITE OAK - -[Illustration: WHITE OAK] - - - - -WHITE OAK - -(_Quercus Alba_) - - -Oaks belong to the beech family, that is, the "foodtrees,"[3] though -most acorns are too bitter and contain too much tannin to be edible; -some may be eaten, and for that reason the ancients classed them among -the food trees. "Quercus," which is the name of the genus, means oak in -the language of northwestern Europe. The name white oak nearly always -suffices, but in Arkansas it is often called stave oak because it is the -best stave timber in that region. It could with equal reason be called -stave oak nearly anywhere, for it is excellent material for tight -cooperage. Formerly it was sometimes called Baltimore oak, because many -of the staves of export were shipped from that city. That name, however, -belonged more to post oak (_Quercus minor_) than to white oak, because -the fine staves which went out of Chesapeake bay in the export trade, -were largely post oak. It matters little now, for the name Baltimore oak -is not much used, and white oak may be said to have only one trade name. -After the wood is dressed, it has different names referring to the style -of finish and not to the wood itself. - - [3] The oaks of this country, which number more than fifty species, - have been classified in different ways, depending upon the purpose - in view. In the present treatment they will be divided in two - general groups, white oaks and black oaks. No effort will be made to - draw hard and fast lines, because it is not necessary. Oaks which - ripen their acorns in one year are listed as white oaks; those with - two year acorns, as black oaks. This is a botanical rather than a - lumberman's classification; yet lumbermen recognize it in a general - way. White oak (_Quercus alba_) is clearly entitled to head the list - of white oaks, and red oak (_Quercus rubra_) should occupy a similar - position with regard to the black oak group. In numbers, the white - oaks and black oaks are nearly equally divided, one authority giving - twenty-seven species of white oak and twenty-five of black oak in - the United States; but botanists differ as to exact numbers of each. - The following species are usually classed as white oaks: White oak - (_Quercus alba_), valley oak (_Quercus lobata_), Brewer oak - (_Quercus breweri_), Sadler oak (_Quercus sadleri_), Pacific post - oak (_Quercus garryana_), Gambel oak (_Quercus gambelii_), post oak - (_Quercus minor_), Chapman oak (_Quercus chapmani_), bur oak - (_Quercus macrocarpa_), overcup oak (_Quercus lyrata_), swamp white - oak (_Quercus platanoides_), cow oak (_Quercus michauxii_), chestnut - oak (_Quercus prinus_), chinquapin oak (_Quercus acuminata_), dwarf - chinquapin oak (_Quercus prinoides_), Durand oak (_Quercus - breviloba_), Rocky Mountain oak (_Quercus undulata_), California - blue oak (_Quercus douglasii_), Engelmann oak (_Quercus - engelmanni_), Rocky Mountain blue oak (_Quercus oblongifolia_), - Arizona white oak (_Quercus arizonica_), Toumey oak (_Quercus - toumeyi_), netleaf oak (_Quercus reticulata_), California scrub oak - (_Quercus dumosa_), live oak (_Quercus virginiana_), Emory oak - (_Quercus emoryi_). - -White oak grows in all the states east of the Mississippi river, and it -crosses that stream two or three hundred miles in some places. It -reaches eastern Nebraska and eastern Kansas, and runs southward through -Oklahoma to the Brazos river, Texas. It is scarce in the northern parts -of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. Its total range covers an area of -more than 1,000,000 square miles. Like all other important timber trees, -it has regions where the species is best developed. The finest original -stands of white oak were found in the upper Ohio valley, beginning in -Indiana. The timber in many other districts was, and in some still is, -very good, such as southern Michigan, eastern Arkansas, some of the -Appalachian valleys and slopes, and in certain places along the upper -tributaries of streams flowing into the Atlantic ocean. - -This tree is in the very front rank in economic importance, and it has -held that place since the earliest settlements in this country. No -forest tree was more evenly distributed than white oak over the eastern -half of the United States. It did not form pure forests of large extent, -as some of the pines did, but white oaks were within reach of almost -every part of the country. Conditions have greatly changed. The -establishment of farms where woods originally occupied the whole -country, lessened the abundance of oak long before lumbermen made it a -commodity; and since then, the cutting of billions of feet of it has -depleted or exhausted the supply in many regions. Still, white oak is as -widely dispersed as ever. It has not been completely exterminated in any -extensive region. White oak of as high grade goes to market now as ever -in the past, but in smaller amounts, and the lower grades go in -proportionately larger quantities. In other words, prime white oak has -passed its best day. A hundred years of use and abuse in states west of -the Alleghany mountains, and two hundred years in some of the regions -east, have reduced original forests to remnants. But with all that, -white oak remains undisputed king of American hardwoods. - -At its best, white oak attains a height of 125 feet and a diameter of -six, but that size is unusual. A diameter of three feet and a height of -100 is above the average. The leaves are peculiar in that they hang on -the branches until late winter, sometimes dropping only in time to give -place to the new crop. They turn brown after the first hard frost. In -some sections of the Appalachian region white oak coppice (sprout -growth) is known as "red brush," because of the adherence of the brown -leaves during winter. The leaves of some other species have the same -habit. - -The wood of white oak is very strong, stiff, heavy, and durable when -exposed in all kinds of weather. Scarcely any other wood which can be -had in merchantable quantities equals white oak in these qualities. It -rates high in fuel value, and 6,000 pounds of dry wood when burned, -leaves about 245 pounds of ashes. The color of the heartwood is light -brown; the sapwood is thin; medullary rays are numerous and large; pores -large; summerwood broad and dense. - -The medullary rays of no wood in this or any other country are more -utilized to commercial advantage than those of white oak. Quarter-sawing -is for the purpose of bringing them out. They are the bright streaks, -clearly visible to the naked eye in the end of an oak log, radiating -from the center outward like the spokes of a wheel. Many are too thin to -be visible without a magnifying glass. By quarter-sawing, the rays are -cut edgewise and appear as bright streaks or patches, often called -"mirrors," on the surface of boards. The woodworker knows how to finish -the boards and treat them with fillers to bring out the figures. - -White oak is a porous wood. Some of the pores are large enough to be -visible without a glass, and twenty times as many more can be seen only -when magnified. The direction of the pores is up and down the trunk of -the tree, and they are seen to best advantage in the end of a stick, -although they are always more or less visible on the side of a board -when the cutting is a little across the grain. The pores thus cut -diagonally across are taken advantage of by the finisher who works -stains and fillers into them, and changes their natural color, thereby -accentuating the wood's figure. - -The possibilities of white oak are almost infinite. It is good for -nearly anything for which any wood is used. It is not the best for -everything, but does well for most. Hickory is more resilient, ironwood -is stronger, locust more durable, white pine warps and checks less; but -white oak has so many good qualities in a fair degree that it can afford -to fall below the highest in some, and still rank above competitors on -general averages. It ranks high in shipbuilding, general construction, -furniture manufacturing, finish and fixtures, the making of agricultural -implements, car building, vehicle stock, cooperage, and many more. - -It is one of the most important of American veneer woods. It is sawed -very thin, and is glued upon cores of other wood, thus becoming the -covering or outside part. The purpose of using oak veneer instead of the -solid wood is twofold. First, it goes farther, and second, a well-built -article with veneer outside and a core of other woods which stand well, -is superior to a solid oak article, except in cases where great strength -is the object sought, or where deep carving is desired. - -The continued use of white oak is assured. It is not necessary to seek -new uses for it. The demand is as great as the supply can meet, but the -supply is not assured for the distant future. There will always be some -white oak in the country; but the best has been or is being cut. The -tree grows slowly, and good quarter-sawed white oak cannot be cut from -young trees. An age of about 150 years is necessary. Most good white oak -lumber today is cut from trees 200 or more years old. When the present -supply of venerable oaks has been exhausted, prime oak lumber will be -largely a thing of the past. Fortunately, that time has not yet arrived. -About eighty years are required to grow a white oak of crosstie size. -Those who will grow oak for market in the future will probably not wait -much longer than eighty years to cut their trees, and the result will be -a scarcity of mature trunks for lumber and veneer. - - DURAND OAK (_Quercus breviloba_). In some parts of Alabama, - Mississippi, and Louisiana this tree goes to the lumber yard as - white oak, and no one is injured by the substitution, for it is - heavy, hard, and strong, and is of good color. The wood weighs 59.25 - pounds per cubic foot, which places it above the average weight of - white oak. It is said to be less tough than white oak. The tree - varies greatly in different parts of its range which extends from - central Alabama across Texas and into Mexico. It is known as white - oak, Texas white oak, shin oak, pin oak, and basket oak. Its best - development is in the eastern part of its range where trees eighty - or ninety feet high are common; but in Texas the average is scarcely - thirty feet high and one in diameter. Westward in Texas it becomes - shrubby, and forms extensive thickets of brush. - - CHAPMAN OAK (_Quercus chapmani_) is put to little use, because - trunks are too small. They are seldom more than a foot in diameter, - and are often little more than shrubs. The tree grows in the pine - barrens near the coast from South Carolina to Florida, and it is - found also in great abundance, but generally of small size, on the - west coast of Florida from Tampa to the Apalachicola river. - -[Illustration] - - - - -BUR OAK - -[Illustration: BUR OAK] - - - - -BUR OAK - -(_Quercus Macrocarpa_) - - -This splendid oak was named by Michaux, a French traveler and botanist -who visited many parts of eastern and southeastern United States more -than a century ago. The botanical name _macrocarpa_, means "large -fruit." The bur oak bears small acorns in the North, and very large ones -in the South. They are sometimes two inches long and one and a half -inches wide, and "large-fruit" oak is an appropriate name for the tree -in the South, but would not be near the northern limit of its range. - -It is known in different regions as bur oak, mossy cup oak, overcup oak, -scrub oak, and mossy cup white oak. Bur oak is a name suggested by the -acorn which has a fringe round the cup like a bur. This is the oak which -gave name to James Fenimore Cooper's book, "Oak Openings" a romance of -early days in Michigan. Oak openings were areas where fires had killed -the old timber, and a young growth had sprouted from stumps and roots, -or had sprung up from seeds buried in the ground beyond the reach of the -fire. Some of those tracts were very large, and they were not confined -to any one state. They existed in Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, -Dakota, and elsewhere. Bur oak, because it is a vigorous species, was -able to take possession of such burned areas, to the exclusion of most -others. - -Few American oaks have a wider range. It extends from Nova Scotia to -Manitoba, and in the United States is found in most states east of the -Rocky Mountains. It extends farther west and northwest than any other -commercial oak of the Atlantic states. In a range of so great -geographical extent the bur oak finds it necessary to adapt itself to -many kinds of land. It prefers low tracts where water is sufficient but -not excessive, but it grows well in more elevated situations, provided -the soil is fertile. It is not a poor-land tree. In the primeval forests -it attained largest size in Indiana and Illinois. The largest trees were -from 150 to 170 feet high and four to seven in diameter. Sizes varied -from that extreme down to the other extreme near the outskirts of its -range where the growth was stunted. Large quantities of very fine logs -have been cut from trunks from two to four feet in diameter, and forty -to sixty feet to the limbs. - -The leaves of bur oak are from six to twelve inches long, simple and -alternate; the petioles are thick with flattened and enlarged bases; the -leaves are wedge-shaped at the base, and have from five to seven long, -irregular lobes, the terminal one very large and broad. They are dark -green in color, and are smooth and shiny above, silvery white and -pubescent below. The edge of the leaf is notched somewhat like chestnut, -but the teeth or notches are not so sharp. - -The twigs are provided with corky wings, or flattened keels of bark, -along their sides. Some of the wings are an inch or more wide. They are -apt to escape notice when the tree is in leaf, but in the winter the -bare twigs look rough and ragged. - -The weight of bur oak is approximately the same as white oak, and the -two woods are much the same in strength and elasticity. The bands of -summerwood are broad and dense, and the springwood is filled with large -pores. The medullary rays are broad, but not numerous in comparison with -white oak. They are sufficiently conspicuous to show well in -quarter-sawing. - -Bur oak nearly always goes to market as white oak, or simply as oak, and -it is difficult to ascertain all the uses found for it. Some factories -which make furniture, finish, vehicles, and other articles that figure -in the country's trade, attempt to identify the woods they use. That is -done as carefully in Michigan as anywhere else, though comparatively few -of the factories carry out the plan even in that state where many of the -best wood-using establishments of the country are located. In a report -issued in 1912 which gave statistics collected from more than eight -hundred Michigan factories, bur oak received separate consideration. The -uses there are doubtless representative, and will hold throughout the -country wherever bur oak is fairly abundant. It is listed as baseboards, -billiard table rims, bookcases, clay working machines, filing cabinets, -furniture, hand sleds, hay balers, interior finish, molding, tinplate -boxes, wagon sills, work benches. The amount of wood used in the state -was nearly 900,000 feet, according to the reports; but it certainly does -not include all. What it does show, however, is that bur oak is one of -the substantial woods of that region, and that it possesses properties -which fit it for many important places in the country's industries. - -Bur oak contributes to the output of cooper shops. Slack coopers class -it with many other hardwoods for the manufacture of barrels for -vegetables and various other commodities, while the makers of barrels -for liquids put bur oak in with white oak. - -The future of bur oak does not promise much after the trees which now -remain have been cut. That does not mean that the species will become -extinct, for that is improbable; but when the mature trees which -developed during two or three hundred years of forest conditions have -passed away, there is not much prospect of others being left to grow to -the age and size which will make them valuable as lumber. Woodlot -owners will not wait much longer than the seventy-five or one hundred -years required to grow trees of crosstie size. Railroads pay good prices -for this wood, for it lasts well, holds spikes in a satisfactory manner, -and is strong and hard. As far as can be seen, bur oak will fare in the -future about like white oak; that is, few trees will be left standing -long enough to attain large size, because it will pay better to cut them -while comparatively small. - - CALIFORNIA BLUE OAK (_Quercus douglasii_) receives its name from the - color of its foliage in spring and early summer in the valleys and - on the rolling foothills of central California. Later in the summer, - when the dry season is on, the leaves lose some of their blue, on - account of age, but more from an accumulation of dust; but even then - the form of the tree, from its habit of growing in open formation - like an old apple orchard, presents an attractive picture. It is - often associated with the valley oak, which is larger and more - stately, but the blue oak loses nothing by the contrast. It is - occasionally called rock oak, but for what reason is not clear. It - is known, too, as mountain white oak, or simply white oak, and as - blue oak. Its range covers central California from Mendocino to the - Mojave desert, and from the immediate coast inland through the - valleys to the Sierras, and upward to an altitude of 4,000 feet - where the tree degenerates into a shrub which has neither beauty nor - utility. The species reaches its best development in the Salinas - valley from twenty to sixty miles from the coast. There the largest - trees are found, and also some that have assumed peculiar forms. In - positions exposed to the never-ceasing sea winds which sweep up the - valleys, the blue oaks lie prone like logs, their tops pointing away - from the wind. They grew in that unnatural position, having been - pressed flat by the wind since they were seedlings. This oak's ashen - gray bark harmonizes well with the dry summer grass and dull sand - and gravel which surround it during the hot period. The branches are - often covered with green-gray lichens which somewhat modify the - aspect of the tree under close inspection. The leaves are irregular - in form. Some closely resemble leaves of the eastern white oak, - while others are almost or quite without lobes. During the growing - season the acorns are deep green, but when approaching maturity they - change to a chestnut-brown. They vary in shape as much as the - leaves. Some are almost eggshaped, bulging out above the cup which - seems too small; but all of them do not assume that form, but may be - short and symmetrical, or very long and slender. Woodpeckers store - these acorns in large numbers, and they search out peculiar places - for their hoards. A knot hole in the weatherboarding of an old barn, - granary, or school house is considered ideal, though when the acorns - are so disposed of, they are out of reach of the woodpecker forever. - Another method is to peck holes just large enough for an acorn in - fence posts or dead tree trunks, and hammer the acorns tightly in, - small end first. The surfaces of dead trees are sometimes absolutely - covered with such holes, each with its acorn. The woodpecker's - purpose is to wait until the acorns become infested with larvæ. He - has no intention of eating the acorn itself. - - California blue oaks range in height from shrubs to trees of ninety - feet, with diameters of three or four feet. The average height is - about forty-five and the diameter two or less. The trunk frequently - divides a few feet from the ground into large limbs. That form - excludes the wood from sawmills, and only in rare cases does any of - it find its way there. The lumber is of poor quality, brittle, - black, and otherwise defective. The sapwood is white and thick. A - cubic foot weighs 55.64 pounds, or nearly ten more than eastern - white oak. It is weak, and is low in elasticity. The annual rings - are often nearly invisible, because the pores are scattered evenly - and do not form bands. The medullary rays are broad, in the heart - black, in the sapwood white. If the wood were otherwise suitable, - pleasing effects might be produced by quarter-sawing, but as far as - known, no attempts have been made to do this. Now and then a - suitable log might be found. The importance of this oak lies in its - fuel value. It rates above white oak in theoretical tests, but it is - heavier in ash, and in practice it hardly measures up to white oak. - It grows slowly and is destined to disappear as a source of fuel - supply. Reproduction has nearly ceased in most parts of its range, - due largely to the perseverance of hogs in eating the acorns. - Cordwood cutters have stripped the last tree from large areas where - much once grew. This oak never forms forests. The trees seldom grow - as close together as apple trees in an orchard. - - GAMBEL OAK (_Quercus gambelii_) was destined by nature to occupy an - inferior place in the country's timber resources. It occupies a - region of stunted vegetation among the dry mountains and plateaus of - the Southwest, and except where it grows in better situations than - usual, it is too small to be properly called a tree. It is at its - best among the mountains of southeastern Arizona where it grows in - canyons that can maintain a little damp soil. There it occasionally - reaches a height of thirty feet and a diameter of a foot or less. In - most other parts of its range it is simply a tangled, sprawling - thicket of brush, covering the dry, rocky mountain ridges, and along - the bases of cliffs. It is found from Colorado to western Texas, and - westward into Utah, Nevada, and Arizona. The leaves are small, - thick, firm, and hairy, typical of desert foliage which must husband - the scant water supply. The acorns are pretty large for a tree so - stunted, and they are tempting bait for birds and rodents of the - region. The acorns are sweet. If this oak's reproduction depended on - acorns alone it is doubtful if it would hold its ground in the face - of perpetual adversity; but its roots send up distorted and stunted - sprouts which cover the ground, affording hiding places for the few - acorns which escape their hungry enemies. Man puts this oak to few - uses. It affords a pretty good class of fuel for camp fires, but - cordwood cutters cannot make much out of it. In rare instances - frontier ranches use a few of the unshapely poles for corral fences, - but only as a case of last resort. The names bestowed upon the tree - by those who know it best are uncomplimentary. They call it shin - oak, pin oak, scrub oak, mountain oak, and Rocky Mountain oak. - -[Illustration] - - - - -FORKED-LEAF WHITE OAK - -[Illustration: FORKED-LEAF WHITE OAK] - - - - -FORKED-LEAF WHITE OAK - -(_Quercus Lyrata_) - - -The leaf gives this tree its name in the best part of its southern -range. The tree bears much resemblance to the bur oak on the one hand, -and swamp white oak on the other. The names by which it is known in -different regions indicate as much. - -In North and South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, -Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, and Illinois it is commonly known as -overcup; in Alabama, South Carolina, Mississippi, Louisiana, and -Missouri it is called the swamp post oak; the name water white oak is -applied to it in Mississippi and parts of South Carolina; swamp white -oak in Texas; forked-leaf white oak among lumbermen in several of the -southern states. The last name scarcely describes the leaf, for no one -is apt to notice any fork, unless his attention is called to it. The -fact is, the name forked-leaf oak is applied oftener to the turkey oak -(_Quercus catesbæi_) than to this one. However, since the ranges of the -two species are not the same, misunderstandings in practice are not apt -to arise as to which is meant when the forked leaf is referred to. The -fact that turkey oak belongs in the black oak group, ripening its acorns -in two years, and this one is a white oak with one year acorns, is of -further assistance in keeping the species separate. - -The range of the forked-leaf white oak is from Maryland, along the -Potomac river near the District of Columbia, southward to parts of -Florida; westward through the Gulf states to the Trinity river in Texas; -throughout Arkansas, sections of Missouri, central Tennessee, southern -Illinois and Indiana. - -It shows preference for river swamps, and small deep depressions in rich -bottom lands where moisture is always abundant. It has never amounted to -much in the Atlantic states, and its best development is found in the -moist, fertile valley of Red river in Louisiana, and in certain parts of -Arkansas and Texas. Its geographical range is pretty large, but as a -timber tree it is confined to a comparatively restricted region west of -the Mississippi. Good trees are found in other parts of its range. -Lumbermen do not find it in extensive forests or pure stands, but -isolated trees or small groups occur with other hardwoods. - -This species of oak grows occasionally to a height of 100 feet, though -its average is about seventy feet. It has a trunk two to three feet in -diameter, which spreads out after attaining a height of fifteen or -twenty feet, into small, often pendulous branches, forming a symmetrical -round top. The branchlets are green, slightly tinged with red; covered -with short hairs when first appearing, becoming grayish and shiny during -their first winter, eventually turning ashen gray or brown. - -The bark is three-quarters or one inch thick, light gray in color, -shedding in thick plates, its surface being divided into thin scales. -The winter buds are about one-eighth of an inch long and have light -colored scales. The staminate flowers grow in long, slender, hairy -spikes from four to six inches long; the calyx is light yellow and -hairy. The pistillate flowers are stalked and are also covered with -hairs. - -The fruit of forked-leaf white oak is often on slender, fuzzy stems, -sometimes an inch or more in length, but is often closely attached to -the twig that bears it; the acorn is about one inch long, broad at the -base, light brown and covered with short, light hairs, and usually -almost entirely enclosed in the deep, spherical cup, which is bright -reddish-brown on its inside surface, and covered on the outside with -scales; thickened at the base, becoming thinner and forming an irregular -edge at the margin of the cup. The cup often almost completely envelopes -the acorn. The fruit then looks somewhat like a rough, nearly spherical -button. - -This oak's leaves are long and slender, and are divided in from five to -nine lobes. When the leaves unfold they are brownish green and hairy -above and below; at maturity they are thin and firm, darker green and -shiny on the upper surface, silvery or light green and hairy below; from -seven to eight inches long, one to four inches broad; in autumn turning -a beautiful bright scarlet or vivid orange. - -Commercially this wood is a white oak, and it is seldom or never sent to -market under its own name. There are no statistics of cut at the mills -or of stand in the forests. Lumbermen take the tree when they come to it -in the course of their usual operations, but never go out of their way -to get it. Though rather large stands occur in certain southern regions, -and scattering trees are found in large areas, the total quantity in the -country is known to be too small to give this tree an important place as -a source of lumber. Neither is there expectation that the future has -anything in store for this particular member of the tribe of oaks. The -wood rates high in physical properties; is strong as white oak, if not -stronger, tough, stiff, hard, and heavy. In contact with the ground it -is very durable. The heartwood is rich, dark brown, the sapwood lighter. - -It may be said, generally, that since it goes to market as white oak, -and its buyers never object, it possesses the essential properties of -that wood, and is used in the same way as far as it is used at all. - -ARIZONA WHITE OAK (_Quercus arizonica_) is the common and most generally -distributed white oak of southern New Mexico and Arizona where it -covers the hillsides and occurs in canyons at altitudes from 5,000 to -10,000 feet above sea level. It occasionally ascends nearly or quite to -the summits of the highest peaks. The form of the tree varies greatly, -as might be expected from a range extending from one to two miles above -sea level. On the dry, windswept summits the tree degenerates into a -shrub, with stiff, harsh branches. Lower down, in canyons and in other -situations where moisture may be had and the soil is fertile, trunks are -fifty or sixty feet high and three or four in diameter; but these are -not the usual sizes even in the best of the tree's range, for it cannot -be classed as a timber tree. - -The hardships of the desert have stunted it, and its form is rough. It -is important for fuel, and this has been its chief use. The region where -it occurs is thinly settled, and demand for lumber is small, but -stockmen build corrals and fences to enclose sheep and cattle, and the -Arizona white oak supplies some of the rough poles and posts for that -purpose. The wood is heavy, hard, strong, and the heartwood is almost -black, but the sapwood is lighter. The grain and figure of the wood are -not attractive, and what little may be sawed into lumber in the future -will be rather low-grade. The branches are crooked and when cut into -cordwood the ricks are so open that it is a common saying in the region -that "you can throw a dog through." The wood burns well, and the demand -for fuel is large, in proportion to the population of the country. - -The leaves of this oak are sometimes slightly lobed, and are sometimes -nearly as smooth as willow leaves. They are light red and covered with -hair when they unfold in the spring, but when mature they are dark -green, and shiny. Acorns are one inch or less in length, and rather -slender. They are very bitter, and wild animals are inclined to let them -alone, unless pressed by hunger, and then eat them sparingly. This -insures good reproduction, provided other conditions are favorable. -Though cordwood cutters may strip the large trees from the hills and -canyons, scrub growth may be expected to continue, particularly on high -mountains, and in ravines where roads cannot be built. - - NETLEAF OAK (_Quercus reticulata_) will never attract lumbermen in - this country, but sometime they may send to the Sierra Madre - mountains of Mexico to procure it. In that region it is a tree large - enough for lumber; but the portion of its range overlapping on the - United States lies in southern Arizona and New Mexico among - mountains from 7,000 to 10,000 feet above sea level. Conditions are - unfavorable and the netleaf oak shows it by its stunted size and - rough form. The wood is hard, heavy, dark brown in color, with - lighter sapwood. The medullary rays are numerous and very broad. The - tree seldom exceeds forty feet in height and one foot in diameter. - The leaf is netted somewhat like that of the elm. The acorn is - usually not more than half an inch in length. - - ROCKY MOUNTAIN OAK (_Quercus undulata_) bears acorns which may be - eaten like chestnuts, and not much more may be said for the tree in - the way of usefulness to man, though it is the salvation of some of - the small mammals of the bleak Texas and New Mexico hills where - there is little to eat and few places for concealment from hawks and - other enemies. The tree is also called scrub oak and shin oak. It - grows in Colorado, New Mexico, western Texas, Arizona, Nevada, and - Utah. At its best it rarely exceeds thirty feet high and a foot in - diameter, and it often forms a jungle of shrubs through which the - traveler must wade waist deep or go miles out of his way to pass - round it. Its leaf is one of the smallest of the oaks, and is - notched much like the chestnut leaf. - - ALVORD OAK (_Quercus alvordiana_) is little known and will probably - never be of much importance. It grows in the region of Tehachapi - mountains, the northern border of the Mojave desert, in California, - and was named for William Alvord of that state. The leaf is toothed, - and the acorn smooth. No record has been found of any use of the - wood, and when Sudworth compiled his book, "Forest Trees of the - Pacific Slope," he was unable to procure enough leaves, flowers, and - fruit to enable him to give a botanical description. It may - therefore be regarded as one of the scarcest oaks in the United - States, which fact gives it a certain interest. - - SADLER OAK (_Quercus sadleriana_) is one of the minor oaks of the - Pacific coast, and is popularly and properly called scrub oak by - those who encounter it on high, dry slopes of northern California - and southern Oregon mountains, from 4,000 to 9,000 feet above the - sea. It forms dense thickets, and passes for an evergreen. Its - leaves remain on the branches only thirteen months. The leaves are - toothed like those of chestnut. The acorns are matured in one - season. The name Sadler oak was given it in honor of a Scottish - botanist. Trees are too scarce and too small to have much value, - except as a ground cover. - - BREWER OAK (_Quercus breweri_) grows on the west slope of the Sierra - Nevada mountains in California, from Kaweah river northward to - Trinity mountains. It is often little more than a shrub, and its - usefulness to man lies less in the quantity of wood it produces than - in the protection the dense thickets, with their network of roots, - afford steep hillsides. Gullying in time of heavy rain cannot take - place where this oak's matted masses of roots bind the soil. Sprouts - rise freely from the roots, and thickets are reproduced in that way - rather than from acorns, although in certain years crops of acorns - are bountiful. The trunks are too small to make any kind of lumber, - but are capable of supplying considerable quantities of fuel. - -[Illustration] - - - - -POST OAK - -[Illustration: POST OAK] - - - - -POST OAK - -(_Quercus Minor_) - - -Post oak is the most common name for this tree but various sections of -its range have given it their own names which probably have local -significance. The following names are in use in the localities denoted: -post oak in the eastern and Gulf states, Connecticut to Texas, and in -Arkansas and West Virginia; box white oak in Rhode Island; iron oak in -Delaware, Mississippi and Nebraska; chêne étoile in Quebec; overcup oak -in Florida; white oak in Kentucky and Indiana; box oak and brash oak in -Maryland. - -Toward the northern portion of the range of this tree it is small, and -in early times it was little used except for fence posts. Its durability -fitted it for that use, and it is said the common name was due to that -circumstance. The name iron oak was used by shipbuilders who sometimes -bought small knees made of this wood. Baltimore oak was an early name -which is not now in use. It was generally applied to white oak, but it -included some post oak shipped from the Chesapeake bay region. - -Post oak is botanically and commercially a white oak and is seldom -distinguished from the true white oak, _Quercus alba_, in commerce. It -is seen at its best in the uplands of the Mississippi basin and in the -Gulf states west of the Mississippi, where it attains a considerable -size. In the northeastern states and in Florida it is small, becoming -shrubby in some localities, and more or less of local growth. Limestone -uplands or dry, sandy or gravelly soils seem to offer the best -conditions for its existence, where it grows in company with black jack, -red and white oak, sassafras, dogwood, gums, and red cedar. - -The range of growth of post oak extends from New Brunswick south through -the Atlantic states into Florida; west through the Gulf states and -throughout the Mississippi river system, growing west brokenly to -Montana. It is the common oak of central Texas but in the North it is -rather scarce, becoming more plentiful in the lower Appalachians. - -The broad, dense, round-topped crown of the post oak with its peculiar -foliage make it very noticeable in the woods, even to the casual -observer. Its dark green looks almost black at a distance. The tree has -an average height of sixty or eighty feet and is about two feet in -diameter, but in exceptional cases it reaches one hundred feet in height -and has a diameter of three feet. It has a moderately thick, dark brown -bark with a reddish tinge and deep fissures, the broad ridges being -covered with thin scales. On the branches it becomes much thinner, and -lighter in color, the branchlets being unfissured and glabrous in the -second year, although fuzzy at first. They are rather heavy and rounded -and terminate in short round buds with conspicuous scales. A noticeable -feature of the tree is the peculiar branching. The limbs are heavy and -crooked, separating often, with wide angles, forming knees which when -big enough, have a commercial value. - -When the tree is in foliage the tufted appearance of the leaves grouped -on the ends of the twigs gives it a distinctive look. They bear some -resemblance to a star, and for that reason some botanists have named the -species _stellata_. The leaves are five or seven inches long usually, -but in some cases, especially on young specimens, they are ten or more -inches long. They are dark, shiny-green and on a short petiole, the -veins and midrib being heavy and conspicuous. The identification of -these leaves is easy as they are heavy in texture, are bilaterally -developed with a large, obtuse lobe on each side about in the middle, -giving them a maltese cross effect. They are very persistent, staying on -the tree until the new leaves push them off in the spring. - -The form of post oak is not ideal from the lumberman's viewpoint. The -tree does not prune itself well. Straggling limbs adhere to the trunk -and prevent the clean bole which often makes white oak so attractive. - -The wood weighs 52.14 pounds per cubic foot. The name iron oak referred -to the weight as well as the strength of the wood. It is rather -difficult to season, and is inclined to check badly. The medullary rays -are broad and numerous, and checking is apt to develop along the rays. -The summerwood occupies about half of the annual ring, and is dense and -dark colored. Large pores are abundant in the springwood, and smaller -ones in the summerwood. - -Formerly this tree was known in some sections as turkey oak, though the -name is no longer heard, but is now applied to another oak in the South. -The acorns are small enough to be eaten by turkeys, and when those game -birds were wild in the woods they frequented parts of the forests where -post oaks grew, and hunters knew where to find them. The uses of post -oak for building and manufacturing purposes are the same as for white -oak as far as they go, but post oak is not so extensively employed. - -The earliest railroads in America were built in the region where post -oak of excellent quality grew, and it saw service from the first as -crossties, and car and bridge timbers. It is still used for those -purposes. Its other important uses are as furniture material, both as -solid stock and veneer; interior finish and fixtures for offices, banks, -and stores; musical instruments, including frames, braces, and veneers; -baskets, crates, and shipping boxes; vehicles, particularly tongues, -axles, and hounds of heavy wagons; flooring, stair work, balusters. - -Post oak will do well on land too gravelly and thin to sustain good -white oak growth. To that extent the two species are not competitors for -ground, and post oak is assured a place in future woodlots, but it -cannot be expected ever to equal white oak in commercial importance, -while as an ornamental tree it is not usually favored because the shape -of its crown is not altogether pleasing. Its very dark foliage, however, -is admired by many and gives the tree an individuality. - -SWAMP WHITE OAK (_Quercus platanoides_). This tree's botanical name -means "broadleaf oak," and that is a good description as far as it goes, -but it does not apply solely to this species. The characteristic which -fixes it best in the minds of most people is its preference for low, wet -soil. Its two common names are swamp oak and swamp white oak, yet it is -not really a swamp tree, such as the northern white cedar, southern -white cedar, cypress, and tupelo are. It does not associate with any of -those trees. It prefers river banks, and does not object to a good deal -of water about its roots, though it grows nicely in situations out of -reach of all overflow, and often side by side with silver maple, -hickory, ash, and several other oaks. The leaf resembles that of -chestnut oak, and the bark is somewhat like chestnut oak, but the wood -passes in market for white oak, and is a good substitute for it, though -the resemblance is not so close that one need be mistaken for the other. -The tree averages about seventy feet high with a diameter of two feet, -but much larger trunks are common. The famous "Wadsworth oak," which -stood on the bank of the Genesee river in western New York, about a mile -from the village of Geneseo, was a swamp white oak. It had a trunk -diameter of nine feet, but it was not tall in proportion. It met its -overthrow by the undermining of the river bank in time of flood. That is -a common fate for this tree, because of its preference for river banks. -Its range is from Maine to Wisconsin and Iowa. It follows the mountains -to northern Georgia; and west of the Mississippi it grows as far south -as Arkansas. The species is best developed in western New York, -northwestern Pennsylvania, and along the southern shores of Lakes Erie -and Michigan. - -Trees do not clear themselves of branches on their lower trunks very -early in life, and lumber more or less knotty results. It is possible, -however, to cut a fairly large proportion of clear boards. The wood is -of about the same weight as white oak, and is hard, strong, and tough. -Its color is light brown, and the thin sapwood is hardly distinguishable -from the heart. The medullary rays are as large as those of white oak, -but are few. For that reason, swamp white oak does not give very -satisfactory results when quarter-sawed. The bright patches are too -scarce. Neither does it show as many of these rays as chestnut oak. The -wood is very porous, but the large pores are confined to the springwood, -while the broad bands of summerwood are dense. The contrast between the -two parts of annual rings forms a strong, but not particularly handsome -figure when the lumber is sawed tangentially--that is, from the side of -the log. The wood finisher can improve this oak's natural appearance by -employing fillers and stains to lighten shades or deepen tints. The uses -of this oak are numerous. It is excellent fuel, and is rather low in -ash; it is weaker and more brittle than white oak; but it is quite -satisfactory for railroad ties, car building, house finish, furniture, -some parts of heavy vehicles, certain kinds of cooperage, and for farm -implements. - - ROCKY MOUNTAIN BLUE OAK (_Quercus oblongifolia_) is named from the - blue color of its foliage, though what little lumber is cut from it, - is bought and sold as white oak. It is of little importance, yet in - the almost timberless mountains of western Texas it supplies some of - the urgent wants of a scattered population. It bears willow-like - leaves one or two inches long, and less than an inch wide; but on - vigorous shoots they are larger. The acorns are very small. Trees - seldom exceed thirty feet in height, and a diameter of twenty - inches; and often the trunk is divided near the ground in three or - four stout, crooked forks. Ordinarily, it is an impossible tree to - lumber, but sometimes a few logs find their way to sawmills and a - little passable lumber is produced. The wood weighs 58 pounds per - cubic foot. It is strong, but when it breaks, it snaps short. The - heartwood is darker than in most oaks, and the sapwood is brown. The - tree is useful for fuel. Charcoal for local blacksmith shops is - manufactured from the wood. It is abundant on many of the sterile - slopes and mesas of New Mexico and Arizona, but usually in the form - of brush about the heads of canyons. - -[Illustration] - - - - -COW OAK - -[Illustration: COW OAK] - - - - -COW OAK - -(_Quercus Michauxii_) - - -This oak's acorns are remarkably free from the bitterness due to tannin -and are therefore pleasant to the taste. Herbivorous animals eat them -when they are to be had, and the eagerness with which cattle gather them -in the fall is doubtless the reason for calling the tree cow oak. Hogs -and sheep are as eager hunters for the acorns as cattle are, and the -half-wild swine in the southern forests become marketable during the two -months of the acorn season. Children know the excellency of the cow oak -acorns, and gather them in large quantities during the early weeks of -autumn in the South. The tree is widely known as basket oak, and the -name refers to a prevailing use for the wood in early times, and a -rather common use yet. Long before anyone had made a study of the -structure of this wood, it was learned that it splits nicely into long, -slender bands, and these were employed by basket weavers for all sorts -of wares in that line. Tens of thousands of baskets were in use before -the war in the southern cottonfields, and they have not gone out of use -there yet. It is safe to say that millions of dollars worth of cotton -has been picked and "toted" in baskets made of this oak. It was natural, -therefore, that the name basket oak should be given it. Large, coarse -baskets are still made of splits of this wood, and china and other -merchandise are packed in them; while baskets of finer pattern and -workmanship are doing service about the farms and homes of thousands of -people. - -When the structure of wood became a subject of study among -dendrologists, the secret of the cow oak's adaptability to basket making -was discovered. The annual rings of growth are broad, and the bands of -springwood and summerwood are distinct. The springwood is so perforated -with large pores that it contains comparatively little real wood -substance. The early basket maker did not notice that but he found by -experimenting that the wood split along the rings of growth into fine -ribbons. The splitting occurs along the springwood. Ribbons may be -pulled off as thin as the rings of annual growth, that is, from an -eighth to a sixteenth of an inch thick. These are the "splits" of which -baskets are made. When subjected to rough usage, such as being dragged -and hauled about cornfields and cotton plantations, such a basket will -outlast two or three of willow. - -The tree is sometimes called swamp white oak, and swamp chestnut oak. It -bears some resemblance to the swamp white oak (_Quercus platanoides_) -and some people believe that both are of one species, but of slightly -different forms. It is not surprising that there should be a conflict of -names and confusion in identification. The leaf resembles that of the -chestnut oak, and to that fact is due the belief which some hold that -the chief difference between the trees is that the chestnut oak -(_Quercus prinus_) grows on dry land and cow oak in damp situations. -Botanists make a clear distinction between cow oak and all other -species, though it closely resembles some of them in several -particulars. - -From the northern limits of its growth in Delaware, where it is not of -any considerable size, it extends south through the Atlantic states and -into Florida, west in the Gulf states to the Trinity river in Texas, and -up the Mississippi valley, including in its range Arkansas, eastern -Missouri, southern Indiana and Illinois and western Kentucky and -Tennessee. It is distinctly of the South and may be considered the best -southern representative of the white oak group. It does best in swampy -localities where it is found in company with water hickory, sweet -magnolia, planer tree, water oak, willow oak, red maple, and red and -black gum. - -In general appearance the tree gives the impression of massiveness and -strength, offset by the delicate, silvery effect of the bark and the -lining of the foliage. The usual height is sixty or eighty feet, but it -often exceeds a hundred feet, the bole attaining a diameter of as high -as seven feet and showing three log lengths clear. The characteristic -light gray, scaly, white oak bark covers trunk and heavy limbs, which -rise at narrow angles, forming a rounded head and dividing into stout -branches and twigs. The winter buds are not characteristic of white oak, -being long and pointed rather than rounded. They are about a half inch -in length, scaly, with red hairs and usually in threes on the ends of -the twigs. The general texture of the leaves is thick and heavy, their -upper surfaces being dark, lustrous green and the lower white and -covered with hairs. They are from five to seven inches long with -petioles an inch in length and of the general outline of the chestnut -leaf. Their rich crimson color is conspicuous in the fall after turning. - -The wood of cow oak is hard, heavy, very tough, strong, and durable. The -heartwood is light brown, the sapwood darker colored. It weighs 50.10 -pounds per cubic foot, and is not quite up to white oak in strength and -elasticity. In quarter-sawing it does not equal white oak, because the -medullary rays, though broad, are not regularly distributed, and the -surface of the quarter-sawed board has a splotchy appearance, and it is -not as easy to match figures as with white oak. - -Cow oak is one of the most important hardwoods of the South. Its uses -are much the same as those for white oak farther north. The custom of -calling it white oak when it goes to market renders the collection of -statistics of uses difficult. Sawmills seldom or never list cow oak in -making reports of cut. Factories which further manufacture lumber, after -it leaves the mill, sometimes distinguish between cow oak and other -oaks. It has been found suitable material in the South for canthook -handles where it takes the place of hickory which is more expensive. It -is reported for that use in considerable quantity in Louisiana. The -handles are subjected to great strain and violent shocks. The billets -are split to the proper size, because if they are sawed they are liable -to contain cross grain which is a fatal defect. The wood is cut in -dimensions for chair stock and furniture, the better grades usually -going to furniture factories. Defective logs, short lengths, and odds -and ends may be worked into chair stock which contains a large -proportion of small pieces. The making of large plantation baskets of -this wood is still a fairly large business in Louisiana and Mississippi. -Braided bottoms of cheap chairs are of the same workmanship as baskets. - -Vehicle makers in the South are large users of this wood. It is employed -in heavy wagons chiefly, and is worked into many parts, including axles, -bolsters, felloes, hubs, hounds, tongues, reaches, spokes, and -bedbottoms. - -This tree is classed as white oak by coopers who accept it as stave -material. The amount used is much less than of the true white oak, but -the exact quantity taken yearly by barrel makers is not known because -statistics do not list the different white oaks separately. Cow oak -rives well when a trunk is found clear of knots. The trees are usually -smaller and less perfect than true white oak in the North. - -Railroads accept crossties of this species and they give as long service -as white oak, are as hard, and hold spikes as well. The wood is accepted -by car shops for use in repairs and in new work. Trunks are split or -sawed into fence posts and are used in probably larger numbers than any -other southern oak. - -This tree's future seems fairly well assured. It will further decline in -available supply, because it is cut faster than it is growing. That is -the status of all the timber oaks of this country. This one has -advantage over some of the others in that it occupies wet land which -will not soon be in demand for agricultural purposes, and young growth -will be left to develop. - - ENGELMANN OAK (_Quercus engelmanni_) occupies a restricted range in - southwestern California where it is generally spoken of as a desert - tree; but its rate of growth appears to be much more rapid than is - usual with trees in arid situations. It occupies a narrow belt in - San Diego county and its range extends into Lower California. It - forms about one-third of the stand in Palomar mountains, and is much - scarcer in the Cuyamaca mountains. The tree seldom attains a height - greater than forty or fifty feet, or a diameter more than twenty or - thirty inches. The largest trees are of small value for lumber and - in rare instances only, if at all, do they go to sawmills. The - trunks fork and each branch forks, until a fairly large bole near - the ground is divided among numerous limbs. The tree's chief value - is as fuel. It rates high as such. The leaves are bluish-green and - are thick with sharp points on their margins. The leaves vary - greatly in size, and are largest on young shoots. They remain a year - on the tree, and are classed as evergreen. The acorns ripen in one - year. This interesting species was named for Dr. George Engelmann, - whose name is borne also by Engelmann spruce. The wood is among the - heaviest of the oaks, exceeding white oak by more than twelve pounds - per cubic foot. It is brittle and weak, and very dark brown. The - green wood checks and warps badly in seasoning. The medullary rays - are numerous and large, but are so irregularly dispersed that - quarter-sawing promises no satisfactory results, even if logs of - suitable size could be found. The annual rings are indistinct, owing - to no clear line of separation between springwood and summerwood. - Pores are numerous, diffuse, and some of them large. The species is - entitled to recognition only because it is found in a region where - forests are scarce and scrubby, and every trunk has value as fuel, - if for nothing else. It affords a cover for hills which otherwise - would be barren, and it frequently occurs in fairly dense thickets. - -[Illustration] - - - - -PACIFIC POST OAK - -[Illustration: PACIFIC POST OAK] - - - - -PACIFIC POST OAK - -(_Quercus Garryana_) - - -David Douglas named this tree the Garry oak, in honor of Nicholas Garry -of the Hudson Bay Company, who furnished valuable assistance to -botanists and other explorers of early times in the northwestern parts -of America. This tree is best developed in the neighborhood of Puget -Sound, the present state of Washington, and at the period of -explorations in that region by Douglas, who was a Scotchman, the country -was a sort of "no man's land." It was claimed by both England and the -United States, and Russia had cast covetous eyes on it as a southern -extension of her Alaska holdings. England at that time put a good deal -of dependence in the Hudson Bay Company to get possession of and to hold -as much country as possible, and Garry's help given to explorers was -part of a well-laid plan to possess as much of the northwestern country -as possible. Douglas doubtless had that in mind when he named the oak in -honor of Garry. It was a witness and perpetual reminder that the Hudson -Bay Company's strong arms had been stretched in that direction. - -The people in California and Oregon often speak of the tree simply as -white oak, but it is sometimes called Oregon white oak, and more often -Oregon oak without a qualifying word. When it is spoken of as western -white oak, which frequently is the case, it is compared with the -well-known eastern white oak. It bears more resemblance to the eastern -post oak (_Quercus minor_) and for that reason it has been named Pacific -post oak. The leaves and twigs, particularly when they are young, -resemble post oak. - -The northern limit of the tree's range crosses southern British -Columbia. It is found in the lower valley of Frazer river and on -Vancouver island. It is the only oak tree of British Columbia. Its range -extends southward to the Santa Cruz mountains in California, but near -the southern limit of its range it is found chiefly in valleys near the -coast. It is best developed in western Washington and Oregon. It occurs -of good size on dry gravelly slopes of low hills; and it ascends the -Cascade mountains to considerable elevations, but becomes stunted and -shrubby. It is abundant in northwestern California. - -The tree has a height from sixty to a hundred feet; sometimes it attains -a diameter of three and one-half feet. It carries a broad and compact -crown, especially when the tree is surrounded by young coniferous growth -as is the case in its best habitat where natural pruning gets rid of the -lower limbs and causes an outward and later a pendulous growth of the -upper part. The limbs are strong and heavy as are the branches and -twigs. The bark is a grayish-brown with shallow fissures, the broad -ridges being sometimes broken across forming square plates which are -covered with the grayish flakes or scales. The buds are long and acute, -and are coated with a red fuzz. The leaves are from four to six inches -long and are bilaterally developed, having seven or nine coarse round -lobes; the sinuses being rounded or rather shallow. The color is a dark -lustrous green and the texture leathery. - -The acorn is rather large being about an inch and a quarter in length -and usually about half as broad as long; has a shallow cup covered with -pointed sometimes elongated scales. - -This oak is one of the most important hardwoods of the far Northwest. It -is often compared with the eastern white oak, but its physical -properties fall below that species in some important particulars. The -two woods weigh about the same, but the eastern species is stronger and -more elastic, and is of better color and figure. All oaks season -somewhat slowly, but the Pacific post oak is hardly up to the average. -It is a common saying that it must remain two years on the sticks to fit -it for the shop, but that time may be shortened in many instances. -Checking must be carefully guarded against. - -Some of this oak is exceedingly tough, and when carefully sorted and -prepared it is excellent material for heavy wagons; but the best comes -from young and comparatively small trees. When they attain large size -they are apt to become brash. The tree usually grows rapidly, and is not -old in proportion to the size of its trunk. An examination of the wood -shows broad bands of summerwood and narrow, very porous springwood. The -medullary rays are broad and numerous, and ought to show well in -quarter-sawed stock; but it does not appear that much quarter-sawing has -been done. - -Practically all of this species cut in the United States is credited to -Oregon in the census of sawmill output in 1910. The cut was 2,887,000 -feet, and was produced by fourteen sawmills, while in Washington only -one mill reported any oak, and the quantity was only 4,000 feet. On the -northwest Pacific coast it comes in competition with eastern oak and -also with Siberian or Japanese oak. - -Basket makers put this wood to considerable use. Young trees are -selected on account of their toughness. The wood is either split in -long, thin ribbons for basket weaving, or it is first made into veneer -and then cut in ribbons of required width. The largest users are -furniture makers, but boat yards find it convenient material and it -takes the place of imported oak for frames, keels, ribs, sills, and -interior finish. It is durable, and it may be depended upon for long -service in any part of boat construction. Its toughness fits it for ax, -hammer, and other handles. It is far inferior to hickory, but on the -Pacific coast it can be had much cheaper. Its strength and durability -make it one of the best western woods for insulator pins for telephone -and telegraph lines. It is worked into saddle trees and stirrups. - -The scarcity of woods on the Pacific coast suitable for tight cooperage -gives this oak a rather important place, because barrels and casks made -of it hold alcoholic liquors. Available statistics do not show the -quantity of staves produced from this wood, but it is known to be used -for staves in Oregon. - -Much Pacific post oak is employed as rough lumber for various purposes. -Railroads buy crossties, hewed or sawed from small trunks, and country -bridges are occasionally floored with thick planks which wear well and -offer great resistance to decay. - -The quantity of this oak growing in the Northwest is not known. It falls -far below some of the softwoods of the same region, and the area on -which it is found in commercial amounts is not large. It is holding its -ground fairly well. Trees bear full crops of acorns frequently, and if -they fall on damp humus they germinate and grow. The seedlings imitate -the eastern white oak, and send tap roots deep into the ground, and are -then prepared for fortune or adversity. It happens, however, that trees -which bear the most bountiful crops of acorns do not stand in forests -where the ground is damp and humus abundant, but on more open ground on -grass covered slopes. Acorns which fall on sod seldom germinate, and -consequently few seedlings are to be seen in such situations. Open-grown -trees are poorly suited for lumber, on account of many limbs low on the -trunks, but they grow large amounts of cordwood. - - CALIFORNIA SCRUB OAK (_Quercus dumosa_) has been a puzzle to - botanists, and a hopeless enigma to laymen. Some would split the - species into no fewer than three species and three varieties, basing - distinctions on forms of leaves and acorns and other botanical - differences; but Sudworth, after a prolonged study of this matter, - recognized only one species and one variety, but admitted that - "California scrub oak unquestionably varies more than all other oaks - in the form and size of its leaves and acorns." He thought it might - possibly be equalled in that respect by _Quercus undulata_ of the - Rocky Mountains. Some of the leaves of California scrub oak are - three-fourths of an inch long and half an inch wide, while others - may be four inches long. The edges of some leaves are as briery as - the leaves of holly, others are comparatively smooth. The shapes and - sizes of acorns vary as much as the leaves. Some are long and - slender, others short and stocky. This peculiar oak is found only in - California, but it shows a disposition to advance as far as possible - into the sea, for it has gained a foothold on islands lying off the - California coast, and it there finds its most acceptable habitat. It - reaches its largest size in sheltered canyons on the islands, and - attains a height of twenty or twenty-five feet, and a diameter of a - foot or less. It is not large enough to win favor with lumbermen but - in its scrubby form it is abundant in many localities. It is - scattered over several thousand square miles, from nearly sea level - up to 7,000 feet in the mountains of southern California. It is - found scattered through the coast range and the Sierra Nevadas from - Mendocino county to Lower California, 700 miles or more. It grows - from sprouts and from acorns. The leaves adhere to the twigs - thirteen months, and fall after the new crop has appeared. The wood - is light brown, hard, and brittle. No use is made of it, except to a - small extent for fuel. On the mountains it grows in thickets - scarcely five feet high, but they cover the ground in dense jungles, - and the roots go deep in the ground. The species is valuable chiefly - for protection to steep slopes which would otherwise be without much - growth of any kind. Being low on the ground, forest fires are - particularly destructive to this oak; but its ability to send up - sprouts repairs the damage to some extent. - - EMORY OAK (_Quercus emoryi_) grows among the mountains of western - Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, attains a height from thirty to - seventy feet, and a diameter from one to four. The largest size is - found only in sheltered canyons, while on high mountains and in - exposed situations the tree degenerates to a shrub. It always has a - crop of leaves. The old do not fall until the new appear. In shape, - the leaves somewhat resemble those of box elder. The acorns ripen - from June to September, the exact time depending upon the tree's - situation. Trunks large enough for use are not scarce, but the wood - is not of high class. Stair railing and balusters have been made of - it in Texas, but the appearance is rather poor. The grain is coarse, - the figure common, the color unsatisfactory. The heart is very dark, - but the tones are not uniform, and flat surfaces, such as boards and - panels, show streaks which are not sufficiently attractive to be - taken for figure. Trunks are apt to be full of black knots which mar - the appearance of the lumber. The medullary rays are numerous and - broad, and in quarter-sawing, the size and arrangement of the - "mirrors" are all that could be desired, but they have a decidedly - pink color which does not contrast very well with the rest of the - wood. The weight of this oak exceeds per cubic foot white oak, by - more than ten pounds; but it has scarcely half the strength or half - the elasticity of white oak. The springwood is filled with large - pores, the summerwood with smaller ones. It rates high as fuel, and - that is its chief value. Large quantities are cut for cordwood. - Railroad ties are made of it, and more or less goes into mines as - props and lagging. Stock ranches make fences, sheds, and corrals of - this oak, and live stock eats the acorns. The human inhabitants - likewise find the Emory oak acorn crop a source of food. Mexicans - gather them in large quantities and sell what they can spare. The - market for the acorns is found in towns in northwestern Mexico. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHESTNUT OAK - -[Illustration: CHESTNUT OAK] - - - - -CHESTNUT OAK - -(_Quercus Prinus_) - - -This tree is known as rock oak in New York; as rock chestnut oak in -Massachusetts and Rhode Island; as rock oak and rock chestnut oak in -Pennsylvania and Delaware; as tanbark oak and swampy chestnut oak in -North Carolina and as rock chestnut oak and mountain oak in Alabama. - -There is a pretty general disposition to call this tree rock oak. The -name refers to the hardness of the wood, and is not confined to this -species. Other oaks are also given that name, and the adjective "rock" -is applied to two or three species of elm which possess wood remarkable -for its hardness. Cedar and pine are likewise in the class. In all of -these classes "rock" is employed to denote hardness of wood. Iron as an -adjective or ironwood as a noun is used in the same way for a number of -trees. The name swampy chestnut oak as applied in some parts of the -South to this tree, is hardly descriptive, for it is less a swamp tree -than most of the oaks, though it does often grow along the banks of -streams. - -Its distribution ranges from the coast of southern Maine and the Blue -Hills of eastern Massachusetts southward to Delaware and the District of -Columbia; along the Appalachian mountains to northern Georgia and -Alabama; westward to the shores of Lake Champlain and the valley of the -Genesee river, New York; along the northern shores of Lake Erie and to -central Kentucky and Tennessee. It is rare and local in New England and -Ontario, but plentiful on the banks of the lower Hudson river and on the -Appalachian mountains from southern New York to Alabama. It reaches its -best development in the region from West Virginia to North Carolina, -pretty high on the ridges flanking the mountain ranges. - -Leaves are alternate, from five to nine inches long, with coarse teeth -rounded at the top. At maturity, they are thick and firm, yellow-green -and rather lustrous on the upper surface, paler and usually hairy -beneath. In the autumn before falling, they turn a dull orange color or -rusty-brown. - -The flowers appear in May and are solitary or paired on short spurs. The -fruit or acorn is solitary or in pairs, one or two and one-half inches -long, very lustrous and of a bright chestnut-brown color. The acorn cup -is thin, downy-lined and covered with small scales. The kernel is sweet -and edible. The bark of the chestnut oak is thin, smooth, purplish-brown -and often lustrous on young stems and small branches, becoming a thick, -dark, reddish-brown, or nearly black on old trunks, and divided into -broad rounded ridges, separating on the surface into small, closely -appressed scales. The bark of the tree is so dark in color and so deeply -furrowed that it has often been mistaken for one of the black oak group, -although its wavy leaf margins and annual fruit clearly differentiate it -from those species. The bark of the chestnut oak is thicker and rougher -on old trunks than on any other oak. - -The bark of chestnut oak has long been valuable for tanning. There is -tannin in the bark of all oaks, and several of them contain it in paying -quantities, but chestnut oak is more important to the leather industry -than any other oak. In richness of tannin the tanbark oak of California -occupies as high a place, but it is not supplying as much material as -the eastern tree. Statistics showing the annual consumption of tanbark -and tanning extracts in the United States, do not list the oaks -separately, but it is well known that chestnut oak far surpasses all -others in output. Hemlock bark is peeled in large quantities, but -tanneries occasionally mix chestnut oak bark with it to lighten the deep -red color imparted to leather when hemlock bark is the sole material -employed. - -Large quantities of chestnut oak timber have been destroyed to procure -the bark. Fortunately, it is a practice not much indulged in at present, -because the wood now has value, but it formerly had little. It was then -abandoned in the forest after the bark was peeled and hauled away. The -same practice obtained with hemlock years ago. Much chestnut oak is -still cut primarily for the bark, but the logs are worth hauling to -sawmills, unless in remote districts. - -The chestnut oak is a vigorous tree and grows rapidly in dry soil, where -it often forms a great part of the forest. It is not as large as the -white oak or red oak, but is a splendid tree, its bole being very -symmetrical and holding its size well. It grows usually to a height of -from sixty to seventy feet and sometimes 100 feet, with a diameter of -from two to five feet and occasionally as large as seven feet. - -The form of the tree shows great variation, depending upon the situation -in which it grows. Trees in open ground often divide into forks or large -limbs, and the trunks are short and of poor form. Open-grown trees show -a decided tendency to develop crooked boles, and unduly large branches. -No such objection can be urged against it when it grows under forest -conditions. Trunks are straight and are otherwise of good form. - -The wood of chestnut oak differs little from that of white oak in -weight, strength, and stiffness. It is hard, rather tough, durable in -contact with the soil, and is darker in color than white oak. It has -few large, open pores, and requires less filler in finishing than most -oaks. There are many pores, however, and those in the springwood are -arranged in bands. The summerwood is broad and distinct, usually -constituting three-fourths of the annual ring. The medullary rays are as -broad and numerous as in the best furniture oaks. They are regularly -arranged, and spaces between them do not vary much in width. The wood -quarter-saws well. - -The wood has the fault of checking badly in seasoning, unless carefully -attended to. In recent years, these difficulties have been largely -overcome, both in air seasoning and in the drykiln. - -Chestnut oak has a wide range of uses. It is classed as white oak in -many markets, but few users buy it believing it to be true white oak. It -is coming year by year to stand more on its own merits. Some sawmills -which formerly piled it and sold it with other oaks, now keep it -separate, and some factories which once took it only because it came -mixed with other oaks, now buy it for special uses, and make high-class -commodities of it. One of these is mission furniture, which has become -fashionable in recent years. Chestnut oak possesses good fuming -properties, and this constitutes much of its value as furniture -material. - -The wood is found in factories where general furniture is made. It is -largely frame material for furniture though some of it is for outside -finish. It is employed as frames in Maryland in the construction of -canal boats, and the annual demand for that purpose is about a quarter -of a million feet in that state. - -One of the most important places for chestnut oak is in the shop which -makes vehicles. It goes into sills for both heavy and light bodies, -bolsters, and wagon bottoms. It has become a favorite wagon wood in -England and in continental Europe, and there passes as white oak, though -dealers well know that it is not the true white oak. There is no -indication that demand for it will lessen, for it possesses many -characters which fit it for vehicle making. - -In Michigan more chestnut oak is reported by car builders than by any -other class of manufacturers, though wagon makers buy it. Car shops use -about 220,000 feet a year, and work it into hand cars, push cars, -track-laying cars, and cattle guards. - -The large remaining area of timber growth in which chestnut oak appears -is the Appalachian range through eastern Tennessee and western North -Carolina, and the fact that it is comparatively plentiful in the forests -of the Appalachian range will tend to bring it more and more into -prominence as a factor in the making of wagons, cars, boats, staves, and -furniture as the other oaks become scarcer. - -The probable future of chestnut oak is an interesting problem for -study. Few steps have yet been taken looking toward providing for -generations to come. Chestnut oak has been left to take care of itself. -The trees, produced in nature's way, have been ample to supply all needs -in the past, and they will be for the near future. Chestnut oak -possesses some advantages over most of the other oaks. Large trees will -grow on very poor soil, where most other oaks are little more than -shrubs. Trees so grown are little more susceptible to disease than if -produced in good soil, though they develop more slowly and are smaller. -There are many poor flats and sterile ridges in the chestnut oak's -range, and they will produce timber of fairly good kind, if the chestnut -oaks are permitted to have them. Nature gave this tree facilities for -taking possession. Its acorns will grow without being buried. They do -not depend on blue jays to carry them to sunny openings or squirrels to -plant them; but they will sprout where they fall, whether on hard -gravelly soil or dry leaves; and they at once set about getting the tap -roots of the future trees into the ground. In many instances the -chestnut oak's acorns do not wait to fall from the tree before they -sprout. Like the seed of the Florida mangrove, they are often ready to -take root the day they touch the ground. The large acorn is stored with -plantfood which sustains the growing germ for some time, and the ground -must be very hard and exceedingly dry if a young chestnut oak is not -soon firmly established, and good for two or three hundred years, if let -alone. - -The forester who may undertake to grow chestnut oaks must exercise great -care in transplanting the seedlings, or the tap roots will be broken and -the young trees will die. The best plan is to drop acorns on the ground -where trees are expected to grow, and nature will do the rest, provided -birds and beasts leave the acorns alone. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHINQUAPIN OAK - -[Illustration: CHINQUAPIN OAK] - - - - -CHINQUAPIN OAK - -(_Quercus Acuminata_) - - -This tree is known as yellow chestnut oak, chinquapin oak, chestnut oak, -pin oak, yellow oak, scrub oak, dwarf chestnut oak, shrub oak, and rock -oak. It should not be confused with _Quercus prinus_, the true chestnut -oak, although it is commonly known in so many sections of the country by -the latter name; the names yellow oak, pin oak, and scrub oak are -likewise applied to many species, so that the only way to accurately -designate members of this great family is to employ their botanical -names. However, this species should always be known as the chinquapin -oak, which is a distinctive term, and not applied to any other. - -The bark of this tree is light gray and is broken into thin flakes, -silvery-white, sometimes slightly tinted with brown, rarely half an inch -thick. The branchlets are marked with pale lenticels. - -The leaves of the chinquapin oak are from five to seven inches long, -simple and alternate; they have a taper-pointed apex and blunt, -wedge-shaped or pointed base; are sharply toothed. When unfolding they -show bright bronze-green above, tinged with purple, and are covered -underneath with light silvery down; at maturity they become thick and -firm, showing greenish-yellow on the upper surface and silvery-white -below. The midrib is conspicuous and the veins extending outward to the -points of the teeth are well-defined. In autumn the leaves turn orange -and scarlet and are very showy. The leaves are narrow, hardly two inches -wide, and more nearly resemble those of the chestnut than do any other -oak leaves. In their broadest forms they are also similar to those of -the true chestnut oak, although the difference in the quality and color -of the bark, and of the leaves, would prevent either tree from being -mistaken for the other. They are crowded at the ends of the branches and -hang in such a manner as to show their under surfaces with every touch -of breeze. This characteristic gives the chinquapin oak a peculiar -effect of constantly shifting color which is one of its most attractive -features and which puts the observer in mind of the trembling aspen, -although the shading and coloring of the oak is much more striking. - -This tree's range extends from northern New York, along Lake Champlain -and the Hudson river westward through southern Ontario, and southward -into parts of Nebraska and Kansas; on its eastern boundary it extends as -far south as the District of Columbia and along the upper Potomac; the -growth west of the Alleghany mountains reaches into central Alabama and -Mississippi, through Arkansas and the northern portion of Louisiana to -the eastern part of Oklahoma and parts of Texas even to the canyons of -the Guadalupe mountains, in the extreme western part of that state. It -is a timber tree of much importance in Texas, and in 1910 manufacturers -reported the use of 1,152,000 feet in that state, largely for making -furniture and vegetable crates. - -The chinquapin oak is named from the form of its leaf. Its acorn bears -no resemblance to the nut of chinquapin. Trees average smaller in size -than white oak, but when all circumstances are favorable they compare -well with any of the other oaks. In the lower Wabash valley, trees of -this species were found in the original forests 160 feet high and four -or five in diameter. When it grows in crowded stands it develops a tall, -symmetrical trunk, clear of limbs; but it is shorter in open growth. The -base is often much buttressed. - -The wood is very heavy, hard, strong, stiff, and durable. In color the -heartwood is dark, the sapwood lighter. The springwood is narrow and -filled with large pores, the summerwood broad and dense. Medullary rays -are less numerous and scarcely as broad as in chestnut oak, which this -wood resembles. It checks badly in drying, both by kiln and in the open -air; but when properly seasoned it is an excellent wood for most -purposes for which white oak is used. It shows fewer figures when -quarter-sawed than white oak shows, but it is satisfactory for many -kinds of furniture, particularly when finished in mission style. - -Railroads throughout the region where this species is found have laid -chinquapin oak ties in their tracks for many years and they give long -service, because they resist decay and are hard enough to stand the wear -of the rails. In early times in the Ohio valley it helped to fence many -a farm when the material for such fences was the old style fence rail, -eleven feet long, mauled from the straightest, clearest timber afforded -by the primeval forest. It had for companions many other oaks which were -abundant there, and it was on a par with the best of them. In the first -years of steamboating on the Ohio river, when the engines used wood for -fuel, they provided a market for many an old rail fence. The rails were -the best obtainable fuel, and the chinquapin oak rails in the heaps were -carefully looked for by the purchasers, because they were rated high in -fuel value. It is now known that chinquapin oak in combustion develops -considerably more heat than an equal quantity of white oak. - -When southern Indiana and Illinois were furnishing coopers with their -best staves, chinquapin oak was ricked with white oak, and no barrel -maker ever complained. The pores in the wood seem large, but in old -timber which is largely heartwood, the pores become clogged by the -processes of nature, and the wood is made proof against leakage. That is -what gives white oak its superiority as stave timber. It has as many -pores as red oak, but upon close examination under a magnifying glass, -they are found to be plugged, while red oak's pores are wide open. The -result is that red oak barrels leak through the wood; those made of -white oak do not. Chinquapin oak possesses the same properties, which -account for its reputation as stave material. - -The future for chinquapin oak is not quite as promising as that of -chestnut oak. The former's choice growing place is on rich soil and in -damp situations. These happen to be what the farmer wants, and he will -not leave the chinquapin oak alone to grow in nature's method, nor will -he plant its acorns in places where the trees will interfere with his -cornfields and meadows. Consequently, the tree is apt to receive scant -consideration after the original forests have disappeared; while its -poor cousin, the chestnut oak, will be left to make its way on sterile -ridges, and may even receive some help from the forester and woodlot -owner. - - VALLEY OAK (_Quercus lobata_) is often considered to be the largest - hardwood of the Pacific coast. Trunk diameters of ten feet have been - recorded, and heights more than 100; but such measurements belong - only to rare and extraordinary individuals. The average size of the - tree is less than half of that. The most famous tree of this species - is the Sir Joseph Hooker oak, near Chico, California, though it is - not the largest. It is seven feet in diameter and 100 high. It was - named by the botanist Asa Gray in 1877. This species is commonly - called California white oak, which name would be unobjectionable if - it were the only white oak in California. A more distinctive name is - weeping oak, which refers to the appearance of the outer branches. - It is called swamp oak, but without good reason, though the ground - on which it grows is often swampy during the rainy season. The name - valley oak is specially appropriate, since its favorite habitat is - in the broad valleys of central California. Its range does not go - outside that state, neither does the tree grow very high on the - mountains. Its range begins in the upper Sacramento valley and - extends to Tejon, south of Lake Tulare, a distance north and south - of about five hundred miles, while east and west the tree is found - from the Sierra foothills to the sea, 150 or 200 miles. Its - characteristic growth is in scattered stands. It does not form - forests in the ordinary sense. Two or three large trees to the acre - are an average, and often many acres are wholly missed. The form of - trees, and the wide spaces between them, resemble an old apple - orchard, though few apple trees live to attain the dimensions of the - valley oak of ordinary size. The best stands were originally in the - Santa Clara valley and in the central part of the San Joaquin valley - in the salt grass region north of Lake Tulare in Kings and Fresno - counties. Most of the largest trees were cut long ago. - - The leaves are lobed like white oak (_Quercus alba_) but are - smaller, seldom more than four inches long and two wide. The acorns - are uncommonly long, some of them being two and a half inches, sharp - pointed, with shallow cups. The wood of this oak is brash and breaks - easily. It is far below good eastern oak in strength and elasticity. - It weighs 46.17 pounds per cubic foot. The tree grows rapidly, and - its wide, clearly defined annual rings are largely dense summerwood. - The springwood is perforated with large pores. The color of the wood - is light brown, the sapwood lighter. Except as fuel, the uses found - for valley oak hardly come up to what might be expected of a tree so - large. It is not difficult, or at least was not difficult once, to - cut logs sixteen feet long and from three to five in diameter. Such - logs ought to make good lumber. The medullary rays indicate that the - wood can be quarter-sawed to advantage; yet there is no account that - any serious attempt was ever made to convert the valley oak into - lumber. The wood has some objectionable properties, but it has - escaped the sawmill chiefly because hardwood mills have never been - numerous in California, and they have been especially few in the - regions where the best valley oaks grow. The tree has been a great - source of fuel. It usually divides twenty or thirty feet from the - ground into large, wide-spreading branches, tempting to the - woodchopper. In central California, twenty or thirty years ago, it - was not unusual to haul this cordwood twenty-five miles to market. - Stockmen employed posts and rails split from valley oak to enclose - corrals and pens on the open plains for holding cattle, sheep, and - horses. The acorns are edible, and were formerly an article of food - for Indians who gathered them in considerable quantities in the fall - and stored them for winter in large baskets which were secured high - in the forks of trees to be out of reach of all ordinary marauders. - The baskets were made rain proof by roofing and wrapping them with - grass. When the time came for eating the acorns, they were prepared - for use by hulling them and then pounding them into meal in stone - mortars. The hulling was done with the teeth, and was the work of - squaws. The custom of eating the acorns has largely ceased with the - passing of the wild Indians from their former camping places; but - the stone mortars by hundreds remain in the vicinity of former - stands of valley oak. - - This splendid tree is highly ornamental, but it has not been - planted, and perhaps it will not become popular. Nature seems to - have confined it to a certain climate, and it is not known that it - will thrive outside of it. It will certainly disappear from many of - the valleys where the largest trees once grew. The land is being - taken for fields and vineyards, and the oaks are removed. Some will - remain in canyons and rough places where the land is not wanted, and - one of the finest species of the United States will cease to pass - entirely from earth. The largest of these oaks have a spread of - branches covering more than one-third of an acre. - -[Illustration] - - - - -LIVE OAK - -[Illustration: LIVE OAK] - - - - -LIVE OAK - -(_Quercus Virginiana_) - - -The history of this live oak is a reversal of the history of almost -every other important forest tree of the United States. It seems to be -the lone exception to the rule that the use of a certain wood never -decreases until forced by scarcity. There was a time when hardly any -wood in this country was in greater demand than this, and now there is -hardly one in less demand. The decline has not been the result of -scarcity, for there has never been a time when plenty was not in sight. -A few years ago, several fine live oaks were cut in making street -changes in New Orleans, and a number of sound logs, over three feet in -diameter, were rolled aside, and it was publicly announced that anyone -who would take them away could have them. No one took them. It is -doubtful if that could happen with timber of any other kind. - -The situation was different 120 years ago. At that time live oak was in -such demand that the government, soon after the adoption of the -constitution, became anxious lest enough could not be had to meet the -requirements of the navy department. The keels of the first war vessels -built by this government were about to be laid, and the most necessary -material for their construction was live oak. The vessels were to be of -wood, of course; and their strength and reliability depended upon the -size and quality of the heavy braces used in the lower framework. These -braces were called knees and were crooked at right angles. They were -hewed in solid pieces, and the largest weighed nearly 1,000 pounds. No -other wood was as suitable as live oak, which is very strong, and it -grows knees in the form desired. The crooks produced by the junction of -large roots with the base of the trunk were selected, and shipbuilders -with saws, broadaxes, and adzes cut them in the desired sizes and -shapes. - -When the building of the first ships of the navy was undertaken, the -alarm was sounded that live oak was scarce, and that speculators were -buying it to sell to European governments. Congress appropriated large -sums of money and bought islands and other lands along the south -Atlantic and Gulf coast, where the best live oak grew. In Louisiana -alone the government bought 37,000 live oak trees, as well as large -numbers in Florida and Georgia. In some instances the land on which the -trees stood was bought. - -Ship carpenters were sent from New England to hew knees for the first -vessels of the navy. The story of the troubles and triumphs of the -contractors and knee cutters is an interesting one, but too long for -even a summary here; suffice it that in due time the vessels were -finished. The history of those vessels is almost a history of the early -United States navy. Among their first duties when they put to sea was to -fight French warships, when this country was about to get into trouble -with Napoleon. They then fought the pirates of North Africa, and there -one of the ships was burned by its own men to prevent its falling into -the hands of the enemy. "Old Ironsides," another of the live oak -vessels, fought fourteen ships, one at a time, during the war of 1812, -and whipped them all. Another of the vessels was less fortunate. It was -lost in battle, in which its commander, Lawrence, was killed, whose last -words have become historic: "Don't give up the ship." Another came down -to the Civil war and was sunk in Chesapeake bay. - -The invention of iron vessels ended the demand for live oak knees. The -government held its land where this timber grew for a long time, but -finally disposed of most of it. Part of that owned in Florida was -recently incorporated in one of the National Forests of that state. - -Live oak is a tree of striking appearance. It prefers the open, and when -of large size its spread of branches often is twice the height of the -tree. Its trunk is short, but massy, and of enormous strength; otherwise -it could not sustain the great weight of its heavy branches. Some of the -largest limbs are nearly two feet in diameter where they leave the -trunk, and are fifty feet long, and some are seventy-five feet in -length. Probably the only tree in this country with a wider spread of -branches is the valley oak of California. The live oak's trunk is too -short for more than one sawlog, and that of moderate length. The largest -specimens may be seventy feet high and six or seven feet in diameter, -and yet not good for a sixteen-foot log. The enormous roots are of no -use now. When land is cleared of this oak, the stumps are left to rot. - -The range of live oak extends 4,000 miles or more northeast and -southwest. It begins on the coast of Virginia and ends in Central -America. It is found in Lower California and in Cuba. In southern United -States it sticks pretty closely to the coastal plains, though large -trees grow 200 or 300 feet above tide level. In Texas it is inclined to -rise higher on the mountains, but live oak in Texas seldom measures up -to that which grows further east. In southern Texas, where the land is -poor and dry, live oak degenerates into a shrub. Trees only a foot high -sometimes bear acorns. In all its range in this country, it is known by -but one English name, given it because it is evergreen. The leaves -remain on the tree about thirteen months, following the habit of a -number of other oaks. When new leaves appear, the old ones get out of -the way. - -The wood is very heavy, hard, strong, and tough. In strength and -stiffness it rates higher than white oak, and it is twelve pounds a -cubic foot heavier. The sapwood is light in color, the heartwood brown, -sometimes quite dark. The pores in the sapwood are open, but many of -them are closed in heartwood. The annual rings are moderately well -defined. The large pores are in the springwood, and those of the -summerwood are smaller, but numerous. The medullary rays are numerous -and dark. Measured radially, they are shorter than those of many other -oaks. They show well in quarter-sawed lumber, but are arranged -peculiarly, and do not form large groups of figures; but the wood -presents a rather flecked or wavy appearance. The general tone is dark -brown and very rich. It takes a smooth polish. When the wood is worked -into spindles and small articles, and brightly polished, its appearance -suggests dark polished granite, but the similitude is not sustained -under close examination. Grills composed of small spindles and -scrollwork are strikingly beautiful if displayed in light which does the -wood justice. Composite panels are manufactured by joining narrow strips -edge to edge. Selected pieces of dressed live oak suggest Circassian -walnut, but would not pass as an imitation on close inspection. It may -be stated generally that live oak is far from being a dead, flat wood, -but is capable of being worked for various effects. Its value as a -cabinet material has not been appreciated in the past, nor have its -possibilities been suspected. It dropped out of notice when shipbuilders -dispensed with it, and people seem to have taken for granted that it had -no value for anything else. The form of the trunks makes possible the -cutting of short stock only; but there is abundance of it. It fringes a -thousand miles of coast. Many a trunk, short though it is, will cut -easily a thousand feet of lumber. Working the large roots in veneer has -not been undertaken, but good judges of veneers, who know what the -stumps and roots contain, have expressed the opinion that a field is -there awaiting development. - -Published reports of the uses of woods of various states seldom mention -live oak. In Texas some of it is employed in the manufacture of parquet -flooring. It is dark and contrasts with the blocks or strips of maple or -some other light wood. It is turned in the lathe for newel posts for -stairs, and contributes to other parts of stair work. In Louisiana it is -occasionally found in shops where vehicles are made. It meets -requirements as axles for heavy wagons. Stone masons' mauls are made of -live oak knots. They stand nearly as much pounding as lignum-vitæ. More -live oak is cut for fuel than for all other purposes. It develops much -heat, but a large quantity of ashes remains. - -The live oak is the most highly valued ornamental tree of the South, -though it has seldom been planted. Nature placed these oaks where they -are growing. Many an old southern homestead sits well back in groves of -live oak. Parks and plazas in towns have them, and would not part with -them on any terms. Tallahassee, Florida, is almost buried under live -oaks which in earlier years sheltered the wigwams of an Indian town. -Villages near the coasts of both the Gulf and the Atlantic in several -southern states have their venerable trees large enough for half the -people to find shade beneath the branches at one time. Many fine stands -have been cut in recent years to make room for corn, cane, and rice. - -Many persons associate the live oak with Spanish moss which festoons its -branches in the Gulf region. The moss is no part of the tree, and -apparently draws no substance from it, though it may smother the leaves -by accumulation, or break the branches by its weight. Strictly speaking, -the beard-like growth is not moss at all, but a sort of pine apple -(_Dendropogon usenoides_) which simply hangs on the limbs and draws its -sustenance from water and air. It is found on other trees, besides live -oak, and dealers in Louisiana alone sell half a million dollars worth of -it a year to upholsterers in all the principal countries of the world. - -[Illustration] - - - - -RED OAK - -[Illustration: RED OAK] - - - - -RED OAK[4] - -(_Quercus Rubra_) - - [4] Red oak belongs to the black oak group. Other species usually - listed as black oaks are Pin oak (_Quercus palustris_), Georgia oak - (_Quercus georgiana_), Texan red oak (_Quercus texana_), Scarlet oak - (_Quercus coccinea_), Yellow oak (_Quercus velutina_), California - black oak (_Quercus californica_), Turkey oak (_Quercus catesbæi_), - Spanish oak (_Quercus digitata_), Black Jack oak (_Quercus - marilandica_), Water oak (_Quercus nigra_), Willow oak (_Quercus - phellos_), Laurel oak (_Quercus laurifolia_), Blue Jack oak - (_Quercus brevifolia_), Shingle oak (_Quercus imbricaria_), - Whiteleaf oak (_Quercus hypoleuca_), Highland oak (_Quercus - wislizeni_), Myrtle oak (_Quercus myrtifolia_), California live oak - (_Quercus agrifolia_--sometimes classed with white oaks), Canyon - live oak (_Quercus chrysolepis_), an evergreen oak with no English - name, (_Quercus tomentella_), Price oak (_Quercus pricei_), Morehus - oak (_Quercus morehus_), Tanbark oak (_Quercus densiflora_), Barren - oak (_Quercus pumila_). - - -When a lumberman speaks of red oak he may mean any one of a good many -kinds of trees, but when a botanist or forester uses that name he means -one particular species and no other. For that reason there is much -uncertainty as to what species is in the lumberman's mind when he speaks -of red oak. It means more to him than a single species, depending to a -considerable extent upon the part of the country where he is doing -business. If he is in the Gulf states, and has in mind a tree which -grows there, he does not refer to the tree known to botanists as red -oak. He may mean the Texan or southern red oak (_Quercus texana_), or -the willow oak (_Quercus phellos_), or the yellow oak (_Quercus -velutina_), or any one of several others which grow in that region; but -the typical red oak does not grow farther south than the mountains of -northern Georgia; and any one who is cutting oak south or southwest of -there, is cutting other than the true red oak. That does not imply that -he is handling something inferior, for very fine oak grows there; but in -an effort to separate the commercial black oaks into respective species, -it is necessary to define them by metes and bounds of ranges as well as -to describe them by characteristics of leaves, acorns, and wood. The -time will probably never come in this country when the sawmill man will -pile each species of oak separately in his yard, and sell separately; -but the tendency is in that direction. The twenty-five or more black -oaks in this country all have some characteristics in common; but they -are by no means all valuable alike, or all useful for the same purposes. -For that reason, the demands of trade require, and will require more and -more as higher utilization is reached, that certain kinds of red oak or -black oak be sold separately. - -What lumbermen call red oaks, speaking in the plural, botanists prefer -to call black oaks. The difference is only a difference in name for the -same group of trees. The general dark color of the bark suggests the -name to botanists, while the red tint of the wood appeals more to the -lumberman, and he prefers the general name red oaks for the group. They -mature their acorns the second year, while the trees belonging to the -white oak group ripen theirs the first year. There are other -differences, some of which are apparent to the casual observer, and -others are seen only by the trained eye--often aided by the -microscope--of the dendrologist. Several of the black oaks have leaves -with sharp pointed lobes, ending in bristles. This helps to separate -them from the white oaks, but not from one another, for the true red -oak, the scarlet oak, the yellow oak, the pin oak, and others, have the -sharp-pointed lobes on their leaves; while the willow oaks have no lobes -or bristles on theirs, yet are as truly in the black oak group as any of -the others. The identification of tree species, particularly when they -are as much alike as some of the oaks are, is too difficult for the -layman if he undertakes to carry it along the whole line; but it is -comparatively easy if confined to the leading woods only. An -understanding of the geographical range of a certain tree often helps to -separate it from others. The knowledge that a tree does not grow in a -particular part of the country, is proof at once that a tree in that -region resembling it must be something else. If that principal is borne -in mind it will greatly lessen mistakes in identifying trees. In -accounts of the black oaks in the following pages, a careful delimiting -of ranges will be attempted in the case of each. - -The range of red oak extends from Nova Scotia and southern New Brunswick -through Quebec and along the northern shore of Lake Huron, west to -Nebraska. It covers the Ohio valley and reaches as far south as middle -Tennessee. It runs south through the Atlantic states to Virginia, while -among the Appalachian mountains the range is prolonged southward into -northern Georgia. That is the tree's extreme southern limit. It reaches -its largest size in the region north of the Ohio river, and among the -mountain valleys of West Virginia, and southward to Tennessee and North -Carolina. It is a northern species. Toward its southern limit it meets -the northern part of the Texan red oak's range (_Quercus texana_). There -is some overlapping, and in many localities the two species grow side by -side. - -The red oak is known by that name in all parts of its range, but in some -regions it is called black oak, and in others Spanish oak. The latter -name properly belongs to another oak (_Quercus digitata_) which touches -it along the southern border of its range. - -The average size of red oak in the best part of its range is a little -under that of white oak, but some specimens are 150 feet high and six -feet in diameter. Heights of seventy and eighty feet are usual, and -diameters of three and four are frequent. The forest grown tree disposes -of its lower limbs early in life, and develops a long, smooth trunk, -with a narrow crown. The bark on young stems and on the upper parts of -limbs of old trees is smooth and light gray. All leaves do not have the -same number of lobes, and they are sharp pointed, and fall early in -autumn. - -The acorns are bitter, and are regarded as poor mast. Hogs will leave -them alone if they can find white oak acorns, and squirrels will do -likewise. The best red oak timber grows from acorns, though stumps will -send up sprouts. The sprout growth may become trees of fairly large -size, but they are apt to decay at the butt. The acorn-grown tree is as -free from defects as the average forest tree. Cracks sometimes develop -in the trunk, extending up and down many feet. Unless the logs are -carefully sawed, a considerable loss occurs where these cracks cross the -boards. Trunks are occasionally bored by worms, as all other oaks may -be. - -Red oak grows rapidly. It will produce small sawlogs in the lifetime of -a man. It is a favorite tree for crossties, and railroads have made -large plantings for that purpose. The ties do not last well in their -natural state, but they are easy to treat with preservatives by which -several years are added to their period of service. It has been a -favorite tree with European planters for the past two hundred years; but -the most of the plantings beyond the sea have been for ornament in parks -and private grounds. - -The principal interest in red oak in this country is due to its value -for lumber. That interest is of comparatively recent date. Some red oak -has always been used for rails, clapboards, slack cooperage, and rough -lumber; but while white oak was cheap and plentiful, sawmill men usually -let red oak alone. It had a poor reputation, which is now known to have -been undeserved. - -Red oak is lighter than white oak, and it is generally regarded as -possessing less strength and stiffness. The wide rings of annual growth, -and the distinct layers of springwood and summerwood, give the basis for -good figure. To this may be added broad and regular medullary rays which -are nicely brought out by quarter-sawing. The tone of the wood is red, -to which fact the name red oak is due. It has large, open pores. A -magnifying glass is not required to see them in the end of a stick. It -is said that smoke may be blown through a piece of red oak a foot in -length. These open pores disqualify the wood for use in tight cooperage. -Liquids will leak through the pores. Statistics of sawmill output in -this country do not separate the white and black oaks, and the quantity -of lumber sawed from any one species is not known. Manufacturers are -disposed to separate them. Some furniture makers use red oak exclusively -for certain purposes, and the same rule is followed by makers of other -commodities. - -[Illustration] - - - - -TEXAN RED OAK - -[Illustration: TEXAN RED OAK] - - - - -TEXAN RED OAK - -(_Quercus Texana_) - - -The line between red oak (_Quercus rubra_) and Texan red oak is closely -drawn by botanists, but lumbermen do not recognize much difference -except toward the extreme ranges of each. Some call one simply red oak -and the other southern red oak, but that leaves doubtful the timber on a -large area occupied by both species. Their ranges overlap two or three -hundred miles in the Ohio valley and on the southern tributaries of the -Ohio river in Kentucky and Tennessee. A large amount of red oak from -that region goes to market, and no one knows, and few care, whether it -is of the northern or southern species. It is usually a mixture of both. -But outside of the common zone where both trees grow, the woods of the -two are kept fairly well separate. Thirty years ago Texan red oak -received slight recognition from botanists. When Charles S. Sargent -compiled in 1880 a volume of over 600 pages, "Forest Trees of North -America," for the United States government, and which was published as -volume 9 of the Tenth Census, he did not so much as accord this tree the -dignity of a species, but called it a variety of the common red oak. Its -range and its great importance were little understood at that time. -Sargent thus described its range: "Western Texas, valley of the Colorado -river with the species and replacing it south and west, extending to the -valley of the Neuces river and the Limpia mountains." - -Compare that restricted range with that given by the same author -twenty-five years later in his "Manual of the Trees of North America." -He gives it thus: "Northeastern Iowa and central Illinois, through -southern Illinois and Indiana and western Kentucky and Tennessee, to the -valley of the Apalachicola river, Florida, northern Georgia, central -South Carolina, and the coast plains of North Carolina, and through -southern Missouri, Arkansas, and Louisiana to the mountains of western -Texas; most abundant and of its largest size on the low bottom lands of -the Mississippi basin, often forming a considerable part of lowland -forests; less abundant in the eastern Gulf states; in western Texas on -low limestone hills and on bottom lands in the neighborhood of streams." - -This quotation is given in full because it shows how scientific men -change their opinions to conform to new evidence. The range of that -particular species was as wide in 1880 as in 1905, but botanists had not -yet worked it out. Thus knowledge increases constantly, and year by year -the resources of American forests are better understood. In this -instance, what in 1880 was supposed to be a rather insignificant -variety, occupying a restricted area in Texas, was found by 1905 to be a -separate species, covering sixteen states in whole or in part. Similar -progress concerning the forests has been made all over the country, not -only by botanists but by lumbermen. Trees which were formerly considered -so nearly alike that no distinctions were made, are now recognized to be -quite different. - -The Texan red oak is frequently called spotted oak. The appearance of -the bark suggests the name. Large, irregular, whitish patches cover the -trunks. That peculiarity is not noticeable everywhere and on all trees, -but is common west of the Mississippi river. The tree is sometimes known -as Spanish oak in the southwestern part of its range, but the name is -ill-advised, for the true Spanish oak (_Quercus digitata_) occurs in the -same region. The most usual name for this species, in nearly all parts -of its range, is simply red oak. - -The Texan red oak varies greatly in size of trees, as is natural in so -wide a geographical range. Trees have been reported 200 feet high and -eight feet in diameter; but sizes like that are extraordinary and -attempts to locate anything approaching them at this day have not been -successful. The average in the lower Mississippi valley is eighty or -ninety feet in height, and two or three in diameter. In Texas this size -is seldom reached, the average not much exceeding half of it. - -The leaves of Texan red oak are about half the size of those of the -northern species. That alone will not serve to separate them, because of -such great variation. It applies only to averages. The southern trees' -leaves are from three to six inches long, two to five wide; the northern -species bears leaves from five to nine inches long and four to six wide. -The acorns of the two species do not show so much difference in size. -The states which use Texan red oak in largest amounts are Alabama, -Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, and Arkansas, though some of this wood -finds its way to northern markets where it passes as red oak without any -questions. That condition renders very difficult the task of separating -the woods. It is not so difficult further south where the true red oak -is seldom seen. Shipments go north, not south. The two red oaks mingle -in the lumber yards north of the Ohio river, but seldom south of the -Tennessee river. - -Investigations made by the Forest Service of the utilization of woods in -various states show that factories report the annual use of Texan red -oak as follows: Louisiana 1,777,000 feet, Mississippi 2,400,000, Texas -2,814,000, Alabama 5,500,000, and Arkansas 39,301,000. This does not -include lumber or other forest products used in the rough, or lumber -shipped out of the respective states. - -Texan red oak is heavier than its northern relative, hard, light, -reddish-brown, much of it of rapid growth, with wide, clearly defined -annual rings. The medullary rays are prominent, and show well in -quarter-sawing. The best of the wood is as strong as red oak, and -compares favorably with it in physical properties. - -One of the most exacting uses of wood is for fixtures, such as counters -in stores, bars in saloons, partitions in banks and counting rooms, and -standing desks in offices. Extra wide and long pieces are required, and -they must show satisfactory figure, and be finished to harmonize with -the interior of the room where they are placed. Texan red oak is -selected by builders in many southern cities for that class of fixtures, -and it meets the requirements. It is used also for interior finish and -furniture, and stair work. - -Like most members of the black oak group, the wood is inclined to rot -quickly in damp situations, but it measures well up to the average of -the group to which it belongs. It is often employed in the South as -bridge material, particularly as flooring for wagon bridges, where the -wood's hardness is its chief recommendation. Much is converted into -flooring for halls, houses, and factories. - -The available supply of this valuable wood in the forests of the South -is not known, but there is little doubt that it exists in larger -quantities than any other species of oak within its range. Perhaps in -total quantity it exceeds red oak (_Quercus rubra_) in the whole United -States. It is quite generally distributed over an area exceeding 300,000 -square miles, and toward the western part, it is the prevailing oak. The -future of this oak is assured. It is now cut at a rapid rate, and -doubtless the annual growth falls short of the yearly demand; but it -occurs in a range so extensive that scarcity will not come for a long -period. If the time ever comes in the South when planted timber must be -depended upon to meet the needs of the people, this oak will fill an -important place in woodlots. It does not grow as rapidly as willow oak, -but its range is more extensive, and it possesses certain desirable -properties not found in willow oak. The acorns are rather poor mast, and -this is in the tree's favor, for the seed will be left to grow instead -of being devoured by hogs and small animals of the woods. In that -respect it has an advantage over cow oak and the other white oaks which -occupy parts of its range. Their acorns are sought as food by domestic -and wild animals. Texan red oak prunes itself well when it grows in -close stands, but is low and limby when it occupies open ground. The -trunks vary in form, but are inclined to enlarge at the base, -particularly when they grow in low, damp situations, as many of the best -do in the South. - - GEORGIA OAK (_Quercus georgiana_) is one of the minor oaks of the - South and has not been found outside of Georgia. It grows in the - central part of the state on Stone mountain and on a few other - granite hills. Whether the species originated there and was never - able to work its way down to the more congenial valleys below, or - whether it once grew lower down and was crowded to its last retreat - by other species, is not known. But an interest attaches to it from - the very fact that its range is so restricted and that its habitat - is on the sterile summits. Lumbermen care nothing about this tree. - Few of them ever saw it or heard of it. The trunk is small, the - acorns only from one-third to half an inch long, and the leaves are - of a form midway between those of pin oak and turkey oak. The - characters of the wood have not been reported, but since there is - not enough of it to have any commercial value, the matter is not - very important. - -[Illustration] - - - - -YELLOW OAK - -[Illustration: YELLOW OAK] - - - - -YELLOW OAK - -(_Quercus Velutina_) - - -This tree is known as black oak in Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, -New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Virginia, West Virginia, -North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, -Louisiana, Texas, Ohio, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, Michigan, -Wisconsin, Minnesota and Ontario; quercitron oak in Delaware, South -Carolina, Louisiana, Kansas and Minnesota; yellow oak in Rhode Island, -New York, Illinois, Texas, Kansas and Minnesota; tanbark oak in -Illinois; yellow-bark oak in Minnesota and Rhode Island; spotted oak in -Missouri; dyer's oak in Texas; and yellow butt oak in Mississippi. - -Those who call this tree black oak have in mind the bark which is -usually quite dark, though all members of this species do not present -the same appearance in that respect. Some trunks are gray, and in color -do not greatly differ from white oaks, but would hardly be mistaken for -them. Tanbark oak, a name occasionally given to this tree, is not -applied in the region where chestnut oak grows, because it is much -inferior to chestnut oak as tanning material. It is not only poorer in -tannin, but the coloring matter associated with the inner bark is -troublesome to the tanner who is compelled to remove it or neutralize it -unless he wants his leather given a yellow tone. Dyer's oak is a name -which refers to the value of the bark for coloring purposes. The -botanical name _velutina_ refers to the velvety texture of the inner -bark. - -This oak is one of the easiest to identify. The inner layer of the bark -is yellow. The point of a knife easily reaches it; cutting through a -deep crack in the bark, and no mistake is possible, for no other oak has -the yellow layer of bark. The tree may be identified by leaves, flowers, -and fruit, but the process is not always easy, for other members of the -black oak group bear more or less resemblance to this one. - -The yellow oak's range extends over nearly or quite a million square -miles. It exceeds the limits of most oaks in its geographical extension. -It endures severe winters and hot summers. The northern limit of its -range lies in Maine; it grows westward across southern Canada to -Minnesota; it extends two hundred miles west of the Mississippi into -eastern Nebraska and Kansas, and follows that meridian south into Texas. -It reaches the Gulf of Mexico east of the Mississippi, and is found in -many localities in all the southern states, and along the foothills of -the Appalachian ranges. It attains its largest size in the lower Ohio -valley. The average height is seventy or eighty feet, and its diameter -two or three feet. In some localities the trees are scrubby and produce -little merchantable timber. - -The growth rings are only moderately wide in the typical yellow oak; the -ring is divided nearly evenly between springwood and summerwood. The -former contains two or three rows of large, open pores. The medullary -rays are fewer and smaller than those commonly found in oaks. A general -average of the properties of the wood is somewhat difficult to give, -because of remarkable variation in trees which grow under different -conditions. In some instances, where the soil is fertile and climate -favorable, the yellow oak produces a large, clear trunk, with sound -wood, of good color, and equal to that of red oak; but the reverse is -often the case--trunks are small and rough, wood hard and brittle, color -not satisfactory, and strength not up to standard. Sometimes first class -yellow oak passes without question as good red oak in the finish and -furniture business, but that is not its usual course. Well developed -wood is heavy, hard, strong, bright brown, tinged with red, with thin, -lighter colored sapwood. Its weight is 43.9 pounds per cubic foot. - -The uses of yellow oak follow red oak pretty closely, but are not so -extensive. Figures cannot be given to show the total annual cut of -yellow oak, but the output is likely much below red oak, though it is -found over a wider area, and some of it gets into the lumber yards in -all regions where it grows. It is made into furniture from Maine to -Louisiana. In cheaper grades of furniture, it may be the outside -material, but its place is usually as frame stock, to give strength, but -is not visible in the finished article. An exception to this is found in -chairs where yellow oak is one of several species which go regularly to -the sawmills which cut chair stock. Massachusetts snow plow makers use -it, but of course it fills no such place in the South. In Mississippi, -Louisiana, and Texas it is bought by manufacturers of agricultural -machinery. It is worked into cotton gins in Mississippi. Some extra fine -stands of this oak occur in the Delta region of Mississippi. Frames of -freight cars are made of it in Louisiana and Texas, and warehouse and -depot floors are occasionally laid of this lumber. It is floor material -in Michigan also, but that is of a better class than is required for -warehouses. It is not infrequently sold as red oak for flooring and -interior finish. Throughout the whole extent of yellow oak's range it -finds its way to wagon shops. It is less tough than white oak, but in -many places, such as bolsters, sandboards, and hounds, it serves as -well. Warehouse trucks and push cars are of this wood in many instances. - -Slack coopers convert this wood into their wares in many regions. The -pores are too open to permit its use as tight cooperage, where liquids -are to be contained, but for barrels and kegs of many kinds, as well as -for boxes, baskets, and crates, it meets all requirements. It is good -fuel. Many burners of brick and pottery show it preference, and charcoal -burners make a clean sweep of it when it occurs in the course of their -operations; though when it is desirable to save the by-products of -charcoal kilns or retorts, yellow oak is considered less valuable than -birch, beech, and maple. - -The bark of this tree is employed less now than formerly for dyeing -purposes. Aniline dyes have taken its place. In pioneer times the bark -was one of the best coloring materials the people had, and every family -looked after its own supply as carefully as it provided sassafras bark -for tea, slippery elm bark for poultices, and witch hazel for gargles. -The oak bark was peeled, dried, and pounded to a powder. The mass was -sifted, and the yellow particles, being finer than the black bark, -passed through the screen, and were set apart for the dye kettle, while -the screenings were rejected. Various arts and sciences were called into -requisition to add to or take from the natural color which the bark gave -the cloth. Salts of iron were commonly employed to modify the deepness -of the yellow. - -The acorns of this oak are bitter, and escape the mast hunters. Old -stumps have little need to send up sprouts, for acorns keep the species -alive. Yellow oaks are in no immediate danger of extermination. Nature -plants generously, and the tree can get along on poor soil where the -farm hunter is not apt to molest it. It has a fairly thick bark, and is -able to take care of itself in a moderate fire, except when the -seedlings are quite small. The young tree's tap root is much developed, -and goes deep for moisture, and the growing sapling flourishes on ground -where some other species would suffer for water. - - WHITELEAF OAK (_Quercus hypoleuca_). The beauty of this small - evergreen oak of the mountains of western Texas, New Mexico, and - Arizona, is in its foliage rather than its wood. Large trunks--that - is, those twenty inches or more in diameter--are apt to be hollow, - but the sound wood is employed in repairing wagons in local shops, - and in rough ranch timbers. Its importance will never extend beyond - the region where it grows, but in that region it will continue to be - used where nothing better can be obtained. The largest trees are - sixty feet high, and two in diameter, but few reach those - dimensions. It is an arid land oak. It grows at from 4,000 to 6,000 - feet elevations on mountains and plateaus. The leaves remain - thirteen months on the twigs. They are of the willow form, ranging - from two to four inches in length and one-half to one in width. The - acorns are small and bitter. The strength of this oak is remarkable, - if it may be judged by the figures given by Sargent. Two samples of - wood procured by himself and Dr. Engelmann on a dry, gravelly ground - among the Santa Rita mountains in Arizona, showed breaking strength - sixty-one per cent greater than the average given by the same author - for white oak. The stiffness of the specimens was a little above - white oak, and the weight three pounds more per cubic foot. It - should be borne in mind, however, that results derived from a test - of only two samples are not a safe basis for concluding that the - wood generally will average of so great strength. The annual rings - of growth are not clearly marked. The wood is porous, but the pores - are not generally arranged in bands, although they occasionally - follow that arrangement. The medullary rays are broad and abundant, - but are rather short, measured along the radial lines. They are of - pink color, a characteristic not unusual with oaks in semi-arid - regions. The foliage is doubtless the most valuable characteristic - of whiteleaf oak. The leaves are silver white below, and dark green - above. When they are agitated by wind the flashing of the different - tones and tints in the sunshine presents an attractive picture. It - belongs to the willow oak branch of the red oak group, and bears - two-year acorns. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SCARLET OAK - -[Illustration: SCARLET OAK] - - - - -SCARLET OAK - -(_Quercus Coccinea_) - - -The name of scarlet oak is in use in Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode -Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, North -Carolina, Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Michigan, -Nebraska, Iowa, and Ontario; red oak is the name in North Carolina, -Alabama, Wisconsin, Nebraska, and Minnesota; black oak in Nebraska, -Illinois, Iowa, and Wisconsin, and Spanish oak in North Carolina. - -The name is descriptive of the autumn leaves. Artists dispute among -themselves whether the leaves are scarlet, red, or crimson. In their -opinion a good deal of difference exists between these colors, rendering -it quite incorrect to give one color the name of another. As for the -artists, they are probably correct in their analysis of colors, but the -general public knows the tree as scarlet oak, and it will doubtless be -called by that name by most people who speak of the tree in the woods, -while those who refer to the wood after it is sawed will speak of it as -red oak. - -The leaves of scarlet oak are rather persistent, and remain on the twigs -late in the season. The brilliancy of this tree is rendered doubly -conspicuous, when it is contrasted with the surrounding sombre, winter -colors. - -In appearance the tree is striking for its delicacy of foliage and -twigs. The crown is always narrow and open, and in forest growth is -compressed. The height, in good specimens, is about one hundred feet, -but it often exceeds that size. In diameter it grows as large as four -feet. The mature bark is dark in color and broken into broad, smooth -ridges and plates, edged with red. It shows a reddish inner bark when -cut and this may be relied upon to identify the tree. The leaves are -four or five inches long; deeply sinused, three or four on a side; long, -bristle-toothed lobes, broad at the base; acorns bitter, mature in two -years; sessile, brown; cup closely drawn in at the edge. - -Its range comprises the northeastern quarter of the United States. -Beginning in southern Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont, it grows through -middle New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Iowa to eastern Nebraska. -Southward it extends along the coast through Virginia and inland along -the mountains to South Carolina and Georgia. The growth is abundant over -most of the range, the favorite habitat being dry, gravelly uplands. It -seems to be most abundant along the northern part of the Atlantic coast -from Massachusetts to New Jersey, and is less common in the interior, -and on the prairies skirting the western margins of the eastern forests. -The average size of the tree is from seventy to eighty feet high and two -or three in diameter. In many regions it is much smaller, while no very -large trees have been reported. - -The wood is heavy, strong, hard; the layers of annual growth are -strongly marked by several rows of large, open ducts; the summerwood is -dense and occupies half the yearly ring; the medullary rays are much -like those of red oak, though scarcely as broad. They run in straight -lines radially, and show well in quarter-sawing. The color of the wood -is light brown or red, the thin sapwood rather darker. - -This wood is practically of the same weight as white oak; but it is -rated considerably stronger and stiffer. A number of writers have listed -scarlet oak low in fuel value. Theoretically, the fuel values of woods -are proportionate to their weights, except that resinous woods must be -compared with resinous, and non-resinous with non-resinous. In practice, -however, every fireman who feeds a furnace with wood knows that -different woods develop different degrees of heat, though they may weigh -the same. Results are modified by various circumstances and conditions, -and for that reason theory and practice are often far apart in -determining how much heat a given quantity of wood is good for. - -It is difficult to procure exact information regarding the uses of -scarlet oak. It never goes to market under its own name. An examination -of wood-using reports from a dozen states within scarlet oak's range -does not reveal a single mention of this wood for any purpose. It is -certain, nevertheless, that much goes to market and that it has many -important uses. It loses its identity and is bought and sold as red oak. -Under the name of that wood it is manufactured into furniture, finish, -agricultural implements, cars, boats, wagons and other vehicles, and -many other articles. One of the most important markets for scarlet oak -is in chair factories. Its grain is attractive enough to give it place -as outside material, and its strength fits it for frames and other parts -which must bear strain. Chair stock mills which clean up woodlots and -patches of forest where scarlet oak grows in mixture with other species -of oak, take all that comes, without being particular as to the exact -kind of oak. Slack coopers follow much the same course. A wood strong -enough to meet requirements, is generally acceptable. Scarlet oak is -usually considered unsuitable for tight cooperage, on account of the -large open pores of the wood, which permit leakage of liquids. It meets -considerable demand in the manufacture of boxes and crates, particularly -the latter. - -The size and quality of logs which a tree may furnish to a sawmill is no -measure of its full value. Scarlet oak is far better known as an -ornamental tree than for its wood. It has been planted in this country -and in Europe. Its brilliant foliage is greatly admired. No other oak -equals it, and it compares favorably with sugar maple, black gum, and -dogwood. It is an ornament to parks and private grounds, though the -brilliancy of its foliage is seldom exhibited to as good advantage in -cultivation as in the native forest where contrasts are more numerous, -and nature does its work unhindered by man. The scarlet oak is not a -rapid grower, and the form of the tree is not perfectly symmetrical. The -spring leaves are red, the summer foliage bright, rich green, the autumn -scarlet--a variety not equalled by many forest trees. - -WILLOW OAK (_Quercus phellos_) is named for its leaves which look like -those of willow. There is a group of such oaks with leaves similar, and -they are known collectively as willow oaks. The one here described may -be considered typical of the group. - -This oak is apt to present rather a surprising appearance to those who -have seen nothing but those oaks whose leaves are lobed or cleft. It -belongs to the red oaks. Like others of this division it has a tendency -to hybridize, several varieties being known. Willow oak is a denizen of -the southern Atlantic and southeastern states and favors rich, moist -soil, either on uplands or on bottoms, along the margins of streams or -swamps. It does not go inland as far as the foothills of the ranges and -is found most abundantly in the basin of the lower Mississippi. -Beginning in New York, the range extends southward into Florida, along -the Gulf states, touching Texas, up through Arkansas, touching Missouri -and Kentucky, down through western Tennessee and southern Georgia -rounding the southern end of the Appalachians. - -Young trees have a slender delicate pendant appearance of twigs and -foliage more typical of the willow than of oak; but in time they become -more rugged, although the branching and foliage are always more delicate -than is usual with oaks. The tree attains a height of eighty feet and a -diameter up to four feet, but usually is about half of this. It is -clothed in a smooth, brown bark, ridged only in older trees. The leaves -are about five inches long and narrow in proportion, are of shiny, -leathery texture, dark above and pale below. The acorns are on short -stalks, solitary or in pairs, and ripen in two years, are short and -rounded and in shallow cups. - -The weight of willow oak is approximately the same as white oak. It is -slightly stronger but less elastic. Its annual rings contain broad bands -of small open ducts parallel to the thin, dark, medullary rays. The wood -is reddish-brown in color, the thick sapwood darker brown. The fuel -value is rated the same as white oak, but the wood contains more ash. - -Willow oak is much used in the South, but usually under the name red -oak. Lumbermen seldom speak of it as willow oak. The species is as -highly developed in Louisiana as anywhere else, and the uses found for -the wood in that state will probably be found for it wherever the tree -grows in commercial quantities. A report on the manufacture of wooden -commodities in Louisiana, published in 1912, listed the following uses -for willow oak: Agricultural implements, balustrades, bar tops, -bedsteads, bottoms for wagon beds, bridge approaches and floors, chairs, -church pews, cot frames, doors, floors, frames, interior finish, -molding, newel posts, pulpits, railing, screens, slack cooperage, -stairwork, store fixtures, wagon axles, and other vehicle parts. - -These uses coincide nearly with those of red oak, and indicate the -important position occupied by willow oak in the country's industries. -Those who handle the wood complain that its seasoning qualities are -poor, and that care is necessary to bring satisfactory results. It works -nicely and stands well after the seasoning is accomplished. - -Willow oak grows rapidly. It is doubtful if any oak in this country -surpasses it. It wants damp, rich soil and a warm climate, to do its -best. Some of the bottom lands in the lower Mississippi valley have -produced splendid stands of willow oak, the trunks being tall and clear -of limbs, and the wood sound. - -The willow oak is much planted for ornamental purposes in the southern -states. It manages to keep alive when planted as far north as -Massachusetts, but the grace of its form is not fully developed much -north of the Potomac river. It is a common street tree in the South, and -its airy foliage forms a pleasing contrast with the heavy, dark-green of -the magnolia. - -[Illustration] - - - - -TURKEY OAK - -[Illustration: TURKEY OAK] - - - - -TURKEY OAK - -(_Quercus Catesbæi_) - - -The claim that this tree is called turkey oak because turkeys feed on -the acorns, is not well founded. In common with nearly all members of -the black oak group, to which this species belongs, the acorns of turkey -oak are bitter, and unless animals are pressed by hunger they do not eat -them. It is evident that the shape of the leaves gives this tree its -name. They bear considerable resemblance to the foot of a turkey. There -is at least enough similitude to suggest the name, and it is not -inappropriate. Many people now use the term without thinking of its -origin, and if asked their opinion say that fondness of turkeys for the -acorns led to the name. - -The tree has other names in different regions. In North Carolina, South -Carolina, Mississippi, and Florida it is known as scrub oak. The name -fits it well in certain places, for when it grows on poor soil and in -adversity, it degenerates into a low, straggling thicket, frequently not -trees at all, but shrubs. It is called black jack in South Carolina but -the name belongs to another species (_Quercus marilandica_). In the same -state it is known as barren scrub oak, because it is very small and is -found on poor lands popularly known as barrens. Some call it forked-leaf -black jack, but the name is usually shorter, and forked-leaf, or -forked-leaf oak, is a name well understood among lumbermen, and the -people generally over much of the tree's range. Some of the leaves show -clearly-defined three forks, the middle one longer than the others; but -in other leaves, often from the same tree, the forks are not so -regularly outlined. This tree, like many other oaks, exhibits -considerable variation in the forms of leaves. - -There is nothing peculiar in the form and appearance of the acorns. They -average about one inch long and three-quarters of an inch wide, and sit -in shallow cups. They mature the second year. The bark of old trees is -black near the ground, rather rough, and an inch or more thick. - -It is difficult to name an average size for turkey oak. The largest -trunks are three or four feet in diameter and eighty feet high, but the -trees cut for sawlogs are only fifty or sixty feet high and two in -diameter, in most of the regions. As previously stated, much of the -stand is stunted and some of it is only brush. All sizes are found, from -large, first rate trunks down to shrubs. Large trees which grow in -forests, prune themselves well and their trunks compare favorably with -red oaks. - -The tree's range has its northeastern limit in North Carolina, and -extends to Peace Creek, Florida. It is found westward to Louisiana where -fair-sized timber grows, but in small quantities. It is usually -considered that its best development is in South Carolina and Georgia, -but good trees are likely to be found in any part of its range. It is -distinctly a tree of the South. It was named by Michaux, the well-known -French botanist who visited the southern states early in the nineteenth -century, and he named it in honor of Mark Catesby who explored the -region much earlier and wrote concerning its trees and other natural -history. - -Turkey oak is one of the little-known trees of the South, as far as -lumbermen are concerned. They know it well enough in the woods, but not -at sawmills. When cut into logs it ceases to be turkey oak and becomes -red oak, and under that name it goes to the lumber yard, and later to -market. Users of red oak lumber do not object to the occasional piece of -turkey oak mixed with it--if they ever find it out, which few of them -do. Nevertheless, the consensus of opinion among sawmill men is that -turkey oak ought to rate below red oak. - -Tests of the wood to determine its character and qualities do not -justify so low an estimate of turkey oak. Sargent found it stronger and -more elastic than white oak, while a little lighter in weight. It is -nearly equal to white oak in fuel value. It is hard, compact, and the -rings of annual growth are marked by several rows of large, open ducts. -The medullary rays are broad and conspicuous. The color is light brown, -tinged with red, the sapwood somewhat lighter. - -A special investigation of the uses of turkey oak in one of the southern -states brought out the fact that it meets requirements well and fills a -place in several wood-using industries in that region. Vehicle makers -find it satisfactory in a number of places. It is made into bottoms of -wagon beds, felloes, bolsters, axles, hubs, hounds, tongues, spokes, -standards, sandboards, and reaches. These constitute nearly all parts of -heavy vehicles. The wood is made into telegraph brackets, but apparently -not in large quantities. Car builders employ it for frames and floors. -It is made into ordinary matched flooring and goes in with other oaks. -It is used as a general furniture wood, both as outside material, and -inside frames. It may be quarter-sawed to advantage. It is employed also -as interior finish, which demands lumber of practically the same grades -as go into furniture. Mantels of this wood compare favorably with those -of red oak. Chair makers cut stock from turkey oak. It is not abundant -anywhere, otherwise it would be of much importance. - -The forests of the United States contain so many valuable oaks that a -scarce and geographically restricted species like turkey oak cannot be -expected to attract much attention in the future. Nevertheless, it is a -strong, interesting tree. It takes advantage of every opportunity to -develop. When an acorn germinates in good soil, and receives sufficient -light and moisture, it produces a merchantable tree; but in poor soil -and under unfavorable circumstances it becomes a stunted bush only. -Woodlots of turkey oak planted in fertile land would probably do as well -as most of the southern red oaks under like conditions. The tree is not -apt to get justice, because of the prejudice against it. - -CALIFORNIA BLACK OAK (_Quercus californica_) ranges from central Oregon -southward through the coast region of California nearly to the Mexican -boundary. It occurs also on the western slope of the Sierra Nevadas in -California. It is not found on the plains or near the sea, but occurs on -mountain slopes, low summits, elevated valleys, and in canyons. In the -North, it ranges from 1,500 to 3,000 feet and in the South it ascends to -9,000 feet. This far western oak bears more resemblance to the yellow -oak (_Quercus velutina_) of the East than to any other. Trees have been -reported 100 feet high and four in diameter, but they are scarce. -Seventy-five feet high and two or three feet in diameter are usual -dimensions of mature timber. The trees are inclined to be angular in the -outlines of their crowns. The leaves fall in autumn, but the acorns -persist two years. They sit deep in their rough cups. The trunk is -habitually crooked. It leans out of plumb, and lacks the nicely balanced -poise which adds to the attractiveness of some oaks. The large boles are -usually hollow, dead at the tops, or otherwise defective. That condition -is apparently due to old age. Trees stand long after they pass maturity -and start on their decline. They die by inches, and not infrequently -they decay and crumble by piecemeal both at the bottom and at the top. -At best the trunk of this oak is of poor form for saw timber. It divides -into large limbs ten or twenty feet from the ground. It is of slow -growth, and it reaches old age--possibly as much as 350 years in extreme -cases. The wood is very porous, but the pores are not in rows. The -medullary rays are thin and distinct. It is not known that any -quarter-sawing has been attempted, and it would hardly be profitable. -The wood is pale red, exceedingly brittle, firm, light for oak, and it -has a distinct odor of tannin with which both the wood and the bark are -heavily charged. The principal uses to which this oak is put in -California and Oregon are as fuel and ranch timbers, the latter being of -the simplest and roughest sort. Its fuel value is high, compared with -other woods of the region. Some use was made of the bark for tanning -purposes years ago on the Pacific slope, but it does not appear to go to -market now. - - BLUE JACK OAK (_Quercus brevifolia_) bears several names, upland - willow oak, to distinguish it from other willow oaks which grow in - swamps, sand jack, referring to the land on which it grows, - high-ground willow oak, turkey oak, shin oak and cinnamon oak. No - reason is known for the last name which is not used outside of - Florida. The tree grows in a narrow strip along the coast from North - Carolina to Texas, crossing northern Florida. The blue jack oak - sometimes attains a height of fifty feet and a diameter of twenty - inches; but that is its best. It is usually fifteen or twenty feet - high and a few inches in diameter. The leaves are from two to five - inches long and quite narrow, closely resembling those of willow. - The acorns are abundant, but small. The tree is of so little value - that it does not interest the lumberman. It occupies waste land, and - may produce a little fuel without crowding more valuable trees, but - is in every way inferior to the black jack oak (_Quercus - marilandica_), which overlaps its range a little, but is a northern - species. The wood of blue jack oak is hard, strong, light brown in - color, with darker-colored sapwood. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SPANISH OAK - -[Illustration: SPANISH OAK] - - - - -SPANISH OAK - -(_Quercus Digitata_) - - -One of the first difficulties in an attempt to clear up the -misunderstandings regarding Spanish oak is to confine the name to the -species to which it belongs. That is no easy task, because the name has -been applied to numerous oaks in various parts of the country, and -without any apparent reason. Some of these bear little resemblance to -Spanish oak and grow almost wholly outside its range. It is not a case -of mistaking one for the other, for there is no mistake. Some speak of -the common red oak as Spanish oak, others bestow that name on yellow -oak, others on black jack oak, or scarlet oak, or any one of several -others. It appears, however, that the name is not applied to any member -of the white oak group. - -It is said that Spanish oak and Norway pine were named by the same -process. Each got its name because it was supposed to be similar to a -species in the old country--the pine like an evergreen of north Europe, -and the oak like a broadleaf tree of Spain. It was learned later that -both the American species were different from those of Europe which they -resembled. - -The peculiar drooping foliage of Spanish oak gives the tree a character -which impresses a person who sees the full-leafed crown for the first -time. The leaves are six or seven inches long and four or five wide. -Their forms vary within wide limits, and their shapes change from week -to week while growing. Some have no lobes or sinuses, others have them -in rudimentary form only, while in still others they are well developed. - -The tree is often called red oak, particularly by lumbermen who cut it -and send it to market with red oak. In Louisiana it is known as Spanish -water oak, there being much resemblance between it and water oak -(_Quercus nigra_) with which it is associated. Its range covers more -than 200,000 square miles, beginning at the north in New Jersey and -following down the coast regions to central Florida. It extends westward -into Texas to the valley of the Brazos river; northward to Missouri and -southern Indiana and Illinois. It does not grow far inland from the -coast in the north Atlantic states, but further south it is common on -the coast plain between the sea and the base of the mountains. It is -often found on dry sand hills in that region. The largest Spanish oaks -on record grew in the lower Ohio valley, particularly along the Wabash -river. It is usually of medium size and large trunks are seldom seen. -The average height is seventy or eighty feet, diameter two or three. In -the open, the crown is broad and low, but in forests the trunk prunes -itself fairly well, and makes good saw timber, as far as form and size -are concerned. The acorns ripen in two years, and are bitter. The bark -is rich in tannin, but tanneries do not use much of it. - -The tree is not generally abundant. Some large areas within its range -have little, and thick stands are unusual anywhere. It is one of the -oaks which lumbermen neither reject nor seek. They cut it in course of -operations, and saw it and sell it under the common name, red oak. - -The wood is heavy, very hard, and strong. It is reputed to decay more -rapidly than most oaks, and it checks badly in seasoning. The annual -rings of growth are broad, and the springwood is marked by several rows -of large open pores. The medullary rays are few but conspicuous; color -light red, the sapwood lighter. The wood weighs about three pounds less -than white oak per cubic foot, and its fuel value is less. - -It is not easy to compile an account of the uses of Spanish oak by the -various industries of this country, for the reason that other oaks pass -by its name and it is known by names which should not be applied to it. -It is shown, however, where special studies of its utilization have been -made that it is a useful wood for many purposes. It is a useful -furniture material, and though statistics do not give separate figures -for it, evidently the total quantity consumed yearly runs into many -millions of feet. It is much employed in the manufacture of tables, -chiefly for frames, but occasionally as the outside material. It may be -quarter-sawed, if good logs are selected. The chair factories in North -Carolina use about 44,000,000 feet of oak yearly, and Spanish oak -supplies a rather large share of the material. It is employed as -interior finish in that state, and also for mission furniture, brackets -for telegraph and telephone poles, refrigerators, and kitchen safes. -Slack coopers and manufacturers of boxes and crates find the wood -suitable for their wares; but its open pores stand in the way of its use -for tight cooperage. - -Similar uses of the wood occur in Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, and -it may be assumed that they occur also in all other portions of Spanish -oak's range. It goes to wagon shops in Texas where it is substituted for -red oak. It is employed also in the manufacture of rice hullers and -cotton gins. Lumbermen in northern Louisiana use log trucks with axles, -felloes, and other heavy parts of Spanish oak, and it is frequently -preferred for stone wagons. - -In practically all large shipments of southern red oak to the North, -some Spanish oak is mixed. It could not be otherwise, since this wood is -cut in the forest with other red oaks, is sawed and stocked with them, -and goes with them to market. - -BLACK JACK OAK (_Quercus marilandica_) is one of the scrub trees of this -country, and few good words are ever heard for it; yet it has redeeming -qualities. Lumbermen have not paid much attention to it and never will, -for only when at its best is the trunk large enough for any kind of -sawlog, and there has been little inclination to use it for anything -else. It attains size fitting it for fence posts, and sometimes it -performs service along that line; but the small trunks are nearly all -sapwood, and decay strikes them quickly. The bark is black, hence the -name, and it is exceedingly rough, and is broken in squares. The leaves -are large and pear-shaped, with the broad end opposite the stem. Some -are slightly lobed. A vigorous black jack oak, standing in open ground, -presents a fine appearance. The crown is wide and is frequently conical, -the limbs small, and are set in the trunk on nearly horizontal lines. -The range of this unloved species covers 600,000 or more square miles, -beginning in New York, running west to central Nebraska, south through -Texas nearly to the Rio Grande, and in Florida to Tampa. It is not an -aggressive tree and has permitted itself to be crowded off the good land -until it has formed the habit of occupying geographical left-overs in -the form of sand banks and wornout fields. In the northeastern part of -its range it is often associated with scrub pine (_Pinus virginiana_), -because the two have similar habits and are content to live in perpetual -poverty on dry gravel or thin sand. Large trunks are not possible under -such circumstances, and first-class wood is unusual. Black jack oak at -its best may attain a height of fifty feet and a diameter of eighteen -inches, but it is oftener twenty feet high and six inches through. It -grows with moderate rapidity and does not live long. - -The annual rings are often indistinct. The wood is hard, heavy, and -strong, and checks badly in seasoning. The medullary rays are broad and -conspicuous, the wood dark brown in color, the sapwood lighter. This oak -is very high in ash contents, more than one per cent of the dry weight -of wood going to ashes when burned. The tree reaches its best -development in the lower Mississippi valley, and in eastern Texas. -Comparatively few uses for it have been found. Cordwood cutters find it -valuable where it abounds in sufficient quantity, and it has been burned -for charcoal for iron foundries and blacksmith shops. Small amounts are -occasionally found in wood-using factories in Texas, but only when logs -with considerable heartwood can be procured. The sap is characterless -and seems to be utterly rejected at the factory. Sometimes the rich -brown of the heartwood is attractive, but more frequently the wood is -ringed and splotched with different colors, not distributed in a way to -give any artistic effect. When a satisfactory stick is found, it can be -worked into balusters and small spindles which show grain well. It is -also worked into broad panels made up of narrow, quarter-sawed strips, -which exhibit the dark flecks of the wood to good advantage. - - TRIDENT OAK (_Quercus tridentata_) is remarkable for its extreme - scarcity, and is of no commercial importance. It was formerly found - in Missouri--a single tree--which was afterwards destroyed. It - occurs in Washtenaw county, Michigan. It appears that no report - showing the character of the wood has been made. - - LEA OAK (_Quercus leana_), which is believed to be a hybrid between - yellow oak (_Quercus velutina_) and shingle oak (_Quercus - imbricaria_), is interesting but not important. Trees are apt to - stand alone, and far apart. They occur from District of Columbia to - Missouri, and south to North Carolina. The range is imperfectly - known. - -[Illustration] - - - - -LAUREL OAK - -[Illustration: LAUREL OAK] - - - - -LAUREL OAK - -(_Quercus Laurifolia_) - - -This representative of the black oak group is found nowhere except in -the southeastern states, and only in their borders. It never ranges far -inland, but sticks to wet localities and the margins of swamps where its -associates are tupelo, southern white cedar, cypress, magnolias, and, -near its southern limit, myrtle and other semi-tropical trees and -shrubs. It is sometimes utilized as an ornament, but that is not its -usual function. It is not a successful competitor as a shade tree with -willow oak and water oak. - -Beginning at the border of the Dismal Swamp in Virginia as the northern -limit of growth, this interesting tree ranges southward along the coast -to Cape Romano in Florida and westward in the lower Gulf states to -southeastern Louisiana. It is seen at its best in eastern Florida. It -puts forth a vigorous growth on the hummock land in the southern part of -that state, where it develops a shapely trunk when in crowded stands. It -grows well in very rocky ground. - -Although the common name laurel oak is prompted by its foliage, the tree -bears various other sectional names. It is known as laurel oak in North -Carolina, South Carolina, Alabama, and Florida; Darlington oak in South -Carolina; willow oak in Florida and South Carolina; water oak in -Georgia. The latter name has a tendency to confuse it with another -species which is properly called water oak (_Quercus nigra_). - -The ornamental qualities of this tree are due to the tall stately bole, -its shapely and symmetrical round-topped head and slender branches and -twigs. It sometimes attains the dignity of one hundred feet in height -with a proportionate diameter of three or four feet. The bark is firm, -of dark, reddish-brown color, and usually is not fissured but finely -broken into small close, scale-like plates. On old trees, especially at -the butt, deep fissures divide it into broad ridges. The buds are shiny -brown, and they narrow abruptly to an acute point. The acorns are either -sessile or have short stalks, and they usually grow alone. They are -short and broad, and are incased in shallow, thin cups. In the flowering -season hairy aments add to the attractiveness of the tree. The leaves -are dark green above and lighter on the lower surface and are grouped -rather closely on the twigs. They attain a length of four inches or -less, and fall gradually after turning yellow. - -Laurel oak seems to be little used. It is occasionally referred to as -rather inferior to other members of the black oak group, but it is not -apparent why it bears that reputation. It may be on account of its poor -seasoning qualities. Like other southern oaks, it is very heavy when -green, and it is inclined to shrink and warp while in the process of -parting with its moisture. If this can be successfully overcome, the -wood ought to be valuable. Tests made on four samples cut on St. John's -river, Florida, recorded in Sargent's tables, show remarkable results. -The wood is 34 per cent stronger and 37 per cent stiffer than white oak, -and is only one pound heavier per cubic foot of dry wood. If these -values are fairly representative of the wood of laurel oak, it should be -exceptionally valuable in vehicle making. It would fall considerably -below hickory, but would stand very high among other woods, and could be -recommended for wagon axles, tongues, and other parts of heavy vehicles. - -It should be borne in mind, however, that tests alone, and particularly -when the number of samples is small, are not sufficient to decide a -wood's place as a manufacturing material. It must be tried in actual -practice, and that has not yet been done in the case of laurel oak as a -wagon wood. When tried out it may exhibit defects, or undesirable -qualities, which are not apparent in samples employed in laboratory -tests. - -There is little exact information available in regard to the supply of -laurel oak in the South. It is not abundant in the sense that willow oak -and Texan red oak are. Neither are the trees generally of good form for -lumber. Little has ever been cut, because the land where it grows is not -demanded for agriculture. It occupies out-of-the-way places, and the -hunter and fisherman are better acquainted with it than the lumberman. - -HIGHLAND OAK (_Quercus wislizeni_) is a California evergreen with leaves -commonly shaped like holly, but sometimes their edges are smooth with no -sign of teeth. The foliage remains longer on this tree than is usual -with evergreen oaks. Old leaves generally fall within a month after the -new crop appears; but those of highland oak remain several months -longer, gradually falling during the second summer. When the tree is at -its best it is a splendid representative of the vegetable kingdom. Its -form does not please lumbermen, for the trunk is short and rough; but -the crown rises seventy or eighty feet, is symmetrical, the foliage dark -green, and the general appearance is that of an enormous holly tree. -Trunks are sometimes five or six feet in diameter. The name highland oak -is somewhat misleading, though the species ascends to an altitude of -6,000 feet or more. It is described as a highland tree to distinguish it -from the California live oak (_Quercus agrifolia_) which grows in the -vicinity of the sea in California. The highland oak ranges from northern -California to the international boundary, following the foothills of the -mountain ranges. It occurs in dry river bottoms and washes and in -desert mountain canyons. It is not choice as to soil but will grow in -loam, sand, gravel, or among rocks. It is not abundant. - -When it grows near the sea it is apt to lose its tree form and become a -shrub. It assumes that form on Santa Cruz and Santa Rosa islands off the -coast of southern California. It grows slowly and is tenacious of life. -When it has once secured a foothold it hangs on with determination, -though exposed to severe storms and inhospitable conditions. The acorns -do not mature until late in the autumn of their second year. They are -sometimes an inch and a half long, and scarcely a third of an inch -thick. The wood of this oak possesses some good qualities which are -locally appreciated by wagon makers who use it for repair work. It is -extensively cut for fuel, and it burns about like eastern white oak, but -leaves more ashes. The dry wood weighs 49 pounds per cubic foot. It is -considerably weaker than white oak and is less elastic. The summerwood -constitutes a large part of the annual growth ring. It is very porous, -the rows of pores running parallel with the medullary rays. This part of -the wood structure is midway between that of deciduous and the evergreen -oaks. The medullary rays are broad but short. When exposed on a -tangential surface, they are from one-fourth to one-half inch long, and -give the wood a flecked appearance. Exposed in cross section, they are -from one inch to four inches in length. This applies, of course, only to -large rays, easily seen with the naked eye. In quarter-sawed lumber, the -rays have a pinkish color and glossy luster which are not pleasing. This -tree belongs in the class with those which are in no danger of being -extirpated by human agencies. It occupies land which man does not need -and will never want. - - MYRTLE OAK (_Quercus myrtifolia_) associates with the laurel oak in - some parts of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, and closely - resembles it, though it is smaller, and gives little promise of ever - becoming important in a commercial way. It is clearly in the scrub - oak class, and does not approach the dignity of even a small tree in - most of its range. Few specimens can be found exceeding a height of - twenty feet and a diameter of five or six inches. Trees approaching - that size grow in western Florida in the region of the Apalachicola - river. Generally this oak covers dry, sandy ridges and islands, and - is shrubby. It forms thickets on some of the islands off the coast - of Alabama and Mississippi, and extends its range westward to the - low, southern parts of Louisiana where the dwarf trees are almost - hidden by tall reeds and grass. Its name refers to the leaf it - bears. It is impossible that man can ever make much use of this - tree. - - MOREHUS OAK (_Quercus morehus_) can never be important in the lumber - industry, but it fills a few places in California where the ground - needs a cover. Its range is in the northern coast range and the - Sierra foothills, extending as far south as Kings river. The edges - of the leaves bear bent hooks like saw teeth. The foliage falls in - late winter. Trees are occasionally a foot or more in diameter. The - wood has not the appearance of possessing much value, and is too - scarce to be important. The most interesting thing connected with - this tree is that it is supposed to be a hybrid--a cross between - highland oak and California black oak. It was first found in 1863, - and a considerable range has since been established for it. - - It is the opinion of some investigators that new tree species have - their origin in crosses between existing species. Of the countless - thousands of such crosses a few, at long intervals of time, may - develop characteristics which enable them to maintain their - existence and to spread into new territory. If that occurs, a new - kind of tree has appeared on earth and is ready to take its place - among the established forests of the region. Cross-fertilization - among trees and plants is very common, but so many adverse - conditions are encountered, that few hybrids ever amount to - anything. - -[Illustration] - - - - -PIN OAK - -[Illustration: PIN OAK] - - - - -PIN OAK - -(_Quercus Palustris_) - - -Pin oak ranges from certain sections of Massachusetts, notably the -Connecticut river valley, and near Amherst, westward as far as the -southeastern part of Missouri; on the south it is found along the lower -Potomac river in Virginia, in Kentucky, Arkansas, and Oklahoma. - -It is known as pin oak in Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New -York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Virginia, Maryland, Arkansas, Missouri, -Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Kansas; in Arkansas and Kansas it is -called swamp Spanish oak; in Rhode Island and Illinois it is often known -as water oak; in Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Kansas as swamp oak; in -Arkansas as water Spanish oak. - -The name pin oak is said to belong to this tree because of a peculiarity -of its branches. They leave the trunk and the larger limbs at nearly -right angles, and criss-cross in all directions, resembling pins thrust -into the wood, and bristling outward at every angle. The crowding to -which they are subjected kills many of them as the tree reaches middle -age, but the stubs do not drop quickly, and as many of the -characteristic pins appear to be present as ever. Such is the usual -explanation given to account for the name, and the facts fit the theory; -but the fact that several other species are called pin oaks is not -accounted for. The habit of the branches of all of them is not the same. -The Gambel oak in its Arizona range has that name. So has the chinquapin -oak in Arkansas and Texas, but that is apparently a shortening of its -true name, the last syllable only being used. They call the Durand oak -pin oak in Texas, but without any known reason. - -The botanical name _palustris_, belonging to this species, refers to the -tree's habit of growing in swamps and damp land along river bottoms. It -is not a swamp tree as cypress is, but is more like swamp white oak, and -finds its most congenial surroundings on the borders of streams and on -fairly well drained lowland where roots readily reach water. - -The leaves are three or five inches long, are simple, and alternate. -They are broad, and have from five to nine lobes which are toothed, and -bristle-tipped on the ends. The sinuses are broad and rounded, and -extend well toward the midrib, which is stout, and from which the veins -branch off conspicuously. In color the leaves are bright green above and -lighter below when young, becoming thin, firm and darker green at -maturity; late in autumn they turn a rich, deep scarlet. They are coated -below with pubescence, and have large tufts of pale hairs in the axils -of the veins. - -The fruit of pin oak is a small acorn which grows either sessile or on a -very short stem; sometimes in clusters, and sometimes singly. In shape -the acorns are nearly hemispherical, and measure about a half inch in -diameter; they are enclosed only at the base, in a thin, saucer-shaped -cup, dark brown, and scaly. - -The bark of a mature tree is dark gray or brownish-green; it is rough, -being full of small furrows, and frequently cracks open and shows the -reddish inner layer of bark. On small branches and young trunks, it is -smoother, lighter, and more lustrous. - -Pin oak is smaller than red oak. Average trees are seventy or eighty -feet high and two or three in diameter. Specimens 120 feet high and four -feet in diameter are heard of but are seldom seen. Near the northern -limit of pin oak's range large trees are not found, nor are small trees -plentiful. This holds true in all parts of New England and northern New -York where the species is found growing naturally. South of -Pennsylvania, along the flood plains of rivers which flow to Chesapeake -bay, a better class of timber is found. The best development of the -species is in the lower Ohio valley. - -It grows rapidly, but falls a little short of the red oak. When young -growth is cut, sprouts will rise from the stumps and flourish for a -time, but merchantable trees are seldom or never produced that way. The -acorn must be depended on. It has been remarked that pin oak does not -prune itself well, but it does better in dense stands than in open -ground. In the latter case the limbs are late in dying and falling. - -Pin oak has proved to be a valuable street and park tree. It possesses -several characteristics which recommend it for that use. It grows -rapidly, and it quickly attains a size which lessens its liability to -injury by accidents. Its shade is tolerably dense; the crown is shapely -and attractive; the leaves fall late; and it seems to stand the smoke -and dust of cities better than many other trees. It is easily and -successfully transplanted if taken when small. Many towns and cities -from Long Island to Washington, D. C., have planted the pin oak along -streets, avenues, and in parks. Several thoroughfares in Washington are -shaded by them. - -Considerable planting of pin oak has been done by railroads which expect -to grow ties. Trees of this species when cut in forests and made into -crossties do not all show similar resistance to decay. Some ties are -perishable in a short time, while others give satisfactory service. The -best endure well without preservative treatment, but all are benefited -by it. If the experimental plantings turn out well, it may be expected -that pin oak will fill an important place in the crosstie business. - -Because of numerous limbs, lumber cut from pin oak is apt to be knotty, -and the percentage of good grades small. The annual rings are wide, and -are about evenly divided between spring and summerwood, though the -latter often exceeds the former. Its general appearance suggests red -oak, but it is more porous in trunks of thrifty growth. The springwood -is largely made up of pores. The medullary rays are hardly as prominent -as those of red oak, but in other ways resemble them. The wood weighs -43.24 pounds per cubic foot, which is a little above red oak. It is hard -and strong, dark brown with thin sapwood of darker color. The lumber -checks and warps badly in seasoning. - -The uses to which pin oak is put must be considered in a general way -because of the absence of exact statistics. The wood is not listed by -the lumber trade under its own name, but goes along with others of the -black oak group. Its uses, however, are known along a number of lines. -Lumbermen cut it wherever it is found mixed with other hardwoods. -Sometimes vehicle manufacturers make a point of securing a supply of -this wood. That occurs oftener with small concerns than large. It is -made into felloes, reaches, and bolsters. Furniture makers use it, and -well selected, quarter-sawed stock is occasionally reduced to veneer. -The articles produced pass for red oak, and it would be very difficult -to detect the difference between pin oak and true red oak when finished -as veneer. Some highly attractive mission furniture is said to be of pin -oak. - -More goes to chair stock mills than to factories which produce higher -classes of furniture. Chairs utilize very small pieces, and that gives -the stock cutter a chance to trim out the knots and produce the maximum -amount of clear stuff. Chair makers in Michigan reported the use of -60,000 feet of pin oak in 1910. Slack coopers work in much the same way -as chair mills, and pin oak is acceptable material for many classes of -barrels and other containers. Small tight knots are frequently not -defects sufficient to cause the rejection of staves. Tight coopers do -not find pin oak suitable, because the wood is too porous to hold -liquids, particularly liquors containing alcohol. The wood is mixed at -mills with red oak and other similar species and is manufactured into -picture frames, boxes, crates, interior finish for houses, and many -other commodities requiring strength or handsome finish. In early years -when the people manufactured by hand what they needed, and obtained -their timber from the nearest forest or woodlot, they split fence rails, -pickets, clapboards, and shingles of pin oak. - -Oak-apples or galls are the round excrescences formed on the limbs by -gallflies and their eggs. They seem particularly fond of this species -and specimens are often seen which are literally covered with them. The -worms which live inside seem to flourish particularly well on the food -they imbibe from pin oak. The primitive school teachers three or four -generations ago turned these oak galls to account. They are rich in -tannin, and were employed in manufacturing the local ink supply. The -teachers were the ink makers as well as the pen cutters when the pens -were whittled from quills. The process of making the ink was simple. The -galls were soaked in a kettle of water and nails. The iron acted on the -tannin and produced the desired blackness, but if special luster was -desired, it was furnished by adding the fruit of the wild greenbrier -(_Smilax rotundifolia_), which grew abundantly in the woods. It was well -that steel pens were not then in use, for the schoolmaster's oak ink -would have eaten up such a pen in a single day. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CALIFORNIA LIVE OAK - -[Illustration: CALIFORNIA LIVE OAK] - - - - -CALIFORNIA LIVE OAK - -(_Quercus Agrifolia_) - - -This fine western tree belongs to the black oak group, yet its acorns -mature in one year, like those of white oaks. It is the only known black -oak with that habit. It is properly classed with canyon live oak which -has many characteristics of white oak, yet matures its acorns the second -year. The two oaks with freakish fruit belong in California, and to some -extent occupy the same range. California live oak is apparently making -an effort to conform to the habit of other black oaks by producing two -year acorns. It has not yet succeeded in doing so, but flowers -occasionally appear in the fall, and young acorns set on the twigs. They -drop during the winter, and it is not believed that any of them hang -till the second season. - -The range of this tree covers most of the California coast region but -does not reach the great interior valleys. The tree is very common in -the southwestern part of the state. It is called an evergreen, and some -individuals deserve that reputation, but the leaves never remain long -after the new crop appears. Frequently the old leaves do not wait for -the new, and when they drop, the branches remain bare for a few weeks. -The form of the leaf is not constant. Some have smooth margins, but the -typical leaf is toothed like holly. One of the early names by which the -tree was known was holly-leaved oak. The bark looks much like the bark -of chestnut oak. It is bought for tanning purposes, but its principal -use is to adulterate the bark of another oak (_Quercus densiflora_). -Trees range in height from twenty-five to seventy-five feet, and from -one foot to four in diameter. The trunks are very short, and seldom -afford clear lengths exceeding eight feet, and often not more than four. -Trees generally grow in the open, but when in thickets, the boles -lengthen somewhat. They are of slow growth and live to old age. - -The wood is hard and brittle. A cubic foot weighs 51.43 pounds when -thoroughly dry. The wood of mature trees is reddish-brown; but young and -middle aged trunks are all sapwood, and are white from bark to center. -When sapwood is exposed to the air a considerable time it changes color -and becomes very dark brown. The medullary rays of this oak are broad, -fairly numerous, and are darker than the surrounding wood. When the log -is quarter-sawed, the exposed flecks of bright surface are the darkest -parts. To that extent, it resembles quarter-sawed sycamore, but the -woods do not look alike in any other particular. This oak is very -porous, and the pores--as is usual with live oaks--are arranged in rows -running from bark to center rather than parallel with the annual rings. -No clear line is distinguishable between spring and summerwood. - -Cordwood constitutes the most important use for California live oak. It -rates high in fuel value, and the many large and crooked limbs make the -tree an ideal one, from the cordwood cutter's viewpoint. By carefully -ricking the wood, with the crooks and elbows in every possible -direction--at which some cordwood cutters are very proficient--a cord of -wood may be constructed in the forest, which, when sold and delivered in -the buyer's shed, contracts like an accordion. - - CANYON LIVE OAK (_Quercus chrysolepis_). This splendid California - oak bears many names. It is an evergreen, and therefore is called - live oak. It is hard when thoroughly seasoned, and this has won for - it the name iron oak. Wagon makers often so designate it. It is - called Valparaiso oak, but for what reason is not apparent. Black - live oak doubtless refers to the dark color of the foliage. The most - shapely trees grow in the bottoms of canyons, and the name, canyon - live oak, refers to that circumstance. Hickory oak is not an - appropriate name, though it doubtless implies that the wood - possesses the toughness of hickory. It is about as tough as white - oak. The name golden cup oak is a translation of its botanical name - which, in Greek, means "golden scale," a reference to a yellow - tomentum or wool which covers the cups of the acorns. The wood's - hardness qualifies it to serve as mauls, hence the name maul oak. - - The northern limit of its growth is in southern Oregon. It goes - south from there on the coast ranges of California and the western - slopes of the Sierra Nevadas to the highlands of southern - California. Its growth on the mountains of southern Arizona and New - Mexico is always shrubby. The lowest limit of its range is about - 1,000 feet above sea level, the best specimens occurring at low - altitudes in the sheltered canyons of the coast ranges of - California. Gradually diminishing in size, it grows to the very tops - of many of the high mountains, sometimes reaching 9,000 feet, being - not more than a foot high at the upper limits of its range. In - appearance this tree resembles the eastern live oak (_Quercus - virginiana_), having the same majestic wide-spreading crown, except - in the high altitudes where it forms dense thickets covering large - areas. - - When in its favorite habitat, the massive proportions and majestic - appearance of this tree are imposing, the crown sometimes being 150 - feet across, the bole short and thick, and the great branches long - and horizontal. It is not clothed in the somber Spanish moss that is - often present on the great live oaks of the southeastern states, but - there is a similarity of appearance in the drooping slender twigs. - One hundred and fifty feet across is cited as an unusual width of - crown, one hundred feet being a good average size, and forty or - fifty feet the usual height, although it sometimes reaches 100. The - bole is vested in a gray-brown, reddish-tinged bark, about an inch - thick, and broken into numerous scales which in old age become flaky - and pliable and fall off. - - The bark is light colored, and has the stringy character of white - oak. The tree would readily pass for a white oak were it not for its - two-year acorns which class it in the black oak group. The wood - resembles white oak, and weighs 52.93 pounds per cubic foot. - - Few oaks, if any, retain their leaves a longer time than this. They - remain on the branches three or four years. Most evergreen oaks shed - theirs at the beginning of the second year. The leaves of this tree - are peculiar in another way. They assume various forms. That in - itself is not unusual and occurs with many species; but the canyon - live oak has one pattern of leaf for the young tree, another for the - old. One form has a margin with sharp, hooked teeth; another has - smooth-margined leaves, and there are various intermediate forms. - Sizes vary no less than shapes of both acorns and leaves. Some - acorns are half an inch in length, others two inches. - - The canyon live oak is believed to be long-lived, but further - information is desirable. The massive trunks represent centuries. - They usually occur in sheltered places which are measurably secure - from the ordinary perils which beset trees, notably the woodsman's - ax and the periodic forest fire. The bottoms of canyons where this - oak makes choice of situation do not usually burn fiercely, and - trees sheltered there escape. Cordwood cutters are the most constant - peril to good fuel trees in California; but many a canyon is safe - from their invasions, because of lack of roads. There the most - magnificent oaks rear their crowns in security, while trees of - inferior size and character, which grow on exposed slopes and flats, - fall before the cordwood cutter, and go to the ricks in village - woodyards. - - The wood of canyon live oak is superior to that of any other oak in - its range. It is of light brown color, and is tough, strong, stiff, - and heavy. The trunks are generally unsuitable for sawlogs, being - too short, but when a chance tree is found that may be cut into - lumber, it is considered a prize. Trunks are seldom good for more - than one sawlog. In that respect this oak may be compared with the - southern live oak. The scarcity of good hardwoods on the Pacific - coast adds to the value of what may be found there. If the canyon - live oak grew in the East, and developed a trunk of the same size - and shape as it has in its present home, it would attract no more - attention from the users of hardwoods than the live oak in the South - attracts now. But place makes great difference. - - Factories in California do not report the use of much of this oak, - yet considerable quantities of it are in service. The most important - place found for it is in country and village blacksmith shops, where - wagons are repaired. Nearly every piece of wood which goes into a - wagon, except the bed, may be this oak. Many persons consider it the - best wagon timber on the Pacific coast, and it is particularly - valued for tongues, not only for wagons, but for heavy log trucks - which are operated by several yoke of oxen. The wood is likewise - made into singletrees. It has always been in use in California for - pack saddles. That article is small, but many saddles were formerly - made, and the pack saddle is still an important article in the - mountains. Trains of mules, horses, and burros thread the narrow - paths, where wheeled vehicles cannot go, and deliver supplies to - camps and mines in remote districts. The pack saddle's strength is - frequently all that intervenes between the load and destruction; for - the snapping of a piece of wood may let the pack go over a precipice - beyond recovery. The pack trains are slowly passing out of use in - the West, as they long ago disappeared from the "bridle paths" of - eastern mountains and forests; but they are still to be seen among - the fastnesses of the Sierra Nevadas, as in the days when a western - poet burst into inspired song of the long pack trains going - - "Up and down o'er the mountain trail - With one horse tied to another's tail." - - HUCKLEBERRY OAK (_Quercus chrysolepis vaccinifolia_) is a variety of - canyon live oak, and is never large enough to supply wood for any - purpose, but is valuable as a covering to the ground on exposed - mountains. It is usually a shrub, and specimens no more than a foot - high are mature and bear acorns enormously out of proportion to the - size of the tree. If the canyon live oak of largest size in the low - hills bore acorns proportionately as large, they would be the size - of barrels. The huckleberry oak's acorns are set in their golden - cups. The name huckleberry is applied because of a fancied - resemblance of the leaves to those of huckleberries. They are - generally less than one inch in length, sometimes not half an inch. - This unique variety of oak ranges on elevated slopes and ridges of - the Sierra Nevada mountains, and the traveler in climbing to the - peaks is often grateful for the privilege of pulling himself up the - steep slopes by grasping in his hands the tops of full grown trees. - - PALMER OAK (_Quercus chrysolepis palmeri_) is considered a variety - of canyon live oak by some, but Sudworth believes it is a distinct - species, and draws his conclusion from forms of leaves, flowers, and - fruit. It forms large thickets on foothills and plateaus near the - southern boundary of California, eighty miles or more east of San - Diego. The trees do not attain sufficient size to give them - commercial importance. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CALIFORNIA TANBARK OAK - -[Illustration: CALIFORNIA TANBARK OAK] - - - - -CALIFORNIA TANBARK OAK - -(_Quercus Densiflora_) - - -Botanists dispute the right of this tree to the name of oak, and some of -them refuse to call it an oak. It is admitted that it possesses -characters not found in any other oak, but these are important to the -botanist only, while laymen have never considered the tree anything but -an oak. It has been variously called tanbark oak, chestnut oak, -California chestnut oak, live oak, and peach oak. The trunk, branches, -and foliage look much like chestnut. The leaf is like the chestnut's, -but it is evergreen. There are three or four crops on the tree at one -time, and none fall until they are three or four years old. Young leaves -are remarkably woolly, but late in their first summer they get rid of -most of the fuzz, and become thick in texture. - -Tanbark oaks are of all sizes, from mere shrubs on high mountains in the -northern Sierra Nevadas to fine and symmetrical timber in the damp -climate of the fog belt between San Francisco and the Oregon line. The -average height of mature trees is from seventy to 100 feet, with -diameters up to six feet in rare cases, though more trunks are under -than over two feet in diameter. - -The range of this oak reaches southern Oregon on the north, and runs -southward three or four hundred miles along the Sierra Nevada mountains, -to Mariposa county, and six hundred miles through the Coast range to -Santa Barbara county. The tree is affected by climatic conditions, and -where surroundings do not suit, it is small and shrubby, often less than -ten feet high. It does best in the redwood belt where fogs from the -Pacific ocean keep the air moist and the ground damp. It sometimes -associates with Douglas fir, and at other times with California live -oak. If it grows in dense side shade it loses its lower branches and -develops a long, clean trunk; but in open ground it keeps its limbs -until late in life. - -This is the most important source of tanbark on the Pacific coast, and -up to the present it has been procurable in large quantities. The annual -output is nearly 40,000 tons, and it commands a higher price than the -bark of any other oak or of hemlock. The absence of other adequate -tanning materials on the Pacific coast gives this tree much importance. -Its range covers several thousand square miles, and the stand is fairly -good on much of it. But on the other hand, the destruction of timber to -secure the bark has been excessive. What occurred with chestnut oak and -hemlock in the East, is occurring with tanbark oak in the West. Trees -are cut and peeled, and are left by thousands to rot in the woods, or -to feed fires and make them more destructive. The bark peelers do their -principal work in the California redwood region, because there the oak -is at its best. Economic conditions make the salvage of the trunks -impossible. The bark can be hauled to market, but the wood is unsalable -at living prices, after the long haul. It has, therefore, been usually -abandoned, and becomes a total loss. It cannot even be sold for fuel, -because the country within reach of it is thinly settled, and wood is -plentiful on every side. - -Large oaks are felled, because the bark can not be stripped from the -trunks in any other way, and small trees are not spared. The peelers -often do not take the trouble to cut them down, but strip off the bark -as high as a man can reach, and leave them standing. A future tree is -thus destroyed for the sake of a strip of bark a few feet long. Such -trees live a year or two, sometimes several years, before yielding to -the inevitable. Usually, as a last expiring effort, they bear an -abnormally large crop of acorns. That performance, in the language of -the bark peelers, is "the last kick." A tanbark slashing, when the -peelers are ready to abandon it, is a sorry spectacle. The barkless and -sun-cracked trunks strew the ground, the tops and limbs are piled in -windrows, the small peeled trees stand dying, and the last ricks of bark -have been sledded down the tote roads, marking the close of operations -in that district. A few months later, when fire runs through, the end of -the tanbark oak on that tract is accomplished. - -Within recent years commendable efforts have been made to use the wood -as well as the bark. One of the first steps in that direction was to -overcome the prejudice against the wood. It was long considered to be -valueless. That belief was founded on the single fact that this oak is -difficult to season. Few woods in this country check as badly as this, -when it is left exposed to sun and wind after the bark has been removed. -It checks both radially and along the annual rings. The medullary rays -are broad and extend much of the distance from the center to the -outside. These are natural lines of cleavage when the log begins to -season and the internal stresses develop. It must be admitted that the -prospect of making anything out of timber of that character is -discouraging; but it has been accomplished, and tanbark oak is now a -material of considerable value. - -The wood has about the strength and stiffness of white oak, while it is -four pounds lighter per cubic foot. The structure is similar to that of -California live oak, but the pores of tanbark oak are smaller. They run -in rows from center to circumference. The medullary rays are broad -enough to show well in quarter-sawing, but the wood's appearance when so -worked is not wholly satisfactory. The exposed flat surfaces of the -rays show a faint purplish or violet tinge which is considered -objectionable. But when the wood is worked plain it is dependable and -substantial. It makes good flooring, fairly good furniture, finish, -vehicles, and agricultural implements. It is perishable when placed in -damp situations, and this detracts somewhat from its value as railway -ties; but the wood's porous nature indicates that it will readily yield -to preservative treatment. - -Since the value of the wood is coming to be understood it is to be -expected that less of it will be destroyed than formerly, and that -second growth will be given opportunity to hold the ground when old -stands are cut. The tree is a prolific seeder, but not every year, and -seedlings come up abundantly in sheltered places. Sprouts rise from -stumps and grow to vigorous trees. It would seem, therefore, that the -tanbark oak will hold at least part of the ground where nature planted -it. - -TOUMEY OAK (_Quercus toumeyi_). No oak in this country has smaller -leaves than this. They are usually less than three-fourths of an inch -long and half an inch wide, and they hang on petioles one-sixteenth inch -long. The leaves have no lobes or notches. They remain all winter and -fall in the spring in time to make room for the new crop. The acorns are -nearly as long as the leaves and ripen in June of the first year. Few -persons ever see this oak, for its known range is restricted to Mule -mountain, in Cochise county, southeastern Arizona. It attains a height -of twenty-five or thirty feet, and a diameter of six or eight inches. -The trunk is not only small, but is of form so poor that it can never be -of value for anything but fuel. It divides near the ground into crooked -branches. The heart of the tree is light brown, the thick sapwood is -lighter. - - WOOLLY OAK (_Quercus tomentella_) has apparently been crowded off - the American continent and has taken refuge on islands off the - southern California coast. As far as known, not a single tree stands - on the mainland, but several groves, with a few isolated specimens, - are found on Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa, and Catalina islands, where - they are huddled together in the bottoms of sheltered canyons. The - leaves are thick, leathery, and are toothed like holly. The trees - are evergreen. The acorns do not mature until the second season. - They are generally more than an inch long. The scarcity of this oak - relegates it to an unimportant place among commercial woods. This - seems unfortunate, for the appearance of the wood indicates that it - possesses excellent properties. No other oak looks like this wood. - It is decidedly yellow, and is dense and firm. The medullary rays - are different from those of any other oak. When seen in cross - section they are arranged in short, wavy lines, broadest in the - middle and tapering toward both ends. The pores are arranged between - the rays, and follow wavy lines also. Trees grow with fair rapidity, - and the largest on the islands are seventy-five feet high and two in - diameter. - - BARREN OAK (_Quercus pumila_) is called dwarf black oak, or simply - scrub oak. Its habit of growing on barren land is responsible for - its common name which some people shorten to "bear" oak. It is one - of the poorest oaks of the East, and it seldom grows more than - twenty-five feet high and a few inches in diameter. Its range - follows the Atlantic coast southward from Mount Desert Island, - Maine, to North Carolina. It is probably more abundant on the pine - barrens of New Jersey than elsewhere. The trunks are too small to be - of use for anything but fuel. - - PRICE OAK (_Quercus pricei_) is a California tree, supposed to be - very local in its range, since it has not been found outside the - drainage basin of a small stream in Monterey county. That locality - on the coast of California appears to be the starting place or - principal abiding place of several tree species, among which are - Monterey cypress and Monterey pine. The Price oak attains a height - of twenty-five or thirty feet, and a diameter of twelve inches or - less; consequently it is too small to be of value to lumbermen, even - if it were abundant. The leaves resemble those of California live - oak, and are believed to remain two summers on the tree. The acorns - mature the second season. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SHINGLE OAK - -[Illustration: SHINGLE OAK] - - - - -SHINGLE OAK - -(_Quercus Imbricaria_) - - -The origin of this tree's name has been the subject of considerable -controversy. According to one account the name was first used by the -French colonists at Kaskaskia, Illinois, nearly 150 years ago. They -found that the wood rived well and it was abundant in the vicinity of -their settlement. They split it for shingles and covered their cabins. -It was the best wood obtainable for the purpose in that region, and they -designated the tree shingle oak, a name translated into Latin by the -botanist Michaux and still retained as the tree's botanical name. The -story of the name appears to be well authenticated, but the fact cannot -be denied that as much reason exists for another theory. A person who -sees a shingle oak tree in full leaf, particularly if it stands in open -ground where its foliage has had opportunity to develop along natural -lines, will at once notice the peculiar and characteristic overlapping -of the leaves. They suggest the courses of shingles nailed on a roof. No -other oak has that arrangement. The similitude is so striking that it -would be surprising if the name shingle oak were not applied. - -It is not a one-name tree, but following the fashion, it carries several -names. It is called laurel oak in some regions. The form and appearance -of the leaf give the name. The oak looks like a mammoth laurel tree more -than like its own species. The shingle oak is known as jack oak in some -parts of Illinois. That is a name liable to be applied to any tree when -its real name is not known. In North Carolina they call the tree water -oak, which name, like jack oak, is often used to conceal ignorance of -the true name. Another southern species (_Quercus nigra_) is properly -named water oak. - -Shingle oak requires good soil for growth but is not partial either to -uplands or bottoms. It is found at its best in the lower Ohio river -basin and in Missouri, but is comparatively rare in the East. From -middle Pennsylvania its range extends southward along the Alleghanies to -northern Georgia, Alabama, Tennessee, and west Arkansas. It is found in -Michigan, Wisconsin, and westward to Kansas. - -It manifests a strong tendency to hybridize with other oaks, and it -readily crosses with black jack oak, pin oak, and yellow oak. It is -believed that a cross between yellow oak and shingle oak produced the -species known as lea oak. - -A mature tree may be one hundred feet high and three or four feet in -diameter. It has a round or pyramidal attractive crown composed of many -slender branches and twigs. The foliage is distinctively grouped at the -ends of the twigs in star-like clusters. The leaves are four or six -inches long, with wedge-shaped or rounded bases, and are deep green and -shiny on the upper side, but lighter below. The acorns are short, -stubby, and rounded, covered one-third of the way with thin shallow -cups. - -Shingle oak grows rapidly, and it is often sold by nurseries which deal -in ornamental forest trees. It is hardy as far north as Massachusetts. -Although it bears great abundance of leaves, they are so arranged that -the crown seems open. One may see through the branches of a large -shingle oak, and it suggests an airiness not common with oaks. - -Differences of opinion exist concerning the value of shingle oak for -commercial purposes. It belongs in the black oak group, and its wood -goes to market as red oak, and apparently is never listed as anything -else. It is never named in market reports; shops and factories never -report it, and it has been pronounced inferior to red oak in strength -and seasoning properties. Tests have been made of some of its physical -properties, and the results do not indicate that the wood belongs with -inferior timbers. Its breaking strength is given at 39 per cent greater -than white oak, and its stiffness at 28 per cent greater. However, these -values, which are calculated from Sargent's tables, are based on tests -of only a few specimens of the wood, and fuller investigation might make -revision necessary. - -The wood is heavy, hard, and is said to check badly in drying. The pores -are large and are arranged in rows; medullary rays are broad and -conspicuous. The wood is light brown, tinged with red, the sapwood much -lighter. The broad medullary rays, running radially, give the wood its -good splitting qualities. - -The tree is fairly abundant in different parts of its range, and is cut -and manufactured with other oaks and hardwoods. Slack coopers use it for -barrels; box makers employ it for crates; chair mills saw dimension -stock and ship it to factories to be finished; some goes to furniture -factories; some is turned for spindles for grills, and for balusters for -stairs; other fills various places as interior finish and molding. But -it all goes to market and passes through factories under names other -than its own. - -WATER OAK (_Quercus nigra_) has several names, some of them bestowed -with little apparent reason. It is called possum oak and duck oak, but -these names are neither descriptive nor definitive. Punk oak is another -name. It may refer to a decayed condition of the wood, but this tree is -no more affected by decay than others of the same region. In Texas it is -sometimes known as spotted oak. It thrives in wet situations though not -actually in swamps. It prefers margins of ponds, banks of rivers, and -low swales where the ground water is just below the surface, but it is -not confined to such situations. It does well, within its range, -wherever willow oak flourishes, but willow oak has a wider range. The -leaves take on various forms, and they change shape as they increase in -size. Some have smooth margins, others are lobed. Some are wedge-shaped, -others coffin-shaped. Their typical form, if it may be said of them that -they have a typical form, is narrow at the stem end and wide at the -other. To this is usually added rudimentary lobes, which are sometimes -nearly as well developed as in any other oak. Their typical form is like -the leaf of the black jack oak; but they are not half as large, and are -thin and delicate, while the black jack's leaf is thick and leathery. - -The range of water oak begins in Delaware and follows the Atlantic -coastal plain south to central Florida, and through the Gulf States to -Texas. It grows as far north as Kentucky and Missouri. It keeps clear of -the Appalachian mountain region, and other hilly districts. It is -plentiful in some parts of its range, and trunks three feet in diameter -and long enough for two or three logs are not unusual, yet large numbers -of water oaks may be seen in the South which are not fit for sawlogs -because they stand in open ground and are limby down to ten feet of the -ground. Many have been planted for shade trees in streets and in parks, -and are justly admired. They grow rapidly and are extremely graceful. -Their leaves are deciduous, but adhere to the branches most of the year. -South of the belt of severe frost, the old leaves frequently hang until -the buds for the new crop are opening. The acorns are bitter, and even -the southern pine hog passes them by until the pinch of famine edges up -his appetite. - -Water oak possesses value as a source of lumber, but it belongs with the -large class of oaks which lose their names and their identity when they -pass the threshold of the sawmill. They come out red oak. Only in rare -instances is water oak called by its own name in the factory and lumber -yard. Wagon makers employ it for bolsters, axles, spokes, tongues, -sandboards, hounds, felloes and reaches. Entire dump carts, except the -iron, are constructed of this wood. Furniture manufacturers use it as -frame material, but seldom as the outside visible parts, though no -reason for not doing so is offered. Objection is made to its seasoning -qualities, but the same objection applies to most red oaks. A -considerable amount of water oak is cut in the South into thick planks -for bridge floors. It is strong and hard, and satisfactorily resists -decay in that place; though, in common with the black oaks generally, it -is liable to decay when exposed to dampness. The wood weighs a little -less than white oak, and is not quite as strong or as stiff. It is -porous, but the pores are small, except one or two rows in the -springwood. The medullary rays are thin and not numerous, but they are -conspicuous, and the wood may be successfully quarter-sawed. The lumber -has the appearance of red oak, though the reddish color is not so -pronounced. - - BARTRAM OAK (_Quercus heterophylla_). This interesting but - commercially unimportant oak was named by Michaux from a single tree - found in a field belonging to John Bartram near Philadelphia more - than a century ago. A few trees have since been found in widely - scattered districts as far south as North Carolina and as far west - as Texas. Botanists believe it is a hybrid, one parent being the - willow oak (_Quercus phellos_) and the other yellow oak (_Quercus - velutina_). It is probable that here may be witnessed the origin of - a tree species. The leaves seem to be a compromise between the - deeply cut foliage of yellow oak and the entire leaf of willow oak. - The new species is so scarce that few people have ever seen it. - -[Illustration] - - - - -RED GUM - -[Illustration: RED GUM] - - - - -RED GUM - -(_Liquidambar Styraciflua_) - - -This tree does not belong to the same group as black gum and tupelo, -which are in the dogwood family, while red gum is of the witch hazel -family. If a tree is to be judged and named by its character, red gum is -more entitled to the name "gum" than any other tree of this country, -because it exudes a yellow resin from wounds in the bark. The botanical -name recognizes that fact. Storax is procured from a closely related -tree is Asia, and has been known in commerce for many centuries. The -other popular names of red gum are sweet gum, liquid-amber gum, gum -tree, alligator wood, bilsted, starleaved gum, and satin walnut. - -The last name originated in England where it was desirable to avoid the -name gum when applied to the wood of this tree. Though botanically it is -about as distantly related to walnut as any tree can be, the figure of -the wood often suggests walnut. The name sweet gum refers to the -pleasant odor of the resin which is sometimes used in France, and -probably elsewhere, to perfume gloves. Alligator wood is descriptive of -warty excrescences on the bark of some trees, but they are not common to -all. Starleaved gum relates to the leaf. It is a lopsided star--a six -point star with one point missing. - -This tree's range in the United States extends from Connecticut to Texas -and as far northwest of the Alleghanies as Missouri and Illinois. It -reaches its greatest size in the lower Mississippi valley in rich bottom -land which is subject to repeated inundation. It is not, however, as -purely a swamp tree as tupelo and cypress. It grows well on land which -is never inundated, but it needs plenty of moisture. The largest -specimens exceed a height of 120 feet and a diameter of four; but logs -from eighteen inches to three feet are the usual sizes. The tree's range -extends southward through Mexico into Central America. - -The rise of red gum lumber into prominence forms an interesting chapter -in the industry. It was formerly considered so difficult to season that -few mills cared to deal with it, but that difficulty has been largely -overcome. In the past, gum, having no market value, was left standing -after logging; or, where the land was cleared for farming, was girdled -and allowed to rot, and then felled and burned. Not only were the trees -a total loss to the farmer, but, from their great size and the labor -required to handle them, they were so serious an obstruction as often to -preclude the clearing of valuable land. Now that there is a market for -the timber, it is profitable to cut gum with other hardwoods, and land -can be cleared more cheaply. This increase in the value of gum timber -will be of great benefit to the South in many ways. - -Throughout its entire life red gum is intolerant of shade. As a rule -seedlings appear only in clearings or in open spots in the forest. It is -seldom that an overtopped tree is found, for the gum dies quickly if -suppressed, and is consequently nearly always a dominant or intermediate -tree. In a hardwood bottom forest, the timber trees are all of nearly -the same age over considerable areas, and there is little young growth -to be found in the older stands. The reason for this is the intolerance -of most of the swamp species. - -Red gum reproduces both by seed and by sprouts, fairly abundantly every -year, but about once in three years there is a heavy production. In the -Mississippi valley the abandoned fields on which young stands of red gum -have sprung up are, for the most part, being rapidly cleared again. The -second growth here is considered of little worth in comparison with the -value of the land for agricultural purposes. - -A large amount of red gum growing in the South can be economically -transported from the forests to the mills only by means of the streams, -owing to the expense of putting in railroads solely for handling the -timber. Green red gum, however, is so heavy that it scarcely floats and, -to overcome this difficulty, various methods of driving out the sap -before the logs are thrown into the river have been tried. One method is -to girdle the trees and leave them standing a year. That partly seasons -them, but does not give time for the sapwood to decay. The logs from -such trees float readily, and the swamps and streams are utilized to -carry the logs to the mills. - -Some years ago that method of seasoning red gum was extensively -advertised in England by contractors who sold paving blocks of this -wood. It was claimed that the common defects of red gum were thus -overcome. Large sales of paving material were made, particularly in -London, and red gum was popular for a time, but it finally lost its hold -as a paving wood in competition with certain Australian woods. The -theory that by girdling a tree and allowing it to die, the amount of -heartwood will be increased has been abandoned. In selecting trees for -cutting, those with doty tops, rotten stumps, and heavy bark, -indications of an old tree which contains a very small proportion of -sapwood, are now chosen. These are found mainly in the drier localities. -In low, wet places the trees have more sapwood and are smaller. The -heartwood forms while the tree is living, not after it dies. - -The rapidity with which red gum has come into use in this country and -elsewhere is the best evidence of the wood's real value. Its range of -uses extends from the most common articles, such as boxes and crates, to -those of highest class, like furniture and interior finish. It is only -moderately strong and stiff, and is not a competitor of hickory, ash, -maple, and oak in vehicle manufacturing and other lines where strength -or elasticity is demanded; but in nearly all other classes of wood uses, -red gum has made itself a place. It has pushed to the front in spite of -prejudice. As soon as the difficulties of seasoning were mastered, its -victory was won. Its annual use in Michigan, the home and center of -hardwood supply, exceeds 20,000,000 feet in manufactured articles, -exclusive of what is employed in rough form. In Illinois, the most -extensive wood-manufacturing state in the Union, red gum stands second -in amount among the hardwoods, the only one above it being white oak. In -Kentucky, only white oak and hickory are more important among the -factory woods, while in Arkansas, where the annual amount of this wood -in factories exceeds 100,000,000 feet, it heads the list of hardwoods. - -As a veneer material, it is demanded in four times the quantity of any -other species. The veneer is nearly all rotary cut, and it goes into -cheap and expensive commodities, from berry crates to pianos. - -The wood weighs 36.83 pounds per cubic foot. It is straight-grained, the -medullary rays are numerous but not prominent, the pores diffuse but -small, and the summerwood forms only a narrow band, like a line. The -annual rings do not produce much figure, but wood has another kind of -figure, the kind that characterizes English and Circassian walnuts, -smoky, cloudy, shaded series of rings, independent of the growth rings. -They have no definite width or constant color, but the color is usually -deeper than the body of the wood. This figure is one of the most prized -properties of red gum. It is that which makes the wood the closest known -imitator of Circassian walnut. - -All red gum is not figured, and that which is figured may be worked in a -way to conceal or make little use of the figure. It shows best in rotary -cut veneer and tangentially sawed lumber. Various woods are imitated -with red gum. It is stained or painted to look like oak, cherry, -mahogany, and even maple. - -Some trees have thin sapwood, and others are all sapwood. This -peculiarity sometimes leads to misunderstandings in lumber transactions. -A buyer specifies red gum, expecting to get red heartwood, but the -seller delivers lumber cut from the red gum tree, though light colored -sapwood may predominate. Properly speaking, the name is applied to the -tree as a whole and does not refer to any particular color of wood in -the tree. The term "red" is said to have referred originally to the -color of autumn leaves, and not to the wood. - -The fruit of red gum is a bur, midway in appearance and size between the -sycamore ball and the chestnut bur. It hangs on the tree until late in -winter. The resin which exudes from wounds in the bark is of much -commercial importance and is shipped from New Orleans and Mexican ports. -Near the northern limit of the species' range the trees yield little -resin, but it is abundant farther south. In the southern states it is -used locally as chewing gum. It is known commercially as copalm balm. - - WITCH HAZEL (_Hamamelis virginiana_) is a cousin to red gum, but - there is small resemblance. It is known as winter bloom, snapping - hazel, and spotted alder. Its range extends from Nova Scotia to - Nebraska, Texas, and Florida. It reaches its largest size among the - southern Appalachian mountains where the extreme height is sometimes - forty feet, with a diameter of eighteen inches; but few people have - ever seen a witch hazel that large. It is usually fifteen or twenty - feet high and three or four inches in diameter. The wood is much - like that of red gum, being diffuse-porous with obscure medullary - rays, and a thin line of summerwood. It is of little commercial use; - in fact, no report has been found that a single foot of it has ever - been used for any purpose. Yet it is a most interesting little tree. - It blooms in the fall, sometimes as late as the middle of November. - Its rusty summer foliage turns yellow in autumn, and as the leaves - begin to fall, the tree bursts into delicately-scented golden - flowers, the most visible part of each consisting of four petals - which float out like streamers. At the same time that flowers are - scenting the air, the seeds are discharging. A full year is required - to ripen them; and when dry, cold weather comes, the contraction of - their envelopes shoots them with sufficient force to send them - fifteen or twenty feet. They depend on neither wings, birds, nor - squirrels to scatter them. The origin of the name witch hazel is - disputed; but the person who examines the open-topped button which - holds the black seeds, and notes the fantastic resemblance to a - weasen face, will feel satisfied that he can guess the origin of the - name. The tree's bark is used for medicine, in extracts and gargles. - -[Illustration] - - - - -BLACK GUM - -[Illustration: BLACK GUM] - - - - -BLACK GUM - -(_Nyssa Sylvatica_) - - -Black gum grows from the Kennebec river in Maine to Tampa bay, Florida; -westward to southern Ontario and southern Michigan; Southward through -Missouri, as far as the Brazos river in Texas. The names by which it is -known in different regions are black gum, sour gum, tupelo, pepperidge, -wild pear tree, gum, and yellow gum. - -The leaves of black gum are simple and alternate; not serrate. They are -attached by very short petioles, which are fuzzy when young; they are a -rich, brilliant green above and lighter below; rather thick, with -prominent midrib. As early as the latter part of August the leaves -commence to turn a gorgeous red. The flowers are greenish and -inconspicuous, growing in thick clusters, the staminate ones small and -plentiful, the pistillate ones larger. They bloom in April, May or June. -The fruit of black gum is a drupe about one and a half inches long; -inside of it is a rough, oval pit; the pulp is acrid until mellowed by -frost. - -The bad name given to black gum by early settlers of this country has -stayed with it, though the faults found with it then, should hold no -longer. The pioneers were nearly all clearers of farms. They went into -the woods with ax, maul, mattock, wedges and gluts, and made fields and -fenced them. The fencing was as important as the clearing, for the woods -were alive with hogs, cattle, and horses, and the crop was safe nowhere -except behind an eight-rail staked and ridered fence. The farmer mauled -the rails from timber which he cut in the clearing, and there it was -that he and black gum got acquainted. The oak, chestnut, walnut, cherry, -yellow poplar, and red cedar were split into rails and built into -fences; but black gum never made a fence rail. No combination of maul, -wedge, glut, determination, and elbow grease ever split a black gum log -within the borders of the American continent. An iron wedge, driven to -its head in the end of a rail cut, will not open a crack large enough to -insert the point of a pocket knife. In fact, it is as easy to split the -log crosswise as endwise. Consequently, the early farmers heaped their -anathemas and maranathas on black gum and passed it by. - -Nevertheless, the tree had its virtues even in the eyes of the -rail-splitters; for, though it was unwedgeable, it helped along the -fence rail industry in a very substantial way by furnishing the material -of which mauls were made. It drove the wedges and gluts which opened -other timbers. About the only maul that would beat out more rails than -one of black gum was that made of a chestnut oak knot. The oak beetle's -only advantage over gum was that it was harder and wore longer. So -involved and interlaced are the fibers of black gum, that they cross one -another not only at right angles, but at every conceivable angle. This -can be seen in examining very thin pieces with a magnifying glass. - -The wood is not hard, but is moderately strong, and stiff. It has been -compared with hickory, but it is so inferior in almost every essential -that no comparison is justified. - -Black gum weighs 39.61 pounds per cubic foot. It is very porous, but the -pores are too small to be seen by the naked eye, and are diffused -through the wood and form no distinct lines or groups. The summerwood is -a thin dark line, not prominent enough to clearly delimit the yearly -rings of growth. The medullary rays are numerous, but very thin. In -quarter-sawed wood they produce a luster, but the individual rays are -practically invisible. The wood is not durable in contact with the soil. - -The standing tree is apt to fall a victim to the agencies of decay. -Hollow trunks, mere shells, are not uncommon. The entire heartwood is -liable to fall away. The pioneers cut these hollow trees, and sawing -them in lengths of about two feet, made beehives of them. They called -them gums because they were cut from gum trees. Larger sizes, used in -place of barrels, were also called gums, but these were usually made -from sycamores. The black gum is not usually large. Individuals have -been measured that were five feet in diameter and more than a hundred in -height, but an average of sixty feet high and two in diameter is -probably too much, except in the southern Appalachian mountains where -the species attains its largest size. - -It is a tree which will always be easily recognized after it has been -seen and identified once. Its general outline, particularly when leaves -are off, is different from other trees associated with it. It might -possibly be mistaken for persimmon unless looked at closely; but there -are easily-recognized points of difference. Its branches are very small, -slender, and short. Its bark is rougher than that of any other gum, and -is much darker in color. It is the bark's color that gives the tree its -name. The leaves have smooth edges. In the fall they change to gorgeous -red, and one of their peculiarities is that half a leaf may be red while -the other half remains green. Toward the end of the season, the green -disappears. The dark blue drupes ripen in October. They do not seem to -be food for any living creature. - -Sawmills include black gum with tupelo in reporting lumber cut, and -generally call both of them gum without distinction. The woods are quite -different, and neither the standing tree nor the lumber of one need be -mistaken for the other. The range of black gum is much more extensive -than that of tupelo. Gum lumber cut north of the Ohio and Potomac rivers -may be safely classed as black gum, though a little of both red and -tupelo gum is found north of those streams. In the South, the species -cannot be separated by regions, for all the gums grow from Texas to -Virginia. The total annual output of black gum is not known, but some -operators estimate it at about 20,000,000 feet a year, or nearly -one-fourth as much as tupelo. - -The bulk of black gum lumber is used in the rough, for floors, -sheathing, frames, and scaffolds; but a considerable portion is further -manufactured. The amounts thus used annually have been ascertained for a -few states, and furnish a basis for estimates for the whole country: -Mississippi, 7,000 feet; Maryland, 85,000; Illinois, 120,000; Louisiana, -120,000; Missouri, 190,000; Texas, 360,000; Massachusetts, 475,000; -Alabama, 486,000. - -The uses are general, except that the wood is not employed where -attractive figure is required, for black gum is as plain as cottonwood. -It is not displeasing in its plainness, for the surface finishes nicely -with a soft gloss which, except that it lacks figure, suggests the sap -of red gum. It is specially useful in situations where noncleavability -is required. Black gum mallets for stone masons and woodworkers are in -the market. Mine rollers require a much larger amount. The entire 85,000 -feet reported in Maryland was made into such rollers. They furnish the -bearing for the rope that hauls the car up the incline out of the coal -pit. Its toughness qualifies it for wagon hubs, but it is sometimes -objected to because its softness causes the mortises to wear larger -where the spokes are inserted, and the wheel does not stand as well as -when the hubs are of good oak. Early farmers and lumbermen preferred -black gum for ox yokes, and some are still seen where oxen are used; but -many other woods are as strong and equally as serviceable for yokes. -Rollers of this wood for glass factories are common. It is made into -hatters' blocks where a wood is wanted which, when thoroughly seasoned, -will hold its shape. It is less popular for this purpose than yellow -poplar. One of the best places for black gum is in the manufacture of -bored water pipe. The wood's interlaced fiber prevents splitting under -the internal stress due to hydrostatic pressure. The shell of such pipes -can be thinner than with most woods. A drawback is found in the -non-durable qualities of black gum. However, the internal pressure of -water keeps the wood thoroughly saturated, and prolongs its life when -used as pipes. - -The makers of firearms employ black gum as gunstocks and pistol grips. -The wood is stained to make it darker. It is cut by the rotary process -into cheap veneer and is made into baskets and berry crates. Less -trouble with the veneer, on account of breaking, is experienced than -might be expected of a wood so cross-grained. It is sawed into thin -lumber for boxes for shipping coffee and other groceries. It is a -substitute for cottonwood and yellow poplar in the manufacture of -certain lines of woodenware, notably, ironing boards, rolling pins, -potato mashers, and chopping bowls. It is made into interior finish for -houses; and furniture manufacturers find many places where it is a -serviceable material. Musical instrument makers employ it, particularly -as trusses for pianos, and in frames of pipe organs. In Louisiana it is -converted into excelsior, and in Mississippi into broom handles, and -parts of agricultural implements, particularly hoppers and seedboxes. - -All gums are hard to season, and this one is no exception. It checks -badly, but the checks are usually very small. - -[Illustration] - - - - -TUPELO - -[Illustration: TUPELO] - - - - -TUPELO - -(_Nyssa Aquatica_) - - -Tupelo is said to be an Indian name. White men have applied it to three -species of gum, all of the same genus, namely, black gum (_Nyssa -sylvatica_), sour tupelo (_Nyssa ogeche_), and tupelo (_Nyssa -aquatica_). Probably, the name tupelo applies as well to one as to the -other, for it is said to refer to the drupe-like fruit; but custom -confines the name to the species now under consideration. It is largest -of the three species, most abundant, and most important. Sour gum is -heard in Arkansas and Missouri, swamp tupelo in South Carolina and -Louisiana, cotton gum in the two Carolinas and Florida, wild olive tree -in Louisiana, and olive tree in Mississippi. - -The range of tupelo extends from Virginia along the coast to Florida, -northward in the Mississippi valley to southern Illinois, and westward -to Arkansas and Texas. It prefers swamps and attains largest size in low -ground which is subject to frequent overflow. The tree will stand in -several feet of water the greater part of the year without injury. It is -closely associated with cypress, the planer tree, and other species -which grow in deep swamps. - -Tupelo has not figured much in tree literature outside the books of -botanists. Travelers and local writers have paid it little attention. It -has not been remarkable for anything in the past, and has escaped -observation to a large extent because it grows in swamps and along -bayous, remote from the usual routes of travel. Its flowers attracted no -attention, its fruit was worthless, and the early settlers did not put -themselves to trouble to procure the wood for any purpose. That was the -situation from the early settlement of the country where this species is -found up to a very recent period when economic conditions began to bring -tupelo into notice. - -It first attracted attention in the markets as a substitute for yellow -poplar. That was brought about by an attempt to pass it as poplar. The -growing scarcity of that wood in the region about Chesapeake bay led to -the trial of tupelo. It was sold as bay poplar, and the purchaser was -left to infer that it was poplar cut in the region tributary to -Chesapeake bay. Probably few buyers were deceived, but they found the -wood a fair substitute for the yellow poplar which they had been -purchasing in the Baltimore and Norfolk markets. It is known as bay -poplar yet in many localities. It goes to England as such. One of its -most important uses in that country is as casing for electric wire -fittings. It has, however, many other important uses in England and on -the continent. It is claimed that it may be stained to imitate -Circassian walnut in the manufacture of furniture. This is possible, but -most probably tupelo has been confused with red gum which is a -well-known substitute for Circassian walnut. - -Tupelo trees attain a height from seventy to a hundred feet, and a -diameter of two to four feet above the swelled base. The general -appearance of the bark suggests both yellow poplar and red gum. Trees -have a habit of forking near the tops. The leaves are five or seven -inches long, sometimes with smooth margins, and often with a few sharp -points. Flowers appear in March and April, and fruit ripens early in -Autumn. It is a dark purple, tough-skinned drupe, about an inch long. - -The wood weighs 32.37 pounds per cubic foot. It is soft, and has about -three-fourths the strength and little more than half the stiffness of -white oak. It is not well suited to places where strength and rigidity -are required. The fibers are interwoven, making the wood difficult to -split. The heart is brown, often nearly white; the sapwood is very -thick; and the annual rings are not clearly defined, because of the -similarity between the springwood and summerwood. The pores are small -but numerous, and are scattered evenly through the whole annual ring. -The wood of roots differs from that of the trunk more than is usual with -hardwoods. It is very light, and has been long employed in the South as -a substitute for cork as floats for fish nets. - -Tupelo is often logged with cypress. The two trees grow in close -association in deep swamps. The butt cuts of tupelo are so heavy that -they float deep, or even go to the bottom. It was formerly customary, -and still is to some extent, to girdle trees whose trunks were to be -floated to the mills. In the course of one season the standing trees dry -sufficiently for the logs to float. At other times, trees are cut green, -the logs are skidded and allowed to dry some months before they are -rafted or floated to the mills. The sapwood is liable to decay, even in -the brief period while the logs are on the skids. The wood may be -protected against decay to some extent by smearing the ends of the logs -with tar or some other substance which prevents the spores of -decay-producing fungus from entering. - -The seasoning of tupelo was formerly a problem exceedingly vexatious to -the lumberman. The wood is full of water, and warping was one of the -troubles which was constantly encountered. Finally experience gained the -mastery, and seasoning troubles are fewer now. Shrinkage of four or five -per cent is not unusual in passing lumber from the green to dry state. - -Tupelo is like hickory in one respect--factories use more wood than the -sawmills cut. The shops and manufacturing plants of ten states use as -much tupelo as is cut by all the sawmills in the United States. These -states are Alabama, Arkansas, Illinois, Louisiana, Maryland, Michigan, -Mississippi, Missouri, North Carolina, and Texas. The reason for factory -use exceeding the sawmill cut is that much reaches factories, in the -form of veneer, which does not pass through a sawmill. The lumber output -of most of the timber trees of this country is from one-third to -one-half greater than the factory use. The difference represents the -rough lumber used, and which never goes to a factory. - -Tupelo lately entered the general market, but the yearly demand now -exceeds 100,000,000 feet. Its uses range from boxes and cheap handles to -interior finish and material for musical instruments. It is particularly -liked for containers for berries and small fruits, on their way to -market. Its whiteness and clean appearance fit it for that use. - -Higher grades of shipping boxes are also made. Wholesale grocers order -largely of this wood for spice, coffee, and tea boxes. These commodities -are exacting in their requirements because their odor, which is often -regarded as the criterion of their value, must not be impaired. A wood -with an odor of its own is immediately ruled out. Cigar box makers use -tupelo, sometimes as thin lumber for the whole box, but usually as -backing over which to lay a thin veneer of Spanish cedar. Plug tobacco -boxes are also made of tupelo. - -In Illinois and Michigan tupelo is listed among woods manufactured into -pianos, organs, mandolins, and guitars. In Maryland they make scows and -barges of it. In Arkansas and Louisiana it is worked into excelsior and -slack cooperage stock. It is a favorite wood in Mississippi for pumplogs -and broom handles. Its leading reported use in Texas is for porch -columns. In Missouri it is manufactured into laundry appliances, such as -washboards, clothes racks, and ironing boards. In nearly all -manufacturing centers of the country it is made into furniture and -interior finish. It is frequently substituted for yellow poplar in -panels, not only in furniture and cabinet work, but in carriage bodies. - -The supply of tupelo in southern forests is fairly large, and will meet -demand for some years, but it is a tree of slow growth, and when present -stands are cut, a new supply will probably never come. - - SOUR TUPELO (_Nyssa ogeche_) appears to be the only member of the - gum group whose fruit is of any value to man, and it is not very - important. The large, dull red drupes ripen in July and August, and - sometimes hang on the trees until late fall, allowing ample time for - gathering them. They are very sour, for which reason the tree is - called sour gum. The fruit is put through a pickling process which - renders it palatable and it is not an infrequent article on southern - pantry shelves. The range of the tree is confined to the region near - the coast from the southern border of South Carolina, through the - Ogeechee river valley in Georgia, to northern and western Florida. - The botanical name refers to the river along whose course the trees - are most abundant. Local names are gopher plum, Ogeechee lime, and - wild lime. The tree is sixty or seventy feet high, one or two in - diameter, and is often divided in several stems. Its wood is - lightest of the gums, weighing only 28.75 pounds per cubic foot. It - is diffuse-porous, and the springwood is scarcely distinguishable - from the summerwood. The annual rings of growth are indistinct, and - the medullary rays are thin and inconspicuous. The wood is weak, - soft, tough, and white, and little difference is apparent between - heart and sapwood. The flowers are rich in honey and are valuable to - bee keepers. It appears that no reports exist of the use of this - wood for any purpose. It is not abundant anywhere. - - WATER GUM (_Nyssa biflora_) is a member of the gum group, and is of - small importance. Trees above thirty feet high are unusual, and the - trunk is of poor form, owing to its greatly enlarged base. This gum - is found on the margins of small ponds in the pine barrens from - North Carolina to the Gulf coast. The leaves turn purple and red in - the fall, and are then conspicuous objects. The fruit is a blue - drupe about a third of an inch long. The wood is light, tough, and - difficult to split. - -[Illustration] - - - - -BLACK WALNUT - -[Illustration: BLACK WALNUT] - - - - -BLACK WALNUT - -(_Juglans Nigra_) - - -This tree has few names. It is called walnut, black walnut, and -walnut-tree. The color of the wood and bark is responsible for the word -black in the name, though some people use the adjective to distinguish -the tree from butternut which is often known as white walnut. The -natural range of black walnut covers 600,000 or 700,000 square miles, -and it has been extended by planting. Its northern limit stretches from -New York to Minnesota, its southern from Florida to Texas. It is -difficult to say where the species found its highest development in the -primeval forests, for very large trees were reported in New York, among -the southern Appalachian mountains, in the Ohio valley, and beyond the -Mississippi in Arkansas, Oklahoma, Missouri, and Kansas. The wood cut in -Ohio and Indiana has been of greater commercial importance than that -from any other portion of its range, but that has been due, in part, to -the fact that it came into market before the best of the forest growth -had been destroyed in those states, and instead of burning it or mauling -it into rails, as eastern farmers did in early times, the farmers of the -Ohio valley sold their walnut. Early in the history of black walnut -lumbering, Indiana and Ohio came to the front as the most important -sources of supply, and they still hold that position, notwithstanding -the original forests of those states were supposed to be nearly -exhausted long ago. The states cutting most black walnut in 1910, in the -order named, were Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, -Missouri, West Virginia, Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Iowa. - -During the period from 1860 to 1880 black walnut was in much demand for -furniture, and the largest yearly cut was 125,000,000 feet. It was -during that period of twenty years that operators pushed into all of the -out-of-the-way places in search of the timber. Logs were hauled on -wagons long distances to bring them out of remote valleys and slopes -where no timber buyer had ever gone before. The walnut buyers made such -a thorough canvas of the country that it was generally supposed no -merchantable tree from Kansas to Virginia would escape. Many a dooryard -giant whose wide branches had shaded the family roof for generations, -fell before the ax of the contractor who was willing to pay fifty -dollars for a single trunk, though it might be twenty miles from the -nearest railroad or navigable stream. In spite of the thoroughness of -the search, many a walnut tree was spared. Logs have been going to -market ever since, and still they go. They will continue to go for -years, generations, and centuries; for walnut trees grow with rapidity. - -The trunk's value increases with age. The dark colored heartwood only is -merchantable, and young trees have little heartwood. The thick, white -sap constitutes most of the trunk until long after the tree has reached -small sawlog size. Then the transformation to the dark, valuable -heartwood goes on with fair rapidity, and the outer shell of sapwood -becomes thinner as the heart increases, and in time a trunk is produced -which is fit for good logs. Value comes only with age. The quarter or -half a century which has passed since the country was so diligently -ransacked for merchantable walnut, has been sufficient to develop many a -tree which was then rejected by the purchasers. Many a tree now a foot -in diameter had scarcely sprouted then. In a region of 700,000 square -miles, walnut trees do not need to grow very close together to produce a -yearly cut of 30,000,000 or 40,000,000 feet. - -Black walnut is valuable for its color, figure, and the fine polish it -takes. It is stronger than white oak, weight for weight, but it is eight -pounds lighter per cubic foot. The figure of the wood is due wholly to -the annual rings, as its medullary rays are invisible to the naked eye. -The wood is very porous, and the pores are diffused in all parts of the -annual rings, except in the thin, pencil-like mark representing the -outward boundary of the summerwood. When sapwood changes to heartwood, -some of the pores disappear, but those which remain are abundantly -sufficient to absorb any stains or fillers which the wood finisher may -wish to apply. - -The annual sawmill cut of black walnut in the United States is from -35,000,000 to 40,000,000 feet, but much goes to foreign countries in the -log, and a considerable quantity goes to veneer mills--about 2,500,000 -feet a year--and a quantity finds its way to various factories where it -is worked up without any statistical record being made of it. - -Black walnut is never used as rough lumber. It all goes to factories of -some kind to be converted into finished commodities. It is not possible -to say where it all goes, for statistics of manufacture are fragmentary -in this country. It may be of interest to know that demand for walnut by -factories in the following states was 11,641,137 feet in 1910: Alabama, -Arkansas, Illinois, Kentucky, Maryland, Massachusetts, Missouri, North -Carolina, and Texas. The wood served so many purposes that a list of -them would be monotonous. In Illinois the largest users are the sewing -machine and the musical instrument industries; in Michigan the makers of -automobiles and of musical instruments; in Kentucky the manufacturers of -coffins, furniture, and musical instruments; in Massachusetts, the -makers of furniture and of firearms. These uses probably afford a fairly -accurate index for the whole country. During the Civil war the largest -demand for walnut came from gunstock makers. Doubtless the largest use -from 1865 to 1885 was for furniture. - -Much of the best black walnut is exported. The logs are flattened on the -four sides to make them fit better in ships and cars, and also to be rid -of most of the sapwood which is valueless. The ends are painted with red -lead or some other substance to lessen liability to check. Sometimes -export walnut is sawed in thick planks. - -Large quantities of old-time walnut furniture have been resurrected in -recent years from granary and garret where it was stored long ago to -have it out of the way. Some of the old beds, lounges, cupboards, and -chairs were of heavy, solid walnut, the kind not made now. Some of it -has been furbished, re-upholstered, and set among the heirlooms; other -pieces have been sold to furniture makers who saw the solid wood in -veneers, and use it again. - -The search for old walnut did not stop with dragging antique furniture -from cubbyholes and attics, but two-inch lumber has been pulled from -floors of old barns, and mills. Many old fence rails were made into gun -stocks during the Civil war. Later, walnut stumps were pulled from field -and wayside, and went to veneer mills. Some finely figured wood comes -from stumps where roots and trunk join. - -An occasional walnut tree develops a large burl which is valued for its -figured wood. Sometimes the burl is the form of a door knob, with the -tree trunk growing through the center. The burl sometimes has a diameter -three or four times as great as the trunk. The origin of such burls is -supposed to be a mass of buds which fail to break through the bark. - -Black walnut has a compound leaf from one to two feet long, with from -fifteen to twenty-three leaflets, each about three inches long and an -inch or two wide. The nuts ripen in the fall, and are valuable. They are -borne chiefly by trees growing in open ground; forest trees do not bear -until old, and then only a few nuts. The walnuts which germinate are -usually those buried by squirrels, and forgotten. - -Within the past twenty or thirty years plantations have been made in -states of the Middle West. Many young planted trees have been cut for -fence posts, with disappointing results. It was known that old walnut is -durable, and it was supposed young trunks would be, when used for posts; -but young trees are nearly all sapwood which rots quickly. - -Forest grown walnut trees vary in size from a diameter of two feet and a -height of fifty, to a diameter of six or more and a height of 100 or -120. Trunks which grow in the shade are tall, clear, and symmetrical; -those in the open are shorter, with more taper. - - PALE-LEAF HICKORY (_Hicoria villosa_) is a small tree but large - enough to be useful wherever it exists in sufficient quantity. The - largest specimens attain a height of fifty feet and a diameter of - eighteen inches. The tree bears nuts when very small, and the kernel - is sweet. The bark of this hickory is rough but not shaggy. The - range extends from New Jersey to Florida and west to Missouri and - Texas. It is most abundant in the lower Appalachian ranges. The wood - possesses the common characteristics of the hickories, and it is cut - with them wherever it is found, but is seldom or never reported - separately in lumber operations. - - SMALL PIGNUT HICKORY (_Hicoria odorata_) is considered a species by - some botanists while others regard it as a variety. It is called - small pignut in Maryland, and occasionally little shagbark. This - last name refers to the roughness of the bark which resembles the - bark of elm. The range of the tree extends from Massachusetts to - Missouri and south to the Ohio and the Potomac rivers. The wood - differs little from that of pignut hickory, and the uses are the - same. No distinction is made between them at the shop and factory. - This tree is by some botanists believed to be a hybrid between - shagbark and pignut. It is sometimes called false shagbark. The nut - is edible. - -[Illustration] - - - - -BUTTERNUT - -[Illustration: BUTTERNUT] - - - - -BUTTERNUT - -(_Juglans Cinerea_) - - -This tree is known as butternut or as white walnut in all parts of its -range. Butternut is in reference to the oily kernel of the nuts, and -white walnut is the name given by those who would distinguish the tree -from black walnut. Persons acquainted with one of the species in its -native woods are usually sure to be acquainted with the other, for their -ranges are practically co-extensive, except that black walnut extends -farther southwest, butternut farther northeast. Butternut grows from New -Brunswick to South Dakota, from Delaware to Arkansas, and along the -Appalachian highlands to northern Georgia and Alabama. - -Butternut resembles black walnut in a good many ways and differs from it -in several. They are very closely related botanically--as closely as are -brothers in the same household. Black walnut is larger, stronger, better -known, and has always dominated and eclipsed the other in usefulness and -public esteem; yet butternut is a tree both useful and interesting. No -person acquainted with both would ever mistake one for the other, winter -or summer. Botanists tell how to distinguish butternut from black walnut -by noting minor differences. The person who is not a botanist needs no -such help. He knows them at sight, and there is no possibility of -mistaking them. - -Butternut in the forest may attain a height of eighty or 100 feet, and a -diameter of three, but few persons ever see a specimen of that size, and -never in open ground. In shade, the butternut does its best to get its -crown up to light and sunshine, but it is weak. It often gives up the -struggle and remains in the shade of trees which overtop it. In that -situation its crown is small, thin, and appears to rest lightly in the -form of a small bunch of yellowish-green leaves on the top of a tall, -spindling bole, which is seldom straight, but is made up of slight, -undulating curves. The pale, yellowish tinge of the bark suggests a -plant deprived of sunshine. - -When butternut grows in open ground where light falls upon its crown and -on all sides, it assumes a different form and presents another figure. -The trunk is nearly as short as that of an apple tree. It divides in -large branches and limbs, and these spread wide; leaves are healthy, yet -the crown of a butternut always looks thin compared with that of the -black walnut. Tests show that butternut wood, when thoroughly dry, is -somewhat stiffer than black walnut; but it is light and weak. It is -about two-thirds as heavy and two-thirds as strong as black walnut. The -growing tree betrays the wood's weakness. Large limbs snap in storms. -Trees become lopsided, and a symmetrical, well-proportioned butternut -crown is an exception. The broken branches leave openings for the -entrance of decay, and butternuts nearly always die of disease rather -than of old age. - -Leaves are compound, and from fifteen to thirty inches in length. Few -trees of this country have larger leaves. There are from eleven to -seventeen leaflets. They are hairy and sticky. Hands that handle them -are covered with mucilage-like substance. The nuts, which grow in -clusters of three or five, are of the same color as the leaves and -covered with the same sticky fuzz. The nuts are two inches or more in -length, and are borne abundantly when trees stand in open ground. Size -rather than age appears to determine the period when trees commence to -bear. Those of extra vigor produce when ten or twelve years old. The -nuts are salable in the market. They fall with the leaves, immediately -after the first sharp frost, and all come down together. A single day -frequently suffices to strip the last leaf from a tree, though some of -the nuts may hang a little longer. The kernels are very rich, when the -nuts are dry, and are apt to cloy the appetite; but they are improved by -freezing where they lie on the ground among the leaves; but they must be -used quickly after they thaw, or they will spoil. Nuts nearly full-grown -but not yet hard are made into pickles, but the fuzz must first be -washed off with hot water. - -Butternut bark has played a rather important role in the country's -affairs. Doctors in the Revolutionary war made much of their medicine of -the roots and bark of this tree. Drugs were unattainable, and physicians -were forced to betake themselves to the woods for substitutes, and their -pharmacopoeias were enriched by the butternut tree. Housewives dyed -cloth a brown color with this bark long before aniline dyes found their -way into this country. Whole companies of Confederate soldiers from the -mountain regions in the Civil war wore clothes dyed in decoctions of -butternut bark, and popularly known as "butternut jeans." - -The annual output of butternut lumber is placed at a little more than -1,000,000 feet a year. It is widely used, but in small amounts. In -Maryland it is made into ceiling and flooring; in North Carolina into -cabinet work, fixtures for stores and offices, and into furniture; in -Michigan its reported uses are boat finish, interior finish for houses, -molding, and screen frames. In Illinois it is used for all the purposes -listed above and also for church altars and car finish. These uses are -doubtless typical, and hold good in all parts of the country where any -use is made of butternut. - -The wood has figure similar to that of black walnut, but the color is -lighter. It is nearer brown than black. The pores are diffused through -the annual ring, but are more numerous and of larger size in the inner -than in the outer part. The springwood blends gradually with the wood of -the latter part of the season, without sharp distinction, but the ring -terminates in a black line which is the chief element of contrast in the -wood's figure. - -The future value of butternut will be less in the lumber than in the -nuts. The tendency in that direction is now apparent. When land is -cleared, the trees which would formerly have gone to the sawmill, are -now left to bear nuts. The averaged price paid by factories in North -Carolina for butternut is $40 a thousand feet. It is cheaper in the Lake -States. - - MEXICAN WALNUT (_Juglans rupestris_) will never amount to much as a - timber tree, though it is by no means useless. It is known by - several names, among them being western walnut, dwarf walnut, little - walnut, and California walnut. The last name is applied in Arizona - through a misunderstanding of the tree's identity. It is there - confused with the California walnut which is a different species. - The Mexican walnut's range extends from central Texas, through New - Mexico to Arizona, and southward into Mexico. It prefers the - limestone banks of streams in Texas where it is usually shrubby, - seldom attaining a height above thirty feet. It reaches its largest - size in canyons among the mountains of New Mexico and Arizona where - it reaches a height of sixty feet. Trunks are sometimes five feet in - diameter. The wood weighs 40.85 pounds per cubic foot, is dark in - color, but the tone is not as regular as that of black walnut; - neither is it as strong and stiff. It polishes well, and is said to - be durable in contact with the soil. It finds its way in small - amounts to local mills, shops, and factories where it is made into - various commodities. It is particularly liked for the lathe, and is - suited better for turnery than for any other purpose. It is made - into gavels, cups, spindles, parts of grills; and it is also worked - into picture frames, handles, and small pieces of furniture. It does - not appear that lumber sawed from this walnut ever gets into the - general market, but the whole output, which is small, is consumed - locally. Trees do not occur in pure stands and the whole supply - consists of isolated trees or small groups, with few trunks large - enough for sawlogs. The nuts are dwarfs. All are not the same size, - but none are as large as a hickory nut. Many that grow on the - diminutive trees along the water courses in western Texas are not as - large, husks and all, as a nutmeg, and the nut itself is about half - the size of a nutmeg, and not dissimilar in appearance. The kernels - of such a nut are too small to have any commercial value, but they - are rare morsels for the native Mexicans and Indians who pick them - by pocketfuls. Trees in the stony canyon of Devil's river, in Texas, - are in full bearing when so small that a man can stand on the ground - and pick walnuts from their highest branches. The Mexican walnut is - occasionally cultivated in the eastern part of the United States and - in Europe. It is hardy as far north as Massachusetts. - - CALIFORNIA WALNUT (_Juglans californica_) is a small tree confined - to California, and pretty close to the coast, though it grows in - Eldorado county. It is most abundant within twenty or thirty miles - of tidewater. In the southern part of the state it ascends to an - elevation of 4,000 feet. It prefers the banks of streams and the - bottoms of canyons where the soil is moist, but it will grow in dry - situations. Trees occur singly or in small groups. Their average - size is fifteen or twenty feet high, and eight or ten inches in - diameter; but trees occasionally are sixty feet high and eighteen - inches through. The leaves are small, measuring from six to nine - inches in length, with from nine to seventeen leaflets. Nuts are - about half the size of eastern black walnuts. The kernel is edible. - The wood is heavier than black walnut, and somewhat lighter in - color. Otherwise the two woods are much alike, except in strength - and stiffness. In these the California wood is inferior. It has not - been reported for any use, but it is suitable for a number of - purposes, provided logs of sufficient size could be had. The trunk, - in addition to being small, is usually short. The tree is intolerant - of shade, and is not often found in forests. It grows rapidly and - will attain a diameter of fifteen inches in twenty years or less; - but it apparently does not live long. Its principal usefulness in - California is as a shade tree, and as a stock in nurseries on which - to graft English walnut. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SHAGBARK HICKORY - -[Illustration: SHAGBARK HICKORY] - - - - -SHAGBARK HICKORY - -(_Hicoria Ovata_) - - -Twelve species of hickory grow in the United States, all east of the -Rocky Mountains. None grow anywhere else in the world, as far as known. -They were widely dispersed over the northern hemisphere in prehistoric -times. The records of geology, written by leaf prints in the rocks, tell -of forests of hickory in Europe, and even in Greenland, probably a -hundred thousand or more years ago, and certainly not in times that can -be called recent. No records there later than the ice age have been -found. This leads to the presumption that the sheet of ice which pushed -down from the North and covered the larger portions of Europe and North -America, overwhelmed the hickory forests, and all others, as far as the -southern limit of the ice's advance. - -In Europe the hickory was utterly destroyed, and it never returned after -the close of the reign of ice; but America was more fortunate. The ice -sheet pushed little farther in its southward course than the Ohio and -Missouri rivers, and forests south of there held their ground, and they -slowly worked their way back north as the ice withdrew. Hickory -recovered part but not all of its lost ground in America, for it is now -found no farther north than southern Canada, which is more than a -thousand miles from its old range in Greenland. - -The early settlers in New England and in the South at once came into -contact with hickory. It was one of the first woods named in this -country, and the name is of Indian origin, and is spelled in no fewer -than seventeen ways in early literature relating to the settlements. It -is probable that John Smith, a prominent man in early Virginia and New -England, was the first man who ever wrote the name. He spelled it as the -Indians pronounced it, "powcohiscora," and it has been trimmed down to -our word hickory. The Indian word was the name of a salad or soup made -of pounded hickory nuts and water, and was only indirectly applied to -the tree itself. - -The first settlers along the Atlantic coast nearly always called this -tree a walnut, and the name white walnut was common. They were -unacquainted with any similar nut-bearing tree in Europe, except the -walnut, and most people preferred applying a name with which they were -already familiar. Hickories and walnuts belong to the same family, and -have many points in common. - -Although there are twelve hickories in the United States, and in many -respects they are similar, all are not of equal value. Some are very -scarce, and the wood of others is not up to standard. From a commercial -standpoint, four surpass the others. These are shagbark (_Hicoria -ovata_), shellbark (_Hicoria laciniosa_), pignut (_Hicoria glabra_), and -mockernut (_Hicoria alba_). The wood of some of the others is as good, -but is scarce; and still others, particularly the pecans, are abundant -enough, but the wood is inferior. It is impossible in business to -separate the hickories. Lumbermen do not do it; manufacturers cannot do -it. In some regions one is more abundant than the others, and -consequently is used in larger quantities, but in some other region a -different species may predominate in the forest and in the factory. It -cannot be truthfully asserted that one hickory is always as good as -another, or even that a certain species in one region is as good as the -same species in another region. All parts of the same tree do not -produce wood of equal value. - -Along certain general lines, hickories have many properties in common. -The wood is ring-porous, that is, the inner edge of the yearly growth -ring has a row of large pores. Others are scattered toward the outer -part of the ring, generally decreasing in number and size outward. There -is no distinct division between spring and summerwood. The medullary -rays are thin and obscure. The unaided eye seldom notices them. The -sapwood is white in all species of hickory, and is usually very thick. -The heartwood is reddish. Common opinion has long held that sapwood is -tougher and more elastic than heartwood, and therefore to be preferred -for most purposes. Tests made a few years ago by the United States -Forest Service ran counter to the long-established opinion of users, by -showing that in most respects the redwood of the heart was as good as -the white sapwood. However, where resiliency is the chief requisite, as -in slender handles, many manufacturers still prefer sapwood. - -Hickory is very strong, probably the strongest wood in common use in -this country. The statement that one wood is stronger than all others is -hardly justified because averages of strength should be taken, and not -isolated instances. Satisfactory averages have not yet been worked out -for a large number of our woods; but, as far as existing figures may be -accepted, hickory is at the head of the list for strength, toughness, -and resiliency. Choice samples of certain woods may exceed the average -of hickory in some of these particulars. Sugar maple, hornbeam, and -locust occasionally show greater strength than hickory, but they lack in -toughness and resiliency--the very properties which give hickory its -chief value for many purposes. - -Considerable misunderstanding exists as to second growth hickory. Some -suppose it consists of trees of commercial size developed from sprouts -where old trees have been cut. That is not generally correct. When -small hickory trees are cut, the stumps often sprout, but hoop poles are -about the only commodity made from that kind of hickory. If sprouts are -left to grow large, the trees produced are generally defective. Good -hickory grows from the nut. The term "second growth" means little, -unless it is explained in each instance just what conditions are -included. In one sense, all young, vigorous trees are second growth, and -that is often the idea in the mind of the speaker. Some would restrict -it to trees which have come up in old fields or partial clearings, where -they have plenty of light, and have grown rapidly. Their trunks are -short, the wood is tough, and there is little red heartwood. The larger -a pine, oak, or poplar, provided it is sound, the better the wood; but -not so with hickory. Great age and large size add no desirable qualities -to this wood. - -Shagbark is largest of the true hickories. The pecans are not usually -regarded as true hickories from the wood-user's viewpoint. Some -shagbarks are 120 feet high and four feet in diameter, but the average -size is about seventy-five tall, two in diameter. There is confusion of -names among all the hickories, and shagbark is misnamed and over-named -as often as any of the others. Many persons do not know shagbark and -shellbark apart, though the ranges of the two species lie only partly in -the same territory. Shagbark is known as shellbark hickory, shagbark -hickory, shellbark, upland hickory, hickory, scaly bark hickory, white -walnut, walnut, white hickory, and red heart hickory. Most of the names -refer to the bark, which separates into thin strips, often a foot or -more long, and six inches or more wide; and this remains more or less -closely attached to the trunk by the middle, giving the shaggy -appearance to which the tree owes its common name. - -The leaf-buds are large and ovate, with yellowish-green and brown -scales. The leaves are compound and alternate; they have rough stalks -containing five or seven leaflets; they are sessile, tapering to a point -and having a rounded base. The lower pair of leaflets is markedly -different from the rest in shape; sharply serrate and thin; dark green -and glabrous above; lighter below. The flowers do not appear until the -leaves have fully matured. They grow in catkins; the staminate ones are -light green, slender, and grow in groups of three on long peduncles; the -pistillate ones grow in spikes of from two to five flowers. The fruit -grows within a dense, green husk, shiny and smooth on the outside, -opening in four parts. The nut is nearly white, four-angled, and -flattened at the sides. The kernel is sweet and of a strong flavor. - -This tree's range is not much short of 1,000,000 square miles, but it is -not equally abundant in all parts. It grows from southern Maine to -western Florida; is found in Minnesota and Nebraska, and southward -beyond the Mississippi. It is most common and of largest size on the -western slopes of the southern Appalachian mountains and in the basin of -the lower Ohio river. Its favorite habitat is on low hills, or near -streams and swamps, in rich and moderately well drained soil. - -The hickories have long tap roots, and they do best in soils which the -tap roots can penetrate, going down like a radish. The root system makes -most hickories difficult trees to transplant. Early in life they do a -large part of their growing under ground, and when that growth is -interrupted, as it must be in transplanting, the young tree seldom -recovers. Those who would grow hickories for timber, nuts, or as -ornaments, should plant the seed where the tree is expected to remain. -Most of the planting of hickory in the forest is done by squirrels which -bury nuts, with the apparent expectation of digging them up later. -Occasionally one is missed, and a young tree starts. - -The uses of this wood are typical of all the other hickories. Handles -and light vehicles consume most of it. The markets are in all parts of -this country, and in manufacturing centers in many foreign lands. - -[Illustration] - - - - -BITTERNUT HICKORY - -[Illustration: BITTERNUT HICKORY] - - - - -BITTERNUT HICKORY - -(_Hicoria Minima_) - - -The tannin in the thin shelled nuts which grow abundantly on this tree -gives the name bitternut. The name is truly descriptive. Gall itself -scarcely exceeds the intense bitterness of the kernel, when crushed -between the teeth. The sense of taste does not immediately detect the -bitterness in its full intensity. A little time seems to be necessary to -dissolve the astringent principal and distribute it to the nerves of -taste. When this has been accomplished, the bitterness remains a long -time, seeming to persist after the last vestige of the cause has been -removed. In that respect it may be likened to the resin of the incense -cedar of California which is among tastes what musk is among odors, -nearly everlasting. The bitterness of this hickory nut has much to do -with the perpetuation of the species. No wild or tame animal will eat -the fruit unless forced by famine. Consequently, the nuts are left to -grow, provided they can get themselves planted. That is not always easy, -for small quadrupeds which bury edible nuts for food, and then -occasionally forget them, show no interest whatever in the unpalatable -bitternut. It is left where it falls, unless running water, or some -other method of locomotion, transports it to another locality. This -happens with sufficient frequency to plant the nuts as widely as those -of any other hickory. It is believed that this is the most abundant of -the hickories. - -The tree bears names other than bitternut. It is called swamp hickory, -though that name is more applicable to a different species, the water -hickory. Pig hickory or pignut are names used in several states, but -without good reason. Hogs may sometimes eat the nuts, but never when -anything better can be found. Besides, pignut is the accepted name of -another species (_Hicoria glabra_). In Louisiana they call it the bitter -pecan tree. Bitter hickory is a common name in many localities. In New -Hampshire it is known as pig walnut, in Vermont as bitter walnut, and in -Texas as white hickory. The names are so many, and so often apply as -well to other hickories as to this, that the name alone is seldom a safe -guide to identification. It has two or three characters which will help -to pick it out from among others. Its leaves and bark bear considerable -resemblance to ash. The leaves are the smallest among the hickories, and -the bark is never shaggy. The small branches always carry yellow buds, -no matter what the season of the year. The compound leaves are from six -to ten inches long, and consist of from five to nine leaflets, always an -odd number. - -Bitternut hickory's range covers pretty generally the eastern part of -the United States. It is one of the largest and commonest hickories of -New England, and is likewise the common hickory of Kansas, Nebraska, and -Iowa. It grows from Maine through southern Canada to Minnesota, follows -down the western side of the Mississippi valley to Texas, and extends -into western Florida. - -Hickory is often lumbered in ways not common with other hardwoods. It is -not generally found in ordinary lumber yards, and is not cut into lumber -as most other woods are. It is in a class by itself. The person who -would consult statistics of lumber cut in the United States to ascertain -the quantity of hickory going to market, would utterly fail to obtain -the desired information. The statistics of lumber cut in the United -States for the year 1910 listed the total for hickory at 272,252,000 -feet, distributed among 33 states, and cut by 6,349 mills. Reports by -users of this wood in a number of states show that probably twice as -much goes to factories to be manufactured into finished commodities, as -all the sawmills cut. This means that much hickory goes to factories -without having passed through sawmills to be first converted into -lumber. It goes as bolts and billets, and as logs of various lengths. -Some sawmills in the hickory region cut dimension stock and sell it to -factories to be further worked up; but that is a comparatively small -part of the hickory that finds its way to factories of various kinds. -Many sawmills refuse to cut hickory, claiming that it does not pay them -to specialize on a scarce wood. Scattered trees occur among other -timber, but these are left when the other logging is done. Special -operators go after the hickory, and distribute it among various -industries which are in the market for it. That method often results in -much waste, because the man who is specializing in one commodity, such -as wagon poles, ax handles, sucker-rods, wheel stock, or the like, is -apt to cut out only what meets his requirements, and abandon the rest. -Some of the hickory camps where such stock is roughed out are spectacles -of carelessness and waste, with heaps of rejected hickory which, though -not meeting requirements for the special articles in view, are valuable -for many other things. Few woods contribute to the trash heap more in -proportion to the total cut than hickory; but the waste nearly all -occurs before the factories which finally work up the products are -reached. These factories are often hundreds of miles from the forests -where the hickory grows. - -Hickory was not a useful farm timber in early times, as oak and chestnut -were. It decayed quickly when exposed to weather, and was not suitable -for fence rails, posts, house logs, or general lumber. It was sometimes -used for barn floors, but when seasoned it was so hard to nail that it -was not well liked. The pioneers were not able to use this wood to -advantage, because it is a manufacturer's material, not a farmer's or a -villager's standby. It can be said to the credit of the pioneers, -however, that they knew its value for certain purposes, and employed as -much of it as they needed. - -Fuel was the most important place for hickory on the farm. All things -considered, it is probably the best firewood of the American forest. The -yawning fireplaces called for cords of wood every month of winter in the -northern states. Enough to make a modern buggy would go up the chimney -in a rich red blaze in an hour, and no one thought that it was waste; -and it was not waste then, because farms had to be cleared, and firewood -was the best use possible for the hickory at that time. Every cord -burned in the chimney was that much less to be rolled into logheaps and -consumed in the clearing for the new cornfield. - -Hickory has always been considered the best material for smoking meat. -More than 30,000 cords a year are now used that way. It was so used in -early times, when every farmer smoked and packed his own meat. Hickory -smoke was supposed to give bacon a flavor equalled by no other wood; and -in addition to that it was believed to keep the skippers out. - -The nuts were made into oil which was thought to be efficacious as a -liniment employed as a remedy against rheumatism to which pioneers were -susceptible because their moccasins were porous and their feet were -often wet. The oil was used also for illuminating purposes. It fed the -flame of a crude lamp. - -No other wood equalled hickory for "split brooms," the kind that swept -the cabins before broom corn was known or carpet sweepers and vacuum -cleaners were invented. The toughness, smoothness, and strength of -hickory made it the best oxbow wood, and the same property fitted it for -barrel hoops. Thousands of fish casks in New England and tobacco -hogsheads in Maryland and Virginia were hooped with hickory before -George Washington was born. The wood's value for ax handles was learned -early. The Indians used it for the long, slender handles of their stone -hammers with which they barked trees in their clearings, and broke the -skulls of enemies in war. - -Bitternut hickory has about ninety-two per cent of the strength of -shagbark, and seventy-three per cent of its stiffness. It yields -considerably more ash when burned, and is rated a little lower in fuel -value. - - MOCKER NUT HICKORY (_Hicoria alba_) has many names. It is called - mocker nut in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, - Delaware, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, - Illinois, Iowa, and Kansas; white heart hickory, Rhode Island, New - York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, North Carolina, Texas, Illinois, - Ontario, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, and Nebraska; black hickory, - Texas, Mississippi, Louisiana, Missouri; big bud and red hickory, - Florida; hardback hickory, Illinois; white hickory, Pennsylvania, - South Carolina; big hickory nut, West Virginia; hognut, Delaware. - The name mocker nut is supposed to refer to the thick shell and - disappointingly small kernel within. The range is not as extensive - as some of the other hickories. Beginning in southern Ontario, it - extends westward and southward to eastern Kansas and the eastern - half of Texas. The region of its most abundant growth is in the - basin of the lower Ohio and in Arkansas, the best specimens - appearing in fertile uplands. This is said to be the only hickory - that invades the southern maritime pinebelt, growing on the low - country along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts in abundance. The leaves - are fragrant with a powerful, resinous odor; they have five or seven - leaflets with hairy petioles or stems. The bark resembles that of - bitternut, and is not scaly like that of shagbark. The wood weighs - 51.21 pounds per cubic foot. It is hard, strong, tough, flexible. It - has about ninety-four per cent of the strength of shagbark, and - eighty per cent of its stiffness. Certain selected specimens of this - species are probably as strong as any hickory; but, as is the case - with all woods, there is great difference between specimens, and - general averages only are to be relied upon. G. W. Letterman, who - collected woods for Sargent's tests, procured a sample of this - hickory near Allenton, Missouri, which showed strength sufficient to - sustain 20,000 pounds per square inch, and its measure of stiffness - was the enormous figure of 2,208,000 pounds per square inch. - - The uses of mocker nut hickory do not differ from those of other - hickories. The tree is frequently nearly all sapwood, to which the - name white hickory is due. Some persons suppose that the heartwood - is white, but that misconception is due to the fact that some pretty - large trees have no heartwood, but are sap clear through. - - The term "black hickory" is sometimes applied to three species with - dark-colored bark which bears some resemblance to the bark of ash. - They are bitternut (_Hicoria minima_), pignut (_Hicoria glabra_), - and mocker nut (_Hicoria alba_). When the word black is thus used, - it refers to the bark and the general outward appearance of the - tree, and not to the wood, which is as white as that of any other - hickory. - -[Illustration] - - - - -PIGNUT HICKORY - -[Illustration: PIGNUT HICKORY] - - - - -PIGNUT HICKORY - -(_Hicoria Glabra_) - - -The name of this tree is unfortunate, although so far as the nuts are -concerned, no injustice is done. It is one of the best hickories in the -quality of its wood, and also as an ornamental tree. It is likewise -abundant in many parts of its range, which extends from Maine to Kansas, -Texas, Florida, and throughout most of the territory enclosed by the -boundary lines thus delimited. - -The name pignut is common in New England, New York, New Jersey, -Pennsylvania, Delaware, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, -Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, Kentucky, -Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, and -Minnesota; bitternut in Arkansas, Illinois, Iowa, and Wisconsin; black -hickory in Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, and -Indiana; broom hickory in Missouri; brown hickory in Mississippi, -Delaware, Texas, Tennessee, Minnesota; hardshell in West Virginia; red -hickory in Delaware; switch bud hickory in Alabama; and white hickory in -New Hampshire and Iowa. - -The nuts are generally bitter, but some trees bear fruit which is not -very offensive to the taste. The avidity with which swine feed upon it -gives the common name. This tree is doubtless confused many times with -bitternut, though their differences are enough to distinguish them -readily if they grow side by side. As far as the woods of the two -species are concerned, there is little occasion to keep them separate. -The pignut is a forked tree more frequently than any other species of -hickory; and the nuts vary in shape and size more than those of any -other. The tree is more remarkable for its variations than for its -regularity. In one thing, however, it is pretty constant: the limbs and -branches are smooth and clean, hence the botanical name _glabra_. As a -name for this tree, smooth hickory would be preferable to pignut. Trunks -attain a height of eighty or ninety feet and a diameter of three or -four, but the extreme sizes are rare. The largest specimens are found in -the lower Ohio valley, and the species is most common in Missouri and -Arkansas. It grows farther south and farther west than any other hickory -except pecan. Its southern limit is in Florida and its western in Texas. - -The uses of hickory fall into general classes. More is manufactured into -vehicles than into any other single class of commodities, but not more -than into all other articles combined. The second largest users of -hickory are the manufacturers of handles. The third largest demand comes -from makers of agricultural implements and farm tools. Large amounts -are required for athletic goods, meat smoking, and various miscellaneous -purposes. The total amount used yearly in this country, and exported to -foreign countries, is not accurately known, but it probably exceeds -500,000,000 feet, board measure. About half of this passes through -sawmills in the usual manner, and the other half goes directly from the -forest to the factory or to the consumer. - -The superiority of American buggies, sulkies, and other light vehicles -is due to the hickory in their construction. No other wood equals this -in combination of desirable physical properties. Though heavy, it is so -strong, tough, and resilient that small amounts suffice, and the weight -of the vehicle can be reduced to a lower point, without sacrificing -efficiency, than when any other wood is employed. It is preëminently a -wood for light vehicles. Oak, ash, maple, and elm answer well enough for -heavy wagons where strength is more essential than toughness and -elasticity. Hickory is suitable for practically all wooden parts of -light vehicles except the body. The slender spokes look like frail -dowels, and seem unable to maintain the load, but appearances are -deceptive. The bent rims are likewise very slender, but they last better -than steel. The shafts and poles with which carriages and carts are -equipped will stand severe strains and twists without starting a -splinter. The manufacturing of the stock is little less than a fine art. -In scarcely any other wood-using industry--probably excepting the making -of handles--is the grain so closely watched. Hickory users generally -speak of the annual growth rings as the grain. The grain must run -straight in spokes, rims, shafts, and poles. If the grain crosses the -stick, a break may occur by the simple process of splitting, and the -hickory in that case is no more dependable than many other woods. - -Handle makers observe the same rule, and must have straight grain. The -more slender the handle, the more strictly the rule must be followed. A -cross grained golf club handle would fail at the first stroke. An ax -handle, if it has cross grain, will last a little longer, but it will -speedily split. Many of the best slender handles are of split hickory. -The line of cleavage follows the grain, but a saw does not always do so. -Heavy handles, like those for picks and sledges, are not so strictly -straight grained, because they are made strong enough to stand much more -strain than is ever likely to be put on them. Red heartwood is -frequently used in handles of that kind. Peavey and canthook handles are -generally split from billets, because the grain must be straight. Though -they are among the largest and heaviest of handles, breakage must be -guarded against with extra care, for the snap of a peavey handle at a -critical moment might cost the operator his life by precipitating a -skidway of logs upon him. - -The hickory which goes into agricultural implements fills many places, -among the most important being connecting rods. It is often made into -springs to take up or check oscillation. It is used for that purpose as -picker sticks in textile mills. - -Furniture makers could get along without hickory, and they do not need -much. It is oftenest seen in dowels, slender spindles, and the rungs of -chairs. The makers of sporting and athletic goods bend it for rackets, -hoops, and rims, or make vaulting poles, bats, or trapezes. - -SHELLBARK HICKORY (_Hicoria laciniosa_) is often mistaken for shagbark. -The ranges of the two species coincide in part only. Shagbark grows -farther east, north and south than shellbark. The latter occupies an -island, as it were, inside the shagbark's range. Shellbark is found from -central New York and eastern Pennsylvania, westward to Kansas, and -southward to North Carolina and middle Tennessee. The species is at its -best in the lower Ohio valley and in Missouri. The largest trees are 120 -feet high and three in diameter, and are often free from branches half -or two-thirds of the length. The species prefers rich, deep bottom -lands, and does not suffer from occasional inundation from overflowing -rivers. The average tree is not quite as large as shagbark. The leaves -are larger than those of any other hickory, ranging in length from -fifteen to twenty-two inches. There are from five to nine leaflets, -usually seven. The upper ones are largest, and may be eight or nine -inches long and four or five wide. In the autumn the leaflets drop from -the petioles which adhere to the branches and furnish means of -identifying the tree in winter. The nuts including the hulls are as -large as small apples. When ripe, the hulls open and the nuts fall out; -but the hulls fall also. The nuts are as large as shagbark nuts, but the -two are seldom distinguished in market, though the shagbark's are a -little richer in flavor. The bark's roughness gives the tree its name. -Strips three or four feet long and five or six inches wide curl up at -the lower ends--sometimes at both ends--and adhere to the trunk several -years. The species has other names. It is known as big shellbark in -Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Kentucky, Missouri, Illinois, -and Kansas; bottom shellbark in Illinois; western shellbark or simply -shellbark in Rhode Island and Kentucky; thick shellbark in South -Carolina, Indiana, and Tennessee; kingnut in Tennessee. - -The wood weighs 50.53 pounds per cubic foot, and is very hard, strong, -tough, and flexible. The heartwood is dark brown, the sapwood nearly -white. This hickory usually has less sapwood in proportion to heart than -other members of the species; but the wood is not kept separate from the -others when it goes to market, and its uses are as extensive as the -other hickories'. It is believed by some foresters that shellbark -hickory is worth cultivating for its nuts, as it is a vigorous bearer; -but little planting has been done. East of the Alleghanies, particularly -in Virginia, some planting has been carried out on old plantations for -ornamental purposes. On account of its long taproot, the tree is -difficult to transplant, and the nuts should be planted where the trees -are expected to remain. - -[Illustration] - - - - -PECAN - -[Illustration: PECAN] - - - - -PECAN - -(_Hicoria Pecan_) - - -The name is pecan in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Alabama, -Mississippi, Texas, Arkansas, Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, and -Kansas; pecan nut and pecan tree in Louisiana. The name is of Indian -origin, and means walnut. The tree's natural range is smaller than the -present area in which the tree is found, for it has been extensively -planted in recent years. It is found as far north as Iowa, south to -Texas, and east to Alabama and Kentucky. The highest development of the -wild tree is in the lower Ohio valley. Forest trees were once found -there which were said to be six feet in diameter and 170 high. Specimens -that large would be hard to find now. - -The pecan is a hickory. As to wood, it is the poorest of the hickories, -and as to nuts it is the best. Its compound leaves are from twelve to -twenty inches long with from nine to seventeen leaflets. The latter are -from four to eight inches in length, and from one to three wide. The -first pairs on the petiole are smallest. The fruit grows in clusters of -from three to eleven, the number exceeding any other hickory. The nuts -are four-angled, and long for their width. - -The wood of pecan has disappointed those who have attempted to use it -like other hickories. It does not differ much from them in appearance, -but it falls low in mechanical tests. In strength, toughness, and -stiffness it is inferior to the poorest of the other hickories. It has -less than half the strength and half the stiffness of shagbark hickory. -It is a fairly good fuel, but is high in ash. - -The inferior quality of the wood has saved many a pecan tree from the -sawmill and the wagon shop. Fine trunks stand near public highways, -along river banks, and in fields, while all merchantable hickories of -other species have been sent to market. The uses of the wood are few. If -some of it goes to wagon shops or to factories where agricultural -vehicles are made, it is employed for parts which are not required to -endure strain or sustain sudden jars. - -Fortunately it is a tree with a value of another kind. It is the most -important nut tree of the United States at this time, and it promises to -remain so. The forest-grown pecans were an article of food for Indians -who once lived in the region, and though white settlers who succeeded -the Indians as occupants of the land, depended less upon forest fruits -than the red men had done, yet the pecan was often of supreme importance -in the early years of settlement. The nuts have constituted an article -of commerce ever since the region had markets. - -Nurserymen were not slow to recognize the value of the pecan tree for -planting purposes, and nursery grown stock has been on the market many -years. Extensive orchards have been planted in Texas, Louisiana, -Florida, and other southern states, and some of the earliest of these -orchards are now in bearing. However, by far the largest part of pecans -on the market is wild fruit from the forests. Many are shipped in from -Mexico, but most grow in the rich woods of southern states. They are -gathered like chestnuts in northern woods. The people who pick them sell -to local stores at low prices, often taking pay in merchandise. Buyers -collect the stock from country and village merchants, and put it on the -general market, often at three or four times the price paid to the -gatherers of the nuts. - -One of the most important matters connected with pecan is the large -number of horticultural varieties which have been produced by -cultivation and selection. More than seventy have been listed in nursery -catalogues and special reports. Some of the nuts are twice the size of -those of the forest, and shells have been reduced in thinness until some -of them are really thinner than they should be to stand the rough usage -which comes to them in reaching markets. - -Dealers occasionally polish pecans to impart the rich, brown color which -is supposed to give them the appearance of being fresh and of high -grade. The polishing is produced by friction, when the nuts in bulk are -shaken violently. Last year's stock takes on as bright a polish as fresh -stock, and the color and smoothness alone are not sufficient to prove -that pecans are fresh from the trees. - -The planted pecan tree grows rapidly and is as easily raised as fruit -trees. The wild tree is long-lived, and the cultivated varieties will -probably be like it. - - NUTMEG HICKORY (_Hicoria myristicæformis_) is so named because the - nut has the size and the wrinkled surface of a nutmeg, though the - shape is different. The husk enclosing the nut is almost as thin as - paper. The only other name by which it is known is bitter waternut, - in Louisiana. The name scarcely applies, for the kernel is said not - to be bitter. The range of nutmeg hickory extends from the coast of - South Carolina to Arkansas. It is rather abundant in Arkansas, but - scarce in most other parts of its range. The tree has several - interesting features. It was partly discovered a long time before - the discovery was complete. In 1802 Andre F. Michaux saw the nut and - to that extent the species was discovered, but many years passed - before a full description was given to the world by a competent - botanist. The wood rates among the strongest and stiffest of all the - hickories, according to present information; but the calculations - were based on too few tests to be considered final. Two samples of - wood procured near Bonneau's depot, South Carolina, by W. H. - Revenel, showed the remarkable breaking strength of 19,822 pounds - per square inch, and the measure of stiffness exceeded 2,000,000 - pounds to the square inch. That strength is sixteen per cent above - shagbark. The weight of nutmeg hickory is 46.96 pounds to the cubic - foot. The wood is hard, tough, and compact. The structure, including - pores, medullary rays, annual rings, springwood and summerwood, is - similar to the wood of other hickories. Trees grow best in sandy - soil but near swamps and rivers where there is plenty of water. The - largest trunks are eighty or one hundred feet in height and two in - diameter. When use is made of this hickory it serves the same - purposes as the wood of other trees of the group. It is never - reported separately in statistics of wood utilization. It is too - scarce to be important as a timber tree. It apparently has a future - as an ornament, though it has not yet been widely planted. It has - proved a success in the Carolinas and it thrives in the climate of - Washington, D. C. The luster of its foliage makes it the most - beautiful of the hickories. In common with other members of the - genus, its long taproot renders the transplanting of nursery stock - difficult. - - WATER HICKORY (_Hicoria aquatica_) is known as swamp hickory in - South Carolina, Florida, Mississippi, and Louisiana; bitter pecan in - Mississippi and Louisiana, and water bitternut in Tennessee and - South Carolina. The northern limit of this species is in Virginia - near Mobjack bay, the southern limit in the Caloosa valley, Florida, - west to the Brazos river, Texas, and north to southern Illinois. The - wood is hard, heavy, strong, but rather brittle; the sapwood is - thick and often is nearly white, while the heartwood is dark brown. - It is the most porous of the hickories, and the pores are - distributed generally through the annual rings of growth. In other - hickories they are largely restricted to the inner part of each - ring, though a few are dispersed through all parts. In swamp hickory - there is little difference in appearance between the wood grown - early in the season and that produced later. The tree is a rapid - grower. It is an inhabitant of deep swamps, and if the land is - inundated a considerable part of the year, the tree seems to grow - all the better. At its best it may attain a height of 100 feet, and - a diameter of two, but that size is unusual. The nut is small and - wrinkled, and when broken open, pockets of red bitter powder are - frequently found inside the shell. Usually the nuts are too bitter - to be eaten, but it is said that near the western limit of the - tree's range, nuts are sometimes edible. - - The only reported uses for the wood are fuel and fencing. It is poor - fence material, because, like other hickories, it decays in a short - time when exposed to weather. The wood of this genus is rich in - foods on which decay-producing fungi feed. Fungus is a low order of - plant life which sends its hair-like threads into the wood cells and - consumes the material found there; but numerous insects bore into - wood to procure food. Few woods suffer from such attacks more than - hickory. Even after it is seasoned and manufactured into - commodities, it is frequently attacked by various species of powder - post beetles, and much injury results. Water hickory while yet - standing is often greatly damaged by the larvæ of certain moths - which find their way into the soft wood just under the bark and - tunnel minute galleries which subsequently fill with brown - substance. According to R. B. Hough, these brown streaks in water - hickory are hard enough to turn the edge of steel tools. They not - only damage the structure of the wood but spoil its appearance. - - BITTER PECAN (_Hicoria texana_) is a Texas species which has not - been reported elsewhere. The average size of the tree is from - fifteen to twenty-five feet in height and eight to ten inches in - diameter; but in rich bottom land, particularly along the Brazos - river, specimens sometimes attain a diameter of three feet and a - height of 100. The leaves are from ten to twelve inches in length, - with from seven to eleven leaflets. The nuts are very bitter, but - are of approximately the same size and shape as edible pecans. The - shells are thin and very brittle. The tree's range extends inland - 100 or 150 miles from the Texas coast. - - NORTH CAROLINA SHAGBARK HICKORY (_Hicoria carolinæ-septentrionalis_) - is found in the neighboring parts of the four states: North - Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee, and Alabama. In the best land this - tree is occasionally eighty feet high and two or three in diameter, - but when it occurs on dry hillsides its average height is twenty or - thirty feet, and its diameter about a foot. The compound leaves are - from four to eight inches long, with usually three, but occasionally - five leaflets. The sweet nuts are small and brown. The bark - separates into thick strips a foot or more in length and three or - four inches wide. The rough trunk resembles the northern shagbark - hickory. The wood is very tough, strong, and hard, the heart light - reddish-brown, the thin sapwood nearly white. It is not - distinguished from the other hickories in commerce, and it has the - same uses when any use is made of it. - -[Illustration] - - - - -WHITE ELM - -[Illustration: WHITE ELM] - - - - -WHITE ELM - -(_Ulmus Americana_) - - -Six species of elm occur in the United States, not counting the planer -tree as an elm, though lumbermen usually consider it as such.[5] The -white elm is the most common, is distributed most widely, and is -commercially the most important. More of it is used as lumber, slack -cooperage, and other forms of forest products, than all other elms of -this country combined. The statistics of sawmill output collected -annually by the United States census are not compiled in a way to show -the elms separately. All go in as one. The annual lumber cut of elm in -the whole country is about 265,000,000 feet, distributed over -thirty-four states, with Wisconsin leading, followed in the order named -by Michigan, Indiana, Ohio, Missouri, Arkansas, New York, and Minnesota. -In addition to lumber, elm furnishes about 130,000,000 slack cooperage -staves yearly. - - [5] The elms are white elm (_Ulmus americana_), cork elm (_Ulmus - racemosa_), slippery elm (_Ulmus pubescens_), cedar elm (_Ulmus - crassifolia_), wing elm (_Ulmus alata_), and red elm (_Ulmus - serotina_). They are all confined to the region east of the Rocky - Mountains. - -The elms, taken as a class, are much alike. There is more resemblance -between the species than between species of oaks or pines, yet some -difference exists between elms. This holds not only between different -species, but between individuals of the same species. Climate, -situation, and soil have much to do with the character of the wood of -the same species. So great is the difference at times that fairly good -judges of timber are deceived as to the species. A tree growing on dry, -rocky soil produces wood quite different from one on rich, deep, -well-watered soil. Not only is the wood of one different from that of -the other, but the appearances of the standing trees are not alike. The -differences may not show in leaves, flowers, and fruit as much as in the -shapes and sizes of trees, and the habit of the branches. - -White elm is by common consent the type of the genus, the standard by -which the other species are measured. It is proper to compare certain -properties and characters of other elms with white elm, in order that a -general view of all may be had. The dry weights, per cubic foot, of wood -are as follows: White elm 40.54 pounds, slippery elm 43.35, cedar elm -45.15, cork elm 45.26, and wing elm 46.69. Figures which show the weight -of the southern red elm (_Ulmus serotina_) are not available. White elm -is thus shown to be lightest of the group. - -Its breaking strength averages 12,158 pounds per cubic inch, under the -usual tests by which the strength of woods is determined. Reduced to -everyday language that means that 12,158 pounds would just break a white -elm stick, 2-5/8 inches square, and resting on supports twelve inches -apart. That is the meaning of "breaking strength," or "modulus of -rupture," as the term is used in engineering text books relating to -woods. The following figures for the breaking strength of other elms -make comparisons with white elm easy: Cedar elm 11,000; wing elm 11,162; -slippery elm 12,342; cork elm (often called rock elm) 15,172. It is -shown that two elms are stronger and two weaker than white elm. This -wood rates very little below white oak in strength. - -The different species of elms vary considerably in stiffness, or the -ability to spring back when bent. This factor is expressed by engineers -in high figures, is purely technical, and is based on a wood's ability -to stretch and regain its former position. The only service which the -figures can render to the layman is to furnish a basis for comparing one -wood with another. The stiffer a wood, the greater its resistance to an -effort to stretch it lengthwise. White elm's measure of stiffness -(modulus of elasticity) is 1,070,000 pounds per square inch; wing elm -853,000; cedar elm 981,000; slippery elm 1,318,000; cork elm 1,512,000. -It is shown here, as was shown in the figures representing the strength -of the elms, that two species rate above and two below white elm in -stiffness. - -White elm is known by several names. The color of the bark is -responsible for the name gray elm among lumbermen and woodworkers of the -Lake States. American elm is a translation of its botanical name, and is -neither descriptive nor definitive, because there are other elms as -truly American as this one. White elm distinguishes its wood from the -redder wood of slippery elm, but it would often be difficult if not -impossible to identify the elms, or any one of them, by the color of the -wood alone. Some persons who call this elm white doubtless refer to the -color of the bark, as is the case with those who speak of it as gray -elm. It is known as water elm in several states, but that name is -applied indiscriminately to any elm that frequents river banks, as most -of them do in some part of their range. It is called rock elm when it is -found on stony uplands, and swamp elm on low wet ground. In some parts -of the Appalachian mountain ranges it is called astringent elm to -distinguish it from slippery elm. - -White elm surpasses the others in extent of range. Its northern boundary -stretches from Newfoundland, across Canada to the eastern base of the -Rocky Mountains, a distance of nearly 3,000 miles. It runs south through -the Atlantic states to Florida, a distance of 1,200 miles or more. Its -southwestern limit is in Texas. The area thus bounded is about -2,500,000 square miles. A few other trees have ranges as large, but none -much exceed it. It covers so much of America, and is so important in -many parts of its range, that it is clearly the leading elm in this -country. It is entitled to first place among elms for other reasons. - -It is not easy to give any sure features or characteristics by which the -layman may always distinguish this elm from others with which it is -associated; however, by carefully observing certain features, the -identity of white elm is generally easy to establish. - -The leaves have teeth along the margins like beech and birch. They have -straight primary veins running from the midrib to the points of the -teeth. Before falling in autumn the leaves turn yellow. The foliage is -not very thick, and most of it is near the ends of the limbs. The bloom -comes early in the spring, ahead of the leaves, and the seeds are ripe -and ready for flight before the leaves are grown. Sometimes the seeds -are ripe almost before the leaves are out of the buds. The seeds are -oblong, and about the size of a small lentil. The wing entirely -surrounds the seed, and is about half an inch long. The flight of elm -seeds is an interesting phenomenon. The individual seeds are so small -that they are not easily seen as they sail away from the tall tree top -but when they go in swarms, in fitful puffs of wind, they are not hard -to see. It is chiefly by their fruits that they are known, that is, by -the multitudes of seedlings that appear a few weeks later. If one -seedling elm in a thousand should reach maturity, there would be little -besides elms in the whole country. They spring up by highways and -hedges, in gutters, fields, and even between cobbles and bricks of paved -streets; but in a few days they have crowded one another to death, or -have perished from other causes, and those which manage to live to -maturity do not much more than make up for old trees which perish from -natural causes. - -The botanist Michaux pronounced the white elm "the most magnificent -vegetable of the temperate zone." A number of trees are larger, though -this reaches great size. Sargent sets the limit of the tree at 120 feet -high and eleven feet in trunk diameter. That size is, of course, -unusual, but it has been surpassed at least in height. A tree in -Jefferson county, Pennsylvania, was 140 feet high, and although forest -grown, it had a spread of crown of seventy-six feet. It was sent to the -sawmill where it made 8,820 feet of lumber. That trunk was only five -feet in diameter. - -Some of the finest forest grown elms in this country have been cut in -Michigan. Their trunks were as tall, straight, and shapely as yellow -poplars, and their crowns surpassed those of poplars. It was formerly -not unusual for sawlogs to be cut from elm limbs which branched from the -trunk fifty or more feet from the ground. The best of the forest grown -elm of this country has been cut; but it is still lumbered throughout -the whole eastern half of the United States. - -The finest elms of this country, and doubtless the finest in the world, -are the planted trees in some of the New England villages. The largest -of them have been growing for two hundred years, and in many instances -they still show the vigor of youth. Trunks six or seven feet through are -not uncommon, but the glory of the trees is not alone in the trunks. -Their spread and form of crown are magnificent. The largest are 150 feet -across, and some of the splendid branches, rising in parabolic curves, -are fully 100 feet long, from the junction with the tree to the tips of -the twigs. The most apt comparison for that form of elm is the spray of -a fountain. The upward jet of water corresponds to the trunk of the -tree; the upward, outward, and downward curves of the spray represent -the crown of the elm. Trees which take that form are grown in open -ground where sunlight and air reach every side. Forest grown trees are -less symmetrical, but even in dense woods, the elm frequently rises -clear above the canopy of other trees, and develops the fountain form of -crown. The new England street and park elms surpass those farther west -only because they are older. The splendid trunks and crowns are the work -of centuries. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CORK ELM - -[Illustration: CORK ELM] - - - - -CORK ELM - -(_Ulmus Racemosa_) - - -This tree is called cork elm in Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, -New York, New Jersey, Arkansas, Kentucky, Missouri, Wisconsin, Michigan, -Iowa, and Ohio; rock elm in Rhode Island, Kentucky, West Virginia, -Missouri, Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa, Michigan, Nebraska; hickory elm in -Missouri, Iowa, Illinois, and Indiana; white elm in Ontario; Thomas elm -in Tennessee; northern cork-barked elm in Tennessee; corkbark elm, New -York; northern cork elm, Vermont; wahoo, Ohio; cliff elm in Wisconsin. - -Cork elm is the natural name. It is a descriptive term which a stranger -would be apt to apply on seeing the tree for the first time. The bark of -the branches, after it has attained an age of three or four years, -becomes rough by the growth of ridges and protuberances. This feature is -sometimes so prominent that it at once attracts attention, particularly -when the branches are bare of leaves; hence the name cork elm. - -Lumbermen insist on naming the tree rock elm. They refer to the hardness -of the wood, or they may have in mind the dry, stony situations where -tough, strong elm grows. The latter is often the case, because the name -is applied also to slippery elm and white elm if they grow on stony -ground. A wide-spread opinion prevails that wood which grows among rocks -is harder, tougher, stronger, and more durable than that produced by -deep, fertile soil. It is possible to cite much evidence to support that -view, and the case might be considered proved, but for the fact that an -equal, or greater amount of evidence, in every way as trustworthy, may -be cited on the other side. The strongest hickory, ash, and oak do not -come from stony land. It sometimes happens that a species with tough, -strong wood, is found on rocks, but it is not tough because it is there, -but in spite of being there. - -The name cliff elm which this tree bears in Wisconsin is but another -form of the name rock elm, and clearly has reference to the situation -where the tree grows in that part of the country. Hickory elm, on the -other hand, a name applied to this tree much farther south, is a -recognition of the wood's toughness. - -In some particulars it does not fall much below hickory in toughness, -but is not as strong, elastic, or capable of as smooth polish. The -latter property is one of the recommendations of hickory when used for -handles. It is very smooth to the touch; cork elm is less so. In the -northern woods, elm ax handles are in use, and some axmen prefer them -to hickory. Such is probably the case when the best cork elm and a -medium or poor quality of hickory are in competition. - -The fibers of cork elm are interlaced, rendering the splitting of the -wood difficult. For uses in which that is a desirable property, it is -preferable to hickory. It is better for hubs for large wagons, and that -is a very important use for this elm. - -The wood of all the elms is ring-porous; that is, the springwood, or -inner part of the annual ring, consists of one or more rows of large -ducts. The summerwood contains pores in large numbers, but they are -small, and are usually arranged in short curved lines. The medullary -rays are not prominent in the wood of any of the elms, and -quarter-sawing adds no beauty to the lumber. The wood is practically -without figure, on account of either annual rings or medullary rays; but -it may be stained, polished, and made very attractive. That is done -oftener with white elm than with any other. - -The strength of cork elm created demand for it in boat building at an -early day. The tree is and always was scarce in the vicinity of the -Atlantic sea board, and the earliest boat builders seem not to have been -acquainted with the wood. It was most abundant in the forests of -Michigan, though it extended westward to Nebraska. It was plentiful in -the province of Ontario, and the timbers from that region acquainted -English shipbuilders with the merits of the wood. They sent contractors -into Michigan to buy cork elm, long before the other hardwoods of that -region had attracted the attention of the outside world. The most -convenient supplies of cork elm on the Lower Michigan peninsula thus -passed through Canada to ship yards on the other side of the sea. The -wood is reputed to be more durable than any of the other elms. - -It is generally understood that the country's supply of cork elm is -running short, but there are no statistics which show how much is left -or how much has been cut. It is doubtful if the original forests, -including the whole country, had one tree of cork elm to twenty of white -elm. The average size of cork elm is sixty feet high and two in -diameter. The trunks are well shaped, if forest grown. They develop -small crowns in proportion to the size of trunks; and the crowns are -less graceful than those of white elm--lacking the long, sweeping curves -of the latter. The general contour of the tree has been compared to -white oak. - -Cork elm grows well when planted on the Pacific coast, in environments -quite different from its native habitat. In the forest it increases in -size slowly; when planted it makes much better headway. It has a -disagreeable habit of sprouting which puts it out of favor as a park -tree. - -The wood of the different elms is largely used for manufacturing -purposes. They are sometimes kept separate, but generally not. The -particular place where cork elm is preferred is in the manufacture of -vehicles and boats, but it is by no means confined to those commodities. - -The state of Michigan alone sends 50,000,000 feet of elm a year to its -factories to be converted into articles of general utility. Furniture -makers take over 2,000,000 feet of it, though elm is not classed as a -furniture wood. In certain places it is superior to almost every other -wood. No matter how discolored it becomes by weathering and the -accumulation of foreign substances, a vigorous application of soap, -water, and a scrubbing brush will whiten it. It is liked in certain -parts of refrigerators which need constant scrubbing. Elm to the extent -of 8,000,000 feet goes into refrigerators in Michigan alone. - -The strength and toughness of elm make it suitable for frames of tables. -When thus used, it is generally out of sight, but not infrequently it is -made into table legs as well as frames. Statistics show that more than a -million feet are manufactured yearly into handles in Michigan alone. All -three of the northern elms--white, cork, and slippery--are listed in the -handle industry. - -Many millions of feet of elm are yearly converted into automobile -stock--3,000,000 in Michigan. Horse-drawn vehicles take more. The most -common place for it is the hub, but it serves also as shafts, poles, -reaches, and even as spokes for wagons of the largest size. - -The important place in the slack cooperage industry held by elm is well -known. It is a flour barrel wood, but is employed for barrels of many -other kinds. It stands high as veneer, not the kind of which the visible -parts of furniture are made, but the invisible interior, built up of -veneer sheets glued together. A similar kind of veneer forms the boxes -or frames of trunks--the part to be covered by metal, leather, or cloth. -The slats which strengthen the outside of trunks are frequently of elm. - -This wood is not in favor for one important purpose, hardwood -distillation. It has escaped pretty generally also from being employed -as a farm material, on account of its poor lasting qualities. Some -slippery elm was mauled into fence rails in the pioneer days of Ohio, -Indiana, and southern Michigan, but that was only because it was -plentiful and convenient. Cork elm probably never made a fence rail, -because it is so unwedgeable that no rail splitter would have anything -to do with it. At the best, it is but a temporary makeshift as fence -posts, but by applying creosote and other preservative treatments to -lessen decay, it measures up with most other post woods. - -The elms are not indispensable woods in this country, but their -exhaustion, should it ever come, will leave many places hard to fill. As -far as known, no woodlots of any species of elm have been planted in -this country, and there is little prospect that any will be planted, -because the slow growth of the trees discourages foresters. A century -or two is a long look ahead. - -However, the exhaustion of no species of the elms in this country need -be expected soon. The most apparent peril lies ahead of cork elm, -because it never was abundant, and demand, which has been large for a -long time, is still strong. The species is scattered over more than -200,000 square miles, and a long time must elapse before the last cork -elm finds its way to the sawmill. The situation of white elm is more -promising. It may be among the last trees of the American forests to -take its final departure. Its wide range and its bounteous seed crops -insure a supply, though not necessarily a large one, for a long time. -The greatest peril to elms, as well as to many other forest trees, is -that, when weakened by depletion, some disease will attack them and -destroy the remnants. Experience in New England and elsewhere has shown -that elm has no great resisting power when a strong attack is made upon -it. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SLIPPERY ELM - -[Illustration: SLIPPERY ELM] - - - - -SLIPPERY ELM - -(_Ulmus Pubescens_) - - -This tree is known as slippery elm in every state where it grows, thirty -or more; but in some localities it has other names also. It is doubtful -if any person who is acquainted with the tree would fail to recognize it -by the name slippery elm, though some who are acquainted with the lumber -only might not know it by that name. Those who call it red elm have in -mind the color of the heartwood which is of deeper red than the wood of -any other elm, or they may refer to the tawny pubescence on the young -shoots in winter. The botanical name describes that characteristic. - -In the North, the slippery elm is sometimes known as moose elm. It -furnishes forage in winter for the moose and other herbivorous animals -when ground plants are covered with snow. The moose is able to eat -branches as thick as a man's thumb. The principal food element in the -twigs is the mucilaginous inner bark. It is this which gives the tree -its name slippery elm. The value of the bark as a food has been -questioned. It is agreeable to the taste of both man and beast, but it -is claimed that a human being will starve to death on it, though it will -prolong life several days. The lower animals, however, seem able to -derive more benefit from eating the bark. An incident of the War of 1812 -appears to prove this. The army under General Harrison, operating in the -vicinity of Lake Erie, kept the horses of the expedition alive by -feeding them on slippery elm bark, stripped from the trees and chopped -in small bits. - -The inner bark has long been used for medicinal purposes. It is now -ground fine and is kept for sale in drug stores, but formerly it was a -household remedy which most families in the country provided and kept in -store along with catnip, mandrake, sage, dogwood blossoms, and other -rural remedies which were depended upon to rout diseases in the days -when physicians were few. The slippery elm bark was peeled from the tree -in long strips, the rough outer layers were shaved off, leaving the -mucilaginous inner layer. That was from an eighth to a quarter of an -inch thick. It was dried and put away for use. When needed it was -pounded to a pulp, moistened with water, and applied as a poultice, if -an external remedy was wanted. If a medicine was needed, a decoction was -drunk as tea. There is no question that the remedy often produced good -results when no doctor was within reach. A well-known medical writer -said three-quarters of a century ago that the slippery elm tree was -worth its weight in gold. - -The range of slippery elm extends from the lower St. Lawrence river -through Canada to North Dakota. It is found in Texas as far west as the -San Antonio river, and its western limit is generally from 200 to 300 -miles west of the Mississippi river. Its range extends south nearly to -the Gulf of Mexico. It is not this tree's habit to grow in thick stands, -but it occurs singly or in small groups on the banks of streams or on -rich hillsides. - -The average size is scarcely half that of white elm. Few trees exceed a -height of seventy feet and a diameter of two. It grows rapidly at first, -but does not live to old age. The crown lacks the symmetry and beauty so -conspicuous in white elm. The limbs follow no law of regularity, but -leave the trunk at haphazard. The fruit is mature before the leaves are -half grown. The seeds have more wing area than those of white elm; and, -like those of white elm, the wing surrounds the flat seed on all its -edges. The leaves are rough to the touch, and when crumpled in the hand, -the crunching sensation is unpleasant. - -Next to white elm, slippery elm appears to be more abundant than any -other member of the group; but statistics do not give the basis for -close estimates. The factories of Michigan use 3,700,000 feet of -slippery elm a year, and 44,000,000 of white elm. The proportion of -slippery to white is larger in the factories of Illinois. - -The uses are the same as for other elms. The wood is rated more durable -than the others, but it is not in much demand for outdoor work where -resistance to decay is an important consideration. It is sometimes set -for fence posts, but the results are scarcely satisfactory, particularly -for round posts which are largely sapwood. Posts sawed from the -heartwood of large trees would do better. The deeper red of the -heartwood gives it an advantage over the other elms for furniture and -finish where natural colors are shown; but this is not important because -no elm's natural color stands for much in the estimation of users of -fine woods. The more common use of slippery elm is for boxes and -cooperage. Next to red gum, it is employed in larger quantities for -cooperage in Illinois than any other wood. - -The supply is rapidly decreasing. The cut for lumber is the chief drain, -but a not inconsiderable one is the peeling of trees for bark. This goes -on all over the species' range and much of it is done by boys with -knives and hatchets. It is often hard to find slippery elms within miles -of a town, because all have succumbed to bark hunters. - - CEDAR ELM (_Ulmus crassifolia_) appears to bear this name because it - is often found associated with red cedars on the dry limestone hills - of Texas. There is little in the form and appearance of the tree to - suggest the tall, tapering conical crown of cedar. There is still - less in the wood. In some parts of Texas the species is called red - elm, on account of the color of the wood, while in Arkansas, which - is near the northern boundary of its range, it is locally known as - basket elm, because basket makers find desirable qualities in its - wood. It is a species of rather limited range, but it is abundant in - certain regions. It is found as far east as Sunflower river, - Mississippi, north into Arkansas, west to Pecos river, Texas, and - south into Mexico. It is confined to three states, this side the Rio - Grande. Trees on dry hills are inclined to be shrubby, but in damp - valleys where soil is fertile, specimens attain a height of eighty - feet and a diameter of three, but the average is not nearly so - large. The leaves are small but numerous. The flowering habits of - this elm are somewhat erratic. The usual time for bloom to appear is - August, and a month or six weeks afterwards the small seeds are - ready for flight; but occasionally, as if not satisfied with its - first effort, the tree blooms again in October, and ripens a second - crop late in the fall. The seeds are poorly supplied with wings, - which are reduced to narrow margins surrounding the seed. It does - not appear, however, that the species is in any way handicapped in - securing reproduction. The small shoots are equipped with flat, - corky keels, similar to but much smaller than those of the wing elm. - - This tree is important for the lumber it produces. It is the common - and most abundant elm of Texas, and it is found in a large part of - that state. The wood is the weakest of the elms, and is likewise - quite brittle; but in the region where it is most abundant it - compares favorably with any other. The best is cut from the largest - trees, which grow in valleys where moisture is abundant. The growth - found on the dry hills is of poor quality, and is worth little, even - for fuel. The highest development in Texas, and also the highest in - the species' range, is in the valleys of Trinity and Guadalupe - rivers. In Texas this wood is employed in furniture factories as - inside frames, to be covered by other woods, but it is not employed - as outside parts of furniture, unless in very cheap kinds. It is - suitable for drain boards and floors of refrigerators where it is - wet much of the time. Under such circumstances it is more easily - kept clean than most other woods. It whitens with repeated - scrubbings. One of its most common uses in Texas is for wagon hubs. - Some wheelwrights pronounce it next to the best native wood for that - purpose, the first place being accorded Osage orange. The tree is - often planted for shade along the streets of Texas towns, and - develops thick crowns and satisfactory forms. - - RED ELM (_Ulmus serotina_) is a lately discovered member of the elm - family. It so closely resembles the cork elm that it was supposed to - be of the same species, and the close scrutiny of a botanist was - required to discover that it was a separate species. Sargent - observed the flowers opening in September while those of cork elm - appear in early spring. The seeds ripen in November, while cork - elm's are ripe early in the summer. The tree was named red elm, the - wood being reddish-brown. That name is widely applied to slippery - elm, but it is improbable that much confusion will result. The red - elm's range is quite restricted and in that area the slippery elm is - not important. Red elm occurs on limestone hills and river banks - from central Kentucky to northern Georgia and Alabama. It attains a - height of fifty or sixty feet and a diameter of two or three. The - leaves are from two to four inches in length, and one or two wide, - with margins toothed like the other elms. The midrib is yellow, and - in the autumn the leaves change to an orange yellow before falling. - Branches which are two or three years old develop corky wings, two - or three in number. - - It is not known that mechanical tests of the wood have been made in - a regular way to determine its physical properties, but superficial - examination indicates that it is hard, tough, and strong, apparently - about the same as cork elm. Special lists of uses for this wood have - not been compiled for the reason that lumbermen and operators of - sawmills have never distinguished it from other elms of the region. - Since it has never been left standing in districts where other elms - are cut, it is evident that it has been regularly put to use for - vehicles, agricultural implements, boxes, crates, and slack - cooperage, because such articles have been manufactured in the - region. The red elm has been occasionally planted as a shade tree - along streets of towns in northern Georgia and Alabama. - -[Illustration] - - - - -PLANERTREE - -[Illustration: PLANERTREE] - - - - -PLANERTREE - -(_Planera Aquatica_) - - -This tree is a first cousin of the elms, but it is no more an elm than a -hackberry is an elm. It is a member of the family but is of a different -genus, and it is the sole representative of its genus in the known -world. There is only one kind of planertree, with no nearer relatives -than the elms on one side and hackberry, sugarberry, and palo blanco on -the other. Except those kinsfolk, it is alone on earth. The name is in -honor of Johann Jacob Planer, a German botanist whose efforts did much -for science nearly two hundred years ago. The name of the species -_aquatica_, recognizes the tree's habit of growing where water is -abundant. It is a swamp species, or rather, it prefers situations -subject to periodic overflow. It looks like an elm, and that has led -people to call it water elm. That is the name by which it is usually -known in Florida. In Alabama it is called the American planertree, which -is an unnecessary restriction, since there is no planertree except this -one. The Louisiana French gave it the name plene, and the abridgement of -its name is yet heard in that state. In North Carolina it has acquired -the name sycamore, but without good reason. It does not look in the -least like sycamore. - -It has the leaf of an elm, and it resembles that tree in bark, and -somewhat in general form. The layman detects the first important -difference when he examines the seeds. Those of the elms have wings, but -the planertree's are without those appendages, and they would be useless -if it had them, unless they were as large as the parachute of the -basswood seed. The planertree bears a sort of nut, a third of an inch -long, and too heavy to be transported far on the ordinary membranous -wings of tree seeds. Water is doubtless the principal agent in carrying -the seeds from place to place. Probably few of them are transported far, -because the water about the trees is generally stagnant; and, besides, -the species does not seem to be extending its range or increasing in -numbers. - -The planertree has a history. If the terms which the Roman historian -Tacitus applied to people, could be applied to trees, it might be said -of this species, as he said of certain tribes: "The cowards fly the -farthest and are the last survivors." The planertree is now found only -in certain southern swamps, from North Carolina to Florida, and west to -Missouri and Texas. In former periods, as is shown by the records of -geology, there were several species, and they had a wide range over -portions of the northern hemisphere. They appear to have been a strong -group of trees, able to hold their ground with the best inhabitants of -the forest. They were in the Rocky Mountains, and far north in Alaska. -They were in Europe also, or were represented there by some very similar -species. - -For some reason which is not definitely known, they lost out when -competition with other trees became keen, and in the course of long -periods of time they disappeared from their former ranges in the North -and West. They took to the swamps, just as the tribes of which Tacitus -spoke, took to the morasses when they could no longer face their enemies -on open ground. It was a far cry from Alaska to the Chattahoochee swamps -in Florida, yet that was where A. H. Curtis and Charles Mohr went to -procure typical planertree specimens for the tests which Sargent made of -American woods. - -It has been suggested that tree species which have lost out in -competition for ground, have been those which were at some decided -disadvantage in the matter of getting their seeds properly scattered and -planted. The case has not been proved, because there are as many facts -and as much argument against that hypothesis as for it. The bigtrees of -California are a noted example of a species which lost out and retreated -to a corner, yet their seeds fly like birds. Plainly, something besides -winged seeds is needed to keep the species in the fight. However, it is -not difficult to see that the planertree, with wingless seeds and of so -little use as food that no bird or rodent will carry them or bury them, -has been much handicapped in the long contest which has crowded it from -the arctic circle to the cotton belt. - -It has the habits of the subdued and conquered tree. It has adapted -itself to swamps where few species can grow, and where competition for -light and room is reduced to a minimum. Yet, even there, it is content -to take the leavings of more ambitious species. The crowns make little -effort to rise up to the light, for which many other trees battle during -their whole existence. The planertree's low, broad top of contorted -branches places it perpetually in the shade of any other trees which -overtop it. - -The wood of the planertree is lighter in weight, poorer in fuel value, -weaker, and more brittle than the poorest of the elms. The annual ring -lacks the rows of large open pores common in all the elms, but it has -many small pores scattered through the whole year's growth. It is not -easy to note a difference between the springwood and that which grows -later. The wood is soft, light brown in color, and the nearly white -sapwood is thick. It is often, perhaps generally, a tree of fairly rapid -growth, and since it does not reach large size, it is probably -short-lived, but exact information along that line is lacking. - -The tallest trees seldom exceed a height of forty feet and a diameter of -two. It is evident that a tree of that size and form does not tempt the -lumberman to much exertion to procure it. An examination of reports of -sawmill operations and of the utilization of woods by shops and -factories in the southern states has failed to find a single instance -where the planertree has been reported in use for any purpose whatever. -Doubtless, trees are sometimes cut and the lumber gets into the market, -but not under its own name. The species is interesting for reasons other -than that it ever has had or ever can have a place in the country's -lumber industry. - - WING ELM (_Ulmus alata_), which is the smallest of the elms, is - plentifully supplied with names, but in most parts of its range it - is known as wing or winged elm. It is also called wahoo or wahoo - elm, and the West Virginians have named it witch elm; the North - Carolinans refer to it often as simply elm; from Florida to Texas - some call it cork elm; in Alabama it is water elm; in Arkansas - mountain elm; while in other regions it is corky elm, small-leaf - elm, and red elm. Some of these names are self-explanatory. Wing elm - does not relate to a winged seed, but to winged twigs. That - characteristic of the tree is very prominent. The wings consist of - flattened keels along opposite sides of the branches. A twig no more - than a quarter of an inch in diameter may be decorated with wings - half an inch or more wide, making the twig four or five times as - wide as it is thick. As the twig enlarges, the wings do not broaden - in proportion. The lowest branches and those nearest the trunk are - most generously furnished with wings. They appear to be entirely - ornamental, for it is not known that they serve any useful purpose. - The growth is different from those which give cork elm its name. The - latter occur on the large branches, often in the form of isolated - protuberances, but the wings are fairly continuous for a foot or - more, except that they terminate abruptly at the nodes, but - recommence immediately after. Branches less than a year old seldom - have wings. The name wahoo appears to have lost its etymology if it - ever had any. Dictionaries tell what it means, but they shy at its - origin. It is a southern word which is applied to this elm, and also - to other trees, and occasionally it means a fish instead of a tree. - Some would trace it to the cry of an owl, others to a name in - Gulliver's Travels, with a slight change in spelling. - - Wing elm at its best is about fifty feet high and two in diameter; - but much of the stand is small. The best occurs west of the - Mississippi river. The range extends from Texas to Virginia, south - to Florida, and north to Illinois. In Texas it is a fairly important - wood in furniture factories, the annual supply being about a million - feet. It is used by turners for table legs. In an investigation of - the uses of the wood, the same difficulty is encountered that makes - difficult a study of the uses of all the elms--conflict and - uncertainty of names. There are few regions in the hardwood areas of - this country which produce one elm and no more; and after all - practical means of identification are resorted to, there is often - doubt and uncertainty concerning the exact species of elm lumber - found in use. Fortunately, it generally makes little difference, - because anyone of them is good enough for ordinary use. Wing elm is - extensively planted for shade along the streets of towns in the - lower Mississippi valley, but more frequently on the west side of - the valley. When the trees grow in the open they develop broad - crowns, and the branches, even of comparatively small trees, are - long enough to reach well over the sidewalks, and cast satisfactory - shade. The dark-colored winged twigs add much to the ornamental - value of the street trees. - - FREMONTIA (_Fremontodendron californicum_) is not botanically in the - elm family, but it is popularly known as slippery elm in the region - where it occurs, and for that reason it is here given place among - the elms. It is known also as leatherwood. It is a California - species, ranging among the lower mountains and higher foothills in - dry, gravelly soils, from the Mexican boundary five hundred miles - northward in the state. The mucilaginous inner bark tastes like that - of the true slippery elm. The shape of the leaf much more resembles - sycamore than elm; and it is an evergreen. It bears a bright yellow, - roselike flower, and the seeds are small, reddish-brown. The wood is - fine grained, clear reddish-brown, with thick, whitish sapwood. It - is very soft. The tree attains its largest size among the foothills - of the Sierra Nevada mountains, but even there it is too small to - have much economic value, seldom exceeding thirty feet in height and - a foot in diameter. Its most important use is as a forage plant for - cattle and sheep. In that particular it resembles slippery elm in - northern woods. The tree is occasionally planted in the eastern - states and in Europe for ornament. In its native range it grows - slowly. - -[Illustration] - - - - -HACKBERRY - -[Illustration: HACKBERRY] - - - - -HACKBERRY - -(_Celtis Occidentalis_) - - -Hackberry is a common name for this tree in nearly all parts of its -range, but it has other names. It is sometimes confused with sugarberry -(_Celtis mississippiensis_). They call it nettle tree in Rhode Island, -Massachusetts, Delaware, and Michigan, and in Tennessee it is known as -American nettle-tree. In Vermont it is hoop ash; in Rhode Island -one-berry; hack-tree in Minnesota, and juniper tree in New Jersey. - -The name hackberry is not of American origin. It dates far back in the -languages of western Europe and is believed to have the same origin as -the word haw, which, in its turn meant hedge. If that etymology is -correct, the word really means hedge berry, which is not an -inappropriate name for the tree. The name is sometimes applied to a -small bird cherry in Europe. The New Jersey name juniper-tree is in -recognition of the resemblance of the berries to those of red cedar or -red juniper. No reason has been assigned for the name nettle-tree. - -Its range covers about 2,000,000 square miles in the United States -besides part of Canada. It grows from the Atlantic on the coast of New -England to the tide water of the Pacific on Puget sound; in southern -Florida and in Texas. It is not found in pure stands, but often as -single trees far apart. This is the case in the northeastern part of the -United States in particular where probably not more than one tree might -be found in a whole county. Frequently the people in the neighborhood do -not know what the tree is, and suppose it is the last representative on -earth of some disappearing species. - -It is far from being a disappearing tree. Not only is it widely -dispersed over the United States, but related species are scattered -through many countries of the old world, from Denmark to India. There -are said to be between fifty and sixty species, only two of which are in -the United States. - -It has been claimed by scholars that the lotus referred to by ancient -writers was the hackberry. It was reputed to cause forgetfulness when -eaten, but the claim was fictitious, for the fruit does not produce that -effect. It is not now regarded as human food. Tennyson deals with the -fiction very beautifully in the poem "Lotus Eaters," but he took -liberties with botany when he represented fruit and flowers on the same -branch; for, though the berries hang several months, they drop before -the next season's flowers appear. - -The hackberry belongs to the elm family, being of the same relation as -the planertree. The leaves resemble those of the elm, but are more -sharply pointed. The fruit is usually classed as a berry. It ripens in -September and October, but remains on the tree several months, becoming -dry. It is about one-fourth inch long, dark purple, with a tough, thick -skin, and with flesh dark orange. Most of the pale brown seeds are eaten -by birds. - -The tree varies greatly in size. In some remote corners of its immense -range it is little more than a shrub, while at its best it may attain a -height of 100 feet and a diameter of three or four. Its average size is -about that of slippery elm. The bark varies as much in appearance as the -tree in size. Sometimes it has the smooth surface and pale bluish-green -appearance that suggest the bark of beech; again it is darker and -rougher, like the elm. It frequently exhibits the harsh warty bark which -is peculiar to the hackberry, and when present it is a pretty safe means -of identification. The warts may be conical, oblong, or sharp-pointed, -and probably an inch in height. When closely examined, most of them are -found to consist of parallel strata of bark which may usually be pulled -off without much difficulty. The warts are a decided disadvantage to the -tree in some of the low swampy districts of Louisiana where Spanish moss -is a pest. This moss (which is not a true moss), is propagated -principally by tufts and strands which are carried by wind until they -find anchorage among the branches of trees where they increase and -multiply at a rapid rate until they finally smother or break down the -unfortunate tree which supplied a lodging place. The hackberry's warts -catch and hold every flying strand of moss that touches them, and -hundreds, perhaps thousands of pounds of it may accumulate on a single -tree. The grayish-green color of the moss often exactly matches the hue -of the tree's bark. - -The reported annual cut of hackberry lumber in the United States is less -than 5,000,000 feet. That can be only a fraction of the total output. -Few mills report it separately, but list it as ash. The wood looks more -like ash than elm. It is heavy, but only moderately hard and strong. Its -color is more yellowish than ash, but the annual rings of growth -resemble that wood. The sapwood is thick, and growth is rapid where -conditions are favorable. - -It is doubtless used by industries in thirty states or more, but -comparatively few factories report it. In Texas it is listed in the box -and crate industry. In Louisiana it rises to more importance, for that -is the region where the tree attains its best. Slack coopers make kegs, -tubs, and barrels of it; vehicle manufacturers convert it into parts of -buggy tops and the running gears of wagons; it serves for furniture and -interior finish; and it takes the place of ash for hoe handles and parts -of agricultural implements. The uses are nearly the same in -Mississippi, but it is used there for rustic seats and other outdoor -furniture. In Missouri it is found suitable for cart axles, saddle -trees, stitching horse jaws, and wagon beds. In Arkansas it goes with -ash into flooring, and interior finish for houses. Illinois builders -work it into fixtures for stores. In Michigan it serves the same -purposes as in Texas, baskets, boxes, and crates. These examples -doubtless are representative of its uses wherever the tree is found in -commercial quantities. The wood is not durable in contact with the soil. -It is also liable to attack by boring insects if logs are allowed to -retain their bark. - -The hackberry has been planted to a small extent as a street tree in the -southern towns, but it is not as popular as the elms and oaks. It will -never occupy a more important position in the country's lumber industry -than it holds at present. It is a tree which, for some reason, inspires -little enthusiasm in anybody; but nature takes care of it fairly well, -and the small sweet drupes which it bears are a guarantee that the -species will not want for seed carriers as long as birds continue to -have access to its branches in winter. - -SUGARBERRY (_Celtis mississippiensis_) is frequently mistaken for -hackberry even by persons who ought to be able to distinguish them. -Botanists formerly confused the two, and probably some insist still that -sugarberry is only a variety of hackberry. The leaves generally have -smooth margins, and that would differentiate the tree from the hackberry -were it not that sometimes the sugarberry has serrate leaves. The drupes -are bright orange red and are usually smaller than the purple fruit of -hackberry. As for the wood of the two species, it is not easy to tell -one from the other. The sugarberry's range is not one-third as extensive -as hackberry's, but covers some hundreds of thousands of square miles in -the southeastern quarter of the United States. Its northern limit is in -Illinois and Indiana where it occupies rich bottom lands and the banks -of streams. It reaches its largest size in the lower Ohio river basin, -grows southward into Florida and west into Texas, Arkansas, and -Missouri. It crosses the Rio Grande into Mexico, appearing to outstrip -the hackberry in that direction. It outstrips it in another direction -also, for it is found in the Bermuda islands. The French of Louisiana -called it bois inconnu, or the unknown wood. - -This tree shows a marked tendency to run into varieties, and cultivation -would probably develop the tendency. The differences between the species -and the varieties are plain enough to the systematic botanist, but are -such that the lumberman or other ordinary observer would scarcely notice -them. The variety which has been named _Celtis mississippiensis -reticulata_, but without any English name except sugarberry, is a tree -forty or fifty feet high, covered with blue-gray bark, very rough. It -ranges from Dallas, Texas, to the Rio Grande and westward into New -Mexico, Arizona, and Utah, and into southern California and Lower -California. In eastern Texas it is found on dry limestone hills, but -westward only in mountain canyons in the vicinity of water. In the -southern part of Texas this tree is usually known as palo blanco, but -those who apply that name have no idea that it is a variety of -sugarberry but suppose it is a tree peculiar to their region. In Cameron -and Hidalgo counties, Texas, either because an extra good quality grows -there, or because some opinion exists in its favor, it is liked for -wagon material, and occasionally is turned for table legs and other -parts of furniture. It is quite common in that part of Texas as an -ornamental tree in yards and along streets of small towns. The whiteness -of the bark is the most striking feature. - -[Illustration] - - - - -WHITE ASH - -[Illustration: WHITE ASH] - - - - -WHITE ASH - -(_Fraxinus Americana_) - - -This tree is generally called white or gray ash, or simply ash. American -ash is a translation of its botanical name and is not often used in -business transactions in this country. In some parts of the South the -term cane ash is occasionally employed, but there seems to be no -agreement among those who use the name as to what it means. This is the -common ash in the lumber trade. There are more than a dozen species in -the United States, but white ash goes to market in larger amounts than -all others together. This is known in a general way, but exact figures -cannot be given, because statistics of the cut of different species of -ash are not kept separate. - -The range of this tree covers at least a million square miles, and all -or part of every state east of the Mississippi river and west of it from -Nebraska to Texas. It is reported cut for lumber in thirty states. The -various ashes are lumbered in thirty-nine states. Ash does not occur in -pure stands but is scattered in forests of other species, sometimes -growing in small clumps. It is difficult to name an average size for the -tree, because climate and soil control the growth over a large area -where conditions vary. Trees 120 feet high and six feet in diameter are -said to have stood in the primeval forests in the lower Ohio valley; but -logs four feet through are seldom seen now. Trees seventy or eighty feet -high and three in diameter are above the average in any region where -this tree is now lumbered. Some of the old planted trees of New England -are five or six feet through, and are finely proportioned, but growing -as they do in the open, they have larger crowns than are found in forest -trees. - -All species of ash have compound leaves, and those of white ash are from -eight to twelve inches long. The under sides of the leaflets are white, -and some persons have this fact in mind when they call the species white -ash, while others refer to the bark, and still others to the wood. It is -a characteristic of the tree that most of the leaves grow near the ends -of the limbs. For that reason the crown appears open when viewed from -below, and the larger limbs and branches are naked. The leaves demand -light, and they arrange themselves on the extremities of the limbs to -get it. When the tree is crowded, it sheds its lower limbs and its crown -rises rapidly until it reaches abundance of light. This produces long -trunks in forests. - -The boles are often not quite straight, but have several slight crooks, -yet keep close to a general perpendicular line. That form is due to a -peculiarity of growth. The leading shoot of a growing ash has more than -one terminal bud. If a side bud pushes ahead, the stem leans a little in -that direction; next, a bud on the other side may gain the ascendancy, -producing a slight lean for a few years in that direction; or two side -buds may develop simultaneously, causing a forked trunk. Mature trees -often carry the history of these peculiarities of growth. - -The seeds of white ash are equipped for moderate flight. The wing is -large, but the seed attached to the end of it is heavy enough to give it -a sharp tilt downward when it begins its flight through the air, and it -generally shoots at a steep angle toward the ground. It is not apt to -whirl through the air with a gliding motion like a maple seed. -Consequently, ash seeds are not great travelers. They are dispersed with -economy, however, for all do not come down at once, but many hang on the -tree for months, and a few go with every strong wind, thus getting -themselves scattered in every direction. Their power of germination is -low, and only about forty per cent of seeds are fertile. This is due to -the fact that pistillate and staminate flowers do not grow on the same -tree, and fertilization is imperfect. - -The importance of ash in the industries of the country does not depend -on the quantity but the quality of the wood. Although the various -species are produced in thirty-nine states, as shown by mill statistics, -the total yield is less than 250,000,000 feet a year. That is exceeded -by several woods, among them hickory, elm, beech, basswood, chestnut, -and even larch. - -The wood of ash which has grown rapidly is generally considered superior -to that of slow growth. The reason is found in the fact that trees of -slow growth do most of their growing early in the season, and the wood -is porous; but trees of rapid growth lay summerwood on abundantly, and -it is dense. Few species show a sharper line between spring and -summerwood than ash, for which reason the annual rings are clear-cut and -distinct. What figure ash has is produced by the growth rings, and not -by medullary rays. Quarter-sawing brings out no additional beauty. -Slight crooks in many logs produce a moderate cross grain in lumber, -which gives to finished ash its characteristic figure or grain. When -straight-grained wood is wanted, as when it is for tool handles and -oars, logs without crooks are selected. - -The wood of white ash is heavy, hard, strong, elastic, but rather -brittle. It lacks the toughness of hickory. The medullary rays are -numerous, but small and obscure. The color is brown, the sapwood much -lighter, often nearly white. It is not durable in contact with the soil. -Notwithstanding its name, the wood rates low in ash, and its fuel value -is under that of white oak. The states which produce the largest yearly -cut of this species are, ranging downward in the order named: Arkansas, -Ohio, Wisconsin, Kentucky, Indiana, Michigan, and Tennessee. - -The uses of white ash are so numerous that they can be presented only in -classes. It goes into almost every wood-using industry, but in different -sections of country certain uses lead. Thus in Illinois the makers of -butter tubs take more of it than any other industry; in Michigan -automobiles lead, and in Arkansas the handle factories are largest -buyers; in Louisiana boat oars consume most; in Alabama and Missouri car -construction is in the lead; in Texas boxes and crates; in North -Carolina wagons; in Kentucky handles; in Maryland musical instruments; -and in Massachusetts furniture. The utilization of ash in these states, -scattered over the eastern half of the United States, indicates fairly -well the wood's most important lines of usefulness. A considerable -quantity is made into flooring and interior finish. It is classed among -sanitary woods, that is, it does not stain or taint food products by -contact. - -The total quantity of merchantable white ash in the country is not -known, but there is still enough to meet demand, and the extent of the -tree's range makes supplies convenient in nearly all manufacturing -states. The species grows rather rapidly, and trees a hundred or a -hundred and fifty years old yield logs of good size. - -TEXAS ASH (_Fraxinus texensis_) has been regarded by some as a variety -of white ash, while others, including Sudworth and Sargent, consider it -a distinct species. It is often called mountain ash where it occurs -among the mountains of western Texas. Its range lies wholly in that -state, and extends from the vicinity of Dallas to the valley of Devil's -river. The compound leaves are smaller than those of white ash, and are -usually composed of five leaflets. The winged seeds ripen in May, and -are an inch or less in length. The largest trees are fifty feet high and -two or three in diameter; but generally the trees are much smaller. The -wood is strong, heavy, and hard. The annual rings are marked by one or -more rows of open ducts, and the medullary rays are inconspicuous. The -heartwood is light brown, the sapwood lighter. This ash is employed -within its range for various purposes, but it is not of sufficient -abundance to constitute an important commodity. In market it is not -distinguished from white ash. - -GREGG ASH (_Fraxinus greggii_) has some peculiarities which make it -worthy of mention as one of the minor species. Its range is in the dry -mountains of western Texas where a number of ashes seem to have put in -an appearance as members of the thinly-peopled vegetable kingdom of that -region. The compound leaves of Gregg ash are seldom three inches long, -and the leaflets are often half an inch long and less than a quarter of -an inch wide. The petioles are winged like the twigs of wing elm. The -undersides of the leaves have small black dots. The winged seeds are as -proportionately small as the leaves. The flowers have not been described -by botanists, for the species is not well known. The largest trees are -scarcely twenty-five feet high and eight inches in diameter. More -frequently they are shrubs from four to twelve feet tall. The wood is -heavy, hard, brown in color and of slow growth. - -DWARF ASH (_Fraxinus anomala_) might be mistaken for some other species -were its telltale winged seeds missing. It has lost the leaflets from -its compound leaf, and a single one remains. Occasionally, however, a -stem bearing three leaflets is found. The seeds are equipped with wide, -oblong wings. It is a desert species, and the desolate surroundings of -its habitat explain why nature has dispensed with as much foliage as -possible. It is found in southwestern Colorado, in southern Utah, and on -the western slopes of the Charleston mountains in southern Nevada. Trees -are small and the wood is not of much use for other than fuel, but a few -small ranch timbers are made of it where other kinds are scarce. Trunks -are usually not more than six or seven inches in diameter. The wood is -heavy, hard, and light brown in color. - - FRINGE ASH (_Fraxinus cuspidata_) has some difficulty in proving - that it is entitled to be called a tree in the United States, though - southward in Mexico its right to that title is unquestioned. It is - very small where its range extends over the dry ridges and rocky - slopes of southwestern Texas and southern New Mexico and Arizona. - Its compound leaves are five or seven inches long, and the leaflets - which number from three to seven have long, slender tips. The - trowel-shaped fruit is about one inch long. The wood resembles white - ash, but trunks of considerable size are not found. The name refers - to the flowers, and they give this small tree its value for - ornamental purposes. The flowers appear in April and are extremely - fragrant. - -[Illustration] - - - - -BLACK ASH - -[Illustration: BLACK ASH] - - - - -BLACK ASH - -(_Fraxinus Nigra_) - - -When George Washington was a surveyor locating land on the upper waters -of the Potomac river, and westward on the Kanawha and Ohio rivers, he -always spoke of this ash as "hoop tree" when he marked it with two or -with three "hacks," depending upon whether it designated a "corner" or a -"line," or a "pointer" in the system of surveying then in use. Trees -were used then as landmarks, and were duly recorded in the surveyor's -field notes, and were described in the deeds when the title to the land -passed from one party to another. It was not unusual, if subsequent -litigation came up, to cut blocks from marked trees to prove that such a -corner was at such a place. The "hacks" or ax marks, were sometimes -healed over and invisible at the bark, but were found deep in the wood. -The rings of growth covering the ax marks afforded an admissible record -of the years that had passed since the survey was made. The selection of -the black ash as a landmark was one of the few instances in which -Washington showed poor judgment; because it is a tree of short life, and -might be expected to die before a great many years. - -The name hoop ash is applied to this tree yet. It has always been good -material for barrel hoops, because it splits into thin pieces, and is -sufficiently tough. It is known as basket ash for the same reason. The -New England Indians were making fish baskets of it when the first white -people landed on those shores, and settlers speedily learned the art -from the children of the wilderness. Those untutored savages knew little -of wood technology, but they were able to take advantage of a -peculiarity in the structure of black ash wood, which the white man's -microscope has revealed to him. The Indians doubtless discovered it -accidentally. The springwood in the annual ring of black ash is made up -of large pores, crowded so closely together that there is really very -little actual wood substance there. In other words, the springwood is -chiefly air spaces. The result is, that billets of black ash are easily -separated into thin strips, the cleavage following the weak lines of -springwood. A little beating and bending causes the annual rings to fall -apart. In some way the Indians found that out, and utilized their -knowledge in manufacturing baskets in which to carry fish, acorns, -hickory nuts, and other forest and water commodities. - -The white people extended the scope of application to include chairs and -other furniture in which splits are manipulated. It is worthy of note -that Indians made a similar discovery with northern white cedar or -arborvitæ, which separates into thin pieces by beating and bending. -Barrel makers took advantage of the splitting properties of black ash to -make hoops of it, hence the name hoop ash, or hoop tree as Washington -called it. The name basket ash has a similar origin. - -The names swamp ash and water ash refer to situations in which the tree -grows best. It is one of the thirstiest inhabitants of the forest. Its -aggressive roots ramify through the soil and drink up the moisture so -voraciously that if water is not abundant, neighboring trees and plants -may find their roots robbed, and the functions of healthy growth will be -interfered with. This has led to a general belief that black ash poisons -trees that it touches. It simply robs their roots. Carolina and Lombardy -poplars will sometimes do the same thing. - -The name black ash by which this tree is now known in most regions where -it grows refers to the color of the large, prominent, shiny, blue-black -buds in late winter and early spring; to the very dark green leaves in -summer--which at a distance resemble the foliage of post oak--and, to -some extent, to the dark brown color of the heartwood, though the wood -is not always a safe means of identification if judged from superficial -appearance only. The form of the tree assists in identifying it; for it -is the slimmest of the ashes, in proportion to its height. Trunks three -feet through are heard of, but few persons have ever seen one much over -twenty inches, and many are about done growing when they are one foot in -diameter. Yet the trunks of such are very tall, perhaps seventy or -eighty feet. Their appearance has been likened to tall, slender columns -of dark gray granite. They often stand so straight that a plummet line -will not reveal a deviation from the perpendicular. - -The tree has been called elder-leaved ash. The form of the foliage has -something to do with that name, but the odor more. Crush the leaves, and -they smell like elder. The compound leaves are from twelve to sixteen -inches long; the leaflets range from seven to eleven in number, and the -side leaflets have no stalks. The leaves appear late in spring, and they -fall early in autumn. They drop with the butternut leaves, and like -them, all at once. The seed is winged, and the wing forms a margin -entirely round the seed. - -The wood of black ash is rather soft, moderately heavy, tough, but only -moderately strong, not durable in contact with the soil, dark brown in -color with sapwood whiter. The species ranges farther north than any -other ash, and grows in cold swamps and on the low banks of streams and -lakes from Newfoundland to Winnipeg, and southward to Virginia, southern -Illinois, southern Missouri, and Arkansas. - -Black ash fills many important places in the country's wood-using -industries, but the total quantity is not large. In 1910 Michigan -manufacturers reported the annual quantity in that state at 9,110,432 -feet, and in Illinois the total was 9,936,000 feet. The uses for the -wood in Michigan may be regarded as typical of the whole country. The -reported uses were, auto seats, baskets, boat finish, butter tubs, candy -pails, carriage seats, crating, church pews, fish nets, office fixtures, -flooring, furniture, ice chests, interior finish, jelly buckets, kitchen -cabinets, lard tubs, piano frames, putty kegs, racked hoops, spice kegs, -tin plate boxes, veneer, washboards, and woven splint boxes. - -Black ash burls are characteristic excrescences on the trunk. They begin -as small lumps or knobs under the bark, and never cease growing while -the tree lives. They may reach the dimensions of wash tubs, but most do -not exceed the size of a gallon measure. The grain of the wood is -exceedingly distorted and involved. The burls are sliced or sawed in -veneers which are much prized by cabinet makers. Early New Englanders -made bowls of them, which seldom checked or split during generations of -service. The burls are believed to be due to adventitious buds; that is, -buds which originate deep in the wood, but are never able to force their -way through the bark. The internal structure of the ash burl indicates -that the buried bud grows, branches, and sends shoots in various -directions, but all of them are hopelessly enmeshed in the wood -substance, and never are able to free themselves and burst through the -bark. A constantly enlarging excrescence is the result. - -BLUE ASH (_Fraxinus quadrangulata_) is named from a blue dye procured -from the inner bark. The botanical name relates to the square shape of -the young twigs, particularly the twigs of young trees, and was given by -A. F. Michaux who found the species growing in the South. It reaches its -best development on the lower Wabash river in Indiana and Illinois and -on the Big Smoky mountains in Tennessee. Its northern limit reaches -southern Michigan, its western is in Missouri. It is not abundant, if -found at all, east of the Appalachian mountains. Trees may reach a -height of 100 feet and a diameter of three, but about seventy is the -average height, with a diameter of two feet or less. The leaves resemble -those of black ash in form, but the foliage when seen in mass is -yellow-green instead of dark green like that of black ash. The seeds -look like those of black ash. The tree bears perfect flowers, and in -that respect differs from most other species of ash. - -The wood is heavier than that of any other member of the ash group, -except Texas ash. It weighs about the same as white oak, which is six -pounds per cubic foot more than white ash weighs. In general appearance -the wood resembles white ash, but it is usually considered stronger and -more springy. The trunks of young trees are largely or entirely sapwood. -Sometimes no heartwood is formed until an age of seventy or eighty -years is reached. Many manufacturers of ash tool handles prefer this -species to any other ash, because of its thick, white sapwood. It is -often made into handles for hoes, rakes, shovels, pitchforks, spades, -and snaths for scythes. Makers of vehicles draw liberally upon this wood -within its range, as do furniture makers and the manufacturers of -flooring. It is regarded as harder than white ash, and consequently -better flooring material. - - LEATHERLEAF ASH (_Fraxinus velutina_) changes its velvety leaves to - a leathery condition, hence the conflict in the meanings of its two - names. _Velutina_ means velvet-like. The compound leaves are seldom - six inches long, often not three, and they are made up of from three - to nine leaflets. The small seeds are equipped with wings. The tree - is small and would be without any commercial importance except that - it grows in an arid region where any wood is welcome. It is made - into ax, hammer, and pick handles, and wagon makers are often glad - to get it. It is found among the mountains and canyons of western - Texas, in New Mexico, Arizona, southern Nevada, and southeastern - California, near the shores of Owen's lake. The largest trees are - scarcely forty feet high and eight inches in diameter. The wood is - not hard or strong, and is of slow growth. The largest trunks are - apt to be hollow. Sapwood is comparatively thick. - - BERLANDIER ASH (_Fraxinus berlandieriana_) may not be entitled to a - place among native species, of the United States. Some suppose it - was introduced from Mexico by early Spanish settlers in western - Texas. It now grows wild there along Nueces and Blanco rivers where - specimens thirty feet high and a foot in diameter are found. - Southward in Mexico it is a popular street tree, and trunks reach - six or eight feet in diameter. The wood is soft and is used only - locally and in very small quantities. - -[Illustration] - - - - -OREGON ASH - -[Illustration: OREGON ASH] - - - - -OREGON ASH - -(_Fraxinus Oregona_) - - -This tree is unusual in that it has only one common name, and that is a -translation of its botanical name which was given it by Nuttall who -visited the Pacific coast several years before the discovery of gold. - -The moist bottom lands of southwestern Oregon are best suited to its -growth, and here the best individuals and most abundant stands are -found. Moist soil and climate are essential to proper development of -this tree, and in such environment it is found from Puget Sound -southward along the coast to San Francisco. A little further from the -coast it grows along the foothills of the Sierra Nevada mountains, to -the low mountains in San Diego and San Bernardino counties, California, -in the southern extension of its range occupying a rather dry region. - -The trunk grows to a height of eighty or 100 feet, and is often three -feet in diameter. It is covered with a gray-brown bark, exfoliating in -flaky scales. The leaves are from five to fourteen inches long, and have -five or seven firm, light-green leaflets, finely toothed and bluntly -pointed. The flowers appear in April and May and are in compact -panicles; the fruit in clusters, broadly winged and round pointed, and -from one to two inches long. - -The scarcity of good hardwoods on the Pacific coast gives this ash more -importance than it otherwise would have, and the importance which it -possesses has been frequently overstated. It is not abundant of form and -size fitting it for lumber. It has long been cut in small quantities, -but never in large. The census returns for 1910 show that less than -400,000 feet per year are reported in its entire range. Three-fourths of -this is sawed in Oregon, the remainder in Washington. Though the species -has a range of 800 miles north and south through California, no sawmill -reported a foot of it. However, it is probable that census returns fail -to do this wood full justice; for it is well known that considerable -quantities are manufactured into articles without passing through -sawmills. Chief among such commodities is slack cooperage. Butter tubs -of Oregon ash are common. Much goes to wagon shops, and some of it -without aid of sawmills. - -Little or none of this wood is shipped outside its range, and its use is -local. Boat builders work it into finish for cabins and upper parts, and -some serves as ribs. It is often seen as handles for picks, shovels, -spades, pitchforks, and rakes. A little finds place, combined with other -woods, in office and store fixtures. Its grain resembles that of white -ash. It is not as heavy, and it is not believed to be as strong. It is -hard, brittle, brown in color, with thick, lighter-colored sapwood. -Furniture makers list it as shop material, and such is its largest -reported use in Washington. A moderate amount is made into saddletrees -and stirrups, and much is used as fuel. - -Oregon ash has been planted for shade and ornament in both this country -and Europe. It grows rapidly and develops a symmetrical crown. The habit -it has of coming into leaf late in the spring and throwing its foliage -down early in autumn is held by some as a serious objection to it as an -ornamental tree; but it has compensating habits. It is remarkably free -from disease, and, though leaves come late and go early, while its -foliage is on, it is healthy and vigorous. Reproduction is satisfactory -in the tree's wild state, and there is no danger that the species will -disappear. No movement has yet been made to plant this ash for -commercial timber growing. - -GREEN ASH (_Fraxinus lanceolata_) has been given that name on account of -the bright color of its foliage. It has other names, however, which -indicate that its greenness is not always preëminently prominent. In -Iowa and Arkansas they call it blue ash; in Kansas and Nebraska white -ash; in some regions it is known as water ash, and elsewhere swamp ash. -Some botanists do not regard it as a separate species but call it a -variety of red ash, but the consensus of opinion is that it is a -distinct species, though there appear to be connecting forms grading -from red ash into green ash. Certain it is that the two are distinct -enough in certain parts of the country. The range of green ash is more -extensive than that of any other ash in this country. Beginning in -Vermont it passes southward to Florida; northwestward to the -Saskatchewan river several hundred miles north of the international -boundary line; along the base of the Rocky Mountains and over the ranges -to Arizona, and through Texas. This includes more than half of the area -of the United States. Notwithstanding a range so extensive, the total -quantity of green ash timber in the country is not large. No pure -forests or extensive stands exist. Trees are widely dispersed, and when -lumbermen cut them, the wood is sold as some other, usually as white -ash. The wood has the general characters of red ash. It weighs about -forty-four pounds per cubic foot of dry wood; is moderately strong, -fairly stiff and elastic, and, like other species of ash, it is not -durable in contact with the soil. - -Green ash is more planted than any other in the cold and dry regions of -the West and Northwest. It is a prairie tree and is found along highways -and in door yards from Kansas northward into British America. It stands -drought better than any other ash, and resists cold fully as well, and -yet it endures the warm weather and the rains of the South and -flourishes there. It is not a large tree, but of sufficient size for use -as furniture, finish, and vehicle making. It is seldom listed in -statistics of woods which go to sawmills, yet it is known that a good -many logs find their way to mills, while wagon makers and slack coopers -employ it in producing their commodities. The tree is an abundant -seeder, and the seeds continue to fall during most of the winter. - - RED ASH (_Fraxinus pennsylvanica_) is neither a large tree nor very - abundant, yet it has a wide range and is put to use wherever - lumbermen find it convenient. The lumber generally passes in the - market as white ash, and for most purposes it is as good, but is - rated lower than that wood in elasticity. It is called brown ash in - Maine, black ash in New Jersey, river ash in Rhode Island. The last - name is bestowed because the tree prefers moist land near rivers and - ponds, and largest specimens are found in such situations, where it - is often an associate of black ash and is frequently mistaken for - it, though it should not be difficult to tell the species apart. A - slight reddish tinge sometimes shows on the outer bark; the inner - layer of bark is reddish; the small twigs and the under sides of - leaves are clothed with hairs which sometimes suggest redness; and - the heartwood is reddish-brown. Persons who speak of the tree as red - ash probably have one or more of those characteristics in mind. As a - tree it has no striking peculiarities. Its usual height is forty or - sixty feet; its diameter from fifteen to twenty inches; its compound - leaves ten or twelve inches long, with seven or nine leaflets; its - seeds one or two inches in length, narrow, and sharply pointed, with - slender, graceful wing. - - The range of red ash is from New Brunswick to Dakota, and from - Florida to Alabama, with all of the included region of a million - square miles. It attains its best development in the north Atlantic - states, while it is usually inferior west of the Alleghany - mountains. It develops a broad crown in open ground, but even there - its lower limbs die and drop, while in forests the trunk grows tall - and the crown is reduced. It is planted for shade and ornament, but - it seems to have no superiority over white ash for that purpose. - Some of the Michigan manufacturers list red ash separately in their - factories, and apparently this is not done elsewhere in the country. - About three-quarters of a million feet a year are used in that - state, and since uses there are doubtless typical of uses in the - country generally, the list possesses importance: Automobile frames, - boxes, butter tubs, crates, eveners, flooring, furniture, interior - finish, neck yokes, singletrees, wagon poles. Farther east in early - times red ash was occasionally split for fence rails, but that use - is important now only as history. - - PUMPKIN ASH (_Fraxinus profunda_) is a tree of peculiar interest. It - was unknown before 1893, though the region had been settled over a - hundred years. It has the largest leaves, largest fruit, and largest - swelled base of all American ashes. Notwithstanding that, it - remained so deeply hidden in swamps that it escaped discovery. The - botanical name refers to the deep swamps in which the tree chooses - its habitation. Its great, swelled base enables it to stand on the - soft mud of lagoon bottoms, and the abnormal swelling is ribbed like - a pumpkin, hence the only English name the tree has ever had. These - are not the only remarkable things connected with this ash. Its - range includes three or four deep swamps, far apart. One is in - southern Missouri, New Madrid country, another near Varney, - Arkansas, and a third, in a vast morass on the Apalachicola river, - Florida. It is believed to have been originally a Florida species, - and by some freak of nature it reached the Missouri and Arkansas - swamps. Certain other Florida plants accompanied it, one of which - was corkwood (_Leitneria floridana_). It is expected that pumpkin - ash will be found elsewhere in deep swamps intermediate between the - extremes of its range. The uses of this wood are few, because it is - scarce, and the trees are difficult of access on account of being - nearly always surrounded by water. Lumbermen who operate in swamps - occasionally bring out a few ash logs with cypress and tupelo. No - tests seem to have been made of the wood. Trees are sometimes 120 - feet high and three in diameter above the swelled bases. - - WATER ASH (_Fraxinus caroliniana_) is much lighter in weight than - any other American ash, and the wood is also lighter in color. It is - weaker and less elastic than any other, and is lower in fuel value. - It weighs less than white pine. It grows in deep swamps from - southern Virginia to Florida and westward in swamps to Texas. Some - have confused it with pumpkin ash, but the two are quite distinct. - This tree is also called poppy ash. The leaves are from seven to - twelve inches long, with five or seven leaflets which are much - blunter than most other ash leaves. The seeds are nearly in the - center of the broad, long wing, and are better flyers than most ash - seeds. The tree seldom exceeds forty feet in height, or twelve - inches in diameter. It is not known that the wood is ever used. Its - scarcity will keep it from becoming important, though its uncommon - lightness may lead to its employment for certain purposes. - - BILTMORE ASH (_Fraxinus biltmoreana_) is named from Biltmore, N. C., - where the tree attains its best development, a height of forty or - fifty feet and a foot or less in diameter. Its range extends from - northern West Virginia southward along the foothills of the - Appalachian mountains to Georgia, Alabama, and middle Tennessee. The - seed wings are slender, and only slightly narrowed at the end. The - leaf is ten or twelve inches long, with seven or nine leaflets. The - twigs of young trees are hairy. An occasional log doubtless goes to - sawmills, but no report has been made of uses of the wood. - - FLORIDA ASH (_Fraxinus floridana_) is a deep swamp tree, thirty or - forty feet high, and a few inches in diameter. It is found in the - valley of St. Mary's river, southern Georgia, and along the lower - Apalachicola river, Florida. The compound leaves are five or more - inches long with three or five leaflets. The seeds are small but - their wings are wide and long. No report has been made concerning - the quality of the wood, nor has it been used, as far as known. The - supply is very small. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SUGAR MAPLE - -[Illustration: SUGAR MAPLE] - - - - -SUGAR MAPLE - -(_Acer Saccharum_) - - -The makers of sugar in the North call this tree sugar maple, but -lumbermen and users of wood nearly always speak of it as hard maple. All -maples--and there are nearly a dozen--are tolerably hard, and sugar may -be obtained from most of them; but this species is hardest of all, and -the most prolific sugar maker, hence the two names are appropriate. It -is often called rock maple, which name refers to its hard wood. In some -regions the name most heard is sugar tree. - -Its range extends from Newfoundland through Canada to Lake of the Woods, -southward through Minnesota, Iowa, Kansas, and Arkansas to Texas. It is -found in every state east of the Mississippi, but it is not abundant in -the South. Its best development is found from New England across the -northern states to Michigan. Some very fine sugar maple is found in -fertile valleys and on slopes among the Appalachian ranges from -Pennsylvania southward. The largest lumber cut of maple is in the -following states, ranging in the order given: Michigan, Wisconsin, -Pennsylvania, West Virginia, New York, Ohio, Indiana, and Vermont. Since -the different species of maple are not reported separately in -statistics, there is no way of determining how much each of the maples -supplies. It is well known that sugar maple greatly exceeds all others. - -At its best this tree may exceed a height of 100 feet and a diameter of -three; but the average for mature timber in the best part of its range -is sixty or eighty feet in height, and two in diameter. The flowers -appear with the leaves in early spring, but the seeds do not ripen until -autumn, when they are bright red. They are winged, and usually two grow -together, but they sometimes become detached, in which case each is -capable of flight with its single wing. It is characteristic of maple -seeds to whirl rapidly while falling, and if a moderate wind is blowing, -they glide considerable distances. They usually fly farther than the -seeds of ash although their wings are no larger. The immense numbers of -seeds borne by the sugar maple insure abundant reproduction in the -vicinity of parent trees. The seeds sprout readily, but often so closely -crowded together that most of them die the first few weeks. Not one in -ten thousand can even become a large tree, and yet large trees are -exceedingly abundant in extensive regions. They often form nearly pure -stands, crowding to death all rivals that try to obtain a foothold. On -the other hand, this maple often contents itself with a place among -other forest trees. - -It is one of the most vigorous and dependable of trees. It does not grow -fast, but it keeps steadily at it a long time, and enjoys unusually good -health. Its worst enemy is coal smoke, but fortunately, most sugar maple -forests are out of reach of that disturber, though shade trees near -factory towns and in the vicinity of coke ovens often suffer. Woodlots -of sugar maple, occupying corners of farms in the northern states from -Minnesota to Maine, present pictures of health, vigor, cleanliness, and -beauty which no forest tree surpasses. The intense green and the density -of the crowns in summer make the trees conspicuous in any landscape -where they occur, while their brilliant colors in autumn are the chief -glory of the forest where they abound. - -The wood of this tree is hard, strong, and dense. It is three pounds -lighter per cubic foot than white oak, and theoretically it rates a -little lower in fuel value, but those who use both woods as fuel -consider maple worth more. It is thirty per cent stronger than white -oak, and fifty-three per cent stiffer. The wood is diffuse-porous, that -is, the pores are not arranged in bands or rows, as they usually are in -oaks, but are scattered in all parts. They are too small to be seen with -the naked eye, but under a magnifying glass they are visible in large -numbers. The yearly ring is not very distinct, because of the slight -contrast between spring and summerwood. The medullary rays are numerous -but small. In wood sawed along radial lines, from heart to sap, small -silvery flecks are numerous. These are the medullary rays. They add -something to the appearance of quarter-sawed maple, but not enough to -induce mills to turn out much of it. - -Such figures as maple has are brought out best in tangential -sawing--that is, cut like a slab off the side of the log. Three distinct -figures are recognized in sugar maple, and to some extent they belong to -other maples. These forms of wood are known as birdseye, curly, and -blister maple. They are accidental forms and exist in certain trees -only. Students of wood structure are not wholly agreed as to the cause -of these forms, but one of them, the birdseye effect, is believed to be -due to adventitious buds which distort the wood in their vicinity. These -buds start near the center of the tree when it is small, but never -succeed in forcing their way out. They remain just beneath the bark -during most or the whole of the tree's life. A pin-like core, resembling -a fine thread, connects the birdseye with the tree's pith. This thread -is the pith of the embryonic branch formed by the bud which never breaks -through the bark. When the wood is sawed tangentially, small, dark-brown -points or dots show the center of the buds, or the pith line connecting -it with the tree's center. Curly maple and blister maple are not -believed to be formed in the same way as birdseye. - -The uses of sugar maple are nearly universal, where a hard, white wood -is wanted. Many large trees contain little colored heart, and trees are -generally fifty years old before they have any. More maple is worked -into flooring than into any other one commodity. Mills in Michigan -alone, in 1910, made 185,611,662 feet of maple flooring. It was shipped -to practically every civilized country in the world. Many builders -consider it the best wooden floor that can be laid. In a test made in a -large store in Philadelphia some years ago, a marble floor wore through -sooner than maple, when the same wear was on both. - -Nearly all kinds and classes of furniture have places for maple, either -as outside material or inside frames, drawer bottoms, or partitions. -Vehicle manufacturers employ it for heavy axles, running gear, parts of -automobiles, sleigh runners and frames, and hand sleds. It is made into -handles from gimlet sizes to cant hooks. Gymnasium apparatus owes much -to the whiteness, smoothness, and strength of maple. Woodenware from -toothpicks to ironing boards; from butcher blocks to butter molds; from -door knobs to die blocks, is dependent on maple for some of its best -material. It is largely used for boxes, in both solid and veneer form. -Only two woods are now employed in larger amounts for veneers in the -United States than maple. They are red gum and yellow pine. - -Maple is one of the three woods most largely employed in hardwood -distillation in this country; beech and birch are the others. Maple -sugar is a product of this tree almost exclusively, and the business is -large. In some parts of New England it is claimed that a grove is worth -more for sugar than the land is worth for agriculture. - - SILVER MAPLE (_Acer saccharinum_) is generally called soft maple by - lumbermen. It is known also as white maple, river maple, - silver-leaved maple, swamp maple, and water maple. The sinuses of - the leaves are very deep. The lighter color of its bark and the pale - green of the leaves distinguish soft maple at a glance from sugar - maple when both are in full leaf. The greenish-yellow flowers open - in early spring, and the seeds are ripe in April or May, depending - on the season and region. The seeds have large wings and fly well. - They germinate in a few days after they find suitable soil, and - before the end of the summer the seedlings have grown several - leaves. The vigor thus displayed continues until the tree is large. - It is a fast grower, and for that reason has been extensively - planted as a street and park tree. The wisdom of doing so is - doubtful, for this maple throws out long limbs which are often - broken by wind. The trunk is subject to disease, and a row of old - soft maples nearly always presents a ragged, unkempt, neglected - appearance. As to beauty of form and crown, there is little - comparison between it and the planted sugar maple. Soft maples in - forests range from seventy-five to 120 feet in height, and two to - four in diameter; that is, they attain about the same size as sugar - maples. The species covers a million square miles, practically the - whole country east of the Mississippi, some west of that river, and - most of eastern Canada. - - It is a useful wood for many purposes. The custom of mixing this - with sugar maple makes it impossible to clearly separate the two - woods afterwards. It is the opinion of some well-informed - manufacturers that about five per cent of the total maple cut in the - United States is soft maple. The ratio is less in the North and more - in the South. The wood is hard, strong, rather brittle, easily - worked, pale brown with thick, white sapwood. Some rather large - trunks have no sapwood. It is in general use, but not for as many - purposes as sugar maple. The largest places found for it are as - flooring and woodenware, though furniture and boxes, particularly - veneer boxes, consume much. Its weight is three-fourths that of - sugar maple. The largest trees and the best wood grow in the lower - Ohio valley. - -[Illustration] - - - - -RED MAPLE - -[Illustration: RED MAPLE] - - - - -RED MAPLE - -(_Acer Rubrum_) - - -This tree's names describe it. Some refer to color of leaves, flowers, -and fruit, others to situation where it grows best. It is known as red -maple and swamp maple; also as water maple, white maple, scarlet maple, -and shoepeg maple. New York Indians called it ah-we-hot-kwah, which -meant red flower. Most trees looked alike to Indians, and when they gave -a name, it was descriptive. - -The redness of this maple is so marked that it cannot escape notice. The -flowers, fruit, twigs, and leaves all possess the property at one time -or another during the season. The flower comes before the leaf, during -the first warm days of spring. That is pretty early in the South, and -later in the North. The flowers are bright scarlet, and very -conspicuous, growing in umbel-like, drooping clusters. The staminate and -pistillate ones frequently grow on different trees, and always in -separate clusters. - -The fruit ripens quickly, and is sometimes almost mature before the -leaves appear. The date of ripening depends upon latitude. The tree's -range north and south exceeds a thousand miles and that makes much -difference in climate. In the South the fruit outstrips the leaves and -has about reached maturity before the unfolding leaves are large enough -to hide it; but in New England and New York the leaves are large before -the fruit is mature. The seed is the characteristic maple key, with a -wing to carry it. The fruit--and by that term the seed with its attached -wing is meant--is bright red, and a tree loaded with the vivid clusters -is a beautiful spectacle. Two seeds are generally fast together, and -they make surprising flights in that condition, passing with whirling -motion through the air. Gravity spins them, but wind carries them -forward, and the random of their flight depends on the strength of the -wind, which happens to be blowing when they sever their connection with -the tree. - -The seeds germinate quickly when they light on damp soil. If they do not -find such situations, they soon perish; because they do not retain their -vitality long. By the middle of summer the young trees have several -leaves, and from that time on the struggle is mainly among themselves -for space and moisture, because they stand so thick that it is a -survival of the fittest. - -The young twigs are generally red in spring, but they do not present as -conspicuous a mass as the flowers and fruit do. The leaves are simple, -with long reddish petioles. They have three or five lobes, the lower -pair often entirely missing, and small if present. Each lobe has a -pointed apex, and is irregularly serrate. The base of the leaf is -rounded; also the sinuses, which extend far into the body of the leaf. -The upper surface of the leaf is bright green, the lower a -silvery-white. In the fall this tree is entitled to the name scarlet; -for then the brilliant hues of the leaves are remarkably fine. - -The range of red maple covers more than a million square miles, and -touches every state east of the Mississippi river, and west of that -stream it extends from South Dakota to Texas. It prefers rather swampy -ground, but wants fertile soil. It is frequently found on the banks of -creeks and rivers, and rarely on hillsides. It is most abundant in the -South, particularly in the lower Mississippi valley, while trees of -larger size are found in the valley of the lower Ohio. In the North it -takes more to low wet swamps where it sometimes grows in such thickets -as almost to exclude other species. - -The best red maple trees attain a height of 100 feet or more, and a -diameter of four feet or less. The average size is seventy feet high and -two in diameter. The form of the tree, like that of all other maples, -depends much upon the situation in which it grows. Good saw timber is -not often cut from this species near the outer borders of its range. - -The wood is about three-fourths as strong as hard maple, and is five -pounds lighter per cubic foot, but is about six pounds heavier than soft -or silver maple. It may, therefore, be considered that in some important -points red maple is midway between hard and soft maple. In color it is -light brown, slightly tinged with red. The sapwood is thick and lighter -in color than the heart. The tree is usually not of rapid growth. The -contrast between the springwood and summerwood is not strong. The wood -is very porous, but the pores are so small that the unaided eye cannot -discern them. The medullary rays are numerous, but thin, and are seldom -considered in working the lumber. - -Mills which saw this maple do not separate the lumber from other maples. -The woodsman knows the difference, but the lumberman does not consider -it worth while to pile the sawed stock separately. It sometimes goes to -market as hard maple, sometimes as soft, but never under its own name. -Consequently, it has no uses which are not also common to other maples. -Lumbermen cut it when they find it mixed with other hardwoods where they -are carrying on logging operations. - -Red maple is made into flooring, interior finish, and veneer box -material. Veneers are also made for furniture. These are the most -important uses for the wood, but the manufacturers of woodenware employ -it for numerous commodities, such as trays, bowls, ironing boards, grain -scoops, snow shovels, clothes racks, garment hangers, and clothes pins. -This species shows birdseye effect similar to that of sugar maple, but -less of the stock goes to market. Logs with birdseye wood are generally -reduced to veneer by the rotary process. Curly and wavy grains also -occur in this maple. The wavy grain was much sought after by the early -hunters who equipped their long rifles with stocks. Having found a piece -of timber with the desired wavy grain, the hunter proceeded to shave and -whittle until the stock was fitted to the barrel, and the gun was -complete. Some of the stocks made with no tools but an ax, drawing -knife, and a pocket knife, were works of art which are worthy of -preservation in museums. - -Occasionally some unknown rural Stradivari made a violin and selected -the curly wood of red maple for the neck and sides. A few of these -instruments are floating about the country, but an age of fifty or a -hundred years has not yet imparted classic value to them, but the wood -is unsurpassed in delicacy of grain and figure. - -Sugar may be manufactured from red maple, but in smaller quantity than -from sugar maple. In the days when every frontier settlement did its own -manufacturing, inks and dyes were made from the bark of this tree. The -tannin boiled from the bark was treated with sulphate of iron, and it -became ink; when alum was added it became black dye; when the sulphate -of iron was omitted, and alum alone was put in, a cinnamon-colored dye -resulted. - -Red maple is one of the most desirable trees for planting in parks and -by roadsides. Nurserymen complain that seedlings are more difficult to -manage than silver maples; nor do they grow as rapidly, but the trees -are worth much more when once established. They have shorter and -stronger branches than silver maple; are less liable to be attacked by -disease; are more handsome in every way; but they demand damper soil, -and succeed poorly in any other. That drawback tends to restrict the -artificial planting of this tree. - - MOUNTAIN MAPLE (_Acer spicatum_) is known also as moose maple, low - maple, and water maple. It is a small tree at its best, seldom more - than twenty-five feet high and eight inches in diameter, while in - most parts of its range it is only a shrub. Its best growth is on - mountain slopes of eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina. It - likes moist, rich hillsides, and does not object to shade. The - flowers come late, but within a month or six weeks after the bloom - appears, the fruit is full grown, but it remains on the tree till - autumn. The tree's bark is smooth and very thin. The absence of - stripes distinguishes this tree from striped maple, which has nearly - the same range. Mountain maple grows from Maine to Minnesota, - southward to Michigan, and along the mountains to Georgia. The wood - is light, soft, brown tinged with red. The small size of the trunk - forbids its conversion into ordinary lumber. The only commercial use - reported for it is in Pennsylvania where it is cut along with other - hardwoods for destructive distillation. - - FLORIDA MAPLE (_Acer floridanum_) is a species according to some, - and according to others is a variety of the hard maple. Its range is - limited, and the available quantity of the wood is small. It is - found in the swamps of southern Georgia and western Florida, and - westward to Texas, Louisiana, and southern Arkansas. Near the - southwestern limits of its range in Texas and Mexico, it is often a - shrub; but in the best part of its range it becomes a tree fifty or - sixty feet high and two or three in diameter. The wood passes for - hard maple when sawed into lumber, but it is not often sent to - sawmills. The makers of bent wood rustic furniture in some of the - southern towns, particularly in Louisiana, have found the slender - branches of Florida maple well suited to that purpose. - - DRUMMOND MAPLE (_Acer rubrum drummondii_) is a variety of red maple, - not a separate species. Its range lies in the coastal plain of - Alabama and Georgia, western Louisiana, eastern Texas, southwestern - Tennessee, and southern Arkansas. It grows in deep swamps, and has - three-lobed leaves, and large-winged fruit, ripening in April and - May. The wood is too scarce to be important in the lumber trade, but - where it can be had it is used. Violin makers have procured some - finely curled wood of this maple in Union Parish, Louisiana. Some of - the wood from that district has been made into gunstocks also. - - WHITEBARK MAPLE (_Acer leucoderme_) has been classed as a variety of - sugar maple, and also as a separate species. It is named from the - light gray color of the bark of young stems; but the color turns - dark with age. The tree is usually twenty or thirty feet high with a - diameter of a foot or more. The wood is of good quality, but no - uses, except fuel, have been reported. Trees are not abundant, but - the range covers parts of North Carolina, Tennessee, Georgia, - Alabama, Louisiana, and Arkansas. It is occasionally planted as a - shade tree along the streets of towns of Georgia and Alabama. - -[Illustration] - - - - -OREGON MAPLE - -[Illustration: OREGON MAPLE] - - - - -OREGON MAPLE - -(_Acer Macrophyllum_) - - -Botanists prefer to call this tree broadleaf maple. The name is not -inappropriate, as its extraordinarily broad leaves constitute the most -striking feature of the tree where it stands in the woods. The leaf is -usually wider than it is long. Some exceed a foot in both measurements. -Bigleaf maple is not an uncommon name for the tree in Oregon, where it -attains its highest development in damp valleys where the soil is good. -The name white maple is not particularly descriptive of any feature of -the tree, though the name is applied in both Oregon and Washington. In -California it is known simply as maple. There is small likelihood in -that region that it will be confused with any other member of the maple -household; nor is there much danger of such a thing in any part of the -Pacific coast, for, though four species of maple occur there, no one of -them bears close enough resemblance to this one to be mistaken for it. - -The Oregon maple's range north and south covers twenty degrees of -latitude. In that particular it is not much surpassed, if surpassed at -all, by any maple of this country. Its northern limit lies in Alaska, -its southern close to the Mexican boundary, in San Diego county, -California. Its range east and west is restricted. It has a width of -about one hundred and fifty miles in California, where it grows from the -coast to the foothills of the Sierra Nevada mountains. An altitude of -5,600 feet appears to be the limit of its range upward. It attains -altitudes above 5,000 feet at several points in the Sierra Nevada range. -It descends nearly to sea level. Its geographical range is similar to -the ranges of several other Pacific coast species which occupy long -ribbons of territory stretching north and south parallel with the coast -of the Pacific ocean. - -This maple's leaves change to a clear reddish-yellow before falling. -Flowers appear after the leaves are grown, and the seeds ripen late in -autumn. Some of them hang until late in winter, but the habit varies in -different parts of the range, as is natural in view of its great -extension north and south. The trees which stand in open ground are very -abundant seeders, but those in dense stands produce sparingly, in that -particular following the habit of most trees. This maple often grows in -dense, nearly pure stands in Oregon and Washington where soil and other -conditions are favorable. - -The sizes and forms of Oregon maple vary greatly. John Muir spoke of -forests whose trees were eighty or one hundred feet high, so dense with -leaves and so abundantly supplied with branches that moss and ferns -formed a canopy with foliage and limbs high over head, like an aerial -garden; while George B. Sudworth described it in certain situations as a -short-stemmed, crooked tree from twenty-five to thirty feet high and -under a foot in diameter. - -This maple has been called the most valuable hardwood of the Pacific -coast, but that claim is made also for other trees. Some persons rate it -with the hard maple of the East, in properties which commend it for use. -It is doubtful if the claim can be substantiated. According to Sargent's -figures for strength, stiffness, weight, and fuel value, it lacks much -of equalling the eastern tree. It is twelve pounds per cubic foot -lighter; has not three-fourths the fuel value; and is little more than -half as strong or as stiff. The comparison is more in favor of the -western tree when color of wood and appearance of grain are considered. -The wood is light brown with pale tint of red. The rings of annual -growth are tolerably distinct, with a thin, dark line separating the -summerwood of one year from the springwood of the next. The pores are -scattered with fair evenness in all parts of the ring. They are small -and numerous. The medullary rays are thin and abundant. In quarter-sawed -wood they show much the same as in hard maple, but are rather darker in -color. The mirrors are decidedly tinged with brown. The wood is reported -poor in resisting decay when in contact with the soil. - -The largest use of Oregon maple appears to be for furniture, second, for -interior finish, and following these are numerous miscellaneous uses. -Statistics of the cut of this wood, as shown by sawmill reports, are -unsatisfactory. Census returns include it with all other maples of the -country, without figures for species. The cut of maple for all the -western states seems too small to give this wood justice. The amount -reported used in Washington, Oregon, and California exceeds the total -reported sawmill cut in the West. - -Oregon maple is an important handlewood. The smooth grain appeals to -broom makers. The wood is made into ax handles, but for that use it is -much below hickory, or even hard maple or white oak. It is converted -into pulleys in Washington, also into saddle trees, and tent toggles. -Boat makers employ it for finish material, in which capacity it fills -the same place, and must meet the same requirements as in interior -finish for houses. Curly or wavy wood is occasionally found and this is -worked into finish and also into furniture. The figure is as handsome as -in eastern maple, but birdseye is less frequent. Counter tops for stores -and bar tops for saloons are sometimes made of figured maple. It is seen -also in grill work and show cases, but in order to show the figured wood -to the best advantage it should be worked in flat surfaces. - -Oregon maple is converted into flooring of the ordinary tongued and -grooved kind, and also into parquet flooring. Rotary veneers are made -into boxes and baskets. Solid logs are turned for rollers of various -sizes and kinds. Mill yards use them for offbearing lumber, and house -movers find them about the best local material to be had. This maple has -been successfully stained in imitation of mahogany, and is said to pass -satisfactory tests where the color is the principal consideration. - -The amount of this species available in the Northwest is not definitely -known, but it is a relatively scarce wood. No attention has ever been -given to planting it as a commercial proposition. It is not of very -rapid growth, and unless it is in dense stands, it develops a short -trunk and large crown. It is better suited for shade and ornament, and -is to be seen as a street tree in some western towns. It does not -flourish in the eastern states, but has found the climate of western -Europe more congenial and is occasionally found as an ornamental tree -there. - -The relative importance of this maple in the state of Washington is -indicated by the amount used annually compared with certain other -hardwoods. In 1911 the consumption of willow was 2,000 feet, vine maple -10,000, Oregon ash 58,000, Oregon oak 197,000, western birch 315,000, -Oregon maple 932,500, red alder 1,881,500, and black cottonwood -32,572,200. - -VINE MAPLE (_Acer circinatum_) is sometimes called mountain maple, -though the name is misleading. It may grow among mountains, but always -near streams. It is found at various altitudes from near sea level to -5,000 feet above. It ranges from the coast region of British Columbia -southward through Washington and Oregon to Mendocino county, California. -This tree is more useful than might be inferred from its name, or even -from a study of it in its usual form. Only an occasional tree is good -for the wood user. A height of twenty feet and a diameter of six inches -are above the average. It is called vine maple because of its habit of -sprawling on the ground like a vine. The trunk lacks sufficient -stiffness to hold it erect. It grows upward to a certain point, then -leans over and the branches lie on the ground. Some of them take root -and in course of time what was first a single stem becomes a thicket of -branches and stems. The winter snow often has much to do with bending -the trunk, which appears to have no power to get back to the -perpendicular when once bowed down. The damp situation where this tree -thrives best, induces a luxuriant growth of moss and mold which help to -bury the branches that lie on the ground. - -The tree prospers in deep shade. The young leaves are rose red, and in -the fall become yellow or scarlet. The fruit is the characteristic maple -key. The wing becomes rose-red before falling in autumn. Though this -tree is more a curiosity than a lumberman's asset, it is not without -value. Handle makers use 10,000 feet of it a year in the state of -Washington. It is shaved and turned for ax and shovel handles. It has -two-thirds the strength and less than half the stiffness of eastern hard -maple. The tree grows slowly and the annual rings are very narrow and -indistinct. Seventy or eighty years are required to produce a trunk five -inches in diameter. The wood is hard, and checks badly in seasoning. The -bark is very pale brown--suggesting the color of a potato sprout that -has grown in a dark cellar. The Indians liked the wood for fish net -bows, though there appears to have been no very good reason why they -preferred it to other woods of the region. Its most extensive use at -present is as fuel, but it is not particularly sought after. The tree's -future is not promising. Under domestication it does not take on its -fantastic, moldy, moss-grown form, and its forest growth will never be -encouraged by lumbermen. - -DWARF MAPLE (_Acer glabrum_) is one of the smallest of the maples, but -in a north and south direction its range is equal to that of any other. -Its southern limit is among the canyons of Arizona, and its northern on -the coast of Alaska within six or seven degrees of the Arctic circle. It -extends to Nebraska, and is found east of the continental divide far -north in British America. It reaches its largest size on Vancouver -island and on the Blue mountains in Oregon. It here is large enough to -make small sawlogs, but it is usually shrubby in other parts of its -range. It grows from sea level in Alaska to 9,000 feet altitude among -the Sierra Nevada mountains of California. Two forms of leaf occur. One -is three-lobed; the other is a compound leaf, the lobes having formed -separate leaves. The bright upper surface of the leaf gives the species -its botanical name. The seeds have large, wide wings. It cannot be -ascertained that the wood of this maple has ever been used for anything. - -[Illustration] - - - - -BOX ELDER - -[Illustration: BOX ELDER] - - - - -BOX ELDER - -(_Acer Negundo_) - - -Attempts to ascertain the meaning of the word _negundo_ which botanists -apply to this species have not been crowned with entire success. It is -known to be a word in the Malayalam language of the Malabar coast of -India, and is there applied to a tree, apparently referring to a -peculiar form of leaf. The name was transferred to the box elder by -Moench, and has been generally adopted by botanists, although at least -seven other scientific names have been given the tree. It bears ten or -more English names in different regions. Among these names are -ash-leaved maple, known from Massachusetts to Montana and Texas; -cut-leaved maple in Colorado; three-leaved maple in Pennsylvania; black -ash in Tennessee; stinking ash in South Carolina; sugar ash in Florida; -water ash in the Dakotas; and box elder wherever it grows. - -The tree's geographical range does not fall much short of 3,000,000 -square miles, and is equalled by few species of this country. It extends -from New England across Canada to Alberta, thence to Arizona, and -includes practically all the United States east and south of those -lines. It thrives in hot and cold climates, and high and low elevations; -in regions of much rain, and in those with little. That fact has been -turned to account by tree planters, particularly in the years when the -western plains were being settled by homesteaders. The box elder was the -chief tree on many a timber claim where the letter of the law rather -than the spirit was carried out. It afforded the earliest protection -against scorching summer sun and the keen winds of winter about many a -frontiersman's cabin on the plains. It was the earliest street tree in -many western towns. The people planted it because they knew it would -grow, and they were not so sure of a good many other trees. Green ash -was often its companion in pioneer plantings on the plains. Many towns -which set box elders along the streets when they did not know of -anything better, still have the trees, though they would willingly -exchange them for something else. They are not ideal street and park -trees; do not produce shapely trunks and crowns; and drop leaves all -summer and seeds all winter. The tree is reputed to be short lived, yet -some of those planted a generation or two ago show no symptoms of -decline. - -There is no good reason why this tree should be called an elder, or an -ash, except that its leaves are compound. If that is a reason, it might -be called a hickory or a walnut, since they bear compound leaves. It is -clearly a maple. Its fruit shows it to be so, and Indians of the far -Northwest who had no other maple, formerly manufactured sugar from this -tree, collecting the sap in wood or bark troughs and boiling it with hot -stones. - -The compound leaf does not necessarily take it out of the maple group. -It requires no great exercise of imagination to understand how a lobed -leaf, by deepening the sinuses between the lobes, might become a -compound leaf in the process of evolution. There may be no visible -evidence that the box elder's leaf reached its present form by that -process, but there is another maple which is at the present time -developing a compound leaf in that way, or seems to be doing so. It is -the dwarf maple (_Acer glabrum_) of the Northwest coast. Lobed leaves -and compound leaves may occur on the same tree. - -The seeds of box elder resemble those of other maples. They ripen in the -fall, and are blown off by wind, few at a time, during several months. -The trees are from fifty to seventy feet high, and from one and a half -to three feet in diameter. The trunk is apt to divide near the ground in -several large branches, and is not of good form for sawlogs, being often -crooked as well as short. The small branches, particularly those less -than a year old, are usually nearly as green as the leaves. This fact -may assist in identifying the tree when the leaves are off. The bark -bears more resemblance to ash and basswood than to maple. - -The wood is lightest of the maples. It weighs less than twenty-seven -pounds to the cubic foot; has less than half the strength and about -forty per cent of the stiffness of sugar maple; and is much inferior to -it in most mechanical properties. It is equal, if not superior to most -maples in whiteness. The pores are small, numerous, and scattered -through all parts of the growth ring, as is characteristic of maple -wood. The tree grows rapidly. The summerwood is a thin, dark line, -separating one annual ring from another. The medullary rays are many and -obscure, but when wood is sawed or split along a radial line, they are -easily seen, and show the true maple luster. - -The uses of box elder are similar to those of soft maple. The wood is -seldom reported under its own name. In fact, an examination of -wood-using reports of various states, shows that in only two states, -Michigan and Texas, has box elder been listed separately. Its uses in -the former state were for boxes, crates, flooring, handles, woodenware, -and interior finish, while in Texas it was made into furniture. The tree -is of commercial size in at least thirty states, and is cut and marketed -in all of them. Tests of the wood for pulp are said to be satisfactory, -and it finds its way in rather large amounts to cooper shops where it is -made into slack barrels. It is cut as acid wood along with other maples, -beech, and birch, and is converted into charcoal and other products of -distillation. - -It may be expected that box elder will exist in the United States as -long as any other forest tree remains. It is willing to be crowded off -good land into low places, which are almost swamps, and there it grows -free from disturbance; but if given the opportunity it will appropriate -the most fertile soil within reach of it; and by scattering seeds during -four or five months of the year, it manages to do much effective -planting. - - CALIFORNIA BOX ELDER (_Acer negundo californicum_) is a variety of - box elder, and not a separate species. As the name implies, it is a - California tree, and it occurs in the valleys and among the Coast - Range mountains from the lower Sacramento valley to the western - slopes of the San Bernardino mountains. The tree is from twenty to - fifty feet high and from ten to thirty inches in diameter. The - leaves and young twigs are hairy, in that respect differing from the - eastern box elder. The seeds are scattered during winter. The wood - is very pale lemon-yellow or creamy-white, the heart and sapwood - hardly distinguishable. The wood is soft and brittle, but is suited - to the same purposes as the eastern box elder. No reports of its - uses appear to have been made. It is found on the borders of streams - and in the bottoms of moist canyons. It is believed to be a - short-lived tree. - - STRIPED MAPLE (_Acer pennsylvanicum_) is usually thirty or forty - feet high, and eight or ten inches in diameter. Its range extends - from Quebec to northern Georgia, westward to Minnesota, and is of - largest size on the slopes of Big Smoky mountains of Tennessee, and - the Blue Ridge in North and South Carolina. It grows best in shade, - but maintains itself in open ground; is generally shrubby in the - northern part of its range. The name refers to the bark. The stripes - are longitudinal and are caused by the parting of the outer bark and - the exposure to view of the lighter colored inner layers. The bark - of small trees is greenish, but later in life the color is darker, - and the stripes largely disappear. Among its names are moosewood, so - called because it is good browse for moose and other deer; goosefoot - maple, a reference to the form of the leaf; whistlewood, an allusion - to the ease with which the bark slips from young branches in spring - when boys with jack-knives are on the search for whistle material. - The names mountain alder and striped dogwood are based on - misunderstanding of the tree's family relations. - - The young leaves are rose colored when they unfold, and when full - grown are six inches wide. The wood is light and soft, and light - brown in color, the thick sapwood lighter. The wood is liable to - contain small brown pith flecks, which in longitudinal sections - appear as brown streaks an inch or less in length and as thick as a - pin, and in cross section they are brown dots. They are not natural - to the wood but are caused by the larvæ of certain moths which - burrow into the cambium layer, or soft inner bark, and excavate - narrow galleries up and down the trunk. The galleries afterwards - fill with dark material. The insects sometimes attack other maples, - the birches, service, and other trees. The wood of striped maple is - little used, because of the small size of the trees. The species is - planted for ornament in this country and Europe. - - BLACK MAPLE (_Acer nigrum_) has been by some considered a variety of - sugar or hard maple, and by others a separate species. It is as - large as the sugar maple and its range is much the same, but it is - more abundant in the western part of its range than in the East. The - name refers to the color of the bark of old trunks. If the name had - considered the bark of young twigs it would have been yellow or - orange maple, because the twigs are of that color. In summer the - peculiar drooping posture of the leaves calls attention to this - tree. However, the bark, twigs, and leaves combined are not - sufficient to set it apart, in the eyes of most people, for it - generally passes without question as sugar maple, even when it - stands side by side with that tree. It yields sugar abundantly. The - wood is a little heavier than that of sugar maple, but the - difference cannot be noticed except when the two woods are weighed. - Their uses are the same. No maker of furniture, flooring, or finish - ever protests against black maple. The tree generally prefers lower - and damper ground than sugar maple, and is often found along - streams. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SERVICEBERRY - -[Illustration: SERVICEBERRY] - - - - -SERVICEBERRY - -(_Amelanchier Canadensis_) - - -This tree will never be other than a minor species in the United States, -but it is not a worthless member of the forest. It belongs to the rose -family, and therefore is near akin to the haws, thorns, and crabapples. -The genus is found in Europe, Asia, and Africa, as well as in the United -States. Two tree species occur in this country, or, according to some -botanists, three, one west of the Rocky Mountains, two east. - -The serviceberry has a number of names: June berry, service-tree, May -cherry, Indian cherry, wild Indian pear, currant tree, shadberry, -savice, and sarvice. The northern limit of its range is in Newfoundland, -the southern in Florida. It grows westward to Minnesota and Arkansas; -but it is not plentiful except in certain restricted localities. It is -most abundant among the ranges of the Appalachian mountains, and of its -largest size toward the south. It is dispersed through forests -generally, a tree or bush here and there; but it prefers the borders of -forests, the brinks of cliffs, banks of streams, or some other open -space where light is abundant. It prospers most in rich soil but does -fairly well in ground thin and dry. - -The bloom, where it occurs, is a conspicuous feature of the landscape, -though generally a tree on ten or twenty acres represents the density of -its stand. The white, showy bloom comes early in spring, when most trees -are yet bare of leaves. Occasionally, however, the serviceberry is more -abundant, and the rows and clumps of blooming trees along creek banks or -about the margins of glades or other openings in the forests, look like -distant snowdrifts. - -The fruit is a berry a half inch or less in diameter, bright red when -fully grown in early summer, and changing to purple when ripe. The seeds -are brown and very small, and each berry contains from five to ten. When -circumstances are favorable, the tree is a prolific bearer, the slender -branches bending beneath the weight. The tree need not reach any -particular size before beginning to bear. On some of the severely burned -summits of the Alleghany mountains in West Virginia, 4,000 feet or more -above sea level, this tree, when only two or three feet high, bears -abundantly. Such trees are probably sprouts from roots of older trunks -destroyed by fire. At its best, it reaches a height of forty or fifty -feet and a diameter of one or possibly two feet. Trunks of largest size -occur among the southern Appalachian ranges. - -The wood is heavy and very hard and strong. It is liable to check and -warp in seasoning, is satiny, and is susceptible of a good polish. -Medullary rays are very numerous, but obscure; color, dark brown, often -tinged with red. The wood is stronger, stiffer and heavier than white -oak. It possesses most of the properties to make it a wood of great -value, but its scarcity, and the usual small size of the trees, relegate -it to the class of minor woods. Some use is made of it in turnery and -for other small articles. It is frequently planted in gardens for its -bloom and berries. In such situations it lacks some of the charm which -it holds as part and parcel of the wildwoods where its early spring -bloom is thrown against a background of leafless branches. - -WESTERN SERVICEBERRY (_Amelanchier alnifolia_) is also called -pigeonberry and sarvice. Its botanical name refers to the resemblance of -its leaves to those of alder. Its range covers a million square miles, -and the species reaches its best development on islands and rich bottom -lands of the lower Columbia river. It is found as far south as -California, north to Yukon territory, east to Lake Superior and northern -Michigan. It is nowhere a tree of attractive size, and is usually a -shrub about ten feet tall and one inch thick. Trees are sometimes thirty -feet high and six or eight inches in diameter. The fruit is blue-black -and sweet, and pleasant to the taste if not overripe. Indians in the -northern and western range of this tree gather the berries industriously -while they last, and many of the white settlers do likewise. The birds -flock to the thickets for their share, and though the berries are small, -the bears in the region consider them worthy of prompt and continued -attention. The berries are generally a little more than half an inch in -diameter, and ripen in July or August, depending on latitude. Cattle, -sheep, goats, and deer find this small tree or bush a source of food. -They do not object to eating the berries when obtainable, but their -principal attack is on the leaves and tender shoots which afford -excellent browse. Fortunately, the serviceberry is so tenacious of life -that it is next to impossible to browse it to death. If eaten down to -the ground, with little left but bare and barked trunks sticking up like -bean poles, the roots will throw up sprouts year after year, making the -service thicket a permanent browse-pasture. Fire is not able to destroy -such a thicket, for, when the tops are burned off, the sprouts will -quickly spring up with vigor unimpaired. As a source of food for -insects, birds, beasts, and men, few trees, in proportion to size and -quantity, are the equal of western serviceberry. Flowers, fruit, leaves -and sprouts are all food for something. - -LONGLEAF SERVICE TREE (_Amelanchier obovalis_) is by some regarded a -variety rather than a species. It occupies in part the same range as -serviceberry, but runs much farther north, reaching the valley of -Mackenzie river in latitude 65. It is found in North Carolina and -Alabama, but it is only a shrub in the extreme southern part of its -range. The fruit ripens in early summer and is reddish purple. Trees are -seldom more than thirty feet high and eight inches in diameter. A -variety with large fruit is occasionally planted as an ornamental tree. -Unless the crop of serviceberries is unusually plentiful in a locality, -the most of it is eaten by birds which temporarily abandon nearly all -other sources of food and give their undivided attention to the -perishable harvest which must be garnered in at once or it will be lost. - -NARROWLEAF CRAB (_Malus angustifolia_) is one of the wild crabapples of -the United States. They are of the genus _Malus_ and the thousands of -varieties of cultivated apples are derived from them, or from other -species found in the old world which are very similar. They belong to -the rose family. The narrowleaf crab is found from Pennsylvania to -Florida and westward to Tennessee and Louisiana. It thrives best in open -spaces in the forest and is often found in glades and along the banks of -streams in the North, while in the South it occurs in depressions in the -pine barrens. The flowers are much like those of apple, very fragrant, -and in color are white, pink, or rose. When in full bloom, the tree is a -beautiful object, and its odor is carried long distances. The fruit is -an apple in all respects except size and taste. It is somewhat -flattened, and is an inch or less across. It is fragrant when fully -ripe, and many a person has been led by appearances to taste, only to -meet disappointment. The flesh is hard and sour, and unfit for food in -its natural state, but by cooking and artificial sweetening, it is made -into preserves. The tree reaches a height of twenty or thirty feet and a -diameter of eight or ten inches. It is smaller than the sweet crab. The -wood is hard, heavy, light brown, tinged with red, with thick yellow -sapwood. It is not put to many uses, but is occasionally made into small -handles, and levers. It has been much used as stock on which to graft -apples. Farmers who wanted orchards formerly dug up small crabapples in -the surrounding woods and fields, planted them in an orchard, and when -securely rooted, the apples of desired kinds were grafted on. If -successful, the apple finally replaced the crab by spreading its own -bark and wood over the entire trunk, until no part of the original stock -remained visible. The sweet crab was also employed as a stock on which -to graft apples. - -SWEET CRAB (_Malus coronaria_) is the wild crab of the northeastern -states, although it intrudes on the region to the southwest to a limited -extent. It finds use in ornamental planting in the region of best -growth. It is known as American crab, sweet scented crab, crab apple, -wild crab, crab, American crab apple, and fragrant crab. Its range -extends from the shores of Lake Erie in Canada, south through New York -and Pennsylvania, along the Alleghany mountains to Alabama; west to -Minnesota, eastern Nebraska, Kansas, Louisiana, and eastern Texas. It -needs moist soil for good growth and the best types are found in the -lower Ohio basin. In height this tree rarely exceeds thirty feet and it -is bushy, having short rigid limbs. The leaves are rounded and sharply -toothed, the blossoms generally white and very fragrant; the fruit -small, dry, yellow, tinged with red. The wood is heavy, not strong, -heart light red, sapwood yellow. It is used for tool handles, small -turned articles, and for carving and engraving. - -OREGON CRABAPPLE (_Malus rivularis_) grows wild from the Aleutian -Islands, Alaska, southward to central California, and is of largest size -in Washington and Oregon where trees are occasionally forty feet high -and eighteen inches in diameter, but they are generally about ten feet -high and form dense thickets. The fruit is oblong, ripens late in -autumn, is greenish, or reddish, or clear lemon yellow in color, and -rather pleasant to the taste. The tree grows slowly, the wood is hard, -and light reddish-brown in color, and is suitable for tool handles. - -IOWA CRAB (_Malus ioensis_) grows from Minnesota to Texas and is the -common crabapple of the Mississippi basin. Large trees are twenty-five -feet high and a foot in diameter. It is believed that this tree crosses -with the common apple, and produces a variety known as the soulard apple -(_Malus soulardi_). Wild apple (_Malus malus_) is a European species -introduced into this country and now running wild. - - MOUNTAIN ASH (_Pyrus americana_) is closely related to the crabs. It - occurs from Newfoundland to Manitoba, and southward along the - mountains to North Carolina. Trees have compound leaves, red berries - the size of small cherries, and reach a height of thirty feet and a - diameter of a foot or more. There are several forms or varieties, - among them the small fruit mountain ash (_Pyrus americana - microcarpa_) of the Alleghany mountains. - -[Illustration] - - - - -RED HAW - -[Illustration: RED HAW] - - - - -RED HAW - -(_Cratægus Coccinea_) - - -This tree belongs to the rose family, and the genus _Cratægus_ consists -of a large group of small, thorny trees, scattered through many parts of -the world. They are known by their thorns, but comparatively few of them -are known by name to the ordinary observer, and they afford a perpetual -source of study, victory, and bewilderment to the trained botanist. "No -other group of American trees," says Sudworth, "presents such almost -insurmountable difficulties in point of distinctive characters. It is -impossible, and fortunately unnecessary, for the practical forester to -know them all, and exceedingly difficult even for the specialist." More -than one hundred species of these thorn trees occur in the United -States, exclusive of shrubs. Their bloom resembles that of apple and -pear trees. Bees and insects swarm round the flowering trees, assisting -in cross fertilization. The various species are aggressive. They force -their way into vacant spaces, and their thorns protect them against -browsing animals. The wood is sappy and heavy, and for most of the -species it is valueless. The growing brambles, however, perform an -important service in forest economy. Seeds of various valuable trees are -blown by wind or carried by birds and mammals into the thickets where -they germinate and get a start under the protecting shelter of the -thorns. Finally the seedlings overtop the brambles, gain the mastery, -shade the thorns to death, and develop valuable forests. The thorn trees -shed their leaves annually. Their seeds are slow to germinate, some not -sprouting until the second year. The fruit is worthless for human -consumption, but some of it has a tart and not unpleasant taste. It is -of many colors and sizes, depending on species. - -No attempt is here made to name or to list the species. Such a list -would, for most people, be a dull catalogue of names, and many of them -in Latin because there are no English equivalents. A few representative -species are given. The red haw, though not the most abundant, is widely -distributed, and is probably as well known as any. Its range extends -from Newfoundland westward through southern Canada to the eastern base -of the Rocky Mountains, thence south to Texas and Florida. It covers -one-half of the United States. In the northern part of its range the red -haw is confined to the slopes of low hills and along water courses, but -south in the Appalachian mountains it grows at an elevation of several -thousand feet. - -It has various names in different regions. It is called scarlet haw, -red haw, white thorn, scarlet thorn, scarlet-fruited thorn, red thorn, -thorn, thorn bush, thorn apple, and hedge thorn. The fact is worthy of -note that it is well known and is clearly recognized in every region -where it grows, though various names are given it. - -The red haw never reaches large size. In rare cases it may attain a -height of thirty feet and a diameter of ten inches, but it is usually -less than half that size. Where it grows in the open it develops a round -crown. The branches are armed with chestnut-brown thorns from an inch to -an inch and a half in length. The bright scarlet color of the fruit -gives name to the tree. It ripens late in September or in October, and -at that time the tree presents a beautiful appearance. The branches -frequently remain laden with fruit after the leaves have fallen. - -The wood of red haw is of a high character and but for its scarcity -would have wide commercial use. It is among the heavy woods of this -country. A cubic foot of it, thoroughly seasoned, weighs 53.71 pounds. -The tree is of slow growth and therefore the annual rings are narrow, -and the wood is dense. The evenness and uniformity of the rings of -yearly growth make the wood susceptible of a high polish. The medullary -rays are very obscure in red haw, and for that reason the appearance of -the wood is much the same, irrespective of the direction in which it is -cut. In that respect it is similar to the wood of most members of the -thorn family--usually being too small to be quarter-sawed. However, even -if the trees were large enough, quarter-sawing would bring out little -figure. - -Red haw is a lathe wood. It is well suited to some other purposes, and -has been used for engraving blocks, small wedges, and rulers, but the -best results come from the lathe. If it is thoroughly seasoned it is not -liable to crack or check, though cut thin in such articles as goblets -and napkin rings. The turner sometimes objects to the wood because of -its hardness and the rapidity with which it dulls tools. This drawback, -however, is compensated for by the smoothness and fine polish which may -be given to the finished article. Red haw checker pieces have been -compared with ebony for wearing quality. In color the ebony is more -handsome, and on that account is generally preferred. - -Perhaps the most extensive use of red haw is in the manufacture of -canes. Most of the species of thorn are suitable for that purpose on -account of their weight, strength, and hardness. Red haw is not -specially preferred, but is used with others. As a source of wood -supply, the tree will never be important, but as an adornment to the -landscape it will always be valuable, and at the same time will fill a -minor place in the country's list of commercial woods. - -SUMMER HAW (_Cratægus æstivalis_) is a southern species which -contributes more or less to the food supply of the people within its -range. It is known also as May haw and apple haw. The flowers appear in -February and March, are about one inch in diameter, and flushed with red -toward the apex. The fruit ripens in May, is bright red, very fragrant, -and is from half to three-fourths of an inch in diameter. The flesh is -of a pleasant taste, and is gathered in large quantities by country -people for making preserves and jelly. It is sold in town and city -markets, particularly in New Orleans. The range of this thorn tree is -from South Carolina and Florida, to Texas. It attains a height of twenty -or thirty feet, and a diameter sometimes as great as eighteen inches. It -reaches its largest size in Louisiana and Texas. It grows well on land -which may be submerged several weeks in winter. The wood has not been -reported for any use. - -COCKSPUR (_Cratægus crus-galli_) may be taken as the type of more than -twenty species of cockspur thorns growing in this country. Its other -names are red haw, Newcastle thorn, thorn apple, thorn bush, pin thorn, -haw, and hawthorn. It grows southwestward from Canada to Texas, and -extends into Florida. The largest trees are twenty-five feet high and a -foot in diameter. The fruit is dull red, half inch in diameter, ripens -in September and October, and hangs on the branches until late winter. -Hogs eat the fruit when they can get it, and boys utilize the small -apples as bullets for elder pop guns. The thorns are formidable slender -spines from three to eight inches long, strong, and extremely sharp. -They were formerly used as pins to close wool sacks in rural carding -mills. The many species of cockspur thorns are multiplied by numerous -varieties. Fence posts and fuel are cut from the best trunks. - -PEAR HAW (_Cratægus tomentosa_) is a representative of at least ten -species. It is called pear haw without any very satisfactory reason, -since the fruit bears little resemblance to pears. It is half an inch in -diameter, dull orange red in color, and sweet to the taste, but it is of -little value as food. The tree has been occasionally planted for -ornament, but never for fruit. The flowers are showy. Trees at their -best are fifteen or twenty feet high and five or six inches in diameter. -They have few thorns and such as they have are small. The tree's range -extends from New York to Missouri, and along the Appalachian mountains -to northern Georgia, and west to Texas and Arkansas. It is known in -different parts of its range as black thorn, red haw, pear thorn, white -thorn, common thorn, hawthorn, thorn apple, and thorn plum. - -HOG HAW (_Cratægus brachyacantha_) is distinguished by its blue fruit. -The name indicates that the fruit is unfit for human food but is eaten -by swine. In some parts of Louisiana the dense thickets produce -considerable quantities of forage for hogs. The range is not extensive, -being confined to Louisiana and eastern Texas where the tree occurs in -low, wet prairies. The largest specimens are forty or fifty feet high -and eighteen inches in diameter. It is one of the largest of the thorns, -and the best trunks are of size to make small, very short sawlogs, but -it does not appear that the wood has ever been manufactured into -commodities of any kind. The tree is occasionally planted for ornament. - -BLACK HAW (_Cratægus douglasii_) reaches its best development on the -Pacific coast where trees occur thirty or more feet in height and a foot -and a half in diameter. The principal range is west of the Rocky -Mountains, from British Columbia to northern California, but it extends -eastward to Wyoming, and the tree is found also in northern Michigan. -The fruit is black or very dark purple, is edible, and matures in early -autumn, falling soon after. The heartwood is brownish-red. No use for -the wood has been found on the Pacific coast. - -WASHINGTON HAW (_Cratægus cordata_), also known as Washington thorn, -Virginia thorn, heart-leaved thorn, and red haw, grows on banks of -streams from the valley of the upper Potomac river southward through the -Appalachian ranges to northern Georgia, and westward to Missouri and -Arkansas. Flowers are rose-colored, the fruit ripens in the fall and -hangs till late winter. Trees are twenty or thirty feet high, and a foot -or less in diameter. Washington haw is frequently planted in this -country and in Europe. - -ENGLISH HAWTHORN (_Cratægus oxyacantha_) was introduced into this -country from Europe and has become naturalized in some of the eastern -states. Thirty or more varieties are distinguished in cultivation. It is -worthy of note that, although the United States has more than 130 -species of thorn trees of its own, with varieties so numerous that no -one has yet named or counted all of them, a foreign thorn has been -introduced and added to the number. - -[Illustration] - - - - -MAHOGANY - -[Illustration: MAHOGANY] - - - - -MAHOGANY - -(_Swietenia Mahagoni_) - - -This tree belongs to the family _Meliaceæ_ which has about forty genera, -all of which are confined to the tropic except _Swietenia_ to which -mahogany belongs. This tree has made its way up from southern latitudes -and has secured a foothold in Florida where it is confined to the -islands and the most southern part of the mainland. - -No attempt is here made to settle or even to take part in the disputes -among dendrologists as to what mahogany is. There are said to be more -than forty different trees which pass as mahogany in lumber markets. -Various descriptions and keys have been published for the purpose of -separating and identifying different woods which are bought and sold as -mahogany. These woods grow on every continent except Europe; but those -which pass as mahogany nearly all come from Africa or America. Some are -well known, both as to origin and botany, while others are doubtful. -Logs sometimes appear in markets and no one knows where they come from, -or the species which produce them. It has been maintained that annual -rings will separate true mahogany from the false--that the true has no -annual rings. At the best, this evidence is only negative and is worth -little, since many tropical trees show no annual rings, and yet are no -kin to mahogany. Neither is it certain that true mahogany shows no -yearly rings. Some trees do not, but others may. The ring, as is well -known, is produced because the tree grows part of the year and rests -part. In the tropics where growth is continuous, the ring may not exist, -but it sometimes does exist, and thus upsets the theory. Besides, it -proves little in the case of mahogany which has a range extending from -south of the equator northward into the temperate zone, where there are -seasonal changes. It also grows near sea level and at considerable -altitudes, and elevation alone might make considerable variation in the -character of the wood. - -The two most important mahoganies of commerce--leaving botany out of the -question--grow in Africa and in America. The most important of the -African mahoganies is _Khaya senegalensis_, and of the American is -_Swietenia mahagoni_. It is the latter which extends its range into the -United States, and it alone will be considered in these pages as true -mahogany; the status of foreign woods which pass as mahogany will not be -discussed. - -Leaves of the mahogany tree are three or four inches long, and an inch -or more wide. They are compound, with from three to five pairs of -leaflets. The tree is an evergreen and presents a fine appearance. The -flowers appear in July and August, are small and cup-shaped. Fruit is -four or five inches long and two or more wide. It ripens in late fall or -early winter. The nearly square seeds are three-fourths of an inch long. -In Florida the tree rarely exceeds fifty feet in height and two in -diameter; but in tropical countries it may exceed a height of 100 and a -diameter of eight or ten. The bark is thin. - -The wood is practically of the same weight as white oak, but is stronger -and more elastic. It is exceedingly hard, very durable, and is -susceptible of high polish. Medullary rays are numerous but small and -obscure. The color is rich reddish-brown, turning darker with age, but -the thin sapwood is yellow. It is known in Florida as mahogany, madeira, -and redwood. - -The uses of mahogany are so many and so well-known that it is -unnecessary to speak of them in detail. There were importations into the -United States nearly three hundred years ago, and it has been coming -ever since. One thing about this wood deserves mention: the price has -not varied much in three hundred years. Different prices have prevailed, -owing to distance from supply and differences in grade and quality; and -that holds true today; but for similar grades, the prices have been -remarkable for their evenness. - -Florida never figured largely in the world's supply of mahogany. At -their best, the trees were neither large nor numerous, but their quality -was good. Cutting of this timber ceased in Florida about three-quarters -of a century ago. The islands and the small area of the mainland where -the timber grew, were stripped. The logs were shipped to the Bahama -islands and it is said they found their ultimate market in England. A -few trees were overlooked here and there, and some that were small -seventy-five years ago, have grown to merchantable size since. These -have been cut, a few at a time, and the cutting is still going on. The -total is now only a few thousand feet a year, and one of the markets for -the logs, probably the chief market, is Miami, Florida. The logs are -small, and are generally cut and brought in by negroes who find a tree -now and then, cut the logs, and float them as near to market as -possible, and haul them the rest of the way. The scarcity of the trees -may be inferred from the fact that the average resident of south -Florida, where the range of the mahogany lies, never saw one. In -appearance the tree when seen at a little distance, resembles a young, -vigorous black walnut tree. - -CHINA TREE (_Melia azedarach_) belongs to the same family as mahogany -but is of a different genus. It is not native in the United States, but -has been extensively planted and is running wild. It is a forest tree in -some parts of Louisiana, but is found under pure forest conditions only -here and there. As such, the trunk and thin crown look like a forest -grown butternut tree in Wisconsin. It is abundant in yards and along -streets, where it is often called Chinaball tree. A little of the wood -is used. The color resembles mahogany, but the texture is much coarser. -Annual rings are clearly marked by rows of large pores, and the wood -does not polish well. It is sometimes known as pride of India, which -country is its native home, or it was carried there from Persia at an -early date. A variety, commonly known as the Texas Umbrella tree (_Melia -azedarach umbraculifera_), has been widely planted, and is known by its -short trunk and dense, round crown. - -SOAPBERRY (_Sapindus saponaria_), known also as false dogwood, is a -species of south Florida, and is one of three soap trees in this -country. It has no family kinship with mahogany, but the appearance of -the trees leads some persons to conclude that they are related to the -China tree. In fact, one of the species is locally known as wild China -and Chinaberry. They are called soap trees because their fruit has a -property which causes water to foam, and the natives of the West Indies -once used it for soap. The botanical name _Sapindus_ means "Indian -soap." The tree is twenty-five or thirty feet high, and ten or twelve -inches in diameter. The bloom appears in November in Florida, and the -fruit ripens the following spring. The wood is heavy, rather hard, and -is light brown, tinged with yellow. It reaches largest size on the -Thousand Islands, Florida. Another species is _Sapindus marginatus_ -which attains size similar to that of the first. It is found in southern -Florida, but is not abundant. It grows as far north as the mouth of the -St. John river. A third species is _Sapindus drummondi_ which has its -range from western Louisiana, Arkansas, and southern Kansas, through -Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, to Mexico. The flowers appear in May and -June, and the fruit ripens in September and October, but it hangs on the -trees until the following spring. When first ripe, it is half an inch in -diameter, and yellow, but when it dries it turns black. Trees attain -diameters up to two feet, and heights of forty or fifty. It is commonly -supposed to be the Chinaberry, by persons who judge by general -appearances, but the two are not related. The wood's appearance suggests -the heartwood of ash. It probably reaches its best development in Texas -where it is manufactured into boxes, crates, and even furniture, but not -in large amounts. It is reputed to be a rapid grower, and it may be -under the most favorable circumstances, but it is usually of rather slow -growth. The wood splits readily into thin strips which are employed in -making baskets for harvesting cotton. In western Texas it is made into -pack saddle frames. - - MOUNTAIN MAHOGANY (_Cercocarpus ledifolius_) is not a mahogany, and - is not even in the same family. It belongs to the rose family, and - is closely related to the crabapple; but since it is commonly known - as mahogany, it is proper to mention it here. Extensive - consideration is unnecessary, for the tree is not important as a - source of wood. Three species are recognized by some botanists, four - by others. All are western, and are noted for their long-tailed - fruit. The generic name refers to that feature. The seed, with its - tail, is carried by the wind, or it catches in the wool of sheep and - the hair of cattle and goats, or the feathers of birds, and is - carried far and near. The mountain mahogany sometimes is thirty feet - high, and two in diameter. It grows from 5,000 to 9,000 feet - elevation, sometimes on steep cliffs. Its range extends from Wyoming - and Montana to Oregon, California, Arizona, and New Mexico. The wood - is bright, clear red, or rich dark brown. It reaches its largest - size on the mountains of central Nevada. Another species is known as - valley mahogany (_Cercocarpus parvifolius_). It ranges from Nebraska - to Oregon, and Texas to California. Its rate of growth is very slow, - and it seldom exceeds a height of thirty feet and a diameter of ten - inches. The wood is reddish-brown. A third species, called Trask - mahogany (_Cercocarpus traskiæ_) is chiefly notable on account of - its restricted range. It occurs as far as known, in a single canyon - of Santa Catalina island, off the southern coast of California. Some - of the specimens are twenty feet high and six inches in diameter. A - fourth species, or a variety, is known as short-flower mahogany - (_Cercocarpus parvifolius breviflorus_). It occurs in western Texas, - southern New Mexico and Arizona, usually at elevations about 5,000 - feet above sea level where the largest trees are not more than eight - inches in diameter and twenty-five feet high. - - VAUQUELINIA (_Vauquelinia californica_) belongs to the same family - as the so-called western mahoganies, that is, the rose family; but - it is of a different genus. Its range is largely south of the - international boundary, but it extends into southern Arizona where - the best development of the species occurs about 5,000 feet above - the sea on grassy slopes. It is seldom more than a bush, and the - wood is very heavy and hard, and is dark-brown, streaked with red. - -[Illustration] - - - - -BLACK WILLOW - -[Illustration: BLACK WILLOW] - - - - -BLACK WILLOW - -(_Salix Nigra_) - - -The willows and the cottonwoods belong to the same family of trees, -_Salicaceæ_, and the family is fairly numerous, and it has some -well-defined traits of character. The quinine-bitter of the bark is ever -present, but more marked in willows than in cottonwoods. Though quite -unpleasant to the taste, it is harmless. The leaves never grow in pairs, -and in most instances they fall early in autumn, and some without -changing color. Male and female flowers are borne on different trees, -and fertilizing is done by insects, often by honey bees and bumblebees. -Fruit ripens in late spring, and the seeds are equipped for flight by -being provided with exceedingly fine silky hairs. The wind carries them -long distances. The trees generally grow in the immediate vicinity of -streams or in situations where the soil is damp, but there are -exceptions. - -The willow family consists of two genera, one the cottonwoods or -poplars, the other the willows proper. There are about seventy-five -species of willow in America, twenty of them trees. Some, however, are -quite small and only occasionally attain sizes which place them in the -tree class. The willows are old residents of this continent. They grew -in the central portion of what is now the United States in the -Cretaceous age, as is proved by their leaf prints in the rocks. They -have held their ground ever since, and there is no likelihood that they -are about to give it up. Few species are better fitted for holding what -they have. A few trees are capable of seeding a large region in a few -years, and if soil and situation are suitable, reproduction will be -abundant. The willows' tenacity of life is often remarkable. It -sometimes seems next to impossible to kill them by cutting off their -tops. There are said to be instances in Europe where willows have been -pollarded successively during hundreds of years, the crops of sprouts -being used for wickerwork and other purposes. No such records exist in -this country, but the willow's sprouting habit is well known. A shoot -stuck in the ground will grow, and a fence post will sprout. Many -willows develop large stools, or roots, and repeatedly send up numerous -sprouts, and it makes little difference how often they are cut, others -will come up. - -Comparatively few willows that start in life ever become trees. They are -suppressed by crowding, or meet misfortunes of one kind or another which -keep them small, but occasionally a tree of good size results. Willow -trees are usually not old. Probably few reach an age exceeding 150 -years. Large trunks, in old age, are apt to be hollow or otherwise -defective, though a willow tree will live many years after much of its -trunk has disappeared. A little green bark on the side, and sprouts from -the stump will maintain life long after all usefulness has ceased. - -Young willows are usually pliant and tough, old are stiff and brash. -They range from sea level up to 10,000 feet or more; grow profusely in -the wet lands about the gulf of Mexico, and likewise on the bleak coasts -of the Arctic ocean. Commander Peary found willows blooming in -considerable profusion on the extreme northern shore of Greenland, where -they produce enough growth during the few weeks of summer sunshine to -afford the muskox the means of eking out a living during his sojourn in -those inhospitable regions. - -The identification of willows is one of the most difficult tasks that -fall to the botanists. Black willow is unquestionably the most important -willow in this country from the lumberman's standpoint. It is the common -tree willow that attains size suitable for sawlogs. If a forest grown -willow of large size is encountered east of the Rocky Mountains in the -United States, it is pretty safe to class it as black willow. There are -some others which grow large, but not many. Planted willows, both large -and small, may be foreign species, and white willows, which are not -native in this country, but have been widely planted, and are running -wild, may be occasionally found of ample size for saw timber. - -Black willow's range extends from New Brunswick to Florida, west to the -Dakotas, and south to Texas, thence passing into Mexico, New Mexico, -Arizona, and California. It attains its best size in the Ohio and -Mississippi valleys, though large trees are found in other parts of its -range. It is difficult to say what its average size is, for some black -willows are only a few feet high and an inch or two in diameter. The -largest trees exceed 100 feet in height and three in diameter. An -extreme size of seven feet in diameter has been reported. It is not -unusual to see willow logs three feet in diameter in mill yards in -Louisiana, Mississippi, and Arkansas, and logs four feet in diameter are -not so unusual as to excite much comment. The average sizes, however, of -willow sawlogs in that region are from eighteen inches to two feet. - -The wood of black willow is pale reddish-brown. When freshly cut it is -sometimes purple, almost black. When sawed in lumber and exposed to the -air the dark color fades. The wood is soft but firm. It has about fifty -per cent of the strength of white oak, and forty per cent of its -stiffness. It weighs 27.77 pounds per cubic foot; and considering its -weight, it is tolerably strong and stiff. - -Probably no other wood in the United States is as systematically cheated -out of its just credit as this one. Many of the oaks are seldom given -their proper names, but they are listed as oak in sawmill output, and -thus the genus, if not the species is given credit. But willow is almost -totally ignored. The United States census in 1910 credited to all the -willow lumber in this country an amount less than a million and a half -feet; yet a single mill in Louisiana, and not a large mill at that, cut -and sold four times that much during that year. The wood was cut by -hundreds of other mills, some a few logs only, others considerable -quantities. - -It is sold for various purposes, and much of it goes as cottonwood. In -some instances it is called brown cottonwood. Probably ninety per cent -is made into boxes, but it has many other uses. It is cut into -excelsior, made into rotary cut veneer, and finds place in the -manufacture of furniture; it is a common woodenware material; slack -coopers make barrels of it; and it is turned for baseball bats. - -The supply of black willow in this country is not small. It is usually -found in wet situations along streams. Sometimes islands and low flats -are taken possession of and pure stands result. The growth is sometimes -phenomenal. Trunks may add nearly or quite an inch to their diameter per -year when conditions are exceptionally favorable. Instances, apparently -well authenticated, are reported of abandoned fields along the -Mississippi, which in sixty years grew 100,000 feet of willow per acre. - - LONGSTALK WILLOW (_Salix longipes_) sometimes grows to a height of - thirty feet with a diameter of six or eight inches. Its range - extends from Maryland to Texas, and is at its best in the Ozark - region of southwestern Missouri and northwestern Arkansas. - - ALMONDLEAF WILLOW (_Salix amygdaloides_) grows across northern - United States and southern Canada from New York to Oregon, and - occurs as far south as Missouri and Ohio, and is abundant in the - lower Ohio valley. At its best it is seventy feet high and two feet - in diameter. The wood is light, soft, and the heartwood is brown. - - SMOOTHLEAF WILLOW (_Salix lævigata_) attains a diameter of one foot - and a height of forty or fifty. It is a Pacific coast tree, - occurring in California on the western slopes of the Sierra Nevadas - up to an altitude of 3,000 feet. It is known as black willow. The - wood is pale reddish-brown. - - SILVERLEAF WILLOW (_Salix sessilifolia_) looks like longleaf willow, - and though usually a shrub it sometimes is twenty-five feet high and - ten inches in diameter. It grows from the mouth of the Columbia - river to southern California. - - YEWLEAF WILLOW (_Salix taxifolia_) ranges from western Texas, - through southern Arizona into Mexico and Central America. Trees are - occasionally forty feet high and more than one foot in diameter. A - little fuel and fence posts are cut from this willow. - - BEBB WILLOW (_Salix bebbiana_) is nearly always shrubby, but - occasionally reaches a trunk diameter of six or eight inches and a - height of twenty feet. Its northern limit lies within the Arctic - circle, its southern in Pennsylvania, Nebraska, and Arizona. West of - Hudson bay it forms almost impenetrable thickets, and in Colorado it - ascends mountains to elevations of 10,000 feet. - - GLAUCOUS WILLOW (_Salix discolor_), commonly known as silver or - pussy willow, ranges from Nova Scotia to Manitoba, and southward to - Delaware, West Virginia, Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri. It is one - of the best known willows within its range, on account of its - flowers which are among the earliest of the season, and very showy. - The largest specimens are scarcely twenty-five feet high and twelve - inches in diameter. - - MACKENZIE WILLOW (_Salix cordata mackenzieana_) is not abundant, and - is one of the smallest of the tree willows. It is nearly always a - shrub. Its range extends from California nearly to the Arctic - circle, where it occurs in gravelly soil on the borders of mountain - streams. - - MISSOURI WILLOW (_Salix missouriensis_) is so named because it - occurs principally in Missouri, but its range extends into Kansas - and Iowa. It is occasionally forty feet high and a foot in diameter. - It is used for fence posts. - - BIGELOW WILLOW (_Salix lasiolepis_) is generally called white willow - on account of its gray bark. It occurs in California and Arizona, - and at its best it is twenty-five feet high and ten inches in - diameter. Some use is made of it as fuel, where other wood is - scarce. - - NUTTALL WILLOW (_Salix nuttallii_), called also mountain willow in - Montana, ranges from British America, east of the Rocky Mountains, - to southern California. Its usual height is twenty or twenty-five - feet, and its diameter six or eight inches. In southern California - it grows 10,000 feet above sea level. - - HOOKER WILLOW (_Salix hookeriana_) occurs in the coast region from - Vancouver island to southern Oregon, and varies in height from a - sprawling shrub to a height of thirty feet and a diameter of one. - Little use is made of it. - - SILKY WILLOW (_Salix sitchensis_), known also as Sitka willow, - ranges from Alaska to southern California. The largest specimens are - twenty-five feet high and ten inches in diameter. Trunks are largely - sapwood and are of little commercial importance. - - BROADLEAF WILLOW (_Salix amplifolia_), known also as feltleaf - willow, was discovered in Alaska in 1899. The leaves are woolly. The - largest trees rarely exceed a height of thirty feet and a diameter - of six inches. Its range extends to the valley of the Mackenzie - river. - - A number of foreign willows have become naturalized in the United - States. Among them is white willow (_Salix alba_), which grows to - large size, probably as large as black willow; crack willow (_Salix - fragilis_), so named on account of the brittleness of its twigs; and - weeping willow (_Salix babylonica_). The botanical name is based on - the supposition that it was this willow, growing by the rivers near - Babylon, on which the captive Hebrews hung their harps. Basket - willow is planted for its osiers in several eastern states. It is - not a single species, but a group of varieties developed by - cultivation. - -[Illustration] - - - - -HARDY CATALPA - -[Illustration: HARDY CATALPA] - - - - -HARDY CATALPA - -(_Catalpa Speciosa_) - - -This tree belongs to the family _Bignoniaceæ_ which has its name from -Abbé Bignon, librarian of Louis XV. About one hundred genera belong to -this family, only three of which reach the size of trees in the United -States. These include the catalpas, the desert willow, and the black -calabash tree. - -Seven species of catalpa are known, two of them occurring in the United -States. Others are found in China and the West Indies. The name is an -Indian word and was first heard among the tribes of the Carolinas. It -seems probable that the name catalpa as applied to a tree and catawba, -applied to a grape, have the same origin, and in some way refer to the -Catawba Indians, a small tribe--said to be Sioux--that lived two hundred -years ago in the western part of the Carolinas and neighboring regions -where one of the catalpa species was first heard of by Europeans. The -tree in that region is still often called catawba. - -The two catalpas of this country are known to botanists as _Catalpa -speciosa_ and _Catalpa catalpa_. Much confusion has resulted from -attempts to distinguish one from the other. Botanists are able to clear -the matter up among themselves, but the general public has not been so -successful. John P. Brown, of Connersville, Indiana, specialized on -catalpas during many years, and published numerous tracts, pamphlets, -and books for the purpose of educating the public to the point where the -differences between common catalpa and hardy catalpa could be -distinguished. His labor was likewise directed toward inducing land -owners to plant catalpa for commercial purposes. Due to his efforts, and -otherwise, catalpa was for a time the most advertised plantation tree in -this country. Some supposed that hardy catalpa was the wood which was to -save the country from a threatened timber famine. Claims made for it -were wide and far reaching. - -The judgment of history has been--if it may be classed as a matter of -history--that the tree fell short of expectation. This does not imply an -inferiority of the wood itself, or a slower rate of growth than was -claimed for it; but exceptional cases were interpreted as averages, and -for that reason the whole situation was overestimated. When all -conditions are perfect, hardy catalpa grows rapidly and grows large, but -it demands nearly perfect conditions or it will disappoint. It wants -ground rich enough and damp enough to grow good crops of corn, and -farmers are not generally willing to put that class of land to growing -fence posts and railroad ties. - -The range of hardy catalpa before the species was spread by artificial -planting, was through southern Illinois and Indiana, southeastern -Missouri and northeastern Arkansas, western Louisiana and eastern Texas, -and western Kentucky and Tennessee. Its position on the fertile banks of -streams, and on flood plains subject to frequent inundation, indicates -that the spread of the species was effected by running water. In that -case, the dispersal of seeds would be down stream, implying that the -starting place of the species was along the lower reaches of the Wabash -river. - -The catalpa may reach a height of 100 or 120 feet and a diameter of four -feet; but few trees attain that size. The leaves are ten or twelve -inches long and seven or eight wide, and are considerably larger than -those of common catalpa. The flowers appear late in May or early in -June, and are showy. The prevailing colors are white and purple, and the -blossoms are about two inches long and two and a half wide. - -The fruit is a pod from eight to twenty inches long, and the enclosed -seeds are nearly an inch long, shaped like beans. The trees are prolific -bearers. - -The tree is known by several names in different parts of its range, -including the territory where it is known only from plantings. It is -called western catalpa to distinguish it from the other species found -farther east and south. In Missouri and Iowa it is known as cigar tree. -The name Indian bean is an allusion to the large seeds. Shawneewood is -another name referring to the supposed interest of Indians in the tree. -Shawnee was the name of a tribe of Indians in the Ohio valley in early -times. - -The wood weighs less than twenty-six pounds per cubic foot, and is soft -and weak. It is rated very durable in contact with the soil, and this is -one of the chief advantages claimed for it. The annual rings are clearly -marked by several bands or rows of large open ducts, and the denser -summerwood forms a narrow band. The medullary rays are numerous and -obscure. The heartwood is brown, the sapwood lighter. In appearance, the -heartwood suggests butternut, but it is coarser, and lacks the gloss -shown by polished butternut. Quarter-sawing produces no figure, but when -sawed at right angles to the radial lines, the annual rings are cut in a -way to give figure resembling that of ash or chestnut. - -The wood of this catalpa has been thoroughly tried out for a number of -purposes. Furniture and finish have been made of it with varying -success, and molding and picture frames are listed among its uses. It is -not a sawlog tree. Statistics of lumber cut seldom mention it, though -now and then a log finds its way to a mill. Efforts have been made to -pass the wood as mahogany, but with poor success. The counterfeit is -easily detected, since the artificial color which may be imparted to -catalpa is about the only resemblance to mahogany. - -In the lower Mississippi valley some success, but on a very small scale, -has resulted from attempts to induce catalpa to grow in crooks suitable -for small boat knees. The young trunk, after being hacked on one side, -is bent and induced to grow the crook or knee. Natural crooks have been -utilized in the manufacture of knees for small boats in Louisiana. - -Probably ninety per cent of all the catalpa ever cut has gone into fence -posts. It is habitually crooked. A straight bole is the exception; -though in plantations trees are crowded and pruned until they grow -fairly straight, and sometimes trunks of forest grown trees of large -size are nearly faultless in their symmetry. - -It was once believed in some quarters that catalpa would solve the -railroad tie problem by growing good ties quickly. It must be admitted, -however, that in spite of extensive plantings, the railroad tie problem -has not yet been solved by catalpa. - -COMMON CATALPA (_Catalpa catalpa_) originated many hundred miles outside -the range of hardy catalpa, to judge by the localities in which it was -first found by white men. It is supposed to have been indigenous in -southwestern Georgia, central Alabama, and Mississippi, and northwestern -Florida. Its range has been greatly extended by planting, and it grows -in most parts of the country east of the Rocky Mountains, as far north -as New England. It has been planted in many parts of Europe. Its leaves, -flowers, fruit, and the tree itself are smaller than hardy catalpa. The -pods hang unopened all winter. The trunks sometimes are three feet in -diameter and sixty high, but are generally small, crooked, rather -angular, and poor in appearance, but the leaves and flowers are -ornamental. The wood is durable in contact with the ground, and its -largest use has been for posts, crossties, and poles. - -DESERT WILLOW (_Chilopsis linearis_) does not even belong to the willow -family, notwithstanding its names, all of which are based on the -presumption that it is a willow. The shape and size of its leaves are -responsible for that misapprehension. The very narrow leaves may be a -foot long. It is called flowering willow and Texas flowering willow. Its -flowers are always emphasized when it is compared with willow, for they -are totally different from the willow's characteristic catkins. The -flowers appear in early summer in racemes three or four inches long, and -continue open during several months in succession. The fruit is a pod -seven or nine inches long, and as slender as a lead pencil. It is this -pod which gives the plainest hint of its relationship to the catalpas, -for it is in good standing in the family with them. The seeds resemble -very small beans with wings at each end. They are light, and the wind -disperses them. The tree is a prolific seeder. - -The range of this small tree extends across western Texas, New Mexico, -Arizona, Utah, Nevada, into San Diego county, California. The tree -occurs in dry, gravelly, porous soil near the banks of streams and in -depressions in the desert. The wood is weak and soft, the heart brown, -streaked with yellow. No use has been found for it. The tree is -cultivated for ornament in Mexico and sometimes in the southern states. -The flowers look well when they are encountered in the desert. They are -white, faintly tinged with purple, with bright yellow spots inside. They -are funnel shaped and have the odor of violets. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CUCUMBER - -[Illustration: CUCUMBER] - - - - -CUCUMBER - -(_Magnolia Acuminata_) - - -This tree is a member of the magnolia family which has ten genera in -North America, two of them, magnolia and liriodendron, being trees. -The family has its name from Pierre Magnol, a French botanist who died -in 1715. The genus magnolia has seven species in the United States, -all of which are of tree size. They are evergreen magnolia (_Magnolia -f[oe]tida_), sweet magnolia (_Magnolia glauca_), cucumber (_Magnolia -acuminata_), largeleaf umbrella (_Magnolia macrophylla_), umbrella -tree (_Magnolia tripetala_), Fraser umbrella (_Magnolia fraseri_), and -pyramidal magnolia (_Magnolia pyramidata_). The remaining member of the -magnolia family is the yellow poplar (_Liriodendron tulipifera_). Though -of the same family it is of a different genus from the seven other -magnolias. - -The cucumber is the hardiest member of the magnolia family. It is found -in natural growth farther north than any other, yet it has the -appearance of a southern tree. All magnolias look like trees belonging -in the South. Their large leaves indicate as much, and some of them do -not venture far outside of the warm latitudes. It is one of the oldest -of all the families of broadleaf trees, and it has been a family that -during an immense period of the earth's history has clung near the old -homestead where it came into existence countless ages ago. There were -magnolias growing in the middle Appalachian region, and eastward to the -present Atlantic coast, so far in the past that the time can be measured -only by hundreds of thousands of years. Leaf prints in rocks, which were -once mud flats, tell the story--though but a page here and there--of the -magnolia's ancient history, doubtless antedating by long periods the -earliest appearance of man on earth. - -Next to the yellow poplar, the cucumber tree is the most important -species of the magnolia family, at least as a source of lumber. As an -ornamental tree it may not equal some of the others, particularly -certain of the southern species which are evergreen and produce large, -showy flowers. - -The cucumber tree receives its name from its fruit, which looks like a -cucumber when seen at a distance, but it is far from being one. Its -intense bitter makes it safe from the attacks of birds and beasts. So -far as known, it is not eaten, tasted, or touched by any living -creature--except man. Some of the pioneer settlers, in the days when -there was precious little to eat on the frontiers, discovered a way of -extracting the bitter from the wild cucumber, and making some sort of a -pickle of the remainder; but the art seems to have been lost with the -passing of the pioneers of the Daniel Boone type, and the wild cucumber -now hangs untouched, and tempts nobody. It is three inches or less in -length, generally slightly curved, and is green in color until fully -ripe. Even the flowers which produce the fruit are green, with the -merest suggestion of yellow. They are so inconspicuous that few persons -ever notice them, even though cucumber trees stand in door yards. The -ripe cucumbers are dark red or scarlet, or rather the seeds are, which -grow on the surface like grains of corn on a cob, though fewer in number -and farther apart. Something seems to be lacking in the machinery by -which the flowers are fertilized, with the result that often nearly half -the seeds which ought to cover the surface of the cucumber, fail to -materialize. There are many blank spaces representing flowers which the -pollen missed. - -There is likewise something missing in the modus operandi of scattering -the seeds. They have no wings, and the wind is powerless to carry them. -They are as bitter as quinine and no bird, squirrel, or mouse will -plant, carry, or touch them. Nature appears to have forgotten to provide -any other means for dispersing the seeds of this remarkable tree. When -seeds are fully ripe, they drop away from the parent fruit--the -cucumber--but the fall of each seed is arrested by a small thread which -suspends it from one to three inches below the fruit. There the seeds -hang, swinging and dangling in the wind. What part the threads play in -the economy of nature is not apparent, unless their purpose is to expose -the seeds to a chance of becoming entangled with the wings, feet, or -feathers of flying birds, whereby they may be carried away and dropped -in suitable places for growing. There can be no doubt that this happens -occasionally, and constitutes one of the methods of seed dispersal. -Others are transported by flowing water. - -The chances seem to be greatly against the survival of the cucumber tree -in competition with maples, birches, pines, and cottonwoods, whose -winged seeds are wind-borne; or with oaks, hickories, and walnuts whose -heavy, wingless nuts are planted hither and thither by accommodating -squirrels which are intent only on providing for their own winter wants, -but in reality are industrious and effective forest planters. -Notwithstanding the disadvantages under which the cucumber tree is -placed, it has managed to hold its ground in the forest during immense -periods of time, and it seems to be as firmly established now as ever. - -The leaves of this tree are from seven to ten inches long, and four to -six wide. In autumn before they fall they turn a blotched yellow-brown -color. The first severe frost brings them all down in a heap. At sunset -the tree may be laden with leaves, and by the next noon all will be on -the ground. They are so heavy that the wind does not move them far, and -they drop in heaps beneath the branches. In color they resemble owl -feathers, and the suggestion that comes to one's mind, who happens to -pass under a cucumber tree the morning following the first frost, is -that during the night some prowler picked a roost of owls and scattered -the feathers on the ground. - -The range of cucumber extends from western New York to Alabama, -following the Appalachian mountains; and westward to Illinois and -Mississippi, appearing west of the Mississippi river in Arkansas. It -occurs on low rocky slopes, the banks of mountain streams, and on rich -bottom land. It is of largest size and is most abundant in the narrow -valleys in eastern Tennessee and the western parts of the Carolinas. The -tree is from two to four feet in diameter, and sixty to ninety feet -high. The trunk is of good form for sawlogs. Among its local names are -pointed-leaf magnolia, black lin, magnolia, and mountain magnolia. - -The wood of cucumber resembles that of yellow poplar in appearance and -in physical properties, except that it is ten per cent heavier than -poplar. It usually passes for that wood at sawmill and factory. The -Federal census credits it with less than a million feet a year as -lumber. That is much too small. It is valuable and finds ready sale. -Manufacturers of wooden pumps regard it as the best material for the -bored logs. It is worked into interior finish for houses, flooring for -cars, interior parts of furniture, woodenware, boxes and crates, slack -cooperage, including veneer barrels. - -The tree is planted for ornament in the northern states and Europe. The -chief value lies in its large, green leaves and symmetrical crown. The -red fruit adds to the tree's attractiveness late in summer. - - LARGELEAF UMBRELLA (_Magnolia macrophylla_) is valuable chiefly as a - sort of ornamental curiosity, on account of its enormous leaves and - flowers. The leaf is from twenty to thirty inches long and ten to - twelve wide. It drops in autumn before its green color has undergone - much change. The leaves lack toughness, and the wind whips them into - strings long before the summer is ended. Thus what otherwise would - be highly ornamental becomes somewhat unsightly. When well protected - from wind by surrounding objects, the leaves fare better and last - longer. The white, fragrant flowers are likewise remarkable on - account of size. They are cup-shaped and some of them are almost a - foot across. They pay a penalty no less severe than the leaves pay, - on account of large size, and are liable to be thumped and bruised - by swinging leaves and branches. - - The largeleaf umbrella is a tree of the southern Appalachian - mountains although its range extends southwest to Louisiana, and - northward from there to Arkansas. It is at its best in deep rich - soil of sheltered valleys, occurring in isolated groups, but never - in pure forests. It is known as large-leaved cucumber tree, - great-leaved magnolia, large-leaved umbrella tree, and long-leaved - magnolia. The fruit is nearly a sphere, from two to three inches in - diameter, and bright rose color when fully ripe. The seeds are - two-thirds of an inch long. The smooth, light gray bark is usually - less than a quarter of an inch thick. Large trees are forty or fifty - feet high and twenty inches in diameter. It is not considered - valuable for lumber, because of scarcity and small size. The wood is - considerably heavier than yellow poplar, and is hard but not strong; - light brown in color with thick, light yellow sapwood. Reports do - not show that the wood is put to any use. Planted trees are hardy as - far north as Massachusetts, and success has attended the tree's - introduction in the parks and gardens of southern Europe. - - YELLOW FLOWERED CUCUMBER TREE (_Magnolia acuminata cordata_) is - usually considered a variety of the common cucumber tree, rather - than a separate species. The most noticeable feature is the yellow - blossom which gives the names by which it is generally known, among - such being yellow-flowered magnolia, and yellow cucumber tree. It is - not a garden variety, for it grows wild; but it has been cultivated - during more than a century, and has undergone changes which are not - matched by wild trees. The finest forms of the forest variety are - found on the Blue Ridge in South Carolina, and in central Alabama. - The cultivated tree is distinguished by its darker green leaves, and - by its smaller, bright, canary-yellow flowers. The variety has no - value as a timber tree, but is widely appreciated as an ornament. - Cultivated trees generally remain small in size, and do not develop - the long, clean trunks common with the cucumber tree under forest - conditions. - - UMBRELLA TREE (_Magnolia tripetala_) is one of the magnolias and - should not be confounded with the Asiatic umbrella tree often - planted in yards. The flower is surrounded by a whorl of leaves - resembling an umbrella, hence the name. It is also known as - cucumber, magnolia, and elkwood. The range of the tree extends from - Pennsylvania to Alabama and west to Arkansas. It prefers the margins - of swamps and the rich soil along mountain streams. Leaves are - eighteen inches long and half as wide. They fall in autumn. Flowers - are cup-shaped and creamy-white. The fruit somewhat resembles that - of the common cucumber tree, but is rose colored when fully ripe. - Trees are thirty or forty feet high and a foot or more in diameter. - The brown heartwood is light, soft, and weak, and is used little or - not at all for commercial purposes. The tree is cultivated for - ornament in the northern states and in Europe. - -[Illustration] - - - - -YELLOW POPLAR - -[Illustration: YELLOW POPLAR] - - - - -YELLOW POPLAR - -(_Liriodendron Tulipifera_) - - -In diameter of trunk the yellow poplar is, next to sycamore, the largest -hardwood tree of the United States, and if both height and trunk -diameter are considered, it surpasses the sycamore in size. It belongs -to a very old group of hardwoods which have come down from remote -geological ages, and the species is now found only in the United States -and China. Mature trees are from three to eight feet in diameter and -from 90 to 180 in height. - -It has many names in different parts of its range, but it is never -mistaken for any other tree. The peculiar notched leaf is a sure means -of identification. The resemblance of the flower to the tulip has given -it the name tulip tree in some localities, and botanists prefer that -name. It is so called in Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, -Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Pennsylvania, Virginia, -West Virginia, District of Columbia, North Carolina, South Carolina, -Georgia, Arkansas, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Ontario. Wood -users in New England and in some of the other northern states prefer the -name whitewood and it is so known, in part at least, in New England, New -York, New Jersey, Delaware, South Carolina, Kentucky, Ohio, Michigan, -and Illinois. Yellow poplar is the name preferred by lumbermen in nearly -all regions where the tree is found in commercial quantities, notably in -New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Virginia, West Virginia, -North and South Carolina, Alabama, Arkansas, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, -Illinois, Missouri, and Tennessee. The name is often shortened to -poplar, which is used in Rhode Island, Delaware, North and South -Carolina, Florida, Virginia, West Virginia, Ohio, and Indiana. The name -tulip poplar is less frequently heard, and blue poplar and hickory -poplar are terms used in West Virginia, Virginia, and North Carolina, -but generally under the impression that they refer to a different form -or species. In Rhode Island it is called popple, in New York cucumber -tree, and canoe wood in Tennessee and in the upper Ohio valley. - -The botanical range of yellow poplar is wider than its commercial range; -that is, a few trees are found in regions surrounding the borders of the -district where the tree is profitably lumbered. The boundaries of its -range run from southwestern Vermont, westward to Lake Michigan near -Grand Haven, southward to northern Florida, and west of the Mississippi -river in Missouri and Arkansas. The productive yellow poplar timber belt -has never been that large but has clung pretty closely to the southern -Appalachian mountain ranges and to certain districts lying both east and -west of them. The best original stands were in Pennsylvania, Maryland, -Virginia, West Virginia, western North Carolina, eastern Kentucky and -Tennessee, and in some parts of Ohio and Indiana. However, considerable -quantities of good yellow poplar have been cut in other regions. - -The physical properties of the wood of yellow poplar fit it for many -purposes but not for all. It is not very strong and is tolerably -brittle. It is light in weight, medium soft, and is easily worked. The -annual rings of growth are not prominent compared with some of the oaks, -yet select logs show nicely in quarter-sawing. The medullary rays are -numerous, but small and not prominent, for which reason bright streaks -and flecks are not characteristic of the wood. Yellow poplar is fairly -stiff and elastic, but is not often selected on account of those -qualities. In color it is light yellow or brown. The color gives name to -the tree. The sapwood is whiter, and it is the abnormally thick sapwood -of some trees which causes them to be called white poplar. The wood has -little figure, and it is seldom employed for fine work without stain or -paint of some kind. It is not usually classed as long lasting when -exposed to the weather, yet cases are known where weather boarding of -houses, and bridge and mill timbers of yellow poplar have outlasted the -generation of builders. - -The quantity of yellow poplar in the country is but a remnant of the -former enormous supply that covered the rich valleys and fertile coves -in a region exceeding 200,000 square miles. It occupied the best land, -and much was destroyed by farmers in clearing fields. It was not -generally found in groves or dense stands, but as solitary trees -scattered through forests of other woods. The trunks are tall and -shapely, the crowns comparatively small. The form is ideal for sawlogs, -and very few trees of America produce a higher percentage of clear, -first class lumber. That is because the forest-grown poplar early sheds -its lower branches, and the trunks lay on nothing but clear wood. In the -yellow poplar's region it was the principal wood of which the pioneers -made their canoes for crossing and navigating rivers. It is still best -known by the name canoewood in some regions. It worked easily and was -light, and a thin-shelled canoe lasted many years, barring floods and -other accidents. Builders of pirogues, keelboats, barges, and other -vessels for inland navigation in early times when roads were few and -streams were the principal highways of commerce, found no timber -superior to yellow poplar. It could be had in planks of great size and -free from defects, and while not as strong as oak, it was strong enough -to withstand the usual knocks and buffetings of river traffic. - -Yellow poplar sawlogs have probably exceeded in number any other wood, -except white pine, floated down rivers and creeks to market. The wood -floats well and lumbermen have usually pushed far up the rivers, ahead -of other lumber operations, to procure it. Enormous drives have gone and -are still going out of rivers in the Appalachian region. - -The uses of yellow poplar are so many that an enumeration is -impracticable, except by general classes. These are boxes and -woodenware, vehicles, furniture, interior finish, and car building. -There is another class consisting of low-grade work, such as common -lumber, pulpwood, and the like. - -There is a class of commodities which are usually packed in boxes and -require a wood that will impart neither taste nor stain. That -requirement is met by yellow poplar. It has been an important wood for -boxes in which food products are shipped. It is so used less frequently -now than formerly because of increased cost, but veneer is employed to a -large extent, and while the total quantity of wood going into box -factories is smaller than formerly, the actual number and contents of -poplar boxes are perhaps about the same. It is a white wood and shows -printing and stenciling clearly. That is an important point with many -manufacturers who wish to print their advertisements on the boxes which -they send out. Woodenware, particularly ironing boards, bread boards, -and pantry and kitchen utensils, are largely made of poplar because it -is light, attractive, and easily kept clean. It is popular as pumplogs -for the same reason. - -As a vehicle wood, yellow poplar is not a competitor of oak and hickory. -They are for running gear and frames; poplar for tops and bodies. No -wood excels it for wide panels. It receives finish and paint so well -that it is not surpassed by the smoothest metals. Many of the finest -carriage and automobile tops are largely of this wood. In case of slight -accidents it resists dints much better than sheet metal. - -Cheap furniture was once made of yellow poplar. It now enters into the -best kinds, and is finished in imitation of costly woods, notably -mahogany, birch, and cherry. No American wood will take a higher polish. -It is also much employed as an interior wood by furniture manufacturers. -It fills an important place as cores or backing over which veneers are -glued. - -When used as an interior house finish and in car building, it is nearly -always stained or painted. Many of the broad handsome panels in -passenger cars, which pass for cherry, birch, mahogany, or rosewood, are -yellow poplar, to which the finisher and decorator have given their best -touches. - -All poplar lumber is not wide, clear stock, though much of it is. The -lower grades go as common lumber and small trees are cut for pulpwood. A -large part of the demand for high-grade yellow poplar is in foreign -countries, and a regular oversea trade is carried on by exporters. -Foreign manufacturers put the wood to practically the same uses as the -best grades in this country. - -Yellow poplar seasons well, and is a satisfactory wood to handle. When -thoroughly dry it holds its shape with the best of woods. Bluing is apt -to affect the green wood if unduly exposed. Fresh poplar chips in damp -situations sometimes change to a conspicuous blue color within a day or -two. However, millmen do not experience much difficulty in preventing -the bluing of the lumber. - -GYMINDA (_Gyminda grisebachii_) is also called false boxwood, and -belongs to the staff family. The name gyminda is artificial and -meaningless. The genus has a single species which occurs in the islands -of southern Florida where trees of largest size are scarcely twenty-five -feet high and six inches in diameter. The wood is very heavy, hard, -fine-grained, and is nearly black. It is suitable for small articles, -but it is not known to be so used, and its scarcity renders improbable -any important future use of the wood. The fruit is a small berry, -ripening in November. The range of the species extends to Cuba, Porto -Rico, and other islands of the West Indies. - -[Illustration] - - - - -EVERGREEN MAGNOLIA - -[Illustration: EVERGREEN MAGNOLIA] - - - - -EVERGREEN MAGNOLIA - -(_Magnolia F[oe]tida_) - - -This is not a timber tree of first importance. A few years ago it was -seldom cut except in very small quantities; but it was found to possess -good qualities, and now it goes regularly to the mills which saw -hardwoods in the region where it grows. The wood of different magnolia -trees, or even the wood of the same tree, shows lack of uniformity. Some -of it looks like yellow poplar and compares favorably with it in several -particulars, while other of it is very dark, with hard flinty streaks -which not only present a poor appearance, but dull the tools of the -woodworking machines and create an unfavorable impression of the wood -generally. This magnolia holds pretty closely to the damp lands in all -parts of its range. The amount of the annual cut is not known, because -it goes in with the minor species in most places and no separate account -is taken. It is coming into more notice every year, and some -manufacturers have been so successful in finding ways to make it -serviceable that the best grades are easily sold. The wood does not hold -its color very well. The light-colored sapwood is apt to become darker -after exposure to the air, and the dark heartwood fades a little. The -tree is so handsome in the forest that it is occasionally spared when -the surrounding trees are removed. - -It is doubtful if any American tree surpasses it as an ornament when its -leaves, trunk, flowers, and bark are considered. It is not perfect in -all of these particulars; in fact, it possesses some serious faults. The -crown is often too small for the tree's height; the branches straggle, -many on some parts of the trunk and few on others; the flowers are -objectionable because of strong odor which is unpleasant to most people. -But these shortcomings are more than compensated for by splendid -qualities. The rich, dark green of the leaves, their size and profusion, -their changeless luster, place them in a position almost beyond the -reach of rivalry from any other tree. - -Those who see this splendid inhabitant of the forest only where it has -been planted in northern states, and elsewhere outside of its natural -range, miss much of the best it has to give. It belongs in the South. -The wet lands, the small elevations in deep swamps, the flat country -where forests are dense, are its home. The yellowish-green trunk rises -through the tangled foliage that keeps near the ground, and towers fifty -feet above, and there spreads in a crown of green so deep that it is -almost black. It likes company, and seldom grows solitary. Its -associates are the southern maples, red gum, tupelo, cypress, a dozen -species of oak, and occasionally pines on nearby higher ground. -Festoons of grayish-green Spanish moss often add to the tropical -character of the scene. The moss seldom hangs on the magnolia, but is -frequently abundant on surrounding trees. - -Lumbermen formerly left the evergreen magnolia trees on tracts from -which they cut nearly everything else. Large areas which had once been -regarded as swamps were thus converted into parks of giant magnolias, -many of which towered seventy or eighty feet. The tracts were left wild, -and those who so left them had no purpose of providing ornament, but -they did so. Many a scene was made grand by its magnolias, after other -forest growth had been cut away. - -The range of evergreen magnolia is from North Carolina to Florida and -west to Arkansas and Texas. The species reaches largest size in the -vicinity of the Mississippi, both east and west of it. Trees eighty feet -high and four feet in diameter occur, and trunks are often without limbs -one-half or two-thirds their length, when they grow in forests. - -The common name for the tree in most parts of its range is simply -magnolia, though that name fails to distinguish it from several other -species, some of which are associated with it. Occasionally it is called -big laurel, great laurel magnolia, laurel-leaved magnolia, laurel, and -laurel bay. Bull bay is a common name for it in Georgia, Alabama, and -Mississippi. It is called bat tree, but the reason for such a name is -not known. - -Leaves are from five to eight inches long and two or three wide, and -dark green above, but lighter below. They fall in the spring after -remaining on the branches two whole years. - -The odor of the flowers is unpleasant, but they are attractive to the -sight, being six or eight inches across, with purple bases. The -flowering habit of this tree is all that could be desired. It is in -bloom from April till August. - -The fruit resembles that of the other magnolias and is three or four -inches long and two or less wide. Its color is rusty-brown. The ripe -seeds hang awhile by short threads, according to the habit of the -family. The wood is stronger than poplar, fully as stiff, and nearly -fifty per cent heavier. The annual rings are rather vaguely marked by -narrow bands of summerwood. Pores are diffuse, plentiful, and very -small. Medullary rays are larger than those of yellow poplar, and show -fairly well in quarter-sawed stock. The wood is compact and easily -worked, except when hard streaks are encountered. The surface finishes -with a satiny luster; color creamy-white, yellowish-white, or often -light brown. Occasionally the wood is nearly diametrically the opposite -of this, and is of all darker shades up to purple, black, and blue -black. The appearance of the dark wood suggests decay, but those who -pass it through machines, or work it by hand, consider it as sound as -the lighter colored wood. - -The uses of magnolia are much the same in all parts of its range, and -those of Louisiana, where the utilization of the wood has been studied -more closely than in other regions, indicate the scope of its -usefulness. It is there made into parts of boats, bar fixtures, boxes, -broom handles, brush backs, crates, door panels, dugout canoes, -excelsior, furniture shelving, interior finish, ox yokes, panels, and -wagon boxes. In Texas where the annual consumption probably exceeds a -million feet, it is employed by furniture makers, and appears in window -blinds, packing boxes, sash, and molding. In Mississippi, fine mantels -are made of carefully selected wood, quarter-sawed to bring out the -small, square "mirrors" produced by radial cutting of the medullary -rays. - -Evergreen magnolia has long been planted for ornament in this country -and Europe. It survives the winters at Philadelphia. Several varieties -have been developed by cultivation and are sold by nurseries. - -Southern forests have contributed, and still contribute, large -quantities of magnolia leaves for decorations in northern cities during -winter. The flowers are not successfully shipped because they are easily -bruised, and they quickly lose their freshness and beauty. - - SWEET MAGNOLIA (_Magnolia glauca_) ranges from Massachusetts to - Texas and south to Florida. It reaches its largest size on the - hummock lands of the latter state. Trees are occasionally seventy - feet high and three or more in diameter, but in many parts of its - range it is small, even shrubby. Among the names by which it is - known are white bay, swamp laurel, swamp sassafras, swamp magnolia, - white laurel, and beaver-tree. It inhabits swamps in the northern - part of its range, hence the frequency of the word "swamp" in - coining names for it. Beaver-tree as a name is probably due to its - former abundance about beaver dams, where impounded water made the - ground swampy. In the North, sweet magnolia's chief value is in its - flowers, which are two or three inches across, creamy-white, and - fragrant. They were formerly very abundant near the mouth of the - Susquehanna river in Maryland and Pennsylvania, and northward - through New Jersey; but the traffic in the flowers has destroyed the - growth in many places where once plentiful. It is not important as a - timber resource, but it is employed for a number of useful purposes - where logs of fair size may be had. The sapwood is creamy-white, but - the heart is nearly as dark as mahogany, and in Texas it is used to - imitate that wood. The brown and other shades combine with fine - effect. One of its common uses is for broom handles. Heartwood is - worked into high-grade chairs. It takes a beautiful polish. - - FRASER UMBRELLA (_Magnolia fraseri_) ranges south from the Virginia - mountains to Florida and west to Mississippi. It is of largest size - in South Carolina where trees are sometimes thirty feet high and a - foot or more in diameter. The leaves fall in autumn of the first - year; the creamy-white, sweetly-scented flowers are eight or ten - inches in diameter, and the fruit resembles that of the other - magnolias. The wood is weak, soft, and light. The heart is clear - brown, the sapwood nearly white. It has not been reported in use for - any commercial purpose. Among its other names it is known as - long-leaved cucumber tree, ear-leaved umbrella tree, Indian bitters, - water lily tree, and mountain magnolia. In cultivation this species - is hardy as far north as Massachusetts, and it is planted for - ornament in Europe. - - PYRAMID MAGNOLIA (_Magnolia pyramidata_) seems to have generally - escaped the notice of laymen, and it therefore has no English name - except the translation of the Latin term by which botanists know it. - Its habitat lies in southern Georgia and Alabama, and western - Florida, and it is occasionally seen in cultivation in western - Europe. It is a slender tree, twenty feet or more in height. Its - flowers are three or four inches in diameter, and creamy-white in - color. A tree so scarce cannot be expected to be commercially - important. - - WESTERN BLACK WILLOW (_Salix lasiandra_) is a rather large tree when - at its best, reaching a diameter of two feet or more, and a height - of fifty, but in other parts of its range it rarely exceeds ten feet - in height. It follows the western mountain ranges southward from - British Columbia into California. The wood is soft, light, and - brittle, and is used little if at all. Lyall willow (_Salix - lasiandra lyalli_) is a well marked variety of this species and is a - tree of respectable size. - - GLOSSYLEAF WILLOW (_Salix lucida_) is a far northern species which - has its southern limit in Pennsylvania and Nebraska. It grows nearly - to the Arctic circle. Trees twenty-five feet high and six or eight - inches in diameter are the best this species affords. - - LONGLEAF WILLOW (_Salix fluviatilis_) is known also as sandbar - willow, narrowleaf willow, shrub, white, red, and osier willow, and - by still other names. It ranges from the Arctic circle to Mexico, - reaching Maryland on the Atlantic coast, and California on the - Pacific. In rare cases it is sixty feet high, and two in diameter, - but it is usually less than twenty feet high. - -[Illustration] - - - - -WAHOO - -[Illustration: WAHOO] - - - - -WAHOO - -(_Evonymus Atropurpureus_) - - -No one seems to know what the original meaning of the word wahoo was. It -is applied to no fewer than six different trees in this country, four of -them elms, one a basswood, and one the tree now under consideration. The -generic name, _Evonymus_, appears to be an effort to put somebody's seal -of approval on the name, for it means in the Greek language "of good -name." - -It belongs to the family _Celastraceæ_, which means the staff family. -Some designate members of this group as "Spindle trees," because -formerly in Europe the wood was employed for knitting needles, hooks for -embroidering, spindles for spinning wheels, and the like. Unless the -members of the family in Europe have wood quite different from that of -the wahoo tree in this country, no adequate reason can be found for the -use of the wood for spindles or staffs, because it is poor material for -that purpose. It may be compared with basswood. - -This beautiful little tree, scarcely more than a shrub in most regions -of its growth, is a widely distributed species, its range extending -through western New York to Nebraska, southeastern South Dakota and -eastern Kansas, and in the valley of the upper Missouri river, Montana, -southward to northern Florida, southern Arkansas and Oklahoma. In these -localities it is generally a shrub, rarely reaching a height of more -than nine or ten feet. It attains the proportions of a tree only in the -bottom lands of southern Arkansas, Oklahoma, and in the lower -Appalachian regions. The most favorable habitat of the tree is moist -soil along the banks of streams. In the southern and western parts of -its range, under favorable conditions of soil and climate, and when -isolated from other species, the wahoo tree grows to rather large size -and develops a wide flat top of slender spreading branches. - -The largest and most beautiful specimens of wahoo grow in the -mountainous regions of West Virginia, eastern Tennessee, and western -North Carolina. In these sections it is no unusual thing for a tree of -this species to attain a height of sixty or seventy feet and a diameter -of twenty or twenty-four inches. It is never found in pure stands but is -isolated along the edge of the forest, and thrives best near water -courses. - -The tree is known by a variety of names in the different parts of the -country. The Indians are said to have called it wahoo. Burning bush, a -very popular name, is especially appropriate, as no brighter dash of -color is displayed by any tree than the scarlet fruit of this growth, -which remains on the branches long after the leaves have fallen, often -until the winter storms beat it to the ground. The growth is also -called occasionally by the name bleeding-heart tree, in reference to the -blood-red contents revealed by the bursting fruit. - -The wahoo in the fall of the year may be identified by the flaming color -of its fruit, or rather the seeds of the fruit. The hull bursts and -exposes the bright red seeds within. These, contrary to the usual run of -red fruits, are not of a glossy surface, and in this the tree is unique. -During the summer season, however, identification is not such a simple -matter, for the foliage is quite ordinary, and the flat, unassuming -flowers have little that is distinctive about them; but as the autumn -approaches and the leaves turn a pale yellow color, the tree becomes a -conspicuous and beautiful object with its scarlet berries. - -The bark of the wahoo is ashen gray, thin, furrowed, and divided into -minute scales. On the branchlets it is a dark purplish-brown, later -becoming brownish-gray. - -The heartwood of wahoo is white, with a slight tinge of orange. The -sapwood, scarcely distinguishable from the heartwood, is more nearly -white in tone. The wood is heavy and close-grained but not very hard. It -weighs when seasoned a little less than forty pounds to the cubic foot. -Such of this wood as is sawed into lumber, which is but a small -quantity, sells commercially with poplar saps, thus masquerading like -its forest fellow, the cucumber tree. The character of the wood is such -that it will not stand exposure to the weather any length of time. It is -far from durable, but is remarkably clear from defects and answers -admirably many purposes for which sap poplar is desirable. - -The leaves of the tree are waxy in appearance, opposite, entire, -elliptical or ovate in shape, from two to four inches long, one to two -broad. They are finely serrate and pointed at both apex and base, and -the stems are short and stout. - -The flowers, which appear in May and June, are definitely four-parted, -presenting a Maltese cross in shape. They are half an inch across, and -their rounded petals are deep purple in color. The fruit which succeeds -these flowers and which ripens in October is also four-parted. It is -about half an inch across, a pale purple when full size, and hangs on -long slender stems. When ripe the purple husk bursts and reveals the -seed enveloped in a scarlet outer coat that fits it loosely. The leaves, -bark, and fruit of the wahoo are acrid and are reputed to be poisonous. - -The wood is one-third heavier than that of yellow poplar, and it is -evident that it would not pass as poplar with any one disposed to reject -it. It is also much harder than poplar, and is more difficult to season, -as it checks badly. The medullary rays are so thin as to be scarcely -discernible. The wood contains many very small pores. The bark is said -to possess some value for medicinal purposes. No special uses for the -wood have been reported, and it is too scarce to be of much value. The -tree's principal importance is as an ornament, and it shows well in -winter borders where the bright colors of the seeds are exposed. It is -planted both in this country and in Europe. The plantings seldom or -never reach tree size. - -FLORIDA BOXWOOD (_Schæfferia frutescens_) is of the same family as wahoo -but of another genus, and is quite a different kind of tree. The generic -name is in honor of Jakob Christian Schaeffer, a distinguished German -naturalist who died in 1790. Two species of this tree occur in the -United States, one the Florida boxwood, the other a small, shrubby -growth in the dry regions of western Texas and northern Mexico. Florida -boxwood is a West Indies tree which flourishes in the Bahamas and -southward along the other islands to Venezuela. It has gained a foothold -on the islands of southern Florida where it has found conditions -favorable and it grows to a height of thirty or forty feet, and reaches -a trunk diameter of ten inches, but such are trees of the largest size. -The leaves are bright yellow-green, about two inches long, and one or -less in width. They appear in Florida in April and persist a full year, -until the foliage of the succeeding crop displaces them. The flowers -which are small and inconspicuous, open about the same time as the -leaves. The fruit is a scarlet berry which ripens in November, and has a -decidedly disagreeable flavor. The bark is very thin. - -When sound wood in sufficiently large pieces is obtainable it is -valuable for a number of purposes, but chiefly as a substitute for -Turkish boxwood as engraving blocks. The trees are always small in -Florida, which is the only place in the United States where they occur, -and the largest are often hollow or otherwise defective. The wood weighs -48.27 pounds per cubic foot, thoroughly dry, which is about two pounds -heavier than white oak. It is rich in ashes, having about four times as -much as white oak. The color of the heartwood is a bright, clear yellow -to which is due the name yellow-wood occasionally applied to the tree in -the region where it grows, as well as in markets where it is sold. This -is not the tree known in commerce as West Indies boxwood, though it may -be an occasional substitute. It is said that Florida boxwood was -formerly much more abundant in this country than it is now. It was -lumbered for the European market at about the same time that the south -of Florida was stripped of its mahogany. It is suitable for many small -articles where a hard, even-grained wood is wanted. - -IRONWOOD (_Cyrilla racemiflora_) ranges from the coast region of North -Carolina to Florida, and west near the coast to Texas. It is known as -leatherwood, burnwood, burnwood bark, firewood, red titi, and white -titi. Ten woods besides this are called ironwood in some parts of this -country. The name is applied because the hardness of the wood suggests -iron. It is not remarkable for its weight nor its strength. The -medullary rays are thin and inconspicuous. In color it is brown, tinged -with red. It is not apparent why it is a favorite fire wood, for its -fuel value does not rate high theoretically, being much below many -species with which it is associated. The largest trees rarely exceed a -height of thirty feet and a diameter of twelve inches. They flourish in -shady river bottoms and along the borders of sandy swamps and shallow -ponds. - -The tree occasionally assumes the form of a bush and sends up many stems -which produce almost impenetrable thickets. Aside from its use as fuel, -it is in small demand anywhere. In Texas it is sometimes made into -wedges, and similar uses for it are doubtless found in other regions -where it is abundant. It is named from Domenico Cirillo, an Italian -naturalist who died in 1799. - -TITI (_Cliftonia monophylla_) is of the _cyrilla_ family and is one of -three species which occasionally pass under that name. It sometimes -reaches a height of fifty feet and a diameter of one or more. Its range -follows the coast region from South Carolina to Louisiana. It betakes -itself to swamps and flourishes in situations that would be fatal to -many species. Half under water during many months of the year it is -placed at no disadvantage. It grows equally well in shallow swamps which -are rarely overflowed. Near the southern limits of its range in Florida -it is reduced to a shrub. It is known as ironwood and buckwheat tree. -The last name is due to its seeds which are about the size of a -buckwheat grain and otherwise resemble it. The flowers appear in early -spring on long racemes, and are very fragrant. The wood weighs about -thirty-nine pounds per cubic foot, is not strong, but is moderately -hard. It is valuable as fuel and burns with a clear, bright flame. - -[Illustration] - - - - -MOUNTAIN LAUREL - -[Illustration: MOUNTAIN LAUREL] - - - - -MOUNTAIN LAUREL - -(_Kalmia Latifolia_) - - -This tree belongs to the heath family and not to the laurels, as the -name seems to imply. The same is true of rhododendron. The kalmia genus -has five or six species in this country, but only one of tree size, and -then only when at its best. Mountain laurel reaches its best development -in North and South Carolina in a few secluded valleys between the Blue -Ridge and the western mountains of the Appalachian ranges. The largest -specimens are forty or fifty feet high and a foot or a foot and a half -in diameter. Trunks are contorted and unshapely, and lumber is never -sawed from them. - -The tree has many names, most of them, however, are applied to the -species in its shrubby form. A common name is simply laurel, but that -does not distinguish it from the great laurel which is often associated -with it. Calico bush is one of its names, and is supposed to be -descriptive of the flowers. Spoonwood is one of its northern names, -dating back to the times when early settlers, who carried little -silverware with them to their frontier homes, augmented the supply by -making spoons and ladles of laurel roots. Ivy is a common name, -sometimes mountain ivy, or poison ivy. Poison laurel and sheep laurel -are among the names also. The leaves are poisonous, and if sheep feed on -them, death is apt to follow. The exact nature of the poison is not -understood. Sheep seldom feed on the leaves, and do so only when driven -by hunger. Other names are small laurel, wood laurel, and kalmia. The -last is the name of the genus, and is in honor of Peter Kalm, a Swedish -naturalist. - -The species is found from New Brunswick to Louisiana, but principally -among the ranges of the Appalachian mountains. Its thin bark makes it an -easy prey to fire and the top is killed by a moderate blaze. The root -generally remains uninjured and sends up sprouts in large numbers. -Thickets almost impenetrable are sometimes produced in that way. - -Flowers and foliage of mountain laurel are highly esteemed as -decorations, foliage in winter, and the flowers in May and June. The -bloom appears in large clusters, and various colors are in evidence, -white, rose, pink, and numerous combinations. The seeds are ripe in -September, and the pods which bear them burst soon after. - -The wood of mountain laurel weighs 44.62 pounds per cubic foot. It is -hard, strong, rather brittle, of slow growth, brown in color, tinged -with red, with lighter colored sapwood. This description applies to the -wood of the trunk; but in nearly all cases where mention is made of the -wood of this tree, it refers to the roots. These consist of enlargements -or stools, often protruding considerably above the ground. If the area -has been visited repeatedly by fire, the roots are generally out of -proportion to the size of the tops. In that respect they resemble -mesquite, except that the enlarged root of mesquite penetrates far -beneath the surface while that of mountain laurel remains just below the -surface or rises partly above it. - -The utilization of mountain laurel is not confined to the trunks which -reach tree size. Generally it is the root that is wanted. Roots are -usually sold by weight, because of the difficulty of measuring them as -lumber or even by the cord. The annual product of this material in North -Carolina alone amounts to about 85,000 pounds, all of which goes to -manufacturers of tobacco pipes and cigar holders. The use of the laurel -root for pipes is as old as its use for spoons. Pioneers who raised and -cured their own tobacco smoked it in pipes which were their own -handiwork. The laurel root was selected then as now because it carves -easily, is not inclined to split, does not burn readily, and darkens in -color with age. It is cheap material, is found throughout an extensive -region, and the supply is so large that exhaustion in the near future is -not anticipated. - -The wood is employed in the manufacture of many small articles other -than tobacco pipes. Paper knives, small rulers, turned boxes for pins -and buttons, trays, plaques, penholders, handles for buckets, dippers, -and firewood, are among the uses for which laurel is found suitable. - -It is of no small importance for ornamental purposes, and is often seen -growing in clumps and borders in public parks and private yards, where -its evergreen foliage and its bloom make it a valuable shrub. It is -planted in Europe as well as in this country. - -GREAT LAUREL (_Rhododendron maximum_) is also in the heath family. More -than two hundred species of _rhododendron_ are known, and seventeen are -in this country, but only one attains tree size. The generic name means -"rose tree," and the name is well selected. The flowers are the most -conspicuous feature belonging to this species, and few wild trees or -shrubs equal it for beauty. It is not native much west of the Alleghany -mountains, but grows north and east to Nova Scotia. It is at its best -among the mountains, thrives in deep ravines where the shade is dense, -and on steep slopes and stony mountain tops. It forms extensive thickets -which are often so deep and tangled that it is difficult to pass through -them. This laurel is seldom found growing on limestone. It reaches its -largest size in the South. Trees thirty or forty feet high and a foot in -diameter occur in favored localities. It grows on the Alleghany -mountains in West Virginia at an elevation exceeding 4,000 feet and -there forms vast thickets. Some use is made of the wood for engraving -blocks and as tool handles. It is hard, strong, brittle, of slow growth, -and light clear brown. It is frequently planted in parks in this country -and Europe, and three or more varieties are distinguished in -cultivation. This laurel's leaves have a peculiar habit of shrinking and -rolling up when the thermometer falls to zero or near it. Among the -names applied to it are great laurel, rose bay, dwarf rose bay tree, -wild rose bay, bigleaf laurel, deer tongue, laurel, spoon hutch, and -rhododendron. - -CATAWBA RHODODENDRON (_Rhododendron catawbiense_) is a rare, -large-flowered species of the mountain regions from West Virginia -southward to Georgia and Alabama. The wood is not put to use, and the -species is chiefly valuable as an ornamental shrub. It seldom reaches -large size. - -SOURWOOD (_Oxydendrum arboreum_) follows the Alleghany mountain ranges -south from Pennsylvania, and extends into Florida, reaching the Atlantic -coast in Virginia, and Indiana, Tennessee, and Louisiana westward. The -best development of the species is found among the western slopes of the -Big Smoky mountains in Tennessee. It is called sorrel-tree, sour gum, -and sour gum bush, on account of the acidity of the leaves when chewed. -Arrow-wood, another name, refers to the long, straight stems between the -whorls of branches of young trees--those three or four feet high. The -stems are of proper size for arrows, and amateur bowmen use them. Those -who designate the tree as lily-of-the-valley have in mind the flowers. -The shape suggests an opening lily, but the size does not. The flower is -about one-third of an inch long, but panicles several inches long are -covered with them. They open in July and August, and in September the -fruit is ripe. The seed is pale brown and one-eighth of an inch long. - -The sourwood tree at its best is fifty or sixty feet high and from -twelve to eighteen inches in diameter. The bark of young trees is -smooth, but on mature trunks it resembles the exceedingly rough bark of -an old black gum. In fact, many people suppose this tree to be black -gum, never having noticed the difference of leaf, fruit, and flower. The -genus consists of a single species. The wood is heavy, hard, compact, -and it takes good polish. The medullary rays are numerous, but thin, and -they contribute little or nothing to the figure of the wood. The annual -rings show little difference between springwood and summerwood, and -consequently produce poor figure when the lumber is sawed tangentially. -The pores are many and small and are regularly distributed through the -yearly ring. Heartwood is brown, tinged with red, the sapwood lighter. -The strength and elasticity of sourwood are moderate. The wood is made -into sled runners in some of the mountain districts where it occurs, but -no particular qualities fit it for that use. It is occasionally employed -for machinery bearings. It has been reported for mallets and mauls, but -since it is not very well suited for those articles, the conclusion is -that those who so report it have confused it with black gum which it -resembles in the living tree, but not much in the wood. Small handles -are made of it, and it gives good service, provided great strength and -stiffness are not required. Sourwood is not abundant anywhere, and -seldom are more than a few trees found in a group. - - TREE HUCKLEBERRY (_Vaccinium arboreum_) is the only tree form of - twenty-five or thirty species of huckleberry in this country. The - cranberry is one of the best known species. The range of tree - huckleberry extends from North Carolina to Texas, and it reaches its - largest size in the latter state where trunks thirty feet high and - ten inches in diameter occur, but not in great abundance. The fruit - which this tree bears has some resemblance to the common - huckleberry, but is inferior in flavor, besides being dry and - granular. It ripens in October and remains on the branches most of - the winter. The fruit is about a quarter of an inch in diameter, - dark and lustrous, and is a conspicuous and tempting bait for - feathered inhabitants of swamp and forest. The bark of the roots is - sometimes used for medicine, and that from the trunk for tanning, - but it is too scarce to become important in the leather industry. - The tree is known in different parts of its range as farkleberry, - sparkleberry, myrtle berry, bluet, and in North Carolina it is known - as gooseberry. The wood is hard, heavy, and very compact; is liable - to warp, twist, and check in drying; polishes with a fine, satiny - finish. Medullary rays are numerous, broad, and conspicuous; wood - light brown, tinged with red. Small articles are turned from it. - -[Illustration] - - - - -OSAGE ORANGE - -[Illustration: OSAGE ORANGE] - - - - -OSAGE ORANGE - -(_Toxylon Pomiferum_) - - -Osage orange belongs to the mulberry family. There are fifty-four -genera, three of which are found in the United States, the mulberries, -the Osage orange, and the figs. Osage orange is known by several names, -the principal one of which refers to the Osage Indians, who formerly -lived in the region where the tree grows. It is called orange because -the fruit, which is from two to five inches in diameter, looks like a -green orange, but it is unfit for food. In its range most people call it -bodark or bodock, that being a corruption of the name by which the -French designated it, bois d'arc, which means bow wood. It was so called -from the fact that Indians made bows of it when they could get nothing -better. Its value as material for bows seems to be traditional and -greatly overestimated. It is lower in elasticity than white oak and very -much lower than hickory, and, theoretically, at least, it is not well -suited for bows. The wood is known also as mock orange, bow-wood, Osage -apple tree, yellow-wood, hedge, and hedge tree. The last name is given -because many hedges have been made of it. - -Osage orange has been planted in perhaps every state of the Union, and -grows successfully in most of them. It is one of the most widely -distributed of American forest trees, but its distribution has been -chiefly artificial. It was found originally in a very restricted region, -from which it was carried for hedge and ornamental planting far and -wide. Its natural home, to which it was confined when first discovered, -embraced little more than ten thousand square miles, and probably half -of that small area produced no trees of commercial size. Its northern -limit was near Atoka, Oklahoma, its southern a little south of Dallas, -Texas; a range north and south of approximately one hundred miles. Its -broadest extent east and west was along Red River, through Cooke, -Grayson, Fanning, Lamar, and Red River counties, Texas, about 120 miles. -Some Osage orange of commercial size grew outside the area thus -delimited, but no large amount. Much of that region, particularly south -of Red River, was prairie, without timber of any kind; but scattered -here and there were belts, strips, thickets, and clumps of Osage orange -mixed with other species. On the very best of its range, and before -disturbed by white men, this wood seldom formed pure stands of as much -as 100 acres in one body, and since the country's settlement, the stands -have become smaller or have been entirely cleared to make farms. All -accounts agree that the Osage orange reaches its highest development on -the fertile lands along Boggy and Blue rivers in Oklahoma, though fine -bodies of it once grew south of the Red River in Texas, and much is -still cut there though the choicest long ago disappeared. Few trees are -less exacting in soil, yet when it can make choice it chooses the best. -In its natural habitat it holds its place in the black, fertile flats -and valleys, and is seldom found on sandy soil. It is not a swamp tree, -though it is uninjured by occasional floods. The tracts where it grows -are sometimes called "bodark swamps," though marshy in wet weather only. - -The tree attains a height of fifty or sixty feet when at its best, but -specimens that tall are unusual. Trunks are occasionally two or three -feet in diameter, but that size is very rare. At the present time -probably ten trees under a foot in diameter are cut for every one over -that size. - -Rough and unshapely as Osage trees are, they have been more closely -utilized than most timbers. Fence posts are the largest item. The board -measure equivalent of the annual cut of posts has been placed at -18,400,000. The posts are shipped to surrounding states, in addition to -fencing nearly 40,000 square miles of northern Texas and southern -Oklahoma. Houseblocks constitute another important use. These are short -posts set under the corners of buildings in place of stone foundations. -The annual demand for this kind of material amounts to about 1,000,000 -board feet. An equal amount goes into bridge piling. The principal -demand comes from highway commissioners. Telephone poles take a -considerable quantity, and insulator pins more. - -One of the most important uses of Osage orange is found in the -manufacture of wagon wheels, though the total quantity so used is -smaller than that demanded for fence posts. - -About 10,000 or 12,000 wagons with Osage orange felloes or rims are -manufactured annually in the United States. That use of the wood is not -new. It began in a small way soon after the settlement of the region. At -first the work was hand-done by local blacksmiths and wheelwrights. They -found the wood objectionable, from the workman's standpoint, on account -of its extreme hardness and the difficulty of cutting it. That objection -is still urged against it though machines have taken the place of the -hand tools of former times. Saws and bits are quickly dulled, and the -cost of grinding, repair, and replacement increases the operator's -expense much above ordinary mill outlay for such purposes. On that -account many prefer to work the wood green. It is then softer, and cuts -more smoothly. If seasoned before it is passed through the machines it -is liable to "pull." That term is used to indicate a rough-breaking of -the fibres by the impact of knives. The readiness with which the wood -splits calls for extraordinary care in boring it, and many felloes are -spoiled in finishing them to receive the tenoned ends of spokes. - -A number of commodities are made of Osage orange but in quantities so -small that the total wood used does not constitute a serious drain upon -the supply. Police clubs are occasionally made as a by-product of the -rim mill. Some years ago at the Texas state fair at Dallas, a piano was -exhibited, all visible wood being Osage orange, handsomely polished. The -rich color of this wood distinguishes it from all other American -species. When oiled it retains the yellow color, but unoiled wood fades -on long exposure. Clock cases of Osage have been manufactured locally, -and gun stocks made of it are much admired, though the wood's weight is -an argument against it for gun stocks. Canes split from straight-grained -blocks, and shaved and polished by hand, are occasionally met with, but -none manufactured by machinery have been reported. Sawmills in the Osage -orange region use the wood as rollers for carriages and off-bearing -tables. Rustic rockers and benches of the wood, with the bark or without -it, figure to a small extent in local trade. It has been tried -experimentally for parquetry floors, with satisfactory results. Sections -of streets have been paved with Osage orange blocks. The wood wears well -and is nearly proof against decay, but no considerable demand for such -blocks appears ever to have existed. Railroads which were built through -the region years ago cut Osage for ties and culvert timber, but no such -use is now reported. The demand for the wood for tobacco pipes is -increasing, more than 100,000 blocks for such pipes having been sold -during a single year. - -Osage orange weighs 48.21 pounds per cubic foot. It is twenty-eight per -cent stronger than white oak, but is not quite as stiff, is very -brittle, and under heavy impact, will crumble. For that reason, Osage -wagon felloes will not stand rocky roads. The bark is sometimes used for -tanning, and the wood for dyeing. - - RED MULBERRY (_Morus rubra_) is frequently spoken of simply as - mulberry, and is sometimes called black mulberry. The full grown - fruit is red, but turns black or very dark purple when ripe. The - berry is composed of a compact and adhering cluster of drupes, each - drupe about one thirty-second of an inch long. What seems to be a - single berry is really an aggregation of very small fruits, each - resembling a tiny cherry. The mulberry is naturally a forest tree, - but it is permitted to grow about the margins of fields, and is - often planted in door yards for its fruit and its shade. It is - looked upon by many as a tame species. - - Two mulberries grow naturally in this country. The red species - ranges from Massachusetts west to Kansas, and south to Texas and - Florida. Its best growth is found in the lower Ohio valley and the - southern foot hills of the Appalachian mountains. The largest trees - are seventy feet high and three or four in diameter. If this tree - were abundant the wood's place in furniture and finish would be - important. The heartwood is dark, of good figure, and fairly strong. - It takes a fine polish, and resembles black walnut, though usually - of a little lighter shade. Its largest use is as fence posts. It is - durable in contact with the soil. The effect when made into - furniture, finish, and various kinds of turnery, is pleasing. Farm - tools, particularly scythe snaths, are made of it, and it has been - reported for slack cooperage and boat building, but such uses are - apparently infrequent. The wood is evidently sold under some other - name, or without a name, for the total sawmill output in the United - States is given in government statistics at only 1,000 feet, which - is probably not one per cent of the cut. - - MEXICAN MULBERRY (_Morus celtidifolia_) ranges from southern Texas - to Arizona. Trees are seldom more than thirty feet high and one in - diameter. The berry is about half an inch long, black, and made up - of a hundred or more very small drupes. It is edible, but its taste - is insipid. The wood is heavy and is of dark orange or dark brown - color. It is suitable for small turnery and other articles, but no - reports of uses for it have been found. The tree is occasionally - planted for its fruit by Mexicans, but Americans care little for it. - - Two foreign mulberries have been extensively planted in this - country, and in some localities they are running wild and are - mistaken for native species. One is the white mulberry (_Morus - alba_), a native of China; the other is the paper mulberry - (_Broussonetia papyrifera_) a different genus, but of the same - family. It is a native of Japan, and has been naturalized in some of - the southern states. Nine varieties of the white mulberry have been - distinguished in cultivation. - -[Illustration] - - - - -PERSIMMON - -[Illustration: PERSIMMON] - - - - -PERSIMMON - -(_Diospyros Virginiana_) - - -Persimmon belongs to the ebony family, and the family has contributed to -the civilization of the human race since very early times. Some of the -oldest furniture in existence, that which was found hidden in the ruins -of ancient Egypt, is ebony, and there is evidence among the old records -in the land of the Nile that the Egyptians made voyages southward -through the Red sea and brought back cargoes of ebony from Punt, a -region in eastern Africa. The name ebony is believed to be derived from -a Hebrew word, probably brought to Palestine by some of Solomon's -captains who traded along the south coast of Asia or the east coast of -Africa about the time of the building of the first temple. The botanical -name for the genus (_diospyros_) is made up of two words meaning -"Jupiter's wheat"--supposed to be a reference to the value of persimmons -as food. The name, however, is not as old as the Hebrew word, nor is the -Hebrew as old as the references to ebony in the records of Egypt. A -piece of the old furniture--not less than 4,000 years old--is still in -existence. It probably matches in age the cedar of Lebanon coffins in -the oldest Egyptian tombs. - -The ebony family consists of five genera, one of which is persimmon -(_diospyros_). This genus consists of 160 species, only two of them in -the United States. Thus the persimmon trees of this country are a very -small part of the family to which they belong, but they are a highly -respectable part of it. The word persimmon is of Indian origin, and was -used by the tribes near the Atlantic coast. The original spelling was -"pessimin," and that was probably about the pronunciation given it by -the aborigines. - -It has never been called by many names. It is known as date plum in New -Jersey and Tennessee, and as possumwood in Florida. The avidity with -which opossums feed on the fruit is responsible for the name. - -The range of persimmon extends from Connecticut to Florida, and westward -to Iowa, Missouri, and Texas. It reaches its largest size in the South. -It is of vigorous growth, spreading by means of seeds, and also by -roots. The latter is the most common method where the ground is open. -Such situations as old, abandoned fields invite the spread of -persimmons. Roots ramify under the ground, and sprouts spring up, often -producing thickets of an acre or more. Trees do not generally reach -large size if they grow in that way, but their crowded condition does -not make them fruitless as can be attested to by many a boy who -penetrates the persimmon thickets by means of devious paths that wind -with many a labyrinthic turn which takes in all that is worth finding. - -The variation in the quality of persimmons is greater than that of most -wild fruits. Nature usually sets a standard and sticks closely to it, -but the rule is not adhered to in the case of persimmons. Some are twice -as large as others; some are never fit to eat, no matter how severely or -how often they are frosted; others require at least one fierce frost to -soften their austerity; but some may be eaten with relish without the -ameliorating influence of frost. - -The austerity of a green persimmon is due to tannin. It is supposed that -cultivation might remove some of this objectionable quality, but no -great success has thus far attended efforts in that direction. Japanese -persimmons, which are of a different species, are cultivated with -success in California. - -The sizes of persimmon trees vary according to soil, climate, and -situation. They average rather small, but occasionally reach a height of -100 feet and a diameter of nearly two. Mature trunks are usually little -over twelve inches in diameter, and many never reach that size. - -The dry wood weighs 49.28 pounds per cubic foot, which is about the -weight of hickory. It is hard, strong, compact, and is susceptible of a -high polish. The yearly rings are marked by one or more bands of open -ducts, and scattered ducts occur in the rest of the wood. The medullary -rays are thin and inconspicuous; color of heartwood dark brown, often -nearly black; the sapwood is light brown, and frequently contains darker -spots. - -The value of persimmon depends largely upon the proportion of sapwood to -heartwood. That was the case formerly more than it is now; for until -recent years the heartwood of persimmon was generally thrown away, and -the sapwood only was wanted; but demand for the heart has recently -increased. There is much difference in the proportion of heartwood to -sapwood in different trees. It does not seem to be a matter of size, nor -wholly of age. Small trunks sometimes have more heart than large ones. A -tree a hundred years old may have heartwood scarcely larger than a lead -pencil, and occasionally there is none. In other instances the heart is -comparatively large. - -Persimmon has never been a wood of many uses, as hickory and oak have -been. In early times it was considered valuable almost wholly on account -of its fruit, and that had no commercial value, as it was seldom offered -for sale in the market. In the language of the southern negroes who -fully appreciated the fruit, it was "something good to run at"--meaning -that the ripe persimmons were gathered and eaten from the trees while -they lasted, but that few were preserved. - -It is recorded that the "small wheel" of the pioneer cabins was -occasionally made of persimmon wood. The wheel so designated was the -machine on which wool and flax were spun by the people in their homes. -Spinning wheels were of two kinds, one large, with the operator walking -to and fro, the other small, with the operator sitting. It was the small -wheel which was sometimes made of persimmon. There is no apparent reason -why it should have been made of that wood in preference to any one of a -dozen others. - -The demand for persimmon in a serious way began with its use as shuttles -in textile factories. Weavers had made shuttles of it for home use on -hand looms for many years before the demand came from power looms where -the shuttles were thrown to and fro by machinery. Up to some thirty -years ago, shuttles for factories were generally made of Turkish -boxwood, but the supply fell short and the advance in price caused a -search for substitutes. Two satisfactory shuttlewoods were found in this -country, persimmon and dogwood. The demand came not only from textile -mills in America but from those of Europe. The manufacture of shuttle -blocks became an industry of considerable importance. - -Persimmon wood is suitable for shuttles because it wears smooth, is -hard, strong, tough, and of proper weight. Most woods that have been -tried for this article fail on account of splintering, splitting, -quickly wearing out, or wearing rough. The shuttle is not regarded as -satisfactory unless it stands 1,000 hours of actual work. Some woods -which are satisfactory for many other purposes will not last an hour as -a shuttle. - -The manufacture of shuttles, after the square has been roughed out, -requires twenty-two operations. Probably more shuttlewood comes from -Arkansas than from any other section, though a dozen or more states -contribute persimmon. The total sawmill cut of this wood in the United -States is about 2,500,000 feet, but this does not include that which -never passes through a sawmill. - -The wood has other uses. It has lately met demand from manufacturers of -golf heads. Skewers are made of it in North Carolina, and billiard cues -and mallets in Massachusetts. - -The heartwood is dark and shuttle makers and golfhead manufacturers will -not have it. Until recently it was customary to throw it away, because -no sale for it could be found. It is now known to be suitable for -parquet flooring and for brush backs, and the demand for the heartwood -is as reliable as for the sapwood. A little of the dark wood is cut in -veneer and is employed in panel work, and other is used in turnery. - -The seeds of persimmon furnished one of the early substitutes for coffee -in backwoods settlements when the genuine article could not be obtained. -They were parched and pounded until sufficiently pulverized. During the -Civil war many a confederate camp in the South was fragrant with the -aroma of persimmon seed coffee, after the soldiers had added the fruit -to their rations of cornbread. - -MEXICAN PERSIMMON (_Diospyros texana_) grows in Texas and Mexico. It is -most abundant in southern and western Texas, where it suits itself to -different soils, is found on rich moist ground near the borders of -prairies, and also in rocky canyons and dry mesas. The largest trees are -fifty feet high and twenty inches in diameter, but trunks that large are -not abundant. The tree differs from the eastern persimmon in that the -sapwood is thinner, and the heartwood makes up a much greater proportion -of the trunk; the uses are consequently different, since it is taken for -its dark wood, the eastern tree for its light-colored sap. The fruit of -the Mexican persimmon is little esteemed. It is small, black, and the -thin layer of pulp between the skin and the seed is insipid. Until fully -ripe it is exceedingly austere. The Mexicans in the Rio Grande valley -make a dye of the persimmons and use it to color sheep skins. The -fruit's supply of tannin probably contributes to the tanning as well as -the dyeing of the sheep pelts. The wood is heavier than eastern -persimmon, and has more than three fold more ashes in a cord of wood, -amounting to about 160 pounds. The bark is thin and the trunk gnarled. -The dark color of the wood gives it the name black persimmon in Texas. -Mexicans call it chapote. Sargent pronounces it the best American -substitute for boxwood for engraving purposes, but it does not appear to -be used outside of Texas. The wood is irregular in color, even in the -same piece, being variegated with lighter and darker streaks, and cloudy -effects. It ought to be fine brush-back material. It is worked into tool -handles, lodge furniture, canes, rules, pen holders, picture frames, -curtain rings, door knobs, parasol handles, and maul sticks for artists. - -[Illustration] - - - - -FLOWERING DOGWOOD - -[Illustration: FLOWERING DOGWOOD] - - - - -FLOWERING DOGWOOD - -(_Cornus Florida_) - - -The dogwood or cornel family is old but not numerous. It originated -several hundred thousand years ago and spread over much of the world, -but preferred the temperate latitudes. One species at least crossed the -equator and established itself in the highlands of Peru. There are forty -or fifty species in all, about one-third of them in the United States, -but most are shrubs. Black gum and tupelo are members of the family, and -are giants compared with the dogwoods. In Europe the tree is usually -called cornel, and that has been made the family name. It is a very old -word, coined by the Romans before the days of Caesar. They so named it -because it was hard like horn (_cornus_ meaning horn in the Latin -language). They used it as shafts of spears, and so common was that use -that when a speaker referred to a spear he simply called it by the name -of the wood of the handle or shaft, as when Virgil described a combat -which was supposed to have occurred 800 years before the Christian era, -and used the words: "Clogged in the wound the Italian _cornel_ stood." - -The qualities of this wood which led to important uses among the Romans, -have always made dogwood a valuable material. Civilized nations do not -need it for spear shafts, but they have other demands which call for -large amounts. - -The flowering dogwood has other names in this country. It is generally -known simply as dogwood, but it is called boxwood in Connecticut, Rhode -Island, New York, Mississippi, Michigan, Kentucky, and Indiana; false -box-dogwood in Kentucky; New England boxwood in Tennessee; flowering -cornel in Rhode Island; and cornel in Texas. - -Its range extends from Massachusetts through Ontario and Michigan to -Missouri, south to Florida, and west to Texas. The area where it grows -includes about 800,000 square miles. It is most common and of largest -size in the South, comparatively rare in the North, generally occurs in -the shade of taller trees, and prefers well-drained soil, but is not -particular whether it is fertile or thin. - -The dogwood is valuable as ornament and for its wood. It was formerly a -source of medicine, from roots, bark, and flowers; but it seems to have -been largely displaced by other drugs; was once considered a good -substitute for quinine, that use having been learned from Indian -doctors. The Indians dug roots for a scarlet dye with which the vain -warrior stained escutcheons on buckskin, and colored porcupine quills -and bald eagle feathers for decorating his moccasins and his hair. - -The dogwood varies in size from a shrub with many branches to a tree -forty feet high, eighteen inches in diameter, and with a flat but -shapely crown. The trunk rises as a shaft with little taper, until the -first branches are reached. All the branches start at the same place, -and the trunk ends abruptly--divides into branches. Flowers are an -important part of the tree, as might be inferred from the prominence -given them in the tree's names. In the South the flowers appear in -March, in the North in May, and in both regions before the opening of -the leaves. The flowers on vigorous trees are three or four inches -across, white, and very showy. A dogwood tree in full bloom against a -hillside in spring is a most conspicuous object, and is justly admired -by all who have appreciation of beauty. The flowers fall as leaves -appear, and for some months the tree occupies its little space in the -forest unobserved; but in the autumn it bursts again into glory, and -while not quite as conspicuous an object as when in bloom, it is no less -worthy of admiration. The fall of the leaves reveals the brilliant -scarlet fruit which ladens the branches. The berries are just large -enough for a good mouthful for a bird, but birds spare them until fully -ripe to the harvest, and they then harvest them very rapidly. The tree -is thus permitted to display its fruit a considerable time before -yielding it to the feathered inhabitants of the air whose mission in -forest economy is to scatter the seeds of trees, when nature provides -the seeds themselves with no wings for flying. - -The two periods in the year when dogwood is highly ornamental, the -flowers in spring before leaves appear, and fruit in autumn after leaves -fall, are responsible for this tree's importance in ornamental planting. -It is a common park tree, but it is small, generally not more than -fifteen feet high, and it occupies subordinate places in the plans of -the landscape garden. It is a filler between oaks, pines, and spruces, -and it passes unnoticed, except when in bloom and in fruit. - -Dogwood is about four pounds per cubic foot heavier than white oak, has -the same breaking strength, and is lower in elasticity. It is quite -commonly believed that this tree has no heartwood, but the belief is -erroneous. It seldom has much, and small trunks often none; but when -dogwood reaches maturity it develops heart. Sometimes the heartwood is -no larger than a lead pencil in trunks forty or fifty years old. The -heart is brown, sapwood is white, and is the part wanted by the users of -dogwood. Annual rings are obscure and it is a tree of slow growth. The -wood is as nearly without figure as any in this country. It seldom or -never goes to sawmills. The logs are too small. Most of the supply is -bought by manufacturers of shuttles and golf stick heads, in this -country and Europe. They purchase it by the cord or piece. It does not -figure much in any part of the lumber business, but is cut and marketed -in ways peculiar to itself. Log cutters in hardwood forests pay little -attention to it. The dogwood harvest comes principally from southern -states. Village merchants are the chief collectors, and they sell to -contractors who ship to buyers in the manufacturing centers. The village -merchants buy from farmers, who cut a stick here and there as they find -it in woodlots, forests, or by the wayside, on their own land or -somebody else's. When the cutter next drives to town he throws his few -dogwoods in the wagon, and trades them to the store keeper for groceries -or other merchandise. It is small business, but in the aggregate it -brings together enough dogwood to supply the trade. - -Dogwood has many uses, but none other approaches shuttle making and -golfhead manufacture in importance. The wood is made into brush blocks, -wedges, engraver's blocks, tool handles, machinery bearings as a -substitute for lignum-vitæ, small hubs, and many kinds of turnery and -other small articles. - -WESTERN DOGWOOD (_Cornus nuttallii_) is a larger, taller tree than the -eastern flowering dogwood. A height of 100 feet is claimed for it in the -low country along the coast of British Columbia, but there are no -authentic reports of trees so large anywhere south of the boundary -between Canada and the United States. Its height ranges from twenty to -fifty feet, and its diameter from six to twenty inches. The appearance -is much the same as its eastern relative. Its berries are red, and grow -in clusters of forty or less; the bark on old trunks is rough, but is -smooth on those of medium size; the flowers are generally described as -very large and showy, but the true flower is quite an inconspicuous -affair, being a small, greenish-yellow, button-like cluster, surrounded -by four or six snowy-white or sometimes pinkish scales which are -popularly but erroneously supposed to form a portion of the real flower. -The western dogwood in its native forest often puts out flowers in -autumn; is well supplied with foliage which assumes red and orange -colors in the fall when the showy berries are at their best. However, -the tree has not yet won its way into the good graces of landscape -gardeners, and has not been much planted in parks. It wants some of the -good points possessed by the flowering dogwood. The western tree shows -to best advantage in its native forest where it thrives on gentle -mountain slopes and in low bottoms, valleys, and gulches, provided the -soil is well drained and rich. It runs southward fifteen hundred miles -from Vancouver island to southern California. It cares little for -sunshine, and often is found growing nicely in dense shade. Seedlings do -better where shade is deep. The wood is lighter but somewhat stronger -than that of the flowering dogwood; is pale reddish-brown, with thick -sapwood; is hard, and checks badly in seasoning. Mature trees are from -100 to 150 years. - -BLUE DOGWOOD (_Cornus alternifolia_) is given that name because of the -blue fruit it bears. It has a number of other names, among them being -purple dogwood, green osier, umbrella tree, pigeonberry, and -alternate-leaved dogwood, the last being simply a translation of its -botanical name. It grows in more northern latitudes than the flowering -dogwood, and does not range as far south. It is found from Nova Scotia -to Alabama, and westward to Minnesota, but its southern habitat lies -along the Appalachian mountain ranges. It attains size and assumes form -similar to the flowering dogwood. The wood is heavy, hard, brown, tinged -with red, the sapwood white. It is a deep forest tree, but has been -domesticated in a few instances where it has been planted as ornament. -The wood seems to possess the good qualities of flowering dogwood, but -no reports of uses for it have been made. - -Two varieties of flowering dogwood have been produced by cultivation, -weeping dogwood (_Cornus florida pendula_), and red-bract dogwood -(_Cornus florida rubra_). English cornel or dogwood (_Cornus mas_) has -been planted in many parts of this country. The so-called Jamaica -dogwood is not in the dogwood family. - - - ANDROMEDA (_Andromeda ferruginea_) is a small southern tree of South - Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, and in the latter state is sometimes - known as titi, though other trees also bear that name. The largest - are thirty feet high, if by chance one can be found standing erect, - for most of them prefer to sprawl at full length on the ground. The - fruit is a small berry of no value. The wood is weak, but hard and - sufficiently compact to receive fine polish. The heartwood is light - brown, tinged with red. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CALIFORNIA LAUREL - -[Illustration: CALIFORNIA LAUREL] - - - - -CALIFORNIA LAUREL - -(_Umbellularia Californica_) - - -This tree's range lies in southern Oregon and in California. It is a -member of the laurel family and is closely related to the eastern -sassafras and the red and the swamp bays of the southern states; but it -is not near kin to the eastern laurels which, strange as it may appear, -do not belong to the laurel family, notwithstanding the names they bear. - -The people of California and Oregon have several names for this -interesting tree. It is known as mountain laurel, California bay tree, -myrtle tree, cajeput, California olive, spice tree, laurel, bay tree, -oreodaphne, and California sassafras. - -Those who call it laurel name it on account of its large, lustrous, -thick leaves which adhere to the branches from two to six years. All new -leaves do not come at once, as with most trees, but appear a few at a -time during the whole summer. - -The names which connect this tree with sassafras, spice and cajeput are -based on odor and taste. All members of the laurel family in this -country are characterized by pungent, aromatic odor and taste, and the -one under consideration shares these properties in a remarkable degree. -When the leaves and the green bark are crushed, they give off a light, -volatile oil in follicles which float in the air, like those of an -onion, and when inhaled it produces severe pain over the eyes, and may -induce dizziness and violent sneezing. Though the symptoms are alarming -to one who is undergoing the experience for the first time, no serious -inconvenience follows. Dried leaves are capable of producing a similar -effect but with less violence. The California laurel's close -relationship to the camphor tree is readily believed by persons who -inhale some of the oily spray from the crushed leaves. - -Attempts have been made to produce the commercial oil of cajeput, or a -substitute for it, by distilling the leaves and bark of this laurel. A -passable substitute has been manufactured, but it cannot be marketed as -the genuine article. By distilling the fruit a product known as -umbellulic acid has been obtained. - -The California laurel carries a very dense crown of leaves. This is due -partly to the old crops which hang so long, and to the tree's habit of -lengthening its leading shoots during the growing season, and the -constant appearance of young leaves on the lengthening shoots. It can -stand an almost unlimited amount of shade itself, and is by no means -backward in giving abundance of shade to small growth which is trying -to struggle up to light from below. It delights in dense thickets, but -it prefers thickets of its own species. - -Its fruiting habits and its disposition to occupy the damp, rich soil -along the banks of small water courses, are responsible for the thick -stands. The fruit itself is an interesting thing. It is yellowish-green -in color, as large as a good-sized olive, and looks much like it. The -fruit ripens in October, and falls in time to get the benefit of the -autumn rains which visit the Pacific coast. Since the trees generally -grow along gulches, the fruit falls and rolls to the bottom. The first -dashing rain sends a flood down the gulches, the laurel drupes are -carried along and are buried in mud wherever they can find a resting -place. Germination takes place soon after. The fruit remains under the -mud, attached to the roots of the young plants, until the following -summer. - -The result is that if a laurel gets a foothold in a gulch through which -water occasionally flows, lines of young laurels will eventually cover -the banks of the gulch as far down stream as conditions are favorable. - -The wood of California laurel weighs 40.60 pounds per cubic foot when -kiln-dried. That is nine pounds heavier than sassafras. It is very heavy -when green and sinks when placed in water. It is hard and very firm, -rich yellowish brown in color, often beautifully mottled; but this -applies to the heartwood only, and not to the thick sapwood. - -Lumbermen have discovered that the wood's color can be materially -changed by immersing the logs when green, and leaving them submerged a -long time. The beautiful "black myrtle," which has been so much admired, -is nothing more than California laurel which has undergone the cold -water treatment. - -The annual rings of growth are clearly marked by dark bands of -summerwood. The rings are often wide, but not always, for sometimes the -growth is very slow. The wood is diffuse-porous, and the pores are small -and not numerous. The wood's figure is brought out best by tangential -sawing, as is the case with so many woods which have clearly-marked -rings but small and obscure medullary rays. Figure is not uniform; that -is, one trunk may produce a pattern quite different from another. The -figure of some logs is particularly beautiful; these logs are selected -for special purposes. Sudworth says that none of our hardwoods excels it -in beautiful grain when finished, and Sargent is still more emphatic -when he declares that it is "the most valuable wood produced in the -forests of Pacific North America for interior finish of houses and for -furniture." - -The wood of this tree has more than ninety per cent of the strength of -white oak, is considerably stiffer, and contains a smaller amount of -ash, weight for weight of wood. The species reaches its best development -in the rich valleys of southwestern Oregon, where, with the broadleaf -maple, it forms a considerable part of the forest growth. The largest -trees are from sixty to eighty feet high, and two to four in diameter. -In crowded stands the trunks are shapely, and often measure thirty or -forty feet to the first limbs; but more commonly the trunk is short. - -The boat yards in southwestern Oregon were the first to use California -laurel for commercial purposes, but early settlers made a point of -procuring it for fuel when they could. The oil in the wood causes it to -burn with a cheerful blaze, and campers in the mountains consider -themselves fortunate when they find a supply for the evening bonfire. - -Shipbuilders have drawn upon this wood for fifty years for material. It -is made into pilot wheels, interior finish, cleats, crossties, and -sometimes deck planking. Furniture makers long ago made a specialty of -the wood for their San Francisco trade. For thirty years travelers -admired the superb furniture of the Palace hotel in that city, and -wondered of what wood it was made. It was the California laurel. The -hotel's furniture was hand-made, or largely so, at a time when -woodworking factories were few on the Pacific coast. The furniture was -finally destroyed in the San Francisco earthquake. Furniture is still -one of the products made of the wood, but the quantity is small. Other -products are interior finish; fixtures for banks, stores and offices; -musical instruments, including organs; mathematical instruments, and -carpenters' tools, including rulers, straight-edges, spirit levels, -bench screws and clamps, and handles of many kinds. - -Makers of novelties and small turnery find it serviceable for paper -knives, pin trays, match safes, brush backs, and many articles of like -kind. One of the largest uses for it is as walking beams for pumping -oilwells in central and southern California. The beauty of grain has -nothing to do with this use. - -Country blacksmiths repair wagons and agricultural implements with this -wood. Farmers have long employed it about their premises for posts, -gates, floors, and building material. Cooks flavor soup with the leaves, -and poultrymen make henroosts of poles, believing that the wood's odor -will keep insects away. This is probably the old sassafras superstition -carried west by early California settlers. - - - RED BAY (_Persea borbonia_) is a southern member of the laurel - family, and close akin to sassafras and the California laurel. The - bark is red, hence the name; but it is known also as bay galls, - laurel tree, Florida mahogany, false mahogany, and sweet bay. It - grows from Virginia to Texas, but is most abundant near the coast, - yet it ascends the Mississippi valley to Arkansas. The leaves remain - on the tree a full year, but turn yellow toward the last, in - consequence of which the species is not evergreen. In shape and - color the leaves resemble laurel. The fruit is a small, dark blue - drupe, with thin flesh. The wood is heavy, hard, very strong, - rather brittle, bright red, with thin, lighter-colored sapwood. It - was once very popular in the South for furniture. Rare pieces, some - 150 years old, are still found in southern homes. The wood was - exported prior to 1741 from the Carolinas, and the quantity seems to - have been considerable. It was then regarded as a finer wood than - mahogany. It was exported to the West Indies, where mahogany was - abundant, and was made into furniture and finish for the homes of - wealthy planters and merchants. An old report describes the wood as - resembling "watered satin." It was in early demand by shipbuilders, - but it has now ceased to go to boat yards. Except in rare instances, - it is not reported by any wood-using industries. In Texas a little - is made into pin trays, small picture frames, canes, and shelves. It - deserves a more important place, for when polished and finished, it - is one of the handsomest woods of this country. Trees attain a - height of sixty or seventy feet, and a diameter of two or three. - - SWAMP BAY (_Persea pubescens_) attains a height of thirty or forty - feet, but is seldom more than a foot in diameter, and is too small - for saw timber. The wood is strong, heavy, rather soft, orange - colored, streaked with brown, and not as handsome as its larger - relative, red bay, which is associated with it from North Carolina - to Mississippi. It is an evergreen in some cases, but in others the - leaves turn yellow the second spring. The black fruit is a drupe - nearly an inch long. The wood is without attractive figure, since - its medullary rays are obscure, and the annual rings are indistinct - and produce little contrast when the trunks are sawed tangentially. - Color is the chief attraction that can be claimed for the wood. A - little is occasionally worked into interior finish. - -[Illustration] - - - - -LOCUST - -[Illustration: LOCUST] - - - - -LOCUST - -(_Robinia Pseudacacia_) - - -Locust belongs to the pea family, known in botany as _Leguminosæ_.[6] In -most parts of its range it is known simply as locust, but in some -localities it is called black locust, an allusion to the color of the -bark; yellow locust, descriptive of the heartwood; white locust, -referring to the bloom; red locust, probably a reference to the wood, -and green locust for the same reason; acacia and false acacia; honey -locust, a name which belongs to another species; post locust, because it -has always been a favorite tree for fence posts; and pea-flower locust, -a reference to the bloom. - - [6] This is a very large family, containing trees, shrubs, and - vines, such as locusts, acacias, beans, and clovers. There are 430 - genera in the world, and many times that many species. The United - States has seventeen genera and thirty species of the pea family - that are large enough to be classed as trees. Their common names - follow: Florida Cat's Claw, Huajillo, Texan Ebony, Wild Tamarind, - Huisache, Texas Cat's Claw, Devil's Claw, Leucæna, Chalky Leucæna, - Screwbean, Mesquite, Redbud, Texas Redbud, Honey Locust, Water - Locust, Coffeetree, Horsebean, Small-leaf Horsebean, Greenbark - Acacia, Palo Verde, Frijolito, Sophora, Yellow-wood, Eysenhardtia, - Indigo Thorn, Locust, New Mexican Locust, Clammy Locust, Sonora - Ironwood, Jamaica Dogwood. These species are treated separately in - the following pages, and are given space according to their relative - commercial importance in the particular regions where they grow. - -Several of the names refer to the color of the wood, and seem -contradictory, for yellow, green, and red are not the same; yet the -names describe with fair accuracy. Color of the heartwood varies with -different trees, yellow with some, tinged with red with others, and -sometimes it might be appropriately called blue locust, for the -heartwood is nearer that color than any other. - -The natural range of locust seems to have been confined to the -Appalachian mountain ranges from Pennsylvania to Georgia. It probably -existed as a low shrub in parts of Arkansas and Oklahoma. Its range has -been extended by planting until it now reaches practically all the -states, but is running wild in only about half of them. It has received -a great deal of attention from foresters and tree planters. It attracted -notice very early, because of its hardness, strength, and lasting -properties. At one time the planting of locust came nearly being a fad. -In England it was supposed that it would rise to great importance in -shipbuilding, and in France it was looked upon as no less important. -Books were written on the subject in both English and French. All the -details of planting and utilization were discussed. Its generic name, -_Robinia_, is in honor of a Frenchman, Robin. Extravagant claims were -once made for the wood. When American ships were gaining victory after -victory over English vessels in the war of 1812, it was asserted in -England that the cause of American success was the locust timber in -their ships. The claim may have been partly true, but other factors -contributed to the phenomenal series of successes. - -The locust craze died a natural death. Too much was claimed for the -wood. Possibilities in the way of growth were over estimated. It was -assumed that the tree, if planted, would grow everywhere as vigorously -as on its native mountains in Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, -where trees two or three feet in diameter and eighty feet high were -found. Experience proved later that nature had planted the locust in the -best place for it, and when transplanted elsewhere it was apt to fall -short of expectations. Outside of its natural range it grows vigorously -for a time, and occasionally reaches large size; but in recent years the -locust borer has defeated the efforts of man to extend the range of this -species and make it profitable in regions distant from its native home. -The tree is often devoured piecemeal, branches and twigs breaking and -falling, and trunks gradually disappearing beneath the attacks of the -hungry borers. No effective method of combating the pest is known. The -planting of locust trees, once so common, has now nearly ceased. - -Within its native range, and beyond that range when it has a chance, -locust is a valuable and beautiful tree. It is valuable at all times on -account of the superior wood which it furnishes, and beautiful when in -bloom and in leaf. A locust in full flower is not surpassed in -ornamental qualities by any tree of this country. It is a mass of white, -exceedingly rich in perfume. It blooms in May or June. During the summer -its foliage shows tropical luxuriance with exquisite grace. Its compound -leaves are from eight to fourteen inches long, with seven to nine -leaflets. They come late in spring and go early in autumn. The tree's -thorns, resembling cat claws, are affixed to the bark only, and usually -fall with the leaves. The fruit is a pod three or four inches long, and -contains four or eight wingless seeds. They depend on animals to carry -them to planting places. The pods dry on the branches, and rattle in the -wind most of the autumn. The tree spreads by underground roots which -send up sprouts. A locust in winter is not a thing of beauty. It appears -to be dead; not a bud visible. Its black, angular branches lack every -line of grace. - -Locust wood is remarkable for strength, hardness, and durability. It is -about one pound per cubic foot lighter than white oak, but is -thirty-four per cent stiffer and forty-five per cent stronger. Its -strength exceeds that of shagbark hickory, and it is doubtful whether a -stronger wood exists in the United States. Its hardness is equally -remarkable, and is said to be due to crystals formed in the wood cells, -and known as "rhaphides." Its durability is probably equal to that of -Osage orange, mesquite, and catalpa, but it is not easy to fix a -standard of durability by which to compare different woods. Locust is -the best fence post wood in this country, because it is usually much -straighter than other very durable woods. The posts are expected to last -at least thirty years, and have been known to stand twice that long. - -For more than 150 years locust was almost indispensable in shipbuilding, -furnishing the tree nails or large pins which held the timbers together. -It supplied material for other parts of ships also, but in smaller -quantities. The substitution of steel ships for wooden lessened demand -for locust pins, and in many instances large iron nails are used to -fasten timbers together. In spite of this, the demand for locust tree -nails is nearly always ahead of supply. - -The wood's figure is fairly strong, due to the contrast between the -springwood and that grown later, but not to the medullary rays, which -are small and inconspicuous. The wood is not in much demand for -ornamental purposes. Small amounts are made into policemen's clubs, rake -teeth, hubs for buggy wheels, ladder rungs, and tool handles. - -The tree grows rapidly where conditions are favorable, and very slowly -when they are not. Usually trees of fence post size are twenty years old -at least, but trunks thirty five years old have been known to produce a -post for each two years of age, though that was exceptional. Railroads, -especially in Pennsylvania, planted locust largely a few years ago for -ties. It has been reported that in some instances expectations of growth -have not been fully realized. - - CLAMMY LOCUST (_Robinia viscosa_) was originally confined to the - mountains of North Carolina and South Carolina where its attractive - flowers brought it to the notice of nurserymen who have enlarged its - natural range a hundred if not a thousand fold. It is now grown in - parks and gardens not only in the United States east of the - Mississippi river and as far north as Massachusetts, but in most - foreign countries that have temperate climates. It is usually a - shrub, but on some of the North Carolina mountains it attains a - height of forty feet and a diameter of twelve inches. The wood is - seldom or never used for any commercial purpose. The leaves are from - seven to twelve inches long, and contain thirteen to twenty-one - leaflets. The flowers appear in June, possess little odor, and are - admired solely for their beauty. They are mingled red and rose - color. The pods are from two to three and a half inches long, and - contain small, mottled seeds. The wood is hard and heavy, the heart - brown and the sap yellow. In its wild haunts it is usually a shrub - five or six feet high. - - NEW MEXICAN LOCUST (_Robinia neo-mexicana_) is a small southwestern - tree, seldom exceeding a height of twenty-five feet or a diameter of - eight inches. It ranges from Colorado to Arizona, and takes its name - from its presence in New Mexico. It reaches its largest size near - Trinidad, Colorado. It is found at elevations of 7,000 feet. Leaves - are from six to twelve inches long, and the leaflets number from - fifteen to twenty-one. The flowers appear in May and are less showy - than those of the eastern locust. The wood is heavy, exceedingly - hard, the heartwood yellow, streaked with brown, the thin sapwood - light yellow. This locust is occasionally used locally for small - posts or stakes, but is generally too small. It is sometimes met - with in cultivation in Europe and the eastern states. - - TEXAN EBONY (_Zygia flexicaulis_) ranges from the Texas coast - through Mexico to Lower California. It reaches a height of thirty - feet or more, and a diameter of two or less. It is a beautiful tree - along the lower Rio Grande where it reaches its largest size. The - light yellow or cream-colored, very fragrant flowers bloom from June - till August; the fruit ripens in Autumn but adheres several months - to the branches. Mexicans roast the seeds as a substitute for - coffee. The color of the heartwood gives this tree its name, but it - is not a true ebony. The wood of the roots is blacker than that of - the trunk, and small articles made of roots resemble black ebony of - Ceylon. The trunk wood is liable to be streaked with black, brown, - and medium yellow. The rings of annual growth are frequently of - different colors. Considerable demand is made upon this wood in - Texas for crossties. It is very durable, but is so hard that holes - must be bored for the spikes. It is sold in large amounts as - cordwood, and it burns well. Other articles made of this so-called - ebony are foundation blocks for buildings and rollers for moving - houses. It is used also for small turnery. - - HUAJILLO (_Zygia brevifolia_) has no English name, but Americans in - the Rio Grande valley where this tree grows call it by its Mexican - name. It is a larger tree in Mexico than on this side of the river. - It is not often more than thirty feet high and six inches in - diameter, and is generally a shrub. Its beautiful foliage looks like - masses of ferns, and the flowers range from white to violet-yellow. - The wood is dark, hard, heavy, and is seldom used for anything but - fuel. - - FLORIDA CAT'S CLAW (_Zygia unguis-cati_), with a Latin name that - would make Julius Caesar stare and gasp, reaches its largest size in - the United States on Elliott's Key, Florida. Its name refers to its - curved thorns. Trunks twenty-five feet high and eight inches in - diameter are the largest in this country. It bears pods, but the - leaves are not compound, thus differing from most trees of the pea - family. The wood is not put to any use, though it is very hard and - heavy, rich red, varying to purple, with clear yellow sapwood. It is - said to check badly in drying. The bark is used for medicine in some - of the islands of the West Indies. - -[Illustration] - - - - -HONEY LOCUST - -[Illustration: HONEY LOCUST] - - - - -HONEY LOCUST - -(_Gleditsia Triacanthos_) - - -This tree has never suffered for want of names, but most of them refer -either to the sweetness of the pod or to the fierceness of the thorns. -The belief has long prevailed that it was the pods of this tree on which -John the Baptist fed while a recluse in the Syrian desert. The tradition -should not be taken seriously. It was certainly not this tree, if any, -which furnished food to the prophet in the wilderness, for it does not -grow in Syria. Some related species may grow there, for species of -_Gleditsia_ occur in western Asia as well as in China, Japan, and west -Africa. The generic name is in honor of Johann Gottlieb Gleditsch, a -German botanist who died in 1786. - -The name honey locust refers to the pod, not the flowers. The latter are -greenish, inconspicuous, and though eagerly sought by bees, they offer -no particular attractions to people. Few persons ever notice them. - -In some of the southwestern states the tree is called black locust, -though for what reason it is not apparent. Sweet locust, by which name -it is known in several states, has reference to the pods, as do the -names honey, and honey-shucks locust, applied in different localities. -Many persons in naming the tree have thorns in mind. It is known as -three-thorned acacia, thorn locust, thorn tree, thorny locust, and -thorny acacia. The botanist who named it considered thorns a -characteristic, for _Triacanthos_ means "three-thorned." - -No one who has ever had dealings with the thorns, will fail to duly -consider them. They are about the most ferocious product of American -forests. The tree's trunk and largest branches bristle with them, -standing out like porcupine quills, and sharper than any needle devised -by human ingenuity. Microscopists use them for picking up and handling -minute objects, their points being smooth and delicate though their -shafts may be strong and rough. Thorns are arrested branches, coming -from deep down in the wood. No more can one of them be pulled out than a -limb can be extracted by the roots. They come from the center of the -tree or limb. Some put out leaves and become true branches, but others -sharpen their points, assume an attitude of hostility, and remain thorns -to the end of their lives. Some of them are a foot long, and are so -strong that birds flying against them are impaled and meet cruel death. -A well-armed trunk is proof against the agility and skill of the -squirrel. He cannot negotiate the thorns, and probably he tries only -once. The hot pursuit of a dog will not compel him to attempt it. All -trees, however, are not formidably thorned; some have few, and certain -varieties have none. - -The honey locust is sometimes called the Confederate pin tree in the -South. This is a reference to the Civil war, and the use occasionally -made of the thorns by soldiers in mending the rents in their torn -uniforms. The thorns were once put to a somewhat similar use among the -Alleghany mountains where local factories for carding and spinning -country wool employed them to pin up the mouths of wool sacks. - -The natural range of honey locust has been greatly extended by man. It -was not originally found east of the Alleghany mountains. It grew from -western Pennsylvania to northern Alabama and Mississippi, and westward -to Nebraska and Texas. It is now naturalized east of the Alleghanies, -and southward to the Gulf of Mexico. Planting for ornamental purposes -and for hedges has been the cause of its extension into new territory. -In spite of thorns, it is ornamental. Its foliage is thin, and its -flowers inconspicuous, but the tree possesses a grace which wins it -favor. It grows very rapidly, and in a short time a seedling becomes a -respectable tree, and continues its rapid growth a long time. In -southern Indiana and Illinois, which is the best part of its range, -trees have attained a height of 140 feet and a diameter of six. The -average size of forest-grown specimens is seventy-five feet in height, -and two or more in diameter. - -The leaves are seven or eight inches long, doubly compound; the fruit a -pod a foot or more in length, which assumes a twist when ripe, or -sometimes warps several ways. The green pod contains a sweet substance -often eaten by children, but it is believed to be of little value for -human food. Cattle devour the pods when in the sugary condition; but -they cannot often obtain them, because thorns intervene, when the pods -would otherwise be in reach. In rural districts, a domestic beer is -brewed from the young fruit. The juice extracted from it is permitted to -ferment, but the beverage is probably never sold in the market. - -The pods are in no hurry to let go and fall, even after they are fully -ripe. They become dry, distort themselves with a number of corkscrew -twists, and hang until late fall or early winter, rattling in the wind -and occasionally shaking out a seed or two. - -Honey locust has never been considered important from the lumberman's -standpoint. Sawlogs go to mills here and there, but never many in one -place. The wood is not listed under its own name, but is put in with -something else. Occasionally, it is said, it passes as sycamore in the -furniture factory, though the difference ought not be difficult to -detect. It doubtless depends to a considerable degree on the particular -wood, for all honey locust does not look alike when converted into -lumber. Some of that in the lower Mississippi valley might pass as -sycamore if inspection is not too conscientiously carried out. The -medullary rays, being darker than the body of the wood, suggest sycamore -in quarter-sawed stock. Some of it goes into furniture, finish, -balusters, newel posts, panels, and molding, particularly in eastern -Texas. In Louisiana, where wood of similar texture and appearance might -be expected, it is not looked on with favor, but is employed only in the -cheapest, roughest work. - -The principal use of the wood is for posts and railroad ties. It lasts -well, and is strong. Claims have been made that it is generally equal -and in some ways superior to locust. It is difficult to see on what -these claims are based. It is lighter, less elastic, and much weaker. -Figures showing the comparative durability of the two woods are not -available, but in like situations, locust would doubtless last much -longer. As timber trees, the former may have the advantage over locust -in being free from attacks of borers, attaining greater size, and -thriving in a much larger area. It has been planted for ornament in -other lands than this, and is now prospering in all the important -countries of the temperate zone. One variety is thornless, and is known -to botanists as _Gleditsia triacanthos lævis_; another has short thorns. - - WATER LOCUST (_Gleditsia aquatica_) looks so much like honey locust - that the two are often supposed to be the same species in Louisiana; - yet there are a number of differences. Water locust has fewer thorns - and they are smaller, and often flat like a knife blade. The pods - are entirely different from those of honey locust, being short and - wide. The two species share the same range to some extent, but that - of water locust is smaller, extending from South Carolina to Texas, - Illinois, and Missouri; but the best of the species is west of the - lower Mississippi where trees may reach a height of sixty feet and a - diameter of two. The wood is heavy, hard, and strong, the heartwood - rich bright brown, tinged with red, the sapwood yellow. The wood is - much like that of honey locust, and when used at all is employed in - the same way. - - TEXAS LOCUST (_Gleditsia texana_) is of no importance as a timber - tree, and deserves mention only because its extremely restricted - range gives it an interest. It exists, as far as known, in a single - grove on the bottom lands of the Brazos river, near Brazoria, Texas, - where some of the trees exceed 100 feet in height, and a diameter of - two. The bark is smooth and thin, the leaves resemble those of honey - locust, and the pods are about one-third as long. - - HUISACHE (_Acacia farnesiana_) is native along the Rio Grande in - Texas, but it is running wild in Florida from planted trees. It is - one of the most widely distributed species in the world, both by - natural dispersal and by planting; and it is one of the handsomest - members of the large group of acacias which includes more than 400 - species. It bears delicate double-compound leaves, small and - graceful. A tree in full leaf in its native wilds along the Rio - Grande looks like a trembling fluffy mass of green silk. Nature - formed the tree for ornament, not for timber. It attains a height of - from twenty to forty feet, diameter eighteen inches or less. Trunk - usually divides into several branches near the ground. Perhaps the - only place in this country where the wood is used is in southern - Texas where is it called "cassie," a shortening of acacia. The wood - so much resembles mesquite that locally they are considered the - same. Huisache warps and checks in seasoning, but it is employed in - a small way for furniture, usually as small table legs, spindles, - knobs, and ornaments. It takes high polish, and resembles the best - grades of black walnut, but is much heavier, harder, and stronger. - It is next to impossible to drive a nail into it without first - boring a hole. When used as crossties, holes must be bored for the - spikes. The heartwood resists decay a long time, but the thin - sapwood is liable to be riddled by small boring insects, which - seldom or never enter the heartwood. - - TEXAS CAT'S CLAW (_Acacia wrightii_) is a hardluck tree of western - Texas where it is usually found on dry, gravelly hills and in stony - ravines. Its twice-compound leaves are among the smallest of the - acacias, seldom exceeding two inches in length. The fragrant, light - yellow flowers appear from March to May, and the short pods ripen in - midsummer, but like so many trees of the pea family, they are in no - hurry to fall. The largest trees are thirty feet high and one in - diameter, but most people associate cat's claw with low, tangled - brush, tough as wire, and armed with curved thorns so strong that - their hold on clothing can hardly be broken. When a cat's claw bush - strikes out to become a tree--which is infrequent--it grows rapidly. - It has been known to attain a diameter of nine inches in - twenty-three years. The heart is dark in color and exceedingly hard. - The color varies from nearly red to nearly black, and takes a polish - almost like ivory. The thin yellow sapwood is preyed on by boring - insects. Heartwood is made into canes, umbrella sticks, tool - handles, rulers, and turned novelties. - - DEVIL'S CLAW (_Acacia greggii_) has such paradoxical names as - paradise flower, ramshorn, and cat's claw. It deserves them all - where it grows wild on the semi-deserts of the Southwest from Texas - to California. The double-compound leaves are one or two inches - long, its bright, creamy-yellow and exquisitely fragrant flowers are - the glory of desert places, while its masses of thorns readily - suggest the common name by which it is known. The wood is scarce, - but extraordinarily fine. It is dark rich red, but clouded with - streaks and patches of other shades, becoming at times gray, at - others green. No nail can be driven into it, and an ordinary gimlet - will hardly bore it. It is so saturated with oil that it is greasy - to the touch. It is manufactured into small articles, but apparently - is not used outside of the locality where it grows. The wood is - often contorted, due to pits and cavities which slowly close as the - tree advances in age. They add to rather than detract from the - wood's beauty. - -[Illustration] - - - - -COFFEE TREE - -[Illustration: COFFEE TREE] - - - - -COFFEETREE - -(_Gymnocladus Dioicus_) - - -This tree is scarce though its range covers several hundred thousand -square miles, from New York to Minnesota, and from Tennessee to -Oklahoma. It never occurs in thick stands, and usually the trees are -widely scattered. Many districts of large size within the limits of its -range appear to have none. - -The names coffeetree and Kentucky coffeetree refer to the custom of the -pioneers, who settled the region south of the Ohio river, and who used -the grotesque fruit as a substitute for coffee at a time when the -genuine article could not be procured. The seed is a very hard bean that -can be procured in abundance, where trees abound. - -The beans were softened by roasting or parching, and were then pounded -into meal with hammers, and boiled for coffee. The beverage was black -and bitter, and a little of it would go a long way with a modern coffee -drinker. When the Kentuckians were able to procure coffee they let the -wild substitute alone. - -The name was sometimes varied by calling it coffeenut or coffeenut tree, -and sometimes it was known as coffeebean and coffeebean tree. It is less -easy to explain why it was called mahogany in New York, and virgilia in -Tennessee. Some knew it as the nicker tree, but the reason for the name -is not known. Stump tree was another of its names. This was meant to be -descriptive of the tree's appearance after it had shed its leaves. It -has remarkable foliage, double compound leaves two or three feet long, -with four or five dozen leaflets. When leaves fall in autumn it looks as -if the tree is shedding its twigs; and when all are down, the stripped -and barren appearance of the branches suggests the name stump tree. - -The flowers are greenish-purple and are inconspicuous. In this respect -they differ from many trees of the pea family which are noted for their -attractive bloom. The fruit is among the largest of the tree pods of -this country, ranging in length from six to ten inches and from one and -a half to two in width. When fully grown they are heavy enough to make -their presence felt if they drop on the heads of persons beneath. They -are slow to fall, however, and it is not unusual for them to cling to -the branches until late winter or early spring. - -The coffeetree has been known to attain a diameter of five feet and a -height of more than a hundred, but the usual size is about half of that. -It prefers rich bottom lands, and the trunks generally separate into -several stems a few feet above the ground. Only one species exists in -this country, and as far as known, only one other species elsewhere, and -that grows in southern China where it is said the natives make soap of -the pods. It is not known that any such utilization has been attempted -in this country. - -The coffeetree's range has been considerably extended by planting for -ornament. In summer it is attractive, but from the first autumn frost -until the leaves put out the following spring, it is uninteresting. The -spring leaves are late, and the branches are bare more than half the -year. - -The wood is heavy, strong, and durable in contact with the soil. The -heart is rich light brown, tinged with red, the sapwood thin and lighter -colored. Annual rings are distinct. The springwood is porous and wide, -the summerwood dense. The medullary rays are inconspicuous and of no -value in giving figure to the wood. When the annual rings are cut -diagonally across they give figure like that of ash. The wood of the -coffeetree has never been in much demand. Furniture makers may use it -sometimes, but specific instances of such use do not exist in -manufacturers' reports. There are many places in furniture and finish -which it might fill in a satisfactory manner. - -It is suitable for fence posts, and that is where it commonly gives -service. It is occasionally employed as frame work in house and barn -building, but is not sought for that purpose, and is used only when it -happens to be at hand. Though the tree has the habit of branching, some -of the trunks grow tall and shapely, and are good for two or three -sawlogs or railcuts. An occasional tree serves as fuel. Medicine is -sometimes made of a decoction of the fresh green pulp of unripe pods; -and the leaves are reported to produce a fly poison if soaked in water. - -REDBUD (_Cercis canadensis_) is also known as Judas tree, red Judas -tree, Canadian Judas tree, and salad tree. The last name refers to a -custom in some parts of its range of making salad of the flowers. It is -the flower rather than the bud that is red and gives the tree its name, -the bloom being conspicuous in early spring. The tree ranges from New -Jersey to Missouri, Texas, Louisiana, and Florida, but reaches its -fullest development in southern Arkansas, Oklahoma, and eastern Texas -where trunks fifty feet high and a foot in diameter are found. It is -shrubby in many parts of its range. Leaves are not compound. The fruit -is a pink or rose-colored pod two or three inches in length, and by some -is considered nearly as ornamental though not as showy as the flowers. -No one ever thinks of redbud as a timber tree or considers its wood, yet -it might be used for a number of purposes. It is heavy and hard, but -weak; and the heartwood is rich dark brown tinged with red. The tree is -planted for ornament in this country and Europe. - -TEXAS REDBUD (_Cercis reniformis_) differs somewhat from the common -redbud, but it takes a botanist to point out the differences. The -largest trees are forty feet high and a foot in diameter; the range -extends from eastern Texas into Mexico; the wood closely resembles that -of the other species, and is not known to be used for any purpose. - -CALIFORNIA REDBUD (_Cercis occidentalis_) is often classed as a shrub, -but Sudworth gives it a place among the forest trees of the Pacific -coast. The pea-shaped flowers are a clear magenta color. The pods turn -purple when ripening but afterwards change to russet-brown. The wood is -dark yellowish-brown, but because of the smallness of the trunks, it can -never be important. The tree is found along the California mountains, -six hundred miles north and south; is an abundant seeder, and is -valuable as a protection to slopes and ravines, and as an ornament. - -HORSEBEAN (_Parkinsonia aculeata_) is generally called retama in the -valley of the lower Rio Grande in Texas where the species attains its -largest size. Trees are occasionally thirty feet high and a foot or more -in diameter. Trunks usually separate in several stems near the ground. -The range extends from southern Texas to California, and the species is -naturalized in south Florida, the West Indies, and many tropical -countries. Leaves vary in form, and are occasionally eighteen inches -long. Fruit consists of pods, each containing from two to eight beans. -The yellow flowers are small and fragrant; the bark on young twigs is -green, but on older trunks is brown. The brown, however, is easily -rubbed off, exposing the green beneath, as may be seen in school grounds -in some of the southern towns in Texas where this tree has been planted -for ornament, and abrasions, due to children climbing about the -spreading stems, keep the bark green. The upper branches are armed with -thorns which discourage the climbing propensities of children. The wood -is heavy, hard, tinged with yellow, and is made into small novelties, -but is not of much importance. - -SMALL-LEAF HORSEBEAN (_Parkinsonia microphylla_) is well named, for the -compound leaves, with four or six pairs of leaflets, are about an inch -long, covered with hairs, and fall at the end of a few weeks. -Consequently, the tree is bare most of the year, except for the pale -yellow flowers which appear in spring before the leaves, and the -clusters of striped pods, each containing from one to three beans. The -pods are nearly always present, for they have the pea family habit of -adhering to the branches a long time. Trees reach a height of fifteen or -twenty feet, and a diameter of ten inches or less. The wood is very hard -and dense, in color deep yellowish-brown, often mottled and streaked -with dull red; the sapwood thick and yellow. The wood is suitable for -small articles, but its scarcity renders it of little importance. It is -found in the deserts of southern Arizona and the adjacent parts of -California, and is usually a small shrub. - -JAMAICA DOGWOOD (_Ichthyomethia piscipula_) is the lone representative -of the genus, and is found in this country only in southern Florida. It -is not in the same family with the dogwoods, and its name is misleading. -The Carib Indians formerly used the leaves to stupify fish and render -them easier to catch; hence the botanical name. The leaves are compound, -but bear little resemblance to the foliage of most members of the pea -family to which this tree belongs. The flowers are the tree's chief -source of beauty, and are delicately clustered, hanging in bunches a -foot long. The fruit is a pod three or four inches long, with four wings -running the full length. The wings are useless for flying. Trees are -forty or fifty feet high and two or three feet in diameter; are common -in southern Florida and on the islands. The wood is of considerable -importance in the region where it grows but figures little in general -markets. It weighs 54.43 pounds per cubic foot, and is moderately strong -and stiff. In color it is a clear yellow-brown, with thick, lighter -colored sapwood. It is very durable in contact with the ground, and in -Florida it is used for posts, and occasionally for railway ties. It has -been commonly reported as a wood for boatbuilding in Florida, but its -importance for that purpose has probably been overstated, since an -investigation of the boatbuilding industry in Florida failed to find one -foot of this wood in use, although some may be employed but not listed -in reports. - -[Illustration] - - - - -YELLOW-WOOD - -[Illustration: Yellow-wood] - - - - -YELLOW-WOOD - -(_Cladrastis Lutea_) - - -This wood's color is evidently responsible for its names yellow ash, -yellow locust, and yellow-wood in Tennessee, North Carolina, and -Kentucky, but no reason is offered for the name gopherwood by which it -is known in some parts of Tennessee. The botanical name is based on the -brittleness of the twigs. It is the only species of the genus, and it is -not known to grow anywhere, except by planting, outside of Kentucky, -Tennessee, Alabama, and North Carolina. - -It occurs in an area not much exceeding 60,000 square miles, and it is -not abundant in that area. It prefers limestone ridges and slopes, and -does best where the soil is fertile. It often overhangs the banks of -mountain streams, and is most abundant and of largest size in the -vicinity of Nashville, Tennessee, where a few trees have reached a -diameter of three or four feet and a height of fifty or sixty. A -diameter of eighteen or twenty-four inches is a good average. - -The tree's habit of dividing six or seven feet from the ground into two -or more stems is responsible for the scarcity of trunks suitable for saw -timber, even in localities where trees of large size are found. However, -an occasional trunk develops a shapely form. It goes to sawmills so -seldom that it is never mentioned in statistics of lumber cut or -wood-utilization. - -Most people who are acquainted with this tree, know it as planted stock -in parks and yards where it is a favorite on account of its flowers. The -bloom may properly be described as rare from two viewpoints. The beauty -of its large clusters of white flowers differs from those of all -associated trees; and it seldom blooms. One year of plenty is generally -followed by several lean years. Those who plant the tree understand -this, and feel amply repaid for the long wait, when the flowering year -arrives. The planted tree is often known as virgilia, that being the -name under which nurseries sell it. Flowers appear about the middle of -June, in clusters a foot or more in length. It is claimed, but with what -correctness cannot at present be stated, that the odor of flowers of -different trees varies greatly, being faint with some, and strong and -luxurious with others. - -The leaves are compound, but have no resemblance to those of locust and -the acacias. They are eight or twelve inches long, with five or seven -leaflets. In autumn before falling they change to a clear yellow, but -adhere to the branches until rather late in the season. The fruit, which -consists of small pods hanging in clusters, is ripe in September. - -Yellow-wood is a little below white oak in strength and seven pounds per -cubic foot under it in weight; is hard, compact, and susceptible of a -beautiful polish. Rings of yearly growth are clearly marked by rows of -open ducts, and contain many evenly-distributed smaller ducts. The wood -is bright, clear yellow, changing to brown on exposure; sapwood nearly -white. Trunks of largest size are generally hollow or otherwise -defective. - -The uses of yellow-wood have been few. In the days when families in -remote regions were under the necessity of manufacturing, growing, or -otherwise producing nearly every commodity that entered into daily life, -the settlers among the mountains of Kentucky and Tennessee discovered -that the wood of this tree, particularly the roots, yielded a clear, -yellow dye. The process of manufacture was simple. The wood was reduced -to chips with an ordinary ax, and the chips were boiled until the yellow -coloring matter was extracted. The resulting liquor was the dye, and it -gave the yellow stripe to many a piece of home-made cloth in the cabins -of mountaineers. - -The women usually attended to the dye making and the manufacture of yarn -and cloth; but the men found a way to utilize yellow-wood in producing -an article once so common in Tennessee and Kentucky that no cabin was -without it--the trusty rifle. The gunsmith, assisted by the blacksmith, -made the barrel and the other metal parts, but the hunter generally was -able to whittle out the wooden stock. Yellow-wood's lightness, strength, -and color suited the gun stock maker's purpose, and he slowly hewed and -whittled the article, fitted it to the barrel, adjusted it to his -shoulder, and completed a weapon which never failed the owner in time of -need. - -FRIJOLITO (_Sophora secundiflora_) is found in Texas, New Mexico, and -southward in Mexico. The name is Spanish and means "little bean." A -common name for it in English is coral bean. Sophora is said to be an -Arabic word of uncertain meaning, except that it refers to some kind of -a tree that bears pods. It is a species, therefore, which draws its -names from four languages, while the name applied to it by Comanche -Indians is translated "sleep-bush." The bright scarlet seeds, as large -as beans, but in shape like door-knobs, grow from one to eight in a pod, -and contain a narcotic poison, "sophorin." It is probable that Indians -discovered that the beans, if eaten, produced sleep, hence the name. The -tree is from twenty-five to thirty-five feet high, and from six to ten -inches in diameter. The leaves are compound, and consist of seven or -nine leaflets. The small, violet-blue flowers appear in early spring. -They are not conspicuous, but their presence cannot escape the notice of -a traveler in the dry, semi-barren canyons and on the bluffs where the -tree holds its ground. Their odor calls attention to their presence. The -perfume is powerful but pleasant, unless the contact is too close. The -pods are from one to seven inches long, and hang on the boughs until -late winter. It is not believed that birds or mammals distribute the -seeds, as their poison renders them unfit for food. Running water -appears to be the principal agent of distribution. The tree reaches its -largest size in the vicinity of Metagorda bay, Texas. Among the dry -western canyons it is usually a shrub. The small size of this tree -stands in the way of extensive use of the wood. It burns well and its -principal importance is as fuel. The weight is 61.34 pounds per cubic -foot; it is hard, compact, susceptible of a beautiful polish; medullary -rays are numerous and thin; color is orange, streaked with red, the -sapwood brown or yellow. The wood is worked into a few small articles. - -SOPHORA (_Sophora affinis_) ranges through portions of Arkansas and -Texas. It is popularly supposed to be a locust, and is called pink -locust or beaded locust, the first name based on the color of the wood, -the last on the appearance of the pod which looks like a short string of -beads, sometimes three inches in length, but usually shorter. In early -times the pioneers manufactured ink from the pods. It was a fairly -serviceable article, but was never sold, each family making its own. -This tree's flowers appear in early spring with the leaves. Trunks reach -a height of twenty feet and a diameter of eight or ten inches; but the -habit of separating into several stems a few feet above the ground -lessens the use of the wood, even as posts, for the stems are usually -very crooked. The tree's preferred habitat is on limestone bluffs, or -along the borders of streams, or in depressions in the prairie where -small groves often occur. The wood weighs fifty-three pounds per cubic -foot, and is very hard and strong. The annual rings are clearly marked -with bands of large, open pores; medullary rays are thin and -inconspicuous; color of the heartwood light red, the sapwood yellow. The -wood is not sawed into lumber, but is whittled into canes and tool -handles. - -GREENBARK ACACIA (_Cercidium floridum_) is properly named. Its green -bark makes up for its scarcity of leaves, and answers the purpose of -foliage. The manufacture of the tree's food goes on in the bark, because -the leaves are too small to do the work. The foliage resembles that of -locust and acacia in form, but the compound leaves are about an inch in -length, and the leaflets are one-sixteenth of an inch long. Flowers are -small, but the tree puts on three or four crops of them in a single -summer. The pods are two inches long. The tree is found in the United -States only in the south and west of Texas, where it is occasionally -called palo verde. It attains a height of twenty feet and a diameter of -ten inches when at its best. The wood is pale yellow tinged with green, -and, because of small size, is of little importance. - -PALO VERDE (_Cercidium torreyanum_) sheds its leaves and its pods so -early in the season that its branches are bare most of the year. Trees -are from fifteen to thirty feet high, and some are considerably more -than a foot in diameter. Its range covers a portion of southern -California, the lower part of the Gila valley in Arizona, and extends -southward into Mexico. It is a typical tree of the desert, and its -extreme poverty of foliage enables it to live in a dry, hot climate. It -clings to the sides of desert gulches and canyons, ekes out a dreary -life in depressions among desolate dunes and hills of sand and gravel, -and spends its allotted period of years in solitude, growing either -singly or in small groups where the full foliage at the best time of -year is insufficient to offer much obstruction to the full glare of the -sun from a cloudless sky. The small flowers have little beauty or -sweetness, but what they have is wasted on the desert air. Wayfarers in -the barren country use the wood for camp fires. - - INDIGO THORN (_Dalea spinosa_) receives its name from the color of - its flowers which appear in June. The tree has few leaves and they - fall in a short time. This appears to be a provision of nature to - enable the tree to endure the heat and dryness of its desert home. - Its range covers the lower Gila valley in Arizona, and extends into - the Colorado desert in southern California. It is not abundant, and - if it were, it is of a size so small that it is practically - valueless for commercial purposes. Some trees are a foot in diameter - and twenty feet high. The wood is light, soft, and of a rich - chocolate-brown color. It is known also as indigo bush and dalea. - - EYSENHARDTIA (_Eysenhardtia orthocarpa_) is so little known that it - has no English name. It grows from western Texas to southern - Arizona, but reaches tree size only near the summit of Santa - Catalina mountains in Arizona where it is twenty feet or less in - height and seldom more than eight inches in diameter. It inhabits an - arid region, and bears fruit sparingly, with usually a single seed - in a pod. The wood is heavy and hard, light reddish-brown in color, - with thin yellow sap. It is not of commercial importance and - probably never will be. - -[Illustration] - - - - -MESQUITE - -[Illustration: MESQUITE] - - - - -MESQUITE - -(_Prosopis Juliflora_) - - -There are known to be sixteen species at least of mesquite in the world, -in Asia, Africa, and North and South America. The one here considered -has a geographical range of at least seven thousand miles north and -south, from Kansas to Patagonia, and an east and west range of four -thousand miles, if the naturalized growth in Hawaii may be considered -the western outpost of the species.[7] - - [7] Botanists have had much controversy among themselves concerning - mesquite, particularly as to what is its correct name. In giving in - these pages some of the important facts concerning this interesting - tree, or group of species and varieties, it is not necessary to - touch the points in dispute. - -The generic name _prosopis_ is a Greek word meaning "burdock;" the rest -of the botanical name is Latin, meaning "July flower." Mesquite is an -Aztec word (mezquitl), coming down through the Spanish. Other names for -the tree are algaroba, honey locust, honey pod, and ironwood. - -The largest size of mesquite is found along the Rio Grande in southern -Texas where trees three feet in diameter and fifty feet high are found, -but individuals of that size are rare. The species is supposed not to -extend west of New Mexico, but varieties grow farther west. - -The leaves are compound, with twenty or more leaflets. The foliage is -thin and casts a penumbrous shadow; trees generally occur wide apart, -and there is enough sunshine reaching the ground to satisfy grass and -other plants growing there. The pods are from four to nine inches long, -and each contains from ten to twenty seeds. The principal growth of this -tree in the United States is in Texas. It has been planted in Hawaii and -has run wild in some of the islands of the group. It is of slow growth, -but of remarkable vitality, holds its own, and gains ground in the face -of obstacles. - -Persons well acquainted with conditions in Texas, both past and present, -say that the mesquite area is at least double now what it was when the -state came into the Union. Old stands were scattered here and there, but -hundreds of square miles which were in grass only, and little of that, -half a century ago, now support forests of mesquite. It is perhaps a -misnomer to designate some of these stands as forests, for they present -a rather ragged and sorry appearance, but they are forests in the -process of forming. The old growth, which is found principally in the -counties bordering on the lower Rio Grande, is made up of trunks of -large size, but the stands that have come on within the past fifty or -sixty years are of smaller trees. A large mesquite trunk is from one to -three feet in diameter; a small one from one foot down to an inch or -two. A person would need to hunt from center to circumference of Texas -to find many mesquite trunks that would make a straight sawlog twelve -feet long. The tree is generally one of the most crooked, deformed and -unpromising in the whole country; and its habit of dividing into forks -near the ground, like a peach tree, makes it still more difficult to -make use of. In fact, in winter when mesquite trees are bare of leaves -the appearance of a forest reminds the observer of an old, neglected, -diseased, moss-grown peach orchard in the eastern states; but in summer -the leaves conceal much of the trunk scaliness and deformity, and there -is something positively restful and attractive in the prospect of a wide -range of these trees, covering hills and prairies. The leaves are -compound like the acacias, and are delicate and graceful. - -The spread of mesquite in the last fifty or seventy-five years has been -attributed to the checking of grass fires which Indians once set yearly -to keep the prairies open. The dispersion of the trees is facilitated by -the scattering of seeds by cattle which feed on the pods. It is a tree -hard to kill. Roots send up sprouts year after year during long periods. -Sometimes, but not often in Texas, when adverse circumstances become so -severe that the mesquite tree can no longer survive above the surface, -it grows beneath the ground, sending only a few sprouts up for air. "Dig -for wood" is a term applied to trees of that kind, when fuel is dragged -out with mattocks, grab hooks, and oxen. - -The roots of the mesquite penetrate farther beneath the surface for -water than any other known tree in this country. Depths of fifty or -sixty feet are occasionally reached. Well diggers on the frontiers -learned to go to the mesquite for water. Large trunks never develop -unless their roots are abundantly supplied with moisture. Railroad -engineers on the "Staked Plains" of northwestern Texas turned that -knowledge to account in boring wells. - -Though mesquite is seldom or never mentioned in the lumber business, it -is and has been one of the most important trees of the region. Its fuel -value is very great. It has cooked more food, warmed more buildings, -burned more bricks, than any other wood in Texas. The tannic acid in it -injures boilers and it is not much used for steam purposes. It is very -high in ash. A cord of mesquite wood when burned leaves from ninety to -one hundred pounds of ashes. This exceeds five fold the ashes left when -white oak is burned. - -Mesquite is a high-grade furniture material, though it is difficult to -work because of its exceeding hardness. Ordinary wood-working tools and -machinery will not stand it. Suites of nine pieces are sold in some -southwestern cities at $200 or $300. The merchants find difficulty in -getting mesquite furniture made. Factories do not want to handle it, -though the articles sell higher than mahogany. Large, heavy tables, -deeply carved, are sold in some of the cities, but all seem to be made -to order and largely by hand. The appearance of the polished and -finished wood is a little lighter in color than mahogany. It is not -uniform in color, but shades from tone to tone in the same piece. A -little of the lighter colored sapwood is worked in with pleasing effect. -Some of the tones resemble black walnut, and some suggest the luster of -polished cherry. - -Mesquite is brittle. Pieces of large size may be broken by a few blows -with an ax. It has about half the strength of white oak, and is very low -in elasticity. The wood has been used for two hundred years--possibly -for thousands of years--as beams and sills for adobe houses; but it is -not required to carry much weight. Spaniards employed it in building -their churches and forts within its range. A timber taken from the -Alamo, at San Antonio, Texas, in 1912, was said to have served more than -190 years with no sign of decay. Fence posts survive the men who set -them. Paving blocks outlast sandstone subjected to the same use. -Railroads in southern Texas employ this wood for crossties, but it is so -hard that holes must be bored for the spikes. - -Mesquite baskets are made by hand of splits the size of knitting -needles, some of white sapwood, others of dark heartwood. Such baskets, -large enough to contain five quarts, sell in the curio shops at San -Antonio for $1.25 each. Some wagon makers insist that mesquite is in the -same class with Osage orange for wagon felloes in hot, dry regions; but -it does not appear that much of it is so used. The brittleness of the -wood is against it, in use as felloes, except for vehicles of the -heaviest sort where large pieces are demanded. - -Among the uses of mesquite, by-products are an important consideration. -The pods are food for farm stock. Before the first railroad reached San -Antonio mesquite pods were a regular market commodity. The Mexicans know -how to make bread and brew beer from the fruit; tan leather with the -resin; dye leather, cloth, and crockery with the tree's sap; make ropes -and baskets of the bark. Parched pods are a substitute for coffee; bees -store honey from the bloom which remains two months on the trees; riled -water is purified with a decoction of mesquite chips; vinegar is made -from the fermented juice of the legumes; tomales of mesquite bean meal, -pepper, chicken, and cornshucks; mucilage from the gum; and candy and -gum drops from the dried sap. - -One of the most promising uses for this wood is in turnery. Short -lengths can be utilized to advantage. The artistic color fits it for the -manufacture of lodge gavels, curtain rings, goblets, plaques, trays, -and numerous kinds of novelties. Spindles for grills and stairways do -not suffer in comparison with black walnut, mahogany, cherry, and teak. -The wood is porous, annual rings narrow and indistinct, and the -medullary rays thin and inconspicuous. - -A variety (_Prosopis juliflora glandulosa_) is found from Kansas to -eastern Texas, and also in Arizona and California. It is the common -mesquite of eastern Texas. Another variety (_Prosopis juliflora -velutina_) occurs in some of the hot valleys of southern Arizona and -southward in Mexico. - - SCREWBEAN (_Prosopis odorata_) is known also as screwpod mesquite, - and tornillo. The name is due to the pod's habit of growing in - spiral form, there being a dozen or more tight twists. The flowers - appear in early spring and new crops follow until summer. The pods - ripen early in autumn or late in summer, and many become infested - with grubs. The tree is from twenty-five to thirty feet high, and a - foot or less in diameter. Its range extends from western Texas and - Utah and Nevada through New Mexico and Arizona to southern - California. The wood is stronger and stiffer than common mesquite, - but a little lighter. Its uses are much the same, and it has the - same habits of growth, including its disposition to develop enormous - roots. The name might lead to the conclusion that the flower is rich - in perfume, but such is not the case. The tree grows slowly and - lives to old age, if it escapes fire and other accidents. - - CHALKY LEUCÆNA (_Leucæna pulverulenta_), commonly called mimosa, - occurs in the United States only in southern Texas, but is somewhat - abundant in Mexico, where trees sixty feet high and nearly two feet - in diameter are sometimes manufactured into lumber. Along the Rio - Grande it is called "tepeguaja" by Mexicans. This name is said to be - equivalent to "hardwood," which is an appropriate name. It is very - smooth and handsome when finished, and is used for tool handles, - small spindles, grills, and other small articles, particularly - products of the lathe. In color it resembles the lighter shades of - mahogany; weighs about forty-two pounds per cubic foot; foliage - extremely delicate and the tree is highly valuable for ornamental - purposes. It has been planted outside of its natural range. The pods - sometimes exceed a foot in length. - - LEUCÆNA (_Leucæna glauca_) is small and probably will never be of - much importance. Trunks are seldom more than five inches in diameter - and twenty feet high. The tree grows in canyons and ravines in - western Texas. The compound leaves are six or seven inches long, - with thirty or less pairs of leaflets; fruit is a pod six or eight - inches long. The rich brown wood is streaked with red. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SWEET BIRCH - -[Illustration: SWEET BIRCH] - - - - -SWEET BIRCH - -(_Betula Lenta_) - - -Ten species of birch occur in the United States, including Alaska. Six -are eastern and four western.[8] Sweet birch is known by that name in -many localities, but in others as black birch, cherry birch, river -birch, mahogany birch, and mountain mahogany. Its range extends from -Newfoundland to northwestern Ontario, south to southern Indiana, -Kentucky, and along the Appalachian mountains to Tennessee and North -Carolina. Probably the best development of the species is found in the -Adirondack region of northern New York, in the northern peninsula of -Michigan, through southern Ontario, and along the mountain ranges -southward through Pennsylvania and West Virginia. - - [8] The eastern species, which do not extend west of the continental - divide, are, Sweet Birch (_Betula lenta_), Yellow Birch (_Betula - lutea_), River Birch (_Betula nigra_), Paper Birch (_Betula - papyrifera_), White Birch (_Betula populifolia_) and Blue Birch - (_Betula cærulea_). The western birches, none of which are known to - extend much east of the continental divide, are: Western Birch - (_Betula occidentalis_), Mountain Birch (_Betula fontinalis_), White - Alaska Birch (_Betula alaskana_), and Kenai Birch (_Betula - kenaica_). The last two occur in Alaska, but not in United States - proper. - -It attains a height of seventy or eighty feet, and a diameter of two or -three. It prefers deep, moist, rich soil, but will grow in comparatively -dry, rocky ground. Its seeds are produced in large numbers and are -scattered by the wind a hundred feet or more from the parent tree. They -lack the wing power and the buoyancy of the seeds of some of the other -birches, but they manage to get themselves sown in sufficient numbers, -and their powers of germination are good. - -The young seedling comes into existence with smooth bark, but it does -not keep it through life. As age increases, the bark becomes rough and -black. It is not shed in papery rolls and flakes as is the bark of river -birch, yellow birch, and paper birch, with which it is associated in -some parts of its range. It is generally an easy tree to identify and -the black, rough bark is generally a sufficient guide. - -The sweet birch is tapped like sugar maple, but not for the same purpose -or to the same extent--only an occasional tree. Immense quantities of -sap will flow from it during the two or three weeks when the buds are -swelling in the spring. It is said that as much as two tons has been -known to flow from a medium sized birch in a single season. The sap is -made into a beer which has some commercial value, but is chiefly used -locally. One of the ways of making it, employed by farmers and woodsmen, -is to jug the sap, put in a handful of shelled corn, and let -fermentation do the rest. - -A substance known in commerce as oil of wintergreen is procured almost -exclusively from this birch, though occasionally it is made from the -small wintergreen plant (_Gaultheria procumbens_). The product is -manufactured in very crude stills made by mountaineers in Pennsylvania -and southward along the mountains where sweet birch is abundant. -Frequently the woodsman's whole family go into the business, chopping -down birch bushes and hacking them with hatchets into chips of the -desired sizes. The oil is extracted from the hogged mass by a steaming -and roasting process. It is sold by the quart to country storekeepers -who ship it to wholesale druggists where it is refined and used to -flavor candy, medicine, and drugs. The woodsman who manufactures the oil -prefers young birches from half an inch to two or three inches in -diameter, and he usually procures them in old logging grounds where -seedlings have sprung up. It is said that on an average one hundred -small birch trees are destroyed for each quart of oil that goes to -market. It is a process wasteful in the extreme. - -In the open ground, sweet birch develops a full crown, short trunk, -abundance of limbs, with numerous slender, graceful twigs and small -branches. Its leaves form a dense mass, and they are so free from -attacks by insects and worms that diseased foliage is unusual. That -cannot be said, however, of the trunk. It is not particularly liable to -disease, but many old trees show the results of decay. It is of slow -growth, and a small tree may be much older than its size indicates. The -sapwood is generally thick, heartwood forms slowly, and the contrast in -color between sap and heart is strong. - -The wood of sweet birch had few uses in early times, except fuel. The -pioneer sawmill had little to do with it. Lumber was hard to saw and was -seasoned with difficulty. Its tendency to warp was too great a tax on -the lumberman's patience and ingenuity. The only way he could hold it -straight was to cob a few layers in the bottom of a pile, and stack -thousands of feet of other lumber on top, and leave it a year or two. -That was generally too much trouble, particularly when the wood had slow -sale, and the price was low. Birch reached market in large quantities -only when modern mills and improved drykilns came into existence. - -The wood is heavy, strong, hard, in color dark brown tinged with red. -The light brown or yellow sapwood generally makes up seventy or eighty -annual rings. The difference between springwood and that of the later -season is not clearly marked, and consequently the rings are often -indistinct. The wood is very porous, and the pores are diffused through -all parts of the ring. They are too small to be seen with the naked eye, -except under the most favorable conditions. The medullary rays are -numerous but so small that they appear on the quartered wood merely as a -gloss, which, however, gives the surface a rich appearance. - -Forms known as curly and wavy birch are highly esteemed. They are -accidents of growth, well developed in birch, and occurring in several -other woods. Difficulties are encountered in assigning sweet birch its -individual place in the industrial world. As a tree it is well known, -but that is not the case when its lumber goes to market. The sweet birch -log goes into the sawmill, but when the lumber goes out at the other end -of the mill, it is often simply birch having lost the adjective "sweet" -somewhere in the operation. The reason is that sweet birch and yellow -birch, quite distinct in the forest, are often mixed and become one, to -all intents and purposes, when they reach the market. That is not always -the case, but it frequently is. Something depends on the region. The -yellow birch's range is more extensive, and in areas where it is -abundant, and sweet birch is not, it prevails in the lumber markets. But -south and southeast of the great lakes, as well as in the northeastern -part of the country, the two species mingle, and they are apt to go to -market simply as birch. The woods may be distinguished by a microscopic -examination, but the ordinary observer would make many mistakes if he -attempted to tell one from the other in the lumber yard. - -The two woods are different in several physical properties. Both are -heavy, but sweet birch weighs 47.47 pounds per cubic foot, while yellow -birch weighs only 40.84 pounds, according to tests averaged by Sargent. -Yellow birch rates a little above the other in breaking strength. Both -are very stiff, but yellow birch rates superior. In most respects the -two woods are put to similar uses--flooring, interior finish, -furniture--but for some purposes sweet birch is preferred. It is -substituted oftener for cherry and mahogany, and for that reason is -known as cherry birch or mahogany birch. Its color makes the -substitution easy, and the appearance of the grain, with a little -doctoring with stains and fillers, helps in the deception. The buyer may -be deceived as to the exact kind of wood he is getting, but he is not -cheated in the quality. Birch is substituted where strength is required, -as in the rails of beds, the frames of sofas, davenports, large chairs, -and certain parts of large musical instruments. It is much stronger, and -fully as hard as cherry or mahogany, and as its appearance is so much -like them, the article is actually better on account of the -substitution. Sweet birch is largely employed for various parts of -vehicle manufacture, particularly for wagon hubs and frames of -automobiles. It is also much used in the manufacture of sleds, boats, -and handles. - -The demand is heavy and the supply is diminishing. The tree is of such -slow growth that few timber owners will be inclined to wait for a second -crop, after the old trees have been cut, since 150 years are necessary -under forest conditions to produce a merchantable tree. - - SONORA IRONWOOD (_Olneya tesota_) is a desert tree, and the only - representative of the genus. It takes its name from the Mexican - state where it is most abundant and where it was discovered in 1852. - It grows in southern California and Arizona, and there it thrives in - gulches and depressions in the desert, frequently associated with - mesquite. It is so heavy that perfectly dry wood will sink in water. - The heartwood is deep chocolate-brown, mottled with red, the thin - sapwood is lemon-yellow. Its hardness renders it difficult to work, - and it can scarcely be split. The wood is made into canes and other - small articles of great beauty. It is not abundant, and the small - supply is remote from manufacturing centers; otherwise it would be - more valuable. It is excellent fuel, but it is burned chiefly by - stockmen and miners in their camps. The largest trees are thirty - feet high and eighteen inches in diameter. It is an evergreen, and - its pea-like flowers brighten many a remote desert place. - - WILD TAMARIND (_Lysiloma latisiliqua_) is forty or fifty feet high, - two or three in diameter, grows in southern Florida, and has - double-compound leaves, four or five inches long. The fruit is a pod - one inch wide and five or less in length. The wood weighs forty - pounds to the cubic foot, is neither strong nor tough, very low in - elasticity, is rich dark brown tinged with red, the sapwood white. - It has been reported for boatbuilding, and claims have been made - that it is equal to mahogany for that purpose, but the claim is of - doubtful validity, in view of the rather poor showing it makes in - several physical properties, though it takes good polish. - -[Illustration] - - - - -YELLOW BIRCH - -[Illustration: YELLOW BIRCH] - - - - -YELLOW BIRCH - -(_Betula Lutea_) - - -There is little likelihood of mistaking the yellow birch for any other -as it stands in the woods. Its points of individuality may be discovered -on slight acquaintance, and there is little need of studying leaves, -flowers, and fruit to find ways of distinguishing this birch from other -members of the family. Its tattered, yellow and gray bark fixes it in -the memory of all who have seen it a few times. Two other eastern -birches have tattered, curling bark also, but they do not look like -this. They are the paper birch and the river birch. The former is too -white to be mistaken for yellow birch, and the river birch is too much -the color of bronze or copper. Yellow birch is named from the color of -its bark, the part which shows when the outer layers break and roll -back, disclosing the fresh, smooth, satiny layers below. Sometimes the -tree is called silver birch, gray birch, or swamp birch. - -Its geographic range is bounded by a line drawn from Newfoundland to -northern Minnesota, southward through the Lake States, and along the -Atlantic coast to Delaware. It follows the Appalachian ranges of -mountains to eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina. Generally the -tree is small near the southern limit of its range. The best grows in -Michigan and Wisconsin, but it is of considerable importance in -Minnesota. - -Few trees are better equipped than yellow birch to perpetuate their -species. It is an abundant seeder, and the seeds are light, winged, and -they are scattered by wind over long distances. Sometimes they are -carried miles. Of course, most of them fall in unfavorable places, and -either do not germinate or perish soon after; but they are not -particularly choice in situations, and will grow on bare mineral soil, -even in old fields, where they are flooded with sunshine, or they will -grow in deep shade where a beam of sunlight seldom touches them. They -often germinate without touching mineral soil, and take root quickly and -grow vigorously. - -It is not unusual in the northern part of the tree's range, and on high -mountains farther south, to see yellow birches standing on high, -spreading roots, two, three, or four feet above the ground. That -peculiar attitude is brought about by the manner in which the seed -begins to grow. It falls on moss which occupies the top of a log or a -stump. The moss in the deep shade retains much moisture, and the seed -germinates, grows, sends roots down the sides of the log or the stump -until they strike mineral soil, and become firmly fixed. In course of -time the log or stump decays, and the spreading roots continue to -sustain the trunk, high above the ground. This attitude of the yellow -birch tree is very common in damp woods. Occasionally the seed finds -lodgment in the moss on top of a large rock. The roots descend the sides -until they reach the ground, and as the rock does not decay, the tree -grows to maturity on the rock. The most favorable seed bed for this -species is a mass of rotten wood where a log has decayed and fallen to -pieces. Frequently such a plot is covered with yellow birch seedlings. -They have the space all to themselves, because the seeds of few trees or -plants will grow in rotten wood, unmixed with mineral soil. - -The trunk of yellow birch averages a little smaller than that of sweet -birch, but may equal it in some instances. Trees reach a height of 100 -feet and a diameter of three or four, but a more common size, even in -the regions of best development, is a height of sixty or seventy feet, -and a diameter of two or less. - -Yellow birch was a long time coming into use. One of the first things -learned about it by early settlers in the region where it was abundant, -was that it decays quickly in situations alternately wet and dry. That -prejudiced the woodsmen against it, and they were not disposed to give -it a fair trial, as long as there was plenty of other timber. All -birches are subject to quick decay, if conditions are right to produce -it. Yellow birch in the woods sometimes dies standing, and when that -happens, the wood falls to pieces so quickly that the bark may remain -standing with very little inside of it except powder of decayed wood. -This tree is seldom mentioned in early accounts of lumber operations, -and practically never with a good word. Operators generally left it -standing when they cut the timber which grew with it. - -Yellow birch is heavy, very strong, hard, light brown tinged with red, -with thin, nearly white sapwood. The color of the heartwood varies -considerably. The pores are very numerous, rather small, and are -scattered through the wood with little tendency to run in bands or -groups. The springwood blends gradually with the summerwood in a way to -make the boundaries of the annual rings somewhat indistinct. Medullary -rays are numerous, but very thin and obscure. Quarter-sawing adds little -or nothing to the appearance of the wood. It has poor figure, except an -occasional tree with wavy or curly grain, or with burls. - -The wood may be readily stained. The pores hold the coloring matter -applied, and by varying the application, the appearance of the surface -can be varied. The colors of mahogany and of cherry are easily imparted, -and yellow birch often imitates those woods. - -Vehicle makers choose this wood for its strength and elasticity. In the -North it is manufactured into frames for cutters and sleighs of all -kinds. It is a competitor of sugar maple for that purpose. Hubs are made -of it for horse-drawn vehicles, and its hardness gives long wear where -the spokes are inserted. That is one of the first points of failure when -a soft, inferior wood is used for hubs. The spokes work loose. - -Manufacturers of automobiles have tried out yellow birch as material for -frames; it has stood the test, and is much used in competition with -other woods. The amount demanded for that purpose is not necessarily -large, but it must be the best wood that can be had. - -This material reaches the markets in all grades. Large amounts are used -for packing boxes, crates, and shipping containers. Low grades answer -for these purposes, leaving the better sorts for the more exacting -industries. The logs are cut in rotary veneer for baskets, and for ply -work. Some of the veneer in three-ply is worked into commodities of high -class, such as seats and backs of theater chairs. - -Birch flooring competes closely with maple for popular favor. It may -lack something of maple's whiteness, but it takes no second place in -hardness, smoothness, and wearing qualities. It is made into parquet -flooring as well as the ordinary tongued and grooved article. As such, -the sap matches the light colored woods, and the heart the dark. - -It goes into all kinds of interior house finish, from floor to ceiling, -and the finest grades are often devoted to stair work. Door and window -frames are made of it in large quantities, but it is not suited to -outside work exposed to weather, because of its tendencies to decay. It -is much employed as door material. Furniture demands the same class of -wood. Medium priced articles may be of solid birch, but the best -commodities are made of veneers laid upon other woods. Figured birch is -a favorite material for that class of work. - -The more common commodities manufactured of this wood can be listed only -by groups, because of their great number. Novelties constitute a large -class. One of the earliest demands was from the manufacturers of pill -boxes, such as apothecaries use. That was before anyone had tried to -sell yellow birch in the general market, and the demand came principally -from New England and New York. Another early demand came from coopers -who found that barrel hoops of yellow birch were highly satisfactory for -certain kinds of vessels. Fish kits were among the first to appear in -birch hoops. Small saplings were used, not over two inches in diameter. -They are large enough to make two hoops by splitting. The bark was left -on, and the identity of the wood was never in doubt, because when the -sapling is of that size, the bark is a fine yellow. It has not yet -commenced to crack open and roll up, as it does later. Millions of birch -hoops are still produced yearly in the United States, but all of them -are not of this species. The hoop business has existed much more than a -century, and millions of young birches have been cut every year to meet -the demand. - -Birch broom handles have been a commodity since the first lathe went to -work on that product. They are made of all the commercial birches, but -yellow birch contributes a large part. Other handles are manufactured of -it also, such as are fitted to hand saws, planes, drawing knives, -chisels, and augers. - -[Illustration] - - - - -RIVER BIRCH - -[Illustration: RIVER BIRCH] - - - - -RIVER BIRCH - -(_Betula Nigra_) - - -This tree is known as red birch, river birch, water birch, blue birch, -black birch, and simply as birch. The name red birch refers to the color -of the bark which is exposed to view in the process of exfoliation. The -trunk is constantly getting rid of its outer bark, and in doing so, the -exterior layers are rolled back, hang a while, and are gradually whipped -off by the wind. The new bark which is exposed to view when the old is -rolled back is reddish. Its color varies considerably, sometimes -suggesting the tint of old brass, again it is brown, but people in -widely separated regions have seen fit to call the tree red birch -because of the color of its bark. The name black birch is not -appropriate, though the old bark near the base of large trunks may -suggest it. No reason can be assigned for calling it blue birch, unless -the foliage in early summer may warrant such a term. River birch and -water birch are more appropriate, as these names indicate the situations -where the species grows. It clings to water courses almost as closely as -sycamore. A favorite attitude of the tree is to lean over a river or -pond, with the long, graceful limbs almost touching the water. - -Nature seems to recognize the tree's habit of hanging over muddy banks, -and has prepared it for that manner of life. Seeds are ripe early in -summer when the rivers are falling. They are scattered by myriads on the -muddy shores and upon the water. Those which fall in the mud find at -once a suitable place for germination, and those whose fortune it is to -drop in the water float away with the current or they are driven by the -wind until they lodge along the shores, and the receding water leaves -them in a few days, and they spring up quickly. Before the autumn or -early winter high water comes, they are well rooted in the mud and sand, -ready to put up a fight for their lives. - -The provision is a wise one. If the seeds matured in the fall, when -water is low, they would be strewn along the low shores, and before they -could take root and establish themselves, the high water and the ice of -winter would destroy them. The seeds need mud to give them a start in -life, and they need that start early in summer. - -The range of river birch is less extensive than that of the other -important eastern birches, yet it is by no means limited. Its eastern -boundary is in Massachusetts, its western in Minnesota, and it adheres -fairly well to a line drawn between the two states. Its range extends -200 miles west of the Mississippi and covers most of the southern -states. It is found in an area of nearly 1,000,000 square miles, but is -scarce in most of it. In certain restricted localities it is fairly -abundant, but there are thousands of square miles in the limits of its -range which have not a single tree. Its greatest development is in the -south Atlantic states, and in the lower Mississippi basin. - -Trees at their best are from eighty to ninety feet high and from two to -four in diameter, but most trunks are less than two feet in diameter. -The tree frequently forks fifteen or twenty feet from the ground, or -occasionally sends up several stems from the ground. Forms of that kind -are practically useless for lumber. - -The wood is among the lightest of the birches and weighs 35.91 pounds -per cubic foot. It is rather hard, medium strong, the heartwood light -brown in color, with thick, pale sapwood. It rates below sweet and -yellow birch in stiffness, is very porous, but the pores are quite -small, and can scarcely be seen without a magnifying glass. They are -diffused throughout the entire annual ring. There is no marked -difference in the appearance of the springwood and that of the late -season. The medullary rays are very small and have little effect on the -appearance of the wood, no matter in what way the sawing is done. - -The wood is apt to contain pith flecks and streaks. These are small, -brown spots or lines scattered at random through the wood. They are a -blemish which is not easily covered up if the wood is to be polished; -but they are small and may not be objectionable. The flecks are caused -by insects which, early in the season, bore through the bark into the -cambium layer (the newly-formed wood), where eggs are deposited. The -young insect cuts a tunnel up or down along the cambium layer, an inch -or less in length and a sixteenth of an inch wide. This gallery -subsequently fills with brown deposits which remain permanently in the -wood. Sometimes these deposits are sufficiently hard to turn the edge of -tools. - -River birch is widely used but in small amounts. It may properly be -described as a neighborhood wood--that is, wherever it grows in -considerable quantity it is put to use, but nearly always in a local -way. For example, in Louisiana, where it is as abundant as in any other -state, it is a favorite material for ox yokes, and no report from that -state has been made of its employment for any other purpose. The reason -given for its extensive use for ox yokes there is that it is very strong -for its weight, and that it resists decay. The yokes there are usually -left out of doors when not in use, and the dampness and hot weather -cause rapid decay of most woods. The birches are usually listed as -quick-decaying woods, but the verdict from Louisiana seems to be that -river birch is an exception. - -Plain furniture is made of it, and the manufacturers of woodenware find -it suitable for most of their commodities. It is sometimes listed as -wooden shoe material, but no particular instance has been reported where -it has been so used in this country. In Maryland some of the -manufacturers of peach baskets make bands or hoops of it, and pronounce -it as satisfactory for that purpose as elm. - -The supply is not in much danger of exhaustion. The species is equipped -to take care of itself, occupying as it does, ground not in demand for -farming purposes. When a tree once gets a start it has a chance to -escape the ax until large enough for use. - -WHITE ALASKA BIRCH (_Betula alaskana_) is usually called simply white -birch where it grows. It is not exclusively an Alaska species though -that is the only place where it touches the territory of the United -States. It is supposed by some to be closely related to the white -birches of northern Asia, but the relationship, if it exists, has not -been established. In Alaska it grows as far north as any timber extends. -It was first discovered and reported in 1858 on the Saskatchewan river, -east of the Rocky Mountains, and its range is now known to extend down -the valley of the Mackenzie river toward the Arctic ocean to a point -more than 100 miles north of the Arctic circle. It is common in many -parts of Alaska both along the coast and in the interior. In some -portions of that territory it is an important source of fuel. Trees are -from twenty-five to sixty feet high, and from six to eighteen inches in -diameter. The bark is thin and often nearly white, separating into thin -scales. The tree bears typical birch cones, but larger than those of -some of the other species. No tests of the wood's physical properties -have been made, but it looks like the wood of paper birch, and will -probably attain to considerable importance in the future, since it grows -over a large area, and in many parts is abundant. There remain many -things for both botanists and wood-users to investigate concerning this -tree which has a range of more than half a million square miles. - -WESTERN BIRCH (_Betula occidentalis_) is believed to be the largest -birch in the world, and yet it is not of much commercial importance in -the United States, because of scarcity, occurring only in northwestern -Washington and in the adjacent parts of British Columbia, as far as its -range has been determined. It resembles paper birch, and has often been -supposed to be that tree. The people in the restricted region where it -grows speak of it simply as birch. The largest trees are 100 feet high -and four feet in diameter, clear of limbs forty or fifty feet. A height -of seventy feet and a diameter of two are common. The general color of -the trunk is orange-brown, the new bark, exposed by exfoliation, is -yellow. The tree prefers the border of streams and the shores of lakes. -Though it is the largest of the birches, its seeds are among the -smallest. They are provided with two wings and are good flyers. -Manufacturers of flooring and interior finish in Washington reported the -use of 315,000 feet of this birch in 1911. That was the only use found -for it in the only state where it grows. Information is meager as to the -probable quantity of this birch available. It has been reported in -Idaho, but exact information on the subject is lacking. - - MOUNTAIN BIRCH (_Betula fontanalis_) is a minor species concerning - which there has been much contention among botanists. It has finally - been called mountain birch because it grows on mountains, as high as - 10,000 feet among the Sierra Nevadas in California. It has many - local names for a tree so small as to be almost a shrub throughout - most of its range: Black birch, sweet birch, cherry birch, water - birch, and canyon birch. Its bark is of the color of old copper; - wood is light yellowish-brown, with thick white sapwood; trunks - seldom exceed ten inches in diameter and thirty feet high; range - extends from northern British Columbia to California, and along the - Rocky Mountains to Colorado and possibly further south. The uses of - the wood are few. - -[Illustration] - - - - -PAPER BIRCH - -[Illustration: PAPER BIRCH] - - - - -PAPER BIRCH - -(_Betula Papyrifera_) - - -This tree is called paper birch because the bark parts in thin sheets -like paper. It is known as canoe birch from the fact that Indians and -early white explorers and travelers constructed canoes of the bark. The -name silver birch is an allusion to the color of the bark; and big white -birch is the name used when the purpose is to distinguish it from the -white birch with which it is associated in the northeastern part of its -range. It grows as far north as Arctic British America, east to -Labrador, south to Michigan and Pennsylvania, and west nearly or quite -to the base of the Rocky Mountains. This indicated area exceeds -1,000,000 square miles. The quantity of birch of this species in the -forests is unknown, but it runs into billions of feet, probably -exceeding any other single species of birch. The tree sometimes grows -dispersed through forests of other woods, sometimes in nearly pure -stands. Persons well acquainted with the species have expressed the -opinion that paper birch exists in larger quantities now than at the -time when the country was first explored by white men. That can be said -of few other species; but probably holds true of lodgepole pine in the -West, loblolly pine in the Southeast, and mesquite in the Southwest. -Each of these species took advantage of man's presence and influence to -extend its range. Cattle spread the mesquite; the lodgepole pine came up -in fire-burned tracts; loblolly pine spread into abandoned fields; and -paper birch profited by fires which destroyed large tracts of timber. - -The seeds are light, are furnished with wings which sail them long -distances through the air, and they are quickly scattered over the -burned areas where they spring up. In the contest, they are competitors -of aspen. Birch often captures the ground, but does not always do it. -Some of the largest stands in the Northeast occupy tracts bared by fire -half a century or more ago. When paper birch does not find open tracts, -it contents itself with sharing ground with other species. That was the -usual manner of its growth in the original forests; but it has been -quick to seize opportunities to take full possession. - -It does not like shade and, if crowded, one of the first things it does -is to rid its lower trunk of all branches. Only limbs remain which are -at the top where they receive plenty of light. Therefore, forest-grown -paper birches have long, clean trunks, though they are not always -straight. The largest trees are seventy feet high and three in diameter, -but those fifty feet in height and eighteen inches in diameter are above -rather than under the average. - -The bark of paper birch has played an important part in American -history, story, and poetry. It was the canoe material, the roof, and the -utensil in its region. The Indians had brought the art of canoe making -to perfection before white men went among them. The bark peels from the -trunks in large pieces, and may be separated into thin sheets, which are -very tough, strong, and durable. The Indians sewed pieces of bark -together, using the long, slender roots of tamarack for thread. The bark -was stretched and tied over a frame, the shape of the canoe, and made of -northern white cedar, or some other light wood. Holes in the bark, and -the partings at the seams, were stopped with resin from balsam fir, wax -from balm of Gilead, or resin from pine. The forest supplied all the -material needed by the Indian, and a canoe thus made, and large enough -to carry 800 or 1,000 pounds, weighed no more than fifty pounds. Frail -as it seemed, it was good for long service on rivers and lakes, and -could weather storms of no small severity. - -White men adopted the bark canoes at once, and learned from Indians how -to make them. The daring explorers and venturesome fur traders who -threaded every river and navigated every important lake of British -America, found the birch canoe equal to every requirement, even to -attacking whales in the tidewater of the Arctic ocean. The bark from -this birch was used for tents and the roofs of cabins; vessels in which -to store or carry food were made of it, as well as beds on which to -sleep, and wrapping material for bundles. These uses have now -practically ceased; but as sport, recreation, and for the novelty, -articles, from canoes to visiting cards, are still made of the bark. - -The wood of paper birch is valuable for certain purposes. The trees are -largely white sapwood, which is without figure. It is as plain a wood as -grows in the forest, but it may be stained. That, however, is seldom -done. The heartwood is dark or red, and is made into brush backs and -parquet flooring, but the hearts are small, and no large quantity of -that wood is used. The largest use of paper birch is for spools, the -common kind for thread. Some of larger size are made for use in mills. -The sapwood only is accepted by makers of spools. The heart is cut out, -and most of it is thrown away or burned under the boilers. The qualities -of paper birch which appeal to spool makers are, white color, small -liability to warp, and the ease with which it may be cut without dulling -the tools. The logs are worked into bars of the various spool sizes, and -are carefully seasoned. One of the problems that must be constantly -solved is the prevention of sap stain while the bars are seasoning. The -wood discolors quickly and deeply. - -Tooth picks, shoe pegs, and shoe shanks are other important commodities -manufactured from paper birch. It has not yet been satisfactorily -converted into lumber, because it is more valuable for spools, tooth -picks, pegs, and the like. This wood is frequently listed as a pulpwood, -and it is quite generally believed that its use for that purpose is -important. This is apparently an error, as the wood is not even -mentioned in statistics of pulpwood output in this country. - -Paper birch weighs 37.11 pounds per cubic foot, is strong, hard, tough; -medullary rays are numerous but very small and obscure; wood is -diffuse-porous, and earlywood blends gradually with latewood in the -annual rings which are not very distinct. - -This is one of the woods which does not threaten to become soon -exhausted. A supply for half a century, at present rate of use, is in -sight, if no more should grow; but in fifty years new forests, now -young, will be large enough to use. - - KENAI BIRCH (_Betula kenaica_) is an Alaska species concerning which - comparatively little is known, except that its botanical identity - and something of its range have been established. Its small size, - and the remote regions where it grows, do not necessarily indicate - that it can never be important. Scarcity of other woods may give it - a place which it does not now occupy. No reports on the properties - of the wood have been made. The bark is deep brown in color. Trees - are from twenty to thirty feet high and from twelve to eighteen - inches in diameter. The trunks are very short. Cones are an inch or - less in length and the double winged seeds are very small. The name - applied to this species relates to the region where the best - developed trees have been found. As far as known, the species is - confined to the coast region of Alaska and to adjacent islands from - the head of Lynn canal westward. It has been reported on Koyukuk - river above the Arctic circle. - - WHITE BIRCH (_Betula populifolia_) is known also as gray birch, - old-field birch, poverty birch, poplar-leaved birch, and small white - birch. It is chiefly confined to the northeastern part of the United - States, but grows as far east as Nova Scotia, and west to the - southern shore of Lake Ontario. It occurs on the Atlantic coast - south to Delaware, and along mountain ranges to West Virginia. The - names describe either the habits or the appearance of the tree. The - bark is white, and is the most prominent feature of a thicket of - these graceful but practically worthless little birches. It is - called an old-field species because it quickly scatters its small, - winged seeds over abandoned farmland and takes possession when it - does not have to compete with stronger species. Poverty birch is an - allusion, either to the poor ground it occupies or the unpromising - nature of the tree itself. The resemblance of its leaves to those of - cottonwood leads some people to prefer the name poplar-leaved birch. - The tree at its best is seldom more than forty feet high and - eighteen inches in diameter. A height of twenty or thirty feet is - the usual size. The stem is generally clothed with branches nearly - to the ground. The wood is light, soft, not strong or durable, heart - light brown, thick sap nearly white. The form and size of the trunk - exclude it from sawmills, but it has some special uses: Spools, shoe - pegs, and hoops. Its small size does not disqualify it for service - along those lines. The tree springs up quickly, grows with fair - rapidity, and dies young. It is cut for cordwood in New England and - makes good fuel. It takes possession of areas bared by fire, and - protects the ground, furnishing shelter for more valuable species - which come later. - - BLUE BIRCH (_Betula cærulea_) is a small tree of which more - information is to be desired. It is rarely more than thirty feet - high with a diameter of eight or ten inches. Its leaves are - long-pointed, its cones about an inch in length, the bark is thin, - white tinged with rose, and is lustrous. Bark is not easily - separated into layers, in that respect differing from the paper - birch. The inner bark is of light orange color. It is probably put - to no use, unless for fuel or as hoops. It is smallest of New - England birches, and its range has not been fully determined, but it - is known to grow in Maine and Vermont, and probably will be found in - other parts of New England and in the adjacent regions of Canada. It - has been compared with a European species of birch, the _Betula - pendula_. - -[Illustration] - - - - -RED ALDER - -[Illustration: RED ALDER] - - - - -RED ALDER - -(_Alnus Oregona_) - - -Many species of alder are found in various parts of the world, and on -both sides of the equator, but chiefly in the northern hemisphere. Some -of these are trees, others are shrubs. Six species belonging in the tree -class grow in the United States, besides others which remain shrubs. -Some trees are burdened with names, changing them with locality, but not -so with alder. An adjective may accompany the name, as red, white, -seaside, or mountain, to describe it, but it is always alder, no matter -where it grows. The different species cover much of the United States, -and few large areas are found which have not one or more species. It -grows from sea level up to 7,000 feet or more, but some species thrive -at one elevation, and others above or below. - -The alders are old inhabitants of the earth. They had a place in the -Eocene and Miocene forests of the old world and new. It is not apparent -that they have either gained or lost in extent of range during the -hundreds of thousands of years which measure their tenancy on the earth. -They have not been aggressive in pushing their way, nor have they shown -a disposition to retire before the aggression of other trees. Some -alders bear seeds equipped with wings for wind distribution, others -produce wingless seeds which depend on water to bear them to suitable -situations and plant them. Of course, the water-borne seeds are planted -on muddy shores or on the banks of running streams, and the trees of -those species are confined to such situations. The alders belong to the -birch family. - -Red alder is the largest of the alder group in this country. Mature -trees are from forty to ninety feet high, and from one to three feet in -diameter. The northern limit of its range crosses southern Alaska; its -southern border is in southern California. It is a Pacific coast tree, -with a north and south range of 2,000 miles. Trunks are straight, and -branches are generally slender. The largest specimens grow in the -vicinity of Puget Sound. The bark is thin, leaves are from three to ten -inches long, cones from one-half to one inch in length, seeds have very -narrow, thin wings, and are about the size of radish seeds. The cones -remain green in color until the seeds are fully ripe, but they finally -turn brown, and seeds are liberated during the fall and winter. - -Red alder is given that name because the newly cut wood is liable to -change quickly to a reddish-brown. This applies to the whitish sapwood -only; but since the trunk is largely sapwood, it is an important matter. -It is not apparent whether the change in color is due to attack by -fungi, or to some chemical change in the sap. It is not believed that -the change in color weakens the wood, at least it does not appear to do -so immediately. The heart is reddish, and when dressed and polished, it -presents a fine appearance. - -Red alder when thoroughly air dry weighs about thirty pounds per cubic -foot, which is slightly above the weight of basswood. It is strong for -its weight, rating only eight per cent below white oak, while in -stiffness or elasticity it is about twelve per cent above white oak. It -is not difficult to season, is soft, stands well when made up, and is -one of the most important hardwoods of the northwest Pacific coast. More -than 2,000,000 feet a year go to wood-using factories in Washington and -Oregon. - -The Indians of the Northwest, when they had only stone hatchets or the -crudest kinds of metal tools, found red alder a wood which worked so -easily that they specialized with it. They made canoes of the largest -trunks, and all manner of troughs, trays, trenches, platters, and -dugouts, some of no more than a pint in capacity, others holding three -or four bushels. The Field Museum in Chicago has a collection of these -Indian utensils made of alder. The workmanship shows considerable skill -mixed with barbaric art. There are carvings of eagles and bears which -are not entirely grotesque. The utensils were designed primarily to -contain food at ceremonial feasts, or it was stored for times of -scarcity. Among them are cooking vessels of alder in which meat was -boiled by filling the troughs with water and dropping in hot stones. - -Furniture manufacturers are the largest users of red alder. Carefully -selected heartwood, finished in the proper color, looks much like -cherry, though it lacks something of the characteristic cherry luster. -The sapwood in its natural color resembles the sapwood of yellow birch. -The annual rings are defined by narrow bands of dense summerwood. The -pores are small and diffused through the entire ring, as with birch. -Medullary rays are very thin and do not show much figure; neither do the -rings of growth, in tangential sawing, display much contrast. It is, -therefore, a figureless wood, entering into practically all grades of -furniture, in the region where alder is plentiful, but it shows to -particularly good advantage in panels. - -Reports on wood-utilization on the Pacific coast list this wood for -archery bows but particulars as to amount used, and why it is used at -all, are not given. The physical properties of the wood do not seem to -fit it for that use. It is wanting in both strength and elasticity which -are the prime, almost the only, factors considered in selecting bow -wood. No account has been found of any employment of alder for bows by -Indians of the region where it grows. - -Broom handle turners in Washington use 350,000 feet of alder a year. The -smooth finish which may be imparted to the wood constitutes its chief -value for broom handles. It is well liked for porch columns. When the -center is bored out, the wood seldom checks. In that respect it -resembles yellow poplar. It takes paint well and holds it a long time. -Comparatively large amounts are converted into interior finish. It is -made into spindles, newel posts, railing, panels, molding, ornaments, -and pedestals. Occasionally it is finished in the wood's natural color. - -Many minor places are found for red alder. Frames of pack saddles are -made of it; it forms parts of pulleys; is available for small turnery; -and it is sometimes worked into bodies and compartments for business -wagons, such as butchers and bakers use. The bark is rich in tannin and -is said to be employed in local tanneries, but no statistics are -available showing the annual supply. - -WHITE ALDER (_Alnus rhombifolia_) is known simply as alder in the region -where it grows. Where this tree and red alder occupy the same range they -are commonly supposed to be the same. The range of white alder extends -from northern Idaho to southern California. It is the common alder of -central California where it attains its best development, and the only -alder at low altitudes in southern California. Trees vary in height from -thirty to eighty feet, and in diameter from one to three. A common size -is fifty feet high and fifteen inches in diameter. Like most alders, it -sticks close to water courses, and is usually found in the bottoms of -gulches where water flows most of the year. The flowers begin to appear -in midsummer as dark, olive-brown catkins less than an inch in length. -By midwinter they are fully developed, and the tree is loaded with -catkins from four to six inches long and thick as lead pencils. In the -gulches among the elevated foothills it is not unusual for trees to be -bending beneath snow and flowers at the same time. That is about the -period when the seeds of the preceding year complete their dispersal. -The cones hang closed nearly a whole twelve months, and when they give -up their seeds, they often do it slowly. The seeds are the size of pin -heads, and seem to have had wings once, but lost them. The remnants -remain, but are of no use. If running water does not carry seeds to new -grounds they lie beneath the parent tree. The wood of white alder is -five pounds lighter per cubic foot than red alder. Its structure is less -satisfactory. Medullary rays are irregular, some being thin as those of -sweet birch, while others are as broad as rays of chestnut oak. Those of -large size seem to be scattered at haphazard, and are so irregular and -uncertain that no dependence can be placed in them for figure. Trees are -largely sapwood, which is nearly white when freshly cut, but it quickly -turns brown; heartwood is pale, yellowish-brown. This is said to be one -of most quickly-decaying woods of the western forests when logs are left -lying in damp woods. The white alder ought to be suitable for nearly -every purpose for which red alder is used. - - MOUNTAIN ALDER (_Alnus tenuifolia_) is too small to contribute much - to the lumber supply of the country, though it may yield fuel in - some localities where there is little else. Its range extends from - Yukon territory to Lower California, a distance of 4,000 miles, and - it nearly touches both the torrid and frigid zones. It is found from - the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific in the United States. Few trunks - exceed twenty-five feet in height or six inches in diameter; but the - form is generally brush, in tangled thickets along the courses of - mountain streams, and on boggy slopes, up to 7,000 feet in altitude. - The wood is light brown, and there are no reports showing its use - for any purpose except firewood. - - SITKA ALDER (_Alnus sitchensis_) is one of the smallest of the - arborescent species, and in most instances it is a shrub a few feet - high. At its best it is thirty feet high and eight inches in - diameter. It grows from Alaska to Oregon, and eastward to Alberta - and Montana. It is found in mountain regions 4,000 feet above the - sea. The wood is valuable for fuel only. This species was discovered - about eighty years ago, but was practically lost sight of until - recently. Many persons saw it but supposed it to be one of the other - alders. - - LANCELEAF ALDER (_Alnus acuminata_) is a southwestern species, - ranging through southern New Mexico and southern Arizona and south - 4,000 miles to Peru. In the United States it ascends to altitudes of - 4,000 or 6,000 feet where it fringes the banks of streams, and - flourishes in the bottoms of canyons. The largest trees are thirty - feet high and eight inches in diameter. Flowers open in February - before the appearance of the leaves. The seeds have small wings - which are of little or no use. - - SEASIDE ALDER (_Alnus maritima_) grows in Maryland, Delaware, and - Oklahoma, and the largest trunks are thirty feet high and five - inches in diameter. It is found on the banks of ponds and streams. - The flowers appear in July, and the seeds of last year's crop ripen - at the same time. The wood is light, soft, and brown, heart and sap - being scarcely distinguishable. The wood is not used. - - The European Alder (_Alnus glutinosa_) has been naturalized in a few - places in the United States, and several varieties are distinguished - in cultivation. A native shrubby species (_Alnus rugosa_) is common - in many parts of the eastern states. It is not usually listed as a - tree, being too small, but it is sometimes twenty-five feet high and - three or four inches in diameter. In Europe the charcoal made from - alder is considered excellent material for the manufacture of gun - powder, and considerable areas of alder in England are held in - reserve against an emergency. It is probable that the American - alders would answer as well as the European species. - -[Illustration] - - - - -HORNBEAM - -[Illustration: HORNBEAM] - - - - -HORNBEAM - -(_Ostrya Virginiana_) - - -This tree belongs to the birch family and is closely related to the -alders and to blue beech. Four species of hornbeam are known in the -world, and two of them are in the United States. One is well known to -most persons who are familiar with eastern hardwood forests, but the -other is seldom seen because of the limited extent of its range. - -The well-known hornbeam is found in the valley of the St. Lawrence -river, throughout Nova Scotia and Ottawa, along the northern shore of -Lake Huron to northern Minnesota, south through the northern states and -along the Alleghany mountains to the Chattahoochee region of western -Florida; through eastern Iowa, southeastern Missouri and Arkansas, -eastern Kansas, Oklahoma and the Trinity river region of Texas. It is -known as ironwood, hop-hornbeam, leverwood, and hardhack. - -The Indians were small users of wood except for fuel, but they had -places where they put wood to special uses. They chose hornbeam, when -they could get it, for one of these places. It was a favorite material -for the handles of their stone warclubs. The stone heads were chipped to -various forms, but were usually egg-shaped with a groove round the -middle for fixing the handle. This was made fast with thongs of rawhide, -and was generally nearly or quite two feet long, and slender as a golf -stick. Great strength and a high degree of elasticity were required to -stand the strain when a warrior swung his club in battle. Hornbeam meets -these requirements exactly, and doubtless the Indian found this out by -experience. It is about thirty per cent stronger than white oak, and -forty-six per cent more elastic. The demand for warclub handles made no -great inroads on the hornbeam supply, but it affords proof that the -Indians sometimes used good judgment. - -The different names of this tree describe some characteristic of the -wood or foliage. The fruit resembles hops, hence one of the names. -Hardness gives it the other names by which it is known. It is the custom -nearly everywhere to call any wood ironwood if it is extra hard. No -fewer than eleven species of the United States are known as ironwood in -some parts of their ranges. - -The leaves of hornbeam are simple and alternate; they taper to a sharp -point at the end, while the base is rounded. They are doubly and sharply -serrate. In color they are dark green above, and lighter below, tufted -in places, resembling birch leaves in some respects, although they are -quite different in texture, the leaves of birch being glossy, while -those of ironwood are rough. They are joined to the twig with a short -petiole, hardly a fourth of an inch in length. - -The flowers grow in long catkins, staminate ones sometimes more than two -inches long, covered with fringed scales. The pistillate catkins are -usually shorter. Hornbeam blooms in April and May and its fruit ripens -in August and September. The seed is a small nut equipped with -balloon-like wings, intended for wind distribution. The seeds are often -carried, rolled, and tumbled considerable distances. They keep on going -until their wings are torn off or wear out, or until they become -inextricably entangled among twigs or other obstacles. Comparatively few -of the seeds ever find lodgment in situations suitable for germination. -Consequently, hornbeam is scarce. - -It is not easy to state the average size of the hornbeam, though it is -usually small and never very large. Sometimes it reaches a height of -fifty or sixty feet and a diameter of two or more, but such sizes are -unusual. Trees a foot in diameter and forty feet high are more common. -The foliage is thin, and the tree is satisfied to grow in shade, -provided the shadows are not too dense. The leaves must have a little -sunshine, and the flecks that fall through the open spaces in the forest -canopy high above, suffice. The hornbeam makes no effort to overtop its -fellow trees; but when it grows in the open, as on a rocky bank or -ridge, where it catches the full light, the crown puts on more leaves, -and multiplies its branches, and it is no longer the lean tree which -some of the Indians called it. Forest grown specimens produce clear -trunks, but those in the open are limby almost to the ground. - -Hornbeam has neither smell nor taste. It burns well, the embers glowing -brightly in still air. The weight of a cubic foot of seasoned wood is -fifty-one pounds. It is strong, hard, heavy, tough, and exceedingly -durable when exposed to variable weather, or when in contact with the -soil. It takes a beautiful polish. Trees more than a foot in diameter -are often found to be hollow. - -The wood is strong, hard, tough, durable in contact with the soil; -heartwood light brown, tinged with red, or often nearly white; thick, -pale sapwood which generally does not change to heart for forty or fifty -years. The annual rings are not uniform in appearance. Some are easily -distinguishable, while others are vague. This variation is due to the -irregular development of the dark summerwood in the outer portion of the -rings. It is at times distinct and again is hardly discernible. - -The wood is diffuse-porous, and the pores are too small to be easily -seen by the naked eye. The medullary rays are small and obscure. In -quarter-sawed wood they show as a silvery gloss, but the appearance is -too monotonous to be attractive. Neither is there striking figure when -the wood is sawed tangentially, because of the small contrast in the -different parts of the yearly ring. Hornbeam may, therefore, be listed -among woods which have little or no figure. No one ever thinks of using -it for the sake of its beauty. Because of the small size and limited -quantity hornbeam will never come into commercial prominence. Its uses -are almost entirely local and domestic. The lumberman or the farmer -selects a hornbeam sapling as being the best material obtainable for -making a wagon or sleigh tongue, a skid, or a lever. The farmer often -laboriously works a section of the flint-like wood into minor -agricultural implements. - -The statistics of sawmill cut in the United States do not mention -hornbeam even among such minor species as holly, Osage orange, alder, -and apple. However, it is known that an occasional log goes to sawmills -in the Lake States, and doubtless in other regions, and in some -instances the wood is kept separate from others and is sold to fill -special orders. Manufacturers of farm tools consider it the best wood -for rake teeth. That use has come down from the time when farmers made -their own rakes and pitchforks. They learned the wood's value by -experience, and manufacturers cater to the trade. - -It is sometimes called lever wood, and that name dates from long ago -when the man who needed a lever went into the woods and cut one to suit -his needs. The modern lever is usually somewhat different and partakes -more of the nature of a handle. They are seen in sawmills where they -manipulate the carriage machinery; on certain agricultural implements -where their function is to throw clutches in and out of gear; sometimes -they are used as the handle by which the rudder of a small boat is -controlled; and occasionally the lever has a place as an adjunct of a -wagon or log-car brake. In all of these uses strength and stiffness are -required, and durability is duly considered. - -Wagon makers and repairers find several uses for hornbeam. It would be -more frequently employed if it were more plentiful. Nearly any -blacksmith who runs a repair shop for vehicles will testify to that. It -fulfills every requisite for axles; is made into felloes for heavy -wagons; and is considered the best obtainable wood for the tongues of -heavy logging wheels and stone wagons. - -Among various occasional uses of this wood it is listed by the -manufacturers of reels for garden hose; rungs for long ladders; stakes -for sleds, and also for cross pieces and parts of runners of sleds; -wedges for the makers of machinery; and hammer and hatchet handles. It -is a pretty active competitor of dogwood for some of these uses, and it -has been suggested for shuttles, but no report of its use in that -capacity seems to have been made. - -One of its most common uses is as fence posts. Few lines of fence are -built exclusively of hornbeam posts, because not enough can be had in -one place; but posts are cut singly or a few together from Maine to -Arkansas, and the aggregate number is large. The wood is said to outlast -the heartwood of white oak when in contact with the ground, and it is so -strong that posts of small size stand the pull of wires or the weight of -planks or pickets. - -Hornbeam is of slow growth and there is little reason to believe that it -will ever be seriously considered by timber growers; but it will -doubtless win its way to favor as an ornamental tree. It has been -planted in city parks in New England and elsewhere, and its form, -foliage, and habits are much liked. The pale green pods or cones--they -are not exactly the one or the other--remain a long time on the branches -and are delicately ornamental until after the autumn frosts change their -green into brown. Then comes the flying time of the balloon seeds, and -that is an interesting period in parks and yards where the tree's habits -may be closely studied. - - KNOWLTON HORNBEAM (_Ostrya knowltoni_) is interesting chiefly on - account of its extremely limited range, and its far removal from all - its kin. It is an exile in a distant country. It has thus far been - found only on the southern slope of the canyon of the Colorado river - in Arizona, about seventy miles north of Flagstaff. It occurs at an - elevation of 6,000 or 7,000 feet above the sea. Trees are twenty or - thirty feet high and twelve or eighteen inches in diameter, and - trunks usually divide a foot or two above the ground into three or - more branches, which are often crooked and contorted. Such sizes and - forms could not be of much value for anything but fuel, even if - abundant. The heart is light reddish-brown, sapwood thin. The leaves - are round instead of pointed at the apex, as with the other - hornbeam; but the flowers and fruit are much the same. Botanists - speculate in vain as to how this species happens to be so far - removed from other members of its family. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SILVERBELL - -[Illustration: SILVERBELL] - - - - -SILVERBELL TREE - -(_Mohrodendron Carolinum_) - - -This tree belongs to the storax family, which is not a very numerous -family as forest families are generally counted, but it is old and -highly respectable. Its members are found in the old world and the new -in both North and South America, in Europe, Asia, and the Malay -Archipelago. Trees of the storax family produce, or they are supposed to -produce, resins and gums, balsams, and aromatic exudations, but some -give little or none. The priests and soothsayers of idolatrous nations -of ancient times laid great stress on storax. They insisted on having -the resin as an adjunct to their superstitious rites. It was the incense -offered in their worship, and they compassed sea and land to obtain it -for that purpose. It is not improbable that the southern peninsulas of -Asia and the far-off Molucca islands were visited in ancient times to -procure the incense which ultimately found its way to the Mediterranean -regions. - -It is, therefore, interesting to find that two members of the old storax -family are quietly living in the coast region and among the mountains of -the southeastern part of the United States. No one has ever suspected -that they might be capable of yielding resinous incense suitable for the -altars of heathen gods. They are the silverbell tree, and its little -cousin, the snowdrop tree (_Mohrodendron dipterum_). They have had -common names a long time, but their botanical names are the result of a -recent christening. They are named from Charles Mohr who wrote an -interesting book on the flora of Alabama. The silverbell tree is the -larger of the two and deserves first consideration. - -It has a somewhat extensive range, but in some parts it is so scarce -that few persons ever see it. It is found from the mountains of West -Virginia to southern Illinois, south to middle Florida, northern -Alabama, and Mississippi, and through Arkansas and western Louisiana to -eastern Texas. Under cultivation, this tree is known as the snowdrop -tree in Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, South Carolina, -Florida, and Louisiana. In Rhode Island, under cultivation, it is also -sometimes known as the silverbell tree, and bears the same name in -Alabama, Florida, and Mississippi. In parts of Tennessee it is known as -the wild olive tree, and in other parts of the state as the bell tree. -In various localities in Alabama it is referred to as the four-winged -halesia; and in others as opossumwood. It is indiscriminately known in -various sections of Texas as the rattlebox and calicowood, and some of -the furniture manufacturers in North Carolina list it as box elder, -though it is only distantly related to the true box elder. In the Great -Smoky mountains in Tennessee, where the species reaches its greatest -development, it bears a variety of names, among them being tisswood, -peawood, bellwood, and chittamwood. - -The tree varies in size from a shrubby form so small that it is scarcely -entitled to the name of tree, up to a height of eighty, ninety, and even -more than 100 feet with diameters up to nearly four feet. The largest -sizes occur only among the ranges of the Great Smoky mountains in -Blount, Sevier, and Monroe counties, Tennessee. No reason is known why -this tree in that region should so greatly exceed its largest dimensions -in other areas; but most species have a locality where the greatest -development is reached, and this has found the favorable conditions in -the mountains of eastern Tennessee. Some of the trees measure sixty feet -or more to the first limbs. - -Lumbermen of the country are not generally acquainted with silverbell, -as is natural since its commercial range is so limited. It is not listed -in statistics of sawmill cut or of veneer mills. The wood-using -industries of the country do not report it, except in the one state, -North Carolina, and there in very small amounts. Doubtless, it is -occasionally used elsewhere, but it escapes mention in most instances. -It has been made into mantels at Knoxville, Tennessee, and passes as -birch. - -The wood is light, soft, usually narrow-ringed, color light brown, the -thick sapwood lighter. It weighs thirty-five pounds per cubic foot, and -when burned it yields a low percentage of ash. The wood's chief value is -due to its color and figure. Best results are not obtained by sawing the -logs into lumber, because the handsomest part of the figure is apt to be -lost. It is preëminently suited to the cutting of rotary veneer. By that -method of conversion the birdseye and the pitted and mottled effects are -brought out in the best possible manner. Veneers so cut from logs -selected for the figure, possess a rare beauty which no other American -wood equals. There is a pleasing blend of tones, which are due to the -direction in which the distorted grain is cut. This distinguishes the -wood from all others and gives it an individuality. Much of the figure -appears to be due to the presence of adventitious buds, similar to those -supposed to be responsible for the birdseye effect in maple. - -The leaves of silverbell are bright green at maturity and are from four -to six inches long and two or three wide. They turn yellow before -falling in autumn. The flowers give the tree its name, for they resemble -delicate bells, about one inch in length. They appear in early spring -when the leaves are one-third grown, on slender, drooping stems from one -to two inches long. The trees are loaded throughout the whole crown, -and present an appearance that is seldom surpassed for beauty in the -forests of this country. - -The fruit is peculiar and is not particularly graceful. It has too much -the appearance of the load carried by a well-fruited vine of hops. It -ripens late in autumn and persists during most of the winter. There is -nothing in its color, shape, or taste to tempt birds or other creatures -to make food of it, though, under stress of circumstances, they may -sometimes do so. The fruit is two inches or less in length and an inch -wide, and has four wings, which seem to be practically useless for -flight. The seed is about half an inch long. - -The bark of the trunk is bright red-brown and about half an inch thick, -with broad ridges which separate on the surface into thin papery scales. -The young branches wear an early coat of thick, pale wool or hairs, -light, reddish-brown during the first summer, but later changing to an -orange color. - -The botanical range of the species is extensive, though the tree-form is -confined to a few counties among the southern Appalachian mountains. The -northern limit of its range is in West Virginia where it is so scarce -that many a woodsman never recognizes it. Unless it is caught while in -the full glory of its bloom, it attracts no attention. It is not there a -tree, but a shrub, hidden away among other growth, along mountain -streams or on slopes where the soil is fertile. The blooming shrub -might, at a distance, be mistaken for a dogwood in full blossom, but a -closer inspection corrects the mistake. - -It is true of this species as of many others that the range has been -greatly extended by planting. The bell-like white flowers early drew -attention of nurserymen who were on the lookout for trees for ornamental -planting. It was carried to Europe long ago, and graces many a yard and -park in the central and northern countries of that continent. It now -grows and thrives in the United States six hundred miles northeast of -its natural range, where it endures the winters of eastern -Massachusetts, blooms as bounteously as in its native haunts among the -shaded streams of the Alleghany mountains. - -SNOWDROP TREE (_Mohrodendron dipterum_) is a near relative of the -silverbell tree, and looks much like it, except that it is smaller, has -larger leaves, and the flowers are creamy-white. The two occupy the same -territory in part of their ranges, but they differ in one respect. The -silverbell tree grows with great luxuriance among the mountains while -the snowdrop tree keeps to the low country and is seldom or never found -growing naturally at any considerable elevation. It prefers swamps or -damp situations near the coast. While the silverbell tree's range -includes West Virginia, that of the snowdrop extends no farther north -than South Carolina. It follows the coast to Texas, and runs north -through Louisiana to central Arkansas. Its range has been greatly -enlarged by planting, and the northern winters do not kill it on the -southern shores of Lake Erie. The largest trees are about thirty feet -high and six inches in diameter, but the growth in most places is -shrubby. Leaves are four or five inches long and three or four wide. -Flowers are one inch long and are borne in profusion. They constitute -the tree's chief value as an ornament, though the foliage is attractive. -The bloom lasts a month or six weeks, from the middle of March till the -last of April. The fruit has two wings instead of four, as with -silverbell, but occasionally two rudimentary wings are present. The wood -is light, soft, strong, color light brown, with thicker, lighter -sapwood. The smallness of the trunks makes their use for lumber -impossible. The species is valuable for ornamental purposes only, and -has been planted both in this country and Europe. It has a number of -names by which it is known in different localities, among them being -cowlicks in Louisiana, and silverbell tree in the North where it has -been planted outside of its natural range. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SYCAMORE - -[Illustration: SYCAMORE] - - - - -SYCAMORE - -(_Platanus Occidentalis_) - - -Probably no person with a practical knowledge of trees ever mistakes -sycamore for anything else. The tree stands clear-cut and distinct. -Until the trunk becomes old, it sheds its outer layer of bark yearly, or -at least frequently, and the exfoliation exposes the white, new bark -below. The upper part of the trunk and the large branches are white and -conspicuous in the spring, and are recognizable at a long distance. No -other tree in the American forest is as white. The nearest approach to -it is the paper birch of the North, or the white birch of New England. - -Notwithstanding the tree's individuality, it has a good many names. It -is generally known as sycamore throughout the states of the Union, but -it is frequently called buttonwood in Vermont, New Hampshire, Rhode -Island, Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, -South Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, -Missouri, Illinois, Nebraska, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, and Ontario; -buttonball tree in several of the eastern states and occasionally in -Illinois, Iowa, Ohio, Michigan, and Nebraska; the plane tree in Rhode -Island, Delaware, South Carolina, Kansas, Nebraska, and Iowa; the water -beech in Delaware; the platane, cottonier, and bois puant in Louisiana. -Probably the finest growth of the sycamore ever encountered was in Ohio -and Indiana, and these states still contain isolated patches of -magnificent specimens of the wood. The Black Swamp of Ohio was -originally a famous sycamore country, of which Defiance was the center -of lumber manufacture. Many parts of Indiana produced a good sycamore -growth, and a considerable amount of timber of excellent quality still -exists, but is now largely owned by farmers who are generally holding it -out of the market. - -The range of sycamore extends from Maine to Nebraska, and south to Texas -and Florida. It is one of the largest of American hardwoods, and in -diameter of trunk it is exceeded by none. Trees are on record that were -from ten to fourteen feet in diameter, and it was not unusual in the -primeval forests for them to tower nearly or quite 125. In height a -number of hardwoods exceed it, the yellow poplar in particular; but none -of them has a larger trunk than the largest sycamores. However, the -mammoths are generally hollow. The heart decays as rings of new growth -are added to the outside of the shell. So large were the cavities in -some of the sycamores in the original forests that more than one case is -on record of their being used by early settlers as places of abode. - -The tree thrives best in the immediate vicinity of rivers and creeks. It -needs abundance of water for its roots, but is not insistent in its -demand for deep, fertile soil, for it grows on gravel bars along water -courses, provided some soil and sand are mixed with the gravel. Great -age is doubtless attained, but records are necessarily lacking in cases -where the annual rings of growth must be depended upon; because the -hollow trunks have lost most of their rings by decay. - -Sycamore bears abundance of light seed which is scattered short -distances by wind and much farther by running water. Its ideal place for -germinating is on muddy shores and wet flats. Here the seeds are -deposited by wind and water, and in a short time multitudes of seedlings -spring up. Though most of them are doomed to perish before they attain a -height of a few feet, survivors are sufficient to assure thick stands on -small areas. The trunks grow tall rapidly, and until they reach -considerable size, they remain solid and make good sawlogs; but at an -age of seventy-five or 100 years, deterioration is apt to set in; some -die, others become hollow, and the result is a good stand of large -sycamores is unusual. The veterans are generally scattered through -forests of other species. - -The statement has often been made in recent years that sycamore is -becoming very scarce and that the annual output is rapidly declining. -Statistics do not show a declining output. The cut of sycamore in 1909 -was approximately twice as great as in 1899. It is true that the supply -is not very large, and it never was large compared with some other -hardwoods; but it appears to be holding its own as well as most forest -trees. The cut in the United States in 1910 was 45,000,000, and it was -credited to twenty-six states. Indiana was the largest contributor, and -it had held that position a long time. States next below it in the order -named were Missouri, Arkansas, Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, and Illinois. -Doubtless some of the sycamore lumber now going to market has grown -since old settlers cut the primeval stands when they cleared their -fields. It will continue to grow, and since it usually occupies waste -places, it may be depended upon to contribute pretty regularly year by -year during time to come. It is one of the forest trees which have never -suffered much from fires, because it grows in damp situations. - -The wood of sycamore weighs 35.39 pounds per cubic foot, is hard, but -not strong, difficult to split and work; the annual rings are limited by -narrow bands of dark summerwood. The rings are very porous. The -medullary rays are rather small, but can be easily seen without a glass. -They run in regular, radial lines, close together, and the pores are in -rows between. The rays of sycamore vary from the rule with most woods, -in that they are darker than the body of the wood. - -One of the earliest uses of sycamore was by farmers who cut hollow -trunks, sawed them in lengths of three or four feet, nailed bottoms in -them, and used them for barrels for grain. They were called gums. Solid -logs two or three feet in diameter were cut in lengths of a foot or -less, bored through the center, and used as wheels for ox carts. The ox -yoke was often made of sycamore. Butchers used sycamore sections about -three feet high for meat blocks. The wood is tough, and continual -hacking fails to split it. The use for meat blocks continues at the -present time. In Illinois 1,600,000 feet were so employed in 1910. - -One of the earliest employments of the wood for commercial purposes was -in the manufacture of boxes for plug tobacco; but it has now been -largely replaced by cheaper woods. Its freedom from stain and odor is -its chief recommendation for tobacco boxes. Some of it is in demand for -cigar boxes. - -The modern uses of sycamore are many. It is made into ordinary crates -and shipping boxes in most regions where it grows. Rotary cut veneer is -worked into berry crates and baskets, and into barrels. Ice boxes and -refrigerators are among the products. Slack coopers are among the -largest users, but some of the manufactured stave articles belong more -properly to woodenware, such as tubs, washing machines, candy buckets, -and lard pails. - -Furniture makers demand the best grades, and most of the quarter-sawed -stock goes to them, though the manufacturers of musical instruments buy -some of the finest. Use is pretty general from pipe organs and pianos -down to mandolins, guitars and phonographs. It enters extensively into -the making of miscellaneous commodities. As small a toy as the -stereoscope consumes much sycamore. Makers of trunks find it suitable -for slats, and it serves as small squares and borders in parquetry. It -is a choice wood for barber poles and saddle trees, and its fine -appearance when worked in broad panels leads to its employment as -interior finish for houses, boats, and passenger cars. - - CALIFORNIA SYCAMORE (_Platanus racemosa_) is one of the three - species of sycamore now found growing naturally in the United - States. They are survivors of a very old family and appear to have - been crowded down from the far North by the cold, or to have made - their way south for some other reason. Sycamores flourished in - Greenland in the Cretaceous age, some millions of years ago, as is - shown by fossil remains dug up in that land of ice and eternal - winter. They grew in central Europe, about the same time, but long - ago disappeared from there. Sycamores were growing in the United - States an immense period of time ago, and were doubtless lifting - their giant white branches high above the banks of ancient rivers - while the gorgeous bloom of yellow poplars brightened the forests on - the rich bottom lands farther back. Several species of sycamores - which grew in the United States during the Tertiary age are now - extinct. All seem to have been much like those which have come down - to the present day. - - The California sycamore is found in the southern half of that state, - and in Lower California. It grows from sea level up to 5,000 feet, - and has the same habits as the larger sycamore of the East, and - prefers the banks of streams and the wet land in the bottoms of - canyons. It attains a height of from forty to eighty feet, and a - diameter of from two to five. Some trees are larger, one in - particular near Los Angeles having a trunk diameter of nine feet. - The tree is usually extremely distorted and misshaped, leaning, - twisted, and forking and reforking until a practical lumberman would - pronounce it a hopeless proposition. This applies, however, to - trunks which grow in the open, and that is where most of them grow. - When they are found crowded in thick stands in the bottoms of - canyons, their trunks are shapely enough for short sawlogs. The wood - is very similar to that of eastern sycamore, and it is used for - similar purposes, when used at all. The balls are strung five on one - tough stem, which is from six to ten inches long. The eastern - sycamore usually has a stem for each ball. The seeding habits of - both trees are the same. - - ARIZONA SYCAMORE (_Platanus wrightii_) has its range in southern New - Mexico, southern Arizona, and neighboring regions in Mexico, where - it grows in the bottoms of canyons up to 6,000 feet above sea. The - tree attains a height of from thirty to eighty feet, and a diameter - of two to five. The trunk is seldom shapely, but often divides in - large branches, some of which are fifty or sixty feet long. There - are usually three balls on a stem, and the leaf is shaped much like - the leaf of red gum, but there is considerable variation in form. - The wood resembles eastern sycamore in color and most other - features, but when quarter-sawed the flecks produced by the - medullary rays are generally smaller, and give a mottled effect. The - wood has not been much used, but apparently it is not inferior to - eastern sycamore. - -[Illustration] - - - - -BLACK CHERRY - -[Illustration: BLACK CHERRY] - - - - -BLACK CHERRY - -(_Prunus Serotina_) - - -This widely distributed tree supplies the cherry wood of commerce. Its -natural range extends from Nova Scotia westward through the Canadian -provinces to the Kaministiquia river; south to Tampa bay in Florida and -west to North Dakota, eastern Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and eastern -Texas. The tree is known as wild black cherry, wild cherry, black -cherry, rum cherry, whiskey cherry, and choke cherry. - -Cherry belongs to a remarkably large family and the ordinary observer -would never suspect the relationship that exists between it and other -growths to which it bears little resemblance. It is in the rose family -(_Rosaceæ_). It has multitudes of small and large cousins, most of them -small, however. Among them are the crabapple, the serviceberry, the -haws, thorns, plums, and the peach, besides plants which do not rise to -the dignity of trees. - -The crown of black cherry is narrow and the branches are horizontal. In -height the tree ranges from fifty to one hundred or more feet. The bark -is a dark reddish-brown, rough and broken into plates, becoming smoother -toward the top. The branchlets are a rich reddish-brown, and are marked -with tiny orange-colored dots. The leaves are small, alternate, oblong -or oval lanceolate, taper-pointed at the apex and pointed or rounded at -the base, finely serrate; at maturity glabrous, firm, glossy, the light -colored midrib being very distinct. The flowers are white and grow on -pedicels in long slender racemes, which terminate leafy shoots. The -fruit is almost black, showing deep red coloring beneath and is a small -round drupe; vinous, although not disagreeable to the taste. In most -instances a liking for it must be acquired, but comparatively few people -ever take the trouble to acquire it. The old settlers among the -Alleghany mountains had a way of pressing the juice from the drupes and -by some simple process converting it into "cherry bounce," a beverage -somewhat bitter but it never went begging when the old-time mountaineers -were around. This was doubtless what persons had in mind who called it -rum cherry. Few fruits, either wild or tame, contain more juice in -proportion to bulk. Ripe fruit is employed as a flavor for alcoholic -liquors. The bark contains hydrocyanic acid and is used in medicine. The -peculiar odor of cherry bark is due to this acid. - -In early years the ripening of the cherry crop among the ranges of the -Appalachian mountains was a signal for bears to congregate where cherry -trees were thickest. The cubs were then large enough to follow their -mothers--in August--and it was considered a dangerous season in the -cherry woods, because the old bears would grow fierce if molested while -feeding. The mountaineers knew enough to stay away from the danger -points at that time, unless they went there purposely to engage in a -bear fight. It was a common saying among those people that "cherry -bears" should be let alone. - -The cherry's chief importance in this country has been due to its -lumber. Unfortunately, that value lies chiefly in the past, for the -supply is running low. It never was very great, for, though the species -has a large range, it is sparingly dispersed through the forests. In -many parts of its range a person might travel all day in the woods and -see few cherry trees, and perhaps none. The best stands hardly ever -cover more than a few acres. Generally the trees grow singly or in -clumps. It appears to be nearly wholly a matter of soil and light, for -the seeds, which are carried by birds, are scattered in immense numbers, -and only those grow which chance to find conditions just right. The tree -wants rich ground and plenty of room, which is a combination not often -found in primeval forest regions; but, since the country has been -largely cleared, cherry trees spring up along fence rows and in nooks -and corners. If let alone they grow rapidly, but trunks so produced are -of little value for lumber, because too short and limby. In the forest -the tree lifts its light crown high on a slender trunk to reach the -sunshine, and such trunks supply the cherry lumber of commerce. Near the -northern limit of its range it seems to abandon its demand for good soil -and is content if it is supplied with light only. It betakes itself to -the face of cliffs, sometimes overhanging the sea, and so near it that -the branches are drenched in spray thrown up by breakers. It is needless -to say that no good lumber is produced under such circumstances. - -The first loss of cherry occurred when the farms were cleared. It stood -on the best ground, and the land-hungry Anglo-Saxon wanted that for -himself. He cut the tall shapely cherry trees, built fences and barns of -some of the logs, and burned the balance in the clearing. Then came the -pioneer lumberman who did not take much, because his old up-and-down -saw, which was run by water, would cut only about a thousand feet a day, -and there was plenty of other kinds of timber. But when the steam mill -put in its appearance, cherry went fast. Its price was high enough to -pay for a long haul. From that day till this, cherry has gone to market -as rapidly as millmen could get to it. - -Next to walnut, it is the highest priced lumber produced in the United -States. The average cut per mill, according to returns of those who -sawed it in 1909, was only 11,200 feet, and the total output that year -was only 24,594,000 feet, contributed by twenty-nine states. The five -leading producers were, in the order named, West Virginia, -Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, and Indiana. The next year the total -output fell to 18,237,000 feet, and cherry went down to a place among -the "minor species," such as dogwood, alder, locust, and buckeye. The -day of its importance in the lumber industry is past. It has become too -scarce to attract much attention, but there will always be some cherry -in the market, though veteran trunks, three and four feet through and -good for four sixteen-foot logs, will be seldom seen in the years to -come. - -While good taste ordinarily dictates that cherry be finished in a tone -approximating its natural color, it is quite frequent that it -masquerades as mahogany. A well-known and perfect method of making -cherry look like mahogany is to have the wood rubbed with diluted nitric -acid, which prepares it for the materials to be subsequently applied; -afterwards, to a filtered mixture of an ounce and a half of dragon's -blood dissolved in a pint of spirits of wine, is added one-third that -quantity of carbonate of soda, the whole constituting a very thin liquid -which is applied to the wood with a soft brush. This process is repeated -at short intervals until the wood assumes the external appearance of -mahogany. While cherry is employed as an imitation of mahogany, it is in -its turn imitated also. Sweet birch is finished to look like cherry, and -for that reason is sometimes known as cherry birch. - -Cherry weighs 36.28 pounds per cubic foot; it is very porous, but the -pores are small and are diffused through all parts of the annual ring. -The wood has no figure. Its value is due to color and luster. The -medullary rays are numerous but small, and in quarter-sawing they do not -show as mirrors, like oak, but as a soft luster covering the whole -surface. - -The principal uses of cherry have always been in furniture and finish, -but it has many minor uses, such as tool handles, boxes for garden -seeds, spirit levels and other tools, and implements, patterns, -penholders, actions for organs and piano players, baseblocks for -electrotypes and other printing plates, and cores for high-class panels. -Aside from its color, its chief value is due to its comparative freedom -from checking and warping. This cherry is one of the few trees that -cross the equator. It extends from Canada far down the west coast of -South America. - - CHOKE CHERRY (_Prunus virginiana_) is widely distributed in North - America from Canada to Mexico. It is said to attain its largest size - in the Southwest where trees are sometimes forty feet high and a - foot in diameter. The name is due to the astringency of the half - ripe fruit which can scarcely be eaten. When fully ripe it is a - little more tolerable, and is then black, but is red before it is - ripe. The color of immature cherries deceives the unsophisticated - into believing they are ripe. In Canada the fruit is made into pies - and jelly, and it is said the tree is occasionally planted for its - fruit. The Indians of former times made food of it. The tree is - small, and bruised branches emit a disagreeable odor; leaves contain - prussic acid, and when partly withered, they are poisonous to - cattle. The trunks are nearly always too small for commercial - purposes, and are apt to be affected with a fungous disease known as - black knot. - - WESTERN CHOKE CHERRY (_Prunus demissa_) grows from the Rocky - Mountains to the Pacific in the United States. It is often regarded - as the western form of choke cherry, but it has more palatable - fruit, and trees are a little larger, while trunks are so crooked - that no user of wood cares to have anything to do with them. The - wood is weak, but is hard and heavy. - - BITTER CHERRY (_Prunus emarginata_) belongs to the far West, and is - found from British Columbia to southern California. In size it - ranges from a low shrub to a tree a foot in diameter and forty feet - high. The largest sizes are found in western Washington and Oregon. - The wood is soft and brittle, brown streaked with green. It is not - known that any attempt has been made to put the wood of this tree to - any useful purpose. The bark and the leaves are exceedingly bitter. - Fruit ripens from June to August, depending on region and elevation, - and it is from one-fourth to one-half inch in diameter, black, and - intensely bitter. - - HOLLYLEAF CHERRY (_Prunus ilicifolia_) is a California species - growing in the bottoms of canyons from San Francisco bay to the - Mexican line. It is rarely more than thirty feet high, but has a - large trunk, sometimes two feet in diameter. The wood is heavy, - hard, and strong, and it ought to be valuable in the manufacture of - small articles, but fuel is the only use reported for it. The fruit - is insipid, and ripens late in autumn. The foliage is much admired - and has led to the planting of the species for ornamental purposes. - -[Illustration] - - - - -WILD RED CHERRY - -[Illustration: WILD RED CHERRY] - - - - -WILD RED CHERRY - -(_Prunus Pennsylvanica_) - - -In addition to the name wild red cherry by which this tree is known in -most parts of its range, it is called bird cherry in Maine, New -Hampshire, New York, Pennsylvania, Minnesota, Iowa; red cherry in Maine -and Rhode Island; fire cherry in New York and many other localities; pin -cherry in Vermont, New Hampshire, New York, Michigan, Iowa, and North -Dakota; pigeon cherry in Vermont, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, New York, -Ontario, and North Dakota; and wild cherry in Tennessee and New York. -Its range extends from Newfoundland to Hudson bay, west to British -Columbia, south through the Rocky Mountains to Colorado, and in the East -along the Appalachian ranges to North Carolina and Tennessee. It reaches -its largest size among the Big Smoky mountains in Tennessee and North -Carolina. - -It is ordinarily a tree thirty or forty feet high, and from eight to ten -inches in diameter, though trunks are sometimes twenty inches through. -It grows fast, but is very short-lived. Many stands disappear in thirty -years or less, but individuals survive two or three times that long, if -they stand in open ground. One of its names is fire cherry, and that -fitly describes it. Like paper birch and lodgepole pine, it follows -forest fires where the ground is laid bare by the burning. Nature seems -to have made peculiar provisions whereby this tree clothes barren tracts -which have been recently burned. In the first place, it is a prolific -seeder. Its small, red cherries are borne by bushels on very young -trees. Birds feed on them almost exclusively while they last, and the -seeds are scattered over the surrounding country. They have such thick -shells that few germinate unless they pass through a moderate fire, -which cracks the shells, or at least they do not sprout until they come -in direct contact with mineral soil. When a fire burns a forest, -thousands of the cherry seedlings spring up. Many persons have wondered -where they come from so quickly. They were already scattered among the -forest leaves before the fire passed. The heat crazed their shells, and -the burning of the leaflitter let them down on the mineral soil where -they germinated and soon came up by thousands. The case is a little -different with paper birch and with aspen, which are also fire trees. -Their seeds cannot pass through fire without perishing, and when birches -and aspens follow a fire it means that the seeds were scattered by the -wind after the passing of the fire. Doubtless cherry seeds are often -scattered after the fire has passed; but it is believed that most of -those which spring up so quickly have passed through the fire without -being destroyed. - -This small cherry is one of the means by which damage by forest fires is -repaired. The tree is of little value for lumber or even for fuel; but -it acts as a nurse tree--that is, it shelters and protects the seedlings -of other species until they obtain a start. By the time the cherry trees -die, the seedlings which they have nursed are able to take care of -themselves, and a young forest of valuable species is established. - -Except in this indirect way, the wild red cherry is of little use to -man. The wood is soft, light, and of pleasing color, but trees are -nearly always too small to be worked into useful articles. About the -only industry of which there is any record, which draws supplies from -this source, is the manufacture of pipe stems. The straight, slender, -bright-barked branches are cut into requisite lengths and bored endwise, -and serve for stems of cheap pipes, and occasionally for those more -expensive. The bark, like that of most cherries, is marked by dark bands -running part way round the stems. These are known as lenticels, and -exist in the bark of most trees, but they are usually less conspicuous -in others than in cherry. It is this characteristic marking which gives -the cherry pipe stem its value. - -Wild red cherry blooms from May to July, depending on latitude and -elevation, and the fruit ripens from July to September. The cherries -hang in bunches, are bright red, quite sour, and the seed is the largest -part. They are occasionally made into jelly, wine, and form the basis of -certain cough syrups. - -WEST INDIA CHERRY (_Prunus sphærocarpa_) grows near the shores of -Biscayne bay, Florida. It there blooms in November and the fruit ripens -the next spring. The tree attains a height of from twenty-five to thirty -feet, and a diameter of five or six inches. When grown in the open at -Miami, Florida, it is larger, and is much liked as an ornament. The -thin, smooth bark is brown, tinged with red, and is marked by large -conspicuous lenticels. The wood is hard and light, and of light clear -red color. It is too scarce to be of much importance, but paper knives, -napkin rings, and other novelties made of it are sold in souvenir stores -in southern Florida. Its range extends south to Brazil. - -WILLOWLEAF CHERRY (_Prunus salicifolia_) is a small tree, also called -Mexican cherry, is more common south of the United States than in this -country, ranging as far south as Peru. It is found on some of the -mountains of southern New Mexico and Arizona. - -LAUREL CHERRY (_Prunus caroliniana_) is a southern species which sticks -close to the coast in most of its range from South Carolina to Texas. It -has many names, among them wild peach, wild orange, mock orange, -evergreen cherry, mock olive, and Carolina cherry. Leaves hang two -years, and the fruit remains nearly one. The latter is black and about -half an inch long. The withered leaves are poisonous if eaten by cattle. -The tree is thirty or forty feet high, and eight or ten inches in -diameter. The wood is heavy, hard, and strong, color light brown to -dark, rich brown, sometimes of much beauty, but no record has been found -of any use for it. The tree is often planted for ornament. - - WILD PLUM (_Prunus americana_) is found from New Jersey to Montana, - southward to New Mexico and Texas, and extends to Florida and - Mexico. Its range covers about a million square miles. There are - seven or more species of wild plums in the United States. The fruit - of all of them is edible. They have been planted accidentally or - otherwise in many localities where they were not found before the - country was settled. The plum was an important fruit in the - country's early history. The pioneers gathered wild fruits before - planted orchards came into bearing, and the plum was one of the best - which nature supplied. Early travelers among the Indians in the - South frequently spoke of Indian peaches. Such references have led - some to believe that the peach was native in that region, but it is - safe to conclude that what was called the peach was really some - species of wild plum. These fruits were among the earliest to become - domesticated. In fact, they were abundant about the sites of Indian - towns and old fields, where the savages had scattered seeds without - any purpose on their part of planting trees; and early settlers - imitated the Indians, and plums were soon growing in the vicinity of - most of the cabins. As a forest tree, it usually thrived best on the - banks of streams, for there it could find more sunshine than in the - deep woods, and it bore much more fruit. The ranges of several - species of plums overlapped, and different sizes and colors of fruit - were found in the same locality even before white men assisted the - spread of species. The common plum, known to botanists as _Prunus - americana_, is recognized under many names among laymen; among these - names are yellow plum, red plum, horse plum, hog plum, August plum, - native plum, and goose plum. Usually the plum's skin is red, and the - flesh yellow, which accounts for its names, both red and yellow. The - tree ranges in height from twenty to thirty-five feet, and from five - to ten inches in diameter. The wood is heavy, hard, and strong, and - dark rich-brown. It is suitable for turnery and small novelties, but - little of it has been used. - - CANADA PLUM (_Prunus nigra_) appears to be the most northern member - of the plum group. It grows from Newfoundland to Manitoba, and south - into the northern tier of states. Its range has been much extended - by planting, and a number of varieties have appeared. It is twenty - or thirty feet high, and five to eight inches in diameter. Flowers - appear in April and May, and the fruit is ripe in September and - October. The plums are about an inch long, orange-red in color, with - yellow flesh. The wood is heavy, hard, and strong. Those who - cultivate this tree often do so for the beauty of the flowers, - rather than for the value of the fruit. The wood is not used for - commercial purposes. - - BLACK SLOE (_Prunus umbellata_), known also as southern bullace - plum, hog plum, and wild plum, ranges from South Carolina, round the - coast through Florida, to Louisiana and up the Mississippi valley - into Arkansas. The tree is fifteen or twenty feet high and from six - to ten inches in diameter. The fruit ripens from July to September, - is black when ripe, and often nearly an inch long. The people where - it grows use it for jelly. It is not reported that the wood is used - for any purpose. - - WESTERN PLUM (_Prunus subcordata_) grows west of the Cascade - mountains from southern Oregon to central California. It is often a - low bush, but at its best forms a tree twenty feet high and six - inches in diameter, but its wood is of no economic importance. Its - deep, purple-red plums ripen in autumn and are an excellent wild - fruit, juicy and tart. During the fruit season the plum thickets - were formerly infested by both bears and Indians, and many a fight - for possession took place, with victory sometimes on one side, - sometimes on the other. The white inhabitants now make jam and jelly - of the fruit. - - ALLEGHANY SLOE (_Prunus allegheniensis_) is so named because it is - best developed among the Alleghany mountains of Pennsylvania. The - tree is eighteen or twenty feet high and six or eight inches in - diameter. The wood is without value for commercial purposes, but the - tree's fruit has some local importance. It ripens about the middle - of August, and is somewhat less than an inch in diameter, with dark, - reddish-purple skin, covering yellow flesh. - - CHICKASAW PLUM (_Prunus angustifolia_) is a well-known wild plum of - the South from Delaware to Texas, and north to Kansas. Its natural - range is not known, because it has been so widely planted, - accidentally or otherwise, near farm houses and in fence corners. - Its bright, red fruit goes only to local markets. Negroes gather - most of the crop in the South. The wood is not considered to have - any value, but, in common with other plums, it possesses qualities - which fit it for many small articles. - - GARDEN WILD PLUM (_Prunus hortulana_) is supposed to have originated - in Kentucky from a cross between the Chickasaw plum and the common - wild plum (Prunus americana). It has spread from Virginia to Texas. - The largest trees are thirty feet high and a foot in diameter. The - fruit ripens in September and October, is deep red or yellow, with - hard, austere, thin flesh, quite sour. The fruit is called wild - goose or simply goose plum in Tennessee and Kentucky. - Horticulturists have made many experiments with this plum. - - COCOA PLUM (_Chrysobalanus icaco_), also called gopher plum, grows - in southern Florida, and its insipid fruit is seldom eaten except by - negroes and Seminole Indians. There is little sale for it in the - local markets. Trees are sometimes thirty feet high and a foot in - diameter. The light brown wood is heavy, hard, and strong, but it is - seldom used. The tree grows in Africa and South America as well as - in Florida. - -[Illustration] - - - - -BEECH - -[Illustration: BEECH] - - - - -BEECH - -(_Fagus Atropunicea_) - - -There is only one beech in the United States, and four or five in Europe -and Asia. The southern portion of South America has several species -which usually pass for beech. One or more of them are evergreen. Old -world species are sometimes planted in parks and cemeteries in this -country, but as forest trees they have no importance in the United -States and probably never will have. It becomes a simple matter, -therefore, to deal with the tree in this country. It is alone, and has -no nearer relatives than the chestnuts, chinquapins, and the oaks, all -of which are members of the same family, and the beech gives the name to -the family--_Fagaceæ_. The blue beech, which is common in most states -east of the Mississippi river and in some west, is not a member of the -same family, though it looks enough like beech to be closely related to -it. - -The name has come down from remote antiquity. It is one of the oldest -names in use. It is said to have descended through thousands of years -from old Aryan tribes of Asia which were among the earliest to use a -written language. For the want of better material, they cut the letters -on beech bark, and a piece of such writing was called "boc." It was but -a step from that word to book--a collection of writings. Both beech and -book came from the same word "boc" and the connection between them is -very evident. The pronunciation has been little changed by the Germanic -races during thousands of years, but the Romans translated it into Latin -and called it "liber," from which we have the word library. Doubtless in -very ancient times, say 5,000 years before the building of Solomon's -temple, the libraries beyond the Euphrates river consisted of several -cords of trimmed and lettered beech bark. Such material being -perishable, it has wholly disappeared. The matter is not now directly -connected with the lumber interests, but it increases one's respect for -beech to know how important a part it must have played in the ancient -world, whereby it stamped its name so indelibly upon the language of the -most intelligent portion of the human race. - -The word buckwheat has the same origin. It means beech wheat, so named -because the grains are triangular like beech nuts. The tree is always -known as beech in this country, though it may have a qualifying word -such as red, white, ridge. - -It usually grows in mixed forests of hardwoods, but it is often found in -the immediate presence of hemlock and spruce, grows from Maine to -Florida, and west to Arkansas. Considerable areas are often occupied by -little else. This is attested by the frequency with which such names as -"beech flat," "beech ridge," "beech woods," and "beech bottom" are -encountered in local geography. Perhaps the finest examples of beech -growth in the United States occur in the higher altitudes of the lower -Appalachian range in eastern Tennessee, and western North Carolina, -where trees are frequently encountered, showing a bole of perfectly -symmetrical form, of from three to more than four feet in diameter, and -of a sheer height of seventy feet before a limb is encountered. The wood -which grows in this section is nearly as hard as that of the North, but -that growing on lower levels in the South is of a much softer texture -and lighter color, the heart being pinkish rather than reddish-brown. - -Beech is one of the truly beautiful trees of the forest. In the eyes of -many, the beech is as much to be admired as the American elm or sugar -maple. Certainly in spring when it is covered with its staminate -blossoms, it is a splendid sight, and its perfect leaves are seldom -spotted or eaten by insects. In winter, it is particularly interesting. -Its beautiful bark then appears very bright. After its fine leaves have -fallen, though many of them, pale and dry, cling to the branches -throughout the winter, the structure of its massive head is seen to -advantage. In the Canadian markets and those of many of the middle and -western states, its nuts are gathered and sold in considerable -quantities. These nuts are favorite food of both the red and gray -squirrel and these rodents collect them in considerable quantities -during the late fall, and store them in tree hollows for their winter's -supply of food. It often happens, in felling beech trees in the winter, -that shelled beech nuts to the quantity of a quart or more will be found -secreted in some hollow by these provident little animals. - -Formerly beech was little used for lumber, but was long ago given an -important place as firewood and material for charcoal. Its excellent -qualities as lumber have now made it popular in most markets. The -sapwood is comparatively thin and the heart is very much esteemed for -many purposes. Many millions of feet of it are converted into flooring -and the "pure red" product is very highly esteemed for ornamental -floors. It has not as good working qualities as maple, but still it -stays in place even better than does that famous flooring material. -Nearly all the large flooring factories of the North, whose principal -output is maple, have a side line of beech flooring, and in the South, -notably in Nashville, a considerable quantity of the wood is made into -flooring. In full growth this beautiful tree is round topped, with wide -spreading and horizontal branches, and shows a normal altitude of about -sixty feet. In this form of growth branches appear on the body very -close to the ground, and their ends often trail upon it. In its forest -form, where trees of any sort are of commercial importance, it often -attains a height of ninety or 100 feet, with smooth rounded bole as -symmetrical as the pillar of a cathedral, with a diameter of from two to -four feet. Its time to bloom is April or May, and its nuts ripen in -October. The bark is a light bluish-gray, and remarkably smooth; the -leaves are simple, alternate, with very short petioles, oblong with -pointed apex and rounded or narrowed base. The ribs are straight, -unbranching, and terminate in remote teeth. The fruit is a pair of -three-sided nuts with a sweet and edible kernel which grows in a -four-celled prickly burr, splitting when ripe. - -Beech is an excellent fuel and it has long been used for that purpose. -It is so regularly dispersed over the country that most neighborhoods -were able to get it in the years when families cut their own firewood. -Later, when charcoal was burned to supply primitive iron furnaces, -before coke could be had, beech was always sought for. Still later, when -large commercial plants were built to carry on destructive distillation -of wood, beech was still a favorite. Its modern uses are many. There is -scarcely a plant east of the Rocky Mountains, engaged in the manufacture -of hardwood commodities, which does not use beech. In Michigan alone -nearly 30,000,000 feet a year are demanded by box makers, and more than -that much more by manufacturers of other commodities. It is widely -employed for furniture, filing cabinets, vehicles, interior finish, -agricultural implements, woodenware, and musical instruments. It is one -of the heaviest and strongest of the common hardwoods, and gives long -service when kept dry, but does not last well in damp situations. - -Beech is strictly a forest tree. This does not mean that it will not -grow in the open, but when it does grow there it makes poor lumber, -short and limby. The seedlings must have shade if they are to do any -good, but after they attain a certain size they can endure the light. -The roots lie close to the surface of the ground, and the trampling of -cattle often kills large trees. - -BLUE BEECH (_Carpinus caroliniana_) is not in the beech family, but the -name by which it is commonly known, and its resemblance to beech, -justify its consideration with beech. The bluish color of the bark is -responsible for its common name, but it is known by several others, -among them being water beech, because it often grows on or near the -banks of streams, and it seldom seems more at home than when it is -hanging over the bank of a creek where shade is deep and moisture -plentiful. It is often called hornbeam and ironwood, and it is closely -related to hop hornbeam (_Ostrya virginiana_). It grows from Quebec, to -Florida and from Dakota to Texas, reaching its largest size in eastern -Texas where it is sometimes sixty feet high and two in diameter, though -this size is unusual. Few trees develop a bole less acceptable to -lumbermen. In addition to being short, crooked, twisted, and covered -with limbs, it is nearly always ribbed and fluted, so that a log, even -if but a few feet long, is apt to be almost any shape except round. The -thick sapwood is pale white, heart pale brown. The annual rings are -usually easily seen, but they are vague, because of so little difference -between the springwood and summerwood; diffuse-porous; medullary rays -thin and usually seen only in the aggregate as a white luster where wood -is sawed radially. The uses of this wood are many, but the amounts very -small. It is made into singletrees and ax and hammer handles in -Michigan, wagon felloes in Texas and other parts of the Southwest; -levers and other parts of agricultural implements in various localities. -It seldom goes to sawmills, is generally marketed in the form of bolts, -and is hard, stiff, and strong. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHESTNUT - -[Illustration: CHESTNUT] - - - - -CHESTNUT - -(_Castanea Dentata_) - - -Five species of chestnut are known, three of them in the United States. -One of these, _Castanea alnifolia_, is a shrub and has no place in a -list of trees. Chestnut and chinquapin are the two others. They are in -the beech family to which oaks belong also. The ancient Greeks -designated these as food trees (_Fagaceæ_), not an inappropriate name -for chestnut which probably furnishes more human food than any other -wild tree. Its range extends from Maine to Michigan and southward to -North Carolina and Tennessee. It attains its greatest size in western -North Carolina and eastern Tennessee. It is one of the few well-known -woods of the United States that does not bear a half dozen or more local -names in the various localities of its growth, but the wood is -invariably known as chestnut. - -Trees vary in size from sixty to 100 feet in height, and from two to -four in diameter. Trunks six feet through occur where trees have grown -in the open, but such are not tall, and are not valuable for lumber. -Chestnut trees are sometimes heard of in this country with trunks ten -and twelve feet through, but such must be very scarce, because no one -seems to know just where they are located. It is not improbable that in -rare cases such sizes have existed. In France and Italy trees much -larger are well authenticated, but that chestnut is of a species -different from ours. - -Chestnut is a very long-lived tree where it is fortunate enough to -escape the attacks of worms and disease; but as age comes on, it is -almost certain to be attacked. Insects bore the wood, and fungus induces -decay. Frequently the heartwood of large trunks is all gone, and the -trees stand mere shells with scarcely enough sound wood left to support -the diseased tops. - -Few species sprout with more vigor than chestnut. In the mountains of -eastern Tennessee, W. W. Ashe found that ninety-nine per cent of stumps -sprout. This applies as well to veterans of three hundred years as to -young growth. Sprouts which rise from the top of a high stump are liable -to meet misfortune, because, under their disadvantage they cannot -develop adequate root systems; but sprouts which spring from the root -collar, or near it, may grow to large trees. It is claimed by some that -a chestnut which grows from a sprout has straighter grain than one -springing from seed. The latter's trunk is liable to develop a spiral -twist, not only of the wood, but also of the bark; but the sprout-grown -tree lacks the twist. - -Chestnut blooms in midsummer, and the profusion of pale golden catkins -makes the isolated tree a conspicuous object at that time. Bloom is -nearly always abundant, but the nut crop fails frequently. Several -accidents may happen, but the most frequent cause of scarcity in the -chestnut crop is a spell of rainy weather while the trees are in bloom. -The rain hinders proper pollenization. - -Many thousands of bushels of chestnuts are sent to market yearly in the -United States. The nuts are smaller but sweeter than those of European -chestnut. The largest part of the crop is collected from trees in open -ground. Those in dense forests bear only a few nuts at the top. -Open-grown trees develop enormous and shapely crowns; and it is not -unusual for farmers who value their nut bearing trees to pollard them. -This puts the tree out of consideration as a source of lumber. Its -branches multiply, but the trunk remains short. It is claimed that a -chestnut orchard of good form and in a region where large crops are -frequent, is more profitable than an apple orchard. The tree does not -demand rich land, but must have well-drained soil. It grows on rocky -slopes and ridges, and will prosper where most other valuable trees will -barely exist. - -It grows rapidly in its early life, but does not maintain the rate many -decades. Large trees are old. In the southern Appalachians the ages of -telegraph poles forty feet long and six inches in diameter at the top -range from forty-five to sixty-five years. Trees of round fence-post -size may grow in fifteen years. Few trees will produce posts more -quickly or in larger numbers per acre. In some instances nearly a -thousand saplings large enough for posts stand on a single acre. -Sprout-growth chestnut often forms nearly pure stands of considerable -extent. - -The value of this tree is in its wood as well as its nuts. More than -500,000,000 feet of lumber are cut from it yearly. Long before it was -much thought of as a sawmill proposition, it was manufactured in large -amounts into rails and posts by farmers, particularly in New England and -in the Appalachian region. Axes, crosscut saws, mauls, and wedges were -the means of manufacture. Untold millions of fence rails were split -before wire fences were thought of. It is a durable wood, made so by the -tannic acid it contains. As fence rails, it was more durable than the -best oak, and where both were equally convenient, farmers nearly always -chose chestnut. On high and dry ridges a chestnut rail fence would last -from twenty-five to fifty years, and in extreme cases very much longer, -even a full century it is claimed. - -Dry chestnut wood weighs 28.07 pounds per cubic foot, which makes it a -light wood. Its annual rings are as clearly marked as those of any tree -in this country. The springwood is filled with large open pores, the -summerwood with small ones. The medullary rays are minute, and of no -value in giving figure to the wood. Nevertheless, chestnut has strong -figure, but it is due solely to the arrangement of the spring and -summerwood of the annual rings. It is commonly classed as a -coarse-grained wood. The finisher can greatly alter its appearance by -rubbing the pores full of coloring matter. The wood is likewise -susceptible to change in tone in the fumes of ammonia, and by similar -treatment with other chemicals. The light colors of mission furniture -are generally the result of treatment of that kind. - -The largest cut of chestnut lumber comes from West Virginia, -Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Connecticut. The largest use by any single -industry is probably by the manufacturers of musical instruments, though -the honor may be divided with furniture, interior house finish, and -coffins and caskets. It is much employed as core or backing on which to -glue veneers. The lumber of old, mature trees is best liked for this -purpose, because it is not apt to shrink and swell, and it holds glue. -It is no detriment that it is riddled with worm holes the size of pins. -That kind of chestnut is known in the trade as "sound wormy." Some -persons claim that such lumber is better as backing for veneer than -sound pieces, because it is lighter, is sufficiently strong, and the -small holes seem to help the glue to stick. Wormy chestnut is frequently -not objected to for outside work because the small holes are not hard to -fill and cover up. The uses of chestnut are many. Between 6,000,000 and -7,000,000 crossties go into railroad construction yearly. From 16,000 to -20,000 tons of wood are demanded annually for tanning extract. Every -part of the tree is available. - -In recent years a disease due to fungus has attacked chestnut forests of -Pennsylvania and neighboring regions. It has destroyed the timber on -large areas, and the loss threatens to increase. A tree usually dies in -one or two years after it is attacked. The fungus works beneath the bark -and completely girdles the tree. The spores of the fungus are believed -to be carried from tree to tree on the feet of birds, on the bodies of -insects, and by the wind. - - GOLDENLEAF CHINQUAPIN (_Castanopsis chrysophylla_) occurs on the - Pacific coast from the Columbia river to southern California. It is - of its largest dimensions in the coast valleys of northern - California where it occasionally attains a size equal to the - chestnut tree of the eastern states, but in many other parts of its - range it is shrubby. It is an evergreen, and its name is descriptive - of the underside of the leaf. Late in summer, flowers and fruit in - several stages of growth may be seen at the same time. The nuts are - sweet and edible. In northern California the bark is sometimes mixed - with that of tanbark oak and sold to tanneries. The wood is - considerably heavier than chestnut, and is sometimes employed in the - making of agricultural implements. It has small and obscure - medullary rays, and its pores are arranged more like those of live - oak than of chestnut; that is they run in wavy, radial lines and not - in concentric rings as in chestnut. The heartwood is darker than - chestnut. - - CHINQUAPIN (_Castanea pumila_) is a little chestnut that grows from - Pennsylvania to Texas. It is generally a shrub or a bush ten or - fifteen feet high east of the Alleghany mountains, but in some of - the southern states it reaches a height of fifty feet and a diameter - of two or more, and is of largest size in southern Arkansas and - eastern Texas. It has no name but chinquapin which is an Indian word - supposed to have the same meaning that it now has. The nut is from - one-fourth to one-half as large as a chestnut, and is fully as - sweet. It is sold in the markets of the South and Southwest, but is - not an important article of commerce. Where the trees are large - enough, the wood is put to the same uses as chestnut. It is - manufactured into furniture in Texas, and is bought by railroads for - ties. - -[Illustration] - - - - -BASSWOOD - -[Illustration: BASSWOOD] - - - - -BASSWOOD - -(_Tilia Americana_) - - -There are about twenty species of basswood in the world, and from three -to six of them are in the United States. Authors do not agree on the -number of species in this country. There are at least three, and they -occupy, in part, the same range, with consequent confusion. They are -much alike in general appearance, and not one person in twenty knows one -from the other. The same names apply to all, when they occur in the same -region. Few trees carry more names, and with less reason. Basswood is -generally not difficult to identify in summer, but in winter a person -only slightly acquainted with different trees might take it for -cucumber, and if of small size, it might possibly be mistaken for ash or -mountain maple. When the tree is bearing leaves, flowers, and fruit, -there is no excuse for mistaking it for any other. The fruit, a cluster -of four or five berry-like globes, hangs under a leaf, fixed by a short -stem to the midrib. This feature alone should be sufficient to identify -the basswood in this country. - -Among the many names by which this tree is known, in addition to -basswood, are American linden, linn, lynn, limetree, whitewood, beetree, -black limetree, wickup, whistle wood, and yellow basswood. - -The range is extensive, its northeastern boundary lying in New -Brunswick, its southwestern in Texas. It reaches Lake Winnipeg, and is -found in Georgia. This delimited area is little short of a million -square miles. It reaches a height of from sixty to 120 feet, and a -diameter of from eighteen inches to four feet. It has a decided -preference for rich soil, and the best lumber is cut in fertile coves -and flats, or in low land near streams. The largest trees formerly grew -in the forests of the lower Ohio valley, but few of the giants of former -times are to be found in that region now. They went to market a -generation or two ago. The largest cut of basswood lumber now is in -Wisconsin, Michigan, and West Virginia, but most of that from West -Virginia is white basswood (_Tilia heterophylla_). - -The wood weighs 28.20 pounds per cubic foot, which is more than the -other basswoods in this country weigh. The rings of annual growth are -not very clearly marked. They may be distinguished, in most cases, by a -narrow, light-colored line. This is the springwood. In some trees it is -much more distinct than in others. The wood is very porous, but the -pores are small, cannot readily be seen with the naked eye, and are -scattered pretty evenly through the yearly ring. The medullary rays are -small but numerous. They give quarter-sawed lumber a pleasing luster, -but are too minute to develop much figure. The general tone of the wood -is white. It is soft, works easily, holds its shape well, and is tough, -but is in no sense a competitor of oak and hickory in toughness, though -it shows the quality best in thin panels which resist splitting and -breaking. - -In the days when it was customary to ceil houses with boards, both -overhead and the walls of rooms, carpenters were partial to basswood -because of its softness. Dressing lumber was then nearly always done by -hand, and the carpenter who pushed the jack plane ten or twelve hours a -day, looked pretty carefully to the softness of the wood he handled. In -tongued and grooved work, as in ceiling and wainscoting, it was not -necessary to dress the fitting edges as carefully when basswood was used -as in using some others, because it is so soft that fittings can be -forced, and cracks may be closed by driving the boards together. - -Slack coopers have long employed basswood for barrel headings, and also -in the manufacture of various kinds of small stave ware, such as pails, -tubs, and kegs. In this use, as in ceiling, the softness of the wood is -a prime consideration, because the pressure of the hoops will close any -small openings. Its whiteness and its freedom from stains and unpleasant -odors are likewise important when vessels are to contain food products. -Box makers like the wood on that account, and large quantities are -manufactured into containers for articles of food. - -Much basswood is cut into veneer, some of which serves in single sheets -as in making small baskets and cups for berries and small fruits, but a -large part of the output is devoted to ply work. Usually three sheets -are glued together, but sometimes there are five. By crossing the -sheets, to make the grain of one lie at right angles to the next, plies -of great strength and toughness are produced. Trunk makers are large -users of such, and many panels of that kind are employed by -manufacturers of furniture and musical instruments. - -Woodenware factories find basswood one of their most serviceable -materials, and it is made into ironing boards, wash boards, bread -boards, and cutting boards for cobblers, saddlers, and glass cutters. -Its lightness and toughness make it serviceable as valves and other -parts of bellows for blacksmiths, organs, and piano players. Makers of -gilt picture frames prefer it for molding which is to be overlaid with -the gilt or gold. It is serviceable for advertising signs because its -whiteness contrasts well with printing. Makers of thermometers use it -frequently for the wooden body of the instrument, and yard sticks are -made of it. Apiarists find no wood more suitable for the small, light -frames in which bees build the comb. - -The uses of this wood are so many and so various that lists would prove -monotonous. The annual cut in this country, exclusive of veneer, is -nearly 350,000,000 feet, and the demand for veneer takes many millions -more. - -Basswood is named for the bark, and the spelling was formerly bastwood. -The manufacture of articles from the bark was once a considerable -industry, not so much in this country as in Europe. However, some use -has been made of the bark here. Louisiana negroes make horse collars of -it by braiding many strands together, and chair bottoms are woven of it -in lieu of cane and rattan, and it is likewise woven into baskets of -coarse kinds. Bark is prepared for this use by soaking it in water, by -which the annual layers of the bark are separated, long, thin sheets are -produced, and these are reduced to strips of the desired width. - -The annual cut of basswood lumber is declining with no probability that -it will ever again come up to past figures; but basswood is in no -immediate danger of disappearing from American forests. It is not -impossible that it may be planted for commercial purposes. In central -Europe, forests of basswood, there called linden, are maintained for the -honey which bees gather from the bloom. In this country it is often -called beetree because of the richness of its flowers in nectar. -Possibly bee owners may grow forests for the honey, and when trees are -mature, dispose of them for lumber. - - WHITE BASSWOOD (_Tilia heterophylla_) attains a trunk diameter as - great as that of the common basswood, but is not as tall. Trees - sixty or seventy feet high are among the tallest. This species - ranges from New York to Alabama, and is found as far west as - southern Illinois, and its best development is among the rich - valleys and fertile slopes of the Appalachian mountains from - Pennsylvania southward. It is the prevailing basswood of West - Virginia, and reaches its largest size on the high mountains of - North Carolina and Tennessee. It averages about two pounds lighter - per cubic foot than the common basswood, but ordinarily neither the - lumber nor the standing trees of the two species are distinguished. - Only persons somewhat skilled in botany are able to tell one species - of basswood from another as they occur in the forests of this - country. - - DOWNY BASSWOOD (_Tilia pubescens_) is a southern member of the - basswood group, and is scarce. Its range extends from North Carolina - to Arkansas and Texas. Trees are rarely more than forty feet high - and fifteen inches in diameter. The wood is light brown, tinged with - red, and the sap is hardly distinguishable from the heart. As far as - it is used at all, its uses are similar to those of other basswoods. - - SOUTHERN BASSWOOD (_Tilia australis_) is confined, as far as is now - known, to a small section of Alabama, where it attains a height of - sixty feet in rich woodlands. No reports on the quality of the wood - have been published, and the species is too scarce to possess much - interest to others than systematic botanists. - - FLORIDA BASSWOOD (_Tilia floridana_), as its name suggests, is a - Florida species, and has not been reported elsewhere. It seems to be - the smallest of American basswoods, the largest trees being little - more than thirty feet high. No tests of the wood have been made and - no uses reported. - - MICHAUX BASSWOOD (_Tilia michauxii_) has been listed for a long - time, but is still not well known. Its range extends from Canada to - Georgia and westward to Texas. Trees three feet in diameter and - eighty feet high have been reported. Only botanists distinguish it - from other species of basswood with which it is associated. - - PAWPAW (_Asimina triloba_) is of more value for its fruit than its - wood. It grows from New York to Texas, but in certain localities - only. It is the most northern species of the custard apple family, - and is usually of little importance above an altitude of 1,500 feet. - In Arkansas and some other southwestern regions it is called banana. - It is usually a shrub, but may reach a height of forty feet and a - diameter of twelve inches. The wood is light, soft, and weak. Pond - apple (_Annona glabra_), called custard apple in some parts of its - range in Florida, is a member of the same family. It attains the - size of pawpaw, and the wood is similar. - -[Illustration] - - - - -AMERICAN HOLLY - -[Illustration: AMERICAN HOLLY] - - - - -AMERICAN HOLLY - -(_Ilex Opaca_) - - -Holly is a characteristic member of a large family scattered through -most temperate and tropical regions of the world. It belongs to the -family _Aquifoliaceæ_, a name which conveys little meaning to an English -reader until botanists explain that it means trees with needles on their -leaves, _acus_ meaning needle, and _folium_ leaf. How well holly, with -its spiny leaves, fits in that family is seen at once. - -About 175 species of holly are dispersed in various parts of the world, -the largest number occurring in Brazil and Guiana. _Ilex_ is the -classical name of the evergreen oak in southern Europe. - -The glossy green foliage and the brilliant red berries of the holly tree -have long been associated in the popular mind with the Christmas season. -Mingled with the white berries and dull green foliage of the mistletoe, -it is the chief Yuletime decoration, and many hundred trees are annually -stripped of their branches to supply this demand. The growth is still -quite abundant, but if the destruction and waste continue, American -holly will soon be exhausted. - -Its range extends from Massachusetts to Texas and from Missouri to -Florida. In New England, the trees are few and small, and the same holds -true in many parts of the Appalachian region. The largest trees are -found in southern Arkansas and eastern Texas. In the North it grows in -rather dry, gravelly soil, often on the margins of oak woods, but in the -South it takes to swamps, and does best on river bottoms where the soil -is rich. It is often associated with evergreen magnolia, which it -resembles at a distance, though differences are plain enough on close -examination. The light, grayish-green barks of the two trees look much -alike; but the magnolia's leaves are larger, thicker, and lack the -briers on the margins. - -Holly varies in size from small straggling bushes to well-formed trees -fifty or sixty feet high and two or three in diameter. The principal -value of holly is not in its wood, but in its leaves and berries. Some -persons suppose that holly leaves never fall. That is true of no tree -that attains any considerable age. An examination of a holly thicket, or -a single tree, in the spring of the year will reveal a fair sprinkling -of dead leaves on the ground, though none may be missed from the -branches. Those that fall are three years old, and they come down in the -spring. There are always two full years of leaves on the trees. - -Flowers are the least attractive part of holly. Few people ever notice -the small, unobtrusive cymes, scattered along the base of the young -shoots in the early spring, with the crop of young leaves. Nothing showy -about them attracts attention. - -The fruit is the well-known berry, the glory of winter decorations. It -is usually red, but sometimes yellow. The latter color is not often seen -in decorations because it is a poor contrast with the glossy green of -the leaves. The berries ripen late in autumn and hang until nearly -spring, provided they are let alone. That is seldom their fortune, for -if they escape the wreath hunter at Christmas, they remain subject to -incessant attacks by birds. Fortunately, the berries are not very choice -food for the feathered bevies that fly in winter; otherwise, the trees -would be stripped in a day or two. Birds are attracted by the color, and -they keep pecking away, taking one or two berries at a bait, and in the -course of a long winter they get most of them. - -The gathering of holly leaves and berries is an industry of much -importance, taken as a whole; but it lasts only a short time, and is -carried on without much system. The greatest source of supply is -northern Alabama, and the neighboring parts of surrounding states; but -some holly is gathered in all regions where it is found. Those who -collect it for market make small wages, but the harvest comes at a -season when little else is doing, and the few dimes and dollars picked -up are regarded as clear gain--particularly since most of the holly -harvesters have no land of their own and forage for supplies on other -people's possessions. - -The seeds of holly are a long time in germinating, and those who plant -them without knowing this are apt to despair too soon. The great -differences in the germinating habits of trees are remarkable. Some of -the maples bear seeds which sprout within a few days after they come in -contact with damp soil, certain members of the black oak group of trees -drop their acorns with sprouts already bursting the hulls, and mangroves -are in a still greater hurry, and let fall their seeds with roots -several inches long ready to penetrate the mud at once. But holly is in -no hurry. Its seeds lie buried in soil until the second year before they -send their radicles into the soil. They are so slow that nurserymen -usually prefer to go into the woods and dig up seedlings which are -already of plantable size. - -Users of woods find many places for holly but not in large amounts. The -reported output by all the sawmills in the United States in 1909 was -37,000 feet, and Maryland produced more than any other state. The wood -is employed for inlay work, parquetry, marquetry, small musical -instruments, and keys for pianos and organs. Engravers find it suitable -for various classes of work, its whiteness giving the principal value. -It approaches ivory in color nearer than any other American wood. Brush -back manufacturers convert it into their choice wares. It is -occasionally worked into small articles of furniture, but probably never -is used in large pieces. - -The wood is rather light, and the vague boundaries between the annual -rings, and the smallness and inconspicuousness of the medullary rays, -are responsible for the almost total absence of figure, no matter in -what way the wood is worked. The so-called California holly -(_Heteromeles arbutifolia_) is of a different family, and is not a -holly. - -DAHOON HOLLY (_Ilex cassine_) grows in cold swamps and on their borders -in the coast region from southern Virginia to southern Florida, and -westward to Louisiana. It is often found on the borders of pine barrens, -is most common in western Florida and southern Alabama, and when at its -best, is from twenty-five to thirty feet high and a foot or more in -diameter. The leaves are nearly twice as long as those of common holly, -and are generally spineless or nearly so. The fruit ripens late in -autumn and hangs on the branches until the following spring. The berries -are sometimes bright red, oftener dull red, and those fully up to size -are a quarter of an inch in diameter. Some hang solitary, others in -clusters of three. The wood is light and soft, weighing less than thirty -pounds per cubic foot. The heart is pale brown, and the thick sapwood -nearly white. The tree is known locally as yaupon, dahoon, dahoon holly, -and Henderson wood. This species passes gradually into a form designated -as _Ilex myrtifolia_, which Sargent surmises may be a distinct species. -Another form, narrowleaf dahoon (_Ilex cassine angustifolia_), is listed -by Sudworth. - -YAUPON HOLLY (_Ilex vomitoria_) is a small, much-branched tree, often -shrubby, and at its best is seldom more than twenty-five feet high and -six inches in diameter. Its range follows the coast from southern -Virginia to St. John's river, Florida, and westward to eastern Texas. It -sticks closely to tidewater in most parts of its habitat, but when it -reaches the Mississippi valley it runs north into Arkansas. It attains -its largest size in Texas, and is little more than a shrub elsewhere. -Berries are produced in great abundance, are red when ripe, but they -usually fall in a short time and are not much in demand for decorations. -The wood weighs over forty-five pounds per cubic foot, is hard, and -nearly white, but turns yellow with exposure. The leaves of this holly -were once gathered by Indians in the southeastern states for medicine. -The savages journeyed once a year to the coast where the holly was -abundant, boiled the leaves in water, and produced what they called the -"black drink." It was nauseating in the extreme, but they drank copious -draughts of it during several days, then departed for their homes, -confident that good health was assured for another year. - - MOUNTAIN HOLLY (_Ilex monticola_) is so named because it grows among - the Appalachian ranges from New York to Alabama. It is best - developed in the elevated district where Tennessee and North and - South Carolina meet near one common boundary. It is elsewhere - shrubby. The leaves are deciduous, and the bright scarlet berries - are nearly as large as cherries. They fall too early to make them - acceptable as Christmas decorations. The wood is hard, heavy, and - creamy-white, and if it could be had in adequate quantities, would - be valuable. The trees are sometimes a foot in diameter and forty - feet high, but they are not abundant. Their leaves bear small - resemblance to the typical holly leaf, but look more like those of - cherry or plum. - - DECIDUOUS HOLLY (_Ilex decidua_) is called bearberry in Mississippi - and possum haw in Florida, while in other regions it is known as - swamp holly because of its habit of clinging to the banks of streams - and betaking itself to swamps. It keeps away from mountains, though - it is found in a shrubby form between the Blue Ridge and the sea in - the Atlantic states, from Virginia southward. It runs west through - the Gulf region to Texas, and ascends the Mississippi valley to - Illinois and Missouri, attaining tree size only west of the - Mississippi. The wood is as heavy as white oak, hard, and - creamy-white, both heart and sap. Doubtless small quantities are - employed in different industries, but the only direct report of its - use comes from Texas where it is turned for drawer and door knobs in - furniture factories. Most but not all of the leaves fall in early - winter. The berries obey the same rule, some fall and others hang - till spring. They are orange or orange-scarlet. - -[Illustration] - - - - -YELLOW BUCKEYE - -[Illustration: YELLOW BUCKEYE] - - - - -YELLOW BUCKEYE - -(_Æsculus Octandra_) - - -Four species and one variety of buckeye are native in the United States, -yellow buckeye, Ohio buckeye, California buckeye, small buckeye, and -purple buckeye. They belong in the horse chestnut family. The so-called -Texas buckeye is in a different family, and is not a true buckeye, but -is close kin to the soapberry. The buckeyes are named for the large -white spot on the smooth, brown nut, resembling the eye of a deer. The -yellow buckeye is the most important of the group, is the largest and -most abundant. It is known by the name of buckeye in North Carolina, -South Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, and Kentucky. It -is called sweet buckeye in West Virginia, Mississippi, Texas, Missouri, -and Indiana, probably owing to the fact that it does not exhale the -disagreeable odor characteristic of other members of the family. Yellow -buckeye is the term applied to it in South Carolina and Alabama; large -buckeye in Tennessee; big buckeye in Tennessee and Texas. It flourishes -from Allegheny county, Pennsylvania, southward along the Alleghany -mountains to northern Georgia and Alabama, westward along the valley of -the Ohio river to southern Iowa, through Oklahoma and the valley of the -Brazos river in eastern Texas. It thrives best along streams and in -dense, rich woods. It reaches its fullest development on the slopes of -the Alleghany mountains in North Carolina and Tennessee. - -The leaves of the buckeye are compound, with from five to seven -leaflets; flowers appear in May or June and are dull yellow; the fruit -is a large brown nut, one or two of which are enclosed in a rough, -uneven husk, about two inches or more in diameter. The tree grows from -forty to 100 feet in height, and attains a diameter of from one to three -and a half feet. - -Buckeye grows intermingled with poplar, oak, maple, beech and a variety -of other hardwoods. From its comparatively limited growth as compared -with the totality of the average hardwood forest, it never has been -recognized, and probably never will be, as a distinctive type of -American commercial wood. The timber is felled with the other valuable -trees surrounding it, and its appearance, when manufactured into lumber -is so similar to that of the sap of poplar or whitewood that almost -without exception it is assorted with poplar saps, and goes on the -market masquerading as that wood. There is probably not one lumberman in -a thousand, handling poplar, that is able to distinguish buckeye from -sap poplar in his shipments of that wood. - -Sawmills make no distinction between the different species. All that -comes is buckeye, but nearly all of it is the yellow species, though -doubtless a little of all the others is cut into lumber and veneer, or -goes to the slack cooperage shop, or to the pulp mill. The woods of all -are quite similar, and they are used for the same purposes. If one is -employed in larger quantities than another, it is because it is more -convenient, or of better form or larger size. - -Early uses of buckeye were as important as those of the present day, -though amounts were smaller. Many an Ohio statesman of former times -boasted that, as a baby, he was rocked in a buckeye sugar trough for a -cradle. They claimed with pride that the prevalance of the custom caused -Ohio to be known as the buckeye state, a name which clings to it still. -Next to yellow poplar, buckeye was considered the best wood from which -to hew the small troughs which collected the sugar water from the tapped -maples in early spring; but the range of buckeye did not extend -northward into the real maple area, and the troughs like those which -rocked the inchoate Ohio statesmen were unknown in the North, but were -familiar along the mountain ranges southward. Dough trays, bread boards, -chopping bowls, and troughs in which to salt bacon and pork, were hewed -from buckeye by farmers and village woodworkers. - -It weighs 27.24 pounds per cubic foot; is diffuse-porous, and the slight -difference between the wood grown in spring and that of late summer -renders the annual rings indistinct. It has little figure, no matter how -it is sawed; medullary rays are thin and obscure. Softness is one of the -principal qualities, and it is also weak, and is wanting in rigidity. -These are its faults, but it has virtues. It is tasteless and odorless, -and these properties make it valuable in the manufacture of boxes in -which food products are shipped. The reported cut of buckeye in the -United States is from 11,000,000 to 13,000,000 feet a year. The reports -of factories which use the wood in making commodities throw light on the -question of actual use. North Carolina works 10,000 feet a year into -cabinets and office fixtures; Michigan 100,000 into candy and chocolate -boxes, dishes, and bowls; Maryland uses 200,000 feet yearly for -practically the same purposes, but with the added commodities of spice -drawers and tea chests. Makers of artificial limbs consider buckeye one -of their best materials, but it is second to willow. The "cork legs" are -usually either buckeye or willow. Pulp mills grind the wood for paper, -but it is not separately listed in pulp statistics, and the total cut -cannot be stated. It is converted into veneer and finds many places of -usefulness, but here, also, no separate figures are to be had. - -The nuts are large and abundant, but almost wholly useless for man or -beast. Bookbinders make paste of them, as a substitute for flour, and -with satisfactory results. The paste resists ferments much better than -that manufactured from flour; but the demand upon the nut supply for -that purpose is very small. Squirrels and other small animals leave -buckeyes alone. Some writers, whose acquaintance with this tree was -apparently acquired at long range, state that the nuts are food for -cattle. No person with knowledge of the buckeye says that. Cattle -occasionally eat a few, but are poisoned thereby, and if they recover, -they never again have anything to do with buckeyes. - -This tree is ornamental during a few months of the year. Its flowers are -attractive, and its large, vigorous leaves and conspicuous fruit are -admired in summer; but early in the fall the leaves come down, the husks -burst from the nuts and strew the ground with unsightly fragments. The -tree is seldom planted, but the horse chestnut, a foreign species, takes -its place. - -OHIO BUCKEYE (_Æsculus glabra_) was once thought to be more abundant in -Ohio than elsewhere, hence the name; but its best development is in -Tennessee and northern Alabama. The disagreeable odor emitted by the -bark gives it the names fetid and stinking buckeye, and it is known also -as American horse chestnut. Its range is approximately the same as that -of yellow buckeye, but it is a smaller tree, rarely more than thirty -feet high, though it is seventy in exceptional cases. In common with -other trees of the species, it prefers rich soil along water courses. -The wood was formerly in demand for chip hats, but that use has -apparently ceased. The sapwood is darker than the heart which is an -exception to the general rule. Dark streaks, probably stains due to -fungus, occasionally run through the trunk. In weight, strength, and -stiffness the wood is approximately the same as yellow buckeye. Its odor -is sufficient to distinguish it from that species, and it associates -with no other except on rare occasions when it may be found with the -small buckeye in western Tennessee and southern Missouri. - -CALIFORNIA BUCKEYE (_Æsculus californica_) occurs only in the state -whose name it bears. It is a short, much-branched, ill-formed tree; root -large and shaped somewhat like an inverted tub, often standing a foot or -more above the ground, and the branches rising from it. A tree so formed -is without value to the general lumberman, but cabinet makers sometimes -grub out the root and saw it transversely into thin lumber or veneer and -make small articles which possess considerable figure, due to the -involved growth, but little variety of color. Its tone is light yellow. -The tree is found in the central part of California, from near sea level -up to 4,500 in the Sierra Nevadas. It gets away from the immediate -vicinity of water courses and grows on hillsides. It is heavier than any -other American buckeye, and has very thin sapwood. The other properties -of the wood, and the botanical characters of the tree are common to -other members of the species. The seeds depend for their dispersal on -running water, when the tree grows by a stream, or on gravity, if -situated on a hillside. The seed will not grow unless buried in moist -soil, and it retains its vitality only a few months. Few trees in the -United States have larger seeds than buckeyes. The tree is short-lived, -reaching maturity in most cases in less than a hundred years. It is -sometimes planted for ornament in this country and in Europe. - -SMALL BUCKEYE (_Æsculus austrina_) is one of the latest recognized -members of the buckeye household. It seldom attains a diameter above -five or six inches, or a height of twenty-five feet. It is, therefore, -too small to be seriously considered as a source of lumber, and even if -trunks were large enough, the species is too scarce to furnish many -logs. It grows on rich uplands from western Tennessee and southern -Missouri to Texas. The bright red flowers open in April, the fruit falls -in October. - -PURPLE BUCKEYE (_Æsculus octandra hybrida_) is a variety characterized -by red or purple flowers and by leaves woolly on the under sides, and -bark of lighter color than that of yellow buckeye. The range follows the -Appalachian mountains from West Virginia southward. It has been reported -in Texas also. If the wood is used at all, it goes for the same purposes -as yellow buckeye. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SASSAFRAS - -[Illustration: SASSAFRAS] - - - - -SASSAFRAS - -(_Sassafras Sassafras_) - - -The French settlers in Florida were the first white men to give the name -sassafras to this tree, but the Indians called it by that name long -before. It was a tree which Indians were sure to name, because it had an -individuality which appealed to them. It is not known what the real -meaning of the word was, when the southern Indians used it. After the -French adopted the name in Florida, it passed to other colonies and -other languages, and has led to numerous disputes since. Many have -erroneously supposed that the name is of Latin origin. When the English -colony was founded at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607, the tree was well -known by that name, but it was pronounced so variously and spelled in so -many ways that it was often almost unrecognizable. It is pronounced -variously and spelled differently yet. It is called sassafras in most -regions, and in others is saxifrax, sassafas, sassafac, sassafrac, and -saxifrax tree. - -Its range covers the territory from Massachusetts to Iowa and Kansas, -and south to Florida and Texas. Some of that range it has occupied for -vast periods of time, for sassafras leaves have been found embedded in -the Cretaceous formations of Long Island. Near the northern limit of its -range it is generally small, often of brush size; but further south it -becomes a tree which sometimes exceeds 100 feet in height, and three or -four in diameter. The best development of the species is in Arkansas and -Missouri. - -Sassafras belongs to the laurel family. Strangely enough, the two trees -which are usually supposed to be typical laurels--namely, mountain -laurel (_Kalmia latifolia_) and great rhododendron, do not belong to the -laurel family, but the heath family. The laurel family to which -sassafras belongs includes many species in all parts of the world, some -are evergreen, others are not, but all characterized by the strong, -pungent odor of their wood or bark, and all having fruit with a single -seed like a plum or cherry. The camphor tree from the distillation of -whose wood commercial camphor (except synthetic camphor made largely -from turpentine) is derived, belongs to this family, as do certain bay -trees of the southern states. It was formerly supposed that sassafras -existed only in the eastern half of the United States; but a species -closely resembling ours, if not identical with it, has recently been -found in China. The California laurel (_Umbellularia californica_) is in -the same family with sassafras. - -This tree has had a peculiar history. It was once supposed to possess -miraculous healing powers, and was shipped from Virginia to England in -one of the first cargoes to go to that country from the present -territory of the United States. Its supposed value did not consist in -its use as lumber, but in some medicinal property which it was reputed -to possess. People appeared to believe that it would renew the youth of -the human race. Some portion of this superstition has clung round -sassafras to this day, and it is not entirely confined to ignorant -people. Bedsteads made of sassafras were supposed to drive away certain -nightly visitors which disturb slumber. In southeastern Arkansas and -northwestern Mississippi, bedsteads are still made of this wood, with -the belief that sleep will be sounder. The same custom doubtless -prevails elsewhere. In northern Louisiana floors of sassafras are -occasionally laid in negro cabins because of the same superstition, and -in the firm belief that it will keep out animals as large as rats and -mice. Some of the mountaineers of Kentucky, where each family makes its -own soap, insist that the kettle must be stirred with a sassafras stick -or it will produce a poor quality of soap. Among the mountains of West -Virginia many a farmer equips his henhouse with sassafras poles for -roosts, fully convinced that he has put an effective quietus on all -tribes, shoals, and kindred of _menopon pallidum_, and the hens will -sleep better. - -The production of sassafras oil is perhaps the largest industry -dependent upon this tree. Roots are grubbed by the ton and are subjected -to destructive distillation. Much of this work is carried on in Virginia -where sassafras spreads quickly into abandoned fields, springing up from -seeds carried by birds. Veritable thickets soon take possession. Here is -where the sassafras oil supply comes from. Contractors often clear the -old fields and make them ready for tillage, taking the roots for pay. - -The wood weighs 31.42 pounds per cubic foot; is very durable when -exposed to dampness; is slightly aromatic; inclined to check in drying; -the layers of annual growth are marked by rings of large pores; -summerwood is quite distinct from the earlier growth; medullary rays are -many and thin; color dull orange-brown, the thin sapwood light yellow. - -Sassafras goes to sawmills in all regions where it is large enough for -lumber, but the total cut is small. Reports from sawmills in 1909 -credited this species with only 25,000 feet in the United States, and it -was still less in 1910. It is evident that this is only a small portion -of the total output, and probably Tennessee alone produces that much. -The wood is sold with other species and loses its name, frequently -passing as ash. The wood bears considerable resemblance to ash, in grain -and color, but is lighter in weight, and much lower in strength. - -Sassafras was one of the canoe woods of early times along the lower -Mississippi and its tributaries. Its two principal advantages over most -woods with which it was associated was its light weight and lasting -qualities. Canoes of this timber in Louisiana have given continued -service for a third of a century. - -In all parts of its range, wherever it is of sufficient size, it has -been used for posts. It is generally considered good for about twenty -years. Large trunks were formerly split for rails, and a few are -utilized in that way still, but most timber large enough for rails, now -goes to sawmills. In Texas most of the sassafras supplied by sawmills is -manufactured into furniture, but is listed as ash. The same thing is -done in Arkansas and Missouri, but the use in the latter state is -extended to interior house finish and office and bank fixtures. -Sometimes it is made the outside wood, and the figure caused by sawing -the logs tangentially is accentuated by stains and fillers. The figure -of quarter-sawed wood is not attractive because the medullary rays are -too small. It lasts well as railroad ties and a few are found in service -in many parts of the tree's range, but those who see it in the track are -liable to mistake it for chestnut. - -A by-product of sassafras deserves mention--tea made from the flowers or -from the bark of the roots. It is relished in the early spring, and is -popular in most regions where the tree is known. The bark is a -commercial commodity. It is tied in small bundles, and the price at -retail ranges from a nickel to a dime each. Drug stores and grocers sell -it. In the city of Washington in early spring sassafras peddlers canvas -the city from center to circumference. They are generally negro men and -women who dig the roots on the neighboring hills of Virginia and -Maryland, strip the bark, tie it in small bundles, and by diligence and -perseverance, succeed in converting the merchandise into money. - -Sassafras is often cited as an example of a tree with leaves of -different forms. Three shapes are common, and all frequently occur on -the same tree, and even on the same twig. One has no lobes, another has -one lobe like the thumb of a mitten, and another has three. - -LANCEWOOD (_Ocotea catesbyana_) is a small evergreen tree, looks much -like laurel, and grows in southern Florida, on the islands and on the -mainland in the vicinity of Biscayne bay. It is closely related to -sassafras, and the bark has an aromatic odor. It belongs to a group of -trees with nearly 200 species scattered in hot regions of both -hemispheres. This is the only one belonging to the United States, and it -appears to be a newcomer on these shores, from the fact that it has -succeeded in obtaining so limited a foothold. It keeps well south of the -region where it is likely to be frosted and it seldom exceeds a height -of thirty feet and a diameter of eighteen inches. The fruit ripens in -autumn and is dark blue with flesh thin and dry. The wood is hard, -heavy, strong, checks badly in drying, and has a rich brown color, the -sapwood being yellow. Rings of annual growth are marked with many small, -regularly-distributed open ducts; medullary rays are thin and numerous; -wood weighs 47.94 pounds per cubic foot; durable in contact with the -soil, beautifully colored, and is highly prized for small cabinet work -and novelties. At Miami, Florida, small trunks cut on neighboring -hummocks, or brought from the keys, are worked into souvenirs to be sold -to visitors. Lancewood fishing rods are among the strongest and most -expensive on the market; but little of the material of which they are -made grows in Florida. It is also manufactured into billiard cues and -small handles. - -[Illustration] - - - - -MADRONA - -[Illustration: MADRONA] - - - - -MADRONA - -(_Arbutus Menziesii_) - - -Madrona is an interesting tree which ranges from British Columbia -southward to central California, attaining its greatest development in -the redwood forests of northern California, where trees are sometimes -one hundred feet high and six or seven feet in diameter. It is not only -an interesting tree itself, but it has many interesting relatives, some -of which are trees, others shrubs, and still others only small plants or -vines. It may be called a second cousin to the common huckleberry, the -mountain laurel, trailing arbutus, the azaleas, the tiny wintergreen, -and the great rhododendron. It has some poor relations, but many that -are highly respectable. It belongs to the heath family, of which there -are seventy genera, and more than a thousand species; but less than half -of them are in America, the others being scattered widely over the -world. - -The madrona, when at its best, is one of the largest members of the -family; but it is not always at its best. It sometimes degenerates into -a sprawling shrub, where it grows on poor ground and on cold, dry -mountain tops. It is manifestly not fair to study any tree at its worst, -and it is particularly not fair to the madrona, which varies so greatly -in its appearance. At one place it may be scarcely large enough to shade -the lair of a jackrabbit, and at another it spreads its branches wide -enough to shade an army--a small army, however, say, about two thousand -men. A tree of that size may be found within a few hours' ride of San -Francisco. Its branches cover an area of from eight thousand to ten -thousand square feet. - -When madrona grows in the open it throws out wide limbs like a southern -live oak, though not so large or long. Its crown is rounded and -graceful; but when it grows in forests, where other trees crowd it, the -trunk rises straight up to lift the crown into the sunlight and fresh -air. The madrona is seen in all its glory in northwestern California, -where it catches some of the warmth and the moist air from the Pacific. -It follows the ranges of the Siskiyou mountains eastward near the -boundary of California and Oregon. It is usually mixed with other forest -trees, but sometimes large stands nearly pure are encountered, and there -the long trunks, rather gray near the ground, but wine-colored above, -rise in imposing beauty and are lost in the evergreen crowns. - -The leaves suggest those of laurel, but are broader. The large clusters -of white flowers are among the glories of the vegetable kingdom. George -B. Sudworth, dendrologist of the United States Forest Service, who -usually describes in strictly prosaic terms, breaks away from that habit -long enough to compare madrona flowers to lilies of the valley, in his -"Forest Trees of the Pacific Slope." The flowers appear from March to -May, depending on latitude and elevation. - -The brilliant orange-red fruit ripens in the fall, and is often borne in -great abundance. It renders the crowns of the trees very beautiful. The -fruit is about half an inch long and contains many small angular seeds. -The fruit is said to contain a substance which puts to sleep wild -creatures that feed on it. The claim is probably mythical, for birds -breakfast extravagantly on it in the morning, and apparently do not do -any sleeping until after sunset. - -This tree was discovered by and named for Archibald Menzies, a Scotch -botanist who traveled in the Northwest more than a hundred years ago. It -has several local names, among them being madrove, laurel wood, -madrone-tree, laurel, and manzanita. The last is the proper name of -another small tree which is associated with madrona and is closely -related to it. - -The wood weighs 43.95 pounds per cubic foot. It is a little below -eastern white oak in fuel value, a little above it in strength, and -somewhat under it in stiffness. The color is pale reddish-brown, -resembling applewood in tone, but generally not quite so dark. The wood -is porous, but the pores are very small. Medullary rays are numerous but -thin. On account of the rays being of a little deeper red than the other -wood, quarter-sawed stock is handsome and of somewhat peculiar -appearance. The figure is much like quarter-sawed beech, but of deeper, -more handsome color. The contrast between springwood and summerwood is -not strong, though easily seen. Generally, the summerwood constitutes -about one-fourth of the annual ring. The tree grows slowly, but with -much irregularity. The increase in one season may be four or five times -as great as in another. The bark exfoliates, and is quite thin. - -Madrona has never been put to much use. Difficulties in seasoning it -have stood in the way. The wood warps and checks. Similar difficulties -with other woods have been overcome, and such troubles should not be -unduly discouraging. The beauty of the wood is unquestioned. It presents -a fine appearance when worked into furniture, particularly in small -panels and turned work, like spindles, knobs, and small posts. When made -into grills it shows a surprising richness of tone. The wood polishes -almost to the smoothness of holly. Small quantities are made into -flooring; a little goes to the furniture makers; lathes turn some of it -for novelties and souvenirs; fuel cutters sell it as cordwood; and -tanbark peelers cut the trees for the thin, papery bark. In that case -the trunks are left to decay, unless they happen to be convenient to a -cordwood market. - -One of the most extensive uses for the wood of madrona is for charcoal -burning. Blacksmiths buy it because it is cheaper than coal, and some is -used in shops where soldering and welding are done; but the most -exacting demand comes from gunpowder manufacturers. They find this wood -almost equal to alder and willow as a source of charcoal suitable for -powder. - -MEXICAN MADRONA (_Arbutus xalapensis_) might properly be called Texas -madrona as it occurs in that state and probably in no other, but its -range extends southward into Mexico. It produces a poorly shaped trunk -seldom much more than twenty feet high and one foot in diameter, and -usually divided into several branches near the ground. It blooms in -March and ripens its fruit in midsummer. The tree is found on dry -limestone hills, and in the valley of the Rio Blanco, and among the -Eagle mountains. Cabinet makers in Texas put the wood to rather exacting -uses after they have carefully seasoned it to overcome its natural -tendency to check. It is very hard; its color is a little lighter than -applewood which it resembles; annual rings are scarcely visible, so -regular and even is the year's growth. In Texas the wood is made into -plane stocks, tool handles, and mathematical instruments. - -ARIZONA MADRONA (_Arbutus arizonica_) has a restricted range on the -Santa Catalina and Santa Rita mountains of southern Arizona, where it -ascends to an altitude of 8,000 feet. The species extends southward into -Mexico. The largest trees attain a height of fifty feet and a diameter -of two. Trunks are usually straight and shapely, and show the thin, red -bark common to the genus. The wood resembles that of the species in -Texas, and doubtless is suited to the same purposes, but no utilization -of it has been reported, except for fuel, and for fences and sheds on -mountain ranches. When the region becomes more thickly settled, the -value of the wood will be appreciated. - - MANZANITA (_Arctostaphylos manzanita_) is not generally welcomed by - botanists into the tree class. They say it is too small; but it is - as large as some of the laurels which go as trees without question, - and is shaped much like them. There are several species of - manzanita. The word is Spanish and means "little apple." The name is - natural, for one of the most noticeable things about manzanita is - the fruit, the size of well-grown huckleberries. It is shaped like - an apple, and its tart taste suggests that fruit. The Digger Indians - along the foothills of the Sierra Nevada mountains in California - gather the berries by the sack, dry them, and keep them for - winter--if they can. It is often impossible to keep them because, - like other fruit, they are apt to become wormy. When the Indians - discover them in that condition they display rare thrift and economy - for savages, by soaking the fruit and pressing out the juice, which - is said to pass for a pretty fair quality of cider, but it must be - quickly consumed or it will mother and change to vinegar. Indians - now put the berries to use less frequently than in early times when - they were nearly always hungry. - - Manzanita is of the same family as madrona. Its range extends along - the mountains of the Pacific coast ranges from Oregon to Mexico, and - inland to Utah. The largest trees are about twenty feet high and a - foot or less in diameter; very much divided and branched, with limbs - crooked in more ways, perhaps, than those of any other - representative of the vegetable kingdom. Thousands of canes are cut - from the branches, and if any living man ever saw a straight one he - failed to report it. Manzanita grows in almost impenetrable thickets - on dry slopes and ridges. Its thin foliage casts so pale a shadow - that the tree's shade is little cooler than the boiling sun upon the - open naked ground and rocks. The bark is a reddish-chocolate color, - and exfoliates in scales of papery thinness. The heart is nearly of - the same color as the bark, but the sap is white and very thin. The - wood is hard, strong, stiff, but exceedingly brittle. If a branch is - sharply bent it will fly into splinters. - - The uses of the wood are numerous, but the total quantity demanded - is moderate. Novelty stores sell small articles to tourists in - California, sometimes passing the wood off as mountain mahogany - which does not so much as belong to the same family. The most common - articles manufactured by novelty shops from manzanita are canes, - paper weights, paper knives, rulers, spoons, napkin rings, curtain - rings, cuff buttons, dominos, manicure sticks, jewel boxes, match - safes, pin trays, and photo frames. - -[Illustration] - - - - -COTTONWOOD - -[Illustration: COTTONWOOD] - - - - -COTTONWOOD[9] - -(_Populus Deltoides_) - - [9] The following species grow in the United States: Cottonwood - (_Populus deltoides_), Aspen (_Populus tremuloides_), Largetooth - aspen (_Populus grandidentata_), Swamp Cottonwood (_Populus - heterophylla_), Balm of Gilead (_Populus balsamifera_), Lanceleaf - Cottonwood (_Populus acuminata_), Narrowleaf Cottonwood (_Populus - angustifolia_), Black Cottonwood (_Populus trichocarpa_), Fremont - Cottonwood (_Populus fremontii_), Mexican Cottonwood (_Populus - mexicana_), Texas Cottonwood (_Populus wislizeni_). - - -Eleven species of cottonwood are found in the United States, if all -trees of the genus _Populus_ are classed as cottonwoods. It is not -universally admitted, however, that they should be so classed. The -common cottonwood is the most widely known of all of them, but it is -recognized under different names in different regions, viz.: Big -cottonwood, yellow cottonwood, cotton tree, Carolina poplar, necklace -poplar, broadleaf poplar, and whitewood. - -Its range covers practically all of the United States east of the Rocky -Mountains. It is rare or missing in eastern New England and southern -Florida, and most abundant in the Mississippi valley, and there the -largest trees are found. Some exceed 100 feet in height, and four in -diameter. Extreme sizes of 140 feet in height with diameters of from -seven to nine have been reported. The cottonwood was a frontier tree on -the western plains when settlers began to push into the region. It grew -as far west as any hardwood of the eastern forests, and was found beyond -meridian 100, which was supposed to be the boundary between the region -of rains and the semi-arid country. The cottonwood clung to the river -banks and to islands in the rivers, and by that means escaped the -Indian's prairie and forest fires which he kindled every year to improve -the range for the buffalo. It is supposed that most of the open country -east of meridian 100 was originally timbered, and that the Indians -destroyed the forests by their long-continued habit of burning the woods -and prairies every year to improve the pasture. Cottonwood was the -longest survivor, because it grew in damp places where fires did not -burn fiercely. Black willow was its most frequent companion on the -western outposts of the forests. - -The cottonwood was fitted for holding its ground, and pushing forward. -Its light seeds are carried by millions on the wind and by water. The -tree bears large quantities of cotton (hence the name), and when the -wind whips it from the tree, seeds are caught among the fibers and -carried along, to be scattered miles away. - -This tree was not much thought of by eastern people who had plenty of -other kinds of wood, but pioneers on the plains who had a hard time to -get any, found cottonwood useful. It made fences, corncribs, stables, -cabins, ox yokes, and fuel. The first canoes made by white men on the -upper Missouri river were of cottonwood. Lumber cut from this tree is -inclined to warp and check unless carefully handled, and this prejudiced -it in the eyes of many; but difficulties of that kind were easily -mastered, and instead of being a neglected wood it became popular. Some -of the largest early orders came from Germany. Vehicle makers in this -country employed it for wagon beds, as a substitute for yellow poplar -when that wood's cost advanced. Manufacturers of agricultural implements -were pioneers in its use, it being excellent material for hoppers, -chutes, and boxes. - -Cottonwood weighs 24.24 pounds per cubic foot, which is approximately -the weight of white pine. It has about the stiffness of white oak, but -only about eighty per cent of white oak's strength, and fifty per cent -of its fuel value. The wood is very porous, but the pores are small, -usually invisible to the naked eye. The medullary rays are small and -obscure. The appearance of the wood is not improved by quarter-sawing. -The summerwood forms a thin, dark line, so faint that the annual rings -are often scarcely distinguishable. The tree is generally a rapid -grower; heartwood is brown, sapwood lighter, but as a whole, this tree -produces white wood. - -The annual cut is declining. It was little more than half in 1910 what -it was in 1899. Some regions where large trees were once abundant now -have few. The sawmill output in 1910 for the United States--including -several species--was 220,000,000 feet. The veneer cut was 33,000,000 -feet, log measure; the slack cooperage staves, chiefly for flour -barrels, numbered 44,000,000; and pulpwood amounted to about 18,000,000 -feet. The lumber cut was largest in the following states in the order -named: Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, Tennessee, Iowa, -Wisconsin, Michigan, Oklahoma, and Minnesota. The tree was lumbered in -forty-one states. - -Cottonwood is a standard material in several lines of manufacturing. It -is made into nearly every kind of box that goes on the market, from the -cigar box to those in which pianos are shipped. Manufacturers of food -products are particularly anxious to procure this wood, and it is one of -the best for woodenware, such as dough boards, ironing boards, and cloth -boards. It is used by manufacturers of agricultural implements, interior -finish, bank and office fixtures, musical instruments, furniture, -vehicle tops, trunks, excelsior, saddle trees, caskets and coffins, and -numerous others. - -There is no danger that cottonwood will disappear from this country, but -it will become scarce. It is being cut much faster than it is growing, -and is losing favor as a planted shade and park tree, because of its -habit of shedding cotton in the spring and its leaves in the early -autumn. - -SWAMP COTTONWOOD (_Populus heterophylla_) is known also as river -cottonwood, black cottonwood, downy poplar, and swamp poplar. Its range -describes a crude horseshoe, running from Rhode Island down the Atlantic -coast in a narrow strip, where it is neither abundant nor of large size; -touching northern Florida; running westward to eastern Texas and thence -up the Mississippi basin and the Ohio river to southwestern Ohio. There -is nothing handsome about its appearance with its heavy limbs and -sparse, rounded crown. In the eastern range the average height is -probably not more than fifty feet but in the fertile Mississippi valley -it reaches 100 and has a long merchantable bole three feet in diameter. -Its bark is rugged, dirty-brown and broken into loose, conspicuous -ridges. It is easily distinguished from the other cottonwoods by the -orange-colored pith in the twigs. The buds are rounded and red and have -a resinous odor. Sawmills and factories never list this wood separately. -It comes and goes as cottonwood. Its uses are the same as those of -common cottonwood. The two species grow in mixture throughout the entire -range of the swamp cottonwood. - -TEXAS COTTONWOOD (_Populus wislizeni_) is a rather large tree and is the -common cottonwood in the upper valley of the Rio Grande in New Mexico -and western Texas. The yellowish color of the twigs is apt to attract -attention. The wood is used about ranches and occasionally a log finds -its way to local sawmills; but its importance is limited to the region -where it grows. - -MEXICAN COTTONWOOD (_Populus mexicana_) extends its range north of the -Mexican boundary into southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico. It -is abundant in Mexico where the largest trees are eighty feet high and -three or four in diameter. It is smaller near the northern limits of its -range, and there it hugs the banks of mountain streams. Stockmen use the -trunks, which are usually small enough to be called poles, to make -fences and sheds. - -NARROWLEAF COTTONWOOD (_Populus angustifolia_)is a mountain species -which manages to live in the semi-arid regions from the Rocky Mountains -of Canada to Arizona, but is seldom found below an elevation of 5,000 -feet, and it ranges up to 10,000. Trunks are eighteen inches or less in -diameter, and fifty or sixty feet high. The seeds are larger than those -of most other cottonwoods. It being a semi-desert species, its wood is -appreciated where it is accessible, and it has local uses only. - -LANCELEAF COTTONWOOD (_Populus acuminata_) is a small tree with limited -range, growing in the arid region along the eastern base of the Rocky -Mountains, southward from the Black Hills. It is found also north of the -Canadian border. It is usually fifteen or eighteen inches in diameter, -and thirty or forty feet high. Trunks seldom go to sawmills, but some -local use is made of the wood. Trees are occasionally planted for shade -in towns of western Nebraska and Wyoming. - -FREMONT COTTONWOOD (_Populus fremontii_), called white cottonwood in New -Mexico, but elsewhere simply cottonwood, grows from western Texas to -California, and as far north as Utah and Colorado. It sometimes attains -a diameter of five or six feet and a height of 100. The Indians in New -Mexico formerly made rude, clumsy ox carts of this wood, without a scrap -of iron or other metal in the vehicles. One of the carts is preserved in -the National Museum, Washington, D. C. The wood is tough and light, but -it is dull white, with no attractive figure. Even the annual rings are -hardly distinguishable. Logs are occasionally sawed into lumber, and -farmers in western Texas make wagon beds of it. - -[Illustration] - - - - -BALM OF GILEAD - -[Illustration: BALM OF GILEAD] - - - - -BALM OF GILEAD - -(_Populus Balsamifera_) - - -This tree is known in different regions by the following names: Balsam, -balm of Gilead, cottonwood, poplar, balsam poplar, and tacamahac. The -usual name, balm of Gilead, is applied in recognition of the supposed -healing virtue of the wax which covers the buds and young leaves. It has -long been used in medicine, but its exact value is still a matter of -discussion. The wild Indians of the North discovered a use for the -balsam in mending their bark dishes, and plugging knot holes in the -wooden trenchers. The wax is slow to dissolve in water, and it resisted -for a long time such soups as were known to the redman's culinary art. -Bees know the value of the wax and use it to seal cracks and crevices in -their hives and to hold the comb in place. It is popularly believed that -the economy of the wax on the buds is to keep them from freezing. That -view is erroneous, for it would take more than a coating of wax to keep -the buds warm with the thermometer from fifty to seventy degrees below -zero, as it is every winter in some parts of this tree's range. - -Balm of Gilead is a native of the North from the Atlantic to the -Pacific, but its finest growth is about the headwaters of the Mackenzie -river, on Peace and Laird rivers, and the lower valley of the Athabaska. -Sixty years ago Sir John Franklin reported that most of the driftwood of -the Arctic ocean was this species. Since that time the range has been -more definitely determined, and it is now known that the tree grows so -far north that it is for some weeks in darkness, and again in summer for -some weeks in unbroken sunshine. It grows in Alaska nearly 200 miles -north of the Arctic circle. Its natural range southward reaches New -England, New York, Michigan, Nebraska, Nevada, and Oregon. - -Trees of all sizes abound, from mere shrubs in the outskirts of its -range to trunks 100 feet high and six feet in diameter in favored -localities. In the United States the best timber seldom exceeds thirty -inches in diameter and sixty or seventy feet in height. The bark on -limbs and young trunks is brownish-gray, frequently so tinged with green -that it is noticeable at a considerable distance; but usually large -trees have reddish-gray bark with deep furrows and wide ridges. Year-old -twigs are clear, shiny reddish-brown; end buds are about an inch long, -the side buds somewhat shorter. - -The wood is not distinguishable in appearance from that of the other -poplars or cottonwoods, but it is lighter than most of them, weighing -22.65 pounds per cubic foot, has a breaking strength which places it -among the weakest woods, but in stiffness making a much better showing. -The pores are small, numerous, and are distributed equally through all -parts of the wood. - -Balm of Gilead bears seeds abundantly and scatters them widely. It must -do its planting quickly in the short summers of the cold North. It -sticks close to alluvial flats, banks of rivers, borders of lakes and -swamps, and gravelly soils. It grows to a diameter of fifteen inches in -about forty-five years. - -Though balm of Gilead is not one of the most important timber trees of -this country, its place is by no means obscure. No separate tally is -kept of it among woods cut for pulp, but it goes with aspen and other -similar species as "poplar." A little better account is kept of the -amount passing through wood-using factories. The annual quantity so -reported in Illinois is 2,775,000 feet, and it is made into boxes and -crates. The lumber is shipped from the North, since it does not grow as -far south as Illinois. The situation is different in Michigan, for balm -of Gilead grows there. The amount going yearly into factories in that -state is reported at 4,912,000 feet. It is made into many commodities, -but boxes and crates take most of it. The wood is reduced to veneer and -converted into berry buckets, grape baskets, fruit and egg crates, and -other small shipping containers. It is made into excelsior and woodwool -which are used as packing material. Druggist's barrels are manufactured -from this wood. These are small, two-piece vessels, bored hollow, with a -closely fitting lid, and varying in size from a couple of inches high, -to nearly a foot. They contain powders, perfumes, pills, and other -commodities in small bulk. The wood is worked into pails, tubs, and -kegs. Furniture makers put balm of Gilead to use in several ways. It is -cut thin for shelving; it is made into panels, and is employed as cores -over which to lay veneers of more expensive materials. Woodenware -factories generally keep it in stock in the northern states. - -The supply is ample at present to meet all demands. Cutters of pulpwood -probably take more than sawmills, and are satisfied with smaller timber. -Trees are often planted for ornament, but few if any have yet been -propagated for forestry purposes. - -HAIRY BALM OF GILEAD (_Populus balsamifera candicans_) is not a species -but a variety, and it is so different from balm of Gilead that it is -entitled to a place of its own. Ordinarily it passes under the common -names applied to balm of Gilead. It is a cultivated tree in eastern -Canada and northeastern United States, where it has escaped from -cultivation and is running wild. Both Sargent and Sudworth say that -nothing is definitely known of the tree's native range; while it has -been claimed by others that it once grew wild in Michigan but was -destroyed by lumbermen. Probably most planted balm of Gileads are of -this variety, as they are very ornamental. It is a large tree with -branches less upright and crowns more open than in the wild species. The -leaves are wide, heart-shaped, and are usually silvery white beneath -with minute hairs on the margins, on the veins, and leaf stems. It is -not improbable that this variety could be more profitably planted for -forestry purposes than the species which grows wild; but there is no -present indication that foresters favorably consider either of them. - -LARGETOOTH ASPEN (_Populus grandidentata_) is named on account of the -shape of the leaves. It is sometimes called aspen, popple, white poplar, -and large poplar. The wood weighs 28.87 pounds per cubic foot, and is -the heaviest of the poplar group except Fremont cottonwood of the arid -southwestern regions. The wood is white, attractive, but not strong. It -was formerly manufactured into chip hats and shoe heels in New England, -and is now used for baskets, crates, boxes, buckets, refrigerators, -excelsior, and pulp. Northern factories usually give it the general name -"poplar," and for that reason its importance in the lumber trade is -underestimated. Trees may reach a height of seventy feet with a diameter -of two; but a height of forty or fifty is more usual. The species' range -extends from Nova Scotia to Minnesota, southward to Delaware and -Illinois, and along the Appalachian mountains to North Carolina and -Tennessee. - -GUMBO LIMBO (_Bursera simaruba_) is a south Florida species and is known -also as West Indian birch. It is in a family by itself with no near -relative. It is not a birch. The wood is spongy and very light, weighing -less than nineteen pounds per cubic foot. It decays with remarkable -rapidity. Branches thrust in the ground take root and grow. An aromatic -resin, exuding from wounds in the bark, is manufactured into varnish. -The leaves are substituted for tea, and gout remedies are made from the -resin. Large trees are fifty feet high and two feet or more in diameter. -Another Florida tree, not in the same family as this, is also called -gumbo limbo (_Simarouba glauca_), paradise tree, and bitter wood. -Ailanthus (_Ailanthus glandulosa_) is in the same family as paradise -tree, but is not native in this country, though extensively planted -here. - -ANGELICA TREE (_Aralia spinosa_). This is a small tree, which usually -develops little or no heartwood. The springwood, or the inner and porous -part of the ring, is broad and yellow, the summerwood, or exterior part -of the ring, is narrow and dark. The wood's figure, due to the marked -contrast between the outer and inner portions of the rings, is strong. -When finished it shows a rich yellow, but somewhat lighter than dwarf -sumach which it resembles. It is made into small shop articles, like -button boxes, photograph frames, pen racks, stools, and arms for -rocking chairs. Its range extends from Pennsylvania to Texas. It is -sometimes known as Hercules' club. - - ASPEN (_Populus tremuloides_) is widely known but not everywhere by - the same name. It is called quaking asp, mountain asp, aspen leaf, - white poplar, popple, poplar, and trembling poplar. The peculiarity - of the tree which is apt to attract attention, and which gives it - most of the names it carries, is the leaf's habit of being nearly - always in motion. The day is remarkably still if aspen foliage is - not stirring. This is due to the long, flat leaf stem, which is so - limber that it offers little resistance to air currents. The - difference in color between the upper and lower sides of the leaves - affords sufficient contrast to attract notice, and for that reason a - person will observe the motion of aspen leaves when he might fail to - see a similar movement among the leaves of other species where the - contrast of colors is not so marked. Aspen is credited with being - the most widely distributed tree of North America. It grows from - Tennessee to the Arctic ocean, from Mexico to northern Alaska, from - Labrador to Bering strait. It is found at sea level, and at 10,000 - feet elevation among the mountains of California. Its very small - seeds grow in enormous numbers. Winds carry them miles, and scatter - them by millions. They spring up quickly when they fall on mineral - soil. This places it in the class with "fire trees"--those which - take possession of burned tracts. Paper birch is in this class. - Aspen has replaced pines over large burned areas of the Rocky - Mountains. It grows quickly but is weak if it has to contend with - other trees. If crowded it speedily gives up the fight and dies. The - wood is not strong, but is useful for several purposes. Next to - spruce and hemlock, it is the most important pulpwood in this - country, and it is coming into considerable use as lumber. The - whiteness of the wood--it looks much like holly--makes it a favorite - for small boxes and vessels for shipping and containing foods. It is - made into jelly buckets, lard pails, fish kits, spice kegs, sugar - buckets and a long line of similar articles. It turns well, and is - made into wooden dishes. Michigan alone uses two and a half million - feet of it a year; and it is in demand along the whole northern tier - of states from Maine to Washington, but because it is not separately - listed in lumber output, it is difficult to say how much is used. - Trees are usually small, though trunks three feet in diameter are - not unknown. It grows rapidly, and may be expected to fill an - important place in this country's future timber supply. There will - be no occasion to plant it by artificial means, for nature will - attend to the planting. - -[Illustration] - - - - -BLACK COTTONWOOD - -[Illustration: BLACK COTTONWOOD] - - - - -BLACK COTTONWOOD - -(_Populus Trichocarpa_) - - -This member of the cottonwood group is a strong tree that holds its -ground in various latitudes and at many elevations, ranging from sea -level up to eight or nine thousand feet, and in latitude from Alaska to -southern California, a distance of nearly three thousand miles. Its east -and west extension is more restricted and seldom exceeds four hundred -miles. Its habitat covers an area of half a million square miles, and in -that space it finds conditions which vary so greatly that the tree which -can meet them must possess remarkable powers of adaptation. - -Beginning in Alaska and the interior of Yukon territory, it has an -arctic climate. It there not only grows on the coast, but it strikes the -interior. It appears on the headwaters of several streams which flow -into the Mackenzie or Hudson bay. It passes south through British -Columbia and enters the United States west of the Rocky Mountains. It -has been reported as far east as Idaho and Montana, but further -information is needed before its limits in that direction can be -definitely fixed. - -When it enters California it prefers the elevated valleys and canyons of -the Sierra Nevadas, though it occurs sparingly among the coast ranges. -It is generally found in the Sierras at elevations of from 3,000 to -6,000 feet, though it occurs between 8,000 and 9,000. Among the San -Jacinto mountains of southern California it grows at an altitude of -6,000 feet. - -When it occurs at low levels it is usually found on river bottoms and -sand bars, in sandy and humous soils, and there the largest trees are -found. At higher elevations it is more apt to occur in canyon bottoms -and gulches, in moist, sandy or gravelly soil, and in such situations -the black cottonwood is smaller. The best growth occurs where the -climate is humid and the precipitation is great. Beyond the reach of sea -fogs, where the tree depends on soil moisture chiefly, it is smaller. - -It is an intolerant tree. It must have light. When it is crowded a tall, -slender trunk is developed and the small crown is lifted clear above its -competitors into the full light. If it cannot succeed in gaining that -position its growth is stunted or the tree meets an early death. - -The black cottonwood is the greatest of the cottonwoods. This country -produces no other to match it, and, as far as known, the whole world has -none. The Pacific coast is remarkable for the giant trees it produces, -but most of them are softwoods--the redwoods, the bigtree, the sugar -pine, Douglas fir, western larch, noble fir, Sitka spruce and western -red cedar. This cottonwood is the largest of the Pacific coast -hardwoods. In trunk diameter it is excelled by the weeping oak in the -interior valleys of California, but when both height and diameter are -considered, the black cottonwood is in the West what yellow poplar is in -the East, the largest of the hardwoods. - -Sargent says this tree reaches a height of two hundred feet and a -diameter of eight, but Sudworth is more conservative and places the -trunk limit at six feet. The average size is much below the figures -given, but abundance of logs exceeding three feet in diameter reach the -sawmills of Washington and Oregon. - -Old trees range from 150 to 200 years in age, but trees under 100 years -old are large enough for saw timber. Records of the ages of the largest -trunks have not been reported. - -Black cottonwood is a prolific seeder, but the seeds do not long retain -their vitality. If they find lodgment in damp situations, where other -conditions are favorable, the rate of germination is high. Seedlings are -often very numerous on wet bars. - -The excellent quality of the wood and its suitability for many purposes -bring it much demand on the Pacific coast. In the state of Washington -more than 30,000,000 feet were used by wood-using industries in 1910. -Smaller quantities were reported in Oregon and California. - -In strength the wood is approximately the same as common cottonwood, but -in stiffness it much exceeds the eastern species. Its elasticity rates -high, and compares favorably with some of the valuable eastern -hardwoods. In weight it is slightly under common cottonwood. Trees are -of fine form, nearly always straight, and are generally free from limbs -to a considerable height. - -The wood is grayish-white, soft, tough, odorless, tasteless, -long-fibered, nails well, is easily glued, and cuts into excellent -rotary veneer with comparatively small expenditure of power. It does not -split easily after it has undergone seasoning, and this property -commends it to box makers. It is little disposed to shrink and swell in -atmospheric changes. The absence of odor and taste gives it much of its -value for box making, because foods are not contaminated by contact with -it. - -It is manufactured into veneer berry baskets and is one of the most -suitable woods on the Pacific coast for that purpose. Candy barrel -makers use it in preference to most others, and a long line of -woodenware articles draw much of their material from this source. Many -thousands of cords are cut yearly for the pulp mills, where material for -paper is produced. Black cottonwood and white fir are the principal -woods used for pulp on the Pacific coast. - -Not only is it used for rotary-cut veneer, but it is made into cores or -backing on which veneers of costly woods are glued in the manufacture of -furniture, interior finish and fixtures for banks, stores and offices. -It serves in the same way in casket making, and is demanded in millions -of feet. - -It is employed in amounts larger than any other wood by excelsior mills -in the northern Pacific coast region. It is the only wood demanded by -that industry in Washington and 6,400,000 feet were cut into that -product in 1910. - -Slack coopers find it as valuable in their business in the far West as -the common cottonwood is in the East, and hundreds of thousands of -staves are made yearly. It is in demand for the manufacture of flour -barrels and those intended for other food products. - -Trunk makers use it in three-ply veneers for the bodies, trays, boxes -and compartments of trunks and for suit cases. Though soft and light, it -is very tough, and sheets of veneer with the grains placed transversely -resist strains much better than solid wood of the same thickness. - -Vehicle makers employ black cottonwood for the tops and shelves of -business wagons. Another of its uses is as bottoms of drawers for -bureaus, wardrobes, and chiffoniers, and as partitions in desk -compartments. A full line of kitchen and pantry furniture is made wholly -or in part of this wood in the regions where it is cheap and abundant. - -The cottonwoods belong to a very ancient race of broadleaf trees, and -like several others, they seem to have had their origin, or at least a -very early home, in the far North, where intense cold now excludes -almost every form of vegetable growth except the lowest orders. The -Cretaceous age saw cottonwoods growing in Greenland. The cotton which -then, as now, carried the seeds and planted them fell on more hospitable -shores then than can now be found in the far frozen North. The genus was -not confined to the arctic and subarctic regions, however, for there -were cottonwoods at that time, or later, in more southern latitudes. -There were many species in the central portion of this country, and also -in Europe, long before the ice age destroyed all the forests north of -the Ohio and the Missouri rivers. Some of the old species long ago -ceased to exist, but others appear to have come down to the present time -without great change. - -The cottonwood shows wonderful vitality, which is doubtless a survival -of the characteristic which enabled it to come down from former geologic -epochs to the present time. A damaged and mutilated tree will recover. A -broken limb, thrust in the ground, will grow. - - BLACK POPLAR (_Populus nigra_) is quite distinct from black - cottonwood, though both belong to the same family. The latter is a - Pacific coast species, while the former belongs in Europe, although - it may have been introduced into that country from Persia or some - other eastern region. It is common in the United States, on account - of having escaped from cultivation. The best known variety of this - tree is the Lombardy poplar (_Populus nigra italica_). It is easily - recognized by the characteristic attitude of the branches which grow - upward close against the trunk. The crowns of the trees are very - long and slender, sometimes not ten feet across though fifty feet - high. Their slimness gives the trees the appearance of being much - taller than they really are. They were formerly popular for planting - along lanes and in door yards. Their slender and pointed spires cut - the horizon with a peculiar effect. Planting is less common now than - formerly, because people have come to know the trees better. They - are probably the most limby of all the members of the cottonwood - group. The long trunks are masses of knots when the limbs have been - trimmed away, and any desire to make lumber of the trees is apt to - be discouraged, though not infrequently logs go to local sawmills, - and farmers haul the boards home to put them to some use about the - place. In Michigan and Ohio, box makers use the lumber for the - rougher and cheaper articles which they turn out. - - The most discouraging thing about Lombardy poplar is the tendency of - the trees to send up sprouts. The living trees do it, and the stumps - are worse. The sprouts are not confined to the ground immediately - round the base of the tree, but spring up many feet or many yards - distant, until they produce a veritable jungle. Years are often - required to complete their extermination by grubbing and cutting. - - WHITE POPLAR (_Populus alba_) is a European species but has become - naturalized in the United States. It is widely planted as a shade - tree, and has escaped from cultivation. It may be known by the white - undersides of its small leaves, and by its yellowish-green bark - which remains smooth, except on large trunks. It is not yet - important as a source of lumber, but the vigor of its growth - indicates that it may sometime become so. The wood is soft, white, - and light. Some persons consider the tree objectionable as an - ornament because of its habit of sending up sprouts from the roots, - and because its woolly leaves collect dust and smoke until they are - almost black by the end of summer. - -[Illustration] - - - - -MANGROVE - -[Illustration: MANGROVE] - - - - -MANGROVE - -(_Rhizophora Mangle_) - - -The mangrove family is large and widely scattered, but only one member -has gained a foothold in the United States, and it occupies only limited -areas in south Florida, at the delta of the Mississippi, and on the -coast of Texas. The family's fifteen genera are confined to the tropics, -with a little overlapping on the temperate zones. The botanical name -_Rhizophora_ refers to the tree's peculiar roots, and _mangle_ is the -Spanish for mangrove. This is one of the few trees in this country which -are known by a single name. It is always called mangrove, and attains -its best development in Florida. - -The leaves hang two years, are from three to five inches long and one or -two wide. Flowers are not showy, but they are nearly always present, -blooming the year round, the yellow blossom about an inch in diameter. -The fruit proper is about an inch long, but its habit of sprouting while -still on the tree and sending down a long stem-like root, gives the -impression that the fruit is several inches long, sometimes a foot. - -It is not an easy matter to state the average size of mangrove trees. -Peculiar habits of growth make measurements difficult. Neither is it -easy to tell where a tree begins and where it ends. Mangrove thickets -along some of the rivers of south Florida, within the influence of tide -water, are strange forms of vegetation. If the foliage alone is -considered from a little distance, it reminds one of a row of fig trees -in Louisiana or California. The color and general appearance suggests -fig trees. A nearer approach reveals beneath the crowns a mass of roots, -stems, and limbs, joined with the ground beneath and the crowns above. -In addition to these, there are many others that dangle from above, like -rope ends, some nearly touching the ground, others several feet above. -These are roots or limbs, by whichever name one cares to call them. They -grow from overhead branches, and strike for the ground. When they touch -the soil, they quickly anchor themselves, and become stems. They then -look like slender poles set as props under the branches of an overladen -fruit tree. - -This strange habit of growth gives the tree its character. Most -mangroves stand in water. They fringe the banks of rivers and bayous, -extending the fringe as far as the water is shallow. Growth of that kind -is generally from ten to twenty feet high, and the largest stems from an -inch in diameter up to three or four; but these dimensions cannot be -taken as limits to size. Sometimes the trees are sixty or seventy feet -high, but those which stand in water seldom reach that size. Trees -which have their beginning in the water sometimes end their days high -and dry on the land. - -The mangrove is a land builder. The sycamore and willow are land -builders on a small scale, along northern water-courses, but mangrove -excels them a hundred or a thousand fold where it grows on the low -shores of Florida. The seed is prepared for land-building work before it -drops from the tree. It sprouts a long, peculiar root--it looks like a -very slender, big-ended cucumber--the large, heavy end down. This -attains a length of several inches or a foot. When it drops from the -branch, the end sticks in the mud and takes root, grows, and produces a -tree. But generally it falls in water, and not on a mud bank. In that -case it floats away, the heavy end down, the light end barely appearing -on the surface. Winds and currents drive it about until the lower tip -finally touches bottom in some shallow place. There it takes root, and -unless circumstances are extremely adverse, it holds fast, finally -becomes a tree, sends branches down from above to take root at the -bottom of the water, and a clump is produced. The tangled mass of stems -and roots catches driftwood and mud, resulting finally in a little -island, and later the island is joined to the mainland. Thus the land is -built. Many large flats in Florida owe their origin to this tree. When -land is permanently above water, the mangrove loses, to some extent, its -ability to send roots down from the limbs. Nature seldom does something -for nothing, and since the mangrove's aerial roots no longer serve a -useful purpose in nature's economy, they are dispensed with. Trunks then -reach much larger size, and become timber instead of thickets. The -accompanying picture shows a mangrove that no longer stands in water, -and its habit of growth is changing. - -Thickets of mangrove are useful, not only in building new land, but in -protecting that already built. Frequently the force of waves is broken, -which otherwise would destroy low shores. Tremendous seas, in time of -storms, will roll over thickets of mangrove without uprooting them or -breaking the stems. Again nature's fine engineering is apparent. When -men build lighthouses which must endure the shocks of waves, they have -learned to construct them of open beams and lattice work. The wave -passes through without delivering the full impact of the blow to the -structure. No solid masonry will stand what a comparatively light open -frame will endure without injury, because it allows the waves to pass -on. A large wave may strike with a force of 6,000 pounds to the square -foot. The mangrove thickets are like the open-framed lighthouse--they -let the waves pass through and spend their force gradually beyond, but -they hold the shore against washing. - -Admirable and wonderful as is nature's provision for protecting the -land by a fringe of lattice work of branches and stems, the marvelous -efficiency of the provision has been greatly increased in another way. -Suppose, for illustration, that cottonwood instead of mangrove formed -the protective thickets along stormy shores. The first hour of heavy -seas would reduce the trees to fragments. The weak, brittle trunks and -limbs would quickly break to pieces. But mangrove passes through storm -after storm unharmed. It is scarcely believable that accident accounts -for the fact that the best wood for the place is in the place; but it is -probable, rather, that ages of development and natural selection gave to -mangrove the qualities which make possible the accomplishment of its -work. It is one of the strongest, and as far as available data may be -depended upon, it is absolutely the most elastic wood in the United -States. Shellbark hickory is rated high in both strength and elasticity; -but mangrove rates higher. Sargent gives hickory's measure of elasticity -at 1,925,000 pounds per square inch; but mangrove's is 2,333,000 pounds. - -It is thus fitted in the highest manner to perform the work needed. It -plants itself in the right place; develops stems which will endure most -and suffer least; possesses enormous strength for resisting force, yet -is so extremely elastic that the force of waves is exhausted upon the -trunks and branches without flattening them upon the ground or crushing -them. Few things of the vegetable world show more perfect adaptation to -environment. The wood's very heaviness seems to add one more quality -fitting it for its place. When a trunk falls in the water, it does not -float away as most trees would, but sinks like iron, lies on the bottom, -helps to hold the forming island or bar in place, and in its death as in -its life it is a land-builder. Its efficiency in that particular is -increased by the fact that it is little affected by marine borers which, -in the warm, brackish waters, usually destroy wood in a short time. - -Mangrove is not important commercially, though it is used for a number -of purposes. The wood weighs 72.4 pounds per cubic foot, takes good -polish, though it is inclined to check in drying; it contains many small -pores; medullary rays numerous and thin; color reddish-brown streaked -with lighter brown. The principal use of the bark is for tanning and the -trunks for piles. It is well fitted for fence posts, but not many have -been used in the region where it grows. It rates high as fuel, but its -great weight increases transportation charges if the haul is long. - -Tanbark peelers in Florida have cut much of the large mangrove forest. -They took the bark, and abandoned the trunks. There is no likelihood -that the species will be exterminated. Much of the growth is practically -inaccessible, and the trunks are too small to tempt bark peelers, and -cordwood cutters find plenty of material more convenient. - - OTHER SPECIES.--Two other trees of this country are called mangrove - though they are not even in the same family. One is the black - mangrove (_Avicennia nitida_), called also blackwood and black tree. - It is a Florida species of the family Verbenaceæ, and has some of - the mangrove's habits. It takes root and grows on muddy shores and - is a land builder. The largest trees are sixty or seventy feet high - and two in diameter, but are usually less than thirty feet high. The - bark is used in tanning, and no use for the wood is reported, except - for fuel. White mangrove (_Laguncularia racemosa_), known also as - white buttonwood, is a Florida species. It attains a height of - thirty or forty feet and a diameter of a foot or more. It reaches - its largest size on the shores of Shark river, Florida. The wood is - dark yellow-brown, and the bark is rich in tannin, and the tree may - become valuable as a source of tanbark. - - Near akin to white mangrove is Florida buttonwood (_Conocarpus - erecta_) which is highly esteemed as fuel. It burns slowly like - charcoal. Trees are from twenty to fifty feet high. Its range lies - in southern Florida. Black olive tree (_Terminalia buceras_) belongs - in the south Florida group, and the wood is exceedingly hard and - heavy. The trunk is often two or three feet in diameter, but lies on - the ground like a log, with upright stems growing from it. Tanners - make use of the bark. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CABBAGE PALMETTO - -[Illustration: CABBAGE PALMETTO] - - - - -THE PALMS - - -Lumbermen in this country could get along very well without the palms, -as they are little used for ordinary lumber. Their wood does not grow in -concentric rings, like that of the ordinary tree. The stems are usually -single, cylindrical, and unbranched. The fruit is berry-like, and is -usually one seeded, though sometimes there are two or three. When a seed -sprouts, it puts out at first a single leaf, like a grain of corn. About -130 genera of palms are recognized in the world, most of them in the -tropics, but several in the United States are of tree size. Botanists -divide the palms of the United States into two groups, the palm family -and the lily family. The yuccas belong in the lily family. In the very -brief treatment that can be given the subject here, it is not necessary -to recognize strict family divisions. - -CABBAGE PALMETTO (_Sabal palmetto_) grows in the coast region from North -Carolina to southern Florida, and west to the Apalachicola river. It is -sometimes called Bank's palmetto, cabbage tree, and tree palmetto. The -name cabbage is due to the large leaf-bud in the top of the stem which -is cooked as a substitute for cabbage. A sharp hatchet and some -experience are necessary to a successful operation in extracting the bud -from the tough fibers which surround it. - -This palm is a familiar sight in the coast region within its range. The -tall trunks, with tufts of leaves at the tops, suggest the supposed -scenery of the Carboniferous age. Usually the trunks, in thick stands, -rise straight like columns from twenty to forty feet high, but -occasionally they bend in long, graceful curves, as if the weight of the -tops caused them to careen, which is probably what does happen. They -vary in diameter from eight inches to two feet. - -The leaves are five or six feet long, and seven or eight wide, with -stems six or seven feet long. Flowers occur in racemes two feet or more -in length. The fruit is spherical and about a third of an inch in -diameter. The roots are an important part of this palm, and are adapted -to their environment, forming a rounded mass four or five feet in -diameter, while small rope-like roots, half an inch in diameter, -penetrate the wet marshy soil fifteen or twenty feet. The large, -globe-like mass gives support in the soft soil, and the stringy roots -supply water and mineral substances essential to growth. The wood is -light, soft, pale-brown, with numerous hard, fibro-vascular bundles, the -outer rim about two inches thick and much lighter and softer than the -interior. The most important use for the wood at present is as wharf -piles. It lasts well and is ideal in form. It is of historical interest -that Fort Moultrie which defended Charleston, South Carolina, in the -Revolutionary war, was built of palmetto logs. When the British made -their memorable attack in 1776, their cannon balls buried in the spongy -logs without dislodging them, and the fort successfully withstood the -bombardment of ten hours, and disabled nine of the ten British ships -taking part in the assault. - -The wood is employed to a small extent in furniture making, and the bark -for scrubbing brushes. Some of the finest forests of palmetto in Florida -are much injured by fire that runs up the trunks to feed on stubs of -leaves. - -SILKTOP PALMETTO (_Thrinax parviflora_) and silvertop palmetto (_Thrinax -microcarpa_) are species met with on some of the islands off the coast -of southern Florida. - -MEXICAN PALMETTO (_Sabal mexicana_) is much like cabbage palmetto in -size and general appearance, and is put to similar uses, except that the -leaf-bud does not appear to be used as food. The tree occurs in Texas -along the lower Rio Grande, and southward into Mexico where the leaves -are employed as house thatch by improvident Mexicans and Indians who do -not care to exert themselves to procure better roofing material. In the -vicinity of Brownsville, Texas, trunks of this palm are employed as -porch posts and present a rustic appearance. They are said to last many -years. The average size of trunks in Texas is fifteen or twenty feet -high and a foot or less in diameter, but some much larger are found in -Mexico. Some of the wharfs along the Texas coast are built on palmetto -piles. It is said the trunks are not as strong as those of the cabbage -palmetto in Florida. - -SARGENT PALM (_Pseudoph[oe]nix sargentii_) is interesting but not -commercially important, but may become so as an ornamental plant. It is -occasionally planted on lawns in south Florida. Leaves are five or six -feet long with stems still longer. The clusters of flowers are sometimes -three feet in length. A single species is known, occurring on certain -keys in southern Florida, and is so limited in its range that it would -be possible to count every tree in existence. A grove of 200 or 300 -trees occurs on Key Largo. - -ROYAL PALM (_Oreodoxa regia_) is one of the largest palms of this -country. It is said to reach a height of eighty feet, but such sizes are -rare. The trunk rises from an enlarged base, and may be two feet in -diameter. Bark is light gray in color, and its appearance suggests a -column of cement. Leaves are ten or twelve feet long, and the stems -increase the total length to twenty feet or more. Flowers are two feet -in length, and in Florida open in January and February. The fruit is -smaller than would be expected of a tree so large. It is a drupe about -the size of a half-grown grape. The wood is spongy, but the outer -portion of the stem is strong and is made into canes and other small -articles. Trunks are sometimes used as wharf piles. This palm's range is -confined to south Florida in this country, but it is common in the West -Indies. In Miami and other towns of southern Florida it is much planted -for ornament. - -FANLEAF PALM (_Neowashingtonia filamentosa_) also called Washington -palm, California fan palm, Arizona palm, and wild date, ranges through -southern California, and occupies depressions in the desert west of the -Colorado river. There are said to be several forms and varieties. It -ranges in height from thirty-five to seventy feet and in diameter from -twenty to thirty inches. Trunks are of nearly the same diameter from -bottom to top, or taper very gradually. They usually lean a little. Dead -leaves hang about the trunks and blaze quickly when fire touches them, -but the palm is seldom killed by fire. The small black fruit is about a -third of an inch in diameter, and of no commercial importance; wood is -little used; and the tree is chiefly ornamental, and has been much -planted in California. - -MOHAVE YUCCA (_Yucca mohavensis_) is one of a half dozen or more palms -of the yucca genus and the lily family. Trees of this group are -characterized by their stiff, sharp-pointed leaves, some of which are -called daggers and others bayonets. Both names are appropriate. The -Mohave yucca takes its name from the Mohave desert in California, where -it is occasionally an important feature of the doleful landscape. The -ragged, leather-like leaves, forming the tops of the short, weird trees, -rattle in the wind, or resound with the patter of pebbles when -sandstorms sweep across the dry wastes. It is believed to be one of the -most slowly-growing trees of this country. Trunks are seldom more than -fifteen feet high and eight or ten inches in diameter. The wood is -spongy and interlaced with tough, stringy fibers. Stockmen whose ranges -include this tree, make corrals of the stems by setting them in the -ground as palisades. When weathered by wind and made bone dry by the -sun's fierce heat, the trunks are reduced to almost cork-lightness. -Other yuccas are the Spanish bayonet (_Yucca treculeana_) of Texas; -Joshua-tree (_Yucca arborescens_), which ranges from Utah to California -and is known as tree yucca, yucca cactus, and the Joshua; Schott yucca -(_Yucca brevifolia_) of southern Arizona; broadfruit yucca (_Yucca -macrocarpa_) of southwestern Texas; aloe-leaf yucca (_Yucca aloifolia_) -with a range from North Carolina near the coast to Louisiana; and -Spanish dagger (_Yucca gloriosa_), on the coast and islands of South -Carolina. - - GIANT CACTUS (_Cereus giganteus_) is a leafless tree of Arizona and - attains a height of forty or sixty feet, diameter of one or two. - About twenty genera of cactus are known in the world and a large - number of species. Two genera, the cereuses and opuntias, have - representatives of tree size in this country. The two genera differ - in form. Cereus in the Latin language means a candle, and the - cactuses of that genus stand up in straight stems like candles, or - have branches like old-fashioned candlesticks. The opuntias have - flat, jointed stems, like thick leaves. Giant cactus bears flowers - four inches long and two wide; fruit two inches long and one wide, - and edible. Indians derive a considerable part of their food from - this cactus. They use the wood for rafters, fences, fuel, lances, - and bows. The trunks consist of bundles of fiber, very hard and - strong. In the dry region where this cactus grows, the woody parts - of fallen stems last long periods, some say for centuries, but there - are no records. Schott cactus (_Cereus schottii_) and Thurber cactus - (_Cereus thurberi_) are found in southern Arizona and southward in - Mexico. - - CHOLLA (_Opuntia fulgida_) ranges from Nevada southward into Mexico. - It is popularly called "divil's tongue cactus," but there are other - species with the same name. Trunks are occasionally ten or twelve - feet high, and the wood is made into canes and small articles of - furniture, but as lumber it is not important. The fruit is not - eaten. A closely-related species is known as tassajo (_Opuntia - sponsior_). It is found on the dry mesas of southern Arizona where - trunks may be ten feet high and a few inches in diameter. It has the - same uses as cholla. A third species is _Opuntia versicolor_ of - southern Arizona. It is similar to the other opuntias. Attempts have - been made to grow spineless varieties of this group of cactuses. It - is believed that cattle, sheep, and goats would thrive on the pulpy - growth, if the thorns could be gotten rid of. The semi-desert - regions of the Southwest produce enormous quantities of cactus of - many kinds, and if those worthless species could be made way with - and thornless varieties substituted, it is probable that much land - now worthless would become valuable. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: YELLOW CEDAR] - - - - -MINOR SPECIES - - -A considerable number of trees grow in this country which, taken singly, -are of small importance, but in the aggregate they fill a place which -would be difficult to fill without them. Most of them are local, and are -seldom heard of outside of the regions where they grow. Some are small, -and for that reason are not demanded by the ordinary user of lumber; but -small size is not necessarily a bar to the use of a wood. Many places -may be filled by pieces too small for the sawmill. Sometimes a -diminutive trunk contains material of extraordinary hardness, or it may -be polished to a rare smoothness, or the colors may be exquisite. -Numerous commodities can be successfully manufactured from blocks or -billets which are only a few inches in diameter and a foot or two in -length. This is particularly true of some of the rare hardwoods of -Florida and southern Texas where tropical species have extended their -ranges northward over the borders of the United States. Some of the -small trees in that group are known by name in only the immediate -locality where they grow, and their qualities are scarcely appreciated -even there. In some instances railroad ties are hewed from wood which is -fit for the finest furniture. - -It is no uncommon thing for Mexicans along the Rio Grande to warm their -huts and cook their meals with fuel chopped from trunks of Texas ebony, -algarita, cat's claw, bluewood, huisache, retama, and junco. Those who -have traveled among the Indian rancherias of New Mexico and Utah have -grown familiar with the peculiar odor filling the air in the vicinity of -camp fires. It is the smoke of the rare junipers which the Indians burn -for fuel; and yet it is wood of such soft tones and exquisite blending -of colors that the shades of a Persian rug suffer by comparison. Among -the ten thousand islands which fringe the coasts of south Florida, and -also among the hummocks of the mainland, are rare trees whose wood is -unsurpassed in hardness, fineness of texture, and beauty. These are not -being used at all, or only as fuel to feed some fisherman's or camper's -fire, or to make a smoke to drive away mosquitoes. The time will come -when small and scarce woods will be sought, if they are valuable for any -special purpose. In preceding pages of this book many minor species have -been listed and briefly described in connection with those more -important, and with which they are closely related. There are more than -a hundred others which were necessarily omitted from former pages. A few -of these deserve at least a brief mention, and are listed in the -following paragraphs. - -K[OE]BERLINIA (_K[oe]berlinia spinosa_) is commonly considered a -curiosity; a tree without a relative in the world, and without leaves, -flowers, or fruit. The popular notion is wrong, of course, for no tree -is without relatives, and none without leaves, flowers, and fruit, or -something that takes their place. The flowers, leaves, and fruit of this -tree are small and escape notice of the casual observer, but they exist. -Its nearest relative in this country is the paradise tree of Florida and -the ailanthus introduced from China. It has a small, thorny, crooked -trunk; the wood is dark, turning nearly black with exposure; it is rich -with oil; and it is very hard. The species grows in certain places along -the Rio Grande. The wood is made into canes, rulers, knife handles, -turned articles, and a little furniture of the smaller kinds. The trunks -are too small for ordinary sizes of lumber. - -GUM ELASTIC (_Bumelia lanuginosa_) ranges from Georgia to Texas, and in -Florida is called black haw. Children in Texas mix its berries with -chewing gum, to increase the quantity, and the name which they apply to -it is "gum stretch it." An exuded resin is also used for chewing gum. -Trees are sometimes sixty feet high and two in diameter, and a -considerable number of logs go to hardwood mills, where they lose their -name, and possibly appear as ash lumber, or occasionally as maple. The -wood is white, tinged with yellow, and is manufactured into agricultural -implements. A scarce and smaller species, known as buckthorn bumelia and -ironwood (_Bumelia lycioides_) covers nearly the same range. From a tree -of the same family in southern Asia the gutta percha of commerce is -obtained. Other woods of the same family in this country are mastic -(_Sideroxylon mastichodendron_) of south Florida, a tree sometimes sixty -feet high and three feet in diameter, useful for boat building; -satinleaf (_Chrysophyllum monopyrenum_), also of Florida, a tree -twenty-five feet high and one in diameter, the wood very heavy, hard, -and strong; tough bumelia (_Bumelia tenax_), ranging from South Carolina -to Florida, a tree twenty feet high and six inches in diameter, called -black haw in some parts of its range; saffron plum or ant's wood -(_Bumelia angustifolia_), growing in Florida and Texas, the trunk twenty -feet high and six inches in diameter; wood orange colored, and the fruit -sweet; bustic (_Dipholis salicifolia_), in south Florida, a tree forty -feet high and eighteen inches in diameter, with wood exceedingly hard, -strong, and heavy, and dark brown or red in color; wild sapodilla or -dilly (_Mimusops sieberi_), a tree of south Florida with rich, very dark -brown wood, height of tree twenty feet, diameter one foot. - -DWARF SUMACH (_Rhus copallina_) is known by many names. It is -distinguished from staghorn sumach by its smooth branches, those of -staghorn being hairy. Sumach's chief importance is due to its value as -tanning material. Leaves and small branches are used. The family has -some well-known members in other parts of the world, among them the -mangoes. The name dwarf sumach is not well selected, for the species is -nearly as large as any other sumach. Trees are sometimes thirty feet -high and ten inches in diameter. The tree's range extends from New -England to Florida and Texas. It reaches its largest size west of the -Mississippi river. In the East and North it is usually a shrub. Trees of -largest size are not believed to exceed fifty years in age. The wood is -richly striped with yellow and black. Balls turned of it, seven inches -in diameter, are used for newel-post ornaments, and smaller balls are -made for use in darning stockings. Cups are turned on the lathe, and the -bright stripes in the wood give the wares a striking appearance. It was -formerly much employed for spiles in tapping maple trees for sugar -making. Staghorn sumach (_Rhus hirta_) is of a different species but of -the same genus. Its range extends from New Brunswick nearly to the -Mississippi river. Its name refers to the down on the young branches -resembling the velvet on the horns of a deer at certain seasons. The -tree is known as Virginia sumach and hairy sumach. Its compound leaves -are sometimes two feet long--two or three times the size of dwarf -sumach's. Trunks have been reported forty feet high and more than a foot -through. The uses of this wood are the same as of dwarf sumach, -including tanning. It is more abundant east than west of the -Alleghanies. Poisonwood (_Rhus metopium_) belongs to the same family. It -is known in Florida as doctor gum, hog plum, coral sumach, bumwood, and -mountain manchineel. The juice is exceedingly poisonous, and gum -produced by wounding the bark is reported to have medicinal value. Trees -are sometimes forty feet high and two feet in diameter. The American -smoke tree (_Cotinus cotinoides_) is another member of the sumach -family. It is found in the southern states from eastern Tennessee to -Texas. It is nowhere common, and its only reported use is as fence -posts. Trees may be a foot in diameter and thirty feet high. The wood is -a bright clear orange color, and a yellow dye has been manufactured from -it. Poison sumach (_Rhus vernix_) is not the same as poisonwood, though -sometimes the two are confounded. It is usually a shrub, and rarely -twenty feet high. It is overloaded with names, as might be expected of a -plant considered as dangerous as this. Among its names are poison elder, -poison dogwood, swamp sumach, poison oak, poisonwood, poisontree, and -thunderwood. It grows from New England to Georgia, and west to Minnesota -and Louisiana. It is apt to occur in wet swamps, and Sargent pronounces -it "one of the most dangerous plants of the North American flora." A -black, lustrous varnish can be made of the acrid poisonous juice, and -this may sometime give the species a commercial value. When the skin is -poisoned by contact with this tree, an effective remedy may be found in -a saturated alcoholic solution of acetate of lead, if applied as a wash -within an hour or two after the poisoning occurs. A wash with pure -alcohol is also effective if applied within an hour. Following either -treatment the skin should be thoroughly washed with soap and water. -Western sumach (_Rhus integrifolia_), a closely related California -species, is a small evergreen, seldom more than twenty feet high and a -foot in diameter. The wood is heavy, hard, and red, is used as fuel, and -occasionally in small turnery. The fruit is a berry half an inch long. - -CASCARA BUCKTHORN (_Rhamnus purshiana_) is of the buckthorn family, and -is known by many names on the Pacific coast where the species is best -developed. It grows as far east as Colorado and Texas. Cascara sagrada, -its Mexican name, is often used for this tree. It is known also as -bearberry, bearwood, yellow-wood, pigeonberry, coffeeberry, bayberry, -and California coffee. The tree's usual size is from ten to thirty feet -high and twelve to twenty inches in diameter. It is often shrubby, and -is more valuable for its bark than its wood. Large quantities are peeled -for medicinal uses, and many trees are thus destroyed. A little of the -wood is burned as fuel, and some is made into handles. Yellow buckthorn -(_Rhamnus caroliniana_), with a range from New York to Texas, and -evergreen buckthorn (_Rhamnus crocea_), a California species, are -closely related to cascara buckthorn, but are of comparatively little -importance. Blue myrtle (_Ceanothus thyrsiflorus_) is a California -species, sometimes called wild lilac or blue blossoms. It ranges in -height from thirty-five feet, among the redwoods on the Santa Cruz -mountains, to only one foot high on some of the wind-swept coasts. The -wood is pale yellowish-brown, and is somewhat used for novelties. Tree -myrtle (_Ceanothus arboreus_), often known as lilac, is also a -California tree, closely related to blue myrtle, but is of smaller size -and of very restricted range. Its prospective value lies more in its -bloom than in its wood. Naked-wood (_Colubrina reclinata_), a Florida -species, is of a kindred genus. Trees are sometimes fifty feet high and -three in diameter. The wood is hard, very strong, and is dark brown -tinged with yellow. - -LIGNUM-VITÆ (_Guajacum sanctum_) grows in Florida, and a species which -is probably the same is found in south Texas along the Rio Grande. In -Texas the tree is known as guayacon, which name has come down from the -times when the Carib Indians ruled the West Indies. That was their name -for the tree. The annual rings are usually too vague and too involved to -be counted, but the tree is known to be of slow growth. The wood is -pitted and it contains cavities and creases; but the clear wood is very -hard and of fine and various colors. It is dark green, brown, black, -yellow and of mixed colors, and clouded effects, all in the same block. -Small pieces of furniture, like bureau cabinets, present attractive -combinations of colors. The wood is of such exceeding hardness that it -turns, breaks, or batters the carpenter's tools. Candlesticks, egg cups, -goblets, vases, checker pieces, dominos, boxes, trays, canes, paper -knives, and souvenirs are manufactured in a small way. Trees attain a -height of thirty feet and a diameter of two or more. The compound leaves -adhere to the branches until those of the following season appear. The -fruit is an orange-colored pod three-fourths of an inch long. - -PRICKLY ASH (_Xanthoxylum clava-herculis_). Some know this species as -toothache tree, tear-blanket, sting-tongue, and Hercules' club. The wood -shows little difference in color between heartwood and sap, and bears -some resemblance to buckeye. It takes good polish and some of it looks -like birdseye maple, but the figure does not seem to be due to -adventitious buds. It has been made into picture frames and looks well. -It is a rapid grower, and since its color fits it for the stencil, it -might be worthy of consideration for box material. Trees reach a height -of twenty-five or thirty feet, and a diameter of a foot or more. Its -range extends from Virginia to Texas. Satinwood (_Xanthoxylum -cribrosum_) is of the same genus, but it does not grow north of Florida -where it is sometimes called yellow-wood. Mature trees are a foot or -more in diameter and twenty-five or thirty-five feet high; wood heavy, -exceedingly hard and brittle, but not strong; color light orange. It has -some use as furniture material, and for certain classes of handles which -need not be strong. Wild lime (_Xanthoxylum fagara_) is a similar tree, -growing in both Florida and Texas, but it is of small size. Hoptree -(_Ptelea trifoliata_) is another member of the family. Its fruit is -sometimes substituted for hops for brewing beer. It is known also as -wafer ash, wahoo, and quinine tree; the last name being due to its -bitter bark. It grows from Canada to Florida, and west to New Mexico, -and seldom exceeds twenty feet in height. Baretta (_Helietta -parvifolia_) which occurs as a small tree in southern Texas, is a near -relative. Torchwood (_Amyris maritima_), so named because of its fine -properties as fuel, grows in southern Florida, sometimes reaching a -height of forty feet and a diameter of one. Canotia (_Canotia -holacantha_) is a small, scarce tree of Arizona and California and has -fine-grained, rich brown wood. - -NANNYBERRY (_Viburnum prunifolium_), known as black haw, sloe, -sheepberry, and stagbush, grows from Connecticut to Oklahoma and is -usually a shrub which springs up along highways and hedges, but it -sometimes reaches a height of twenty feet and a diameter of eight -inches. It is valuable in some localities in the manufacture of canes -and umbrella sticks. Rusty nannyberry (_Viburnum rufotomentosum_) is a -similar species, but attains a larger size, and grows from Virginia to -Texas. The wood may be known by its disagreeable odor. Sheepberry -(_Vibernum lentago_) has a more northern range, from Quebec to -Saskatchewan, and south along the mountains to Georgia. - -BLUE ELDER (_Sambucus glauca_) is one of three tree elders in the United -States, the others being Mexican elder (_Sambucus mexicana_) and -red-berried elder (_Sambucus callicarpa_). They are ornamental rather -than useful. The three species occur on the Pacific coast. The largest -recorded size of an elder was forty feet high and twenty-eight inches in -diameter. Its age was about fifty years. - -FRINGE TREE (_Chionanthus virginica_) is known also as white fringe, -American fringe, white ash, old man's beard, flowering ash, and -sunflower tree. Its natural range extends from Pennsylvania to Florida -and west to Texas, but it has been widely planted in this country and -Europe. It is seldom more than twenty feet high and eight inches in -diameter. The bark possesses medicinal value. Devilwood (_Osmanthus -americanus_) belongs to the same family, but to a different genus. It -grows from North Carolina to Florida and west to Louisiana. The largest -trunks are a foot in diameter and forty feet high. The wood is strong, -heavy, hard, dark brown, and difficult to work. - -BLACK IRONWOOD (_Rhamnidium ferreum_) of Florida is among the heaviest, -probably is the heaviest, wood of the United States. It weighs 81.14 -pounds per cubic foot, and when a hundred pounds of the wood is burned, -it leaves eight pounds of ashes--the highest in ash of all woods of the -United States. Its fuel value is very high. Trees are small, seldom more -than thirty feet high and six inches in diameter. Bluewood (_Condalia -obovata_) is a related Texas species, called also logwood and purple -haw. It produces heavy, hard, close-grained wood, light red in color. -Trees six inches in diameter and twenty-five feet high are fully up to -the average. Along the lower Rio Grande it forms dense, tangled -thickets. Red ironwood (_Reynosia latifolia_) of southern Florida -belongs to a related species, and is sometimes called darling plum, -because its purple fruit is edible. The tree is small, the wood heavy, -hard, strong, and of rich brown color. White ironwood (_Hypelate -trifoliata_) belongs to a different family. It occurs in Florida where -trees are sometimes thirty-five feet high and eighteen inches in -diameter. The heavy, hard, rich brown wood is durable in contact with -the ground, and is used for fence posts, handles, and boats. Inkwood -(_Exothea paniculata_) is of the same family as white ironwood but of a -different genus. It is also a Florida species and is known in some -localities as ironwood. The tree is occasionally a foot in diameter and -forty feet high, wood very hard, heavy, and strong, and bright red in -color. It is used by boat builders, for wharfs, and as handle wood. - -CINNAMON BARK (_Canella winterana_), also called whitewood and wild -cinnamon, is a south Florida species seldom more than twenty-five feet -high and ten inches in diameter. The wood is exceedingly heavy, hard, -and strong, and of dark reddish-brown color. The wild cinnamon bark of -commerce comes from this tree. - -JOEWOOD (_Jaquinia armillaris_) grows in the Florida everglades. The -dark and beautiful medullary rays of this wood may sometime make it -valuable for turnery and small novelties. Trunks seldom exceed six or -seven inches in diameter. Marlberry (_Icacorea paniculata_) belongs in -the same family with joewood. Trunks are small, but the hard, rich brown -wood is beautifully marked with dark medullary rays. - -CRABWOOD (_Gymnanthes lucida_) is known chiefly by the fine canes made -of it. The tree occurs in southern Florida where it is sometimes known -as poisonwood. It is dark brown, streaked with yellow. Trunks more than -eight inches in diameter are unusual. Manchineel (_Hippomane -mancinella_) is of the same family, and occurs in Florida. The wood is -light and soft. - -SINGLELEAF PINON (_Pinus monophylla_). This is the only pine in this -country with single needles. They are one and one-half inches long, and -are curved like the old fashioned sewing awl used by shoemakers. The -needles fall during the fourth and fifth years. The cones are one and -one-half or two and one-half inches long. The trees are small, averaging -fifteen or twenty feet high and eight or twelve inches in diameter. Its -range covers portions of Utah, Arizona, Nevada, and California, but it -occupies dry, sterile regions as nearly under desert conditions as can -be found in this country. The tree maintains a foothold on the eastern -slope of the Sierra Nevada mountains at an altitude of 9,000 feet and it -descends into the Colorado desert in California at an elevation of 2,000 -feet. It endures winter cold below zero on the mountains, and summer -temperature of 122 in the Mojave desert. It is fitted to live in a dry, -sterile region. The leaves are small and the branches bear few of them. -The thin foliage uses little water, which is a fortunate circumstance, -for there is little to use. Slow growth is the result. The trunk often -adds less than an inch to its diameter in twenty years. The trees form -very open forest, resembling old orchards, and the greenness usually -associated with pine landscapes is generally wanting. The singleleaf -pine has filled an important place in the development of the region, and -furnishes an example of the great service which a small, crooked tree -can give when it is the only one to be had. Mines worth many millions of -dollars have been worked with little of any other wood. This has been -the fuel for the kitchen, the engine house, the blacksmith shop. It has -supplied the props, posts, stulls, and lagging for the underground -operations. Fences for stock corrals, sheds, stables, cabins, and -bridges have been constructed of the small, crooked trunks and the -distorted limbs, when no other wood could be had in fifty or a hundred -miles. Extensive tracts have been cut clean in the vicinity of mines. -The product of the singleleaf pine forest cannot be measured in board or -log feet, because of the smallness of the trunks and branches, but by -the cord. The wood is medium heavy, rather high in fuel value, very -weak, brittle, and soft. The resin passages are few and small, color -yellow or light brown, the sapwood nearly white. In contact with the -soil the wood is not durable, but its principal use has been in a very -dry climate, and it lasts well there. It is the most important of the -nut pines. - -It produces enormous crops which are larger some years than others. John -Muir believed that the singleleaf pinon's annual nut yield surpassed -California's yield of wheat. Only a small part of the nut crop is ever -put to use by man. Scattered over mountains, mesas, and deserts, 100,000 -square miles in extent, most of the nuts fall and decay, though the -animals of the rocks and sands, and the birds of the air live on them -while they last. The Indians of the region long looked upon the nut -crop, as the Egyptians upon the overflow of the Nile--a guarantee -against famine. The Indians are not so dependent on the nuts now as -formerly because scattered settlements throughout the region supply -other sources of food. Many nuts are still gathered, and are sold in -stores from San Francisco to Denver. They look like peanuts, but are -richer in oil, and if eaten raw they speedily cloy the appetite. The -Indians usually roast them, and frequently crush them into meal. When -the harvest is ripe the Indians gather from all sides and camp during a -month or more, thrash the cones from the trees with poles, extract the -nuts, and keep up the operation until all present needs are supplied, -and every available basket is filled for future use. The packhorses and -burros of the mining country in Nevada where this pine grows, acquire a -liking for the nuts. They are as nourishing as oats, and the pack -animals like them better. Indians do considerable business collecting -the nuts and selling them by the gunny sack to pack trains, for horse -feed. A single Indian will sometimes gather thirty or forty bushels, for -which he can get a dollar a bushel when he has carried them to market. - -The singleleaf pine's future will be about as its past has been, as far -as can now be foreseen. Little planting will ever be done, nor is it -necessary. Nature plants all that the sterile soil will support. It is -of too slow growth to tempt the forester. A century is required to -produce a fence post, and 200 years for a crosstie. Forest fires do -little injury, for the ground is generally so bare that fire dies out of -its own accord in a short distance. The tree can never be planted much -for ornament. Even if it would grow outside of its dry habitat, it -possesses no more beauty than a half-dead apple tree in a neglected -orchard. The trunks resemble mesquite in Texas; but the Texas tree is -redeemed by the beauty of its foliage in summer, while the foliage of -the singleleaf pine is so pale and thin that it attracts no attention. - -CAROLINA HEMLOCK (_Tsuga caroliniana_) is of far less importance than -its northern neighbor which goes south along the Appalachian mountains -to meet it. The two species mingle on the mountain tops from -southwestern Virginia to northern Georgia. The Carolina hemlock is -usually confined to altitudes 2,500 or 3,000 feet above sea level, and -prefers rocky banks of streams. It does not usually occur in dense -stands of even moderate size, as the northern hemlock does. A few trees -in clumps or scattered solitary represent its habit of growth. Typical -development of the species occurs on the headwaters of the Savannah -river in South Carolina. For a long time this hemlock and its northern -relative were supposed to be the same. Botanists did not formerly -separate them, and the mountaineers do not generally do so now. There -are several differences, however, which may be observed upon close -examination, and by comparing the two species. The Carolina hemlock's -leaves have more rows of stomata and therefore are a little whiter on -the under side. The leaves are also longer, and the cones are larger. -The tree does not attain the dimensions of the northern species, its -average size being forty or fifty feet in height, and two or less in -diameter. It is not abundant, and has never been and never can be much -used for commercial purposes. It is an attractive park tree and has been -widely planted. - -LIMBER PINE (_Pinus flexilis_) owes its name to its long, drooping -branches. It is often called white pine, Rocky Mountain white pine, -western white pine, and limber twig pine. It is not the tree usually -called western white pine (_Pinus monticola_), but is a high mountain -species, ranging from the Rocky Mountains of Montana to western Texas; -it grows also on the mountains of Arizona, Utah, Nevada, and California. -The upper limit of its range in the Sierra Nevadas is 12,000 feet. It -descends to an altitude of only 4,000 feet in the Rocky Mountains, and -forms open, scattered stands of round-topped trees of little commercial -value, and is usually associated with western yellow pine or Rocky -Mountain cedar. At altitudes of 8,500 or 10,000 feet it is more stunted, -and associates with Lyall larch and other high mountain species. -Intermediate between its lower and its higher belts it produces a little -merchantable lumber. The wood is light, soft, medium brittle, of slow -growth and with narrow bands of summerwood. The resin passages are large -and numerous. The wood, when a choice trunk is found, resembles that of -eastern white pine; but generally the trunks are inferior in size and -form. The heartwood is light, clear yellow, the sapwood nearly white. -Trees range in height from thirty to fifty feet, and one to three in -diameter. A sawlog ten feet long is about as much as can be had from a -trunk, and of course, when compared with commercial trees, it holds a -low place; but in some remote mountain regions it is the principal wood -available, and to that extent it is of importance. When green, the wood -is very heavy, and sometimes will sink. It is used for posts and in the -mines. The farmer seasons posts on the stump. He peels the trees six -months before cutting them. They immediately exude resin over the whole -peeled surface, and the tree quickly dies. At the end of six months the -trunk is seasoned, and is cut for posts. The ends are smeared with -resin. Such posts have lasted twenty years with little decay. Railroads -make ties of fire-killed limber pine. Charcoal burners use it also. The -growing trees resist the fumes of copper smelters better than any other -species associated with it. - - PARRY PINON (_Pinus quadrifolia_). The names by which this tree is - known in the region where it grows indicate one of its leading - features, a bearer of nuts. It is called nut pine, Parry's nut pine, - pinon, and Mexican pinon. The nuts exceed half an inch in length, - are reddish-brown, and the wings narrow and small. They cannot carry - the nuts far, and the species is not spreading. Reproduction takes - place beneath the parent tree, and frequently the old trunk dies - without having succeeded in planting a single seed to perpetuate the - species. The nuts are nutritious, and are eagerly sought by birds, - rodents, and larger animals, including human beings. The cones are - seldom two inches long, and the leaves are little more than an inch. - They are usually in clusters of four, and fall the third year. The - tree's characteristics betray its environment. It is fitted for dry, - sterile situations. Its abnormally large seeds provide food for the - seedling until it can get its rootlets deep enough in the poor soil - to get a start. The Parry pinon's range is confined to the extreme - southern part of California and to Lower California where it - occupies arid mesas and low mountain slopes. It is common on Santa - Rosa mountains, California, at an elevation of 5,000 feet. It is too - small to be worth much for lumber, the usual height being less than - thirty feet, the trunk diameter from ten to sixteen inches. The wood - is medium heavy, weak, low in elasticity, but rather high in fuel - value. The annual rings are very narrow, and the thin bands of - summerwood are not conspicuous. It is one of the slowest-growing of - the pines, and probably it is surpassed in that respect by lodgepole - pine alone. Its only uses are fuel, a few fence posts, and small - ranch timbers. - - KNOBCONE PINE (_Pinus attenuata_). This pine is known as - prickly-cone pine, sun-loving pine, sunny-slope pine, narrow-cone - pine, and knobcone pine. Its leaves are in clusters of three, and - are four and five inches long. The cones are from three to six - inches long. They often adhere to the branches thirty or forty - years, and may become entirely overgrown and hidden by bark and - wood--hence the name knobcone. The wood is light, soft, weak, - brittle; the growth is slow and the annual rings are narrow. The - resin passages are large and numerous. The average height of the - mature knobcone pine is from twenty-five to forty feet, and the - trunk diameter eight to twelve inches. It grows on dry mountain - regions of California and Oregon, and is not a valuable timber tree. - A little is occasionally sawed in small dimensions, but the - principal use is for mine props. It is short lived, even when it - does not fall a victim to accidents. In accordance with the - provisions of nature, it prepares for early death by bearing seeds - when only five or six feet high. The cones act as storing places for - seed, sometimes during the whole life of the tree. Thus a knobcone - pine may hold in its tightly closed cones the seeds produced during - the tree's whole life. When death overtakes it, the cones open and - scatter the seeds. The accumulated crops may total three or four - pounds of seeds. Fire usually kills the trees, but the heat is - generally not sufficient to burn the cones. When they open soon - after the fire has passed, they find a bared mineral soil ready to - receive them. The knobcone pine lives in adversity and usually dies - by violence. - - ARIZONA PINE (_Pinus arizonica_). This tree is confined to the - mountains of southern Arizona at from 6,000 to 8,000 feet above sea - level. It is the prevailing pine near the summit of the Santa - Catalina mountains. Much of the timber is of small size and yields - only inferior lumber; but when larger trunks are obtainable, the - lumber grades with western yellow pine, and goes to market with it. - Arizona pine is medium light, soft, not strong, rather brittle, of - slow growth, with the summerwood comparatively broad and very - resinous; color, light red or often yellow, the sapwood lighter - yellow or white. The leaves are in clusters of five and are tufted - at the ends of the branches. They are from five to seven inches - long, and are deciduous the third year. - - DWARF JUNIPER (_Juniperus communis_) is an interesting tree because - its range practically runs round the world in the north temperate - and frigid zones, but in the United States the only reported use of - the wood is in southern Illinois where it grows on the limestone - hills and is occasionally cut for fence posts. In nearly all other - parts of its range in this country it is little more than a shrub. - Some trees with a spread of limbs twenty feet across are only three - or four feet high. The seeds mature slowly, not ripening until the - third year; and they often hang a year or two after ripening. The - wood is narrow-ringed, hard, very durable in contact with the soil, - of light brown color, with pale sapwood. In Europe the aromatic - fruit of this tree is used in large quantities to flavor gin, but - there is no report that it has been so employed in this country. In - the United States it occurs in Pennsylvania and northward, and - northward from Illinois, and throughout the Rocky Mountains north of - Texas. It occurs on the Pacific coast north of California. It grows - from Greenland to Alaska, and through Siberia, and northern Europe. - - DROOPING JUNIPER (_Juniperus flaccida_) is confined in the United - States to the Chisos mountains in western Texas, but grows in - Mexico. The tree attains a height of thirty feet and a diameter of - one. Its name refers to its graceful branches. It has been planted - in this country less than in southern Europe and northern Africa. - The bark is light cinnamon-brown, and easily separates in loose, - papery scales. The lumberman will never go far to procure drooping - juniper logs. They are too small, scarce, and of form too poor. The - wood has the usual characteristics of the junipers which grow in - western mountains. It looks more like alligator juniper than any - other. In Texas it goes to the lathe to be manufactured into - candlesticks, pin boxes, picture molding, and other articles of - turnery. - - UTAH JUNIPER (_Juniperus utahensis_) is known also as juniper, - desert juniper, and western red cedar. The last name is properly - applied to a different tree in Washington and Oregon. The Utah - juniper occupies the great basin between the Rocky Mountains and the - Sierra Nevadas, particularly in Utah, Nevada, California, Arizona, - and Colorado. It thrives best about 8,000 feet above the sea, but - descends to 5,000 feet or less. It is a desert tree, usually small, - often a mere shrub, but occasionally attaining a height of twenty - feet or more and a diameter of one or two. The trunk is irregular in - shape, and is generally deeply fluted. The wood is light brown in - color, though it varies greatly in different specimens, and even in - the same tree. The sapwood is thick and nearly white. The tree has - not been much used except for fence posts and fuel. The Indians of - the region eat the berries raw or bake them in cakes. - - - - -INDEX TO COMMON NAMES - - - Acacia, 535 - African mahogany, 463 - Ailanthus, 676 - Alaska cypress, 121 - Alaska pine, 193 - Alder, 589 - Algaroba, 559 - Alleghany sloe, 622 - Alligator juniper, 111 - Alligator wood, 325 - Almondleaf willow, 471 - Aloe-leaf yucca, 693 - Alpine fir, 166 - Alpine larch, 88 - Alpine spruce, 195 - Alpine western spruce, 196 - Alpine whitebark pine, 37 - Alternate-leaved dogwood, 526 - Alvord oak, 220 - Amabilis fir, 165 - American apple, 553 - American arborvitæ, 97 - American ash, 409 - American crab, 453 - American fringe, 700 - American holly, 643 - American larch, 80 - American linden, 637 - American planertree, 397 - American smoke-tree, 697 - Andromeda, 526 - Angelica-tree, 676 - Ant's wood, 696 - Apple haw, 459 - Arborvitæ, 97 - Arizona cork fir, 154 - Arizona cypress, 142 - Arizona madrona, 663 - Arizona palm, 693 - Arizona pine, 705 - Arizona spruce, 135 - Arizona sycamore, 610 - Arizona white oak, 218 - Arrow-wood, 507 - Ash-leaved maple, 445 - Aspen, 667, 675 - Aspen-leaf, 675 - August plum, 621 - - Bald cypress, 139 - Balm of Gilead, 145, 667, 673 - Balm of Gilead fir, 145 - Balsam, 135, 136, 151, 166, 673 - Balsam fir, 145, 151, 159 - Balsam poplar, 673 - Baltimore oak, 205 - Banana, 640 - Baretta, 699 - Barren oak, 316 - Barren scrub oak, 283 - Bartram oak, 322 - Basket elm, 393 - Basket oak, 208, 229 - Basket willow, 472 - Basswood, 637 - Bat-tree, 494 - Bayberry, 698 - Bay poplar, 337 - Bay tree, 529 - Beaded locust, 555 - Bearberry, 646, 698 - Bear oak, 315 - Bearwood, 698 - Beaver-tree, 495 - Bebb willow, 471 - Beech, 625 - Beetree, 637 - Bell-tree, 601 - Bellwood, 602 - Berlandier ash, 418 - Big buckeye, 649 - Big-bud, 363 - Big-bud hickory, 363 - Bigcone pine, 68 - Bigcone spruce, 172 - Big cottonwood, 667 - Bigelow willow, 472 - Big hickory nut, 363 - Big laurel, 494 - Bigleaf laurel, 507 - Bigleaf maple, 439 - Big pine, 31 - Big shellbark, 369 - Bigtree, 175 - Big white birch, 583 - Biltmore ash, 424 - Birch, 565 - Bird cherry, 619 - Bishop's pine, 69 - Bitter cherry, 616 - Bitter hickory, 361 - Bitternut, 367 - Bitternut hickory, 361 - Bitter pecan, 361, 375 - Bitter walnut, 361 - Bitter waternut, 374 - Bitterwood, 676 - Black ash, 415, 416, 423, 445 - Blackbark pine, 75 - Black birch, 565, 577, 580 - Black calabash, 475 - Black cherry, 613 - Black cottonwood, 667, 669, 679 - Black gum, 159, 331 - Black haw, 460 - Black hickory, 364, 367, 696, 699 - Black ironwood, 700 - Black jack, 283 - Black jack oak, 291 - Black larch, 80 - Black limetree, 637 - Black locust, 535, 541 - Black mangrove, 688 - Black maple, 447 - Black mulberry, 513 - Black oak, 259, 260, 271, 277 - Black olivetree, 688 - Black pine, 63, 67, 70, 75 - Black poplar, 681 - Black slash pine, 55 - Black sloe, 621 - Black spruce, 129 - Black thorn, 459 - Blacktree, 688 - Black walnut, 343 - Black willow, 469 - Black wood, 688 - Bleeding-heart tree, 500 - Blister pine, 145, 151 - Blue ash, 417, 422 - Blue beech, 627 - Blue birch, 565, 577, 585 - Blue blossoms, 698 - Blue dogwood, 526 - Blue elder, 700 - Blue jack oak, 285 - Blue myrtle, 698 - Blue oak, 205, 213, 226 - Blue spruce, 136 - Bluet, 508 - Bluewood, 700 - Bodark, 511 - Bodock, 511 - Bog spruce, 130 - Bois d'arc, 511 - Bois inconnu, 405 - Bottom shellbark, 369 - Bow-wood, 511 - Box elder, 445, 601 - Box oak, 223 - Box white oak, 223 - Boxwood, 523 - Bracted fir, 157 - Brash oak, 223 - Brewer oak, 220 - Bristlecone fir, 171 - Bristlecone pine, 19, 38 - Broadfruit yucca, 693 - Broadleaf maple, 439 - Broadleaf willow, 472 - Broom hickory, 367 - Brown ash, 423 - Brown hickory, 367 - Brown pine, 43 - Buckeye, 649 - Buckthorn bumelia, 696 - Buckwheat-tree, 502 - Bullace plum, 621 - Bull bay, 494 - Bull pine, 49, 75 - Bumwood, 697 - Burning bush, 499 - Burnwood, 502 - Bur oak, 211 - Bustic, 696 - Butternut, 349 - Buttonball, 607 - Buttonwood, 607 - - Cabbage palmetto, 691 - Cabbage-tree, 691 - Cactus, 693 - Cajeput, 529 - Calico-bush, 505 - Calicowood, 601 - California bay tree, 529 - California black oak, 285 - California blue oak, 229 - California box elder, 447 - California buckeye, 649, 651 - California chestnut oak, 313 - California coffee, 698 - California fan palm, 693 - California hemlock spruce, 193 - California holly, 645 - California juniper, 112 - California laurel, 529, 655 - California live oak, 307 - California nutmeg, 201 - California olive, 529 - California post cedar, 109 - California red bud, 549 - California red fir, 164 - California sassafras, 529 - California scrub oak, 237 - California swamp pine, 69 - California sycamore, 609 - California tanbark oak, 313 - California walnut, 351 - California white oak, 249 - California white pine, 67 - Canada plum, 621 - Canadian Judas tree, 548 - Canadian red pine, 61 - Canoe birch, 583 - Canoe cedar, 115 - Canoewood, 487 - Canotia, 699 - Canyon birch, 580 - Canyon live oak, 308 - Carolina cherry, 620 - Carolina hemlock, 703 - Carolina pine, 49 - Carolina poplar, 667 - Cascara buckthorn, 698 - Cascara sagrada, 698 - Catalpa, 475 - Catawba, 475 - Catawba rhododendron, 507 - Cat spruce, 130 - Cedar, 91, 97, 109, 118 - Cedar elm, 380, 392 - Cedar pine, 57 - Cereuses, 693 - Chalky leucæna, 562 - Chapman oak, 208 - Chattahoochee pine, 202 - Check pine, 70 - Checkered-barked juniper, 111 - Cherry birch, 565, 580 - Chestnut, 631 - Chestnut oak, 241, 313 - Chickasaw plum, 622 - Chihuahua pine, 76 - Chinaberry, 665 - China-tree, 664 - Chinquapin, 634 - Chinquapin oak, 247 - Chittamwood, 602 - Cholla, 691 - Cigartree, 476 - Cinnamon bark, 701 - Cinnamon oak, 286 - Clammy locust, 537 - Cliff elm, 385 - Cockspur, 459 - Cocoa plum, 622 - Coffeebean, 547 - Coffee-berry, 698 - Coffeenut, 547 - Coffeetree, 547 - Colorado blue spruce, 136 - Common catalpa, 475, 477 - Common thorn, 459 - Cornel, 523 - Coral bean, 554 - Coral sumach, 697 - Cork-barked Douglas spruce, 169 - Cork elm, 380, 385, 399 - Cork pine, 19 - Corkwood, 423 - Corky elm, 399 - Cotton gum, 337 - Cottonwood, 667, 673 - Cotton-tree, 667 - Coulter pine, 68 - Cowlicks, 604 - Cow oak, 229 - Crab, 453 - Crab apple, 453 - Crabwood, 701 - Crack willow, 472 - Creeping pine, 37 - Cuban pine, 45 - Cucumber, 481 - Cucumber tree, 487 - Currant-tree, 451 - Custard apple, 640 - Cut-leaved maple, 445 - Cypress, 70, 139 - - Dahoon holly, 645 - Darling plum, 700 - Darlington oak, 295 - Date plum, 517 - Deciduous holly, 646 - Deer tongue, 507 - Delmar pine, 64 - Desert juniper, 705 - Desert willow, 477 - Devil's claw, 544 - Devil's tongue cactus, 694 - Devilwood, 700 - Digger pine, 75 - Dilly, 696 - Doctor gum, 697 - Dogwood, 523 - Double fir, 151 - Double spruce, 130 - Douglas fir, 169 - Douglas spruce, 169 - Douglas-tree, 169 - Down-cone, 166 - Downy basswood, 639 - Downy-cone subalpine fir, 166 - Downy poplar, 669 - Drooping juniper, 705 - Drummond maple, 436 - Duck oak, 320 - Durand oak, 208 - Dwarf ash, 412 - Dwarf chestnut oak, 247 - Dwarf cypress, 184 - Dwarf juniper, 705 - Dwarf maple, 442, 446 - Dwarf marine pine, 69 - Dwarf rose bay, 507 - Dwarf sumach, 696 - Dwarf walnut, 351 - Dyer's oak, 271 - - Ebony, 517 - Elder, 700 - Elderleaf ash, 416 - Emory oak, 238 - Engelmann oak, 231 - Engelmann spruce, 135 - English cornel, 526 - English dogwood, 526 - English hawthorn, 460 - European alder, 592 - Evergreen buckthorn, 698 - Evergreen cherry, 620 - Evergreen magnolia, 481, 493 - Eysenhardtia, 526 - - False acacia, 535 - False box-dogwood, 523 - False mahogany, 531 - False shagbark, 346 - Fanleaf palm, 693 - Farkleberry, 508 - Fat pine, 43 - Feather-cone red fir, 157 - Feather-leaf, 97 - Fetid buckeye, 651 - Fetid yew, 202 - Fighting wood, 199 - Finger-cone pine, 25 - Fir balsam, 151 - Fire cherry, 619 - Firewood, 502 - Fir pine, 145 - Florida ash, 412 - Florida basswood, 639 - Florida boxwood, 501 - Florida buttonwood, 688 - Florida cat's claw, 538 - Florida mahogany, 531 - Florida maple, 435 - Florida pine, 43 - Florida torreya, 202 - Florida yew, 201 - Flowering ash, 700 - Flowering cornel, 523 - Flowering dogwood, 523 - Flowering willow, 477 - Forked-leaf black jack, 283 - Forked-leaf oak, 217, 283 - Forked-leaf white oak, 217 - Four-winged halesia, 601 - Foxtail pine, 19, 38, 39 - Fragrant crab, 453 - Fraser fir, 151 - Fraser umbrella, 481, 495 - Fremont cottonwood, 667, 670 - Fremontia, 400 - Frijolito, 554 - Fringe ash, 412 - Fringetree, 700 - - Gambel oak, 214 - Garden wild plum, 622 - Georgia oak, 267 - Georgia pine, 43 - Giant arborvitæ, 115 - Giant cactus, 693 - Gigantic cedar, 115 - Glaucous willow, 472 - Glossyleaf willow, 496 - Golden cup oak, 308 - Golden fir, 164 - Goldenleaf chinquapin, 633 - Gooseberry, 508 - Goose plum, 621, 622 - Gopherwood, 553 - Gowen cypress, 184 - Grand fir, 163 - Gray birch, 585 - Gray elm, 380 - Gray pine, 75 - Great California fir, 163 - Great laurel, 494, 505 - Great western larch, 86 - Green ash, 422 - Greenbark acacia, 555 - Green osier, 526 - Gregg ash, 411 - Guayacon, 698 - Gum, 325 - Gumbo limbo, 676 - Gum elastic, 696 - Gum stretch it, 696 - Gum-tree, 325 - Gyminda, 49 - - Hackberry, 403 - Hackmatack, 80, 86 - Hack-tree, 403 - Hairy balm of Gilead, 674 - Hardbark hickory, 363 - Hardhack, 595 - Hard maple, 427 - Hard pine, 43, 61, 63 - Hardshell, 363 - Hardwoods, 4 - Hardy catalpa, 475 - Haw, 459 - Hawthorn, 459 - Healing balsam, 151 - Heart-leaved thorn, 460 - Heart pine, 43 - Heartwood, 5 - Heavy pine, 67 - Heavy-wooded pine, 67 - Hedge, 511 - Hedge-tree, 511 - Hemlock, 187 - Hemlock spruce, 187, 193, 195 - Hercules' club, 676, 699 - Hickory, 357 - Hickory elm, 385 - Hickory oak, 308 - Hickory pine, 38, 52 - Hickory poplar, 487 - High-ground willow oak, 286 - Highland oak, 296 - Hog haw, 459 - Hog plum, 621, 697 - Holly, 643 - Hollyleaf cherry, 616 - Honey locust, 535, 541, 559 - Honey-shucks locust, 541 - Honey pod, 559 - Hooker's oak, 249 - Hooker willow, 472 - Hoop ash, 403, 415 - Hooptree, 415 - Hop hornbeam, 595 - Hoptree, 699 - Hornbeam, 595, 627 - Horsebean, 549 - Horse chestnut, 651 - Horse plum, 621 - Huajillo, 538 - Huckleberry, 508 - Huckleberry oak, 309 - - Incense cedar, 109 - Indian bean, 476 - Indian cherry, 451 - Indian pear, 451 - Indigo thorn, 556 - Inkwood, 700 - Iowa crab, 454 - Iron oak, 223, 308 - Ironwood, 501, 502, 559, 595, 627, 696 - Ivy, 505 - - Jack oak, 319 - Jack pine, 69 - Jamaica dogwood, 526, 550 - Jeffrey pine, 75 - Jersey pine, 57 - Joewood, 701 - Joshua-tree, 693 - Judas tree, 548 - June berry, 451 - Juniper, 70, 91, 99, 109, 118, 706 - Juniper-bush, 91 - Juniper cedar, 99 - Juniper tree, 403 - - Kalmia, 505 - Kenai birch, 565, 585 - Kingnut, 369 - Kingstree, 51 - Knobcone pine, 704 - Knowlton hornbeam, 598 - K[oe]berlinia, 697 - - Lanceleaf alder, 592 - Lanceleaf cottonwood, 667, 670 - Lancewood, 657 - Larch, 79, 165 - Large buckeye, 649 - Largeleaf umbrella, 481, 483 - Large poplar, 675 - Largetooth aspen, 667, 675 - Laurel, 494, 505, 507, 529 - Laurel bay, 494 - Laurel cherry, 620 - Laurel-leaved magnolia, 494 - Laurel oak, 295, 319 - Laurel tree, 531 - Lea oak, 292 - Leatherleaf ash, 418 - Leatherwood, 400, 502 - Leucæna, 562 - Leverwood, 595 - Lignum-vitæ, 698 - Lilac, 698 - Limber pine, 19, 703 - Limber-twig pine, 703 - Linn, 637 - Liquid-amber, 325 - Little shagbark, 346 - Little sugar pine, 25 - Little walnut, 351 - Live oak, 253, 313 - Loblolly pine, 55 - Locust, 535 - Lodgepole pine, 73 - Logwood, 700 - Lombardy poplar, 682 - Longcone pine, 68 - Longleaf pine, 43 - Longleaf service, 452 - Longleaf willow, 496 - Longleaved pine, 63 - Longschat, 63 - Longshucks pine, 55 - Longstalk willow, 471 - Longstraw pine, 55 - Lovely fir, 165 - Lovely red fir, 165 - Lowland spruce pine, 51 - Low maple, 435 - Lyall willow, 496 - Lynn, 637 - - Mackenzie willow, 472 - Macnab cypress, 178 - Madrona, 661 - Magnificent fir, 164 - Magnolia, 494 - Mahogany, 463, 547 - Mahogany birch, 565 - Manchineel, 701 - Mangrove, 685 - Manzanita, 663 - Maple, 439 - Marlberry, 701 - Mastic, 696 - Maul oak, 308 - May cherry, 451 - May haw, 459 - Meadow pine, 45, 55 - Menzies' spruce, 133 - Mesquite, 559, 562 - Mexican cottonwood, 667, 669 - Mexican elder, 700 - Mexican madrona, 663 - Mexican mulberry, 514 - Mexican palmetto, 692 - Mexican persimmon, 517 - Mexican pinon, 19, 33, 704 - Mexican walnut, 351 - Mexican white pine, 19 - Michaux basswood, 639 - Mimosa, 562 - Minor species, 695 - Missouri willow, 473 - Mocker nut, 356, 363 - Mocker nut hickory, 363 - Mock olive, 620 - Mock orange, 511, 620 - Mohave yucca, 693 - Monterey cypress, 141 - Monterey pine, 69 - Moose elm, 391 - Moose maple, 435 - Morehus oak, 297 - Mountain alder, 592 - Mountain ash, 411, 454, 675 - Mountain balsam, 151, 166 - Mountain birch, 580 - Mountain cedar, 111 - Mountain elm, 399 - Mountain hemlock, 195 - Mountain holly, 645 - Mountain ivy, 505 - Mountain juniper, 99 - Mountain laurel, 505, 529 - Mountain mahogany, 199, 465 - Mountain manchineel, 697 - Mountain maple, 435, 441 - Mountain pine, 25 - Mountain spruce, 135 - Mountain white oak, 213 - Mulberry, 513 - Myrtleberry, 508 - Myrtle-tree, 529 - Myrtle oak, 297 - - Naked-wood, 698 - Narrowberry, 699 - Narrowcone pine, 704 - Narrowleaf cottonwood, 667, 669 - Narrowleaf crab, 453 - Narrowleaf willow, 496 - Native plum, 621 - Necklace poplar, 667 - Netleaf oak, 219 - Nettle-tree, 403 - New England boxwood, 523 - Newcastle thorn, 459 - New Mexican locust, 537 - New Mexican pinon, 28 - Noble fir, 157 - Nootka cypress, 121 - North American red spruce, 127 - North Carolina pine, 49 - North Carolina shagbark hickory, 376 - Northern cork elm, 385 - Northern spruce pine, 19 - Northern white cedar, 97 - Norway pine, 61 - Nutmeg hickory, 374 - Nutpine, 28, 33, 68, 704 - Nuttall willow, 472 - - Oak-barked cedar, 111 - Obispo pine, 69 - Ohio buckeye, 649, 651 - Old-field birch, 585 - Old-field pine, 49 - Old man's beard, 700 - Olivetree, 337 - One-berry, 403 - One-seed juniper, 99 - Opossum wood, 601 - Opuntias, 694 - Oregon ash, 421 - Oregon balsam, 166 - Oregon crabapple, 454 - Oregon fir, 163 - Oregon maple, 439 - Oregon oak, 235 - Oregon pine, 169 - Oregon white oak, 235 - Oreodaphne, 529 - Osage apple tree, 511 - Osage orange, 511 - Osier willow, 496 - Overcup oak, 217, 223 - - Pacific post oak, 235 - Pacific yew, 199 - Pale-leaf hickory, 345 - Palmer oak, 310 - Palms, 691 - Palmetto, 691 - Palo blanco, 406 - Palo verde, 556 - Paper birch, 565, 583 - Paper mulberry, 514 - Paradise-tree, 676 - Parry nut pine, 19, 704 - Parry pinon, 703 - Parry's spruce, 136 - Patton's spruce, 196 - Peach oak, 313 - Pea-flower locust, 535 - Peawood, 602 - Pear haw, 459 - Pear thorn, 459 - Pecan, 357, 373 - Pecan nut, 373 - Pecan tree, 373 - Persimmon, 517 - Pessimin, 517 - Pigeonberry, 452, 526 - Pigeon cherry, 619 - Pignut, 356, 361, 367 - Pignut hickory, 367 - Pig walnut, 361 - Pin cherry, 619 - Pine, 19 - Pink locust, 555 - Pin oak, 208, 247, 301 - Pinon, 19, 28 - Pinon pine, 28, 33 - Pin thorn, 459 - Pitch pine, 43, 45, 49, 63 - Planertree, 397 - Plane-tree, 607 - Plum, 621, 622 - Poison dogwood, 697 - Poison elder, 697 - Poison ivy, 505 - Poison laurel, 505 - Poison oak, 697 - Poison sumach, 697 - Poisontree, 697 - Poisonwood, 697, 701 - Pond apple, 640 - Pond cypress, 141 - Pond pine, 57 - Poorfield pine, 49 - Poor pine, 51 - Poplar, 487, 673 - Poplar-leaved birch, 585 - Popple, 487, 675 - Poppy ash, 424 - Possum haw, 646 - Possum oak, 320 - Possumwood, 517 - Port Orford cedar, 123 - Post cedar, 103, 109 - Post locust, 535 - Post oak, 223 - Poverty birch, 585 - Powcohiscora, 355 - Price oak, 315 - Pricklecone pine, 69, 704 - Prickly ash, 699 - Prickly pine, 52 - Prickly spruce, 136 - Prince's pine, 70 - Puget sound pine, 169 - Pumpkin ash, 423 - Pumpkin pine, 19 - Pumpkin-tree, 166 - Punk oak, 320 - Purple buckeye, 649, 652 - Purple dogwood, 526 - Purple haw, 700 - Pyramidal magnolia, 481, 496 - - Quaking asp, 675 - Quinine-tree, 699 - - Rattlebox, 601 - Red alder, 589 - Red ash, 423 - Redbark fir, 164 - Redbark pine, 75 - Red bay, 531 - Red-berried elder, 700 - Red birch, 577 - Red-bract dogwood, 526 - Redbud, 548 - Red cedar, 91, 109 - Red elm, 393, 399 - Red fir, 157, 164, 169 - Red gum, 325 - Red haw, 457, 459, 460 - Redheart hickory, 357 - Red hickory, 363 - Red ironwood, 700 - Red larch, 80 - Red locust, 535 - Red maple, 433 - Red mulberry, 513 - Red oak, 259, 265, 277, 280, 289 - Red pine, 61, 169 - Red plum, 621 - Red silver fir, 165 - Red spruce, 127 - Red thorn, 458 - Red titi, 502 - Red willow, 496 - Redwood, 181 - Retama, 549 - Rhododendron, 507 - River ash, 423 - River birch, 565, 577 - River cottonwood, 667 - Rock chestnut oak, 241 - Rock elm, 380, 385 - Rock maple, 427 - Rock oak, 241 - Rocky Mountain juniper, 124 - Rocky Mountain oak, 219, 226 - Rocky Mountain white pine, 703 - Rose bay, 507 - Rosemary pine, 49, 55 - Royal palm, 692 - Rum cherry, 603 - Rusty nannyberry, 700 - - Sadler oak, 220 - Saffron plum, 696 - Salad-tree, 548 - Sandbar willow, 496 - Sand jack, 286 - Sand pine, 46 - Sapwood pine, 75 - Sargent palm, 692 - Sarvice, 451 - Sassafac, 655 - Sassafas, 655 - Sassafrac, 655 - Sassafras, 655 - Satinleaf, 696 - Satin walnut, 325 - Satinwood, 699 - Savice, 451, 452 - Savin, 91 - Saxifrax, 655 - Scaly bark hickory, 357 - Scarlet haw, 457 - Scarlet maple, 433 - Scarlet oak, 277 - Schott cactus, 694 - Schott yucca, 693 - Screwbean, 562 - Screw-pod, 562 - Scrub oak, 220, 247, 283 - Scrub pine, 37, 57, 70 - Seaside alder, 592 - Second growth, 357 - Serviceberry, 451 - Service-tree, 451 - Shadberry, 451 - Shagbark hickory, 355, 357 - Shasta red fir, 165 - Shawneewood, 476 - She balsam, 151 - Sheepberry, 699, 700 - Sheepbush, 554 - Sheep laurel, 505 - Shellbark, 356, 357 - Shellbark hickory, 369 - Shingle cedar, 115 - Shingle oak, 301, 319 - Shin oak, 208, 286 - Shoepeg maple, 433 - Short-flower mahogany, 466 - Shortleaf pine, 49 - Shortleaved pine, 57 - Shortshat, 49 - Shrub willow, 496 - Sierra brownbark pine, 67 - Silktop palmetto, 692 - Silky willow, 472 - Silverbell tree, 601, 604 - Silver fir, 159, 163, 165 - Silverleaf willow, 471 - Silver-leaved maple, 429 - Silver maple, 429 - Silver pine, 145 - Silver spruce, 136, 145 - Silvertop palmetto, 692 - Singleleaf pinon, 19, 701 - Single spruce, 130 - Sir Joseph Banks' pine, 70 - Slash pine, 45, 49, 55 - Sitka alder, 592 - Sitka spruce, 133 - Skunk spruce, 130 - Slippery elm, 380, 391, 400 - Sloe, 699 - Small buckeye, 649, 652 - Small fruit mountain ash, 454 - Small-leaf elm, 399 - Small-leaf horsebean, 549 - Small laurel, 505 - Small pignut, 346 - Small pignut hickory, 346 - Small white birch, 585 - Smooth cypress, 142 - Smoothleaf willow, 471 - Snowdrop-tree, 601, 603 - Soapberry, 465 - Soap-tree, 465 - Soft maple, 429 - Soft pine, 19, 25 - Softwoods, 4 - Soledad pine, 64 - Sonora ironwood, 568 - Sophora, 555 - Sorrel-tree, 507 - Soulard crab, 454 - Sour gum, 337, 339, 507 - Sour gum bush, 507 - Sour tupelo, 339 - Sourwood, 507 - Southern basswood, 639 - Southern mountain pine, 52 - Southern red juniper, 94 - Southern red oak, 265 - Southern white cedar, 103 - Southern yellow pine, 43 - Spanish bayonet, 693 - Spanish dagger, 693 - Spanish moss, 256 - Spanish oak, 200, 277, 289 - Spanish red oak, 289 - Sparkleberry, 508 - Spice-tree, 529 - Spoon-hutch, 507 - Spoonwood, 505 - Springwood, 7 - Spotted oak, 266, 271, 320 - Spruce, 127, 169 - Spruce pine, 45, 49, 51, 57, 187 - Spruce-tree, 187 - Stackpole pine, 151 - Stagbush, 699 - Staghorn sumach, 697 - Star-leaved gum, 325 - Stave oak, 205 - Stiffness of wood, 11 - Sting-tongue, 699 - Stinking ash, 445 - Stinking buckeye, 651 - Stinking cedar, 201, 202 - Stinking savin, 202 - Strength of wood, 11 - Striped maple, 447 - Stone-seed Mexican pinon, 33 - Stump tree, 547 - Sugar ash, 445 - Sugarberry, 403, 405, 406 - Sugar maple, 427 - Sugar pine, 19, 31 - Sugar-tree, 427 - Sumach, 696 - Summer haw, 458 - Summerwood, 7 - Sunflower-tree, 700 - Sun-loving pine, 704 - Sunny-slope pine, 704 - Swamp ash, 416, 422 - Swamp bay, 531 - Swamp cedar, 103 - Swamp chestnut oak, 229 - Swamp cottonwood, 667, 669 - Swamp hickory, 361, 375 - Swamp holly, 646 - Swamp laurel, 495 - Swamp magnolia, 495 - Swamp maple, 429, 433 - Swamp oak, 225, 249, 301 - Swamp poplar, 669 - Swamp sassafras, 495 - Swamp Spanish oak, 301 - Swamp tupelo, 337 - Swamp white oak, 217, 229 - Swampy chestnut oak, 241 - Sweet bay, 531 - Sweet birch, 565, 580 - Sweet crab, 453 - Sweet gum, 325 - Sweet locust, 541 - Sweet magnolia, 481, 495 - Sweet scented crab, 453 - Switch-bud hickory, 367 - Sycamore, 397, 607 - - Table mountain pine, 52 - Tacamahac, 673 - Tamarack, 79, 86 - Tanbark oak, 241, 271 - Tassajo, 694 - Tear-blanket, 699 - Texan ebony, 538 - Texan red oak, 265 - Texas ash, 411 - Texas buckeye, 649 - Texas cottonwood, 667, 669 - Texas flowering willow, 477 - Texas redbud, 549 - Texas umbrella-tree, 465 - Thick shellbark, 369 - Thomas elm, 385 - Thorn apple, 459 - Thorn bush, 459 - Thorn locust, 541 - Thorn plum, 459 - Thorn-tree, 541 - Thorny acacia, 541 - Thorny locust, 541 - Three-leaved maple, 445 - Three-thorned acacia, 541 - Thunderwood, 697 - Thurber cactus, 694 - Tideland spruce, 133 - Tisswood, 602 - Titi, 502, 526 - Toothache-tree, 699 - Torch pine, 55 - Torchwood, 699 - Tornillo, 562 - Torrey pine, 64 - Tough bumelia, 696 - Tourney oak, 315 - Trask mahogany, 466 - Tree huckleberry, 508 - Tree myrtle, 698 - Tree palmetto, 691 - Tree yucca, 693 - Trident oak, 292 - Tuck-tuck, 157 - Tulip poplar, 487 - Tulip-tree, 487 - Tupelo, 337 - Turkey oak, 283, 286 - - Umbrella tree, 481, 484, 526 - Upland hickory, 357 - Upland willow, 285 - Utah juniper, 706 - - Valley mahogany, 466 - Valley oak, 249 - Valparaiso oak, 308 - Vauquelinia, 466 - Vine maple, 441 - Virgilia, 547 - Virginia pine, 55 - Virginia thorn, 460 - - Wadsworth oak, 225 - Wafer ash, 699 - Wahoo, 385, 399, 492, 499, 699 - Wahoo elm, 399 - Walnut, 343 - Walnut-tree, 343 - Washington haw, 460 - Washington palm, 693 - Washington pine, 193 - Washington thorn, 460 - Water ash, 422, 424, 445 - Water beech, 607 - Water birch, 577, 580 - Water bitternut, 375 - Water elm, 380 - Water hickory, 375 - Water maple, 429, 433, 435 - Water oak, 295, 319, 320 - Water Spanish oak, 301 - Water white oak, 217 - Weeping dogwood, 526 - Weeping oak, 249 - Weeping spruce, 136, 195 - Weeping willow, 472 - Western birch, 565, 579 - Western black willow, 496 - Western catalpa, 476 - Western cedar, 115, 118 - Western choke cherry, 616 - Western dogwood, 525 - Western hemlock, 193 - Western hemlock fir, 193 - Western hemlock spruce, 193 - Western juniper, 118 - Western larch, 85 - Western plum, 621 - Western red cedar, 115, 118, 706 - Western serviceberry, 452 - Western shellbark, 369 - Western spruce, 133 - Western sumach, 698 - Western walnut, 351 - Western white fir, 163 - Western white oak, 235 - Western white pine, 19, 25, 703 - Western yellow pine, 67 - Western yew, 199 - West Indian birch, 676 - West Indian cherry, 620 - Weymouth pine, 19 - Whiskey cherry, 613 - Whistlewood, 637 - White alder, 591 - White Alaska birch, 565, 579 - White ash, 409, 422, 700 - White balsam, 159, 166 - White bark, 37 - Whitebark maple, 436 - Whitebark pine, 19, 37 - White basswood, 639 - White bay, 495 - White birch, 565, 579, 585 - White buttonwood, 688 - White cedar, 97, 103, 109 - White cottonwood, 670 - White elm, 379, 385, 397 - Whiteheart hickory, 363 - White hickory, 357, 361, 367 - White fir, 159, 163, 166 - White ironwood, 700 - White laurel, 495 - Whiteleaf oak, 273 - White locust, 535 - White mangrove, 688 - White maple, 433, 439 - White mulberry, 514 - White oak, 205, 208, 213, 223, 235 - White pine, 19, 51, 703 - White poplar, 675, 682 - White spruce, 130, 135, 136 - White stem pine, 37 - White thorn, 459 - White titi, 502 - White walnut, 355, 357 - White willow, 472 - Whitewood, 487, 667, 701 - Wickup, 637 - Wild apple, 454 - Wild black cherry, 613 - Wild cherry, 613, 619 - Wild China, 465 - Wild cinnamon, 701 - Wild crab, 453 - Wild date, 693 - Wild lilac, 698 - Wild lime, 699 - Wild olive-tree, 337, 601 - Wild orange, 620 - Wild peach, 620 - Wild plum, 621 - Wild red cherry, 619 - Wild rose bay, 507 - Wild sapodilla, 696 - Wild tamarind, 568 - Wild thorn, 459 - Williamson's spruce, 195 - Willow, 469 - Willow-leaf cherry, 620 - Willow oak, 279, 295 - Wing elm, 399 - Witch elm, 399 - Witch hazel, 328 - Wood laurel, 505 - Woolly oak, 315 - - Yaupon, 645 - Yaupon holly, 645 - Yellow ash, 553 - Yellow bark oak, 271 - Yellow basswood, 637 - Yellow birch, 565, 571 - Yellow buckeye, 649 - Yellow buckthorn, 698 - Yellow-butt oak, 271 - Yellow cedar, 118, 121 - Yellow chestnut oak, 247 - Yellow cottonwood, 667 - Yellow cypress, 121 - Yellow fir, 163, 169 - Yellow-leaf willow, 471 - Yellow-flowered cucumber tree, 484 - Yellow locust, 535, 553 - Yellow oak, 247, 271 - Yellow pine, 43, 63 - Yellow plum, 621 - Yellow poplar, 481, 487 - Yellow spruce, 127 - Yellow-wood, 511, 553, 698, 699 - Yew, 199, 201 - Yucca, 693 - - - - -INDEX TO LATIN NAMES - - - Abies amabilis, 165 - Abies arizonica, 154 - Abies balsamea, 145 - Abies concolor, 159 - Abies fraseri, 151 - Abies grandis, 163 - Abies lasiocarpa, 166 - Abies magnifica, 164 - Abies nobilis, 79, 157 - Abies shastensis, 165 - Abies venusta, 171 - Acacia farnesiana, 543 - Acacia greggii, 544 - Acacia wrightii, 544 - Acer circinatum, 441 - Acer floridanum, 435 - Acer glabrum, 442, 446 - Acer leucoderme, 436 - Acer macrophyllum, 439 - Acer negundo, 445 - Acer negundo californicum, 447 - Acer nigrum, 447 - Acer pennsylvanicum, 447 - Acer rubrum, 433 - Acer rubrum drummondii, 436 - Acer saccharinum, 429 - Acer saccharum, 427 - Acer spicatum, 435 - Æsculus austrina, 652 - Æsculus californica, 651 - Æsculus glabra, 651 - Æsculus octandra, 649 - Æsculus octandra hybrida, 652 - Ailanthus glandulosa, 676 - Alnus acuminata,592 - Alnus glutinosa, 592 - Alnus maritima, 592 - Alnus oregona, 589 - Alnus rhombifolia, 591 - Alnus rugosa, 592 - Alnus sitchensis, 592 - Alnus tenuifolia, 596 - Amelanchier alnifolia, 452 - Amelanchier canadensis, 451 - Amelanchier obovalis, 452 - Amyris maritima, 699 - Andromeda ferruginea, 526 - Annona glabra, 640 - Aralia spinosa, 675 - Arbutus arizonica, 663 - Arbutus menziesii, 661 - Arbutus xalapensis, 663 - Arctostaphylos manzanita, 663 - Asimina triloba, 640 - Avicennia nitida, 688 - - Betula alaskana, 579 - Betula cærulea, 565, 585 - Betula fontinalis, 565, 580 - Betula kenaica, 565, 585 - Betula lenta, 565 - Betula lutea, 565, 571 - Betula nigra, 565, 577 - Betula occidentalis, 565, 579 - Betula papyrifera, 565, 583 - Betula pendula, 586 - Betula populifolia, 565, 585 - Broussonetia papyrifera, 514 - Bumelia angustifolia, 696 - Bumelia lanuginosa, 696 - Bumelia lycioides, 696 - Bumelia tenax, 696 - Bursera simaruba, 677 - - Camæcyparis lawsoniana, 123 - Camæcyparis nootkatensis, 121 - Camæcyparis thyoides, 103 - Canella winterana, 701 - Canotia holacantha, 699 - Carpinus caroliniana, 627 - Castanea dentata, 631 - Castanea pumila, 634 - Castanopsis chrysophylla, 633 - Catalpa catalpa, 475, 477 - Catalpa speciosa, 475 - Celastraceæ, 499 - Celtis mississippiensis, 403, 405 - Celtis occidentalis, 403 - Celtis reticulata, 406 - Cercidium floridum, 555 - Cercidium torreyanum, 556 - Cercis canadensis, 548 - Cercis occidentalis, 549 - Cercis reniformis, 549 - Cercocarpus ledifolius, 466 - Cercocarpus parvifolius, 466 - Cercocarpus parvifolius breviflorus, 466 - Cercocarpus traskiæ, 466 - Cereus giganteus, 693 - Cereus schottii, 694 - Cereus thurberi, 694 - Chilopsis linearis, 477 - Chionanthus virginica, 700 - Chrysobalanus icaco, 622 - Chrysophyllum monopyrenum, 696 - Cladrastis lutea, 553 - Cleanothus arboreus, 698 - Cleanothus thyrsiflorus, 698 - Cliftonia monophylla, 502 - Colubrina reclinata, 698 - Condalia obovata, 700 - Conocarpus erecta, 688 - Cornus alternifolia, 526 - Cornus florida, 523 - Cornus florida pendula, 526 - Cornus florida rubra, 526 - Cornus nuttallii, 525 - Cotinus cotinoides, 697 - Cratægus, 457 - Cratægus æstivalis, 458 - Cratægus brachyacantha, 459 - Cratægus coccinea, 457 - Cratægus cordata, 460 - Cratægus crus-galli, 459 - Cratægus douglasii, 460 - Cratægus oxyacantha, 460 - Cratægus tomentosa, 459 - Cupressus arizonica, 139, 142 - Cupressus glabra, 139, 142 - Cupressus goveniana, 139, 184 - Cupressus macnabiana, 139, 178 - Cupressus macrocarpa, 139, 141 - Cupressus pygmæa, 139, 184 - Cyrilla racemiflora, 501 - - Dalea spinosa, 556 - Dendropogon usenoides, 256 - Diospyros texana, 520 - Diospyros virginiana, 517 - Dipholis salicifolia, 696 - - Evonymus atropurpureus, 499 - Exothea paniculata, 700 - Eysenhardtia orthocarpa, 556 - - Fagus atropunicea, 625 - Fraxinus americana, 409 - Fraxinus anomala, 412 - Fraxinus berlandieriana, 418 - Fraxinus biltmoreana, 424 - Fraxinus caroliniana, 424 - Fraxinus cuspidata, 412 - Fraxinus floridana, 424 - Fraxinus greggii, 411 - Fraxinus lanceolata, 422 - Fraxinus nigra, 415 - Fraxinus oregona, 421 - Fraxinus pennsylvanica, 423 - Fraxinus profunda, 423 - Fraxinus quadrangulata, 417 - Fraxinus texensis, 411 - Fraxinus velutina, 418 - Fremontodendron californicum, 400 - - Gaultheria procumbens, 566 - Gleditsia aquatica, 543 - Gleditsia texana, 543 - Gleditsia triacanthos, 541 - Guajacum sanctum, 698 - Gyminda grisebachii, 490 - Gymnanthes lucida, 701 - Gymnocladus dioicus, 547 - - Hamamelis virginiana, 328 - Helietta parvifolia, 699 - Heteromeles arbutifolia, 645 - Hicoria alba, 356, 363, 364 - Hicoria aquatica, 375 - Hicoria carolinæ-septentrionalis, 376 - Hicoria glabra, 356, 361, 364, 367 - Hicoria laciniosa, 369 - Hicoria minima, 361, 364 - Hicoria myristicæformis, 374 - Hicoria odorata, 346 - Hicoria ovata, 355, 356 - Hicoria texana, 375 - Hicoria villosa, 345 - Hippomane mancinella, 701 - Hypelate trifoliata, 700 - - Icacorea paniculata, 701 - Ichthyomethia piscipula, 550 - Ilex cassine, 645 - Ilex cassine angustifolia, 645 - Ilex decidua, 646 - Ilex monticola, 645 - Ilex myrtifolia, 645 - Ilex opaca, 643 - Ilex vomitoria, 645 - - Jaquinia armillaris, 701 - Juglans californica, 351 - Juglans cinerea, 359 - Juglans nigra, 243 - Juglans rupestris, 351 - Juniperus barbadensis, 94 - Juniperus californica, 112 - Juniperus communis, 705 - Juniperus flaccida, 705 - Juniperus monosperma, 99 - Juniperus occidentalis, 118 - Juniperus pachyphl[oe]a, 111 - Juniperus sabinoides, 99 - Juniperus scopulorum, 124 - Juniperus utahensis, 706 - Juniperus virginiana, 91 - - Kalmia latifolia, 505, 655 - Khaya senegalensis, 463 - K[oe]berlinia spinosa, 695 - - Laguncularia racemosa, 688 - Larix americana, 80 - Larix laricina, 79 - Larix lyallii, 88 - Larix occidentalis, 85 - Leitneria floridana, 423 - Leucæna glauca, 562 - Leucæna pulverulenta, 562 - Libocedrus decurrens, 109 - Liquidambar styraciflua, 325 - Liriodendron tulipifera, 481 - Lysiloma latisiliqua, 568 - - Magnolia acuminata, 481 - Magnolia acuminata cordata, 484 - Magnolia f[oe]tida, 481, 493 - Magnolia fraseri, 481 - Magnolia glauca, 481, 495 - Magnolia macrophylla, 481, 483 - Magnolia pyramidata, 481, 496 - Magnolia tripetala, 481, 484 - Malus angustifolia, 453 - Malus coronaria, 453 - Malus ioensis, 454 - Malus malus, 454 - Malus rivularis, 454 - Malus soulardi, 454 - Meliaceæ, 463 - Melia azedarach, 464 - Melia azedarach umbraculifera, 165 - Mimusops sieberi, 696 - Mohrodendron carolinum, 601 - Mohrodendron dipterum, 601 - Morus alba, 514 - Morus celtidifolia, 514 - Morus rubra, 513 - - Neowashingtonia filamentosa, 693 - Nyssa aquatica, 337 - Nyssa biflora, 340 - Nyssa ogeche, 337, 339 - Nyssa sylvatica, 337 - - Ocotea catesbyana, 657 - Olneya tesota, 568 - Opuntia fulgida, 694 - Opuntia sponsior, 694 - Opuntia versicolor, 694 - Oreodoxa regia, 692 - Osmanthus americanus, 700 - Ostrya knowltoni, 598 - Ostrya virginiana, 595 - Oxydendrum arboreum, 507 - - Persea borbonia, 531 - Persea pubescens, 532 - Picea breweriana, 136 - Picea canadensis, 130 - Picea engelmanni, 135 - Picea mariana, 129 - Picea parryana, 136 - Picea rubens, 127 - Picea sitchensis, 133 - Pinus albicaulis, 19, 37 - Pinus aristata, 19, 38, 43 - Pinus arizonica, 43, 705 - Pinus attenuata, 704 - Pinus balfouriana, 19, 38 - Pinus cembroides, 19, 33 - Pinus chihuahuana, 43, 76 - Pinus clausa, 43, 46 - Pinus contorta, 43, 73 - Pinus coulteri, 43, 68 - Pinus divaricata, 43, 69 - Pinus echinata, 43, 49 - Pinus edulis, 19, 28 - Pinus flexilis, 19, 703 - Pinus glabra, 43, 51 - Pinus heterophylla, 43, 45 - Pinus jeffreyi, 75 - Pinus lambertiana, 19, 25, 31 - Pinus monophylla, 19, 701 - Pinus monticola, 19, 25 - Pinus muricata, 43, 69 - Pinus palustris, 43 - Pinus ponderosa, 43, 67 - Pinus pungens, 43, 52 - Pinus quadrifolia, 19, 704 - Pinus radiata, 43, 69 - Pinus resinosa, 43, 61 - Pinus rigida, 43, 63 - Pinus sabiniana, 43, 75 - Pinus serotina, 43, 57 - Pinus strobiformis, 19, 27 - Pinus strobus, 19, 25 - Pinus tæda, 43, 55 - Pinus torreyana, 43, 64 - Pinus virginiana, 43, 57 - Planera aquatica, 397 - Platanus occidentalis, 607 - Platanus racemosa, 609 - Platanus wrightii, 610 - Populus acuminata, 667, 670 - Populus alba, 682 - Populus angustifolia, 667, 669 - Populus balsamifera, 667, 673 - Populus balsamifera candicans, 673 - Populus deltoides, 667 - Populus fremontii, 667, 670 - Populus grandidentata, 667, 675 - Populus heterophylla, 667, 669 - Populus mexicana, 667, 669 - Populus nigra, 681 - Populus nigra italica, 682 - Populus tremuloides, 667, 676 - Populus trichocarpa, 667, 669 - Populus wislizeni, 667, 669 - Parkinsonia aculeata, 549 - Parkinsonia microphylla, 549 - Prosopis juliflora, 559 - Prosopis juliflora glandulosa, 562 - Prosopis juliflora velutina, 562 - Prosopis odorata, 562 - Prunus allegheniensis, 622 - Prunus americana, 621 - Prunus angustifolia, 622 - Prunus caroliniana, 620 - Prunus demissa, 616 - Prunus emarginata, 616 - Prunus hortulana, 622 - Prunus ilicifolia, 616 - Prunus nigra, 621 - Prunus pennsylvanica, 619 - Prunus salicifolia, 620 - Prunus serotina, 613 - Prunus sphærocarpa, 620 - Prunus subcordata, 621 - Prunus umbellata, 621 - Prunus virginiana, 615 - Pseudoph[oe]nix sargentii, 692 - Pseudotsuga macrocarpa, 172 - Pseudotsuga taxifolia, 169 - Ptelea trifoliata, 699 - Pyrus americana, 454 - Pyrus microcarpa, 454 - - Quercus acuminata, 247 - Quercus agrifolia, 307 - Quercus alba, 205 - Quercus alvordiana, 220 - Quercus arizonica, 205, 218 - Quercus brevifolia, 285 - Quercus breviloba, 208 - Quercus breweri, 205, 220 - Quercus californica, 285 - Quercus catesbæi, 259, 283 - Quercus chapmani, 208 - Quercus chrysolepis, 308 - Quercus chrysolepis palmeri, 301 - Quercus chrysolepis vaccinifolia, 309 - Quercus coccinea, 277 - Quercus densiflora, 313 - Quercus digitata, 259, 289 - Quercus douglasii, 213 - Quercus dumosa, 205, 237 - Quercus emoryi, 205, 238 - Quercus engelmanni, 205, 231 - Quercus gambelii, 205, 214 - Quercus garryana, 205, 235 - Quercus georgiana, 259, 267 - Quercus heterophylla, 322 - Quercus hypoleuca, 259, 273 - Quercus imbricaria, 259, 319 - Quercus laurifolia, 259, 319 - Quercus leana, 292 - Quercus lobata, 205, 249 - Quercus lyrata, 205, 217 - Quercus macrocarpa, 205, 211 - Quercus marilandica, 259, 291 - Quercus michauxii, 205, 229 - Quercus minor, 223, 241 - Quercus morehus, 259, 297 - Quercus myrtifolia, 259, 297 - Quercus nigra, 259, 320 - Quercus oblongifolia, 205, 226 - Quercus palustris, 259, 301 - Quercus phellos, 259, 279 - Quercus platanoides, 205, 225 - Quercus pricei, 259, 315 - Quercus prinoides, 205 - Quercus prinus, 205, 241 - Quercus pumila, 259, 315 - Quercus reticulata, 205, 219 - Quercus rubra, 259 - Quercus sadleri, 205, 220 - Quercus texana, 259, 265 - Quercus tomentella, 315 - Quercus toumeyi, 205, 315 - Quercus tridentata, 292 - Quercus undulata, 205, 219 - Quercus velutina, 259, 271 - Quercus virginiana, 205, 253 - Quercus wislizeni, 259, 296 - - Reynosia latifolia, 700 - Rhamnidium ferreum, 700 - Rhamnus caroliniana, 698 - Rhamnus crocea, 698 - Rhamnus purshiana, 698 - Rhizophora mangle, 685 - Rhododendron catawbiense, 507 - Rhododendron maximum, 506 - Rhus copallina, 696 - Rhus hirta, 697 - Rhus integrifolia, 698 - Rhus metopium, 697 - Rhus vernix, 697 - Robinia neo-mexicana, 537 - Robinia pseudacacia, 535 - Robinia viscosa, 537 - - Sabal mexicana, 692 - Sabal palmetto, 691 - Salix alba, 472 - Salix amplifolia, 472 - Salix amygdaloides, 471 - Salix babylonica, 472 - Salix bebbiana, 471 - Salix cordata mackenzieana, 472 - Salix discolor, 472 - Salix fluviatilis, 496 - Salix hookeriana, 472 - Salix lævigata, 471 - Salix lasiandra, 496 - Salix lasiandra lyalli, 496 - Salix lasiolepis, 472 - Salix longipes, 471 - Salix lucida, 496 - Salix missouriensis, 472 - Salix nigra, 496 - Salix nuttallii, 472 - Salix sessilifolia, 471 - Salix sitchensis, 472 - Salix taxifolia, 471 - Sambucus callicarpa, 700 - Sambucus glauca, 700 - Sambucus mexicana, 700 - Sapindus drummondi, 465 - Sapindus marginatus, 465 - Sapindus saponaria, 465 - Sassafras sassafras, 655 - Schæfferia frutescens, 501 - Sequoia sempervirens, 181 - Sequoia washingtoniana, 175 - Sideroxylon mastichodendron, 692 - Simarouba glauca, 676 - Sophora affinis, 555 - Sophora secundiflora, 554 - Swietenia mahagoni, 463 - - Taxodium distichum, 139 - Taxodium imbricarium, 139, 141 - Taxus brevifolia, 199 - Taxus floridana, 201 - Terminalia buceras, 688 - Thrinax microcarpa, 692 - Thrinax parviflora, 692 - Thuja occidentalis, 97 - Thuja plicata, 115 - Tilia americana, 637 - Tilia australis, 639 - Tilia floridana, 639 - Tilia heterophylla, 637, 639 - Tilia michauxii, 639 - Tilia pubescens, 639 - Toxylon pomiferum, 511 - Tsuga canadensis, 187 - Tsuga caroliniana, 187, 703 - Tsuga heterophylla, 187, 193 - Tsuga mertensiana, 187, 195 - Tumion californicum, 201 - Tumion taxifolium, 202 - - Ulmus alata, 379, 399 - Ulmus americana, 379 - Ulmus crassifolia, 379, 392 - Ulmus pubescens, 379, 391 - Ulmus racemosa, 379, 385 - Ulmus serotina, 379, 393 - Umbellularia californica, 529, 655 - - Vaccinium arboreum, 508 - Vauquelinia californica, 466 - Viburnum lentago, 700 - Viburnum prunifolium, 699 - Viburnum rufotomentosum, 700 - - Xanthoxylum clava-herculis, 699 - Xanthoxylum cribrosum, 699 - Xanthoxylum fagara, 699 - - Yucca aloifolia, 693 - Yucca arborescens, 693 - Yucca brevifolia, 693 - Yucca gloriosa, 693 - Yucca macrocarpa, 693 - Yucca mohavensis, 693 - Yucca treculeana, 693 - - Zygia brevifolia, 538 - Zygia flexicaulis, 538 - Zygia unguis-cati, 538 - - - - - * * * * * * - - - - -Transcriber’s note: - -This text follows the text of the original publication; inconsistent -hyphenation, spacing, capitalisation, punctuation etc. have been -retained except as mentioned below. - -Non-English words have not been corrected, except as mentioned below. - -Some entries in the indexes have been moved to their proper alphabetical -order. - -Remarks on the text: - -Page 111, Juniperus pachyphlæa/pachyphl[oe]a: both spellings seem to be -used, the original gives pachyphl[oe]a; this has been retained. - -Page 187: ... in England it is called ... should possibly read ... in -New England it is called .... - -Page 423: New Madrid country: should possibly read New Madrid County. - -Page 433: ... and the random of their flight ...: probably there is a -word missing from this sentence. - -Page 627: ... and more than that much more by manufacturers of ... -should possibly read ... and much more than that by manufacturers of -.... - -Changes made: - -The pages with photographs of the Tamarack and the Western Larch have -been interchanged. - -Some obvious punctuation errors and missing punctuation have been -corrected silently. - -Page 7: Spring and summerwood changed to Spring- and summerwood - -Page 13: possess then changed to possess them - -Page 32: wastful changed to wasteful - -Page 63: Norway pine has past changed to Norway pine has passed - -Page 91: oldfield changed to old-field - -Page 104: Gottleib Mittelberger changed to Gottlieb Mittelberger - -Page 105: stagnant logoons changed to stagnant lagoons - -Page 111: separating into forkes changed to separating into forks - -Page 118: juniper, cedar changed to juniper cedar - -Page 124: interoir changed to interior - -Page 128: careful culling changed to careful cutting - -Page 130: Eruope changed to Europe - -Page 139: pygmaea changed to pygmæa as elsewhere; ninty-nine changed to -ninety-nine - -Page 146: are quit distinct changed to are quite distinct - -Page 171: Cupressus macrocorpa changed to Cupressus macrocarpa - -Page 188: which carriers on changed to which carries on - -Page 248: Guadaloupe river changed to Guadalupe river - -Page 255: lignum-vitae changed to lignum-vitæ - -Page 273: sappling changed to sapling - -Page 289: anyone changed to any one - -Page 301: pubescense changed to pubescence - -Page 325: liquid-amber, gum changed to liquid-amber gum - -Page 363: hogshead changed to hogsheads - -Page 364: ferquently changed to frequently; Sargents' changed to -Sargent's - -Page 385: the woods toughness changed to the wood's toughness - -Page 399: Vriginians changed to Virginians - -Page 403: new Jersey name changed to New Jersey name - -Page 404: doubltess changed to doubtless - -Page 410: traveller changed to traveler as elsewhere - -Page 412: drawing rotated 90° - -Page 415: in other woods changed to in other words - -Page 422: concensus changed to consensus - -Page 429: sinuouses changed to sinuses; unkept, neglected appearance -changed to unkempt, neglected appearance - -Page 433: New York Indianas changed to New York Indians - -Page 436: drawing rotated 90° - -Page 463: Swientenia changed to Swietenia - -Page 465: Soapbeery changed to Soapberry - -Page 475: Abbe Bignon changed to Abbé Bignon - -Page 502: Domenico Civillo changed to Domenoci Cirillo - -Page 518: specie changed to species - -Page 529: pugent changed to pungent - -Page 537: as for north changed to as far north - -Page 544: clowded changed to clouded - -Page 555: mammels changed to mammals - -Page 566: Gualtheria procumbens changed to Gaultheria procumbens - -Page 573: manufactures changed to manufacturers - -Page 580: Betula fontanalis changed to Betula fontinalis - -Page 589: raddish changed to radish - -Page 592: aborescent changed to arborescent - -Page 595: Trintiy river changed to Trinity river - -Page 619: it a prolific seeder changed to it is a prolific seeder - -Page 622: Chikasaw Plum changed to Chickasaw Plum - -Page 633: course-grained changed to coarse-grained - -Page 656: losses its name changed to loses its name - -Page 675: Simaruba glauca changed to Simarouba glauca - -Page 693: Mahave desert changed to Mohave desert - -Page 694: opunitas changed to opuntias. - -In the indexes the folowing changes have been made so that the indexes -use the same spelling as the text: - -Page i: Alligator-wood to Alligator wood, Bay-tree to Bay tree - -Page ii: California bay-tree to California bay tree, Calico-bush to -Calico bush - -Page iii: Cucumber-tree to Cucumber tree - -Page iv: Glaucus willow to Glaucous willow, Holly-leaf cherry to -Hollyleaf cherry, Forked-leaf blackjack to Forked-leaf black jack - -Page v: Juneberry to June berry, Kingtree to Kingstree, Longchat to -Longschat, Judas-tree to Judas tree, Juniper-tree to Juniper tree, -Liquidamber to Liquid-amber - -Page vi: Oldfield to Old-field (2x), Nakedwood to Naked-wood, Osage -appletree to Osage apple tree - -Page vii: Scalybark hickory to Scaly bark hickory, Single-leaf pinon to -Signleleaf pinon, Smooth-leaf willow to Smoothleaf willow - -Page ix: Wild china to Wild China - -Page x: cucumber-tree to cucumber tree - -Page xi: Andromida ferruginea to Andromeda ferruginea, Cledrastris lutea -to Cladrastris lutea, Columbrina reclinata to Colubrina reclinata, -Candalia obovata to Condalia obovata, Canotia holocantha to Canotia -holacantha, Acer leucoderma to Acer leucoderme, Bumelia lycoides to -Bumelia lycioides, Alnus tennuifolia to Alnus tenuifolia - -Page xii: Juglans cinera to Juglans cinerea, Delea spinosa to Dalea -spinosa, Cratægus oxacantha to Cratægus oxyacantha - -Page xiii: Pinus jefferi to Pinus jeffreyi, Neowashingtoniana -filamentosa to Neowashingtonia filamentosa, Oxydendron arboreum to -Oxydendrum arboreum - -Page xiv: Tilia amerciana to Tilia americana, Robinia neomexicana to -Robinia neo-mexicana, Salix sessifolia to Salix sessilifolia. - - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN FOREST TREES*** - - -******* This file should be named 42124-8.txt or 42124-8.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/2/1/2/42124 - 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Gibson</p> -<p>Editor: Hu Maxwell</p> -<p>Release Date: February 18, 2013 [eBook #42124]</p> -<p>Language: English</p> -<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p> -<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN FOREST TREES***</p> <p> </p> -<h4 class="center">E-text prepared by Greg Bergquist, Harry Lamé,<br /> - and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> - (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br /> - from page images generously made available by<br /> - Internet Archive/American Libraries<br /> - (<a href="http://archive.org/details/americana">http://archive.org/details/americana</a>)</h4> <p> </p> <table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10"> <tr> @@ -25448,360 +25431,6 @@ Robinia neo-mexicana, Salix sessifolia to Salix sessilifolia.</p> <p> </p> <p> </p> -<hr class="full" /> -<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN FOREST TREES***</p> -<p>******* This file should be named 42124-h.txt or 42124-h.zip *******</p> -<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> -<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/2/1/2/42124">http://www.gutenberg.org/4/2/1/2/42124</a></p> -<p> -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed.</p> - -<p> -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - - - - -Title: American Forest Trees - - -Author: Henry H. Gibson - -Editor: Hu Maxwell - -Release Date: February 18, 2013 [eBook #42124] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN FOREST TREES*** - - -E-text prepared by Greg Bergquist, Harry Lamé, and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made -available by Internet Archive/American Libraries -(http://archive.org/details/americana) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original illustrations. - See 42124-h.htm or 42124-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42124/42124-h/42124-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42124/42124-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive/American Libraries. See - http://archive.org/details/americanforestt00gibs - - -Transcriber's note: - - Text printed in italics in the original work are represented - here between underscores, as in _text_. - - Small capitals have been converted to ALL CAPITALS. - - More Transcriber's notes may be found at the end of this text. - - - - - -[Illustration: HENRY H. GIBSON] - - -AMERICAN FOREST TREES - -by - -HENRY H. GIBSON - -Edited by Hu Maxwell - - - - - - - -Hardwood Record -Chicago -1913 - -Copyright 1913 by -Hardwood Record -Chicago, Ill. - -The Regan Printing House -Chicago. - - - - -PREFACE - - -The material on which this volume is based, appeared in Hardwood Record, -Chicago, in a series of articles beginning in 1905 and ending in 1913, -and descriptive of the forest trees of this country. More than one -hundred leading species were included in the series. They constitute the -principal sources of lumber for the United States. The present volume -includes all the species described in the series of articles, with a -large number of less important trees added. Every region of the country -is represented; no valuable tree is omitted, and the lists and -descriptions are as complete as they can be made in the limited space of -a single volume. The purpose held steadily in view has been to make the -work practical, simple, plain, and to the point. Trees as they grow in -the forest, and wood as it appears at the mill and factory, are -described and discussed. Photographs and drawings of trunk and foliage -are made to tell as much of the story as possible. The pictures used as -illustrations are nearly all from photographs made specially for that -purpose. They are a valuable contribution to tree knowledge, because -they show forest forms and conditions, and are as true to nature as the -camera can make them. Statistics are not given a place in these pages, -for it is no part of the plan to show the product and the output of the -country's mills and forests, but rather to describe the source of those -products, the trees themselves. However, suggestions for utilization are -offered, and the fitness of the various woods for many uses is -particularly indicated. The prominent physical properties are described -in language as free as possible from technical terms, and yet with -painstaking accuracy and clearness. Descriptions intended to aid in -identification of trees are given; but simplicity and clearness are held -constantly in view, and brevity is carefully studied. The different -names of commercial trees in the various localities where they are -known, either as standing timber or as lumber in the yard and factory, -are included in the descriptions as an assistance in identification. The -natural range of the forest trees, and the regions where they abound in -commercial quantities, are outlined according to the latest and best -authorities. Estimates of present and future supply are offered, where -such exist that seem to be authoritative. The trees are given the common -and the botanical names recognized as official by the United States -Forest Service. This lessens misunderstanding and confusion in the -discussion of species whose common names are not the same in different -regions, and whose botanical names are not agreed upon among scientific -men who mention or describe them. The forests of the United States -contain more than five hundred kinds of trees, ranging in size from the -California sequoias, which attain diameters of twenty feet or more and -heights exceeding two hundred, down to indefinite but very small -dimensions. The separating line between trees and shrubs is not -determined by size alone. In a general way, shrubs may be considered -smaller than trees, but a seedling tree, no matter how small, is not -properly called a shrub. It is customary, not only among botanists, but -also among persons who do not usually recognize exact scientific terms -and distinctions, to apply the name tree to all woody plants which -produce naturally in their native habitat one main, erect stem, bearing -a definite crown, no matter what size they may attain. - -The commercial timbers of this country are divided into two classes, -hardwoods and softwoods. The division is for convenience, and is -sanctioned by custom, but it is not based on the actual hardness and -softness of the different woods. The division has, however, a scientific -basis founded on the mechanical structures of the two classes of woods, -and there is little disagreement among either those who use forest -products or manufacture them, or those who investigate the actual -structure of the woods themselves, as to which belong in the hardwood -and which in the softwood class. - -_Softwoods_--The needleleaf species, represented by pines, hemlocks, -firs, cedars, cypresses, spruces, larches, sequoias, and yews, are -softwoods. The classification of evergreens as softwoods is erroneous, -because all softwoods are not evergreen, and all evergreens are not -softwoods. Larches and the southern cypress shed their leaves yearly. -Most other softwoods drop only a portion of their foliage each season, -and enough is always on the branches to make them evergreen. Softwoods -are commonly called conebearers, and that description fits most of them, -but the cedars and yews produce fruit resembling berries rather than -cones. Though the needleleaf species are classed as softwoods, there is -much variation in the absolute hardness of the wood produced by -different species. The white pines are soft, the yews hard, and the -other species range between. If there were no other means of separating -trees into classes than tests of actual hardness of wood, the line -dividing hardwoods from softwoods might be quite different from that now -so universally recognized in this country. - -_Hardwoods_--The broadleaf trees are hardwoods. Most, but not all, shed -their foliage yearly. It is, therefore, incorrect to classify deciduous -trees as hardwoods, since it is not true in all cases, any more than it -is true that softwoods are evergreen. Live oaks and American holly are -evergreen, and yet are true hardwoods. In a test of hardness they stand -near the top of the list. - -There are more species of hardwoods than of softwoods in this country; -but the actual quantity of softwood timber in the forests greatly -exceeds the hardwoods. Nearly two hundred species of the latter are -seldom or never seen in a sawmill, while softwoods are generally cut and -used wherever found in accessible situations. - -As in the case of needleleaf trees, there is much variation in actual -hardness of the wood of different broadleaf species. Some which are -classed as hardwoods are softer than some in the softwood list. It is -apparent, therefore, that the terms hardwood and softwood are commercial -rather than scientific. - -Palm, cactus, and other trees of that class are not often employed as -lumber, and it is not customary to speak of them as either hardwoods or -softwoods. - -_Sapwood and Heartwood_--Practically all mature trees contain two -qualities of wood known as sap and heart. The inner portion is the -heartwood, the outer the sap. They are usually distinguished by -differences of color. - -The terms are much used in lumber transactions and are well understood -by the trade. The two kinds of wood need be described only in the most -general way, and for the guidance and information of those who are not -familiar with them. Differences are many and radical in the relative -size and appearance of the two kinds of wood in different species, and -even between different trees of the same species. No general law is -followed, except that the heartwood forms in the interior of the tree, -and the sapwood in a band outside, next to the bark. In the majority of -cases young trees have little heartwood, often none. It is a development -attendant on age, yet age does not always produce it. Some mature trees -have no heartwood, others very little. - -The two kinds of wood belong to needleleaf and broadleaf trees alike; -but palms, owing to their manner of growth, have neither. Their size -increases in height rather than in diameter. With palms, the oldest wood -is in the base of the trunk, the newest in the top; but in the ordinary -timber tree the oldest wood is in the center of the trunk, the youngest -in the outside layers next the bark. It is the oldest that becomes -heartwood, and it is, of course, in the center of the tree. The band of -sapwood is of no certain thickness, but averages much thicker in some -species than in others. The sapwood of Osage orange is scarcely half an -inch thick, and in loblolly pine it may be six inches or more. - -Heartwood is known by its color. The eye can detect no other difference -between it and the surrounding band of sapwood. There is no fundamental -difference. The heart was once sapwood, and the latter will sometime -become heartwood if the tree lives long enough. As the trunk increases -in size and years, the wood near the heart dies. It no longer has much -to do with the life of the tree, except that it helps support the weight -of the trunk. The heartwood is, therefore, deadwood. The activities of -tree life are no longer present. The color changes, because mineral and -chemical substances are deposited in the wood and fill many of the -cavities. That process begins at the center of the trunk and works -outward year by year, forming a pretty distinct line between the living -sapwood and the dead and inert heartwood. - -For some reason, the heartwood of certain species is prone to decay. -Sycamore is the best example. The largest trunks are generally hollow. -The heart has disappeared, leaving only the thin shell of sapwood, and -this is required not only to maintain the tree's life and activities, -but to support the trunk's weight. In most instances the substances -deposited in the heartwood, and associated with the coloring matter, -tend to preserve the wood from decay. For that reason heart timber lasts -longer than sap when exposed in damp situations. The dark and variegated -shades of the heartwood of some species give them their chief value as -cabinet and furniture material. The sapwood of black walnut is not -wanted by anybody, for it is light in color and is characterless; but -when the sap has changed to heart, and its tones have been deepened by -the accumulation of pigments, it becomes a choice material for certain -purposes. The same is true of many other timbers, notably sweet and -yellow birch, black cherry, and several of the oaks. - -It sometimes happens that when sapwood is transformed into heart, a -physical change, as well as a coloring process, affects it. Persimmon -and dogwood are examples, and hickory in a less degree. The sapwood of -persimmon and dogwood makes shuttles and golf heads, but after the -change to heartwood occurs, it is considered unsuitable. Handle makers -and the manufacturers of buggy spokes prefer hickory sapwood, but use -the red heartwood if it is the same weight as the sap. - -_Annual Rings_--The trunks of both hardwoods and softwoods are made up -of concentric rings. In most instances the eye easily detects them. They -are more distinct in a freshly cut trunk than in weathered wood, though -in a few instances weathering accentuates rather than obliterates them. -A count of the rings gives the tree's age in years, each ring being the -growth of one year. An occasional exception should be noted, as when -accident checks the tree's growth in the middle of the season, and the -growth is later resumed. In that case, it may develop two rings in one -year. A severe frost late in spring after leaves have started may -produce that result; or defoliation by caterpillars in early summer may -do it. Perhaps not one tree in a thousand has that experience in the -course of its whole life. Trees in the tropics where seasons are nearly -the same the year through, seldom have rings. Imitations of mahogany are -sometimes detected by noting clearly marked annual rings. It is -difficult for the woodfinisher to obliterate the annual rings, but some -of the French woodworkers very nearly accomplish it. - -No law of growth governs the width of yearly rings, but circumstances -have much to do with it. When the tree's increase in size is rapid, -rings are broad. An uncrowded tree in good soil and climate grows much -faster than if circumstances are adverse. Carolina poplar and black -willow sometimes have rings nearly three-fourths of an inch broad, while -in the white bark pine, which grows above the snow line in California, -the rings may be so narrow as to be invisible to the naked eye. - -There is no average width of yearly rings and no average age of trees. A -few (very few) of the sequoias, or "big trees" of California, are two -thousand years old. An age of six or seven centuries appears to be about -the limit of the oldest of the other species in this country, though an -authentic statement to that effect cannot be made. There are species -whose life average scarcely exceeds that of men. The aspen generally -falls before it is eighty; and fire cherry scarcely averages half of -that. Of all the trees cut for lumber, perhaps not one in a hundred has -passed the three century mark. That ratio would not hold if applied to -the Pacific coast alone. - -_Spring and Summerwood_--These are not usual terms with lumbermen and -woodworkers, but belong more to the engineer who thinks of physical -properties of timber, particularly its strength. Yet, sawmill and -factory men are well acquainted with the two kinds of wood, but they are -likely to apply the term "grain" to the combination of the two. - -Spring and summerwood make the annual ring. Springwood grows early in -the season, summerwood later. In fact, it usually is the contrast in -color where the summerwood of one season abuts against the springwood of -the next which makes the ring visible. The inside of the ring--that -portion nearest the heart of the tree--is the springwood, the rest of -the ring is the summerwood. The former is generally lighter in color. -Sometimes, and with certain species, the springwood is much broader than -the other. The summerwood may be a very narrow band, not much wider than -a fine pencil mark, but its deeper color makes it quite distinct in most -instances. In other instances, as with some of the oaks, the summerwood -is the wider part of the annual ring. The figure or "grain" of southern -yellow pine is largely due to the contrast between the dark summerwood -and light springwood of the rings. The same is true of ash, chestnut, -and of many other woods. - -_Pores_--Wood is not the solid substance it seems to be when seen in the -mass. If magnified it appears filled with cavities, not unlike a piece -of coral or honeycomb; but to the unaided eye only a few of the largest -openings are visible, and in some woods like maple, none can be seen. -The large openings are known as pores. They are so prominent in some of -the oaks that in a clean cut end or cross section they look like pin -holes. Very little magnifying is required to bring them out distinctly. -A good reading glass is sufficient. - -Pores belong to hardwoods only. The resin ducts in some softwoods -present a similar appearance, but are far less numerous. All pores are, -of course, situated in the annual rings, but in different species they -are differently located as to spring and summerwood. In some woods the -largest pores are in the springwood only and therefore run in rings. -Such woods are called "ring porous," and the oaks are best examples. In -other species the pores are scattered through all parts of the ring in -about the same proportion, and such woods are called "diffuse porous," -as the birches. Softwoods have no pores proper, and are classed -"non-porous." - -_Medullary Rays_--A smoothly-cut cross section of almost any oak, but -particularly white oak and red oak, exhibits to the unaided eye narrow, -light-colored lines radiating from the center of the tree toward the -bark like spokes of a wheel. They are about the breadth of a fine pencil -mark, and are generally a sixth of an inch or less apart. They are among -the most conspicuous and characteristic features of oak wood, and are -known as medullary or pith rays. - -Oak is cited as an example because the rays are large and prominent, but -they are present in all wood, and constitute a large part of its body. -They vary greatly in size. In some woods a few are visible unmagnified; -but even in oak a hundred are invisible to the naked eye to one that can -be seen. Some species show none until a glass is used. Some pines have -fifteen thousand to a square inch of cross section, all of which are so -small as to elude successfully the closest search of the unaided eye. - -The medullary rays influence the appearance of most wood. They determine -its character. Oak is quarter-sawed for the purpose of bringing out the -bright, flat surfaces of these rays. The prominent flecks, streaks, and -patches of silvery wood are the flat sides of medullary rays. In cross -section, only the line-like ends are seen, but quarter-sawing exposes -their sides to view. - -That explains in part why some species are adapted to quarter-sawing and -others are not. If no broad rays exist in the wood, as with white pine, -red cedar, and cottonwood, quarter-sawing cannot add much to the wood's -appearance. - -_Grain_--The grain of wood is not a definite quality. The word does not -mean the same thing to all who use it. It sometimes refers to rings of -yearly growth, and in that sense a narrow-ringed wood is fine grained, -and one with wide rings is coarse grained. A curly, wavy, smoky, or -birdseye wood does not owe its quality to annual rings, yet with some -persons, all of these figures are called grain. The term sometimes -refers to medullary rays, again to hardness, or to roughness. Some -mahogany is called "woolly grained" because the surface polishes with -difficulty. The pattern maker designates white pine as "even grained", -because it cuts easily in all directions. The handle maker classes -hickory as "smooth grained", because it polishes well and the sole idea -of the maker is smoothness to the touch. There are other grains almost -as numerous as the trades which use wood. In numerous instances "figure" -is a better term than "grain." Feather mahogany, birdseye birch, burl -ash, are figures rather than grains. There is no authority to settle and -decide what the real meaning of grain is in wood technology. It has a -number of meanings, and one man has as much authority as another to -interpret it in accordance with his own ideas, and the usage in his -trade. It is a loose term which covers several things in general and -nothing in particular. - -_Weight_--The weight of wood is calculated from different standpoints. -It has a green weight, an air-dry weight, a kiln-dry weight, and an -oven-dry weight. All are different, but the differences are due to the -relative amounts of water weighed. Sawlogs generally go by green weight; -yard lumber by air-dry or partly air-dry weight; while the wood used in -ultimate manufacture, such as furniture, is supposed to be kiln-dry. - -The absolute weight of wood, with all air spaces, moisture, and other -foreign material removed, is about 100 pounds per cubic foot, which is -1.6 times heavier than water; but that is not a natural form of wood. It -is known only in the laboratory. - -The actual wood substance of one species weighs about the same as -another. Dispense with all air spaces, all water, and all other foreign -substance, and pine and ebony weigh alike. It is apparent that the -different weights of woods, as between cedar and oak for example, are -due chiefly to porosity. The smaller the aggregate space occupied by -pores and other cavities, the heavier the wood. That accounts for the -differences in weights of absolutely dry woods of different kinds, -except that a small amount of other foreign material may remain after -water has been driven off. Florida black ironwood is rated as the -heaviest in the United States, and it weighs 81.14 pounds per cubic -foot, oven-dry. The lightest in this country is the golden fig which is -a native of Florida also. It weighs 16.3 pounds per cubic foot, -oven-dry. When weights of wood are given, the specimen is understood to -be oven-dry, unless it is stated to be otherwise: it is a laboratory -weight, calculated from small cubes of the wood. Such weights are always -a little less than that of the dryest wood of the same kind that can be -obtained in the lumber market. - -_Moisture in Wood_--The varying weights of the same wood indicate that -moisture plays an important part. No man ever saw absolutely dry wood. -If heated sufficiently to drive off all the moisture, the wood is -reduced to charcoal and other products of destructive distillation. - -The pores and other cavities in green timber are more or less filled -with water or sap. This may amount to one-third, one-half, or even more, -of the dry weight of the wood. The water is in the hollow vessels and -cell walls. A living tree contains about the same quantity of water in -winter as in summer, though the common belief is otherwise. It is -misleading to say that the sap is "down" in one season and "up" in -another, although there is more activity at certain times than in -others. Strictly speaking, there is a difference between the water in a -tree, and the tree's sap; but in common parlance they are considered -identical. What takes place is this: water rises from the tree's roots, -through the wood, carrying certain minerals in solution. Some of it -reaches the leaves in summer where it mixes with certain gases from the -air, and is converted into sap proper. Most of the surplus water, after -giving up the mineral substance held in solution, is evaporated through -the leaves into the air; but the sap, starting from the leaves which act -as laboratories for its manufacture, goes down through the newly-formed -(and forming), layer of wood just beneath the bark, and is converted -into wood. This newly-formed wood is colorless at first. It builds up -the annual ring, first the springwood very rapidly, and then the -summerwood more slowly. - -The force which causes water to rise through the trunk of a tree is not -fully understood. It is one of nature's mysteries which is yet to be -solved. Forces known as root pressure, capillary attraction, and -osmosis, are believed to be active in the process, but there seems to be -something additional, and no man has yet been able to explain what it -is. - -The seasoning of wood is the process of getting rid of some of the -water. As soon as lumber is exposed to air, the water begins to escape. -Long exposure to dry air takes out a large percentage of the moisture -which green wood holds, and the lumber is known as air-dry. But some of -the original moisture remains, and air at climatic temperature is unable -to expel it. The greater heat of a drykiln drives away some more of it, -but a quantity yet remains. The lumber is then kiln-dry. Greater heat -than the drykiln's is secured in an oven, and a little more of the -wood's moisture is expelled; but the only method of driving all the -moisture out is to heat the wood sufficiently to break down its -structure, and reduce it to charcoal. - -Wood warps in the process of drying unless it seasons equally on all -sides. It curls or bends toward the side which dries most rapidly. Dry -wood may warp if exposed to dampness, if one side is more exposed and -receives more moisture than another. It curls or bends toward the dryer -side. - -Warping is primarily due to the more rapid contraction or expansion of -wood cells on one side of the piece than on the other. Saturated cells -are larger than dry ones. - -Moisture in wood affects its strength, the dryer the stronger, at least -within certain limits. Architects and builders carefully study the -seasoning of timber, because it is a most important factor in their -business. The moisture which most affects a wood's strength is that -absorbed in the cell walls, rather than that contained in the cell -cavities themselves. - -Some woods check or split badly in seasoning unless attended with -constant care. Checking is due chiefly to lack of uniformity in -seasoning. One part of the stick dries faster than another, the dryer -fibers contract, and the pull splits the wood. The checks may be small, -even microscopic, or they may develop yawning cracks such as sometimes -appear in the ends of hickory and black walnut logs. Greenwood checks -worse in summer than in winter, because the weather is warmer, the -wood's surface dries faster, and the strain on the fibers is greater. -Phases of the moon have no influence on the seasoning, checking, -warping, or lasting properties of timber. - -_Stiffness, Elasticity, and Strength_--Rules for measuring the stiffness -of timber are involved in mathematical formulas; but the practical -quality of stiffness is not difficult to understand. Wood which does not -bend easily is stiff. If it springs back to its original position after -the removal of the force which bends it, the wood is elastic. The -greatest load it can sustain without breaking, is the measure of its -strength. The load required to produce a certain amount of bending is -the measure of its stiffness. Flexibility, a term much used by certain -classes of workers in wood, is the opposite of stiffness. A brittle wood -is not necessarily weak. It may sustain a heavy load without breaking, -but when it fails, the break is sudden and complete. A tough wood -behaves differently, though it may not be as strong as a brittle one. -When a tough wood breaks, the parts are inclined to adhere after they -have ceased to sustain the load. Hickory is tough, and in breaking, the -wood crushes and splinters. Mesquite is brittle, and a clean snap severs -the stick at once. - -Builders of houses and bridges, and the manufacturers of articles of -wood, study with the greatest care the stiffness, elasticity, strength, -toughness, and brittleness of timber. Its chief value may depend upon -the presence or absence of one or more of these properties. Take away -hickory's toughness and elasticity and it would cease to be a great -vehicle and handle material. Reduce the stiffness and strength of -longleaf pine and Douglas fir and they would drop at once from the high -esteem in which they are held as structural timbers. Destroy the -brittleness of red cedar and it would lose one of the chief qualities -which make it the leading lead pencil wood of the world. - -There are recognized methods of measuring these important physical -properties of woods, but they are expressed in language so technical -that it means little to persons who are not specialists. For ordinary -purposes, it is unnecessary to be more explicit than to state a certain -wood is or is not strong, stiff, tough and elastic. Some species possess -one or more of these properties to double the degree that others possess -them. Different trees of the same species differ greatly, and even -different parts of the same tree. Most tables of figures which show the -various physical properties of woods, give averages only, not absolute -values. - -_Hardness_--In some woods hardness is considered an advantage, but not -in others. If sugar maple were as soft as white pine, it would not be -the great floor material it is; and if white pine were as hard as maple, -pattern makers would not want it, door and sash manufacturers would get -along with less, and it would not be the leading packing box material in -so wide a region. - -It is generally the summer growth in the annual rings which makes a wood -hard. The summerwood is dense. A given bulk of it contains more actual -wood substance and less air and water than the springwood. For the same -reason, summerwood gives weight, and a relationship between hardness and -weight holds generally. It may be added that strength goes with weight -and hardness, but it is not a rule without apparent exceptions. - -Some woods possess twice or three times the hardness of others. Among -some of the hardest in the United States are hickory, sugar maple, -mesquite, the Florida ironwoods, Osage orange, locust, persimmon, and -the best oak and elm. Among the softest species are buckeye, basswood, -cedar, redwood, some of the pines, spruce, hemlock, and chestnut. - -The hardness of wood is tested with a machine which records the pressure -required to indent the surface. The condition of the specimen, as to -dryness, has much to do with its hardness. So many other factors -exercise influence that nothing less than an actual test will determine -the hardness of a sample. A table of figures can show it only -approximately and by averages. - -_Cleavability_--Wood users generally demand a material which does not -split easily, but the reverse is sometimes required. Rived staves must -come from timbers which split easily. Many handles are from billets -which are split in rough form and are afterwards dressed to the required -size and shape. In these instances, splitting is preferable to sawing, -because a rived billet is free from cross grain. - -The cleavability of woods differs greatly. Some can scarcely be split. -Black gum is in that list, and sycamore to a less extent. Young trees of -some species split more readily than old, while with others, the -advantage is with the old. Young sycamore may generally be split with -ease, but old trunks seem to develop interlocked fibers which defy the -wedge. A white oak pole is hard to split, but the old tree yields -readily. Few woods are more easily split than chestnut. With most -timbers cleavage is easiest along the radial lines, that is, from the -heart to the bark. The flat sides of the medullary rays lie in that -plane. Cleavage along tangential lines is easy with some woods. The line -of cleavage follows the soft springwood. Green timber is generally, but -not always, more easily split than dry. As a rule, the more elastic a -wood is, the more readily it may be split. - -_Durability_--In Egypt where climatic conditions are highly favorable, -Lebanon cedar, North African acacia, East African persimmon, and -oriental sycamore have remained sound during three or four thousand -years. In the moist forests of the northwestern Pacific coast, an alder -log six or eight inches in diameter will decay through and through in a -single year. No wood is immune to decay if exposed to influences which -induce it, but some resist for long periods. Osage orange and locust -fence posts may stand half a century. Timber from which air is excluded, -as when deeply buried in wet earth or under water, will last -indefinitely; but if it is exposed to alternate dampness and dryness, -decay will destroy it in a few years. - -It is apparent that resistance to decay is not a property inherent in -the wood, but depends on circumstances. However, the ability to resist -decay varies greatly with different species, under similar -circumstances. Buckeye and red cedar fence posts, situated alike, will -not last alike. The buckeye may be expected to fall in two or three -years, and the cedar will stand twenty. Timbers light in weight and -light in color are, as a class, quick-decaying when exposed to the -weather. - -The rule holds in most cases that sapwood decays more quickly than heart -when both are subject to similar exposure. The matter of decay is not -important when lumber and other products intended for use are in dry -situations. Furniture and interior house finish do not decay under -ordinary circumstances, no matter what the species of wood may be; but -resistance to decay overshadows almost any other consideration in -choosing mine timbers, crossties, fence posts, and tanks and silos. - -Decay in timber is not simply a chemical process, but is due primarily -to the activities of a low order of plants known as fungi, sometimes -bacteria. The fungi produce thread-like filaments which penetrate the -body of the wood, ramifying in and passing from cell to cell, absorbing -certain materials therein, and ultimately breaking down and destroying -the structure of the wood. Both air and dampness are essential to the -growth of fungus. That is the reason why timbers deep beneath ground or -water do not decay. Air is absent, though moisture is abundant; while in -the dry Egyptian tombs, air is abundant but moisture is wanting, fungus -cannot exist, and consequently decay of the wood does not occur. Nothing -is needed to render timber immune to decay except to keep fungus out of -the cells. Some of the fungus concerned in wood rotting is microscopic, -while other appears in forms and sizes easily seen and recognized. - -Timber may be protected for a time against the agencies of decay by -covering the surface with paint, thereby preventing the entrance of -fungus. By another process, certain oils or other materials which are -poisonous to the insinuating threads of fungus, are forced into the -pores of the wood. Creosote is often used for this purpose. Attacks are -thus warded off, and decay is hindered. The preservative fluid will not -remain permanently in wood exposed to weather conditions, but the period -during which it affords protection and immunity extends over some years; -but different woods vary greatly in their ability to receive and retain -preservative mixtures. - -The better seasoned, the less liable is timber to decay, because it -contains less moisture to support fungi. It is generally supposed that -timber cut in the fall of the year is less subject to decay than if -felled in summer. If it is so, the reason for it lies in the fact that -fungus is inactive during winter, and before the coming of warm weather -the timber has partly dried near the surface, and fungi cannot pass -through the dry outside to reach the interior. Timber cut in warm -weather may be attacked at once, and before cold weather stops the -activities of fungus it has reached the interior of the wood and the -process of rotting is under way. When the agents of decay have begun to -grow in the wood, destruction will go on as long as air and moisture -conditions are favorable. - -The bluing of wood is an incipient decay and is generally due to fungus. -Some kinds of wood are more susceptible to bluing than others. Though -boards may quickly season sufficiently to put a stop to the bluing -process before it has actually weakened the material, the result is more -or less injurious. The wood's natural color and luster undergo -deterioration; it does not reflect light as formerly, and seems dead and -flat. - -Decay affects sapwood more readily than heart. The reason may be that -sapwood contains more food for fungus, thereby inducing greater -activity. The sapwood is on the outside of timbers and is often more -exposed than the heart. In some instances greater decay may be due to -greater exposure. Another reason for more rapid decay of sapwood than -heart is the fact that the pores of the heartwood are more or less -filled with coloring matter deposited while the growth of the tree was -in progress. The coloring matter, in many cases, acts as a preservative; -it shuts the threads of fungus out. Sometimes the sapwood of a dead tree -or a log is totally destroyed while the heart remains sound. This often -happens with red cedar and sometimes with black walnut, yellow poplar, -and cherry. Occasionally a tree's bark is more resistant to decay than -its wood. Paper birch and yellow birch logs in damp situations -occasionally show this. What appears to be a solid fallen trunk, proves -to be nothing more than a shell of bark with a soft, pulpy mass of -decayed wood within. - - - - -WHITE PINE - -[Illustration: WHITE PINE] - - - - -WHITE PINE[1] - -(_Pinus Strobus_) - - [1] The following 12 species are usually classed soft pines: White - Pine (_Pinus strobus_); Sugar Pine (_Pinus lambertiana_); Western - White Pine (_Pinus monticola_); Mexican White Pine (_Pinus - strobiformis_); Limber Pine (_Pinus flexilis_); Whitebark Pine - (_Pinus albicaulis_); Foxtail Pine (_Pinus balfouriana_); Parry Pine - (_Pinus quadrifolia_); Mexican Pinon (_Pinus cembroides_); Pinon - (_Pinus edulis_); Singleleaf Pinon (_Pinus monophylla_); Bristlecone - Pine (_Pinus aristata_). - - -The best known wood of the United States has never been burdened with a -multitude of names, as many minor species have. It is commonly known as -white pine in every region where it grows, and in many where the living -tree is never seen, except when planted for ornament. The light color of -the wood suggests the name. The bark and the foliage are of somber hue, -though not as dark as hemlock and many of the pines. The name Weymouth -pine is occasionally heard, but it is more used in books than by -lumbermen. It is commonly supposed that the name refers to Lord Weymouth -who interested himself in the tree at an early period, but this has been -disputed. In Pennsylvania it is occasionally called soft pine to -distinguish it from the harder and inferior pitch pine and table -mountain pine with which it is sometimes associated. It is the softest -of the pines, and the name is not inappropriate. In some regions of the -South, where it is well known, it is called northern spruce pine in -recognition of the fact that it is a northern species which has followed -the Appalachian mountain ranges some hundreds of miles southward. There -is no good reason for this name when applied to white pine. It should be -remembered, however, that no less than a dozen tree species in the -United States are sometimes called spruce pine. Cork pine is a trade -name applied more frequently to the wood than to the living tree. It is -the wood of old, mature, first class trunks, as nearly perfect as can be -found. Pumpkin pine is another name given to the same class of wood. It -is so named because the grain is homogeneous, like a pumpkin, and may be -readily cut and carved in any direction. It is the ideal wood for the -pattern maker, but it is now hard to get because the venerable white -pines, many hundred years old, are practically gone. - -The northern limit of the range of white pine stretches from -Newfoundland to Manitoba, more than 1800 miles east and west across the -Dominion of Canada, and southward to northern Georgia, 1200 miles in a -north and south direction. But white pine does not grow in all parts of -the territory thus delimited. It attained magnificent development in -certain large regions before lumbering began, and in others it was -scarce or totally wanting. Its ability to maintain itself on land too -thin for vigorous hardwood growth gave it a monopoly of enormous -stretches of sandy country, particularly in the Lake States. It occupied -large areas in New England and southern Canada; developed splendid -stands in New York and Pennsylvania; and it covered certain mountains -and uplands southward along the mountain ranges across Maryland, West -Virginia, and the elevated regions two or three hundred miles farther -south. - -A dozen or more varieties of white pine have been developed under -cultivation, but they interest the nurseryman, not the lumberman. In all -the wide extension of its range, and during all past time, nature was -never able to develop a single variety of white pine which departed from -the typical species. For that reason it is one of the most interesting -objects of study in the tree kingdom. True, the white pine in the -southern mountains differs slightly from the northern tree, but -botanically it is the same. Its wood is a little heavier, its branches -are more resinous and consequently adhere a longer time to the trunk -after they die, resulting in lumber with more knots. The southern wood -is more tinged with red, the knots are redder and usually sounder than -in the North. - -It is unfortunately necessary in speaking of white pine forests to use -the past tense, for most of the primeval stands have disappeared. The -range is as extensive as ever, because wherever a forest once grew, a -few trees remain; but the merchantable timber has been cut in most -regions. The tree bears winged seeds which quickly scatter over vacant -spaces, and new growth would long ago, in most cases, have taken the -place of the old, had not fires persistently destroyed the seedlings. In -parts of New England where fire protection is afforded, dense stands of -white pine are coming on, and in numerous instances profitable lumber -operations are carried on in second growth forests. That condition does -not exist generally in white pine regions. Primeval stands were seldom -absolutely pure, but sometimes, in bodies of thousands of acres, there -was little but white pine. Generally hardwoods or other softwoods grew -with the pine. At its best, it is the largest pine of the United States, -except the sugar pine of California. The largest trees grew in New -England where diameters of six or more feet and heights exceeding 200 -feet were found. A diameter of four and five feet and a height of 150 -feet are about the size limits in the Lake States and the southern -mountains. Trees two or three feet through and ninety and 120 tall are a -fair average for mature timber. - -The wood of white pine is among the lightest of the commercial timbers -of this country, and among the softest. While it is not strong, it -compares favorably, weight for weight, with most others. It is of rather -rapid growth, and the rings of annual increase are clearly defined, and -they contain comparatively few resin ducts. For that reason it may be -classed as a close, compact wood. It polishes well, may be cut with -great ease, and after it is seasoned it holds its form better than most -woods. That property fits it admirably for doors and sash and for -backing of veneer, where a little warping or twisting would do much -harm. - -The medullary rays are numerous but are too small to be easily seen -separately, and do not figure much in the appearance of the wood. The -resin passages are few and small, but the wood contains enough resin to -give it a characteristic odor, which is not usually considered injurious -to merchandise shipped in pine boxes. The white color of the wood gives -it much of its value. Though rather weak, white pine is stiff, rather -low in elasticity, is practically wanting in toughness, has little -figure, and when exposed to alternate dryness and dampness it is rated -poor in lasting properties; yet shingles and weather boarding of this -wood have been known to stand half a century. The sapwood is lighter in -color than the heart, and decays more quickly. - -As long as white pine was abundant it surpassed all other woods of this -country in the amount used. It was one of the earliest exports from New -England, and it went to the West Indies and to Europe. England attempted -to control the cutting and export of white pine, but was unsuccessful. -At an early period the rivers were utilized for transporting the logs -and the lumber to market, and that method has continued until the -present time. Spectacular log drives were common in early times in New -England, later in New York and Pennsylvania, and still later in Michigan -and the other Lake States. Many billions of feet of faultless logs have -gone down flooded rivers. The scenes in the woods and the life in lumber -camps have been written in novels and romances, and the central figure -of it all was white pine. - -There are a few things for which this wood is not suitable; otherwise -its use has been nearly universal in some parts of this country. It went -into masts and matches, which are the largest and smallest commodities, -and into almost every shape and size of product between. Most of the -early houses and barns in the pine region were built of it. Hewed pine -was the foundation, and the shingles were of split and shaved pine. It -formed floors, doors, sash, and shutters. It was the ceiling within and -the weather boarding without. It fenced the fields and bridged the -streams. It went to market as rough lumber, and planing mills turned it -out as dressed stock in various forms. It has probably been more -extensively employed by box makers than any other wood, and though it is -scarcer than formerly, hundreds of millions of feet of it are still used -annually by box makers. Scores of millions of feet yearly are demanded -by the manufacturers of window shade rollers, though individually the -roller is a very small commodity. In this, as for patterns and many -other things, no satisfactory substitute for white pine has been found. - -As a timber tree, it will not disappear from this country, though the -days of its greatest importance are past. Enormous tracts where it once -grew will apparently never again produce a white pine sawlog. The -prospect is more encouraging in other regions, and there will always be -a considerable quantity of this lumber in the American market, though -the high percentage of good grades which prevailed in the past will not -continue in the future. - -White pine belongs in the five needle group, that is, five leaves grow -in a bundle. They turn yellow and fall in the autumn of the second year. -The cones are slender, are from five to eleven inches in length, and -ripen and disperse their seeds in the autumn of the second year. - -[Illustration] - - - - -WESTERN WHITE PINE - -[Illustration: WESTERN WHITE PINE] - - - - -WESTERN WHITE PINE - -(_Pinus Monticola_) - - -The silvery luster of the needles of this tree gives it the name silver -pine, by which many people know it. It appears in literature as mountain -Weymouth pine, the reference being to the eastern white pine (_Pinus -strobus_), which is sometimes called Weymouth pine. Finger-cone pine is -a California name; so are mountain pine and soft pine. In the same state -it is called little sugar pine, to distinguish it from sugar pine -(_Pinus lambertiana_), which it resembles in some particulars but not in -all. It is thus seen that California is generous in bestowing names on -this tree, notwithstanding it is not abundant in any part of that state -and is unknown in most parts. - -The botanical name means "mountain pine," and that describes the -species. It does best among the mountains, and it ranges from an -altitude of from 4,000 feet to 10,000 on the Sierra Nevada mountains. -Sometimes trees of very large size are found near the upper limits of -its range, but the best stands are in valleys and on slopes at lower -altitudes. Its range lies in British Columbia, Montana, Idaho, -Washington, Oregon, and California. In the latter state it follows the -Sierra Nevada mountains southward to the San Joaquin river. - -This species has been compared with the white pine of the East oftener -than with any other species. The weights of the two woods are nearly the -same, and both are light. Their fuel values are about the same. The -strength of the eastern tree is a little higher, but the western species -is stiffer. The woods of both are light in color, but that of the -eastern tree is whiter; both are soft, but again the advantage is with -the eastern tree. The western pine generally grows rapidly and the -annual rings are wide; but, like most other species, it varies in its -rate of growth, and trunks are found with narrow rings. The summerwood -is thin, not conspicuous, and slightly resinous. The small resin -passages are numerous. The heartwood is fairly durable in contact with -the soil. - -The western white pine has entered many markets in recent years, but it -is difficult to determine what the annual cut is. Statistics often -include this species and the western yellow pine under one name, or at -least confuse one with the other, and there is no way to determine -exactly how much of the sawmill output belongs to each. The bulk of -merchantable western white pine lumber is cut in Idaho and Montana. The -stands are seldom pure, but this species frequently predominates over -its associates. When pure forests are found, the yield is sometimes -very high, as much as 130,000 feet of logs growing on a single acre. -That quantity is not often equalled by any other forest tree, though -redwood and Douglas fir sometimes go considerably above it. - -The western white pine's needles grow in clusters of five and are from -one and a half to four inches long. The cones are from ten to eighteen -inches long. The seeds ripen the second year. Reproduction is vigorous -and the forest stands are holding their own. Trees about one hundred and -seventy-five feet high and eight feet in diameter are met with, but the -average size is one hundred feet high and from two to three feet in -diameter, or about the size of eastern white pine. - -The wood is useful and has been giving service since the settlement of -the country began, fifty or more years ago. Choice trunks were split for -shakes or shingles, but the wood is inferior in splitting qualities to -either eastern white pine or California sugar pine, because of more -knots. The western white pine does not prime itself early or well. Dead -limbs adhere to the trunk long after the sugar pine would shed them. In -split products, the western white pine's principal rival has been the -western red cedar. The pine has been much employed for mine timbers in -the region where it is abundant. Miners generally take the most -convenient wood for props, stulls, and lagging. A little higher use for -pine is found among the mines, where is it made into tanks, flumes, -sluice boxes, water pipes, riffle blocks, rockers, and guides for stamp -mills. However, the total quantity used by miners is comparatively -small. Much more goes to ranches for fences and buildings. It is -serviceable, and is shipped outside the immediate region of production -and is marketed in the plains states east of the Rocky Mountains, where -it is excellent fence material. - -A larger market is found in manufacturing centers farther east. Western -white pine is shipped to Chicago where it is manufactured into doors, -sash, and interior finish, in competition with all other woods in that -market. It is said to be of frequent occurrence that the very pine which -is shipped in its rough form out of the Rocky Mountain region goes back -finished as doors and sash. When the mountain regions shall have better -manufacturing facilities, this will not occur. In the manufacture of -window and hothouse sash, glass is more important than wood, although -each is useless without the other. The principal glass factories are in -the East, and it is sometimes desirable to ship the wood to the glass -factory, have the sash made there, and the glazing done; and the -finished sash, ready for use, may go back to the source of the timber. - -The same operation is sometimes repeated for doors; but in recent years -the mountain region where this pine grows has been supplied with -factories and there is now less shipping of raw material out and of -finished products back than formerly. The development of the fruit -industry in the elevated valleys of Idaho, Montana, Washington, and -Oregon has called for shipping boxes in large numbers, and western white -pine has been found an ideal wood for that use. It is light in weight -and in color, strong enough to satisfy all ordinary requirements, and -cheap enough to bring it within reach of orchardists. It meets with -lively competition from a number of other woods which grow abundantly in -the region, but it holds its ground and takes its share of the business. - -Estimates of the total stand of western white pine among its native -mountains have not been published, but the quantity is known to be -large. It is a difficult species to estimate because it is scattered -widely, large, pure stands being scarce. Some large mills make a -specialty of sawing this species. The annual output is believed to reach -150,000,000 feet, most of which is in Idaho and Montana. - -MEXICAN WHITE PINE (_Pinus strobiformis_) is not sufficiently abundant -to be of much importance in the United States. The best of it is south -of the international boundary in Mexico, but the species extends into -New Mexico and Arizona where it is most abundant at altitudes of from -6,000 to 8,000 feet. The growth is generally scattering, and the trunks -are often deformed through fire injury, and are inclined to be limby and -of poor form. The best trees are from eighty to one hundred feet high, -and two in diameter; but many are scarcely half that size. The lumbermen -of the region, who cut Mexican white pine, are inclined to place low -value on it, not because the wood is of poor quality, but because it is -scarce. It is generally sent to market with western yellow pine. -Excellent grades and quality of this wood are shipped into the United -States from Mexico, but not in large amounts. An occasional carload -reaches door and sash factories in Texas, and woodworkers as far east as -Michigan are acquainted with it, through trials and experiments which -they have made. It is highly recommended by those who have tried it. -Some consider it as soft, as easy to work, and as free from warping and -checking as the eastern white pine. In Arizona and New Mexico the tree -is known as ayacahuite pine, white pine, and Arizona white pine. The -wood is moderately light, fairly strong, rather stiff, of slow growth, -and the bands of summerwood are comparatively broad. The resin passages -are few and large. The wood is light red, the sapwood whiter. The leaves -occur in clusters of five, are three or four inches long, and fall -during the third and fourth years. The seeds are large and have small -wings which cannot carry them far from the parent tree. - -PINON (_Pinus edulis_). This is one of the nut pines abounding among the -western mountains, and it is called pinon in Texas, nut pine in Texas -and Colorado, pinon pine and New Mexican pinon in other parts of its -range, extending from Colorado through New Mexico to western Texas. It -has two and three leaves to the cluster. They begin to fall the third -year and continue through six or seven years following. The cones are -quite small, the largest not exceeding one and one-half inches in -length. Trees are from thirty to forty feet high, and large trunks may -be two and one-half feet in diameter. The tree runs up mountain sides to -altitudes of 8,000 or 9,000 feet. It exists in rather large bodies, but -is not an important timber tree, because the trunks are short and are -generally of poor form. It often branches near the ground and assumes -the appearance of a large shrub. Ties of pinon have been used with -various results. Some have proved satisfactory, others have proved weak -by breaking, and the ties occasionally split when spikes are driven. The -wood's service as posts varies also. Some posts will last only three or -four years, while others remain sound a long time. The difference in -lasting properties is due to the difference in resinous contents of the -wood. Few softwoods rank above it in fuel value, and much is cut in some -localities. Large areas have been totally stripped for fuel. Charcoal -for local smithies is burned from this pine. The wood is widely used for -ranch purposes, but not in large quantities. The edible nuts are sought -by birds, rodents, and Indians. Some stores keep the nuts for sale. The -tree is handicapped in its effort at reproduction by weight, and the -small wing power of the seeds. They fall near the base of the parent -tree, and most of them are speedily devoured. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SUGAR PINE - -[Illustration: SUGAR PINE] - - - - -SUGAR PINE - -(_Pinus Lambertiana_) - - -This is the largest pine of the United States, and probably is the -largest true pine in the world. Its rival, the Kauri pine of New -Zealand, is not a pine according to the classification of botanists; and -that leaves the sugar pine supreme, as far as the world has been -explored. David Douglas, the first to describe the species, reported a -tree eighteen feet in diameter and 245 feet high, in southern Oregon. No -tree of similar size has been reported since; but trunks six, ten, and -even twelve feet through, and more than 200 high are not rare. - -The range of sugar pine extends from southern Oregon to lower -California. Through California it follows the Sierra Nevada mountains in -a comparatively narrow belt. In Oregon it descends within 1,000 feet of -sea level, but the lower limit of its range gradually rises as it -follows the mountains southward, until in southern California it is -8,000 or 10,000 feet above the sea. Its choice of situation is in the -mountain belt where the annual precipitation is forty inches or more. -The deep winter snows of the Sierras do not hurt it. The young trees -bear abundant limbs covering the trunks nearly or quite to the ground, -and are of perfect conical shape. When they are ten or fifteen feet tall -they may be entirely covered in snow which accumulates to a depth of a -dozen feet or more. The little pines are seldom injured by the load, but -their limbs shed the snow until it covers the highest twig. The -consequence is that a crooked sugar pine trunk is seldom seen, though a -considerable part of the tree's youth may have been spent under tons of -snow. Later in life the lower limbs die and drop, leaving clean boles -which assure abundance of clear lumber in the years to come. - -The tree is nearly always known as sugar pine, though it may be called -big pine or great pine to distinguish it from firs, cedars, and other -softwoods with which it is associated. The name is due to a product -resembling sugar which exudes from the heartwood when the tree has been -injured by fires, and which dries in white, brittle excrescences on the -surface. Its taste is sweet, with a suggestion of pitch which is not -unpleasant. The principle has been named "pinite." - -The needles of sugar pine are in clusters of five and are about four -inches long. They are deciduous the second and third years. The cones -are longer than cones of any other pine of this country but those of the -Coulter pine are a little heavier. Extreme length of 22 inches for the -sugar pine cone has been recorded, but the average is from 12 to 15 -inches. Cones open, shed their seeds the second year, and fall the -third. The seeds resemble lentils, and are provided with wings which -carry them several hundred feet, if wind is favorable. This affords -excellent opportunities for reproduction; but there is an offset in the -sweetness of the seeds which are prized for food by birds, beasts and -creeping things from the Piute Indian down to the Douglas squirrel and -the jumping mouse. - -Sugar pine occupies a high place as a timber tree. It has been in use -for half a century. The cut in 1900 was 52,000,000 feet, in 1904 it was -120,000,000; in 1907, 115,000,000, and the next year about 100,000,000. -Ninety-three per cent of the cut is in California, the rest in Oregon. -Its stand in California has been estimated at 25,000,000,000 feet. - -The wood of sugar pine is a little lighter than eastern white pine, is a -little weaker, and has less stiffness. It is soft, the rings of growth -are wide, the bands of summerwood thin and resinous; the resin passages -are numerous and very large, the medullary rays numerous and obscure. -The heart is light brown, the sapwood nearly white. - -Sugar pine and redwood were the two early roofing woods in California, -and both are still much used for that purpose. Sugar pine was made into -sawed shingles and split shakes. The shingle is a mill product; but the -shake was rived with mallet and frow, and in the years when it was the -great roofing material in central and eastern California, the shake -makers camped by twos in the forest, lived principally on bacon and red -beans, and split out from 200,000 to 400,000 shakes as a summer's work. -The winter snows drove the workers from the mountains, with from eight -to twelve hundred dollars in their pockets for the season's work. - -The increase in stumpage price has practically killed the shake maker's -business. In the palmy days when most everything went, he procured his -timber for little or nothing. He sometimes failed to find the surveyor's -lines, particularly if there happened to be a fine sugar pine just -across on a government quarter section. His method of operation was -wasteful. He used only the best of the tree. If the grain happened to -twist the fraction of an inch, he abandoned the fallen trunk, and cut -another. The shakes were split very thin, for sugar pine is among the -most cleavable woods of this country. Four or five good trees provided -the shake maker's camp with material for a year's work. - -Some of the earliest sawmills in California cut sugar pine for sheds, -shacks, sluiceboxes, flumes among the mines; and almost immediately a -demand came from the agricultural and stock districts for lumber. From -that day until the present time the sugar pine mills have been busy. As -the demand has grown, the facilities for meeting it have increased. The -prevailing size of the timber forbade the use of small mills. A saw -large enough for most eastern and southern timbers would not slab a -sugar pine log. From four to six feet were common sizes, and the -lumberman despised anything small. - -In late years sugar pine operators have looked beyond the local markets, -and have been sending their lumber to practically every state in the -Union, except probably the extreme South. It comes in direct competition -with the white pine of New England and the Lake States. The two woods -have many points of resemblance. The white pine would probably have lost -no markets to the California wood if the best grades could still be had -at moderate prices; but most of the white pine region has been stripped -of its best timber, and the resulting scarcity in the high grades has -been, in part, made good by sugar pine. Some manufacturers of doors and -frames claim that sugar pine is more satisfactory than white pine, -because of better behavior under climatic changes. It is said to shrink, -swell, and warp less than the eastern wood. - -Sugar pine has displaced white pine to a very small extent only, in -comparison with the field still held by the eastern wood, whose annual -output is about thirty times that of the California species. Their uses -are practically the same except that only the good grades of sugar pine -go east, and the corresponding grades of white pine west, and therefore -there is no competition between the poor grades of the two woods. The -annual demand for sugar and white pine east of the Rocky Mountains is -probably represented as an average in Illinois, where 2,000,000 feet of -the former and 175,000,000 of the latter are used yearly. - -While there is a large amount of mature sugar pine ready for lumbermen, -the prospect of future supplies from new growth is not entirely -satisfactory. The western yellow pine is mixed with it throughout most -of its range, and is more than a match for it in taking possession of -vacant ground. It is inferred from this fact that the relative positions -of the two species in future forests will change at the expense of sugar -pine. It endures shade when small, and this enables it to obtain a start -among other species; but as it increases in size it becomes intolerant -of shade, and if it does not receive abundance of light it will not -grow. A forest fire is nearly certain to kill the small sugar pines, but -old trunks are protected by their thick bark. Few species have fewer -natural enemies. Very small trees are occasionally attacked by mistletoe -(_Arceuthobium occidentale_) and succumb or else are stunted in their -growth. - - MEXICAN PINON (_Pinus cembroides_) is known also as nut pine, pinon - pine and stone-seed Mexican pinon. It is one of the smallest of the - native pines of this country. The tree is fifteen or twenty feet - high and a few inches in diameter, but in sheltered canyons in - Arizona it sometimes attains a height of fifty or sixty feet with a - corresponding diameter. It reaches its best development in northern - Mexico and what is found of it in the United States is the species' - extreme northern extension, in Arizona and New Mexico at altitudes - usually above 6,000 feet. It supplies fuel in districts where - firewood is otherwise scarce, and it has a small place as ranch - timber. The wood is heavy, of slow growth, the summerwood thin and - dense. The resin passages are few and small; color, light, clear - yellow, the sapwood nearly white. If the tree stood in regions - well-forested with commercial species, it would possess little or no - value; but where wood is scarce, it has considerable value. The - hardshell nuts resemble those of the gray pine, but are considered - more valuable for food. They are not of much importance in the - United States, but in Mexico where the trees are more abundant and - the population denser, the nuts are bought and sold in large - quantities. Its leaves are in clusters of three, sometimes two. They - are one inch or more in length, and fall the third and fourth years. - Cones are seldom over two inches in length. The species is not - extending its range, but seems to be holding the ground it already - has. It bears abundance of seeds, but not one in ten thousand - germinates and becomes a mature tree. - -[Illustration] - - - - -WHITEBARK PINE - -[Illustration: WHITEBARK PINE] - - - - -WHITEBARK PINE - -(_Pinus Albicaulis_) - - -This interesting and peculiar pine has a number of names, most of which -are descriptive. The whiteness of the bark and the stunted and recumbent -position which the tree assumes on bleak mountains are referred to in -the names whitestem pine in California and Montana, scrub pine in -Montana, whitebark in Oregon, white in California, and elsewhere it is -creeping pine, whitebark pine, and alpine whitebark pine. It is a -mountain tree. There are few heights within its range which it cannot -reach. Its tough, prostrate branches, in its loftiest situations, may -whip snow banks nine or ten months of the year, and for the two or three -months of summer every starry night deposits its sprinkle of frost upon -the flowers or cones of this persistent tree. It stands the storms of -centuries, and lives on, though the whole period of its existence is a -battle for life under adverse circumstances. At lower altitudes it fares -better but does not live longer than on the most sterile peak. Its range -covers 500,000 square miles, but only in scattered groups. It touches -the high places only, creeping down to altitudes of 5,000 or 6,000 feet -in the northern Rocky Mountains. It grows from British Columbia to -southern California, and is found in Montana, Idaho, Washington, Oregon, -Nevada, Arizona, and California. Its associates are the mountain -climbers of the tree kingdom, Engelmann spruce, Lyall larch, limber -pine, alpine fir, foxtail pine, Rocky Mountain juniper, knobcone pine, -and western juniper. Its dark green needles, stout and rigid, are from -one and one-half to two and one-half inches long. They hang on the twigs -from five to eight years. In July the scarlet flowers appear, forming a -beautiful contrast with the white bark and the green needles. In August -the seeds are ripe. The cones are from one and one-half to three inches -long. The seeds are nearly half an inch long, sweet to the taste. The -few squirrels and birds which inhabit the inhospitable region where the -whitebark pine grows, get busy the moment the cones open, and few -escape. Nature seems to have played a prank on this pine by giving wings -to the seeds and rendering their use impossible. The wing is stuck fast -with resin to the cone scales, and the seed can escape only by tearing -its wing off. The heavy nut then falls plumb to the ground beneath the -branches of its parent. It might be supposed that a tree situated as the -whitebark pine is would be provided with ample means of seedflight in -order to afford wide distribution, and give opportunity to survive the -hardships which are imposed by surroundings; but such is not the case. -The willow and the cottonwood which grow in fertile valleys have the -means of scattering their seeds miles away; but this bleak mountain tree -must drop its seeds on the rocks beneath. In this instance, nature seems -more interested in depositing the pine nuts where the hungry squirrels -can get them, than in furnishing a planting place for the nuts -themselves--therefore, tears off their wings before they leave the cone. -The battle for existence begins before the seeds germinate, and the -struggle never ceases. The tree, in parts of its range, survives a -temperature sixty degrees below zero. Its seedlings frequently perish, -not from cold and drought, but because the wind thrashes them against -the rocks which wear them to pieces. Trees which survive on the great -heights are apt to assume strange and fantastic forms, with less -resemblance to trees than to great, green spiders sprawling over the -rocks. Trees 500 years old may not be five feet high. Deep snows hold -them flat to the rocks so much of the time that the limbs cannot lift -themselves during the few summer days, but grow like vines. The growth -is so exceedingly slow that the new wood on the tips of twigs at the end -of summer is a mere point of yellow. John Muir, with a magnifying glass, -counted seventy-five annual rings in a twig one-eighth of an inch in -diameter. Trunks three and one-half inches in diameter may be 225 years -old; one of six inches had 426 rings; while a seventeen-inch trunk was -800 years old, and less than six feet high. Such a tree has a spread of -branches thirty or forty feet across. They lie flat on the ground. Wild -sheep, deer, bear, and other wild animals know how to shelter themselves -beneath the prostrate branches by creeping under; and travelers, -overtaken by storms, sometimes do the same; or in good weather the -sheepherder or the hunter may spread his blankets on the mass of limbs, -boughs, and needles, and spend a comfortable night on a springy -couch--actually sleeping in a tree top within two feet of the ground. In -regions lower down, the whitebark pine reaches respectable tree form. -Fence posts are sometimes cut from it in the Mono basin, east of the -Sierra Nevada mountains. In the Nez Perce National Forest trees forty -feet high have merchantable lengths of twenty-four feet. Similar growth -is found in other regions. In its best growth, the wood of whitebark -pine resembles that of white pine. It is light, of about the same -strength as white pine, but more brittle. The annual rings are very -narrow; the small resin passages are numerous. The sapwood is very thin -and is nearly white. Men can never greatly assist or hinder this tree. -It will continue to occupy heights and elevated valleys. - -BRISTLECONE PINE (_Pinus aristata_) owes its name to the sharp bristles -on the tips of the cone scales. It is known also as foxtail pine and -hickory pine. The latter name is given, not because of toughness, but -on account of the whiteness of the sapwood. It is strictly a high -mountain tree, running up to the timber line at 12,000 feet, and seldom -occurring below 6,000 or 7,000 feet. It maintains its existence under -adverse circumstances, its home being on dry, stony ridges, cold and -stormy in winter, and subject to excessive drought during the brief -growing season. Trees of large trunks and fine forms are impossible -under such conditions. The bristlecone pine's bole is short, tapers -rapidly and is excessively knotty. The species reaches its best -development in Colorado. Though it is seldom sawed for lumber, it is of -much importance in many localities where better material is scarce. In -central Nevada many valuable mines were developed and worked by using -the wood for props and fuel. Charcoal made of it was particularly -important in that region, and it was carried long distances to supply -blacksmith shops in mining camps. Railways have made some use of it for -ties. Though rough, it is liked for fence posts. The resin in the wood -assists in resisting decay, and posts last many years in the dry regions -where the tree grows. Ranchmen among the high mountains build corrals, -pens, sheds, and fences of it; but the fibers of the wood are so twisted -and involved that splitting is nearly impossible, and round timbers only -are employed. The bristlecone pine can never be more important in the -country's lumber supply than it is now. It occupies waste land where no -other tree grows, and it crowds out nothing better than itself. It -clings to stony peaks and wind-swept ridges where the ungainly trunks -are welcome to the traveler, miner, or sheepherder who is in need of a -shed to shelter him, or a fire for his night camp. In situations exposed -to great cold and drying winds, the bristlecone pine is a shrub, with -little suggestion of a tree, further than its green foliage and small -cones. The needles are in clusters of five. They cling to the twigs for -ten or fifteen years. The seeds are scattered about the first of -October, and the wind carries them hundreds of feet. They take root in -soil so sterile that no humus is visible. Young trees and the small -twigs of old ones present a peculiar appearance. The bark is chalky -white, but when the trees are old the bark becomes red or brown. - - FOXTAIL PINE (_Pinus balfouriana_) owes its name to the clustering - of its needles round the ends of the branches, bristling like a - fox's tail. The needles are seldom more than one and one-half inches - in length, and are in clusters of fives. They cling to the branches - ten or fifteen years before falling. The cones are about three - inches long, and are armed with slender spines. The tree is strictly - a mountain species and grows at a higher altitude than any other - tree in the United States, although whitebark pine is not much - behind it. It reaches its best development near Mt. Whitney, - California, where it is said to grow at an altitude of 15,000 feet - above sea level. It has been officially reported at Farewell Gap, in - the Sierra Nevada mountains, at an altitude of 13,000. At high - altitudes it is scrubby and distorted, but in more favorable - situations it may be sixty feet high and two in diameter. On high - mountains it is generally not more than thirty feet high and ten - inches in diameter. It is of remarkably slow growth, and - comparatively small trees may be 200 or 300 years old. The wood is - moderately light, is soft, weak, brittle. Resin passages are few and - very small. The wood is satiny and susceptible of a good polish, and - would be valuable if abundant. The seeds are winged and the wind - scatters them widely, but most of them are lost on barren rocks or - drifts of eternal snow. The untoward circumstances under which the - tree must live prevent generous reproduction. It holds its own but - can gain no new foothold on the bleak and barren heights which form - its environment. The dark green of its foliage makes the belts of - foxtail pines conspicuous where they grow above the timber line of - nearly all other trees. Its range is confined to a few of the - highest mountains of California, particularly about (but not on) Mt. - Shasta and among the clusters of peaks about the sources of Kings - and Kern rivers. Those who travel and camp among the highest - mountains of California are often indebted to foxtail pine for their - fuel. Near the upper limit of its range it frequently dies at the - top, and stands stripped of bark for many years. The dead wood, - which frequently is not higher above the ground than a man's head, - is broken away by campers for fuel, and it is often the only - resource. - -[Illustration] - - - - -LONGLEAF PINE - -[Illustration: LONGLEAF PINE] - - - - -LONGLEAF PINE - -(_Pinus Palustris_) - - -Longleaf is generally considered to be the most important member of the -group of hard or pitch pines in this country[2]. It is known by many -names in different parts of its range, and outside of its range where -the wood is well known. - - [2] There is no precise agreement as to what should be included in - the group of hard pines in the United States, but the following - twenty-two are usually placed in that class: Longleaf Pine (_Pinus - palustris_), Shortleaf Pine (_Pinus echinata_), Loblolly Pine - (_Pinus taeda_), Cuban Pine (_Pinus heterophylla_), Norway Pine - (_Pinus resinosa_), Western Yellow Pine (_Pinus ponderosa_), - Chihuahua Pine (_Pinus chihuahuana_), Arizona Pine (_Pinus - arizonica_), Pitch Pine (_Pinus rigida_), Pond Pine (_Pinus - serotina_), Spruce Pine (_Pinus glabra_), Monterey Pine (_Pinus - radiata_), Knobcone Pine (_Pinus attenuata_), Gray Pine (_Pinus - sabiniana_), Coulter Pine (_Pinus coulteri_), Lodgepole Pine (_Pinus - contorta_), Jack Pine (_Pinus divaricata_), Scrub Pine (_Pinus - virginiana_), Sand Pine (_Pinus clausa_), Table Mountain Pine - (_Pinus pungens_), California Swamp Pine (_Pinus muricata_), Torry - Pine (_Pinus torreyana_). - -The names southern pine, Georgia pine, and Florida pine are not well -chosen, because there are other important pines in the regions named. -Turpentine pine is a common term, but other species produce turpentine -also, particularly the Cuban pine. Hard pine is much employed in -reference to this tree, and it applies well, but it describes other -species also. Heart pine is a lumberman's term to distinguish this -species from loblolly, shortleaf, and Cuban pines. The sapwood of the -three last named is thick, the heartwood small, while in longleaf pine -the sap is thin, the heart large, hence the name applied by lumbermen. -In Tennessee where it is not a commercial forest tree, it is called -brown pine, and in nearly all parts of the United States it is spoken of -as yellow pine, usually with some adjective as "southern," "Georgia," or -"longleaf." The persistency with which Georgia is used as a portion of -the name of this tree is due to the fact that extensive lumbering of the -longleaf forests began in that state. The center of operations has since -shifted to the West, and is now in Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. -The tree has many other names, among them being pitch pine and fat pine. -These have reference to its value in the naval stores industry. The name -longleaf pine is now well established in commercial transactions. It has -longer leaves than any other pine in this country. They range in length -from eight to eighteen inches. The needles of Cuban pine are from eight -to twelve inches; loblolly's are from six to nine; and those of -shortleaf from three to five. - -Longleaf pine's geographic range is more restricted than that of -loblolly and shortleaf, but larger than the range of Cuban pine. -Longleaf occupies a belt from Virginia to Texas, following the tertiary -sandy formation pretty closely. The belt seldom extends from the coast -inland more than 125 miles. The tree runs south in Florida to Tampa bay. -It disappears as it approaches the Mississippi, but reappears west of -that river in Louisiana and Texas. Its western limit is near Trinity -river, and its northern in that region is near the boundary between -Louisiana and Arkansas. - -Longleaf attains a height of from sixty to ninety feet, but a few trees -reach 130. The diameters of mature trunks range from one foot to three, -usually less than two. The leaves grow three in a bundle, and fall at -the end of the second year. They are arranged in thick, broom-like -bunches on the ends of the twigs. It is a tree of slow growth compared -with other pines of the region. Its characteristic narrow annual rings -are usually sufficient to distinguish its logs and lumber from those of -other southern yellow pines. Its thin sapwood likewise assists in -identification. The proportionately high percentage of heartwood in -longleaf pine makes it possible to saw lumber which shows little or no -sapwood. It is difficult to do that with other southern pines. - -The wood is heavy, exceedingly hard for pine, very strong, tough, -compact, durable, resinous, resin passages few, not conspicuous; -medullary rays numerous, not conspicuous; color, light red or orange, -the thin sapwood nearly white. The annual rings contain a large -proportion of dark colored summerwood, which accounts for the great -strength of longleaf pine timber. The contrast in color between the -springwood and the summerwood is the basis of the figure of this pine -which gives it much of its value as an interior finish material, -including doors. The hardness of the summerwood provides the wearing -qualities of flooring and paving blocks. The coloring matter in the body -of the wood protects it against decay for a longer period than most -other pines. This, in connection with its hardness and strength, gives -it high standing for railroad ties, bridges, trestles, and other -structures exposed to weather. - -Longleaf pine is as widely used as any softwood in this country. It -serves with hardwoods for a number of purposes. It has been a timber of -commerce since an early period, and was exported from the south Atlantic -coast long before the Revolutionary war; but it was later than that when -it came into keen competition with the Riga pine of northern Europe. It -has since held its own in the European markets, and its trade has -extended to many other foreign countries, particularly to the republics -of South and Central America, Mexico, and the West Indies. - -It did not attain an important position in the commerce of this country -until after the Civil war, but it had a place in shipbuilding before -that time, and it has held that place. The builders of cars employ large -quantities for frames and other parts of gondolas, box cars, and -coaches. Over 175,000,000 feet were so used in 1909 in Illinois. It is -the leading car building timber in this country. Its great strength, -hardness, and stiffness give it that place. - -It is scarcely less important as an interior wood for house finish. It -is not so much its strength as its beauty that recommends it for that -purpose. Its beauty is due to a combination of figure and color. -Splendid variety is possible by carefully selecting the material. -Manufacturers of furniture, fixtures, and vehicles are large users of -longleaf pine. In these lines its chief value is due to strength. - -In the naval stores industry in this country, it is more important than -all other species combined. For a century and a half it has supplied -this country and much of the rest of the world. The principal -commodities made from the resin of this tree are spirits of turpentine -and rosin. These two articles are produced by distilling the resin which -exudes from wounds in the tree. The distillate is spirits of turpentine, -the residue is rosin. The manufacture of naval stores has destroyed tens -of thousands of trees in the past; but better methods are now in use and -loss is less. Georgia and South Carolina were once the center of naval -stores production; but it has now moved to Louisiana and Florida. - -The supply of longleaf pine has rapidly decreased during the past twenty -years, and though the end is not yet at hand, it is approaching. Young -trees are not coming on to take the place of those cut for lumber. They -grow slowly at best, and a new forest could not be produced in less than -a hundred years. Both protection and care have been lacking. Fire -usually kills seedlings in their first or second year. The result is -that many extensive tracts where longleaf pine once grew in abundance -have few young and scarcely any old trees now. As far as can be -foreseen, this valuable timber will reach its end when existing stands -have been cut. - -CUBAN PINE (_Pinus heterophylla_). The Cuban pine has several local -names; slash pine in Georgia, Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi; swamp -pine in Florida, Alabama, and Mississippi; meadow pine in Florida and -Mississippi; pitch pine in Florida; and spruce pine in Alabama. Its -range is confined to the coast region from South Carolina to Louisiana, -from sixty to one hundred miles inland. It is the only pine in the -extreme south of Florida. The wood is heavy, hard, very strong, tough, -compact, durable, resinous, the resin passages few but conspicuous, rich -dark orange color, the sapwood often nearly white. The annual ring is -usually more than half dark colored summerwood. The Cuban pine grows -rapidly, quickly appropriates vacant ground, and the species is -spreading. Its needles, from eight to twelve inches long, fall the -second year. The wood possesses nearly the strength, hardness, and -stiffness of longleaf pine, and the trunks are as large. The two woods -which are so similar in other respects differ in figure, owing to the -wider annual rings of the Cuban pine. The sapwood of the latter species -greatly exceeds in thickness that of longleaf pine. For that reason it -is often mistaken for loblolly pine. Cuban pine never goes to market -under its own name, but is mixed with and passes for one of the other -southern yellow pines. - -SAND PINE (_Pinus clausa_). This tree is generally twenty or thirty feet -high, and eight or twelve inches in diameter. Under favorable conditions -it attains a height of sixty or eighty feet and a diameter of two. The -leaves are two or three inches long, and fall the third and fourth -years. Its range is almost wholly in Florida but extends a little over -the northern border. It grows as far south as Tampa on the west coast, -and nearly to Miami on the east. It is not much cut for lumber because -of its small size and generally short, limby trunk. In a few localities -shapely boles are developed, and serviceable lumber is made. It is a -poor-land tree, as its name implies. The cones adhere to the branches -many years, and may be partly enclosed in the growing wood. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SHORTLEAF PINE - -[Illustration: SHORTLEAF PINE] - - - - -SHORTLEAF PINE - -(_Pinus Echinata_) - - -In the markets the lumber of this species is known as yellow pine, -southern yellow pine, and sap pine, and in some localities the term -shortleaf is used. The latter is descriptive, and can be easily -understood when reference is made to the living tree, because its short -needles distinguish it from its associates in the pine forest; but in -speaking of lumber only, the reference to the leaves has less meaning, -particularly to one who is not acquainted with the tree's appearance. -Its wood so closely resembles that of Cuban and loblolly pine that they -are not easily distinguished by sight alone. In the East the name -Carolina pine or North Carolina pine is much used, but it is not often -heard west of the Allegheny mountains. Referring to the manner and -locality of its growth it is called slash pine in North Carolina and -Virginia, old-field pine in Alabama and Mississippi, and poor-field pine -in Florida. Its tendency to take possession of abandoned ground has -given it these names. It is occasionally called pitch pine in Missouri. -That name would not distinguish it in most parts of the South where -several species of pitch pine grow. In some regions it is known as -spruce pine, but the name is not based on any characteristic of the -living tree or of its wood. In North Carolina and Alabama, and in -literature, it is sometimes known as rosemary pine, but that name -applies rather to fine timber cut from any southern yellow pine, than to -this species in particular. In Delaware it is known as shortshat and in -Virginia as bull pine. To those who are familiar with the tree's -appearance, the name shortleaf pine is most accurate in definition. - -The commercial range of shortleaf pine has contracted to a considerable -extent since the settlement of the country. It once grew as far north as -Albany, New York, and from fifty to a hundred years ago it was lumbered -in Pennsylvania, Maryland, and West Virginia in regions where it has now -ceased to exist, or is found only as scattered trees. Its geographical -range is now usually given from New York to Florida, west to Missouri -and Oklahoma and northeastern Texas. It is important in lumber -operations in North Carolina and southward, and westward to the limits -of its range. The tree reaches its largest size and attains its finest -stands west of the Mississippi river. In average size it exceeds -longleaf pine. It may reach a height above 100 feet and a trunk diameter -of three or four. Squared timbers of large size were formerly exported -from Virginia and North Carolina. Similar sizes cannot now be procured -there. - -Shortleaf pine varies greatly in the quality and amount of sapwood. It -is normally a thick sap tree, but midway between loblolly and longleaf. -The young tree increases rapidly in size until it is from six to ten -inches in diameter, and the yearly rings are wide. The rate of growth -then decreases and during the rest of its life the rings are narrow. -This feature is often of assistance in identifying southern yellow pine -logs or large timbers which contain the heart and also the sap. Wide -rings near the heart, followed by narrow ones, and a thick sapwood are -pretty good evidence that the timber--if a southern yellow pine--is -shortleaf pine. The rule is not absolute; for a high authority on timber -has said that no infallible rule can be laid down for distinguishing by -sight alone the woods of the four southern yellow pines--longleaf, -shortleaf, Cuban, and loblolly. - -The wood of shortleaf pine is strong, heavy, hard, and compact; very -resinous, resin passages large and numerous; medullary rays numerous, -conspicuous; color, orange, the sapwood nearly white. The thoroughly -seasoned wood weighs thirty-eight pounds per cubic foot. It is about -five pounds heavier than loblolly pine, five pounds lighter than -longleaf, and nearly nine pounds lighter than Cuban pine. There is so -great a variation in weight of shortleaf pine that only general averages -have value. - -Shortleaf pine is not as strong as longleaf, and is not so extensively -employed in heavy structural work, but in certain other lines it has the -advantage of longleaf. It is softer, and door and sash makers like it -better. It is easier to work, and when manufactured into doors and -interior finish many consider it superior to longleaf. The wide rings of -annual growth in the heartwood show fine contrast in color, and when -these are developed by stains and fillers, the grain or figure of the -wood is very pleasing. Where hardness is not an essential, it is much -used for floors. It is in great demand by builders of freight cars, but -less for frames and heavy beams than for siding and decking. Car -builders in Illinois bought 77,000,000 feet of it in 1909. That was -nearly half of the entire quantity of this wood used in the state. The -second largest users in Illinois were manufacturers of sash, doors, -blinds, and general millwork. If the whole country is considered, this -is probably the largest use of the wood. Makers of boxes and crates in -the South employ large quantities. - -The depletion of shortleaf forests has progressed rapidly, but in the -absence of reliable statistics it is impossible to give figures by -decades or years. In 1880 an estimate placed the amount west of the -Mississippi at 95,000,000,000 feet. That was probably less than half of -the country's supply at that time. In 1911 the Commissioner of -Corporations estimated that the combined remaining stand of loblolly -and shortleaf pine in the South was 152,000,000,000 feet. It is doubtful -if half of it was shortleaf. In that case, there was less shortleaf pine -in the entire South in 1911 than there was west of the Mississippi river -thirty years before. - -Rapid decrease in total stand of a species does not necessarily imply -exhaustion. The cut will fall off as scarcity pinches. In the case of -shortleaf pine, an influence is active which will bring good results in -the future. This pine reproduces with vigor. Its small triangular seeds -are equipped with wings which carry them into vacant areas where they -quickly germinate if they fall on mineral soil. The seedling trees -suffer much from fire, but their power of resistance is fairly good, and -dense new growth is coming on in many localities. A good many years are -required to bring a seedling to maturity, but it will reach sawlog size -sometime, and there is no question but that the market will welcome it. - -The shortleaf pine is peculiar among eastern softwoods in one respect. -Stumps will sprout. That occurs oftener west of the Mississippi than -east. However, the tree's ability to send up sprouts from the stump is -of little practical value, since the sprouts seldom or never develop -into merchantable trees. In that respect it differs from the other -well-known sprouting softwood of this country, the California redwood, -whose numerous sprouts grow into large trunks. - -SPRUCE PINE (_Pinus glabra_). This is one of the softest and the whitest -of the hard pines of this country. Nothing but its scarcity stands in -the way of its becoming an important timber tree. The best of it is a -satisfactory substitute for white pine in the manufacture of doors. It -grows rapidly, and the wide rings contain a high percentage of light -colored springwood, though there is enough summerwood of darker color to -give the dressed lumber a character. It weighs about the same as -northern white pine, but is weaker. In South Carolina and Florida it is -called white pine, but the name spruce is more general. It is known also -as kingstree, poor pine, Walter's pine, and lowland spruce pine. Its -range is restricted to southern South Carolina, northern Florida and -southern Alabama and Mississippi, and northeastern Louisiana. Its leaves -are from one and a half to three inches in length, grow two in a bundle, -and fall the second and third years. Large and well-formed trunks attain -a height of from eighty to 100 feet and a diameter from two to nearly -three. It reaches its best development in northwestern Florida, and its -light, symmetrical trunks have long been in use there as masts for small -vessels. It is too scarce to attract much attention from lumbermen, but -they are well acquainted with its good qualities, and some of them take -pains to keep the lumber separate from associated pines, and sell it to -manufacturers of doors and interior finish. The bark bears considerable -resemblance to spruce, which probably accounts for the name of the tree. - - TABLE MOUNTAIN PINE (_Pinus pungens_). The French botanist, Michaux - the younger, has been criticized for the statement which he made - more than a hundred years ago that this species was confined to a - certain flat-topped mountain in the southern Appalachian ranges, and - he called it table mountain pine. It lacked much of being confined - within the narrow limits where it was discovered. It grows in New - Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, District of Columbia, Virginia, West - Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina, and Georgia. Its - other names are prickly pine, hickory pine, and southern mountain - pine. It supplies timber in all parts of its range, but, except in - very restricted localities, it is not abundant. The lumber in the - market is seldom distinguished from other pines, but some of the - Tennessee mills sell it separately to local customers. The wood is - medium light, rather strong (about like _Pinus rigida_, or pitch - pine, which it resembles in other respects), is less stiff than - white pine, and is resinous. The thick sapwood is nearly white, the - heartwood brown. It is not a durable timber in contact with the - ground. Its fuel value is low. Its needles grow in clusters of two, - and are generally less than two inches long. The cones which are in - clusters of from three to eight, and from two to three and a half - inches long, are armed with stout, curved hooks. The cones shed - their seeds irregularly during two or three years, and sometimes - hang on the trees for twenty years. In open ground this pine - occasionally produces fertile seeds when only a few feet high. Its - forest form and open-ground form are quite different. In thick woods - the tree is tall, with good bole, but in open ground it is only - twenty or thirty feet high, and is covered with limbs almost to the - ground. - -[Illustration] - - - - -LOBLOLLY PINE - -[Illustration: LOBLOLLY PINE] - - - - -LOBLOLLY PINE - -(_Pinus Taeda_) - - -Few trees have more names than this. The names, however, may be -separated into groups, one group referring to the foliage, another to -the situations in which the tree grows, and a third to certain -characters or uses of the wood. Names descriptive of the leaves are -longschat pine, longshucks pine, shortleaf pine, foxtail pine, and -longstraw pine. The names which refer to locality or situation are -loblolly pine, old-field pine, slash pine, black slash pine, Virginia -pine, meadow pine and swamp pine. Names which refer to the character of -the wood or of the standing tree are torch pine, rosemary pine, -frankincense pine, cornstalk pine, spruce pine, and yellow pine. Not one -of these names is applied to the tree in its entire range, and it has -several names other than those listed. Sap pine is widely applied to the -lumber, because the tree's sapwood is very thick, sometimes amounting to -eighty per cent of a trunk. It has borne the name old-field pine for a -hundred and fifty years in Virginia, and the name suggests a good deal -of history. Some of the improvident early Virginia tobacco growers -neglected to fertilize their fields, and the land wore out under -constant cropping, and was abandoned. The pine quickly took possession, -for the fields which were too far exhausted to produce tobacco or corn -were amply able to grow dense stands of loblolly pine, and the farmers -noticing this, called it old-field pine. It has been taking possession -of abandoned fields in Virginia and North Carolina ever since, and the -name still applies. The tree grows from New Jersey to Florida, west to -Texas, north to Oklahoma, Tennessee, and West Virginia, but it does not -cover the whole territory thus outlined. It is very scarce near its -northern limit. There is evidence that the range of loblolly has -extended in historic times, not into new or distant regions, but outside -the borders which once marked its range. Since white men in Texas -stopped the Indians' grass fires, the pine has encroached upon the -prairie. Early writers in Virginia and North Carolina spoke of pine as -scarce or totally wanting, except on the immediate coast. It is now -found from one hundred to two hundred miles inland, and many sawmills -now cut logs which have grown in fields abandoned since the -Revolutionary war. This has occurred on the Atlantic coast rather than -west of the Appalachian ranges of mountains. Virginia has more sawmills -than any other state, and many of them are working on loblolly pine -which has grown in the last hundred years. - -The tree bears seeds abundantly and scatters them widely. It is -vigorous, grows with great rapidity, and is able to fight its way if it -finds conditions in any way favorable. Turpentine operators have not -found the working of loblolly pine profitable, and this has relieved it -of a drain which has done much to deplete the southern forests of -longleaf pine. - -Loblolly's leaves are from six to nine inches long, and fall the third -year. This species, in common with other southern yellow pines, is -disposed to grow tall, clear trunks, with a meager supply of limbs and -foliage at the top. The lumber sawed from trunks of that kind is clear -of knots. No other important forest tree of the United States comes as -nearly being a cultivated tree as the loblolly pine. This is -particularly true in the northeastern part of its range, in North -Carolina, Virginia, and Maryland. Though nature has done the actual -planting, men provided the seed beds by giving up old fields to that -use; and many of the stands are as thick and even as if they had been -planted and cared for by regular forestry methods. Trees are from eighty -to one hundred feet tall, and from two to four in diameter, some very -old ones being a little larger. - -The annual rings of loblolly pine are broad, with good contrast between -the spring and summer growth. The wood is light, not strong, brittle, -not durable, very resinous, the resin passages are few and not -conspicuous; medullary rays are numerous and obscure; color, light -brown, the thick sapwood orange or nearly white. When this tree is of -slow growth it is lighter, less resinous, and has thinner sapwood. It is -sometimes known as rosemary pine. - -The use of loblolly pine lumber was greatly stimulated when the custom -of drying it in kilns became general. It is largely sapwood and dries -slowly in air. Its market is found in all eastern and central parts of -the United States, and it is exported to Europe and Central and South -America. It is a substantial material for many common purposes and its -use is very large on the Atlantic coast. In quantity it exceeds any -other species in the wood-using industries of Maryland, and all others -combined in North Carolina. It is not as often employed in heavy -structural timbers as longleaf pine, but in the market of which -Baltimore is the center, much use is made of it for that purpose. It is -ten pounds a cubic foot lighter than longleaf, has about three-fourths -of the strength, and nearly four-fifths of longleaf's elasticity. It is -thus seen to be considerably inferior to it as a structural timber where -heavy loads must be sustained; but builders use it for many purposes in -preference to or on an equality with longleaf. It is fine for interior -finish and doors. Railroads employ large quantities in building freight -cars, much for crossties, and bridge builders find many places for it. -It is not a long lasting wood when exposed to weather, unless it has -been treated with creosote to preserve it from decay. It is one of the -most easily treated woods. - -In North Carolina and Virginia loblolly tobacco hogsheads are common; -and box factories within easy reach of it use much. A list of its uses, -compiled from reports of factory operations in Maryland, will give an -idea of the range it covers: Basket bottoms, beer bottle boxes, boats, -cart bodies, crates, flooring, frames for doors and windows, fruit -boxes, interior finish, nail kegs, oyster boxes, seats for boats, siding -for houses, staves for slack cooperage, store fixtures, wagon beds, -balusters, brackets, chiffoniers, mantels, molding, picture frames, -stair railing, sash, scrollwork, sideboards, tables. - -The amount of loblolly pine timber in this country is not known. No -other important species comes so near growing as much as is cut from -year to year. It covers 200,000 square miles with stands ranging from -little or nothing in some parts to 20,000 feet per acre in others, or -more in exceptional cases. The area of fully stocked loblolly pine is -believed to be as large now as it ever was. Before the Civil war it was -predicted that its period of greatest production was over; but large -tracts are now being logged on which the pine seeds had not been sown in -1860. - -POND PINE (_Pinus serotina_). Sargent's table of weights of woods shows -this to be the heaviest pine of the United States; but, as his -calculations were made from a single sample which grew in Duval county, -Florida, further data should be secured before his figures, 49.5 pounds -per cubic foot, are accepted as an average weight for the species. It is -rated in strength about equal to longleaf and Cuban pine. Its structure -shows a large percentage of dense summerwood in the yearly ring. The -leaves are in clusters of three, rarely four, and are six or eight -inches long, and fall in their third and fourth years. The name suggests -that the cones are tightly closed, and that they adhere tenaciously to -the twigs on which they grow. This is found true. The principal -impression made on a person who sees the pond pine for the first time is -that it is overloaded with cones, and that it must be a prolific seeder. -Better acquaintance modifies the latter part of that impression. It is -overloaded with cones, but most of them are many years old, and have -long been seedless, although most of the trees have the seed crops of -two years on the branches at one time. Enough seed is shed to perpetuate -the species, but too little to insure an aggressive spread into -surrounding vacant ground. The pond pine may reach a diameter of three -feet and a height of eighty, but that is twice the average size. The -wood is very resinous, and is brittle. - - SCRUB PINE (_Pinus virginiana_). This tree is often called Jersey - pine because it is a prominent feature of the landscapes in the - southern part of that state where it has spread extensively since - the settlement of the country. Its short needles have been - responsible for several of its names, among them being shortshuck - pine in Maryland and Virginia, shortshat pine in Delaware, - shortleaved pine in North Carolina, and spruce pine and cedar pine - in some parts of the South. In Tennessee it is known as nigger pine, - and in some parts of North Carolina as river pine. The range is - fairly well outlined by the above discussion of its names. It grows - from New York to South Carolina, and west of the mountains it is - found in northern Alabama and middle Tennessee, in Kentucky and West - Virginia. It reaches its largest size in southern Indiana where it - is sometimes 100 feet high and three in diameter. It is there a - valuable tree for many purposes, but is not abundant. Its average - size is small in the eastern states, usually not over fifty feet - high, and often little more than half of that. Few trunks east of - the Allegheny mountains are more than eighteen inches in diameter. - The name scrub pine is an index to the opinions held by most people - regarding this tree. It is often considered an encumbrance rather - than an asset; yet statistics of wood-using industries hardly - justify that view. Millions of feet of it are employed annually in - each of the states of New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia, and North - Carolina, for boxes, slack cooperage, and common lumber. The wood is - moderately strong, but is not stiff. It is medium light, soft, - brittle, with summerwood narrow and very resinous. Its color is - light orange or yellow, the thick sapwood ivory white. The needles - are from one and a half to three inches long, and fall in the third - and fourth years. Cones are two or three inches long, and scatter - their seeds in autumn. The wings are too small to carry the seeds - far, yet the tree succeeds in quickly spreading into surrounding - vacant spaces. Cones adhere to the branches three or four years. Tar - makers and charcoal burners utilized scrub pine in New Jersey, - northeastern Maryland and southeastern Pennsylvania a century and a - half ago. The tree seems to be as abundant now as it ever was. - Unless it occupies very poor land--which it generally does--the - growth is liable to be suppressed and crowded to death by broadleaf - trees before the stands become very old. As a species, it is weak in - self-defense, and it owes its survival to its habit of retreating to - poor soils where enemies cannot follow. It may be said of it as the - Roman historian Tacitus said of certain men: "The cowards fly the - farthest, and are the longest survivors." - -[Illustration] - - - - -NORWAY PINE - -[Illustration: NORWAY PINE] - - - - -NORWAY PINE - -(_Pinus Resinosa_) - - -Early explorers who were not botanists mistook this tree for Norway -spruce, and gave it the name which has since remained in nearly all -parts of its range. It is called red pine also, and this name is -strictly descriptive. The brown or red color of the bark is instantly -noticed by one who sees the tree for the first time. In the Lake States -it has been called hard pine for the purpose of distinguishing it from -the softer white pine with which it is associated. In England they call -it Canadian red pine, because the principal supply in England is -imported from the Canadian provinces. - -Its chief range lies in the drainage basin of the St. Lawrence river, -which includes the Great Lakes and the rivers which flow into them. -Newfoundland forms the eastern and Manitoba the western outposts of this -species. It is found as far south as Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, -northern Ohio, central Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. It conforms -pretty generally to the range of white pine but does not accompany that -species southward along the Appalachian mountain ranges across West -Virginia, Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee. Where it was left to -compete in nature's way with white pine, the contest was friendly, but -white pine got the best of it. The two species grew in intermixture, but -in most instances white pine had from five to twenty trees to Norway's -one. As a survivor under adversity, however, the Norway pine appears to -surpass its great friendly rival, at least in the Lake States where the -great pineries once flourished and have largely passed away. Solitary or -small clumps of Norway pines are occasionally found where not a white -pine, large or small, is in sight. - -The forest appearance of Norway pine resembles the southern yellow -pines. The stand is open, the trunks are clean and tall, the branches -are at the top. The Norway's leaves are in clusters of two, and are five -or six inches long. They fall during the fourth or fifth year. Cones are -two inches long, and when mature, closely resemble the color of the -tree's bark, that is, light chestnut brown. Exceptionally tall Norway -pines may reach a height of 150 feet, but the average is seventy or -eighty, with diameters of from two to four. Young trees are limby, but -early in life the lower branches die and fall, leaving few protruding -stubs or knots. It appears to be a characteristic that trunks are seldom -quite straight. They do not have the plumb appearance of forest grown -white pine and spruce. - -The wood of Norway pine is medium light, its strength and stiffness -about twenty-five per cent greater than white pine, and it is moderately -soft. The annual rings are rather wide, indicating rapid growth. The -bands of summerwood are narrow compared with the springwood, which gives -a generally light color to the wood, though not as light as the wood of -white pine. The resin passages are small and fairly numerous. The -sapwood is thick, and the wood is not durable in contact with the soil. - -Norway pine has always had a place of its own in the lumber trade, but -large quantities have been marketed as white pine. If such had not been -the case, Norway pine would have been much oftener heard of during the -years when the Lake State pineries were sending their billions of feet -of lumber to the markets of the world. - -Because of the deposit of resinous materials in the wood, Norway pine -stumps resist decay much better than white pine. In some of the early -cuttings in Michigan, where only stumps remain to show how large the -trees were and how thick they stood, the Norway stumps are much better -preserved than the white pine. Using that fact as a basis of estimate, -it may be shown that in many places the Norway pine constituted -one-fifth or one-fourth of the original stand. The lumbermen cut clean, -and statistics of that period do not show that the two pines were -generally marketed separately. In recent years many of the Norway stumps -have been pulled, and have been sold to wood-distillation plants where -the rosin and turpentine are extracted. - -At an early date Norway pine from Canada and northern New York was -popular ship timber in this country and England. Slender, straight -trunks were selected as masts, or were sawed for decking planks thirty -or forty feet long. Shipbuilders insisted that planks be all heartwood, -because when sapwood was exposed to rain and sun, it changed to a green -color, due to the presence of fungus. The wood wears well as ship -decking. The British navy was still using some Norway pine masts as late -as 1875. - -The scarcity of this timber has retired it from some of the places which -it once filled, and the southern yellow pines have been substituted. It -is still employed for many important purposes, the chief of which is car -building, if statistics for the state of Illinois are a criterion for -the whole country. In 1909 in that state 24,794,000 feet of it were used -for all purposes, and 14,783,000 feet in car construction. - -For many years Chicago has been the center of the Norway pine trade. It -is landed there by lake steamers and by rail, and is distributed to -ultimate consumers. The uses for the wood, as reported by Illinois -manufacturers, follow: Baskets, boxes, boats, brackets, casing and -frames for doors and windows, crating, derricks for well-boring -machines, doors, elevators, fixtures for stores and offices, foot or -running boards for tank cars, foundry flasks, freight cars, hand rails, -insulation for refrigerator cars, ladders, picture moldings, roofing, -sash, siding for cattle cars, sign boards and advertising signs, tanks, -and windmill towers. - -As with white pine, Norway pine has passed the period of greatest -production, though much still goes to market every year and will long -continue to do so. The land which lumbermen denuded in the Lake States, -particularly Michigan and Wisconsin, years ago, did not reclothe itself -with Norway seedlings. That would have taken place in most instances but -for fires which ran periodically through the slashings until all -seedlings were destroyed. In many places there are now few seedlings and -few large trees to bear seeds, and consequently the pine forest in such -places is a thing of the past. The outlook is better in other -localities. - -The Norway pine is much planted for ornament, and is rated one of the -handsomest of northern park trees. - - PITCH PINE (_Pinus rigida_). The name pitch pine is locally applied - to almost every species of hard, resinous pine in this country. The - _Pinus rigida_ has other names than pitch pine. In Delaware it is - called longleaved pine, since its needles are longer than the scrub - pine's with which it is associated. For the same reason it is known - in some localities as longschat pine. In Massachusetts it is called - hard pine, in Pennsylvania yellow pine, in North Carolina and - eastern Tennessee black pine, and black Norway pine in New York. The - botanical name is translated "rigid pine," but the rigid refers to - the leaves, not the wood. Its range covers New England, New York, - Pennsylvania, southern Canada, eastern Ohio, and southward along the - mountains to northern Georgia. It has three leaves in a cluster, - from three to five inches long, and they fall the second year. Cones - range in length from one to three inches, and they hang on the - branches ten or twelve years. The wood is medium light, moderately - strong, but low in stiffness. It is soft and brittle. The annual - rings are wide, the summerwood broad, distinct, and very resinous. - Medullary rays are few but prominent; color, light brown or red, the - thick sapwood yellow or often nearly white. The difference in the - hardness between springwood and summerwood renders it difficult to - work, and causes uneven wear when used as flooring. It is fairly - durable in contact with the soil. - - The tree attains a height of from forty to eighty feet and a - diameter of three. This pine is not found in extensive forests, but - in scattered patches, nearly always on poor soil where other trees - will not crowd it. Light and air are necessary to its existence. If - it receives these, it will fight successfully against adversities - which would be fatal to many other species. In resistance to forest - fires, it is a salamander among trees. That is primarily due to its - thick bark, but it is favored also by the situations in which it is - generally found--open woods, and on soil so poor that ground litter - is thin. It is a useful wood for many purposes, and wherever it is - found in sufficient quantity, it goes to market, but under its own - name only in restricted localities. Its resinous knots were once - used in place of candles in frontier homes. Tar made locally from - its rich wood was the pioneer wagoner's axle grease, and the - ever-present tar bucket and tar paddle swung from the rear axle. - Torches made by tying splinters in bundles answered for lanterns in - night travel. It was the best pine for floors in some localities. - It is probably used more for boxes than for anything else at - present. In 1909 Massachusetts box makers bought 600,000 feet, and a - little more went to Maryland box factories. Its poor holding power - on spikes limits its employment as railroad ties and in - shipbuilding. Carpenters and furniture makers object to the numerous - knots. Country blacksmiths who repair and make wagons as a side - line, find it suitable for wagon beds. It is much used as fuel where - it is convenient. - - TORREY PINE (_Pinus torreyana_), called del mar pine and Soledad - pine, is an interesting tree from the fact that its range is so - restricted that the actual number of trees could be easily known to - one who would take the trouble to count them. A rather large - quantity formerly occupied a small area in San Diego county, - California, but woodchoppers who did not appreciate the fact that - they were exterminating a species of pine from the face of the - earth, cut nearly all of the trees for fuel. Its range covered only - a few square miles, and fortunately part of that was included in the - city limits of San Diego. An ordinance was passed prohibiting the - cutting of a Torrey pine under heavy penalty, and the tree was thus - saved. A hundred and fifty miles off the San Diego coast a few - Torrey pines grow on the islands of Santa Cruz and Santa Rosa, and - owing to their isolated situation they bid fair to escape the - cordwood cutter for years to come. Those who have seen this tree on - its native hills have admired the gameness of its battle for - existence against the elements. Standing in the full sweep of the - ocean winds, its strong, short branches scarcely move, and all the - agitation is in the thick tufts of needles which cling to the ends - of the branches. Trees exposed to the seawinds are stunted, and are - generally less than a foot in diameter and thirty feet high; but - those which are so fortunate as to occupy sheltered valleys are - three or four times that size. The needles are five in a cluster. - The cones persist on the branches three or four years. The wood is - light, soft, moderately strong, very brittle; the rings of yearly - growth are broad, and the yellow bands of summerwood occupy nearly - half. The sapwood is very thick and is nearly white. - -[Illustration] - - - - -WESTERN YELLOW PINE - -[Illustration: WESTERN YELLOW PINE] - - - - -WESTERN YELLOW PINE - -(_Pinus Ponderosa_) - - -The range of western yellow pine covers a million square miles. Its -eastern boundary is a line drawn from South Dakota to western Texas. The -species covers much of the country between that line and the Pacific -ocean. It is natural that it should have more names than one in a region -so extensive. It is best known as western yellow pine, but lumbermen -often call it California white pine. The standing timber is frequently -designated bull pine, but that name is not often given to the lumber. -Where there is no likelihood of confusing it with southern pines, it is -called simply yellow pine. The name heavy-wooded pine, sometimes applied -to the lumber in England, is misleading. When well seasoned it weighs -about thirty pounds per cubic foot, and ordinarily it would not be -classed heavy. In California it is called heavy pine, but that is to -distinguish it from sugar pine which is considerably lighter. The color -of its bark has given it the name Sierra brownbark pine. The same tree -in Montana is called black pine. - -The tree has developed two forms. Some botanists have held there are two -species, but that is not the general opinion. In the warm, damp climate -of the Pacific slope the tree is larger, and somewhat different in -appearance from the form in the Rocky Mountain region. The same -observation holds true of Douglas fir. - -The wood of western yellow pine is medium light, not strong, is low in -elasticity, medullary rays prominent but not numerous; resinous, color -light to reddish, the thick sapwood almost white. The annual rings are -variable in width, and the proportionate amounts of springwood and -summerwood also vary. It is not durable in contact with the ground. - -The wood is easy to work and some of the best of it resembles white -pine, but as a whole it is inferior to that wood, though it is -extensively employed as a substitute for it in the manufacture of doors, -sash, and frames. It is darker than white pine, harder, heavier, -stronger, almost exactly equal in stiffness, but the annual rings of the -two woods do not bear close resemblance. - -The tree reaches a height of from 100 to 200 feet, a diameter from three -to seven. It is occasionally much larger. Its size depends much on its -habitat. The best development occurs on the Sierra Nevada mountains in -California and the best wood comes from that region, though certain -other localities produce high-grade lumber. - -Western yellow pine holds and will long hold an important place in the -country's timber resources. The total stand has been estimated at -275,000,000,000 feet, and is second only to that of Douglas fir, though -the combined stand of the four southern yellow pines is about -100,000,000,000 feet larger. It is a vigorous species, able to hold its -ground under ordinary circumstances. Next to incense cedar and the giant -sequoias which are associated with it in the Sierra Nevada mountains, it -is the most prolific seed bearer of the western conifers, and its seeds -are sufficiently light to insure wide distribution. It is gaining ground -within its range by taking possession of vacant areas which have been -bared by lumbering or fire. In some cases it crowds to death the more -stately sugar pine by cutting off its light and moisture. It resists -fire better than most of the forest trees with which it is associated. -On the other hand, it suffers from enemies more than its associates do. -A beetle (_Dendroctonus ponderosae_), destroys large stands. In the Black -Hills in 1903 its ravages killed 600,000,000 feet. - -This splendid pine has run the gamut of uses from the corral pole of the -first settler to the paneled door turned out by the modern factory. It -has almost an unlimited capacity for usefulness. It grows in dry regions -of the Rocky Mountains where it is practically the only source of wood -supply; and it is equally secure in its position where forests are -abundant and fine. It has supplied props, stulls, and lagging for mines -in nearly every state touched by its range. Without its ties and other -timbers some of the early railroads through the western mountains could -scarcely have been built. It has been one of the leading flume timbers -in western lumber and irrigation development. It fenced many ranches in -early times and is still doing so. It is used in general construction, -and in finish; from the shingle to the foundation sill of houses. It -finds its way to eastern lumber markets. Almost 20,000,000 feet a year -are used in Illinois alone. Competition with eastern white pine is met -in the Lake States because, grade for grade, the western wood is -cheaper, until lower grades are reached. The western yellow pine, in the -eastern market, is confused with the western white pine of Idaho and -Montana (_Pinus monticola_) and separate statistics of use are -impossible. - -The makers of fruit boxes in California often employ the yellow pine in -lieu of sugar pine which once supplied the whole trade. It is also used -by coopers for various containers, but not for alcoholic liquors. - -The leaves are in clusters of twos and threes, and are from five to -eleven inches long. Most of them fall during the third year. The cones -are from three to six inches long, and generally fall soon after they -reach maturity. - - COULTER PINE (_Pinus coulteri_) is also known as nut pine, big cone - pine, and long cone pine. It is a California species, scarce, but of - much interest because of its cones. They are larger than those of - any other American pine and are armed with formidable curved spines - from half an inch to an inch and a half in length. The cones are - from ten to fourteen inches long. The tree is found on the Coast - Range mountains from the latitude of San Francisco to the boundary - between California and Mexico. It thrives at altitudes of from 3,000 - to 6,000 feet. It never occurs in pure stands and the total amount - is small. It looks like the western yellow pine, but is much - inferior in size. Trunks seldom attain a length of fifteen feet or a - diameter of two. There is no evidence that Coulter pine is - increasing its stand on the ground which it already occupies, or - spreading to new ground. The wood is light, soft, moderately strong, - and very tough. The annual rings are narrow and consist largely of - summerwood. The heartwood is light red, the thick sapwood nearly - white. It is a poor tree for lumber, and it has been little used in - that way, but has been burned for charcoal for blacksmith shops, and - much is sold as cordwood. The leaves of Coulter pine are in clusters - of three, and they fall during the third and fourth years. - - CALIFORNIA SWAMP PINE (_Pinus muricata_) clearly belongs among minor - species listed as timber trees. It meets a small demand for skids, - corduroy log roads, bridge floors, and scaffolds in the redwood - logging operations in California. It is scattered along the Pacific - coast 500 miles, beginning in Lower California and ending a hundred - miles north of San Francisco. It is known as dwarf marine pine, - pricklecone pine, bishop pine, and obispo pine. The last name is the - Spanish translation of the English word bishop. The largest trees - seldom exceed two feet in diameter, and a height of ninety feet. The - average size is little more than half as much. The wood is very - strong, hard, and compact, and the annual growth ring is largely - dense summerwood. Resin passages are few, but the wood is resinous, - light brown in color, and the thick sapwood is nearly white. The - needles are in clusters of two, and are from four to six inches - long. They begin to fall the second year. Some of the trees retain - their cones until death, but the seeds are scattered from year to - year. Under the stimulus of artificial conditions in the redwood - districts this pine seems to be spreading. Its seeds blow into - vacant ground from which redwood has been removed, and growth is - prompt. The seedlings are not at all choice as to soil, but take - root in cold clay, in peat bogs, on barren sand and gravel, and on - wind-swept ridges exposed to ocean fogs. Its ability to grow where - few other trees can maintain themselves holds out some hope that its - usefulness will increase. - - MONTEREY PINE (_Pinus radiata_). This scarce and local species is - restricted to the California coast south of San Francisco, and to - adjacent islands. Under favorable circumstances it grows rapidly and - promises to be of more importance as a lumber source in the future - than it has been in the past. It is, however, somewhat particular as - to soil. It must have ground not too wet or too dry. If these - requirements are observed, it is a good tree for planting. Its - average height is seventy or ninety feet, diameter from eighteen to - thirty inches. Trunks six feet in diameter are occasionally heard - of. The wood is light, soft, moderately strong, tough, annual rings - very wide and largely of springwood; color, light brown, the very - thick sapwood nearly white. The leaves are from four to six inches - long, in clusters of two and three, and fall the third year. Cones - are from three to five inches long. The lumber is too scarce at - present to have much importance, but its quality is good. In - appearance it resembles wide-ringed loblolly pine, and appears to be - suitable for doors and sash, and frames for windows and doors. Its - present uses are confined chiefly to ranch timbers and fuel. If it - ever amounts to much as a lumber resource, it will be as a planted - pine, and not in its natural state. - - JACK PINE (_Pinus divaricata_) is a far northern species which - extends its range southward in the United States, from Maine to - Minnesota, and reaches northern Indiana and Illinois. It grows - almost far enough north in the valley of Mackenzie river to catch - the rays of the midnight sun. It must necessarily adapt itself to - circumstances. When these are favorable, it develops a trunk up to - two feet in diameter and seventy feet tall; but in adversity, it - degenerates into a many-branched shrub a few feet high. The average - tree in the United States is thirty or forty feet tall, and a foot - or more in diameter. Its name is intended as a term of contempt, - which it does not deserve. Others call it scrub pine which is little - better. Its other names are more respectful, Prince's pine in - Ontario, black pine in Wisconsin and Minnesota, cypress in Quebec - and the Hudson Bay country, Sir Joseph Banks' pine in England, and - juniper in some parts of Canada. "Chek pine" is frequently given in - its list of names, but the name is said to have originated in an - attempt of a German botanist to pronounce "Jack pine" in dictating - to a stenographer. The tree straggles over landscapes which - otherwise would be treeless. It is often a ragged and uncouth - specimen of the vegetable kingdom, but that is when it is at its - worst. At its best, as it may be seen where cared for in some of the - Michigan cemeteries, it is as handsome a tree as anyone could - desire. The characteristic thinness and delicacy of its foliage - distinguish it at once from its associates. The peculiar green of - its soft, short needles wins admiration. The wood is light, soft, - not strong; annual rings are moderately wide, and are largely - composed of springwood. The thin bands of summerwood are resinous, - and the small resin ducts are few. The thick sapwood is nearly - white, the heartwood brown or orange. It is not durable. - - Jack pine can never be an important timber tree, because too small; - but a considerable amount is used for bed slats, nail kegs, - plastering lath, barrel headings, boxes, mine props, pulpwood, and - fuel. Aside from its use as lumber and small manufactured products, - it has a value for other purposes. It can maintain its existence in - waste sands; and its usefulness is apparent in fixing drifting dunes - along some of the exposed shores of Lake Michigan and Lake Superior. - It lives on dry sand and sends its roots several feet to water; or, - under circumstances entirely different, it thrives in swamps where - the watertable is little below the surface of the ground. It fights - a brave battle against adversities while it lasts, but it does not - live long. Sixty years is old age for this tree. It grows fast while - young, but later it devotes all its energies to the mere process of - living, and its increase in size is slow, until at a period when - most trees are still in early youth, it dies of old age, and the - northern winds quickly whip away its limbs, leaving the barkless - trunk to stand a few years longer. - -[Illustration] - - - - -LODGEPOLE PINE - -[Illustration: LODGEPOLE PINE] - - - - -LODGEPOLE PINE - -(_Pinus Contorta_) - - -The common name of this tree was given it because its tall, slender, -very light poles were used by Indians of the region in the construction -of their lodges. They selected poles fifteen feet long and two inches in -diameter, set them in a circle, bent the tops together, tied them, and -covered the frame with skins or bark. The poles were peeled in early -summer, when the Indians set out upon their summer hunt, and were left -to season until fall, when they were carried to the winter's camping -place, probably fifty miles distant. Tamarack is a common name for this -pine in much of its range; it is likewise known as black pine, spruce -pine, and prickly pine. Its leaves are from one to two inches long, in -clusters of two. The small cones adhere to the branches many -years--sometimes as long as twenty--without releasing the seeds, which -are sealed within the cone by accumulated resin. The vitality of the -seeds is remarkable. They don't lose their power of germination during -their long imprisonment. - -The lodgepole pine has been called a fire tree, and the name is not -inappropriate. It profits by severe burning, as some other trees of the -United States do, such as paper birch and bird cherry. The sealed cones -are opened by fire, which softens the resin, and the seeds are liberated -after the fire has passed, and wing their flight wherever the wind -carries them. The passing fire may be severe enough to kill the parent -tree without destroying or bringing down the cones. The seeds soon fall -on the bared mineral soil, where they germinate by thousands. More than -one hundred thousand small seedling trees may occupy a single acre. Most -of them are ultimately crowded to death, but a thick stand results. Most -lodgepole pine forests occupy old burns. The tree is one of the slowest -of growers. It never reaches large size--possibly three feet is the -limit. It is very tall and slender. A hundred years will scarcely -produce a sawlog of the smallest size. - -The range of this tree covers a million square miles from Alaska to New -Mexico, and to the Pacific coast. Its characters vary in different parts -of its range. A scrub form was once thought to be a different species, -and was called shore pine. - -The wood is of about the same weight as eastern white pine. It is light -in color, rather weak, and brittle, annual rings very narrow, summerwood -small in amount, resin passages few and small; medullary rays numerous, -broad, and prominent. The wood is characterized by numerous small knots. -It is not durable in contact with the ground, but it readily receives -preservative treatment. In height it ranges from fifty to one hundred -feet. - -The government's estimate of the stand of lodgepole pine in the United -States in 1909 placed it at 90,000,000,000 feet. That makes it seventh -in quantity among the timber trees of this country, those above it being -Douglas fir, the southern yellow pines (considered as one), western -yellow pine, redwood, western hemlock, and the red cedar of Washington, -Oregon, and Idaho. - -Lodgepole pine has been long and widely used as a ranch timber in the -Far West, serving for poles and rails in fences, for sheds, barns, -corrals, pens, and small bridges. Where it could be had at all, it was -generally plentiful. Stock ranges high among the mountains frequently -depend almost solely upon lodgepole pine for necessary timber. - -Mine operators find it a valuable resource. As props it is cheap, -substantial, and convenient in many parts of Colorado, New Mexico, -Wyoming, and Montana. A large proportion of this timber which is cut for -mining purposes has been standing dead from fire injury many years, and -is thoroughly seasoned and very light. It is in excellent condition for -receiving preservative treatment. - -Sawmills do not list lodgepole pine separately in reports of lumber cut, -and it is impossible to determine what the annual supply from the -species is. It is well known that the quantity made into lumber in -Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho is large. Its chief market is -among the newly established agricultural communities in those states. -They use it for fruit and vegetable shipping boxes, fencing plank, -pickets, and plastering lath. - -Railroads buy half a million lodgepole pine crossties yearly. When -creosoted, they resist decay many years. Lodgepole pine has been a tie -material since the first railroads entered the region, and while by no -means the best, it promises to fill a much more important place in the -future than in the past. It is an ideal fence post material as far as -size and form are concerned, and with preservative treatment it is bound -to attain a high place. It is claimed that treated posts will last -twenty years, and that puts them on a par with the cedars. - -In Colorado and Wyoming much lodgepole was formerly burned for charcoal -to supply the furnaces which smelted ore and the blacksmith shops of the -region. This is done now less than formerly, since railroad building has -made coal and coke accessible. - -In one respect, lodgepole pine is to the western mountains what loblolly -pine is to the flat country of the south Atlantic and other southern -states. It is aggressive, and takes possession of vacant ground. -Although the wood is not as valuable as loblolly, it is useful, and has -an important place to fill in the western country's development. Its -greatest drawback is its exceedingly slow growth. A hundred years is a -long time to wait for trees of pole size. Two crops of loblolly sawlogs -can be harvested in that time. However, the land on which the lodgepole -grows is fit only for timber, and the acreage is so vast that there is -enough to grow supplies, even with the wait of a century or two for -harvest. The stand has increased enormously within historic time, the -same as loblolly, and for a similar reason. Men cleared land in the -East, and loblolly took possession; fires destroyed western forests of -other species and lodgepole seized and held the burned tracts. - -If fires cease among the western mountains, as will probably be the case -under more efficient methods of patrol, and with stricter enforcement of -laws against starting fires, the spread of lodgepole pine will come to a -standstill, and existing forests will grow old without much extension of -their borders. - -JEFFREY PINE (_Pinus jeffreyi_) is often classed as western yellow pine, -both in the forest and at the mill. Its range extends from southern -Oregon to Lower California, a distance of 1,000 miles, and its width -east and west varies from twenty to one hundred and fifty miles. It is a -mountain tree and generally occupies elevations above the western yellow -pine. In the North its range reaches 3,600 feet above sea level; in the -extreme South it is 10,000 feet. The darker and more deeply-furrowed -bark of the Jeffrey pine is the usual character by which lumbermen -distinguish it from the western yellow pine. It is known under several -names, most of them relating to the tree's appearance, such as black -pine, redbark pine, blackbark pine, sapwood pine, and bull pine. It -reaches the same size as the western yellow pine, though the average is -a little smaller. The leaves are from four to nine inches long, and fall -in eight or nine years. The cones are large, and armed with slender, -curved spines. The seeds are too heavy to fly far, their wing area being -small. It is a vigorous tree, and in some regions it forms good forests. -Some botanists have considered the Jeffrey pine a variety of the western -yellow pine. - - GRAY PINE (_Pinus sabiniana_), called also Digger pine because the - Digger Indians formerly collected the seeds, which are as large as - peanuts, to help eke out a living, is confined to California, and - grows in a belt on the foothills surrounding the San Joaquin and - Sacramento valleys. Its cones are large and armed with hooked - spines. When green, the largest cones weigh three or four pounds. - Leaves are from eight to twelve inches long, in clusters of two and - three, and fall the third and fourth years. The wood is remarkable - for the quickness of its decay in damp situations. It lasts one or - two years as fence posts. A mature gray pine is from fifty to - seventy feet high, and eighteen to thirty inches in diameter. Some - trees are much larger. It is of considerable importance, but is not - in the same class as western yellow and sugar pine. The wood is - light, soft, rather strong, brittle. The annual rings are generally - wide, indicating rapid growth. Very old gray pines are not known. An - age of 185 years seems to be the highest on record. The wood is - resinous, and it has helped in a small way to supply the Pacific - coast markets with high-grade turpentine, distilled from roots. It - yields resin when boxed like the southern longleaf pine. There are - two flowing seasons. One is very early, and closes when the weather - becomes hot; the other is in full current by the middle of August. - It maintains life among the California foothills during the long - rainless seasons, on ground so dry that semi-desert chaparral - sometimes succumbs; but it is able to make the most of favorable - conditions, and it grows rapidly under the slightest encouragement. - The seedlings are more numerous now than formerly, which is - attributed to decrease of forest fires. The tree has enemies which - generally attack it in youth. Two fungi, _Peridermium harknessi_, - and _Daedalia vorax_, destroy the young tree's leader or topmost - shoot, causing the development of a short trunk. The latter fungus - is the same or is closely related to that which tunnels the trunk of - incense cedar and produces pecky cypress. - - Gray pine has been cut to some extent for lumber, but its principal - uses have been as fuel and mine timbers. Many quartz mines have been - located in the region where the tree grows; and the engines which - pumped the shafts and raised and crushed the ore were often heated - with this pine. Thousands of acres of hillsides in the vicinity of - mines were stripped of it, and it went to the engine house ricks in - wagons, on sleds, and on the backs of burros. In two respects it is - an economical fuel for remote mines: it is light in weight, and - gives more heat than an equal quantity of the oak that is associated - with it. - - CHIHUAHUA PINE (_Pinus chihuahuana_) is not abundant, but it exists - in small commercial quantities in southwestern New Mexico and - southern Arizona. Trees are from fifty to eighty feet high, and from - fifteen to twenty inches in diameter. The wood is medium light, - soft, rather strong, brittle, narrow ringed and compact. The resin - passages are few, large, and conspicuous; color, clear light orange, - the thick sapwood lighter. The tree reaches best development at - altitudes of from 5,000 to 7,000 feet. When the wood is used, it - serves the same purposes as western yellow pine; but the small size - of the tree makes lumber of large size impossible. The leaves are in - clusters of three, and fall the fourth year. The cones have long - stalks and are from one and a half to two inches long. - -[Illustration] - - - - -TAMARACK - -[Illustration: TAMARACK] - - - - -TAMARACK - -(_Larix Laricina_) - - -There are three species of tamarack or larch in the United States, and -probably a fourth is confined to Alaska. One has its range in the -northeastern states, extending south to West Virginia and northwestward -to Alaska. Two are found in the northwestern states. Other species are -native of the eastern hemisphere, and some of them have been planted to -some extent in this country. A species of Europe is of much importance -in that country. The tamaracks lose their leaves in the fall and the -branches are bare during the winter. The name tamarack or larch should -be applied only to trees of the genus _larix_. This rule is not observed -in some parts of the West where the noble fir (_Abies nobilis_) is -occasionally called larch by lumbermen. It is not entitled to that name, -and confusion results from such use. - -The larches are easily identified. They have needle leaves like those of -pines and firs, but they are differently arranged. They are produced in -little brush-like bundles, from twelve to forty leaves in each, on all -the shoots, except the leaders. On these the leaves occur singly. The -little brushes are so conspicuous, and so characteristic of this genus, -including all its species, that there should be little difficulty in -identifying the larches when the leaves are on. In winter, when the -branches are bare, there are other easy marks of identification. - -The little brushes are interesting objects of study. Botanists tell us -that the excrescence or bud-like knob from which the leaves grow is -really a suppressed or aborted branch, with all its leaves crowded -together at the end. If it were developed, it would bear its leaves -singly, scattered along its full length, as they occur on the leading -shoots. The warty appearance of the branches in winter is a very -convenient means of identification when the leaves are down. - -The cones of larches mature in a single season, and often hang on the -trees several years. They are conspicuous in winter when the branches -are bare of foliage. The adhering cones are generally seedless after the -first season, since they quickly let their winged seeds go. The male and -female flowers are produced singly on branches of the previous year. - -The eastern and northern larch (_Larix laricina_) has a number of names. -It is commonly known as tamarack in the New England states and in New -York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Michigan, -Minnesota, Ohio, and in Canada. The name larch is applied in practically -all the regions where it grows, but it is not used as frequently as -tamarack. Hackmatack, which was the Indian name for the tree in part of -its eastern range, is still in use in Maine, New Hampshire, -Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Delaware, Illinois, Minnesota, and Ontario. -Nurserymen call it American larch to distinguish it from other larches -on the market, particularly the European larch. Michaux, an early French -botanist who explored American forests, called it American larch (_Larix -americana_), and the name which he gave has been retained by many -scientists to this day. In the Canadian provinces north of the Great -Lakes, and also in Maine and New Brunswick, it is frequently called -juniper, but without good reason, for it has little of the appearance -and few of the qualities of the junipers. In some localities it is -called black larch, and in others red larch. The first name refers to -the color of its bark, the last to the leaves when about to fall, for -they then change to a brown or reddish color. They fall in the autumn, -and the branches are bare until the next spring. Some of the New York -Indians observed that peculiarity of the tree which they thought should -be an evergreen like the balsam and pines with which it was often -associated, and they named it kenehtens, meaning "the leaves fall". -Indians did not, as a rule, give separate names to tree species, and -when they did so, it was because of food value, or from some peculiarity -which could not fail to attract the notice of a savage. - -The tamarack's geographical range is remarkable. It is said to be best -developed in the region east of Manitoba, but it extends southward into -West Virginia and northward to the land of the midnight sun. It -maintains its place almost to the arctic snows, and the willow is about -the only tree that pushes farther north. It is found from Newfoundland -and Labrador far down toward the mouth of the Mackenzie river, north of -the arctic circle. It grows on dry land as well as wet, but is oftenest -found in cold swamps, particularly in the southern part of its range. -Silted-up lakes are favorite situations, and on the made-land above old -beaver dams. - -Tamarack forests frequently stand on ground so soft that a pole may be -thrust ten feet deep in the mud. The moist, monotonous sphagnum moss -generally furnishes ground cover in such places. A tamarack swamp in -summer is cool and pleasant--provided there is not too much water on the -ground--but in winter a more desolate picture can scarcely be imagined. -The leafless trees appear to be dead, and covered with lifeless cones; -but the first warm days bring it to life. - -The average height of tamarack trees is from forty to sixty feet, -diameter twenty inches or less. Leaves are one-half or one and a half -inches long; cones one-half or three-quarter inches, and bright chestnut -brown at maturity. They fall when two years old. The winged seeds are -very small. The tree is neither a frequent nor abundant seeder. The -foliage is thin, and is not sufficient to shut much sunlight from the -ground. - -The wood is heavy, hard, very strong, and is durable in contact with the -soil. The growth is slow, annual rings narrow, summerwood occupies -nearly half the ring, and is dark-colored, resinous, and conspicuous; -resin passages few and obscure; medullary rays numerous and obscure; -color of wood light brown, the sapwood nearly white. - -The uses of tamarack go back to prehistoric times. The Indians of Canada -and northeastern United States drew supplies from four forest trees when -they made their bark canoes. The bark for the shell came from paper -birch, threads for sewing the strips of bark together were tamarack -roots, resin for stopping leaks was a product of balsam fir, and the -light framework of wood was northern white cedar. - -The roots which best suited the Indian's purpose came from trees which -grew in soft, deep mud, where lakes and beaver ponds had silted up. Such -roots are long, slender, and very tough and pliant, and may be gathered -in large numbers, particularly where running streams have partly -undermined standing trees. - -White men likewise made use of tamarack roots in boat building, but the -roots were different from what the Indians used. "Instep" crooks were -hewed for ship knees. These were large roots, the larger the better. -Trees which produced them did not grow in deep mud, for there the roots -did not develop crooks. The ship knee operator hunted for tamarack -forests growing on a soft surface soil two or three feet deep, underlaid -by stiff clay or rock which roots could not penetrate. In situations -like that the roots go straight down until they reach the hard stratum, -and then turn at right angles and grow in a horizontal direction. The -turning point in the root develops the crook of which the ship knee is -made. - -Tamarack is seldom of sufficient size for the largest ship knees. Such -were formerly supplied by southern live oak; and in that case crooks -formed by the union of trunk and large branches were as good as those -produced by the union of trunk and large roots. - -Tamarack is still employed in the manufacture of boat knees, but not as -much as formerly. Steel frames have largely taken the place of wood in -the construction of ship skeletons. Boat builders use tamarack now for -floors, keels, stringers, and knees. - -Tamarack has come into much use in recent years. Sawmills cut from it -more than 125,000,000 feet of lumber a year. Fourteen states contribute, -but most of the lumber is produced in Minnesota, Michigan, and -Wisconsin. Railroads in the United States buy 5,000,000 or more -tamarack ties a year, which reduced to board measure amount to over -150,000,000 feet. Fence posts and telegraph poles come in large numbers -from tamarack forests. - -The wood is stiff and strong, its stiffness being eighty-four per cent -of that of long leaf pine, and its strength about eighty per cent. -Unusual variations in both strength and stiffness are found. One stick -of tamarack may rate twice as high as another. - -The wood-using factories of Michigan consume nearly 20,000,000 feet of -this wood yearly. It is made into boxes, excelsior, pails, tanks, tubs, -house finish, refrigerators, windmills, and wooden pipes for waterworks -and for draining mines. - -There is little likelihood that the supply of tamarack will run short in -the near future. While it is not in the first rank of the important -trees in this country, it is useful, and it is fortunate that it -promises to hold its ground against fires which do grave injury to -northern forests. In the swamps where the most of it is found the ground -litter is too damp to burn. The tree does not grow rapidly, but it -usually occupies lands which cannot be profitably devoted to -agriculture, and it will, therefore, be let alone until it reaches -maturity. - -Tamarack is a familiar tree in parks, and it grows farther south than -its natural range extends. It is not as desirable a park tree as -hemlock, spruce, fir, the cedars, and some of the pines, because its -foliage is thin in summer and wanting in winter. It is in a class with -cypress. In the early spring, however, while its soft green needles are -beginning to show themselves in clusters along the twigs, its delicate -and unusual appearance attracts more attention than its companion trees -which are always in full leaf and for that reason are somewhat -monotonous. - -[Illustration] - - - - -WESTERN LARCH - -[Illustration: WESTERN LARCH] - - - - -WESTERN LARCH - -(_Larix Occidentalis_) - - -This is a magnificent tree of the Northwest, and its range lies -principally on the upper tributaries of the Columbia river, in Idaho, -Montana, and British Columbia, but it occurs also among the Blue -Mountains of Washington and Oregon. It is the largest member of the -larch genus, either in the old world or the new. The finest trees are -250 feet high with diameters of six or eight feet, but sizes half of -that are nearer the average. The trunk is of splendid form. In early -life it is limby, but later it prunes itself, and a long, tapering bole -is developed with a very small crown of thin foliage. No other tree of -its size, with the possible exception of old sequoias, has so little -foliage in proportion to the trunk. - -The result is apparent in the rate of growth after the larch has passed -its youth. Sometimes such a tree does not increase its trunk diameter as -much in seventy-five years as a vigorous loblolly pine or willow oak -will in one year. The trunk of a tree, as is well known, grows by means -of food manufactured by the leaves and sent down to be transformed into -wood. With so few leaves and a trunk so large, the slowness of growth is -a natural consequence. Though the annual rings are usually quite narrow, -the bands of summerwood are relatively broad. That accounts for the -density of larchwood and its great weight. It is six per cent heavier -than longleaf pine, and is not much inferior in strength and elasticity. -The leaves are from one to one and three-quarter inches long, the cones -from one to one and a half inches, and the seeds nearly one-quarter inch -in length. They are equipped with wings of sufficient power to carry -them a short distance from the parent tree. - -The bark on young larches is thin, but on large trunks, and near the -ground, it may be five or six inches thick. When a notch is cut in the -trunk it collects a resin of sweetish taste which the Indians use as an -article of food. - -The western larch reaches its best development in northern Idaho and -Montana on streams which flow into Flathead lake. The tree prefers moist -bottom lands, but grows well in other situations, at altitudes of from -2,000 to 7,000 feet. The figures given above on the wood's weight, -strength, and stiffness show its value for manufacturing purposes. Its -remoteness from markets has stood in the way of large use, but it has -been tried for many purposes and with highly satisfactory results. In -1910 sawmills in the four western states where it grows cut 255,186,000 -feet. Most of this is used as rough lumber, but some is made into -furniture, finish, boxes, and boats. The wood has several names, though -larch is the most common. It is otherwise known as tamarack and -hackmatack, which names are oftener applied to the eastern tree; red -American larch, western tamarack, and great western larch. - -Some of the annual cut of lumber credited to western larch does not -belong to it. Lumbermen have confused names and mixed figures by -applying this tree's name to noble fir, which is a different tree. If -the fir lumber listed as larch were given its proper name, it would -result in lowering the output of larch as shown in statistical figures. -In spite of this, however, larch lumber fills an important place in the -trade of the northern Rocky Mountain region. - -There is little doubt that it will fill a much more important place in -the future, for a beginning has scarcely been made in marketing this -timber. The available supply is large, but exact figures are not -available. Some stands are dense and extensive, and the trees are of -large size and fine form. It is not supposed, however, that there will -be much after the present stand has been cut, because a second crop from -trees of so slow growth will be far in the future. Sudworth says that -larch trees eighteen or twenty inches in diameter are from 250 to 300 -years old, and that the ordinary age of these trees in the forests of -the Northwest is from 300 to 500 years; while larger trees are 600 or -700. Much remains to be learned concerning the ages of these trees in -different situations and in different parts of its range. It is -apparent, however, that when a period covering two or three centuries is -required to produce a sawlog of only moderate size, timber owners will -not look forward with much eagerness to a second growth forest of -western larch. - -The value of the wood of western larch has been the subject of much -controversy. In the tables compiled for the federal census of 1880, -under direction of Charles S. Sargent, its strength and elasticity were -shown to be remarkably high. The figures indicate that it is about -thirty-nine per cent stronger than white oak and fifty-one per cent -stiffer. This places it a little above longleaf pine in strength and -nearly equal to it in stiffness or elasticity. Engineers have expressed -doubts as to the correctness of Sargent's figures. They believe them too -high. The samples tested by Sargent were six in number, four of them -collected in Washington and two in Montana. - -The wood of western larch is heavier than longleaf pine, and -approximately of the same weight as white oak. It is among the heaviest, -if not actually the heaviest, of softwoods of the United States. Sargent -thus described the physical properties of the wood: "Heavy, exceedingly -hard and strong, rather coarse grained, compact, satiny, susceptible of -a fine polish, very durable in contact with the soil; bands of small -summer cells broad, occupying fully half the width of the annual growth, -very resinous, dark-colored, conspicuous resin passages few, obscure; -medullary rays few, thin; color, light bright red, the thin sapwood -nearly white." The wood is described by Sudworth: "Clear, reddish brown, -heavy, and fine grained; commercially valuable; very durable in an -unprotected state, differing greatly in this respect from the wood of -the eastern larch." - -The seasoning of western larch has given lumbermen much trouble. It -checks badly and splinters rise from the surface of boards. It is -generally admitted that this is the most serious obstacle in the way of -securing wide utilization for the wood. The structure of the annual ring -is reason for believing that there is slight adhesion between the -springwood and that of the late season. Checks are very numerous -parallel with the growth rings, and splinters part from the board along -the same lines. Standing timber is frequently windshaken, and the cracks -follow the rings. - -All of this is presumptive evidence that the principle defect of larch -is a lack of adhesion between the early and the late wood. If that is -correct, it is a fundamental defect in the growing tree, and is inherent -in the wood. No artificial treatment can wholly remove it. It should not -be considered impossible, however, to devise methods of seasoning which -would not accentuate the weaknesses natural to the wood. - -The form of the larch's trunk is perfect, from the lumberman's -viewpoint, and its size is all that could be desired. It is amply able -to perpetuate its species, though it consumes a great deal of time in -the process. Abundant crops of seeds are borne, but only once in several -years. It rarely bears seeds as early as its twenty-fifth year, and -generally not until it passes forty; but its fruitful period is long, -extending over several centuries. The seeds retain their vitality -moderately well, which is an important consideration in view of the -tree's habit of opening and closing its cones alternately as the weather -happens to be damp or dry. The dispersion of seeds extends over a -considerable part of the season, and the changing winds scatter them in -all directions. Many seeds fall on the snow in winter to be let down on -the damp ground ready to germinate during the early spring. The best -germination occurs on mineral soil, and this is often found in areas -recently bared by fire. Lodgepole pine contends also for this ground; -but the race between the two species is not swift after the process of -scattering seeds has been completed; for both are of growth so -exceedingly slow that a hundred years will scarcely tell which is -gaining. In the long run, however, the larch outstrips the pine and -becomes a larger tree. If both start at the same time, and there is not -room for both, the pine will kill the larch by shading it. The latter's -thin foliage renders it incapable of casting a shadow dense enough to -hurt the pine. The best areas for larch are those so thoroughly burned -as to preclude the immediate heavy reproduction of lodgepole pine. - -Much of the natural ranges of larch and lodgepole pine lie in the -national forests owned by the government, and careful studies have been -made in recent years to determine the requirements, and the actual and -comparative values of the two species. It has been shown that larch is -one of the most intolerant of the western forest trees. It cannot endure -shade. Its own thin foliage, where it occurs in pure stands, is -sufficient to shade off the lower limbs of boles, and produce tall, -clean trunks; but if a larch happens to stand in the open, where light -is abundant, it retains its branches almost to the ground. It is more -intolerant, even, than western yellow pine, which so often grows in -open, parklike stands. - -ALPINE LARCH (_Larix lyallii_) never grows naturally below an altitude -of 4,000 feet, and near the southern border of its range it climbs to -8,000, where it stands on the brink of precipices, faces of cliffs, and -on windswept summits. It is too much exposed to storms, and has its -roots in soil too sterile to develop symmetrical forms. It is found in -Montana, Idaho, Washington, and Oregon. The finest trees are sometimes -seventy-five feet high and three or four in diameter, but the average -height ranges from forty to fifty, with diameters of twenty inches or -less. Its leaves are one and a half inches or less in length; cones one -and a half inches long, and bristling with hair; seeds one-eighth of an -inch long with wings one-fourth inch; wood heavy, hard, and of a light, -reddish brown color. It is seldom used except about mountain camps where -it is sometimes burned for fuel or is employed in constructing corrals -for sheep and cattle. It is impossible for lumbermen ever to make much -use of it, because it is scarce and hard to get at. - -[Illustration] - - - - -RED CEDAR - -[Illustration: RED CEDAR] - - - - -RED CEDAR - -(_Juniperus Virginiana_) - - -This widely distributed tree is called red cedar in New Hampshire, -Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, -Pennsylvania, Delaware, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, -Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Kentucky, Missouri, -Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, and -Ontario; cedar in Connecticut, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, South Carolina, -Kentucky, Illinois, Iowa, and Ohio; savin in Massachusetts, Rhode -Island, New York, Pennsylvania and Minnesota; juniper in New York and -Pennsylvania; juniper bush in Minnesota; cedre in Louisiana. - -The names as given above indicate the tree's commercial range. It -appears as scattered growth and in doubtful forms outside of that range, -particularly in the West where several cedars closely resemble the red -cedar, yet differ sufficiently from it to give them places as separate -species in the lists of some botanists. They are so listed by the United -States Forest Service; and the following names are given: Western -Juniper, Rocky Mountain Juniper, One Seed Juniper, Mountain Juniper, -California Juniper, Utah Juniper, Drooping Juniper, Dwarf Juniper, and -Alligator Juniper. These species are not of much importance from the -lumberman's viewpoint, yet they are highly interesting trees, and in -this book will be treated individually. - -The red cedar grows slowly, and thrives in almost any soil and situation -except deep swamps. It is often classed as a poor-land species, yet it -does not naturally seek poor land. That it is often found in such -situations is because it has been crowded from better places by stronger -trees, and has retreated to rocky ridges, dry slopes, and thin soils -where competitors are unable to follow. The trees often stand wide apart -or solitary, yet they can grow in thickets almost impenetrable, as they -do in Texas and other southern states. It is an old-field tree in much -of its range. Birds plant the seeds, particularly along fence rows. That -is why long lines of cedars may often be seen extending across old -fields or deserted plantations. - -The extreme size attained by this cedar is four feet in diameter, and -one hundred in height, but that size was never common, and at present -the half of it is above the average. That which reaches market is more -often under than over eighteen inches in diameter. The reddish-brown and -fibrous bark may be peeled in long strips. Stringiness of bark is -characteristic of all the cedars, and typical of red cedar. - -The wood is medium light and is strong, considering that it is very -brittle. Tests show it to be eighty per cent as strong as white oak. The -grain is very fine, even, and homogeneous, except as interfered with -by knots. The annual rings are narrow, the summerwood narrow and -indistinct; medullary rays numerous but very obscure. The color -is red, the thin sapwood nearly white. The heart and sap are -sometimes intermingled, and this characteristic is prominent in the -closely-related western species of red cedar. The wood is easily worked, -gives little trouble because of warping and shrinking, and the heart is -considered as durable as any other American wood. It has a delicate, -agreeable fragrance, which is especially marked. This odor is -disagreeable to insects, and for that reason chests and closets of cedar -are highly appreciated as storage places for garments subject to the -ravages of the moth and buffalo bug. An extract from the fruit and -leaves is used in medicine, while oil of red cedar, distilled from the -wood, is used in making perfume. Cedar has a sweet taste. It burns -badly, scarcely being able to support a flame; it is exceedingly -aromatic and noisy when burning and the embers glow long in still air. -Some of the bungalow owners in Florida buy cedar fuel in preference to -all others for burning in open fireplaces. - -Its representative uses are for posts, railway ties, pails, sills, cigar -boxes, interior finish and cabinet making, but its most general use is -in the manufacture of lead pencils, for which its fine, straight grain -and soft texture are peculiarly adapted. The farther south cedar is -found, the softer and clearer it is. In the North, in ornamental trees, -it is very hard, slow-growing, and knotty. It shows but a small -percentage of clear lumber. In eastern Tennessee there were considerable -quantities of red cedar brake that were for years considered of little -value. About the only way the wood was employed a few years ago was in -fence rails and posts, fuel, and charcoal. Of late people in localities -where cedar grows in any abundance have awakened to its value, and cedar -fences are rapidly disappearing, owing to the high prices now paid for -the wood, and the excellent demand. On no other southern wood has such -depredation been practiced. Because of its lightness and the ease with -which it can be worked, it has been used for purposes for which other -and less valuable woods were well adapted. On account of its slow -growth, its complete exhaustion has often been predicted, but a second -growth has appeared which, though much inferior to the virgin timber, -can be used in many ways to excellent advantage. Instead of the huge -piles of cedar flooring, chest boards, and smooth railings of the old -days, one now sees at points of distribution great piles of knotty, -rough poles, ten to forty feet long, which years ago would have been -discarded. Today they represent bridge piling, the better and smoother -among them being used for telephone and telegraph poles. - -Middle Tennessee has produced more red cedar than any other part of the -United States, but the bulk of production has been confined to a few -counties, which produce a higher class and more aromatic variety of wood -than that found elsewhere. A century ago these counties abounded in -splendid forests of cedar. The early settlers built their cabins of -cedar logs, sills, studding, and rafters; their smoke houses were built -of them; their barns; even the roofs were shingled with cedar and the -rooms and porches floored with the sweet-scented wood. Not many years -ago trees three feet or more in diameter were often found, but the days -are past when timber like that can be had anywhere. - -Although the most general use at the present time is for lead pencils, -few people who sharpen one and smell the fragrant wood, stop to wonder -where it came from. One would smile were it suggested to him that -perhaps his pencil was formerly part of some Tennessee farmer's worm -fence. The best timber obtained now is hewn into export logs and shipped -to Europe, particularly Germany, where a great quantity is converted -into pencils. The red wood is made into the higher grades and the sap or -streaked wood is used for the cheaper varieties and for pen holders. The -smaller and inferior logs are cut into slats, while odds and ends, -cutoffs, etc., are collected and sold by the hundred pounds to pencil -factories. There are many such factories in the United States now, as -well as in Europe, and pencil men are scouring the cedar sections to buy -all they can. The farmer who has a red cedar picket or worm fence can -sell it to these companies at a round price. Pencil men are even going -back over tracts from which the timber was cut twenty-five years ago, -buying up the stumps. When the wood was plentiful lumbermen were not -frugal, and usually cut down a tree about two feet above the ground, -allowing the best part of it to be wasted. - -The German and Austrian pencil makers foresaw a shortage in American red -cedar, and many years ago planted large areas to provide for the time of -scarcity. The planted timber is now large enough for use, but the wood -has been a disappointment. It does not possess the softness and -brittleness which give so high value to the forest cedar of this -country. As far as can be seen, when present pencil cedar has been -exhausted, there will be little more produced of like grade. It grows so -slowly that owners will not wait for trees to become old, but sell them -while young for posts and poles. - -One of the earliest demands for red cedar was for woodenware made of -staves, such as buckets, kegs, keelers, small tubs, and firkins. -Material for the manufacture of such wares was among the exports to the -West Indies before the Revolutionary war. The ware was no less popular -in this country, and the home-made articles were in all neighborhoods in -the red cedar's range. Scarcity of suitable wood limits the manufacture -of such wares now, but they are still in use. - -Cedar was long one of the best woods for skiffs and other light boats, -and it was occasionally employed in shipbuilding for the upper parts of -vessels. A little of it is still used as trim and finish, particularly -for canoes, motor boats, and yachts. - -The early clothes chest makers selected clear lumber, because it could -be had and was considered to be better; but modern chest manufacturers -who cannot procure clear stock, make a merit of necessity, and use -boards filled with knots. The wood is finished with oils, but the -natural colors remain, and the knots give the chest a rustic and -pleasing appearance. - - SOUTHERN RED JUNIPER (_Juniperus barbadensis_) so closely resembles - the red cedar with which it is associated that the two were formerly - considered the same species, and most people familiar with both - notice no difference. However, botanists clearly distinguish the - two. The southern red cedar's range is much smaller than the - other's. It grows from Georgia to the Indian river, Florida, in - swamps. It is found in the vicinity of the Apalachicola river, - forming dense thickets. Its average size is much under that of the - red cedar, but its wood is not dissimilar. It has been used for the - same purposes as far as it has been used at all. One of the largest - demands upon it has been for lead pencils. Those who bought and sold - it, generally supposed they were dealing in the common red cedar. - -[Illustration] - - - - -NORTHERN WHITE CEDAR - -[Illustration: NORTHERN WHITE CEDAR] - - - - -NORTHERN WHITE CEDAR - -(_Thuja Occidentalis_) - - -This tree is designated as northern white cedar because there is also a -southern white cedar, (_Chamaecyparis thyoides_) and the boundaries of -their ranges approach pretty closely. The name _occidentalis_, meaning -western, applied to the northern white cedar is employed by botanists to -distinguish it from a similar cedar in Asia, which is called -_orientalis_, or eastern. - -The American species has several names, as is usual with trees which -grow in different regions. It is called arborvitae in Maine, Vermont, -Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, -Pennsylvania, Delaware, Virginia, West Virginia, Indiana, Illinois, -Wisconsin, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, and Ontario. White cedar is a name -often used in Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Rhode Island, -Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, -Wisconsin, Michigan, Minnesota, and Ontario. In Maine, Vermont, and New -York it is called cedar. In New York, and where cultivated in England, -American arborvitae is the name applied to it. The Indians in New York -knew it as feather-leaf. In Delaware the name is abridged to vitae. - -The tree has been widely planted, and under the influence of cultivation -it runs quickly into varieties, of which forty-five are listed by -nurserymen. It is a northern species which follows the Appalachian -mountains southward to North Carolina and Tennessee. It grows from New -Brunswick to Manitoba, and is abundant in the Lake States. - -The bark of arborvitae is light brown, tinged with red on the branchlets; -it is thin, and cracks into ridges with stringy, rough edges; the -branchlets are very smooth. - -In general appearance the tree is conical and compact, with short -branches; it attains a height of from twenty-five to seventy feet, and a -diameter of from one to three feet. It thrives best in low, swampy land, -along the borders of streams. - -The wood of arborvitae is soft, brittle, light and weak; it is very -inflammable. The fact that it is durable, even in contact with the soil, -permits its use for railway ties, telegraph poles, posts, fencing, -shingles and boats. However, the trunk is so shaped that it is seldom -used for lumber, but oftener for poles and posts, the lower section -being flattened into ties. A cubic foot of the seasoned wood weighs -approximately nineteen pounds. The heartwood is light brown, becoming -darker with exposure; the sapwood is thin and nearly white, with fine -grain. - -The northern white cedar varies greatly in size and shape, depending on -the soil, climate, and situation. Though it is usually associated with -swamps in the North, it adapts itself to quite different situations. It -grows in narrow, rocky ravines, on stony ridges, and it clings to the -faces of cliffs, or hangs on their summits as tenaciously as the western -juniper of the Sierra Nevada mountains. However, little good timber is -produced by this species on rocky soils. Trees in such situations are -short, crooked, and limby. - -The wood of the northern white cedar possesses a peculiar toughness -which is seen in its wearing qualities. A thin shaving, such as a -carpenter's plane makes, may be folded, laid on an anvil, and struck -repeatedly with a hammer, without breaking. It is claimed for it that it -will stand a severer test of that kind than any other American wood. -Toughness and wearing qualities combined make it an admirable wood for -planking and decking for small boats. Its exceptionally light weight is -an additional factor as a boat building material. The Indians knew how -to work it into frames for bark canoes. Its lightness appealed to them; -but the ease with which they could work it with their primitive tools -was more important. It is a characteristic of the wood to part readily -along the rings of annual growth. The Indian was able to split canoe -ribs with a stone maul, by pounding a cedar billet until it parted along -the growth rings and was reduced to very thin slats. - -The property of this cedar which appealed to the Indians is disliked by -the sawmill man. It is hard to make thin lumber that will hang together. -The tendency to part along the growth rings develops wind-shake while -the tree is standing. About nine trees in ten are so defective from -shake that little good lumber can be made from them. It is a common -saying, which probably applies in certain localities only, that a -thousand feet of white cedar must be sawed to get one hundred feet of -good lumber. - -It is good material for small cooperage such as buckets, pails, and -tubs, and has been long used for that purpose in the northern states. - -It was once laid in large quantities for paving blocks. Hundreds of -miles of streets of northern cities were paved with round blocks sawed -from trunks of trees from five to ten inches in diameter. They were not -usually treated with chemicals to prevent decay, but they gave service -ranging from six to twelve years. They are less used now than formerly. -Southern yellow pine has largely taken the cedar's place as paving -material. Much northern cedar has been used in the manufacture of bored -pipe for municipal waterworks, shops, salt works, paper mills, and other -factories. - -The early settlers of New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania made a -rheumatism ointment by bruising the leaves and molding them with lard. -This is probably not made now, but pharmacists distill an oil from twigs -and wood, and make a tincture of the leaves which they use in the -manufacture of pulmonary and other medicines. - -There is little likelihood that northern white cedar will ever cease to -be a commercial wood in this country. It will become scarcer, but its -manner of growth is the best guarantee that it will hold its place. It -lives in swamps, and the land is not in demand for any other purpose. - - ONE-SEED JUNIPER (_Juniperus monosperma_) is also called naked-seed - juniper. Its range lies in Colorado, New Mexico, Texas, Utah, and - Arizona. It attains its greatest development in the bottoms of - canyons in northern Arizona. It is a scrawny desert tree which lives - in adversity but holds its ground for centuries, if fire does not - cut its career short. Its growth is too scattered to attract - lumbermen, and the form of its trunk is uninviting. It may reach a - height of forty or fifty feet, and a diameter of three, but that is - above the average in the best of its range. The desert Indians make - the most of one-seed juniper. They weave its stringy bark into - sleeping mats, rough blankets, and saddle girts. They make cords and - ropes of it for use where great strength is not required, such as - leashes for leading dogs, strands with which to tie bundles on the - backs of their squaws, and cords for fastening their wigwam poles - together. They likewise weave the bark into pokes and pouches for - storing and carrying their dried meat and mesquite beans. The - juniper berries are an article of diet and commerce with the - Indians, who mix them with divers ingredients, pulp them in stone - mortars, and bake them in cakes which become the greatest delicacy - on their bill of fare. White men, when driven to it by starvation, - have sustained life by making food of the berries. A small quantity - of one-seed juniper reaches woodworkers in Texas. The lumber is - short and rough. The numerous knots are generally much darker than - the body of the wood. That is not necessarily a defect, for in - making clothes chests, the striking contrast in color between the - knots, and the other wood gives the article a peculiar and - attractive appearance. The trunks are sharply buttressed and deeply - creased. Sometimes the folds of bark within the creases almost reach - the center of the tree. The sapwood is thin, the heartwood irregular - in color. Some is darker than the heartwood of southern red cedar, - other is clouded and mottled, pale yellow, cream-colored, the shade - of slate, or streaked with various tints. The wood can be - economically worked only as small pieces. It takes a soft and - pleasing finish. It is a lathe wood and shows to best advantage as - balusters, ornaments, grill spindles and small posts, Indian clubs, - dumb-bells, balls, and lodge gavels. It has been made into small - game boards with fine effect, and it is an excellent material for - small picture frames. Furniture makers put it to use in several - ways, and it has been recommended for small musical instruments - where the variegated colors can be displayed to excellent advantage. - At the best it can never be more than a minor species, because it is - difficult of access in the remote deserts, and it is not abundant. - - MOUNTAIN JUNIPER (_Juniperus sabinoides_) is a Texas tree, occupying - a range southward and westward of the Colorado river. It has several - local names, rock cedar being a favorite. This name is due to the - tree's habit of growing on rocky ridges and among ledges where soil - is scarce. It is called juniper cedar, and juniper. Under the most - favorable circumstances the tree may attain a height of 100 feet and - a diameter of two, but it nearly always grows where conditions are - adverse, and its size and form change to conform to circumstances. - It is often small and ragged. Its lead-colored bark is apt to - attract attention on account of its woeful appearance, hanging in - strings and tatters which persistently cling to the trunk in spite - of whipping winds. When the tree is cut for fuel, or for any other - purpose, the ragged bark is occasionally pulled off and is tied in - bales or bundles to be sold for kindling. When the mountain juniper - is taken from its native wilds and planted where environments are - different, it sometimes assumes fantastic forms. It has been planted - for ornament on the low, flat coast in the vicinity of the Gulf of - Mexico, and though it lives and grows, it often takes on a peculiar - appearance. The trunks resemble twisted and interwoven bundles of - lead-colored vines, buttressed, fluted, and gnarled. The branches - lose their upright position, and hang in careless abandon, with - drooping festoons. In winter the wind whips most of the foliage from - them. The leaves become brittle and may be easily brushed from the - twigs by a stroke of the hand. Some of the planted trees have trunks - so deeply creased as to be divided in two separate stems. This very - nearly happens with some of the wild trees among the western - mountains. The sapwood of mountain juniper is very thin. The average - tree cannot be profitably cut into lumber of the usual dimensions - because of the odd-shaped and irregular trunk. It lends itself more - economically to the manufacture of articles made up of small pieces. - Some of the wood is extremely beautiful, having the color and figure - of French walnut; but there is great difference in the figure and - color, and the wood of one tree is not a sure guide to what another - may be. Boards a foot wide, or even less, may show several figures - and colors. Some pieces suggest variegated marble; others are like - plain red cedar; some are light red in color, others have a tinge of - blue. It varies greatly in hardness, even in the same tree. Part of - it may be soft and brittle enough for lead pencils; another part may - be hard and tough. Clothes chests have been made of it, of most - peculiar appearance--resembling crazy quilts of subdued colors. - Sometimes the heartwood and the sapwood are inextricably mixed, both - being found in all parts of the trunk from the heart out. On the - whole, the tree can never have much importance as a source of - lumber, but it is a most interesting member of the cedar group. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SOUTHERN WHITE CEDAR - -[Illustration: SOUTHERN WHITE CEDAR] - - - - -SOUTHERN WHITE CEDAR - -(_Chamaecyparis Thyoides_) - - -This tree is called southern white cedar to distinguish it from northern -white cedar or arborvitae. When there is little likelihood of confusion, -the name white cedar is applied locally in different parts of its range -from Massachusetts to Florida. It is a persistent swamp tree and on that -account has been called swamp cedar; but that name alone would not -distinguish it from the northern white cedar, for both grow in swamps; -but it does separate it from red cedar which keeps away from swamps. The -ranges of the two are side by side from New England to Florida. Post -cedar is a common name for it in Delaware and New Jersey, because of the -important place it has long filled as fence material; but again, the -name does not set it apart from red cedar or northern white cedar, for -both are used for posts. The only name thus far applied, which clearly -distinguishes it from associated cedars, is southern white cedar. Its -range extends northward to Maine, but the tree's chief commercial -importance has been in New Jersey and southward to North Carolina, very -near the coast. Somehow, it seems to skip Georgia where no one has -reported it for many years, though there is historical evidence that it -once grew in that state. It grows as far west as Mississippi, but is -scarce. - -The small leaves remain green two years and then turn brown but adhere -to the branches several years longer. The fruit is about one-fourth inch -in diameter, and the small seeds are equipped with wings. - -The wood is among the lightest in this country. It is only moderately -strong and stiff. The tree usually grows slowly. Fifty years may be -required to produce a fence post, but under favorable conditions results -somewhat better than that may be expected. The summerwood of the yearly -ring is narrow, dark in color, and conspicuous, making the counting of -the rings an easy matter. The medullary rays are numerous but thin. When -the sap is cut tangentially in very thin layers it is white and -semi-transparent, presenting somewhat the appearance of oiled paper. The -heartwood is light brown, tinged with red, growing darker with exposure. -The wood is easily worked, and is very durable in contact with the soil. -Fence posts of this wood have been reported to stand fifty years, and -shingles are said to last longer. Trees reach a height of eighty feet -and diameter of four; but such are of the largest size. Great numbers -are cut for poles and posts which are little more than a foot in -diameter. Few forest trees grow in denser stands than this. It often -takes possession of swamps, crowds out all other trees, and develops -thickets so dense as to be almost impenetrable. Southern white cedar is -cut in ten or twelve states, but the annual supply is not known, because -mills generally report all cedars as one, and the regions which produce -this, produce one or more other species of cedar also. It has held its -place nearly three hundred years, and much interesting history is -connected with it. A considerable part of the Revolutionary war was -fought with powder made from white cedar charcoal burned in New Jersey -and Delaware. However, that was by no means the earliest place filled by -this wood. - -Two hundred years ago in North Carolina John Lawson wrote of its use for -"yards, topmasts, booms, bowsprits for boats, shingles, and poles." It -was cut for practically the same purposes in New Jersey at an earlier -period, and 160 years ago Gottlieb Mittelberger, when he visited -Philadelphia, declared that white cedar was being cut at a rate which -would soon exhaust the supply. But that prophecy, like similar -predictions that oak and red cedar were about gone, proved not well -founded. Seventy years after the imminent exhaustion of this wood was -foretold, William Cobbett, an English traveler, declared with evident -exaggeration that "all good houses in the United States" were roofed -with white cedar shingles. - -After boat building, the first general use of the southern white cedar -was for fences and farm buildings, and doubtless twenty times as much -went to the farms as to the boat yards. In all regions where the wood -was convenient, little other was employed as fencing material, and many -of the earliest houses in New Jersey and some in Pennsylvania were -constructed almost wholly of this wood. Small trees which would split -two, three, and four rails to the cut, were mauled by thousands to -enclose the farms. The bark soon dropped off, or was removed, and the -light rails quickly air-dried, and decay made little impression on them -for many years. The larger trunks were rived for shingles or were sawed -into lumber. About 1750 the use of round cedar logs for houses and barns -began to give way to sawed lumber. It was an ideal milling timber, for -the logs were symmetrical, clear, and easily handled. North Carolina -sawmills were at work on this timber many years before the Revolution. -It was acceptable material for doors, window frames, rafters, and -floors, but especially for shingles which were split with frow and -mallet, and were from twenty-four to twenty-seven inches long. They were -known in market as juniper shingles and sold at four and five dollars a -thousand. About 1750 builders in Philadelphia were criticized because -they constructed houses with no provision for other than white cedar -roofs; the walls being too weak for heavier material which would have to -be substituted when cedar could be no longer procured. Philadelphia was -not alone in its preference for cedar roofs. Large shipments of shingles -were going from New Jersey to New York, and even to the West Indies -earlier than 1750. - -Southern white cedar is said to have been the first American wood used -for organ pipes. The resonance of cedar shingles under a pattering rain -suggested this use to Mittelberger when he visited America, and he tried -the wood with such success that he pronounced it the best that he knew -of for organ pipes. - -Coopers were among the early users of white cedar. The "cedar coopers of -Philadelphia" were famous in their day. They used this wood and also red -cedar (_Juniperus virginiana_), and their wares occupied an important -place in domestic and some foreign markets. Small vessels prevailed, -such as pails, churns, firkins, tubs, keelers, piggins, noggins, and -kegs. The ware was handsome, strong, durable, and light in weight. Oil -merchants, particularly those who dealt in whale oil which was once an -important commodity, bought tanks of southern white cedar. It is a dense -wood and seepage is small. - -A peculiar superstition once prevailed, and has not wholly disappeared -at this day, that white cedar possessed powerful healing properties. It -was thought that water was purified by standing in a cedar bucket, and -even that a liquid was improved by simply running through a spigot of -this wood. Some eastern towns at an early period laid cedar water mains, -partly because the wood was known to be durable, and partly because it -was supposed to exercise some favorable influence upon the water flowing -through the pipes. It was even believed that standing trees purified the -swamps in which they grew. Vessels putting to sea from Chesapeake bay, -sometimes made special effort to fill their water casks with water from -the Dismal swamp, where cedars grew abundantly in the stagnant lagoons. - -About 100 years ago it was found that whole forests of cedar had been -submerged in New Jersey during prehistoric times, and that deep in -swamps the trunks of trees were buried out of sight. No one knows how -long the prostrate trees had lain beneath the accumulation of peat and -mud, but the wood was sound. Mining the cedar became an important -industry in some of the large swamps, and it has not ended yet. The wood -is sound enough for shingles and lumber, though it has been buried for -centuries, as is proved by the age of the forests which grew over the -submerged logs. Sometimes a log which has lain under water hundreds of -years, rises to the surface by its own buoyancy when pressure from above -is removed. This is remarkable and shows how long a time this cedar -resists complete waterlogging. The wood of green cedar has a strong -odor, and that characteristic remains with the submerged trunks. -Experienced men who have been long engaged in mining the timber, are -able to tell by the odor of a chip brought to the surface from a deeply -submerged log whether the wood is sufficiently well preserved to be -worth recovering and manufacturing. Trunks six feet in diameter have -been brought to the surface. Few if any living white cedars of that size -exist now. - -Many of the early uses of southern white cedar have continued till the -present time, but in much smaller quantities. Fence rails are no longer -made of it; shingles and cooperage have declined. On the other hand, it -now has some uses which were unknown in early times, such as telephone -and telegraph poles, crossties, and piling for railroad bridges and -culverts. - -The supply of southern white cedar is not large, and it is being cut -faster than it is growing. The deep swamps where it grows protect white -cedar forests from fire, and for that reason it is more fortunate than -many other species. Not even cypress can successfully compete with it -for possession of water soaked morasses. It does not promise great -things for the future, for it will never be extensively planted. Its -range has been pretty definitely fixed by nature to deep swamps near the -Atlantic coast. Within those limits it will be of some importance for a -long time. Where it finds its most congenial surroundings, little else -that is profitable to man will grow. This will save it from utter -extermination, because much of the land which it occupies will never be -wanted for anything else. - -[Illustration] - - - - -INCENSE CEDAR - -[Illustration: INCENSE CEDAR] - - - - -INCENSE CEDAR - -(_Libocedrus Decurrens_) - - -In California and Oregon this tree is known as white cedar, cedar, and -incense cedar; in Nevada and California it is called post cedar and -juniper, and in other localities it is red cedar and California post -cedar. It is a species of such strong characteristics that it is not -likely to be confused with any other. Though different names may be -applied to it, the identity of the tree is always clear. - -Its range extends north and south nearly 1,000 miles, from Oregon to -Lower California. It is a mountain species, and it faces the Pacific -ocean in most of its range. In the North it occupies the western slope -of the Cascade mountains in southern Oregon and northern California; and -it grows on the western slope of the Sierras for five hundred miles, at -altitudes of from 4,000 to 8,000 feet, where it is mixed with sugar -pine, western yellow pine, white fir, and sequoias. - -It is a fine, shapely tree, except that the butt is much enlarged. It -has the characteristic form of a deep swamp tree, but it has nothing to -do with swamps. Its best development is on the Sierra Nevada mountains, -where swamps are few, and the incense cedar avoids them. It occupies dry -ridges and slopes, but not sterile ones. It must have as good soil as -the sugar pine demands. Its height when mature ranges from seventy-five -to 125 feet, diameter four feet from the ground, from three to six feet, -but some trees are larger. It is not a rapid grower, but it maintains -its vigor a long time. As an average, it increases its diameter an inch -in from seven to ten years. - -The wood is dense. It contains no pores large enough to be seen with an -ordinary reading glass. The medullary rays are so small as to be -generally invisible to the naked eye, but when magnified they are shown -to be thin and numerous. The summerwood forms about one-fourth of the -annual ring. The wood is nearly as light as white pine, is moderately -strong, is brittle, straight grained, the heartwood is reddish, the -thick sapwood nearly white. It is an easy wood to work, and in contact -with the soil it is very durable. - -The incense cedar is the only representative of its genus in the United -States. It has many relatives in the pine family, but no near ones. Its -kin are natives of Formosa, China, New Zealand, New Guinea, and -Patagonia. - -The name incense cedar refers to the odor of the wood rather than of the -leaves. Those who work with freshly cut wood are liable to attacks of -headache, due to the odor; but some men are not affected by it. - -The forest grown tree is of beautiful proportions. Unless much crowded -for room, it is a tall, graceful cone, the branches drooping slightly, -and forming thick masses. In the Sierra Nevada mountains, within the -range of this cedar, the winter snows are very heavy. It is not unusual -for two or three feet of very wet snow to fall in a single day. The -incense cedar's drooping branches shed the snow like a tent roof, and a -limb broken or seriously deformed by weight of snow is seldom seen. Deer -and other wild animals, when surprised by a heavy fall of snow, seek the -shelter of an incense cedar, if one can be found, and there lie in -security until the storm passes. - -It is a tree which does fairly well in cultivation, and several -varieties have been developed. It lives through the cold of a New -England winter. Its cones are about three-fourths inch in length, and -ripen in the autumn. - -Incense cedar has filled an important place in the development of the -great central valley of California, where it has supplied more fence -posts than any other tree. Posts of redwood have been its chief -competitor, but generally the region has been divided, and each tree has -supplied its part. The redwood's field has been the coast, the cedar's -the inland valley within reach of the Sierras. It has been nothing -unusual for ranchmen to haul cedar posts on wagons forty or fifty miles. - -The manufacture of posts from incense cedar has entailed an enormous -waste of timber. The thick sapwood is not wanted, and in the process of -converting a trunk into posts, the woodsman first splits off the sap and -throws it away. In trunks of small and medium size, the sapwood may -amount to more than the heartwood, and is a total loss. - -The tree's bark is thick and stringy, and it is generally wasted; but in -some instances it is used as a surface dressing for mountain roads. It -wears to pieces and becomes a pulpy mass, and it protects the surface of -the road from excessive wear, and from washing in time of heavy rain. - -Approximately one-half of the incense cedar trees, as they stand in the -woods, are defective. A fungus (_Daedalia vorax_) attacks them in the -heartwood and excavates pits throughout the length of the trunks. The -galleries resemble the work of ants, and as ants often take possession -of them and probably enlarge them, it is quite generally believed that -the pits are due to ants. The excavations are frequently filled with -dry, brown dust, sometimes packed very hard and tight. The cedar thus -affected resembles "pecky cypress," and it is believed that the same -species of fungus, or a closely related species, is responsible for the -injury to both cypress in the South and incense cedar on the Pacific -coast. It is not generally regarded by users of cedar posts that the -honey-combed condition of the wood lessens the service which the post -will give, unless by weakening it and causing it to break, or by -rendering it less able to hold the staples of wire fences, or nails of -plank and picket fences. - -Post makers often prefer fire-killed timber. If a tree is found with the -sapwood consumed, as is not unusual, it is nearly always free from -fungous attack. The reason it stands through the fire which burns the -sapwood off, is that the heart is sound--if it were not sound, the whole -tree would be consumed. - -The wood of the incense cedar is serviceable for many purposes. The -rejection of the sapwood by so many users is the most discouraging -feature. The heart, when free from fungus, is a fine, attractive -material that does not suffer in comparison with the other cedars, -though it may not equal some of them for particular purposes. Tests show -it fit for lead pencils, and recent purchases of large quantities have -been made by pencil makers. Clothes chests and wardrobes are -manufactured from this wood on the assumption that the odor will keep -moths out of furs and other clothing stored within. It has been used for -cigar boxes, but has not in all instances proven satisfactory. The odor -of the wood is objected to by some smokers. Another objection and a -somewhat peculiar one, has been filed against incense cedar as a cigar -box material. It is claimed that the boxes are attacked voraciously by -rats which gnaw the wood, to which they are doubtless attracted by the -odor. - -Sawmills turn out incense cedar lumber which is worked into frames for -doors and windows, and doors are made of it, and also interior finish. -Shipments of inch boards are sold in New York and Boston, and exports go -to London, Paris, and Berlin. - -The long period during which incense cedar has been used and wasted, has -reduced the supply in most regions, but there is yet much in the forest. -It is never lumbered separately, but only in connection with pine and -fir; but post makers have always gone about picking trees of this -species and passing by the associated species. - -ALLIGATOR JUNIPER (_Juniperus pachyphloea_) is so named from its bark -which is patterned like the skin of an alligator. It is called -oak-barked cedar in Arizona, mountain cedar in Texas, and -checkered-barked juniper in other places. Its range lies in southwestern -Texas, about Eagle pass and Limpia mountains, and westward on the desert -ranges of New Mexico and Arizona, south of the Colorado plateau, and -among the mountains of northern Arizona. Its range extends southward -into Mexico. It is one of the largest of the junipers, but only when -circumstances are wholly favorable. It is then sixty feet high, and four -or five feet in diameter; but it is generally small and of poor form for -lumber, because of its habit of separating into forks near the ground. -It does best at elevations of from 4,000 to 6,000 feet in bottoms of -canyons and ravines. The grayish green color of the foliage is due to -the conspicuous white glands which dot the center of each leaf. The -berries are small and blue, of sweetish taste which does not -particularly appeal to the palate of civilized man, but the Indians of -the region, whose normal state is one of semi-starvation, eat them with -relish. The line separating heartwood from sap in alligator juniper is -frequently irregular and vague, and like some of its kindred junipers of -the West, patches of sap are sometimes buried deep in the heartwood, -while streaks of heartwood occur in the sap. This heartwood is usually -of a dirty color, suggesting red rocks and soil of the desert where it -grows. Small articles which can be made of wood selected for its color -are attractive. They may be highly polished, and the surface takes a -satiny finish; but the wood does not show very well in panel or body -work where wide pieces are used. The best utilization of alligator -juniper appears to lie in small articles. It is fine for the lathe, and -goblets, napkin rings, match safes, and handkerchief boxes are -manufactured from the wood in Texas. Its rough uses are as fence posts -and telephone poles. It is durable in contact with the soil. - -CALIFORNIA JUNIPER (_Juniperus californica_) is called white cedar, -juniper, sweet-fruited juniper, and sweet-berried cedar. Its range is in -California south of Sacramento, among the ranges of the coast mountains, -and the foothills of the Sierra Nevadas. Its height runs from twenty to -forty feet, diameter one to two. The leaves fall in the second or third -year. This tree is of poor form and size for lumber. Trunks frequently -divide into branches near the ground. The wood resembles that of other -western junipers, and usually the fine color which distinguishes the red -cedar of the East is wanting, and in its stead is a dull brown, tinged -with red. The wood is soft and durable, and is strongly odorous. The -sapwood is thin and is nearly white. Fuel and fence posts are the most -important uses of the California juniper. Indians eat the berries raw or -dry them and pound them to flour. - -[Illustration] - - - - -WESTERN RED CEDAR - -[Illustration: WESTERN RED CEDAR] - - - - -WESTERN RED CEDAR - -(_Thuja Plicata_) - - -In the eastern markets the lumber from this tree is usually called -western cedar without further description, but that name does not always -sufficiently identify it. There are other western cedars, notably -incense and yellow; but they have not generally appeared in eastern -markets. Western red cedar is the name given it when the purpose is to -separate it from other western cedars. It is the only red cedar in the -far West, except the scarce junipers which are totally unknown as its -competitors in lumber centers. Gigantic cedar is a name which takes size -into account. It is the largest of American cedars. Trunks fifteen feet -in diameter and 200 feet high are sometimes seen, but the usual size is -100 high, from two to four in diameter. Canoe cedar is a name bestowed -upon this western tree for the same reason that canoe wood is one of the -yellow poplar's names in the East. It is one of the best woods for -dugout canoes. Botanists have called the tree giant arborvitae, but the -name never got beyond books. When the people of Washington and Oregon -speak of cedar without a qualifying term, they mean this species. It is -widely known as shingle wood or shingle cedar, because more shingles are -made of it than of all other kinds of timber in the United States -combined. - -The western red cedar's range covers 300,000 square miles, not counting -regions of small or scattered growth. For a timber tree, that range is -large, but not nearly as large as some others. It exceeds one-hundred -fold the commercial range of redwood, and probably a thousand fold that -of Port Orford cedar, but its range is not one-third that of the eastern -red cedar, though in total quantity of available lumber it surpasses the -eastern tree a hundred fold. Its range begins in Alaska on the north, -and follows the coast to northern California, and extends eastward into -Idaho. The best development occurs in the regions of warm, moist Pacific -winds, but not in the immediate fog belts. The largest quantity of this -wood, and probably the largest trees also, are in Washington. Abundant -rainfall is essential to western red cedar's development. It would be -difficult to approximate the amount of the remaining stand. This cedar -does not form pure forests, and estimates of so many feet per acre or -square mile cannot be based on fairly exact information as may be done -with redwood, and some of the southern pines. Though the drain upon the -cedar forests is heavy, it is generally believed there is enough of this -species to meet demands for a long period of years. - -Nature made ample provision for the spread and perpetuation of this -tree. The seeds are fairly abundant, are light, have good wing power, -and are great travelers in search of suitable places to germinate and -take root. The tree's greatest enemy is fire. The cedar's bark is thin, -even when trunks are mature, and a moderate blaze often proves fatal to -large trees; but small ones, with all their branches close to the -ground, have no chance when the fire burns the litter among them. Some -tree seeds germinate readily on soil bared by fire--such as lodgepole -pine, wild red cherry, and paper birch--but the western red cedar's do -not, if the humus is sufficiently burned to lessen the soil's capacity -to retain moisture. For that reason, this cedar seldom follows fire, and -the result is that it constantly loses ground. Under normal conditions, -it is not exacting in its requirements; but anything that disturbs -natural conditions is more likely to harm than help this cedar. In that -respect it is like beech and hemlock, which suffer when forest -conditions are disturbed. - -Trunks are large but not shapely. They are generally fluted, and greatly -swelled at the base. These deformities develop rather late in the tree's -life; at least, they are not prominent in young timber. Western cedar -poles of large size are beautiful in outline; but when maturity -approaches, the trunk grows faster near the ground than some distance -above; the annual rings are wider near the base than twenty feet above, -resulting in great enlargement near the ground. At the same time ribs -and creases slowly develop, and by the time the tree is old, it is as -ungainly as one of the giant sequoias. Its appearance is hurt by -characteristics other than the swelled base and the buttresses. While -the tree is small, the limbs ascend, and maintain a graceful upright -position. Toward middle life they begin to droop, and the limbs of old -trees hang down the trunks--the reverse of their attitude in early life. - -The western red cedar lives to an old age, from 600 to 1,000 years. The -oldest are liable to be hollow near the ground. The tree is remarkable -for what happens after it falls. Often the trunk crashes down in a bed -of moss, which in a few years buries it from sight. The moss holds so -much water that the buried log is constantly too wet for fungous attack. -Consequently decay does not take place. Fallen trees have lain for -hundreds of years--as much as 800 having been claimed in one -instance--and at the end of that time they are sound enough for -shingles. The position of living trees growing upon buried logs -furnishes the key to the length of time since the trunks fell. The long -period during which the moss-buried wood has remained sound has led to -the claim that western red cedar is the most enduring wood in America. -Such is not necessarily the case. A good many others would probably last -as long if protected in the same way. - -Western red cedar is strong and stiff but falls from twenty to thirty -per cent below white oak in these factors. It is light, and the texture -of the wood is rather coarse. The springwood and summerwood are -distinct, the latter constituting one-half or less of the annual ring. -The medullary rays are numerous and obscure. The wood's color is dull -brown, tinged with red. The thin sapwood is nearly white. - -The ease with which western red cedar may be worked led the Indians to -use it in their most ambitious woodcraft. The gigantic totem poles which -have excited the curiosity and admiration of travelers near the coast in -Alaska and southward have nearly all been of this wood. Some of them are -the largest single pieces of wood carving in the world. Trunks three or -four feet in diameter and forty or fifty feet long have been hewed and -whittled in weird, uncouth, and fantastic forms, decorated with eagle -heads, bear mouths, and with various creatures of the forest or sea, or -from the realms of imagination. Before the northern Pacific coast -Indians procured tools from white men they executed their carving by -means of bone, stone, shell, and wooden tools, assisted by fire. - -The making of canoes was in some ways a work more laborious for the -Indians than the manufacture of totem poles. Their canoes were dugouts -of all sizes, from the small trough which carried one or two persons, to -the enormous canoe which carried fifty warriors with all their -equipment. Such a canoe, now in the National Museum at Washington, D. -C., is fifty-nine feet long, seven feet, three inches deep at the bow, -five feet three inches at the stern, and three feet seven inches in the -middle, and eight feet wide. It was made on Vancouver island, and is -capable of carrying 100 persons. The capacity of the canoe is -thirty-five tons. Civilized man has produced no vessel with lines more -perfect than are seen in some of these canoes made by savages; but all -the canoes are not alike: some are crude and clumsy. It is claimed that -large cedar canoes of Indian manufacture were early carried from the -Pacific coast by fur traders, and New York and Boston shipbuilders took -them as models in constructing the celebrated clipper ships which -formerly sailed between New York and San Francisco. - -The Indians formerly made much use of western red cedar bark which they -twisted into ropes and cords, braided for mats, wove for cloth, used in -making baskets, roofing wigwams, constructing fish nets and bird snares, -ladders for climbing cliffs, and they even pulped the inner bark by -pounding it in mortars, and mixed it with their food. - -White men have put western red cedar to many uses, as shingles, lumber, -cooperage, poles, posts, piles, car siding and roofing, boat building -from skiffs to ships, and general furniture and interior finish. - -WESTERN JUNIPER (_Juniperus occidentalis_) is a high mountain tree with -all the characteristics belonging to that class of timber. The trunks -are short and strong, the limbs wide-spreading, the wood of slow growth, -and dense. The tree attains a diameter of ten inches in about 130 years. -Trunks ten feet in diameter have been reported, but trees that large -would be hard to find now. John Muir said that the western juniper lives -2,000 years, and that the tree is never uprooted by wind. The trunk is -usually short, six or eight feet being a fair average, and very knotty. -However, when a block of clear wood is found, it is high class, the -heaviest of the cedars, straight grain, soft, compact, brittle. The -summerwood is so narrow that it resembles a fine, black line. The -medullary rays are numerous and very obscure. The wood is slightly -aromatic, splits easily, works nicely, and in color is brown, tinged -with red. In appearance, the sapwood suggests spruce. The average height -of the trees is from twenty-five to forty-five feet, diameter two to -four feet. The range of this tree is in Idaho, eastern Oregon, and -through the Cascades and Sierras to southern California. It seldom -occurs below an altitude of 6,000 feet, and ascends to 10,000 or more. -On the highest summits it is deformed and stunted. Its fruit is eaten by -Indians, and it furnishes fuel for mountain camps and ranches, timber -for mines, and sometimes a little lumber. The crooked limbs and trunks -are made into corral fences where better material cannot be had. The -wood has been found suitable for lead pencils, but that of proper -quality is too scarce to attract manufacturers. Other names for this -tree are juniper cedar, yellow cedar, western cedar, western red cedar, -and western juniper. Some of these names are applied to other species of -the same region. - -[Illustration] - - - - -PORT ORFORD CEDAR - -[Illustration: PORT ORFORD CEDAR] - - - - -PORT ORFORD CEDAR - -(_Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana_) - - -Port Orford cedar of the northwestern coast is an interesting member of -the cedar group with a very limited range. Specimens are found -throughout an area of about 10,000 square miles, but the district -moderately heavily timbered does not exceed 300 or 400 miles in area. It -lies near Coos bay in southwestern Oregon. The tree is found as far -south in California as the mouth of Klamath river, and it was once -reported on Mt. Shasta, but it is very scarce there if it exists at all. -In the best of its range Port Orford cedar runs 20,000 feet to the acre, -and a single acre has yielded 100,000 feet. Trees run from 135 to 175 -feet in height and three to seven in diameter. The largest on record -were about 200 feet high and twelve in diameter. Few trees of any -species have smaller leaves. They often are only one-sixteenth of an -inch in length. They die the third year and change to a bright brown. -The cones are about one-third of an inch in diameter. Two or four seeds -lie under each fertile cone scale, and ripen in September and October. -The seeds are one-eighth inch in length, and are winged for flight. The -bark of the tree is much thicker than of most cedars, being ten inches -near the base of large trees. This ought to protect the trunks against -fire but it falls short of expectations. About sixty years ago much of -the finest timber was killed by a great fire which swept the region. -Some of the dead trunks stood forty years without exhibiting much -evidence of decay, and those that fell remained sound many years. - -The whole history of this interesting tree, from its first announced -discovery by white men until the present time, is embraced in the memory -of living men. It had not been heard of prior to 1855. Though fire and -storm have destroyed large quantities, it has been estimated that -4,000,000,000 feet of merchantable timber remain, an average of 15,000 -feet per acre for an area of 400 square miles. The wood is moderately -light, is nearly as strong as white oak, and falls only sixteen per cent -below it in stiffness. The annual rings are generally narrow, but -distinct. The summerwood is narrow, but dark in color in the heartwood. -The medullary rays are numerous and obscure. The wood abounds in odorous -resin. The odor persists long after the wood has ceased to be fresh. -Workmen in mills where this cedar is cut, and on board of vessels -freighted with it, are sometimes seriously affected by the odor. It is -reputed to repel insects, and is made into clothes chests, wardrobes, -and shelves, with the expectation that moths will be kept at a distance. -Several other cedars bear similar reputations. - -One of the first uses to which the people of the Pacific coast put Port -Orford cedar was boat building. The industry was important at Coos bay -at an early day, and vessels constructed there sailed the seas thirty or -forty years. Trunks of this cedar turn out a high percentage of clear -lumber. The wood takes a good polish, and is manufactured into -furniture, doors, sash, turnery, and matches. The latter article is -esteemed by many persons for the peculiar odor of the burning wood. It -has been found practicable to finish this cedar in imitation of -mahogany, oak, and several other cabinet woods. In its natural state it -sometimes bears some resemblance to yellow pine, and sometimes to -spruce, there being considerable variation in the appearance of wood -from different trees. When the visible supply of Port Orford cedar has -been cut, the end will be reached, for not much young growth is coming -on. Sixty-eight varieties of Port Orford cedar are recognized in -cultivation. - -YELLOW CEDAR (_Chamaecyparis nootkatensis_) describes this tree quite -well. The small twigs are of that color, and so is the heartwood. Many -give it the name yellow cypress. Others know it as Alaska cypress, -Alaska ground cypress, Nootka cypress, or Nootka sound cypress. The name -of the species, _nootkatensis_, was given it by Archibald Menzies, a -Scotch botanist who discovered it on the shore of Nootka sound in -Alaska. - -Yellow cedar's geographic range extends from southeastern Alaska to -Oregon, a distance of 1,000 miles. It does not usually go far inland, -and consequently the range is narrow in most places. North of the -international boundary the tree seldom reaches an altitude of more than -2,000 or 3,000 feet, but in Washington and Oregon it is occasionally met -with at elevations of 4,000 and 5,000 feet. The species reaches its best -development on the islands off the coast of southern Alaska and British -Columbia, where the air is moist, the winds warm in winter, the rainfall -abundant, and the snowfall often deep. Well developed trees under such -circumstances are from ninety to 120 feet high, from two to six in -diameter. The blue-green leaves remain active two years, and then die, -but they do not usually fall until a year later. The presence of the -dead leaves on the twigs tones down the general color of the tree -crowns. - -The cones are about half an inch long and have four, five, or six -scales. From two to four seeds lie beneath each scale until September or -October when they ripen and escape. Their wings are large enough to -carry them away from the immediate vicinity of the parent tree, and -reproduction under natural conditions is generally good. Yellow cedar is -abundant within its range, but nature has circumscribed its range, and -it shows no disposition to pass the boundary line. - -The bark is thin and exhibits cedar's characteristic stringiness. It is -shed in thin strips. - -The wood is moderately light, and is strong and stiff. It is probably -the hardest of the cedars, and the grain is so regular that high polish -is possible. Under favorable circumstances trees grow with fair -rapidity, but when conditions are unfavorable, as on high mountains -where summers are short and winters severe, growth is remarkably slow, -and twenty years or more may be required for one inch increase in trunk -diameter. The wood of such trees is hard, dense, and strong. - -The grain of yellow cedar is usually straight. The bands of summerwood -are narrow, the annual rings are indistinct, and an attempt to count -them is often attended with considerable difficulty. The wood is easily -worked, satiny, susceptible of a beautiful polish, and possesses an -agreeable resinous odor. The heartwood is bright, clear yellow, and the -thin sapwood is a little lighter in color. In common with all other -cedars, yellow cedar resists decay many years. Logs which have lain in -damp woods half a century remain sound inside the sapwood. Sometimes -fallen timber in that region is quickly buried under deep beds of moss -which preserves it from decay much longer than if the logs lie exposed -to alternate dampness and dryness. - -Statistics of sawmill operations in the Northwest do not distinguish -between the different cedars, and the cut of yellow cedar is unknown. It -is considerable, but of course not to be compared with the more abundant -western red cedar. Statistics of uses are as meager as of the lumber -output. In Washington the factories which use wood as raw material -report only 7,500 feet of yellow cedar a year. Doubtless much more than -that is used, but under other names. There is no occasion to disguise -this wood under other names. It has a striking individuality and -deserves a place of its own. In some respects it is one of the best -woods of the Pacific Northwest. In nearly every situation where it has -been tried, it has been found satisfactory. Its rich yellow presents a -fine appearance in furniture and interior finish, and the polish which -it takes surpasses that possible with any other cedar, with the probable -exception of some of the scarce, high mountain junipers. It has been -used for pyrography and patterns, two hard places to fill, and for which -few woods are suitable. Indians long ago in Alaska learned that it was -the best material for boat paddles which their forests afforded. It -possesses the requisite stiffness and strength, and it wears to a -smoothness almost like ebony. Boat factories have many uses for the -wood, decking, railing, and interior finish being among the most -important. It is said to be a satisfactory substitute for Spanish cedar -in the manufacture of cigar boxes, but its use for that purpose is not -yet large. - -It is said that occasional exports of this wood go to China where it is -finished in imitation of scarce and expensive woods of that country. - -Yellow cedar is a wood with a future. Its splendid properties cannot -fail to give it a place of no small importance in factories and in -general building operations. The supply has scarcely yet been touched, -but it cannot much longer remain an undeveloped asset. It is apparently -a high-class cooperage material, but it does not seem to have been used -much if at all in that industry. The same might be said of it for doors. -It is heavier than spruce, white pine, and redwood, but where weight is -not a matter for objection, it ought to equal them in all desirable -qualities. - -In much of its range it is generally exempt from forest fire injury, -because its native woods are nearly always too wet to burn. - - ROCKY MOUNTAIN JUNIPER (_Juniperus scopulorum_) is scattered over - the mountains from Dakota and Nebraska to Washington and British - Columbia, and southward to western Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. - Except near the Pacific coast, it is usually found at altitudes - above 5,000 feet. It clings closely to dry, rocky ridges where it - attains a height of thirty or forty feet, and a diameter of three - feet or less. The trunk usually divides near the ground into several - stems. The bright blue berries ripen the second year. The wood - resembles that of red cedar, and is used in the same way, as far as - it is used at all. It is not a source of lumber. A little is sawed - occasionally on mountain mills, and the lumber is used locally in - house building, particularly for window and door frames; but sawlogs - are short, and because of their poor form, the output of lumber is - negligible. Some of it finds its way into Texas where it is - manufactured into clothes chests and wardrobes, and these are sold - as red cedar. A choice mountain juniper log, with large, sound - heartwood, produces lumber with a delicate grain and is more - attractive than red cedar when made into chests and boxes. By habit - of growth, it includes patches of white sapwood in the darker - heartwood. When these are sawed through in converting the logs into - boards, the islands of white wood scattered over the surface produce - a unique effect not wanting in artistic value. Some of the other - western junipers possess similar characteristics. Sometimes patches - of bark are also found imbedded in the interior of the trees. - -[Illustration] - - - - -RED SPRUCE - -[Illustration: RED SPRUCE] - - - - -RED SPRUCE - -(_Picea Rubens_) - - -In New York the tree is called yellow spruce, while in foreign -literature it is known as North American red spruce. The tree is -sometimes difficult to distinguish from black spruce (_Picea nigra_), -the main points of difference in the appearance of the two trees being -the size and shape of the cones and of the staminate blossoms. The cones -of red spruce are larger than those of black, and they mature and drop -from the branches during their first winter, while those of the latter -named species frequently remain on the trees for several seasons. -Certain eminent botanists incline to the belief that the two are -different varieties of one species, inasmuch as even the timber of red -spruce bears a close resemblance to that of the black spruce. Other -botanists dispute this theory, saying that the trees are entirely -different in appearance; that the red spruce is a light olive-green, -while black spruce is inclined to a darker olive with perhaps a purplish -tinge, so that when seen together they have no resemblance in point of -color. They further say that the cones are not only different in size -but that the scales are quite unlike in texture, those of black spruce -being much thinner and more brittle. The same authorities maintain that -the tiny twigs of red spruce are more conspicuous on account of their -reddish tinge. - -Generally speaking the principal spruce growth of northern New England -and New York is black spruce, although interspersed with it in some -localities is a considerable quantity of red spruce. On the contrary the -chief stand of spruce in West Virginia, Virginia, western North -Carolina, and eastern Tennessee and the other high altitudes over the -South Carolina line, is largely red spruce. This botanical analysis of -the two species of wood is based entirely on the authority of botanists, -but from the viewpoint of the average lumberman there is absolutely no -difference between red and black spruce and none in the physics of the -two woods except that which rises from varying conditions of growth as -soil, rainfall, altitude or latitude, or general environment. The larger -spruce of West Virginia and the mountain region farther south, has -certain qualities of strength and texture, combined with a large -percentage of clear lumber that is not approximated by the spruce of New -England and the British maritime provinces. In shape the tree is -pyramidal, with spreading branches. It reaches a height of from seventy -to a hundred feet. Its bark is reddish brown, slightly scaly. The twigs -are light colored when young and are covered with tiny hairs. The leaves -are thickly clustered along the branches, and are simple and slender, -pointed at the apex. They become lustrous at maturity. The staminate -flowers are oval, bright red in color; the pistillate ones are oblong, -with thin rounded scales. The fruit of the red spruce is a cone, from -one to two and a half inches in length; it is green when young, turning -dark with age, and falling from the branches when the scales open. The -seeds are dark brown, and winged. - -Formerly spruce was little thought of for lumber and manufacturing -purposes in this country, though some use was made of it from the -earliest settlements in the regions where it grew. White pine could -generally be had where spruce was abundant, and the former wood was -preferred. As pine became scarce, spruce was worked in for a number of -purposes. The tree's form is all that a sawmill man could desire. The -trunk has more knots than white pine, for the reason that limbs are a -longer time in dying and in dropping off; but knots are small and -generally sound. By careful culling, a moderate amount of clear lumber -may be obtained. The wood is light, soft, narrow-ringed, strong in -proportion to its weight, elastic, and its color is pale with a slight -tinge of red, the sapwood whiter and usually about two inches thick. The -contrast between heart and sapwood is not strong. The medullary rays are -numerous, but small and obscure. The summerwood is thin and not -conspicuous. It is the wood's red tinge which gives the tree its -commercial name. - -It is believed that the yearly cut of red spruce in the United States -for lumber is about 500,000,000 feet, one-half of which comes from West -Virginia and southward, where this species reaches its highest -development; and the pulpwood cut in the same region is about one-tenth -as much in quantity. The long fiber and white color of spruce make it -one of the most satisfactory woods for pulp in this country. Red spruce -is only one of several species of spruce which contribute to the supply. -The total output of spruce pulpwood in the United States yearly is -equivalent to about 1,000,000,000 feet of lumber. - -Red spruce lumber has a long list of uses. Much flooring is made of it, -and it wears well, but not as well as hard pine from the South. It is -more used for shipping boxes in the northeastern part of the United -States than any other wood, except white pine. Its good stenciling -qualities recommend it. Manufacturers of sash, doors, and blinds find it -excellent material, combining lightness, strength, and small tendency to -warp, shrink, or swell. Coopers make buckets, tubs, kegs, and churns of -it; manufacturers of refrigerators use it for doors and frames; and -makers of furniture use it for many interior parts of bureaus, tables, -and sideboards. Textile mills use spruce clothboards as center pieces -round which to wind fabrics; and a further use in mills is for bobbins. -It has many places in boat building, notably as spars and yards; and -for window and door frames. - -The makers of piano frames employ red spruce for certain parts; but as -material for musical instruments its most important use is as sounding -boards. All the commercial spruces are so used. Wood for this purpose -must be free from defects of all kinds, and of straight and even grain. -The sounding board's value lies in its ability to vibrate in unison with -the strings of the instrument. Spruce has no superior for that place. - -Red spruce bears abundance of seeds, the best on the highest branches. -The seeds are winged, and the wind scatters them. They germinate best on -humus. In spruce forests, clumps of seedlings are often seen where logs -have decayed and fallen to dust. Seedlings do not thrive on mineral -soil, and for that reason red spruce makes a poor showing where fires -have burned. It does not spread vigorously in old fields as white pine -does. It must have forest conditions or it will do little good. For that -reason it does not promise great things for the future. It grows very -slowly, and land owners prefer white pine, where that species will grow. -If spruce is to be planted, most persons prefer Norway spruce (_Picea -excelsa_) of Europe. It grows faster than native spruces. It is the -spruce usually seen in door yards and parks. - - BLACK SPRUCE (_Picea mariana_) grows much farther north than red - spruce, but the two species mingle in a region of 100,000 square - miles or more northward of Pennsylvania and in New England and - southern and eastern Canada. Black spruce grows from Labrador to the - valley of the Mackenzie river, almost to the arctic circle. It is - found as far south as the Lake States where it constitutes the - principal spruce of commerce. In some of the swamps of northern - Minnesota and in the neighboring parts of Canada it is little more - than a shrub, and trees three or four feet high bear cones. On - better land in that region the tree is large enough for sawlogs. It - passes under several names, among which are double spruce, blue - spruce, white spruce, and water spruce. The common name black spruce - probably refers to the general appearance of the crown. The small - cones (the smallest of the spruces) adhere to the branches many - years, and give a ragged, black appearance to the tree when seen - from a distance. The wood is as white as other spruces. Trees vary - greatly in size. The best are 100 feet high and two and a half feet - in diameter; but the average size is about thirty feet high and - twelve inches in diameter. That size is not attractive to lumbermen; - but cutters of pulpwood find it valuable and convenient, and much of - it is manufactured into paper. The wood weighs 28.57 pounds per - cubic foot, and is moderately strong, and high in elasticity. It is - pale yellow-white with thin sapwood. In Manitoba, lumber is sawed - from black spruce, and it is cut also in the Lake States, but it is - preferred for pulp. It gives excellent service as canoe paddles. - Spruce chewing gum is made of resinous exudations from this tree, - and is an article of considerable importance. Spruce beer is another - by-product which has long been manufactured in New England and the - eastern Canadian provinces. It was made in Newfoundland three - hundred years ago and has been bought and sold in the markets of - that region ever since. Fishing vessels carry supplies of the - beverage on long voyages as a preventive of scurvy. The beer is - made by boiling leaves and twigs, and adding molasses to the - concoction which is allowed to pass through mild fermentation. - Foresters will probably never pay much attention to black spruce - because other species promise more profit. It is little planted for - ornamental purposes, as it does not grow rapidly, is of poor form, - and the accumulation of dead cones on the branches gives it a poor - appearance. Besides, planted trees do not live long. - - WHITE SPRUCE (_Picea canadensis_) is of more importance in Canada - than in the United States, because more abundant. It is one of the - most plentiful timber trees of Alaska, and it is found west to - Bering strait and north of the arctic circle. It is said to approach - within twenty miles of the Arctic ocean. Its eastern limit is in - Labrador, its southern in the northern tier of states from Maine to - Idaho. A little of this species is cut for lumber in northern New - England and in upper Michigan, and westward, just south of the - Canadian line. The light blue-green foliage gives the tree its name. - It is known by other names as well, single spruce, bog spruce, skunk - spruce, cat spruce, double spruce, and pine. Some of its names are - due to the odor of its foliage. The largest trees are 100 feet high - and three in diameter, but most are smaller. Having a range so - extensive, and in climates and situations so different, the tree - naturally varies greatly in size and form. The wood of - well-developed trees is white and handsome, the thin, pencil-like - bands of summerwood having a slightly darker tone than the - springwood. The two parts of the annual ring possess different - degrees of hardness. The springwood is softer than the summerwood. - The medullary rays are numerous, and the surface of quarter-sawed - lumber has a silvery appearance, due to the exposed flat surfaces of - the rays. In the markets, no distinction is made between white - spruce lumber, and that cut from other species. The uses of the - different species are much the same. As a pulpwood, white spruce is - in demand wherever it is available. The largest output in the United - States comes from northern New England. The tree is often planted - for ornamental purposes in Europe and in northern states. When grown - in the open, the crown is pyramidal, like that of balsam fir. It - does not thrive where summers are warm and dry. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SITKA SPRUCE - -[Illustration: SITKA SPRUCE] - - - - -SITKA SPRUCE - -(_Picea Sitchensis_) - - -This is largest of the spruces. In height and in girth of trunk no other -approaches it. The moist, warm climate of the north Pacific slope is its -favorite home, though its range extends far northward along the islands -and coast of Alaska. Toward the extreme limit of its habitat it loses -its splendid form and size and degenerates into a sprawling shrub. The -limit of the species southward lies in Mendocino county, California. Its -range in a north and south direction is not less than 2,000 miles; but -east and west the growth covers a mere ribbon facing the sea. It climbs -some of the British Columbia mountains, 5,000 feet, but it prefers the -low, wet valleys and flatlands, or the rainy and snowy slopes set to -catch the sea winds. There it is at its best, and the largest trunks are -200 feet high, fifteen feet in diameter, and about 850 years old. All -sizes less than this are found. It is not easy to name an average size -when variation runs from giants to dwarfs; but in regions where this -spruce is cut for lumber, the average height of mature trees is about -125 feet, with a diameter of four feet. - -Tideland spruce is one of its names. That has reference to its habit of -sticking close to the sea. Its other names are Menzies' spruce, great -tideland spruce, and western spruce. The last may be considered its -trade name in lumber markets, for it is seldom called anything else when -it is shipped east of the Rocky Mountains. The name is appropriate, -except that other spruces grow in the West, and are equally entitled to -the name. This applies particularly to Engelmann spruce of the northern -Rocky Mountain region; but its lumber and that cut from Sitka spruce are -not liable to be confused in the mind of anyone who is acquainted with -the two woods. The name Sitka refers to the town of that name in Alaska. - -The leaves of this species are usually less than one inch in length, and -in color are light yellowish green. They stand out like bristles on all -sides of the twigs. Cones are from two to four inches long, and hang by -short stems, usually at the ends of twigs. They ripen the first year, -release their seeds, which fly away on small but ample wings, and the -cones drop during the fall and winter. Sitka spruce bark is generally -less than half an inch in thickness. Trunks which grow in forests prune -themselves well, and are usually clear of limbs from forty to eighty -feet. The bases of trees which grow on wet land are much enlarged like -cypress and tupelo, and lumbermen frequently cut above the swell, -leaving from 1,000 to 5,000 feet or more of lumber in the stump. Sitka -spruce's characteristic root system is shallow; but on mountain sides -where soil is dry, roots penetrate deep in search of moisture. - -The wood of this spruce varies greatly in color, but it is usually a -very pale brown, with the faintest tinge of red. It is a little heavier -than white pine, considerably weaker, and with less elasticity. The size -of the trunks, with their freedom from limbs, insures a high percentage -of clear lumber when Sitka spruce is manufactured. The tree grows -slowly, the annual rings are narrow, and the bands of summer growth are -comparatively broad, to which fact the rather dark color of the wood of -the spruce is due. - -Sitka spruce is an important source of lumber. The total cut in -Washington, Oregon, and California in 1910 was about 255,000,000 feet. -It is below red spruce in quantity of sawmill cut, but above all other -spruces in the United States. The people of the Pacific coast use much -of it at home, but large quantities are shipped to markets in eastern -states, and some to foreign countries. Nearly 4,000,000 feet were bought -by Illinois manufacturers in 1909, in addition to what was used rough in -the state. The commodities manufactured of this spruce in Illinois -indicate with a fair degree of accuracy the uses made of the wood in -most parts of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains and north of -the Ohio river and the Potomac. Among articles so manufactured in -Illinois are playground apparatus, porch and stair balusters, doors, -blinds, sash and frames, poultry brooders, sounding boards for pianos -and other musical instruments, parts of mandolins and guitars, pipes for -organs, cornice brackets, store and office fronts, decking and spars for -boats, wagon beds and windmill wheel slats, refrigerators and cold -storage rooms, ironing boards and other wooden ware. - -Twenty times as much Sitka spruce is made into finished commodities in -Washington as in Illinois. That is to be expected, since Washington is -the home of the tree and the center of supply. A partial list of its -uses in that state will show that the wood is liked at home. Douglas fir -was the only wood bought in larger amounts by Washington manufacturers. -They made 55,429,000 feet of it into boxes, and coopers employed -12,000,000 more. The next largest users were pulpmills, while 2,000,000 -feet went into sounding boards, many of which were for shipment abroad. -Other users were basket makers, and the manufacturers of furniture, -fixtures, finish, caskets, veneer, trunks, pulleys, vehicles, boats, and -patterns. Sitka spruce decays quickly when exposed to rain and weather. - -Sitka spruce can be depended upon for the future. Though it grows slowly -it may be expected to keep growing. Its range lies in regions generally -too wet for woods to burn, and it will suffer less from forest fires -than trees of inland regions. It is an abundant seeder, and its favorite -seedbed is moss, muck, decayed wood, and wet ground litter of various -kinds. For the first few years seedlings are sensitive to frost, but not -in later life. - -Sitka spruce is often planted as an ornamental tree in western Europe, -and occasionally in the middle Atlantic states. The New England climate -is too severe for it. - -ENGELMANN SPRUCE (_Picea engelmanni_) was named for Dr. George -Engelmann. It has other names. In Utah it is called balsam, white spruce -in Oregon, Colorado, Utah, and Idaho, mountain spruce in Montana, -Arizona spruce farther south, while in Idaho it is sometimes known as -white pine. That name is misleading, for Idaho has a species of white -pine (_Pinus monticola_). In eastern markets the wood is known as -western spruce; but that, also, is indefinite, for Sitka spruce is also -a western species and is found in the same markets as Engelmann spruce. -This tree's range extends from Yukon territory to Arizona, fully 3,000 -miles. It is a mountain species and is found in elevated ranges. In the -southern part of its habitat it ascends mountains to heights of nearly -12,000 feet. It grows in the Cascade mountain ranges in Washington and -Oregon. The species' best development occurs in British Columbia. At its -best, trees are 150 feet high and four or five in diameter; but every -size less than that occurs in different parts of its range, down to a -height of two or three feet for fully matured trees. Such are found on -lofty and sterile mountains where frost occurs practically every night -in summer, and winter snows bury all objects for months at a time. -Though the stunted spruce trees may be only two or three feet high, -their branches spread many feet, and lie flat on the rocks. Though such -situations are exceedingly unfavorable to tree growth, the stunted -spruces survive sometimes for two hundred years, and during that long -period may not grow a trunk above five inches in diameter and four feet -high. The Engelmann spruce is naturally a long-lived tree, and large -trunks are 500 or 600 years old; and trees ordinarily cut for lumber are -300 or 400 years old. When the tree is young, its form is symmetrical, -the longest branches being near the ground, the shortest near the top; -but in crowded stands the trunk finally clears itself. Engelmann spruce -lumber is usually full of small knots, each of which represents a limb -which was shaded off as the tree advanced in age. The wood is lighter -than white pine, and is the lightest of the spruces, the weight being -21.49 pounds per cubic foot. It is not strong, and it rates low in -elasticity. The wood is pale yellow, tinged with red. The thick sapwood -is hardly distinguishable from the heart. It would be difficult to -compile a list of this tree's uses, because in markets it hardly ever -carries its right name. It is used for fuel and charcoal in the region -of its growth; also as farm timber, and as props and lagging in mines. -When it goes to market, it is manufactured into doors, window frames, -sash, interior finish for houses, and for purposes along with other -spruces. Large quantities of this wood will be accessible when lumbermen -penetrate remote mountain regions where it grows. It may be expected to -increase in importance. It is occasionally planted in eastern states as -an ornament. - - BLUE SPRUCE (_Picea parryana_) is found among mountains in Colorado, - Utah, and Wyoming, from 6,500 to 10,000 feet above sea level. It - attains a height of 150 feet and a diameter of three under favorable - circumstances, but its usual size is little more than half of that. - Its name is given on account of the color of its foliage, but it has - other names, among them being Parry's spruce, balsam, white spruce, - silver spruce, Colorado blue spruce, and prickly spruce, the last - name referring to the sharp-pointed leaves which are an inch or more - in length. Cones are three inches long, and usually grow near the - top of the tree. It is not unusual for blue spruce trees to divide - near the ground in three or four branches. In its youth, - particularly in open ground, blue spruce develops a conical crown. - The wood is lighter than white pine, is soft, weak, and pale brown - or nearly white in color. The sapwood is hardly distinguishable from - the heart. This is a valuable tree for ornamental planting; but in - later years it loses its lower limbs, and becomes less desirable. - - WEEPING SPRUCE (_Picea breweriana_) is of little commercial - importance because of scarcity. It grows among the mountains of - northern California and southern Oregon, at elevations of from 4,000 - to 8,000 feet above sea level. The leaves are an inch or less in - length, the cones from two to four inches long. They fall soon after - they scatter their seeds. This tree is named on account of its - drooping branchlets, some of which hang down eight feet. The wood - seems not to have been investigated, but its color is pale yellowish - to very light brown, and the annual rings are rather narrow. The - tree ought to be valuable for ornamental planting, but nurseries - have experienced much difficulty in making it grow. It grows on high - and dry mountains where few ever see it, but refuses to become - domesticated or to grace eastern parks. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CYPRESS - -[Illustration: CYPRESS] - - - - -CYPRESS - -(_Taxodium Distichum_) - - -The name cypress has been used quite loosely in this country and the old -world, and botanists have taken particular care to explain what true -cypress is. It is of no advantage in the present case to join in the -discussion, and it will suffice to give the American cypresses according -to the authorized list published by the United States Forest Service. -Two genera, one having two and the other six species, are classed as -cypress. These are Bald Cypress (_Taxodium distichum_), Pond Cypress -(_Taxodium imbricarium_), Monterey Cypress (_Cupressus macrocarpa_), -Gowen Cypress (_Cupressus goveniana_), Dwarf Cypress (_Cupressus -pygmaea_) Macnab Cypress (_Cupressus macnabiana_), Arizona Cypress -(_Cupressus arizonica_), and Smooth Cypress (_Cupressus glabra_). The -first two grow in the southern states, and the others in the Far West. -Bald cypress, which is generally known simply as cypress in the region -where it grows, is more important as a source of lumber than are all the -others combined. It probably supplies ninety-nine per cent of all -cypress sold in this country. Its range is from southern Delaware to -Florida, westward to the Gulf coast region of Texas, north through -Louisiana, Arkansas, eastern Mississippi and Tennessee, southeastern -Missouri, western Kentucky and sparsely in southern Illinois and -southwestern Indiana. It is a deep swamp tree, and it is never of much -importance far from lagoons, inundated tracts, and the low banks of -rivers. Water that is a little brackish from the inwash of tides does -not injure the tree, but the presence of a little salt is claimed by -some to improve the quality of the wood. It is lumbered under -difficulties. The deep water and miry swamps where it grows best must be -reckoned with. Some of the ground is not dry for several years at a -time. Neither felling nor hauling is possible in the manner practiced in -the southern pineries. Owing to the great weight of the green wood, it -will not float unless killed by being girdled for a year or more in -advance of its being felled. In the older logging operations, cypress -was girdled and snaked out to waterways and floated to the mills. Lately -many cypress operations are carried on by the building of railroads -through the swamps, which are largely on piling and stringers, although -occasionally earth fills are utilized. The usual size of mature cypress -ranges from seventy-five to 140 feet in height and three to six in -diameter. - -The wood is light, soft, rather weak, moderately stiff, and the grain is -usually straight. The narrow annual rings indicate slow growth. The -summerwood is comparatively broad and is slightly resinous; medullary -rays are numerous and obscure. The wood is light to dark brown, the -sapwood nearly white. At one time specimens of the wood in the markets -of the world were known as black or white cypress, according as they -sank or floated. Much of the dark cypress wood is now known as black -cypress in the foreign markets, where it is employed chiefly for tank -and vat building. Individual specimens of the wood in some localities -are tinted in a variety of shades and some of the natural designs are -extremely beautiful. - -The wood is reputed to be among the most durable in this country when -exposed to soil and weather. Some of it deserves that reputation, but -other does not. Well-authenticated cases are cited where cypress has -remained sound many years--in some instance a hundred or more--when -subjected to alternate dampness and dryness. Such conditions afford -severe tests. In other cases cypress has been known to decay as quickly -as pine. - -Historical cases from the old world are sometimes cited to show the -wonderful lasting properties of cypress. Doors and statues, exposed more -or less to weather, are said to have stood many centuries. The evidence -has little value as far as this wood is concerned. In the first place, -the long records claimed are subjects for suspicion; and in the second -place, it was not the American cypress that was used--and probably no -cypress--but the cedar of Lebanon. - -Sound cypress logs have been dug from deep excavations near New Orleans, -and geologists believe they had lain there 30,000 years. That would be a -telling testament to endurance were it not that any other wood -completely out of reach of air would last as long. - -The estimated stand of cypress in the South is about 20,000,000,000 -feet. The annual cut, including shingles, exceeds 1,000,000,000 feet. -New growth is not coming on. The traveler through the South occasionally -sees a small clump of little cypresses, but such are few and far -between. It was formerly quite generally believed that cypress in deep -swamps, where old and venerable stands are found, was not reproducing, -and that no little trees were to be seen. It was argued from this, that -some climatic or geographic change had taken place, and that the present -stand of cypress would be the last of its race. More careful -investigation, however, has shown that the former belief was erroneous. -Seedling cypresses are found occasionally in the deepest swamps. -Probably cypress which has not been disturbed by man is reproducing as -well now as at any time in the past. The tree lives three or four -centuries, and if it leaves one seedling to take its place it has done -its part toward perpetuating the species. Fire, the mortal enemy of -forests, seldom hurts cypress, because the undergrowth is not dry enough -to burn. - -The uses of cypress are so nearly universal that a list is impossible. -In Illinois alone it is reported for seventy-eight different purposes. -There is not a state, and scarcely a large wood-using factory, east of -the Rocky Mountains which does not demand more or less cypress. - -The tree is graceful when young, but ragged and uncouth when old. Though -a needleleaf tree, it yearly sheds its foliage and most of its twigs. -The fruit is a cone about one inch in diameter; and the seed is equipped -with a wing one-fourth inch long and one-eighth inch wide. - -When cypress stands in soft ground which most of the time is under -water, the roots send up peculiar growths known as knees. They rise from -a few inches to several feet above the surface of the mud, and extend -above the water at ordinary stages. They are sharp cones, generally -hollow. It is believed their function is to furnish air to the tree's -roots, and also to afford anchorage to the roots in the soft mud. When -the water is drained away, the knees die. - -Cypress is widely planted as an ornament, and a dozen or more varieties -have been developed in cultivation. - - POND CYPRESS (_Taxodium imbricarium_) so closely resembles bald - cypress with which it is associated that the two were once supposed - to be the same. Pond cypress averages smaller and its range is more - circumscribed. The name pond cypress, by which it is popularly known - in Georgia, indicates the localities where it is oftenest found. It - is the prevailing cypress in the Okefenoke swamp in southeastern - Georgia. The general aspect of the foliage and fruit is the same as - of bald cypress. No detailed examination of the wood seems to have - been made, but in general appearance it is like the other cypress. - It is said that little of it ever gets to sawmills because it grows - in situations where logging is inconvenient. - - MONTEREY CYPRESS (_Cupressus macrocarpa_). This tree has only one - name and that is due to its place of growth on the shores of - Monterey bay, California. Its range is more restricted than that of - any other American softwood. It does not much exceed 150 acres, - though the trees are scattered in a narrow strip for two miles along - the coast. They approach so close the breakers that spray flies over - them in time of storm. Trees exposed to the sweep of the wind are - gnarled and of fantastic shapes. Their crowns are broad and flat - like an umbrella, but ragged and unsymmetrical in outline. That form - offers least resistance to wind, and most surface to the sun. The - trees take the best possible advantage of their opportunities. Tall - crowns would be carried away by wind; and the flat tops, with a mass - of green foliage, catch all the sunlight possible. They need it, for - they grow in fog, and sunshine is scarce. Sheltered trees develop - pyramidal tops. It is widely planted in this and other countries, - and when conditions are favorable, it is graceful and symmetrical. - The largest trees are from sixty to seventy feet tall, others are - five or six in diameter; but the tallest trees and the largest - trunks seldom go together. The cones are an inch or more in length, - and each contains about 100 seeds. The leaves fall the third and - fourth years. Wood is heavy, hard, strong, and durable, but is too - scarce to be of value as lumber, even if the trunks were suitable - for sawlogs. The Monterey cypress is of peculiar interest to - botanists and also to physical geographers. The few trees on the - shore of Monterey bay appear to be the last remnant of a species - which was once more extensive. The ocean is eating away the coast at - that point. Fragments of hills, cut sheer down from top to the - breakers beneath, are plainly the last remnants of ranges which once - extended westward, but have been washed away by the encroaching - waves. No one knows how much of the former coast has been destroyed. - Apparently the former range of the cypress was principally on land - now swallowed up by the encroaching ocean. A mere fringe of the - trees--a belt about 200 yards wide along the beach--remains, and the - sea is undermining them one by one and carrying them down. So - rapidly is the undermining process going on that many large roots of - some of the trees are exposed to view. - - ARIZONA CYPRESS (_Cupressus arizonica_), as its name implies, is an - Arizona tree. It forms considerable forests in the eastern, central, - and southern parts of the state, and is found also in Mexico. It - grows at elevations up to 6,000 feet. Because of the small - population in the region where this cypress grows, it has never been - much used, but the size of the trees and the character of the wood - fit it for many purposes. Its growth is often quite rapid, and the - timber is soft, light, and with well-defined summerwood. Its usual - color is gray, but occasionally faint streaks of yellow appear. The - leaves fall during the fourth and fifth years; cones are small and - flat; and the small seeds are winged. It is believed by persons - familiar with Arizona cypress that it will attain considerable - importance when the building of railroads and the settlement of the - country make the forests accessible. The wood is durable in contact - with the soil. - - SMOOTH CYPRESS (_Cupressus glabra_) ranges in Arizona and is not - believed to have or to promise much importance as a source of lumber - supply. Its name was given on account of the smoothness of the bark. - It is one of the latest species to be given a place among the - cypresses, and was described and named by George B. Sudworth of the - United States Forest Service. - -[Illustration] - - - - -BALSAM FIR - -[Illustration: BALSAM FIR] - - - - -BALSAM FIR - -(_Abies Balsamea_) - - -Balsam fir is the usual name applied to this tree in New England, New -York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Ontario. The -shorter name balsam suffices in some parts of that region, and -particularly in New York, New Hampshire, and Vermont. Because it is -common north of the international boundary, the name Canada balsam has -been given it in some regions. In Delaware it is known as balm of -Gilead, but that name belongs to a tree of the cottonwood group, -(_Populus balsamifera_) which is a broadleaf species. In New York and -Pennsylvania a word of distinction is added, and it is called balm of -Gilead fir. Toward the southern limit of its range it is spoken of as -fir pine and blister pine. New York Indians knew the tree as blisters. -They referred to the pockets under the bark of young trees and near the -tops of mature trunks, in which resin collected. The name balsam refers -to that characteristic also, as does the word balm. In some parts of -Canada the tree is known as silver pine, and as silver spruce. The -secretion of resin in bark blisters is a characteristic of several firs. - -The list of names and the locality of their use indicate fairly well the -geographical range of balsam fir. Its northern limit forms a line across -eastern Canada from Labrador to Hudson bay. From Hudson bay its northern -boundary trends northwestward and reaches the vicinity of Great Bear -lake. In the United States it grows westward to Minnesota and southward -to Pennsylvania. It is cut for lumber in eleven states. - -In a range so large and including situations so various, it is natural -that the tree should vary greatly in size. In the Lake States the common -height is fifty or sixty feet, and the diameter is twelve or fifteen -inches. Young balsam firs grow vigorously when the ground is suitable -and their tops receive sufficient light. In lumbered regions in the Lake -States, this fir gets a foothold in the shade of a dense growth of paper -birch and other quickly-growing species; and in a few years the pointed, -intensely green spires of the balsams may be seen piercing the canopy of -other young tree tops, and shooting above into the light. This is -accomplished after a struggle of some years in the shade; but the firs -ultimately win their way upward, and in a few years they shade to death -most of their broadleaf associates. If they are in competition with -northern white cedar or tamarack, they are not always successful in -winning first place. - -The leaves of balsam fir are from one-half to one and one-fourth inches -long. They are green and lustrous above and silver white below, the -whiteness due to stomata on their undersides. On young twigs the leaves -bristle out on all sides and are very numerous and crowded together, but -on older branches the leaves are more scattered, due to the dropping of -some of them. It is their habit to adhere to the stems about eight -years. - -The leaves of balsam fir possess a pleasing and characteristic odor -which is turned to account in a practical way. The small needles are -stripped from the branches in large quantities, cleaned, dried, and are -used for stuffing sofa pillows, cushions, and other kinds of upholstery. -The odor persists a long time. Much of the collecting of the needles is -done in summer as a pastime by summer campers in the northern woods. The -needles are sufficiently tough to stand much wear in pillows, and they -are still odorous when long use has ground them to powder. - -The cones of balsam fir follow the fashion of all species of fir, and -stand erect on the branches. Seeds are one-fourth inch in length and are -winged. The wood is of approximately the same weight as white pine, but -it falls considerably below white pine in strength and stiffness. It is -of moderately rapid growth when conditions are favorable, and the annual -ring has a fair proportion of summerwood. The yearly rings are quite -distinct. The medullary rays are numerous, and for a softwood they are -prominent. When a log is quarter-sawed, and the surfaces of the boards -are planed, the wood presents a silvery appearance, but it is too -monotonous to be very attractive. The heartwood is pale brown, streaked -with yellow, the thick sapwood much lighter in color. It is perishable -in contact with the soil. - -Pulp manufacturers are the largest users of balsam fir. About three per -cent of all the pulpwood cut in the United States in 1910 was from this -species. Its use is on the increase, or appears to be; but recent -statistics relating to this wood cannot be safely compared with returns -for former years, because the custom of mixing fir with spruce and other -pulpwoods formerly prevailed in New England, and it was then not -possible to determine exactly how much fir reached the market. At the -present time fir goes under its own name, and the output exceeds 132,000 -cords, which is equivalent to 105,000,000 feet, board measure, yearly. - -Eleven states contribute to the balsam fir lumber cut, but most is -supplied by Maine, Minnesota, Vermont, Michigan, and Wisconsin. The -total for 1910 was 74,580,000 feet. Much of it is employed in rough form -for fences and buildings, while other is further manufactured by planing -mills and factories. Car builders employ it in several ways. It serves -as doors, siding, lining, and roofing for freight cars. It is not a -durable wood when exposed to weather. The largest reported use of the -wood in New England is by box makers. Massachusetts alone works nearly -15,000,000 feet a year into crates and shipping boxes. Its uses in the -Lake States are more varied. The makers of berry, fruit, and vegetable -baskets draw supplies from the wood. Some of the product is of thin -split slats, and other of veneer or sawed material. - -The light weight and white color of balsam fir make it acceptable to the -manufacturers of excelsior. The product is employed in packing -merchandise for shipment, and to a small extent in upholstery. The wood -fills a rather important place in the woodenware industry, where its -white color and light weight constitute its most important -recommendations. It is sawed into staves for pails and tubs. - -Though balsam fir has little figure and its appearance is rather common, -it finds its way to planing mills and woodworking shops where it is made -into ceiling, newel posts, molding, railing, spindles, chair-boards, and -other interior finish. - -The most widely known commercial product manufactured from this tree is -Canada balsam. Strictly speaking, it is not a manufactured article -except what is done in nature's laboratory, and the product is the resin -stored under bark blisters. The resin is transparent, and is employed by -microscopists in mounting objects for examination. Little machinery or -apparatus is used in removing the viscid fluid from the pockets in the -bark. With a knife the thin, soft blister is slit and the resin is -scraped out. All kinds of claims of medicinal virtue are made for balsam -resin in the region where the tree grows; but the treatment in most -cases effects cures--if any cures are really effected--by appeals to -faith and the imagination. - -Balsam fir owes a large part of its importance to its abundance. It is -not exactly a swamp tree, but it does best in damp situations where the -ground is moist and cool in summer. Only in periods of protracted -drought does the ground litter become sufficiently dry to burn fiercely, -and to that fact is due much of the promise of future supply of balsam -fir. That which grows on the dry uplands may fall prey to forest fires, -but that in the damp flats, associated with northern white cedar and -tamarack, will hold its ground and continue to supply demand. - -Balsam fir has an importance which can not be wholly measured in feet, -pounds, cords, or dollars. Many of the choicest Christmas trees which in -December go by tens of thousands to the cities, are of this tree. Its -form is almost perfect, being conical, broad near the bottom, and -running to a sharp apex. The deep green of the needles, which retain -their color from two weeks to a month after the trunk is severed, gives -balsam Christmas trees much of their popularity. The trees are cut from -Maine to Michigan, and many are shipped across the international -boundary from Canada. The custom of cutting Christmas trees is often -condemned as a waste of resources. It has been argued that the -destruction in one month of 1,000,000 young trees is equivalent to the -destruction of 500,000,000 feet of lumber, because, if allowed to reach -maturity, they would yield that much lumber. That argument does not take -into consideration the fact that not one of the young trees in ten would -reach maturity if left to the course of nature. - -When Gifford Pinchot was United States forester, a protest against the -cutting of Christmas trees was formally laid before him. It was -generally believed that he would declare that the waste ought to be -stopped and would set his disapproval on the practice; but he did -nothing of the sort. He declared that the forests are for the use of the -people and that they can serve in no better way than by supplying every -child in the land with a Christmas tree once a year. - -[Illustration] - - - - -FRASER FIR - -[Illustration: FRASER FIR] - - - - -FRASER FIR - -(_Abies Fraseri_) - - -The people who are acquainted with this interesting and somewhat rare -tree have seen to it that it does not want for names. Some of these -names are both definitive and descriptive, while others are neither. -Tennessee, North Carolina, and West Virginia furnish the names. Within -the tree's range in Tennessee and North Carolina it is often known as -balsam without any qualifying word, and that is quite sufficient, for no -other fir or balsam grows within its range. In the same region it is -called balsam fir. That is the common name of its northern relative, but -there is little likelihood of confusing the two species, for their -ranges do not overlap much, if they touch at all, which they probably do -not. In Tennessee the name is reversed and instead of balsam fir it is -fir balsam. It is likewise known as double fir balsam, but why "double" -is added to the name is not clear. Similar mystery attaches to the name -"single spruce," which is applied to the balsam fir in the interior of -British America. The southern Appalachian tree is called she balsam and -she balsam fir. These names have no scientific basis, and they appear to -have originated in a desire to distinguish this tree from the red spruce -with which it is associated. The spruce is called "he balsam." -Artificial names like these are not necessary to distinguish red spruce -from Fraser fir, as very slight acquaintance should enable anybody to -tell one from the other at sight, and to see clearly that they are not -of the same species. Mountain balsam, a North Carolina name for this -fir, is well taken, for it is distinctly a mountain species. The name -healing balsam is given in acknowledgment of the supposed medicinal -properties of the resin which collects in blisters or pockets under the -bark of young trees and near the tops of old. In West Virginia, where -this tree reaches the northern limits of its habitat, it is called -blister pine, on account of the resin pockets. In the same region it is -called stackpole pine, because farmers who mow mountain meadows use -straight, very light poles cut from this fir round which to build -haystacks. - -This tree is decidedly an inhabitant of the high, exposed localities, -being found entirely in the upper elevations of the southern Appalachian -mountains, either forming extensive pure stands or growing in the -company of red spruce (_Picea rubens_), with a scattering of various -stunted hardwoods, as birch, mountain ash, cherry and usually with an -undergrowth of rhododendron. - -Fraser fir's range extends from the high mountains of North Carolina, -where it grows 6,000 feet above sea level, northward into West -Virginia, within a few miles of the Maryland line, at an altitude of -3,300 feet. The tree is not found in all regions between its northern -and southern limits. Its best development is in the southern part of its -range. - -On the upper limits of its habitat the tree presents a decidedly -picturesque appearance, being gnarled and twisted and plainly showing -the results of its long struggle for life and development. It is always -noticeable that on the exposed side the limbs are so short as to be -almost missing and on the opposite side they grow out straight and long, -appearing to fly before the wind. These limbs are sometimes of as great -a girth for five or six feet of their length as any part of the main -stem, and have a singular look, seeming to be all out of proportion to -the rest of the tree. The older trees are vested in a smooth, -yellowish-gray, mossy bark, which is quite different from that of the -balsam fir. The bark is thin, about one-fourth of an inch on young -trunks, and half an inch near the ground on old ones. The leaves are -usually half an inch long, sometimes one inch, and their lower sides are -whitish, which tint is due to abundant white stomata. In that respect -they resemble leaves of balsam fir and hemlock. - -The cones, like those of other species of fir, stand erect on the -branches, and average about two and a half inches in length. They are -smoother than the cones of most pines. They mature in September. The -winged seeds average one-eighth inch in length, and are fairly abundant. -The Fraser fir grows as tall as balsam fir, from forty to sixty feet, -and the trunk diameter is greater, being sometimes thirty inches, though -half of that is nearer an average. When of pole size, that is, from five -to eight inches in diameter, Fraser fir is often tall, straight and -shapely. Its form, however, depends upon the situation in which it -grows. If in the open, it develops a relatively short trunk and a broad, -pyramidal crown. This fir differs from balsam fir in its choice of -situation. The latter, though not exactly a swamp tree, prefers damp -ground, while Fraser fir flourishes on slopes and mountain tops. - -On the mountains of western North Carolina fir grows in mixture with red -spruce. Sometimes the fir is fifty per cent of the stand, but usually it -is less, and frequently not more than fifteen per cent. Few fir trees in -that locality are two feet in diameter. They grow with fair rapidity in -their early years, but decline in rate as age comes on. It may be -observed in traveling through the stands of mixed spruce and fir among -the high ranges of the southern Appalachian mountains that the -proportion of spruce is much higher in old stands than in young. That is -due to the greater age to which spruce lives. Trees of that species -continue to stand after the firs have died of old age. On the other -hand, fir outnumbers spruce in many young stands. That is because fir -reproduces better than spruce, and grows with more vigor at first. In -stands of second growth the fir often predominates. It depends to some -extent upon the conditions under which the second growth has its start. -Fir does not germinate well if the ground has been bared by fire and the -humus burned. Consequently, old burns do not readily grow up in fir. The -best stands occur where the natural conditions have not been much -disturbed further than by removing the growth. Fortunately conditions on -the summit and elevated slopes of the southern Appalachians do not favor -destructive forest fires. Rain is frequent and abundant, and the shade -cast by evergreen trees keeps the humus too moist for fire. To this -condition is due the comparative immunity from fire of the high mountain -forests of fir and spruce. Sometimes, however, fires sweep through fine -stands with disastrous results. The destruction is more serious because -no second forest of evergreens is likely on tracts which have been -severely burned. - -A report by the State Geological Survey on forest conditions in western -North Carolina, issued in 1911, predicted that spruce and fir forests -aggregating from 100,000 to 150,000 acres among the high mountain -ranges, will become barren tracts, because of the destructive effect of -fires stripping the ground of humus. - -The cutters of pulpwood in the southern Appalachian mountains take -Fraser fir wherever they find it, mix it with spruce, and the two woods -go to market as one. Statistics show the annual cut of both, but do not -give them separately. The output of spruce, including fir, south of -Pennsylvania, in 1910 was 115,993 cords, equivalent to about 80,000,000 -feet, board measure. Most of it was red spruce, but some was fir, and in -North Carolina probably twenty-five per cent was of that species. The -total pulpwood cut in that state was 14,509 cords of the two woods -combined, and probably 3,800 cords were Fraser fir. - -The wood of Fraser fir is very light. An air dry sample from Roan -mountain, N. C., weighed 22.22 pounds per cubic foot. That is lighter -than balsam fir, which is classed among the very light woods. It is -stronger than balsam fir by twenty-five per cent. The wood is soft, -compact and the bands of summerwood in the annual rings are rather broad -and light colored and are not conspicuous. The medullary rays are thin -but numerous. The color is light brown, the sapwood mostly white. - -This wood is not of much commercial value except for pulp. It is not -abundant, and it is not suited to many purposes. It is suitable for -boxes, being light in weight and moderately strong; but other woods -which grow in the same region are as good in all respects and are more -abundant, and will be used in preference to fir for that purpose. The -decrease in area on account of fires, and in quantity because of -pulpwood operations, indicates that forest grown Fraser fir has seen its -best days. On the other hand, the United States Forest Service has -acquired tracts of land on the summits of the mountains where this -species has its natural home, and the growth will be protected from -fires and from destructive cutting, and there is no danger that the -species will be exterminated. - -It is an interesting tree. It contributes to the pleasure of tourists -and campers among the southern mountains. The fragrance of its leaves -and young branches add a zest to the summer camp. The traveler who is -overtaken in the woods by the coming of night, prepares his bed of the -boughs of this tree and of red spruce and sleeps soundly beneath an -evergreen canopy. Pillows and cushions stuffed with fir needles carry -memories of the mountains to distant cities. - -In one respect this tree of the high mountains is like the untamed -Indians who once roamed in that region: it refuses to be civilized. The -tree has been planted in parks in this country and in Europe, but it -does not prosper. Its form loses something of the grace and symmetry -which it exhibits in its mountain home, and its life is short. Those who -wish to see Fraser fir at its best must see it where nature planted it -high on the southern mountains. - - ARIZONA CORK FIR (_Abies arizonica_) very closely resembles forms of - the alpine fir, and may not be a separate species. Sudworth was - unable to distinguish its foliage and cones from those of alpine - fir, but the bark is softer. Its range is on the San Francisco - mountains in Arizona. It is very scarce, and only local use of its - wood is possible. - -[Illustration] - - - - -NOBLE FIR - -[Illustration: NOBLE FIR] - - - - -NOBLE FIR - -(_Abies Nobilis_) - - -This tree's name is justified by its appearance when growing at its best -in the forests of the northwest Pacific coast. It is tall, shapely, and -imposing. It often exceeds a height of 250 feet, and a trunk diameter of -six feet. It is sometimes eight feet in diameter. No tree is more -shapely and symmetrical. When grown in dense stands the first limb may -be 150 feet from the ground, and from that point to the base there is -little taper. It over-reaches so many of its forest companions that it -is sometimes designated locally as bigtree; but it is believed that -lumber is never so spoken of, and that the name applies to the standing -tree only. The Indians of the region where it grows call it tuck-tuck, -but information as to the meaning of these words is not at hand. In -northern California, and probably still farther north, this species is -often called red fir, feather-cone red fir, or bracted red fir. The -color of the heartwood and the appearance of the cone, doubtless are -responsible for these names. There is a tendency in the fir-growing -regions of the West to call all firs either white or red, depending upon -the color of the heartwood. There are ten or more species of fir west of -the Rocky Mountains, and to the layman they all look much alike, but to -botanists they are interesting objects of study. - -The range of noble fir covers parts of three states, but the whole of no -one. Its northern limit is in Washington, its southern in northern -California, and it follows the mountains across western Oregon. It often -forms extensive forests on the Cascade mountains of Washington. It is -most abundant at elevations of from 2,500 to 5,000 feet in southwestern -Washington and northwestern Oregon. On the eastern and northern slopes -of those mountains it is of smaller size and is less abundant. Like -several other of the extraordinarily large western trees, it keeps -pretty close to the warm, moist coast of the Pacific. - -The shining, blue-green color of the leaves is a conspicuous -characteristic of noble fir as it appears in the forest. They vary in -length from an inch to an inch and a half. They usually curl, twist, and -turn their points upward and backward, away from the end of the branch -which bears them. The cones, following the fashion of firs, stand -upright on the twigs, and are conspicuous objects. They are four or five -inches in length, which is rather large for firs, but not the largest. -The seeds are half an inch long, and are winged. They are well provided -with the means of flight, but many of them never have an opportunity to -test their wings, for the dextrous Douglas squirrel cuts the cones from -the highest trees, and when they fall to the ground he pulls them apart -with his feet and teeth, and the seeds pay him for his pains. If cones -ripen on the trees and the released seeds sail away, there are birds of -various feather waiting to receive them. Consequently, the noble fir -plants comparatively few seeds. Their ratio of fertility is low at best, -but that is partly compensated for by the large numbers produced. - -Thick stands of noble fir are not common. It generally is found, a few -trees here and there, mixed with other species. Sawmills find it -unprofitable to keep the lumber separate from other kinds. It does not -pay to do so for two reasons. Extra labor is required to handle it in -that way, and there is a prejudice against fir lumber. It does not -appeal to buyers. For that reason some operators have called this timber -Oregon larch, and have sent it to market under that name. That is a -trick of the trade which has been put into practice many times and with -many woods. The purpose in the instance of noble fir was to pass it for -the larch which grows in the northern Rocky Mountain region. The two -woods are so different that no person acquainted with one would mistake -it for the other. A recent government report of woods used for -manufacturing purposes in Washington does not list a foot of noble fir. -The inference is that it must be going to factories under some other -name, for it is incredible that this wood should be put to no use at all -in the region of its best development. - -Noble fir is of slow growth, and the large trunks are very old, the -oldest not less than 800 years. The summerwood forms a narrow, dark band -in the annual ring. Medullary rays are numerous, but very thin and -inconspicuous. The wood possesses little figure. It weighs twenty-eight -pounds per cubic foot, which is four pounds less than the average -Douglas fir. It is very low in fuel value, as softwoods usually are -which have little resin. It is very weak, and it bends easily. It is -soft, easily worked, and polishes well. This is one of its most valuable -qualities. It is deficient in a number of properties which are desirable -in wood, but partly makes up for them in its ability to take a smooth -finish. It is pale brown, streaked with red, the sapwood darker. In that -particular it is unusual, for most softwoods have sap lighter in color -than the heart. - -It has been already pointed out that difficulty is met when an attempt -is made to list the uses of noble fir, because it loses its name before -it leaves the sawmill yard and takes the name of some other wood, and -those who put it to use often do so without knowing what the wood really -is. It is known that some of it is manufactured into house siding. It -works nicely and looks well, but since it is liable to quick decay it -must be kept well painted when it is exposed to weather. It serves as -interior finish, and this seems to be one of its best uses. It is so -employed for steamboats and for houses, and many shipments of it have -been made to boat builders on the Atlantic coast. It is used for -shipping boxes, and its light color fits it for that purpose, as the -wood shows painting and stenciling to good advantage. - -European nurseries have propagated noble fir with success, but it does -not do so well in the eastern part of the United States, though it lives -through winters as far north as Massachusetts. It is not known to have -been planted for other than ornamental purposes. Unless it would grow -much faster in plantations than in its wild state, it will be too long -in maturing to make it attractive to the timber planter. - - WHITE FIR (_Abies concolor_). The whiteness of the wood and the - silver color of the young branches give this species its name, but - it is not the sole possessor of that name, but shares it with three - other firs. In California, Idaho, and Utah it is called balsam fir. - The branches and upper parts of the trunk where the bark is thin, - are covered with blisters which contain white resin. In Utah it is - known as white balsam, as silver fir in some parts of California, - and as black gum in Utah. The reason for that name is not apparent, - unless it refers to the black bark on old trees. It has several - other names which are combinations of white and silver with some - other term. Its range is mostly in the Sierras and in the Rocky - Mountain ranges, extending from southern Colorado to the mountains - of California, north through Oregon, and south through New Mexico - and Arizona. The immense proportions are reached only in the Sierra - growth, those trees in the Rockies being hardly above ordinary size. - In its free growth the tree is reputed to be the only one of its - genus found in the arid regions of the Great Basin, and similar - localities in Arizona and New Mexico. It is not distinguished by all - botanists from the similar species, _Abies grandis_. - - White fir attains a height of 250 feet and a diameter of six in some - instances, but the average size of mature trees among the Sierra - Nevadas is 150 feet tall and three or four in diameter. In the Rocky - Mountain region the tree is smaller. It grows from 3,000 to 9,000 - feet above sea level. The leaves are long for the fir genus, and - vary from two to three inches. The tree's bark is black near the - base of large trunks but of less somber color near the top. Near the - base of large trees the bark is sometimes six inches thick. The wood - of this species is light and soft. Carpenters consider it coarse - grained, by which they mean that it does not polish nicely. It is - brittle and weak. The rings of annual growth are generally broad, - with the bands of darker colored summerwood prominent. In lumber - sawed tangentially, rings produces distinct figure, but it is not - generally regarded as pleasing. The medullary rays are prominent for - a softwood, but quarter-sawing does not add much to the wood's - appearance. It decays quickly in alternate wet and dry situations. - Trees are apt to be affected with wind shake, and the wood's - disposition to splinter in course of manufacture has prejudiced many - users against it. However, it has some good qualities. The wood is - free from objectionable odor, and this qualifies it as box material. - Fruit shippers can use it without fear of contaminating their wares. - It is light in color, and stenciling looks well on it. Its weight is - likewise in its favor. - - Trees of this species seldom occur in pure stands of large extent, - but are scattered among forests of other kinds. Sawmills cut the fir - as they come to it, but seldom go much out of their way to get it. - The United States census for 1910 showed that 132,327,000 feet of - white fir lumber were cut in the whole country, but as several - species pass by that name it is not possible to determine how much - belonged to the one under discussion, but probably about half, as - that much was credited to California where this tree is at its best. - The fir does not suffer in comparison with trees associated with it. - Its trunk does not average quite as large as the pines, yet larger - than most of the cedars; but in height it equals the best of its - associates, and in symmetrical form, and beauty of color of foliage, - it must be acknowledged superior. The dark intensity of its green - crown when thrown against the blue summer skies of the Sierras forms - a picture which probably no tree in the world can surpass and few - can equal. Its cones suffer from the depredations of the ever-hungry - Douglas squirrel which is too impatient to wait for nature's slow - process to ripen and scatter the seeds; but he climbs the trunks - which stand as straight as plummet lines two hundred feet or more, - and clinging to the topmost swaying branches, clips the cone stems - with his teeth, and the cone goes to the ground like a shot. A - person who will stand still in a Sierra forest in late summer, where - firs abound, will presently hear the cones thumping the ground on - all sides of him. If his eyes are good, and he looks carefully, he - may see the squirrels, silhouetted against the sky on far-away tree - tops, seeming so small in the distance that they look the size of - mice; yet the Douglas squirrel is about the size of the eastern red - squirrel. He does not always let the cones fall when he cuts their - stems, but sometimes carries them down the long trunk to the ground, - then goes back for another. The squirrel hoards the cones for - winter, but does not neglect to fully satisfy his appetite while - about the work. A single hoard--carefully covered with pine needles - as a roof against winter snow--may contain five or ten bushels of - cones, which are not all fir cones, but these predominate in most - hoards. - -[Illustration] - - - - -GRAND FIR - -[Illustration: GRAND FIR] - - - - -GRAND FIR - -(_Abies Grandis_) - - -In California, Oregon, and Idaho this tree is called white fir, but it -has several other names, silver fir and yellow fir in Montana and Idaho. -In California some know it as Oregon fir, western white fir, and great -California fir. Grand fir is more a botanist's than a lumberman's name. - -The range extends from British Columbia to Mendocino county, California, -and to the western slopes of the continental divide in Montana. The -coastal growth lies in a comparatively narrow strip. In the mountains an -altitude of 7,000 feet is sometimes reached, the soil and moisture -requirements, however, being the same. The largest trees are found in -bottom lands near the coast where trunks 300 feet tall and six feet in -diameter are found, but the average is much less. In mountain regions at -considerable altitudes a height of 100 feet and a diameter of two or -three is an average size. The leaves are about an inch and a half in -length, occasionally two and a half. They are arranged in rows along the -sides of the long, flexible branches. Cones are from two to four inches -long, and bear winged seeds three-eighths of an inch long, the wings -being half an inch or more in length. The bark of old trunks may be two -inches thick, but generally is thinner. It is unfortunate that the wood -of the large western firs lacks so many qualities which make it -valuable. It is generally inferior to the woods of Douglas fir, western -hemlock, Sitka spruce and the western cedars, sugar pine, and western -yellow pine. The wood of grand fir is light, soft, weak, brittle, and -not durable in contact with the soil. Its light color and the abundance -of clear material in the giant trunks are redeeming features. These -ought to open the way for much use in the future. It cannot find place -in heavy construction, because it is not strong enough. That shuts it -from one important place for which it is otherwise fitted. Box makers -find it suitable, as all fir woods are, and large demand should come -from that quarter. Trunks that will cut from 15,000 to 20,000 feet of -lumber that is practically clear, and of good color, and light in -weight, are bound to have value for boxes and slack cooperage. Trees -grow with fair rapidity. Annual rings are usually broad, and the bands -of summerwood are wide and distinct. This guarantees a certain figure in -lumber sawed tangentially, but it is not a figure to compare in beauty -with some of the hardwoods, or even with Douglas fir, or the southern -yellow pines. It ought to be a first class material for certain kinds -of woodenware, particularly for tubs, pails, and small stave vessels, -and as far as it has been used in that way it has been satisfactory. -It cannot be recommended for outside house finish, such as -weather-boarding, cornice, and porch work, because of its susceptibility -to decay; but it meets requirements for plain interior finish, and tests -have shown it to be good material for cores or backing over which to -glue veneers of hardwood. - -While the eastern states have not yet wakened up to the fact that this -tree is of value in ornamental planting, its decorative qualities in -open stands have been recognized for some time in eastern Europe, where -trees of considerable size, promising to attain almost primeval -proportions, are already flourishing. - -RED FIR (_Abies magnifica_) is the largest fir in America. At its best -it attains a height of 250 feet and a diameter of ten, but that size is -rare. It has several names, magnificent fir, which is a translation of -its botanical name; redbark fir, California red fir, and golden fir. The -reference to red which occurs in its several names, is descriptive of -its heartwood. Its range lies on the Cascade mountains of southern -Oregon, and along the entire length of the western slope of the Sierra -Nevadas in California. It is common in southern Oregon and sometimes -forms nearly pure forests at elevations of 5,000 or 7,000 feet. It is -plentiful in the Sierra Nevada ranges at altitudes of from 6,000 to -9,000 feet. In southern California it ascends 10,000 feet. On old trees -the limbs, regularly whorled in collars of five, are usually pendulous -or down-growing and are regularly and precisely subdivided into branches -and twigs, the short, stiff blue-green leaves, which persist for ten -years, closely covering the upper side of the latter. Its cones are the -largest of the firs, are dark purple in color and grow erect on the -branches. - -The cones are six or eight inches long, and three or four in diameter. -They present a fine appearance as they stand erect on the branches. The -seeds are large, but their strong wings are able to carry them away from -the immediate presence of the parent tree. The wings are extremely -beautiful, and flash light with the colors of the rainbow. Old trees are -protected by hard, dark-colored bark five or six inches thick. A forest -fire may pass through a stand of old firs without burning through the -bark, but young trees are not so protected, and are liable to be killed. - -A study of the wood of the red fir reveals rather more favorable -qualities than the other firs afford. Sap and heartwood are more easily -distinguished than in the other species, the sapwood being much lighter -in color than the reddish heart. Contrary to the general rule among the -firs, this wood possesses considerable durability, especially when used -for purposes which bring it in contact with the soil. It is, however, -light, soft and weak, but has a close, fine grain and compact structure. -Seasoning defects, such as checking and warping, are liable to occur -unless properly guarded against. It weighs 29.30 pounds per cubic foot, -or nearly three pounds less than Douglas fir. It is used for rough -lumber, packing boxes, bridge floors, interior house finish, and fuel. - -SHASTA RED FIR (_Abies magnifica shastensis_) is pronounced by George B. -Sudworth to be only a form of red fir (_Abies magnifica_) and not a -separate species. The principal difference is in the cones. The Shasta -form was discovered on the mountain of that name in northern California -in 1890 by Professor J. G. Lemmon. It was supposed to be confined to -that locality, but was subsequently found on the Cascade mountains in -Oregon, and also at several points in northern California. It was later -found in the Sierras five hundred miles south of Mount Shasta. - - LOVELY FIR (_Abies amabilis_) is known by a number of names, red - fir, silver fir, red silver fir, lovely red fir, amabilis fir, and - larch. The last name is applied to this tree by lumbermen who have - discovered that fir lumber sells better if it is given some other - name. The range of this species extends from British Columbia - southward in the Cascade mountains through Washington to Oregon. It - is the common fir of the Olympic mountains and there reaches its - best development, sometimes a height of 250 feet and a diameter of - five or six; but the average, even in the best part of its range, is - much under that size, while in the northern country, and high on - mountains, it is a commonplace tree, averaging less than 100 feet - high, and scarcely eighteen inches in diameter. When this fir stands - in open ground, the whole trunk is covered with limbs from base to - top; but in dense stands, the limbs drop off, and a clean trunk - results. - - Some of the largest trees rise with scarcely a limb 150 feet, and - above that is the small crown. The bark of young trees is covered - with blisters filled with resin. The bark is thin and smooth until - the tree is a century or more old, after which it becomes rougher, - and near the base may be two and a half inches thick. It is of very - slow growth, and a century hardly produces a trunk of small sawlog - size. The leaves are dark green above, and whitish below. They are - much crowded on the twigs, those on the underside rising with a - twist at the base, and standing nearly erect. They are longer than - those on the twig's upper side. The purple cones are conspicuous - objects on the tree, are from three and a half to six inches long, - and bear abundance of seeds which are well dispersed by wind. - However, the reproduction of this tree is not plentiful. The species - holds its own, and not much more. When artificial reforestation - takes place in this country, if that time ever comes, lovely fir - will receive scant consideration, because of its discouragingly slow - growth. It ranks with lodgepole pine in that respect. Nature can - afford to wait two hundred years for a forest to mature, but men - will not plant and protect when the prospect of returns is so - remote. The wood is light, weak, moderately stiff and hard. The - heartwood is pale brown, the sap nearly white. The summerwood - appears in thin but well-marked bands in the annual rings, and the - medullary rays are large enough to show slightly in quarter-sawed - lumber. Growing as it does, interspersed with really valuable woods, - the lovely fir is not highly thought of from a commercial - standpoint. However, it is exploited in conjunction with the other - species and turned into lumber and general structural material. A - considerable quantity finds a market as interior finish and other - millwork. It has many of the properties which fit it for the - manufacture of packing boxes, particularly those intended for dried - fruit and light merchandise. It bears considerable resemblance to - spruce. The utilization of this and similar species of western fir - for pulp has been suggested, but little has been done. It has been - planted ornamentally in parts of Europe, but there is no comparison - between the decorative appearance of this fir and its associated - species, the others which are in cultivation being much superior. - Removal from the old habitat militates greatly against its natural - beauty and reduces it to the level of the ordinary. - - ALPINE FIR (_Abies lasiocarpa_) is so called because it thrives on - high mountains and in the far North. It grows in southern Alaska, up - to latitude 60 deg., and southward to Oregon and Colorado. Its other - names are balsam, white balsam, Oregon balsam, mountain balsam, - white fir, pumpkin tree, down-cone, and downy-cone subalpine fir. It - grows from sea level in Alaska up to 7,000 feet or more in the - South. It is not abundant, and not very well known. However, its - slender, spirelike top distinguishes it from all associates and it - may be recognized at long distances by that characteristic. It - endures cold at 40 degrees below zero, and summer climate at 90 - degrees. Trees are usually small, and the trunks are covered with - limbs to the ground. On high mountains the lower limbs often lie - flat on the ground, and the twigs sometimes take root. Under very - favorable circumstances this fir may reach a height of 160 feet and - a diameter of four, but the usual size is less than half of it, even - when conditions are fair, while on bleak mountains mature trees may - be only three or four feet high, with most of the limbs prostrate. - The sprawling form of growth makes the tree peculiarly liable to be - killed by fire. The bark is thin, smooth, and flinty; and in color - it is ashy gray or chalky white. Leaves are one and a half inches or - less long; the purple cones from two to four inches. Trees bear - cones at about twelve years of age. The seeds are equipped with - violet or purplish wings, and they fly far enough to find the best - available places to plant themselves. The wood is narrow-ringed, - light, soft, and in color from pale straw to light yellowish-brown. - It is fairly straight grained, and splits and works easily; but - trunks are very knotty. Its best service in the past has consisted - in supplying fuel to mining camps and mountain stock ranges. - -[Illustration] - - - - -DOUGLAS FIR - -[Illustration: DOUGLAS FIR] - - - - -DOUGLAS FIR - -(_Pseudotsuga Taxifolia_) - - -During one hundred and ten years, from 1803 until the present time, -botanists and others have proposed and rejected names for this tree. It -has been called a fir, pine, and spruce, with various combinations, but -the name now seems to be fixed. Laymen have disputed almost as much as -botanists as to what the tree should be named. It has been called red -fir, Douglas spruce, Douglas fir, yellow fir, spruce, fir, pine, red -pine, Puget Sound pine, Oregon pine, cork-barked Douglas spruce, and -Douglas tree. More than a dozen varieties are distinguished in -cultivation. - -The range of Douglas fir covers most of the Rocky Mountain region in the -United States and northward to central British Columbia; on the coast -from the latitude of southern Alaska to the Sierra Nevada mountains in -central California. It reaches its maximum development in western -Washington and Oregon, particularly between the Cascade mountains and -the Pacific ocean. In these Cascade forests, stands are found which -yield from 50,000 to 100,000 feet per acre, and mills in that region cut -the longest timbers in the world, some two feet square and 100 feet -long. - -Two forms of Douglas fir are recognized by botanists, not essentially -different except in size and habit of growth. One is the finely -developed form on the Pacific coast where the climate is warm and the -air moist. The other is the Rocky Mountain form which is smaller and -shows the effect of cold, dryness, and other adverse circumstances. When -the seeds of the two forms are planted in nurseries, where they enjoy -identical advantages, the coast form outgrows the other in Europe, but -the Rocky Mountain form thrives best in the eastern part of the United -States. - -Douglas fir needles are from three-quarters to one and a quarter inches -long, and of a dark, yellow-green color. They remain on the twigs about -eight years. Cones are from two to four and a half inches long, and are -borne on long stems. The seeds, which ripen in August, are of light, -reddish-brown color with irregular white spots on the lower side; are -about a quarter of an inch long, and are provided with wings. Trees of -this species in the moist climate of the Pacific slope average much -larger than those in the mountains farther east. The largest are 300 -feet high, occasionally more, and from eight to ten in diameter. The -average among the Rocky Mountains is from eighty to 100 feet high, and -two to four in diameter. Young trees are slender with crowded branches. -In thick stands the lower limbs die and the trunks remain bare, except -an occasional small branch. Douglas fir at its best grows in thick -stands, with crowns forming a canopy so dense that sunlight can scarcely -reach the ground. The result of this is that other species have little -show where Douglas fir prevails. - -The bark of large trunks attains a thickness of eight or ten inches near -the base. Young bark contains blisters filled with resin, similar to -those of balsam and other species of fir. - -The wood is light red or yellow, the sap much whiter. Lumbermen -recognize two kinds of wood, yellow and red. The former is considered -more valuable. Both may come from the same trunk, and the reason for the -difference in color and quality is not well understood. It cannot be -attributed to soil or climate, or to the age of the tree, and it does -not seem to depend upon rate of growth. The bands of summerwood are -broad and quite distinct. A few scattered resin ducts are visible under -a magnifying glass of low power. The medullary rays are numerous, rather -large, frequently yellow, conspicuous when wood is split radially. The -wood's average weight is given by Sargent at 32.14 pounds per cubic -foot, yet some specimens exceed forty pounds. It is hard, strong, and -stiff. In mechanical properties it rates about the same as longleaf pine -of the South. Elaborate tests have been made to determine which of these -woods is the better for heavy construction, and neither appears to win -over the other. In one respect, however, Douglas fir has a clear -advantage over its southern rival: it may be had in much larger pieces. -No other commercial wood of the world equals it in that particular. The -Douglas fir flagstaff at the Kew gardens in England was 159 feet long, -eight inches in diameter at the top, more than three feet at the base. -The extraordinary size of squared beams cut from this species has led to -great demand for it for heavy construction in Europe and this country. -The pines from the Baltic sea region of northern Europe, which held -undisputed place in heavy work during centuries, has now yielded that -place to Douglas fir and longleaf pine. - -No other single species in the United States or in the world equals the -annual sawmill cut of Douglas fir. The four species of southern yellow -pines, if counted as one, surpass it; but singly, not one comes up to -it. In 1910 the lumber cut from this fir amounted to 5,203,644,000 feet, -which exceeded one-eighth of the total lumber cut in the United States. -The importance of such a timber tree can scarcely be estimated. The -available supply in the western forests is very large and will last many -years, even if the demand for more than 5,000,000,000 feet a year -continues to be met. - -The timber is exported to practically every civilized nation in the -world. Shipbuilding creates a heavy demand. Some of the leading European -nations use it as deck lining for battleships, and except mahogany and -teak, it is said to have no equal for that purpose. Its cheapness gives -it a decided advantage over those woods. - -Every important lumber market in the United States handles Douglas fir, -and its uses are so many that it would be easier to list industries -which do not use it than those which do. It is manufactured into more -than fifty classes of commodities, in Illinois alone. Among these are -boats, railroad cars, electrical apparatus, farm machinery, laundry -supplies, ladders, refrigerators, musical instruments, fixtures for -offices, stores, and banks, and sash, doors, and blinds. This list of -uses shows that its place in the country's industries includes much more -than rough construction. It may be stained in imitation of valuable -foreign and domestic woods, including walnut, mahogany, and oak. The -natural grain and figure of the wood may be deepened and improved by -stains, and this is much done by manufacturers of interior finish, -panels, and store and office fixtures. There is practically no limit to -the size of panels which may be cut in single pieces. It is easy to -procure planks large enough for whole counter tops. - -The best grain of Douglas fir is not brought out by quarter-sawing. The -figures desired are not those produced by the medullary rays, but by the -rings of annual growth. Therefore, the sawyer at the mill cuts his best -logs--if intended for figured lumber--tangentially, as far as possible. -In the state of Washington, which leads all other states in the -production of Douglas fir, its chief use as a manufactured product is -for doors, sash, and blinds, and the annual consumption in that industry -exceeds 50,000,000 feet. It is cut in veneers, and it is likewise used -as corewood to back veneers. Crossarms for telegraph and telephone poles -demand 35,000,000 feet yearly in Washington alone, and many thousands of -poles are of this wood. It is third among the crosstie woods of the -United States, the combined cut of oaks standing first, and the pine -second. It is rapidly taking high position as material for large water -pipes and for braces, props, stulls, and lagging in mines and for paving -blocks for streets. - - BRISTLECONE FIR (_Abies venusta_) is pronounced by George B. - Sudworth to be "the most curious fir tree in the world." It is found - almost exclusively in Monterey county, California, but a few trees - grow outside of that circumscribed area. It has been called Santa - Lucia fir, because it was once supposed to exist only in canyons of - Santa Lucia mountains, but its range is now known to be more - extensive. Monterey county, California, is of peculiar interest to - dendrologists. Three species of trees are either confined to that - area, or have their best development there. They are Monterey - cypress (_Cupressus macrocarpa_), Monterey pine (_Pinus radiata_), - and bristlecone fir. All are peculiar trees: the cypress because of - its ragged form and extremely limited range, the pine because of - its exceedingly rapid growth when given a chance, and the fir, - because of its peculiar form of crown, odd appearance of cone, and - extraordinary weight of wood. No reason is apparent why that - particular point on the California coast should have brought into - existence--or at least should have gathered to itself--three - peculiar tree species. Bristlecone fir is well named from the - bristles an inch long covering the cone. The leaves, too, are - peculiar, bearing much resemblance to small willow leaves. Their - upper sides are deep yellow-green and the under sides silvery. The - largest leaves are two inches long, cones three inches. They ripen - in August, and soon afterwards scatter their seeds. The tree is not - a prolific seeder, and it is believed that its range is becoming - smaller. Bristlecone's form of crown has been compared to an Indian - club, the large end on the ground and the handle pointing upward. - Trees from sixty to eighty feet high have such "handles" twenty or - thirty feet long. That peculiarity of shape makes the tree - recognizable among associated species at a distance of several - miles. The recorded weight of the wood is 42.27 pounds per cubic - foot, which is nearly twice the weight of some other firs. The wood - is moderately soft, but very firm. Few uses for it have been - reported. Trunks are very knotty, and are too few in number to be of - importance as a source of lumber. The tree has been planted - successfully for ornament in the south of Europe. - - BIGCONE SPRUCE (_Pseudotsuga macrocarpa_) is of the same genus as - Douglas fir and bears much resemblance to it, but is smaller, and - its range lies wholly outside that of its northern relative. It is a - southern California species, occupying mountain slopes and canyons - in Santa Barbara and San Diego counties. It is found from 3,000 to - 5,000 feet above sea level. Trees average forty or fifty feet in - height and two or three in diameter. The leaves are approximately of - the same size as those of Douglas fir; but the cones are much - larger, hence the name by which the tree is known. It is called - hemlock as often as spruce. The cones are from four to seven inches - long, hang down, and usually occupy the topmost branches of trees. - The winged seeds are half an inch long. The bark is six inches or - less in thickness. The wood is inferior in most ways to that of - Douglas fir, lighter, weaker, and less elastic. Its color is reddish - brown. It has never contributed much lumber to the market and never - will. Its range is local and the form of the tree is not of the - best. An occasional log reaches a sawmill, but the principal demand - is for fuel. - -[Illustration] - - - - -BIGTREE - -[Illustration: BIGTREE] - - - - -BIGTREE - -(_Sequoia Washingtoniana_) - - -Botanists have had a hard time giving this tree a Latin name which will -meet the requirements of technical classification, but an English name -acceptable everywhere was early found for it--bigtree. No fewer than a -dozen names have been proposed by botanists. Most of them attempt to -express the idea of vastness or grandeur; but the simple English name -comes directly to the point and ends the controversy as far as the -common name is concerned. - -Everything connected with this tree is interesting. Geologically, it is -as old as the yellow poplar. There were five species of sequoias in the -northern hemisphere, in Europe and America, before the ice age. They -grew in the North, nearly to the Arctic circle, at a time when the -climate of those regions was milder than it is now. The later advance of -the ice southward overwhelmed three species of bigtrees, and pushed two -survivors into the region which is now California. These are the bigtree -and the redwood. It is not known how long ago it was that the ice sheet -did its destructive work, but it antedated human history, and the -gigantic trees have been in California since that time. - -Long after the ice age ceased generally in North America it continued -among the high Sierras of California, and the bigtrees to this day give -a hint of it in the peculiar outlines of their range. They are scattered -north and south along the face of the Sierra Nevada mountains in -California, a distance of 260 miles, and at elevations from 4,500 to -8,000 feet. - -The aggregate of the total areas is about fifty square miles. The stand -is not continuous, but consists of "groves," that is, isolated stands -with wide intervals between, where no trees of this species are found. -The arrangement suggests that the bigtree forest was cut in sections by -glaciers which descended from the high mountains to the plains, a -distance of one hundred miles or more, crossing the belt of sequoias at -right angles. The glaciers withdrew thousands of years ago, and their -tracks down the mountain slopes have long been covered by forests; but -the bigtree groves, for some unknown reason, never spread into the -intervening spaces, but today are separated by wide tracts in which not -a seedling or an old trunk or log of that species is to be found. This -is one of the mysteries which add interest to those wonderful trees--why -they cannot extend their range beyond the circumscribed limits which -they occupied thousands of years ago. - -It was claimed for a long time and was quite generally believed that -bigtrees were not reproducing, that there "were no little bigtrees." -That was conclusively disproved by Fred G. Plummer, geographer of the -United States Forest Service, who made a scientific study of a small -grove, measured the trees, and actually counted and classified them. His -work showed that there were in the area which he investigated: - - Trees containing 100,000 to 120,000 feet each 2 - Trees containing 80,000 to 100,000 feet each 13 - Trees containing 60,000 to 80,000 feet each 49 - Trees containing 40,000 to 60,000 feet each 112 - Trees containing 20,000 to 40,000 feet each 251 - Trees containing less than 20,000 feet each 353 - "Little bigtrees" 2,682 - ----- - Total 3,462 - -Bigtree is distantly related to southern cypress, and the shapes of very -old trees of both species bear some resemblance. Bigtree leaves do not -fall annually as those of bald cypress do. They are from one-eighth to -one-fourth of an inch long, and on the leading shoots they may be half -an inch in length. Cones are from two to three and a half inches long, -and they ripen their seeds the second year, but the empty cones may -adhere to the branches several years. The seeds are a quarter of an inch -long, and have wings sufficient to carry them a hundred yards or more. -The trees bear abundance of seeds, in proportion to the small number of -branches. Though shapely and well clothed with limbs when young, the -crown contracts with age, and consists of a few enormous, crooked limbs, -almost destitute of twigs and small branches. One of these trees may -actually bear more twigs when the trunk is only a foot in diameter than -will be on the same trunk when it is fifteen or twenty feet in diameter. -The old tree trunks are often without limbs to a height of 100 or 150 -feet. - -The Douglas squirrel is the bigtree's greatest enemy. In proportion to -size, this little creature probably eats ten times as many tree seeds as -the most ravenous hog that roams the forest. One of the first things -that impresses a visitor in a grove of bigtrees is the rich brown of the -bark of some of the trunks. All are not brown alike, or at all seasons. -The trees on which the seed harvest is ready are the brownest, thanks to -the sharp claws, the tireless energy, and keen appetite of the Douglas -squirrel. He goes up and down the trunks for three square meals a day -among the clusters of cone-bearing branches two hundred or three hundred -feet above, and makes several extra trips for exercise; and at each -scratch of his briery foot he kicks off scales of bark, until the whole -trunk is "scratched raw." The detached scales of bark accumulate in a -mound about the base of the tree, where they have been so accumulating -for centuries. It is fortunate that those old trees have bark from one -to two feet thick. They can afford to be scratched for a month or two -each year. - -These are the heaviest trees in America, notwithstanding their wood is -light. It weighs less than northern white cedar. The largest bigtree -trunks weigh more than 2,000,000 pounds. In order to stand at all, they -must stand plumb. It is a provision of nature that the old trees are -almost branchless, otherwise the wind would force them out of plumb and -they would go down. It has been claimed that the overthrow of one of -these giants is always brought about by one of two causes. The -development of larger limbs on one side than on another unbalances them; -or the wash of gullies undermines the roots on one side, and draws the -tree that way. It is currently believed that no bigtree ever dies from -natural causes. - -A good deal of pure fiction has been published regarding the size and -age of the largest of these trees. They are old enough and large enough -without drawing upon the imagination. The tree's base is greatly -enlarged, but tapers rapidly the first few feet. There is little doubt -that some of the trunks are over forty feet in diameter, one foot above -ground, but that is not a fair measurement. The point should be five or -six feet at least. Measured thus, about twenty-five feet inside the bark -would represent the largest. With the bark added, the diameter would be -nearly thirty feet. Probably not one tree in fifty, taking them as they -occur in the whole range and counting veterans only, is fifteen feet in -diameter five feet from the ground. - -There is also some extravagant guessing as to height. Too many tourists -measure with the unaided eye, or accept a guidebook's figures. An -authentic height of 365 feet--the measurement of a fallen trunk--is -probably the greatest. Very few reach three hundred feet. Many -unreliable figures have been published concerning the age of bigtrees. -One thing can be accepted without question; size is no proof of age, in -comparing one tree with another; neither is the number of annual rings -in a block cut from the side of a tree a reliable factor to determine -age. The only sure way to determine the age of one of these trees is by -counting all the rings from the pith to bark. Care should be taken not -to count the same ring twice, as may be done when the wood is curly. -John Muir counted 4,000 rings in a bigtree stump. It is believed that no -higher age is backed by the evidence of yearly rings. It was twenty-four -feet in diameter. The count of another of like size made it 2,200 years -old; and of still another of the same size placed its age at 1,300 -years. The Forest Service has made accurate measurement and record of -every ring of growth in a tree that was over twenty-four feet in -diameter, and it is shown that during certain periods of years the tree -grew three or four times as rapidly as during other periods. - -The wood of bigtree is very light, soft, moderately strong, brittle, -summerwood thin and dark rendering the rings of annual growth easily -seen; the medullary rays are thin, numerous, and very obscure. The wood -is light to dark red, the thin sapwood nearly white; it works easily, -splits readily, and polishes well. It is very durable in contact with -the soil. Trunks lie in the woods long periods before decay seriously -attacks them; but forest fires hollow them, and finally burn them up. -Enormous depressions are found in the forest where logs once lay, but -which disappeared long ago, judging by the size of trees which have -since grown in the depressions. The interior of some large trunks which -have been worked up on sawmills showed the scars of forest fires -centuries ago. The annual rings which covered one such scar showed that -the burning took place 1,700 years ago. - -Not much can be said for the commercial uses of bigtree. Many a species -of insignificant size is much more useful. Considerable quantities have -been cut by sawmills. The waste is great, heavy trunks crushing badly in -fall. Logs are so large that many of them are split with gunpowder to -facilitate handling them. Some of the wood has been exported for lead -pencils; other has been used for fence posts, shingles, and grapevine -stakes, while the soft bark has been worked into novelties. - - MACNAB CYPRESS (_Cupressus macnabiana_) is a California tree of - limited range and little commercial value. It grows in Napa, Lake, - Mendocino, and Trinity counties; is often little more than a - branching shrub, but the largest specimens may be thirty feet high - and fifteen inches in diameter. The wood is light, soft, and usually - of slow growth. The medullary rays are numerous but thin, and the - bands of summerwood are distinct. The cones are generally less than - one inch long, and the seeds have narrow wings. The foliage is - grayish which is due to white glands in the leaves. Forest foliage - is fragrant. The tree is known as white cedar, Shasta cypress, and - California mountain cypress. - -[Illustration] - - - - -REDWOOD - -[Illustration: REDWOOD] - - - - -REDWOOD - -(_Sequoia Sempervirens_) - - -This tree's color is responsible for its name. It is sometimes spoken of -as coast redwood to distinguish it from bigtree which grows in the -interior of California. In European markets it is known as California -redwood to distinguish it from other redwoods growing in distant parts -of the world. Its botanical name, _Sequoia sempervirens_, means -evergreen sequoia. The other species of sequoia is also evergreen. In -reality, the coast redwood is less of an evergreen than the bigtree is, -because the leaves of redwood turn brown two years before they fall, but -there are always plenty of green leaves on the branches. The leaves are -from one-quarter to one-half inch in length. - -The geographical range of redwood covers about 6,000 square miles, but -the commercial range is scarcely one-fifth as much. The redwood belt -extends 500 miles along the Pacific coast from southern Oregon to -central California. It varies from ten to thirty miles in width. It is -strictly a fog belt tree, and grows poorly outside the region of ocean -fog, which seldom reaches an altitude more than 2,800 feet above sea -level. Where fog is thick and frequent, and soil is moist and otherwise -suitable, redwood forests have grown in such luxuriance that no species -in this country exceeds it. Stands running much over 100,000 feet per -acre are frequent, and it is said 1,000,000 feet have been cut from a -single acre. - -Redwood cones are one inch or less in length. They ripen in one season. -Seeds are quite small, and are equipped with wings. The bark is thick, -but is much thinner than the bark of bigtrees, though it is in great -ridges like the bark of that species. The habits of the two species, as -to form of crown, are similar. Young redwoods, particularly if they grow -in the open, develop symmetrical and conical crowns which they retain -until the trunks are a foot or more in diameter. Lower limbs die and -fall off after that, and old trees have crowns so small that it would -seem impossible that they could supply the wood-building material for -trunks so large. That the growth should be slow under such circumstances -is to be expected. The ages of mature trees vary from 500 to 800 years, -but an extreme age of 1,373 years is on record. The average is, -therefore, considerably below that of bigtrees. - -Redwoods grow as tall as bigtrees, but do not equal them in diameter of -trunk, though trees twenty feet in diameter occur. - -A noticeable feature of the forests is that, in a given stand, nearly -all trees are of the same height, irrespective of size of trunk. The -crowns go up to the light and when they reach the common level of -others, and secure a share of light, they show no disposition to go -higher. The doctrine which they silently put into practice is to live -and let others live. That habit makes it possible for redwoods to grow -in very dense stands, which they could not do if a few trees domineered -over the others, and appropriated the light to themselves. - -When old age overtakes the giant redwoods, they exhibit the first -symptoms of weakened vitality by dying at the top. Most trees over five -hundred years old are "stag-headed." From that period they die slowly, -but usually survive two or three hundred years after the visible signs -of approaching death strike them. - -Redwood has an advantage over nearly all other needle-leaf trees in that -it propagates by both seeds and sprouts. Few softwoods send up sprouts -from stumps or roots. Redwoods of large size are produced that way, and -the stumps of very old trees send up many vigorous shoots. Sometimes a -ring of large trees surrounds a depression in the ground where the -parent tree grew, died, and decayed. - -Sprouts are of course confined to the immediate proximity of the parent -tree, but redwood seeds are scattered by the wind over vacant spaces. -This results in dense stands where other conditions are favorable, but -the species has never been able to establish itself far inland or high -on mountains. - -In 1880 the Federal census made a rough estimate of the available -redwood, and placed it at 25,825,000,000 feet. More than twenty years -later, with heavy cutting all the time, private estimates placed the -remaining stand at over 50,000,000,000 feet. The second estimate was -unquestionably nearer correct than the first. The stand of no important -timber tree in this country is more easily estimated than redwood. The -forests are compact, the trees large, the trunks similar in form, and -the well-timbered area is comparatively small. Redwood has been called -the most important timber tree of the Pacific coast. The title probably -confers too much, though the tree's importance is beyond question. The -annual cut of Douglas fir is nearly ten times as large as of redwood, -and the supply still in the forests is much greater than that of -redwood. The cut of western yellow pine likewise exceeds the output of -redwood, and the remaining supply is larger. The cut of western red -cedar, including shingles, is about the same, and the remaining stand of -cedar is very large. Western hemlock, too, exists in large quantity, and -its importance as a source of timber supply may be equal to redwood. - -Redwood is frequently referred to as one of the lightest in this -country. Its weight per cubic foot, oven-dry, is 26.2 pounds. On the -same basis, white pine is 24, southern white cedar 20.7, northern white -cedar 19.7, and bigtree 18.2. There are woods in Florida lighter than -any of these. Redwood is very soft, yet it dulls tools quickly. It is -moderately strong, a little below white pine; it is brittle, again -ranking below white pine; it splits and works easily and polishes well. -Few, if any woods surpass this one in splitting properties. Boards -twelve feet long and a foot wide may be rived from selected logs, and -they present surfaces nearly as smooth as if cut with a saw. However, -curly and wavy redwood is not uncommon, and that, too, splits well, but -the surface is not smooth. The width of annual rings varies, usually -wide in young timber and narrow in old. The bands of summerwood are -narrow and clearly defined. The surface of redwood lumber absorbs water -quickly, yet, for some reason, creosote and other preservatives can be -forced into the wood only with the greatest difficulty. Fortunately, it -is not necessary to treat this timber to prevent decay, for, in almost -any position, it wears out before it rots. Shingles, and window and door -frames of the old barracks buildings at Eureka, California, remained in -place until fifty years of wind and driven sand wore them away. -Railroads use the wood for ties until they wear out, not until they rot -out. Farmers near some of the California railroads gather up the -rejected worn ties by thousands and use them for fence posts. When -redwood is employed as city paving blocks it is wear and not decay that -puts them out of commission. - -The medullary rays of redwood are thin and very obscure, but numerous. -Few woods show them to less advantage in quarter-sawing. The lack of -luster in the surface of polished panels is well known. The wood's -beauty is in its sameness and richness of color. Except curly specimens -and burls, the wood may be said to have no figure, though in planks cut -tangentially, the contrast of spring and summerwood displays some figure -in a modest way. It is possible to wash much of the coloring matter out -of the wood, if it is first chipped fine. It washes from the surface by -ordinary exposure to weather. Red rainwater runs from a roof of new -redwood shingles, and weatherboarding, posts, and picket fences fade -perceptibly in a few months. This coloring matter when washed out in -large amounts in the process of paper making has been manufactured into -fuel gas. - -A complete list of the uses of redwood is not practicable, for this -material goes into most of the large wood-using factories of this -country, and much is exported--nearly 60,000,000 feet annually going to -foreign countries. It has been much employed in California cities and -towns for picket fences, and as posts for wire and plank fences. It is, -next to western red cedar, the most important shingle wood of the -Pacific coast. One western railroad alone had in its tracks 12,000,000 -redwood ties at one time. Builders of tanks, flumes, and water pipes -procure some of their best material, and large quantities of it, from -redwood sawmills. Few woods are more universally found in furniture -factories. - - GOWEN CYPRESS (_Cupressus goveniana_) follows the California coast - from Mendocino county, California, to San Diego, and ascends - mountains to the height of 3,000 feet in some localities. At its - best it is fifty feet high and two feet in diameter; but it extends - as a shrub over many sandy tracts. Specimens no more than a foot - high sometimes bear cones. The Gowen cypress sheds its leaves the - third and fourth years. Cones are from one-half to one inch long, - and each bears about 100 seeds. The wood is light, soft, weak, light - brown in color, the thick sapwood nearly white. The medullary rays - are numerous but obscure. The wood is used for posts and other ranch - purposes. Woodpeckers attack the trunks, picking holes through the - bark to suck the juice from the cambium layer beneath. - - DWARF CYPRESS (_Cupressus pygmaea_) was formerly supposed to be a - stunted form of Gowen cypress. The ranges of both lie in the same - region, on the coast of California in Mendocino county. The average - height of dwarf cypress is from ten to twenty feet, with trunk - diameter from six to twelve inches; but in peat swamps and on - sterile sands it may not exceed three or four feet in height. It - bears abundant cones at that size, and sometimes a tree no more than - a foot high has mature cones. They ripen the second year, but remain - a long time on the branches. The trees thrive in the most forbidding - places, and are sometimes the only occupants of bogs or sand dunes. - The wood is necessarily of little value, because of the small size - of trees. There seems to be no record of a dwarf cypress over sixty - years of age; but it is believed that much older trees have fallen - victims to fire. - -[Illustration] - - - - -HEMLOCK - -[Illustration: HEMLOCK] - - - - -HEMLOCK - -(_Tsuga Canadensis_) - - -Seven hemlocks are known in the world, four of them in America. Two of -these are in the East, two in the West. The eastern species are the -Canadian and Carolinian. The former is _Tsuga canadensis_, the latter -_Tsuga caroliniana_. The western species are, mountain hemlock (_Tsuga -mertensiana_), and western hemlock (_Tsuga heterophylla_). The word -_tsuga_ is Japanese and means hemlock. - -The hemlock lumber in eastern markets is practically all from one -species, which is known as hemlock in Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, -Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, -Pennsylvania, Delaware, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, -Kentucky, Wisconsin, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, Ontario. In Vermont, -Rhode Island, New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, West Virginia, North -Carolina, South Carolina; in England it is called hemlock spruce; spruce -tree in Pennsylvania and West Virginia; spruce pine in Pennsylvania, -Delaware, Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia; to the New York Indians it -was known as oh-neh-tah, which being interpreted means "greens on the -stick." - -The range of hemlock extends east and west more than fifteen hundred -miles, from Nova Scotia to western Wisconsin; south to Delaware and -southern Michigan, and along the Appalachian mountains to northern -Alabama and Georgia. The original quantity of timber was enormous, for -large areas were covered with dense stands. The largest trees are found -near the southern part of its range, among the mountains of Tennessee -and North Carolina; but the bulk of the timber has always been in the -North. It thrives best in well drained soil, but it likes cool -situations and often develops dense forests on northern slopes or in -deep ravines; but it maintains a foothold on ridges, on the banks of -streams, and around the borders of swamps. - -The cones are very small, about a half inch in length, growing singly -from the lower side of the branchlet. Their scales are rounded and thin, -light brown in color. The seeds are winged and even when ripe the cones -do not spread apart perceptibly. The seeds escape, however, slowly -during the winter following their maturity. They are very small, and -their wings distribute them a hundred feet or more. The seeds germinate -best on leaf mold, but the seedling takes several years to thrust its -roots deep into the mineral soil. During that time, growth is very slow. -A seedling five years old may not exceed five inches in height; but when -its roots have developed, growth is fairly rapid. The distribution of -seeds is often facilitated by the activities of red squirrels, and -perhaps other small mammals, which climb the trees in winter and tear -the cones apart to get at the seeds. Many of the seeds are devoured, but -more escape and fly away on the winter winds. - -Hemlock leaves are narrow and about half an inch long. Examined closely, -particularly with a magnifying glass, rows of white dots extend from end -to end on the under side. Small as these white points are separately, -when seen in the aggregate they change the color of the whole crown of -the tree. This is illustrated by looking at a hemlock from a -distance--the upper sides of the leaves on the drooping twigs being then -visible and the tree's aspect dark green. Approach the tree, and look up -from its base--the under side of the leaves being then visible--and the -dark color changes to a light silvery tint. The whiteness is due to the -white spots on the leaves. The spots are stomata (mouths), and are parts -of the chemical laboratory which carries on the tree's living processes. -All tree leaves have stomata, but all are not arranged in the same way -and are not visible alike. Few trees have them as prominent as the -hemlocks. - -Hemlock attains a height from sixty to 100 feet and a diameter from two -to four. When it grows in the open, it is one of the handsomest and most -symmetrical evergreens of any country. Its dark, dense foliage will -permit scarcely any sunlight to filter through. When forest-grown, it -loses its lower limbs. In the forester's language, they are "shaded -off," and long, smooth trunks are developed; but the stubs from which -the branches fall remain buried deep inside the smoothest bole, and the -saws will find them when the logs are converted into lumber. - -Reference has been made to hemlock's slow growth during the seedling's -first four or five years. That takes place in the dense shade of the -hemlock forest. If the seed falls on open ground, in full sunlight, the -chance is that it will not germinate; but if it does, the seedling is -doomed to an early death. It cannot endure strong light. This fact is of -great importance, for it means the end of hemlock forests. When a stand -is cut and the sunshine reaches the ground, no seedlings bring on a new -forest. White pine seeds grow in open ground, in old fields, in burnt -woods, wherever they reach soil, but hemlock must scatter its seeds in -cool, deep shade or they will do little good. Strong, vigorous, and -healthy as hemlock trees are, they are killed more easily than almost -any other. Cut a few trees from the center of a mature hemlock clump, -and the chance is that several trees next to the open space thus made -will die. The unusual light proves too much for their roots which had -always been cool and damp; but when young hemlocks are protected until -they get a start, they thrive nicely in the open. - -The wood of hemlock is light, soft, not strong, brittle, coarse and -crooked grained, difficult to work, liable to windshake, splinters -badly, not durable. The summerwood of the annual ring is conspicuous; -and the thin medullary rays are numerous. The color of hemlock heartwood -is light brown, tinged with red, often nearly white. The sapwood is -darker. Lumbermen recognize two varieties, red and white, but botanists -do not recognize them. - -The physical characters of hemlock are nearly all unfavorable, yet it -has become a useful and widely used wood. It is largely manufactured -into coarse lumber and used for outside work--railway ties, joists, -rafters, sheathing, plank walks, laths, etc. It is rarely used for -inside finishing, owing to its brittle and splintery character. Clean -boards made into panels or similar work and finished in the natural -color often present a very handsome appearance, owing to the peculiar -pinkish tint of the wood, ripening and improving with age. - -With the growing scarcity of white and Norway pine, hemlock has become -the natural substitute for these woods for many purposes. It has never -been conceded that hemlock possesses the intrinsic merit of either of -the northern pines for structural purposes, but it has proven a suitable -substitute for a variety of uses, notably for framing and sheathing of -medium priced structures. - -In 1910 hemlock lumber was cut in twenty-one states, the total output -exceeding 2,500,000,000 feet. Only four species or groups of species -exceeded it in amount. They were southern yellow pines, Douglas fir, the -oaks, and white pine. The principal cut of hemlock lumber was in the -following states in the order named: Wisconsin, Michigan, Pennsylvania, -West Virginia, New York, Maine, Vermont, Virginia, New Hampshire, -Tennessee, and North Carolina. Ten other states produced smaller -amounts. - -Hemlock possesses remarkable holding power on nails and spikes, and that -is one reason for its large use for railroad ties. It does not easily -split, and there is no likelihood that spikes will work loose; but the -wood decays quickly in damp situations, and unless given preservative -treatment, hemlock ties do not last long. They are pretty soft anyway, -and where traffic is heavy, rails cut them badly. - -Manufacturers of boxes and crates use much hemlock. The annual use for -that purpose in Massachusetts is about 27,000,000 feet, in Michigan -practically the same quantity, in Illinois 34,000,000, and varying -quantities in many other states. Michigan converts nearly 100,000,000 -feet a year into flooring and other planing mill products, and Wisconsin -and other hemlock states follow it in lesser amounts. The wood is -employed by car builders, slack coopers, manufacturers of -refrigerators, silos, and farm implements; but the largest demand comes -from those who use the rough lumber. - -Hemlock bark is the most important tanning material in this country. It -has long been used by leather makers who generally mix it with some -other bark or extract because leather tanned with hemlock alone has a -redder color than is desired. - -Large areas of hemlock forests have been cut for the bark alone. -Formerly the wood was of so little value that it was cheaper to leave it -in the forest than to take it out. The peelers worked in early summer, -cutting trees and removing the bark in four-foot lengths, which was -measured by the cord, though often sold by weight. Care was taken that -the bark be removed from the slashings before the dry weather of autumn, -for fire was to be expected then, and anything combustible in the woods -at that time was likely to be lost. The tracts on which bark peelers -worked were called "slashings," and they were fire traps of the worst -kind with their tangled masses of tops and branches. - -Large quantities of hemlock bark are still peeled every summer, but the -practice is less destructive than formerly. The trunks are worth taking -out, and when the fire comes late in the season it consumes little -valuable hemlock. A permanent decline in the annual production of this -wood has not yet begun, but it must soon set in, for the demand cannot -be indefinitely met. - -[Illustration] - - - - -WESTERN HEMLOCK - -[Illustration: WESTERN HEMLOCK] - - - - -WESTERN HEMLOCK - -(_Tsuga Heterophylla_) - - -When this wood began to go to market, its promoters found difficulties -in securing a trial for it in eastern states, because of its name. The -eastern hemlock was known to be a substantial wood, but a rough one with -many faults linked with its virtues. It was naturally supposed that the -western hemlock had all the faults of its eastern relative with possibly -some of the good qualities left out; and there was general hesitancy to -put the new comer to a trial. That caused a movement among western -lumbermen to sell their hemlock under some other name. They were -confident the wood had only to be given a trial and it would win its -way, after which the name would make little difference. Accordingly, it -was started to market under the name of Alaska pine, although Alaska has -no pine large enough for good lumber. Other lumbermen thought it -advisable to choose a name less likely to excite suspicion, and they -called it Washington pine. Others designated it as spruce, and still -others as fir. It was more likely to pass for fir than for pine or -spruce. - -The lumber is now generally known as western hemlock, but in California -some call it hemlock spruce or California hemlock spruce. In Idaho, -Washington, and Oregon the name hemlock usually suffices; while western -hemlock spruce, and western hemlock fir, and Prince Albert's fir are -names used in speaking of lumber and of the tree in the forest. - -Western hemlock's range extends north and south a thousand miles, from -southern Alaska to California south of San Francisco. It grows from the -Pacific coast eastward to Montana, five hundred miles or more. It -ascends to altitudes of 6,000 feet, but it is not at its best on high -mountains, but in the warm, damp region near the coast in Washington and -Oregon. Trees 200 feet high and eight or ten in diameter are found, but -the average size is much less. - -The leaves of western hemlock are dark green and very lustrous above. -The flowers are yellow and purple. Cones are one inch or less in length, -and the small seeds are equipped with wings which carry them some -distance from the base of the parent tree. The seeds will germinate and -develop a root system without touching mineral soil. Their ability to do -so assists them greatly in maintaining the tree's position in the damp -climate where this hemlock reaches its best development. The ground in -the forest, with all objects that lie upon it, is often covered with wet -moss a foot or more thick. The seeds of most trees would inevitably -perish if they fell upon such a bed of moss; but the seeds of western -hemlock germinate, and the rootlets strike through the moss until they -reach the soil beneath, and seedling trees are soon growing vigorously. -Seeds often germinate in the moss on logs and stumps, but the roots -strike for the ground, and generally reach it. In this habit the western -hemlock resembles the yellow birch of the East whose seeds seem to -germinate best on mossy logs and stumps. - -Western hemlock has one of the bad habits of its eastern relative: it -does not prune itself very well, even in dense forests, and the lumber -is apt to be knotty, but the knots are usually sound, though dark in -color. - -The wood of western hemlock is moderately light, but twenty per cent -heavier than eastern hemlock; stronger than the wood of other American -hemlocks, and nearly twenty-five per cent stronger than the eastern -commercial species, and nearly fifty per cent stiffer. It is tough and -hard, but has little of the flinty texture of other hemlocks. Its color -is pale brown, tinged with yellow, the thin sapwood nearly white. It is -fairly durable in contact with the soil. Its growth is usually rapid, -and trees live to a great age. Some of the largest are said to reach 800 -years. The summerwood often constitutes half of the yearly ring, and is -dark yellow. The medullary rays are numerous and rather prominent. When -cut radially, the appearance, size, and arrangement of the exposed -medullary rays suggest those of sugar maple when exposed in the same -way. - -The annual sawmill output of western hemlock is about 170,000,000 feet. -The largest market for it is in the region where it grows, and it is -used as rough lumber for ranch purposes and for buildings in towns; but -a considerable quantity is further manufactured. About one-fourth of the -entire sawmill output goes to the factories of Idaho, Washington, and -Oregon. A list of the wood's principal uses in those states shows its -intrinsic value. The largest quantity is demanded by box factories. The -wood's nail-holding power commends it for that use, but of no less -importance is its strength. Eighty-three per cent of all the wood used -for boxes in Washington is western hemlock. Cooperage calls for much of -this wood also. Fruit and vegetable barrels are made of it. Its place in -furniture manufacture corresponds to that of the other hemlock in the -East. The pulp business is not very extensive on the Pacific coast, but -western hemlock is a respectable contributor. It is suitable for burial -boxes, and probably ranks about third among the woods within its range, -those used in larger amounts being Sitka spruce and western red cedar. -It is coming into use as interior finish, particularly as door and -window frame material. Fixture manufacturers employ it for drawers and -shelves. It is made into flooring, ceiling, molding, and wainscoting. -Door makers use a little of it as core material over which to glue -veneers. It is made into veneer, but of the cheaper sorts, such as are -suitable for crates and berry boxes. - -The Pacific coast is so abundantly supplied with excellent softwoods -that only those of good quality have any chance in the local markets. -The fact that western hemlock has won and is holding an important place -in active competition with such woods as western red cedar, yellow -cedar, Sitka spruce, and Douglas fir, is proof that it is valuable -material. It is winning its way in the central part of the United States -also, but not as rapidly as it has won in the West. - -The bark of western hemlock is rated high as a tanning material. The -bark on young trees is thin, but as the trunks increase in size and age -the bark thickens. It is richer in tannin than the bark of eastern -hemlock, but is not so extensively used because the demand is less on -the Pacific coast. - -The future of the western hemlock is fairly well assured. Its range is -extensive and varied, and lumbermen will be a long time in cutting the -last of the present stand. Reproduction is satisfactory. It will be -important in future forestry, when people will grow much of the timber -they need; but this tree will stick pretty close to the range where -nature planted it. - -MOUNTAIN HEMLOCK (_Tsuga mertensiana_) is a near relative of western -hemlock, and occupies the same geographical ranges but higher on the -mountains. Near Sitka, Alaska, it occurs at sea level, but southward it -rises higher until on the Sierra Nevada mountains in California it is -10,000 feet above sea level. It is one of the timber line trees in many -parts of its range, though it is nowhere above all others. It is a -difficult matter to state what its average size is. That depends upon -the particular region considered. At its best it is 100 feet high or -even more; at its poorest it sprawls on the rocks like a shrub. -Specimens of fair size are from twenty-five to sixty feet high, and ten -to twenty inches in diameter. Cones vary in size fully as much as the -trunks. Some are one-half inch in length, others are three inches. The -leaves vary no less, some being a one-twelfth inch long, others one -inch. The leaves stand out on all sides of the twig, and fall during the -third and fourth years. They are bluish-green. The seeds fall in -September and October, and are provided with large wings. The wood is -light in weight, soft, and pale reddish-brown. The mountain hemlock is -nearly always spoken of as spruce by persons who are not botanists. The -arrangement of the leaves on the twigs gives the impression that it is a -spruce, and among the names by which it is known in its native region -are Williamson's spruce, weeping spruce, alpine spruce, hemlock spruce, -Patton's spruce, and alpine western spruce. There is little prospect -that this tree will ever become important as a source of lumber. It is -nowhere very abundant, and what timber there is generally stands so -remote from mills that little of it will ever be taken out. Botanists -and mountain travelers who have made the acquaintance of the mountain -hemlock in the wildness of its natural surroundings have spoken and -written much in its praise. It has been called the loveliest -cone-bearing tree of the American forest. That praise, however, applies -only when the tree is at its best, with its broad, pyramidal crown, -balanced and proportioned with geometrical accuracy, outlined against a -background of rocks, peaks, snow, or sky. Its other form, prostrate and -angular where the tree occurs on cold, bleak mountains, has never -inspired praise from anybody, though its defiance of the elements and -its persistence in spite of adversity, cannot but challenge the -admiration of all who like a fair and square fighter. There are many -intermediate forms. On mountains facing the Pacific, and at altitudes of -6,000 or 7,000 feet, the young hemlocks are buried under deep snow weeks -or months at a time. They are pressed down by the weight of tons, and it -might be supposed that not a whole branch would be left on them, and -that the main stems would be deformed the rest of their lives. But when -the early summer sun melts the snow, the young trees spring back to -their former faultless forms, without a twig missing or a twisted -branch. - -[Illustration] - - - - -WESTERN YEW - -[Illustration: WESTERN YEW] - - - - -WESTERN YEW - -(_Taxus Brevifolia_) - - -The Pacific yew is an interesting tree, useful for many minor purposes, -but it is not procurable in large quantities. Its north and south range -covers more than 1,000 miles, from Alaska to central California; while -the species occurs from the Pacific coast eastward to Montana. It -approaches sea level on some of the Alaskan islands, and toward the -southern part of its range it reaches an altitude of 8,000 feet. - -In Idaho it is called mountain mahogany, but apparently without good -reason. Its color may bear some resemblance to that wood, but it is -different in so many particulars that the name is not appropriate. The -names western yew and Pacific yew are used interchangeably. Sometimes it -bears the simple name yew; but since there is a yew in Florida, and -another in Europe, it is well to give the western species a name which -will distinguish it from others. The northwestern Indians called it -"fighting wood," which was the best description possible for them to -give. They made bows of it, and it was superior to any other wood within -their reach for that purpose. In fact, if they could have picked from -all the woods of the United States they could scarcely have found its -equal. It is very strong, though in elasticity its rating is under many -other woods. It is of interest to note that five hundred or more years -ago, the European yew (a closely related but different species) had -nearly the same name in England that the northwestern Indians gave the -western yew. It was called "the shooter yew," because it was the bow -wood of that time, and "bow staves," which were rough pieces to be -worked out by the bow makers, were articles of commerce. The search for -it was so great, and so long-continued, that yew trees were well-nigh -exterminated in the British Isles. It was, next to oak, and possibly -above oak, the most indispensable wood in England at that time. It is -instructive to observe that Indians who used the bow found the western -yew as indispensable in their life as the English armies found the -European yew at a time when the bow was the best weapon. - -The northwestern Indians put this remarkable wood to other uses. They -made spears of it, and sometimes employed them as weapons of war, but -generally as implements of the chase, particularly in harpooning salmon -which in summer ascend the northwestern rivers from the Pacific ocean in -immense schools. The Indians whittled fishhooks of yew before they were -able to buy steel hooks from traders. Some of those unique hooks are -still in existence, and speak well of the inventive genius of the wild -fisherman of the wilderness. A proper crook was selected where a branch -joined the trunk, and serviceable fish hooks were made without any cross -grain. They were strong enough to hold the largest fish that ascended -the rivers. Sometimes a bone barb was skillfully inserted. The Indians -found a further use for this wood as material for canoe paddles. It is -so strong that handles can be made small and blades thin without passing -the limit of safety. The manufacture of boat paddles from yew continues. - -More is used for fence posts than for any other one purpose. It is one -of the most durable woods known where it must resist conditions -conducive to decay. The name yew is said to be derived from a word in a -north Europe language meaning everlasting. Yew fence posts are not named -in statistics, and it is impossible to quote numbers. Their use is -confined to the districts where they grow. - -The manufacturers of small cabinets draw supplies from this wood, but -the fact is not mentioned in Pacific states wood-using statistics. It is -particularly liked for turnery, such as small spindles used in furniture -and in grill work. It takes an exceptionally fine polish, and the wood's -great strength makes the use of slender pieces practicable. Experiments -have shown that this wood may be stained with success, but its natural -color is so attractive that there is little need of staining unless the -purpose is to imitate some more costly wood. If stained black it is an -excellent substitute for ebony. - -Western yew figures little in lumber output. It is not listed in the -markets. The few logs which reach sawmills are never again heard of, but -probably most of the lumber is disposed of locally to those who need it. -The tree is not of good form for saw timber. Burls are said to make -beautiful veneer. Trunks are seldom round, but usually grow lopsided. -Most of them are too small for sawlogs. The largest are seldom two feet -in diameter, and generally not half that large. They are short and -branched, the tree often dividing near the ground in several stems. The -average tree is scarcely thirty feet high, but a few are twice that. Its -growth is very slow. A six-inch trunk is seventy-five or 100 years old, -and the largest sizes are from 200 to 350 years. It is evident, -therefore, that efforts to grow western yew for commercial purposes will -be few. Wild trees will be occasionally cut as long as they last, and -they will probably last as long as any of their associates, for they are -scattered sparingly over several hundred thousand square miles of -country, and some of it rough and almost inaccessible. The best -development of the species is in western Oregon, Washington, and British -Columbia. - -The leaves of western yew are one-half or five-eighths inch long. The -fruit consists of red pulp enclosing a hard seed. Birds devour it -eagerly. The fruit is not poisonous, as the yew berries of the Old World -are. It ripens in September and falls in October. The wood is fine -grained, clear rose red, becoming gradually duller on exposure. It -weighs 39.83 pounds per cubic foot. Its fuel value is high. - -FLORIDA YEW (_Taxus floridana_) is extremely local in its range, and -small in size. Few trees are more than twenty-five feet high and one -foot in diameter. They are bushy and of poor form for manufacturing. The -only reported use is as fence posts. The wood's durability fits it for -that place. The species is found in Gadsden county, Florida. The leaves -are one inch or less in length; flowers appear in March, and the fruit -ripens in October. The wood is moderately heavy, hard, and -narrow-ringed, for the trees grow slowly. Its color is dark, tinged with -red, the thin sapwood being whiter. There is little prospect that the -wood of this yew will ever be more important than it is now. It is often -spoken of locally as savin, which name is likewise given to the red -cedar (_Juniperus virginiana_), which is abundant in this yew's range. - -CALIFORNIA NUTMEG (_Tumion californicum_) is an interesting tree which -ranges over a considerable portion of California, but is at its best in -Mendocino county and the coast region north of San Francisco. It occurs -also on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada mountains, in central -California, at altitudes up to 5,000 feet. It receives its name from the -resemblance of its seeds to nutmegs. Their surface is shriveled, but -they do not have the nutmeg odor. The wood and the leaves, when bruised, -give off an odor not altogether pleasing. On account of this, the tree -has been called stinking cedar. In some localities it is called yew, and -in others California false nutmeg, and coast nutmeg. Trees are generally -small, with trunks of irregular form. The crown is open and usually -extends to the ground; but in crowded situations, a rather shapely bole -is developed, and the crown is small. The usual size of the tree does -not exceed a height of fifty feet and a diameter of twenty inches. More -trees are below than above that size; but in extreme cases the tree may -reach a height of eighty-five feet and a diameter of four. The leaves in -form and size resemble the foliage of yew, but their points are stiff -and sharp, and if approached carelessly they will wound like cactus -thorns. The fruit is an inch or more in length, a pulpy substance -surrounding the seed. The wood possesses properties which ought to make -it valuable, though reported uses are strictly local, such as small -cabinet work and skiff making. It is bright lemon, yellow, rather hard, -takes good polish, is of slow growth, with bands of summerwood thin but -distinct, and medullary rays small, numerous, and obscure. Its weight is -29.66 pounds per cubic foot; it is not stiff or strong. It cannot attain -high place as a manufacturing material, because it is too scarce, but -it possesses a beauty which must bring it recognition as a fine -furniture, finish, and novelty wood. A few sawlogs go to mills in the -region north of San Francisco, but the lumber is probably mixed with -other kinds and it goes to market without a name. It ought to be put to -a better use. - -FLORIDA TORREYA (_Tumion taxifolium_) is often called Chattahoochee pine -in the region where it grows. That name is generally given to the tree -when planted for ornament in yards, parks, and along streets of towns in -northwestern Florida. It is known also as stinking cedar, stinking -savin, and fetid yew. These names are generally applied to the -forest-grown tree, particularly by those who cut it for fence posts, -which is its principal use. Its range is local, being confined largely, -if not wholly, to Gadsden county, Florida, where it grows on limestone -soil. It can never have much importance as a commercial timber, because -it is too scarce. In fact, it is in danger of extermination. Post -cutters never spare it, and its range being so limited, there is not -much hope for it. The interesting and beautiful tree is making a game -fight for life. Many seedlings appear in the vicinity of old trees, -while stumps, and even prostrate trunks, send up sprouts which, if let -alone, grow to tree size. Sprouts on logs and stumps send roots to the -ground as the seedling yellow birch does in damp northern woods. The -yew-like leaves of Florida torreya are one and a half inch or less in -length. The tree blooms in March and April, and the drupe-like fruit, an -inch or more in length, is ripe by midsummer. The tree is from forty to -sixty feet in height, and one to two feet in diameter. It is clothed in -whorls of limbs, beginning near the ground, and tapering to the top. The -wood is clear, bright yellow, the thin sapwood of lighter color; soft, -easily worked, and susceptible of fine polish. It is very durable in -contact with the soil. The green wood, and the bruised leaves and -branches give off an odor suggesting the tomato vine. The texture and -color of the wood indicate that it is well suited for fine cabinet work, -but it is not a figured wood. - -[Illustration] - - - - -WHITE OAK - -[Illustration: WHITE OAK] - - - - -WHITE OAK - -(_Quercus Alba_) - - -Oaks belong to the beech family, that is, the "foodtrees,"[3] though -most acorns are too bitter and contain too much tannin to be edible; -some may be eaten, and for that reason the ancients classed them among -the food trees. "Quercus," which is the name of the genus, means oak in -the language of northwestern Europe. The name white oak nearly always -suffices, but in Arkansas it is often called stave oak because it is the -best stave timber in that region. It could with equal reason be called -stave oak nearly anywhere, for it is excellent material for tight -cooperage. Formerly it was sometimes called Baltimore oak, because many -of the staves of export were shipped from that city. That name, however, -belonged more to post oak (_Quercus minor_) than to white oak, because -the fine staves which went out of Chesapeake bay in the export trade, -were largely post oak. It matters little now, for the name Baltimore oak -is not much used, and white oak may be said to have only one trade name. -After the wood is dressed, it has different names referring to the style -of finish and not to the wood itself. - - [3] The oaks of this country, which number more than fifty species, - have been classified in different ways, depending upon the purpose - in view. In the present treatment they will be divided in two - general groups, white oaks and black oaks. No effort will be made to - draw hard and fast lines, because it is not necessary. Oaks which - ripen their acorns in one year are listed as white oaks; those with - two year acorns, as black oaks. This is a botanical rather than a - lumberman's classification; yet lumbermen recognize it in a general - way. White oak (_Quercus alba_) is clearly entitled to head the list - of white oaks, and red oak (_Quercus rubra_) should occupy a similar - position with regard to the black oak group. In numbers, the white - oaks and black oaks are nearly equally divided, one authority giving - twenty-seven species of white oak and twenty-five of black oak in - the United States; but botanists differ as to exact numbers of each. - The following species are usually classed as white oaks: White oak - (_Quercus alba_), valley oak (_Quercus lobata_), Brewer oak - (_Quercus breweri_), Sadler oak (_Quercus sadleri_), Pacific post - oak (_Quercus garryana_), Gambel oak (_Quercus gambelii_), post oak - (_Quercus minor_), Chapman oak (_Quercus chapmani_), bur oak - (_Quercus macrocarpa_), overcup oak (_Quercus lyrata_), swamp white - oak (_Quercus platanoides_), cow oak (_Quercus michauxii_), chestnut - oak (_Quercus prinus_), chinquapin oak (_Quercus acuminata_), dwarf - chinquapin oak (_Quercus prinoides_), Durand oak (_Quercus - breviloba_), Rocky Mountain oak (_Quercus undulata_), California - blue oak (_Quercus douglasii_), Engelmann oak (_Quercus - engelmanni_), Rocky Mountain blue oak (_Quercus oblongifolia_), - Arizona white oak (_Quercus arizonica_), Toumey oak (_Quercus - toumeyi_), netleaf oak (_Quercus reticulata_), California scrub oak - (_Quercus dumosa_), live oak (_Quercus virginiana_), Emory oak - (_Quercus emoryi_). - -White oak grows in all the states east of the Mississippi river, and it -crosses that stream two or three hundred miles in some places. It -reaches eastern Nebraska and eastern Kansas, and runs southward through -Oklahoma to the Brazos river, Texas. It is scarce in the northern parts -of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. Its total range covers an area of -more than 1,000,000 square miles. Like all other important timber trees, -it has regions where the species is best developed. The finest original -stands of white oak were found in the upper Ohio valley, beginning in -Indiana. The timber in many other districts was, and in some still is, -very good, such as southern Michigan, eastern Arkansas, some of the -Appalachian valleys and slopes, and in certain places along the upper -tributaries of streams flowing into the Atlantic ocean. - -This tree is in the very front rank in economic importance, and it has -held that place since the earliest settlements in this country. No -forest tree was more evenly distributed than white oak over the eastern -half of the United States. It did not form pure forests of large extent, -as some of the pines did, but white oaks were within reach of almost -every part of the country. Conditions have greatly changed. The -establishment of farms where woods originally occupied the whole -country, lessened the abundance of oak long before lumbermen made it a -commodity; and since then, the cutting of billions of feet of it has -depleted or exhausted the supply in many regions. Still, white oak is as -widely dispersed as ever. It has not been completely exterminated in any -extensive region. White oak of as high grade goes to market now as ever -in the past, but in smaller amounts, and the lower grades go in -proportionately larger quantities. In other words, prime white oak has -passed its best day. A hundred years of use and abuse in states west of -the Alleghany mountains, and two hundred years in some of the regions -east, have reduced original forests to remnants. But with all that, -white oak remains undisputed king of American hardwoods. - -At its best, white oak attains a height of 125 feet and a diameter of -six, but that size is unusual. A diameter of three feet and a height of -100 is above the average. The leaves are peculiar in that they hang on -the branches until late winter, sometimes dropping only in time to give -place to the new crop. They turn brown after the first hard frost. In -some sections of the Appalachian region white oak coppice (sprout -growth) is known as "red brush," because of the adherence of the brown -leaves during winter. The leaves of some other species have the same -habit. - -The wood of white oak is very strong, stiff, heavy, and durable when -exposed in all kinds of weather. Scarcely any other wood which can be -had in merchantable quantities equals white oak in these qualities. It -rates high in fuel value, and 6,000 pounds of dry wood when burned, -leaves about 245 pounds of ashes. The color of the heartwood is light -brown; the sapwood is thin; medullary rays are numerous and large; pores -large; summerwood broad and dense. - -The medullary rays of no wood in this or any other country are more -utilized to commercial advantage than those of white oak. Quarter-sawing -is for the purpose of bringing them out. They are the bright streaks, -clearly visible to the naked eye in the end of an oak log, radiating -from the center outward like the spokes of a wheel. Many are too thin to -be visible without a magnifying glass. By quarter-sawing, the rays are -cut edgewise and appear as bright streaks or patches, often called -"mirrors," on the surface of boards. The woodworker knows how to finish -the boards and treat them with fillers to bring out the figures. - -White oak is a porous wood. Some of the pores are large enough to be -visible without a glass, and twenty times as many more can be seen only -when magnified. The direction of the pores is up and down the trunk of -the tree, and they are seen to best advantage in the end of a stick, -although they are always more or less visible on the side of a board -when the cutting is a little across the grain. The pores thus cut -diagonally across are taken advantage of by the finisher who works -stains and fillers into them, and changes their natural color, thereby -accentuating the wood's figure. - -The possibilities of white oak are almost infinite. It is good for -nearly anything for which any wood is used. It is not the best for -everything, but does well for most. Hickory is more resilient, ironwood -is stronger, locust more durable, white pine warps and checks less; but -white oak has so many good qualities in a fair degree that it can afford -to fall below the highest in some, and still rank above competitors on -general averages. It ranks high in shipbuilding, general construction, -furniture manufacturing, finish and fixtures, the making of agricultural -implements, car building, vehicle stock, cooperage, and many more. - -It is one of the most important of American veneer woods. It is sawed -very thin, and is glued upon cores of other wood, thus becoming the -covering or outside part. The purpose of using oak veneer instead of the -solid wood is twofold. First, it goes farther, and second, a well-built -article with veneer outside and a core of other woods which stand well, -is superior to a solid oak article, except in cases where great strength -is the object sought, or where deep carving is desired. - -The continued use of white oak is assured. It is not necessary to seek -new uses for it. The demand is as great as the supply can meet, but the -supply is not assured for the distant future. There will always be some -white oak in the country; but the best has been or is being cut. The -tree grows slowly, and good quarter-sawed white oak cannot be cut from -young trees. An age of about 150 years is necessary. Most good white oak -lumber today is cut from trees 200 or more years old. When the present -supply of venerable oaks has been exhausted, prime oak lumber will be -largely a thing of the past. Fortunately, that time has not yet arrived. -About eighty years are required to grow a white oak of crosstie size. -Those who will grow oak for market in the future will probably not wait -much longer than eighty years to cut their trees, and the result will be -a scarcity of mature trunks for lumber and veneer. - - DURAND OAK (_Quercus breviloba_). In some parts of Alabama, - Mississippi, and Louisiana this tree goes to the lumber yard as - white oak, and no one is injured by the substitution, for it is - heavy, hard, and strong, and is of good color. The wood weighs 59.25 - pounds per cubic foot, which places it above the average weight of - white oak. It is said to be less tough than white oak. The tree - varies greatly in different parts of its range which extends from - central Alabama across Texas and into Mexico. It is known as white - oak, Texas white oak, shin oak, pin oak, and basket oak. Its best - development is in the eastern part of its range where trees eighty - or ninety feet high are common; but in Texas the average is scarcely - thirty feet high and one in diameter. Westward in Texas it becomes - shrubby, and forms extensive thickets of brush. - - CHAPMAN OAK (_Quercus chapmani_) is put to little use, because - trunks are too small. They are seldom more than a foot in diameter, - and are often little more than shrubs. The tree grows in the pine - barrens near the coast from South Carolina to Florida, and it is - found also in great abundance, but generally of small size, on the - west coast of Florida from Tampa to the Apalachicola river. - -[Illustration] - - - - -BUR OAK - -[Illustration: BUR OAK] - - - - -BUR OAK - -(_Quercus Macrocarpa_) - - -This splendid oak was named by Michaux, a French traveler and botanist -who visited many parts of eastern and southeastern United States more -than a century ago. The botanical name _macrocarpa_, means "large -fruit." The bur oak bears small acorns in the North, and very large ones -in the South. They are sometimes two inches long and one and a half -inches wide, and "large-fruit" oak is an appropriate name for the tree -in the South, but would not be near the northern limit of its range. - -It is known in different regions as bur oak, mossy cup oak, overcup oak, -scrub oak, and mossy cup white oak. Bur oak is a name suggested by the -acorn which has a fringe round the cup like a bur. This is the oak which -gave name to James Fenimore Cooper's book, "Oak Openings" a romance of -early days in Michigan. Oak openings were areas where fires had killed -the old timber, and a young growth had sprouted from stumps and roots, -or had sprung up from seeds buried in the ground beyond the reach of the -fire. Some of those tracts were very large, and they were not confined -to any one state. They existed in Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, -Dakota, and elsewhere. Bur oak, because it is a vigorous species, was -able to take possession of such burned areas, to the exclusion of most -others. - -Few American oaks have a wider range. It extends from Nova Scotia to -Manitoba, and in the United States is found in most states east of the -Rocky Mountains. It extends farther west and northwest than any other -commercial oak of the Atlantic states. In a range of so great -geographical extent the bur oak finds it necessary to adapt itself to -many kinds of land. It prefers low tracts where water is sufficient but -not excessive, but it grows well in more elevated situations, provided -the soil is fertile. It is not a poor-land tree. In the primeval forests -it attained largest size in Indiana and Illinois. The largest trees were -from 150 to 170 feet high and four to seven in diameter. Sizes varied -from that extreme down to the other extreme near the outskirts of its -range where the growth was stunted. Large quantities of very fine logs -have been cut from trunks from two to four feet in diameter, and forty -to sixty feet to the limbs. - -The leaves of bur oak are from six to twelve inches long, simple and -alternate; the petioles are thick with flattened and enlarged bases; the -leaves are wedge-shaped at the base, and have from five to seven long, -irregular lobes, the terminal one very large and broad. They are dark -green in color, and are smooth and shiny above, silvery white and -pubescent below. The edge of the leaf is notched somewhat like chestnut, -but the teeth or notches are not so sharp. - -The twigs are provided with corky wings, or flattened keels of bark, -along their sides. Some of the wings are an inch or more wide. They are -apt to escape notice when the tree is in leaf, but in the winter the -bare twigs look rough and ragged. - -The weight of bur oak is approximately the same as white oak, and the -two woods are much the same in strength and elasticity. The bands of -summerwood are broad and dense, and the springwood is filled with large -pores. The medullary rays are broad, but not numerous in comparison with -white oak. They are sufficiently conspicuous to show well in -quarter-sawing. - -Bur oak nearly always goes to market as white oak, or simply as oak, and -it is difficult to ascertain all the uses found for it. Some factories -which make furniture, finish, vehicles, and other articles that figure -in the country's trade, attempt to identify the woods they use. That is -done as carefully in Michigan as anywhere else, though comparatively few -of the factories carry out the plan even in that state where many of the -best wood-using establishments of the country are located. In a report -issued in 1912 which gave statistics collected from more than eight -hundred Michigan factories, bur oak received separate consideration. The -uses there are doubtless representative, and will hold throughout the -country wherever bur oak is fairly abundant. It is listed as baseboards, -billiard table rims, bookcases, clay working machines, filing cabinets, -furniture, hand sleds, hay balers, interior finish, molding, tinplate -boxes, wagon sills, work benches. The amount of wood used in the state -was nearly 900,000 feet, according to the reports; but it certainly does -not include all. What it does show, however, is that bur oak is one of -the substantial woods of that region, and that it possesses properties -which fit it for many important places in the country's industries. - -Bur oak contributes to the output of cooper shops. Slack coopers class -it with many other hardwoods for the manufacture of barrels for -vegetables and various other commodities, while the makers of barrels -for liquids put bur oak in with white oak. - -The future of bur oak does not promise much after the trees which now -remain have been cut. That does not mean that the species will become -extinct, for that is improbable; but when the mature trees which -developed during two or three hundred years of forest conditions have -passed away, there is not much prospect of others being left to grow to -the age and size which will make them valuable as lumber. Woodlot -owners will not wait much longer than the seventy-five or one hundred -years required to grow trees of crosstie size. Railroads pay good prices -for this wood, for it lasts well, holds spikes in a satisfactory manner, -and is strong and hard. As far as can be seen, bur oak will fare in the -future about like white oak; that is, few trees will be left standing -long enough to attain large size, because it will pay better to cut them -while comparatively small. - - CALIFORNIA BLUE OAK (_Quercus douglasii_) receives its name from the - color of its foliage in spring and early summer in the valleys and - on the rolling foothills of central California. Later in the summer, - when the dry season is on, the leaves lose some of their blue, on - account of age, but more from an accumulation of dust; but even then - the form of the tree, from its habit of growing in open formation - like an old apple orchard, presents an attractive picture. It is - often associated with the valley oak, which is larger and more - stately, but the blue oak loses nothing by the contrast. It is - occasionally called rock oak, but for what reason is not clear. It - is known, too, as mountain white oak, or simply white oak, and as - blue oak. Its range covers central California from Mendocino to the - Mojave desert, and from the immediate coast inland through the - valleys to the Sierras, and upward to an altitude of 4,000 feet - where the tree degenerates into a shrub which has neither beauty nor - utility. The species reaches its best development in the Salinas - valley from twenty to sixty miles from the coast. There the largest - trees are found, and also some that have assumed peculiar forms. In - positions exposed to the never-ceasing sea winds which sweep up the - valleys, the blue oaks lie prone like logs, their tops pointing away - from the wind. They grew in that unnatural position, having been - pressed flat by the wind since they were seedlings. This oak's ashen - gray bark harmonizes well with the dry summer grass and dull sand - and gravel which surround it during the hot period. The branches are - often covered with green-gray lichens which somewhat modify the - aspect of the tree under close inspection. The leaves are irregular - in form. Some closely resemble leaves of the eastern white oak, - while others are almost or quite without lobes. During the growing - season the acorns are deep green, but when approaching maturity they - change to a chestnut-brown. They vary in shape as much as the - leaves. Some are almost eggshaped, bulging out above the cup which - seems too small; but all of them do not assume that form, but may be - short and symmetrical, or very long and slender. Woodpeckers store - these acorns in large numbers, and they search out peculiar places - for their hoards. A knot hole in the weatherboarding of an old barn, - granary, or school house is considered ideal, though when the acorns - are so disposed of, they are out of reach of the woodpecker forever. - Another method is to peck holes just large enough for an acorn in - fence posts or dead tree trunks, and hammer the acorns tightly in, - small end first. The surfaces of dead trees are sometimes absolutely - covered with such holes, each with its acorn. The woodpecker's - purpose is to wait until the acorns become infested with larvae. He - has no intention of eating the acorn itself. - - California blue oaks range in height from shrubs to trees of ninety - feet, with diameters of three or four feet. The average height is - about forty-five and the diameter two or less. The trunk frequently - divides a few feet from the ground into large limbs. That form - excludes the wood from sawmills, and only in rare cases does any of - it find its way there. The lumber is of poor quality, brittle, - black, and otherwise defective. The sapwood is white and thick. A - cubic foot weighs 55.64 pounds, or nearly ten more than eastern - white oak. It is weak, and is low in elasticity. The annual rings - are often nearly invisible, because the pores are scattered evenly - and do not form bands. The medullary rays are broad, in the heart - black, in the sapwood white. If the wood were otherwise suitable, - pleasing effects might be produced by quarter-sawing, but as far as - known, no attempts have been made to do this. Now and then a - suitable log might be found. The importance of this oak lies in its - fuel value. It rates above white oak in theoretical tests, but it is - heavier in ash, and in practice it hardly measures up to white oak. - It grows slowly and is destined to disappear as a source of fuel - supply. Reproduction has nearly ceased in most parts of its range, - due largely to the perseverance of hogs in eating the acorns. - Cordwood cutters have stripped the last tree from large areas where - much once grew. This oak never forms forests. The trees seldom grow - as close together as apple trees in an orchard. - - GAMBEL OAK (_Quercus gambelii_) was destined by nature to occupy an - inferior place in the country's timber resources. It occupies a - region of stunted vegetation among the dry mountains and plateaus of - the Southwest, and except where it grows in better situations than - usual, it is too small to be properly called a tree. It is at its - best among the mountains of southeastern Arizona where it grows in - canyons that can maintain a little damp soil. There it occasionally - reaches a height of thirty feet and a diameter of a foot or less. In - most other parts of its range it is simply a tangled, sprawling - thicket of brush, covering the dry, rocky mountain ridges, and along - the bases of cliffs. It is found from Colorado to western Texas, and - westward into Utah, Nevada, and Arizona. The leaves are small, - thick, firm, and hairy, typical of desert foliage which must husband - the scant water supply. The acorns are pretty large for a tree so - stunted, and they are tempting bait for birds and rodents of the - region. The acorns are sweet. If this oak's reproduction depended on - acorns alone it is doubtful if it would hold its ground in the face - of perpetual adversity; but its roots send up distorted and stunted - sprouts which cover the ground, affording hiding places for the few - acorns which escape their hungry enemies. Man puts this oak to few - uses. It affords a pretty good class of fuel for camp fires, but - cordwood cutters cannot make much out of it. In rare instances - frontier ranches use a few of the unshapely poles for corral fences, - but only as a case of last resort. The names bestowed upon the tree - by those who know it best are uncomplimentary. They call it shin - oak, pin oak, scrub oak, mountain oak, and Rocky Mountain oak. - -[Illustration] - - - - -FORKED-LEAF WHITE OAK - -[Illustration: FORKED-LEAF WHITE OAK] - - - - -FORKED-LEAF WHITE OAK - -(_Quercus Lyrata_) - - -The leaf gives this tree its name in the best part of its southern -range. The tree bears much resemblance to the bur oak on the one hand, -and swamp white oak on the other. The names by which it is known in -different regions indicate as much. - -In North and South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, -Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, and Illinois it is commonly known as -overcup; in Alabama, South Carolina, Mississippi, Louisiana, and -Missouri it is called the swamp post oak; the name water white oak is -applied to it in Mississippi and parts of South Carolina; swamp white -oak in Texas; forked-leaf white oak among lumbermen in several of the -southern states. The last name scarcely describes the leaf, for no one -is apt to notice any fork, unless his attention is called to it. The -fact is, the name forked-leaf oak is applied oftener to the turkey oak -(_Quercus catesbaei_) than to this one. However, since the ranges of the -two species are not the same, misunderstandings in practice are not apt -to arise as to which is meant when the forked leaf is referred to. The -fact that turkey oak belongs in the black oak group, ripening its acorns -in two years, and this one is a white oak with one year acorns, is of -further assistance in keeping the species separate. - -The range of the forked-leaf white oak is from Maryland, along the -Potomac river near the District of Columbia, southward to parts of -Florida; westward through the Gulf states to the Trinity river in Texas; -throughout Arkansas, sections of Missouri, central Tennessee, southern -Illinois and Indiana. - -It shows preference for river swamps, and small deep depressions in rich -bottom lands where moisture is always abundant. It has never amounted to -much in the Atlantic states, and its best development is found in the -moist, fertile valley of Red river in Louisiana, and in certain parts of -Arkansas and Texas. Its geographical range is pretty large, but as a -timber tree it is confined to a comparatively restricted region west of -the Mississippi. Good trees are found in other parts of its range. -Lumbermen do not find it in extensive forests or pure stands, but -isolated trees or small groups occur with other hardwoods. - -This species of oak grows occasionally to a height of 100 feet, though -its average is about seventy feet. It has a trunk two to three feet in -diameter, which spreads out after attaining a height of fifteen or -twenty feet, into small, often pendulous branches, forming a symmetrical -round top. The branchlets are green, slightly tinged with red; covered -with short hairs when first appearing, becoming grayish and shiny during -their first winter, eventually turning ashen gray or brown. - -The bark is three-quarters or one inch thick, light gray in color, -shedding in thick plates, its surface being divided into thin scales. -The winter buds are about one-eighth of an inch long and have light -colored scales. The staminate flowers grow in long, slender, hairy -spikes from four to six inches long; the calyx is light yellow and -hairy. The pistillate flowers are stalked and are also covered with -hairs. - -The fruit of forked-leaf white oak is often on slender, fuzzy stems, -sometimes an inch or more in length, but is often closely attached to -the twig that bears it; the acorn is about one inch long, broad at the -base, light brown and covered with short, light hairs, and usually -almost entirely enclosed in the deep, spherical cup, which is bright -reddish-brown on its inside surface, and covered on the outside with -scales; thickened at the base, becoming thinner and forming an irregular -edge at the margin of the cup. The cup often almost completely envelopes -the acorn. The fruit then looks somewhat like a rough, nearly spherical -button. - -This oak's leaves are long and slender, and are divided in from five to -nine lobes. When the leaves unfold they are brownish green and hairy -above and below; at maturity they are thin and firm, darker green and -shiny on the upper surface, silvery or light green and hairy below; from -seven to eight inches long, one to four inches broad; in autumn turning -a beautiful bright scarlet or vivid orange. - -Commercially this wood is a white oak, and it is seldom or never sent to -market under its own name. There are no statistics of cut at the mills -or of stand in the forests. Lumbermen take the tree when they come to it -in the course of their usual operations, but never go out of their way -to get it. Though rather large stands occur in certain southern regions, -and scattering trees are found in large areas, the total quantity in the -country is known to be too small to give this tree an important place as -a source of lumber. Neither is there expectation that the future has -anything in store for this particular member of the tribe of oaks. The -wood rates high in physical properties; is strong as white oak, if not -stronger, tough, stiff, hard, and heavy. In contact with the ground it -is very durable. The heartwood is rich, dark brown, the sapwood lighter. - -It may be said, generally, that since it goes to market as white oak, -and its buyers never object, it possesses the essential properties of -that wood, and is used in the same way as far as it is used at all. - -ARIZONA WHITE OAK (_Quercus arizonica_) is the common and most generally -distributed white oak of southern New Mexico and Arizona where it -covers the hillsides and occurs in canyons at altitudes from 5,000 to -10,000 feet above sea level. It occasionally ascends nearly or quite to -the summits of the highest peaks. The form of the tree varies greatly, -as might be expected from a range extending from one to two miles above -sea level. On the dry, windswept summits the tree degenerates into a -shrub, with stiff, harsh branches. Lower down, in canyons and in other -situations where moisture may be had and the soil is fertile, trunks are -fifty or sixty feet high and three or four in diameter; but these are -not the usual sizes even in the best of the tree's range, for it cannot -be classed as a timber tree. - -The hardships of the desert have stunted it, and its form is rough. It -is important for fuel, and this has been its chief use. The region where -it occurs is thinly settled, and demand for lumber is small, but -stockmen build corrals and fences to enclose sheep and cattle, and the -Arizona white oak supplies some of the rough poles and posts for that -purpose. The wood is heavy, hard, strong, and the heartwood is almost -black, but the sapwood is lighter. The grain and figure of the wood are -not attractive, and what little may be sawed into lumber in the future -will be rather low-grade. The branches are crooked and when cut into -cordwood the ricks are so open that it is a common saying in the region -that "you can throw a dog through." The wood burns well, and the demand -for fuel is large, in proportion to the population of the country. - -The leaves of this oak are sometimes slightly lobed, and are sometimes -nearly as smooth as willow leaves. They are light red and covered with -hair when they unfold in the spring, but when mature they are dark -green, and shiny. Acorns are one inch or less in length, and rather -slender. They are very bitter, and wild animals are inclined to let them -alone, unless pressed by hunger, and then eat them sparingly. This -insures good reproduction, provided other conditions are favorable. -Though cordwood cutters may strip the large trees from the hills and -canyons, scrub growth may be expected to continue, particularly on high -mountains, and in ravines where roads cannot be built. - - NETLEAF OAK (_Quercus reticulata_) will never attract lumbermen in - this country, but sometime they may send to the Sierra Madre - mountains of Mexico to procure it. In that region it is a tree large - enough for lumber; but the portion of its range overlapping on the - United States lies in southern Arizona and New Mexico among - mountains from 7,000 to 10,000 feet above sea level. Conditions are - unfavorable and the netleaf oak shows it by its stunted size and - rough form. The wood is hard, heavy, dark brown in color, with - lighter sapwood. The medullary rays are numerous and very broad. The - tree seldom exceeds forty feet in height and one foot in diameter. - The leaf is netted somewhat like that of the elm. The acorn is - usually not more than half an inch in length. - - ROCKY MOUNTAIN OAK (_Quercus undulata_) bears acorns which may be - eaten like chestnuts, and not much more may be said for the tree in - the way of usefulness to man, though it is the salvation of some of - the small mammals of the bleak Texas and New Mexico hills where - there is little to eat and few places for concealment from hawks and - other enemies. The tree is also called scrub oak and shin oak. It - grows in Colorado, New Mexico, western Texas, Arizona, Nevada, and - Utah. At its best it rarely exceeds thirty feet high and a foot in - diameter, and it often forms a jungle of shrubs through which the - traveler must wade waist deep or go miles out of his way to pass - round it. Its leaf is one of the smallest of the oaks, and is - notched much like the chestnut leaf. - - ALVORD OAK (_Quercus alvordiana_) is little known and will probably - never be of much importance. It grows in the region of Tehachapi - mountains, the northern border of the Mojave desert, in California, - and was named for William Alvord of that state. The leaf is toothed, - and the acorn smooth. No record has been found of any use of the - wood, and when Sudworth compiled his book, "Forest Trees of the - Pacific Slope," he was unable to procure enough leaves, flowers, and - fruit to enable him to give a botanical description. It may - therefore be regarded as one of the scarcest oaks in the United - States, which fact gives it a certain interest. - - SADLER OAK (_Quercus sadleriana_) is one of the minor oaks of the - Pacific coast, and is popularly and properly called scrub oak by - those who encounter it on high, dry slopes of northern California - and southern Oregon mountains, from 4,000 to 9,000 feet above the - sea. It forms dense thickets, and passes for an evergreen. Its - leaves remain on the branches only thirteen months. The leaves are - toothed like those of chestnut. The acorns are matured in one - season. The name Sadler oak was given it in honor of a Scottish - botanist. Trees are too scarce and too small to have much value, - except as a ground cover. - - BREWER OAK (_Quercus breweri_) grows on the west slope of the Sierra - Nevada mountains in California, from Kaweah river northward to - Trinity mountains. It is often little more than a shrub, and its - usefulness to man lies less in the quantity of wood it produces than - in the protection the dense thickets, with their network of roots, - afford steep hillsides. Gullying in time of heavy rain cannot take - place where this oak's matted masses of roots bind the soil. Sprouts - rise freely from the roots, and thickets are reproduced in that way - rather than from acorns, although in certain years crops of acorns - are bountiful. The trunks are too small to make any kind of lumber, - but are capable of supplying considerable quantities of fuel. - -[Illustration] - - - - -POST OAK - -[Illustration: POST OAK] - - - - -POST OAK - -(_Quercus Minor_) - - -Post oak is the most common name for this tree but various sections of -its range have given it their own names which probably have local -significance. The following names are in use in the localities denoted: -post oak in the eastern and Gulf states, Connecticut to Texas, and in -Arkansas and West Virginia; box white oak in Rhode Island; iron oak in -Delaware, Mississippi and Nebraska; chene etoile in Quebec; overcup oak -in Florida; white oak in Kentucky and Indiana; box oak and brash oak in -Maryland. - -Toward the northern portion of the range of this tree it is small, and -in early times it was little used except for fence posts. Its durability -fitted it for that use, and it is said the common name was due to that -circumstance. The name iron oak was used by shipbuilders who sometimes -bought small knees made of this wood. Baltimore oak was an early name -which is not now in use. It was generally applied to white oak, but it -included some post oak shipped from the Chesapeake bay region. - -Post oak is botanically and commercially a white oak and is seldom -distinguished from the true white oak, _Quercus alba_, in commerce. It -is seen at its best in the uplands of the Mississippi basin and in the -Gulf states west of the Mississippi, where it attains a considerable -size. In the northeastern states and in Florida it is small, becoming -shrubby in some localities, and more or less of local growth. Limestone -uplands or dry, sandy or gravelly soils seem to offer the best -conditions for its existence, where it grows in company with black jack, -red and white oak, sassafras, dogwood, gums, and red cedar. - -The range of growth of post oak extends from New Brunswick south through -the Atlantic states into Florida; west through the Gulf states and -throughout the Mississippi river system, growing west brokenly to -Montana. It is the common oak of central Texas but in the North it is -rather scarce, becoming more plentiful in the lower Appalachians. - -The broad, dense, round-topped crown of the post oak with its peculiar -foliage make it very noticeable in the woods, even to the casual -observer. Its dark green looks almost black at a distance. The tree has -an average height of sixty or eighty feet and is about two feet in -diameter, but in exceptional cases it reaches one hundred feet in height -and has a diameter of three feet. It has a moderately thick, dark brown -bark with a reddish tinge and deep fissures, the broad ridges being -covered with thin scales. On the branches it becomes much thinner, and -lighter in color, the branchlets being unfissured and glabrous in the -second year, although fuzzy at first. They are rather heavy and rounded -and terminate in short round buds with conspicuous scales. A noticeable -feature of the tree is the peculiar branching. The limbs are heavy and -crooked, separating often, with wide angles, forming knees which when -big enough, have a commercial value. - -When the tree is in foliage the tufted appearance of the leaves grouped -on the ends of the twigs gives it a distinctive look. They bear some -resemblance to a star, and for that reason some botanists have named the -species _stellata_. The leaves are five or seven inches long usually, -but in some cases, especially on young specimens, they are ten or more -inches long. They are dark, shiny-green and on a short petiole, the -veins and midrib being heavy and conspicuous. The identification of -these leaves is easy as they are heavy in texture, are bilaterally -developed with a large, obtuse lobe on each side about in the middle, -giving them a maltese cross effect. They are very persistent, staying on -the tree until the new leaves push them off in the spring. - -The form of post oak is not ideal from the lumberman's viewpoint. The -tree does not prune itself well. Straggling limbs adhere to the trunk -and prevent the clean bole which often makes white oak so attractive. - -The wood weighs 52.14 pounds per cubic foot. The name iron oak referred -to the weight as well as the strength of the wood. It is rather -difficult to season, and is inclined to check badly. The medullary rays -are broad and numerous, and checking is apt to develop along the rays. -The summerwood occupies about half of the annual ring, and is dense and -dark colored. Large pores are abundant in the springwood, and smaller -ones in the summerwood. - -Formerly this tree was known in some sections as turkey oak, though the -name is no longer heard, but is now applied to another oak in the South. -The acorns are small enough to be eaten by turkeys, and when those game -birds were wild in the woods they frequented parts of the forests where -post oaks grew, and hunters knew where to find them. The uses of post -oak for building and manufacturing purposes are the same as for white -oak as far as they go, but post oak is not so extensively employed. - -The earliest railroads in America were built in the region where post -oak of excellent quality grew, and it saw service from the first as -crossties, and car and bridge timbers. It is still used for those -purposes. Its other important uses are as furniture material, both as -solid stock and veneer; interior finish and fixtures for offices, banks, -and stores; musical instruments, including frames, braces, and veneers; -baskets, crates, and shipping boxes; vehicles, particularly tongues, -axles, and hounds of heavy wagons; flooring, stair work, balusters. - -Post oak will do well on land too gravelly and thin to sustain good -white oak growth. To that extent the two species are not competitors for -ground, and post oak is assured a place in future woodlots, but it -cannot be expected ever to equal white oak in commercial importance, -while as an ornamental tree it is not usually favored because the shape -of its crown is not altogether pleasing. Its very dark foliage, however, -is admired by many and gives the tree an individuality. - -SWAMP WHITE OAK (_Quercus platanoides_). This tree's botanical name -means "broadleaf oak," and that is a good description as far as it goes, -but it does not apply solely to this species. The characteristic which -fixes it best in the minds of most people is its preference for low, wet -soil. Its two common names are swamp oak and swamp white oak, yet it is -not really a swamp tree, such as the northern white cedar, southern -white cedar, cypress, and tupelo are. It does not associate with any of -those trees. It prefers river banks, and does not object to a good deal -of water about its roots, though it grows nicely in situations out of -reach of all overflow, and often side by side with silver maple, -hickory, ash, and several other oaks. The leaf resembles that of -chestnut oak, and the bark is somewhat like chestnut oak, but the wood -passes in market for white oak, and is a good substitute for it, though -the resemblance is not so close that one need be mistaken for the other. -The tree averages about seventy feet high with a diameter of two feet, -but much larger trunks are common. The famous "Wadsworth oak," which -stood on the bank of the Genesee river in western New York, about a mile -from the village of Geneseo, was a swamp white oak. It had a trunk -diameter of nine feet, but it was not tall in proportion. It met its -overthrow by the undermining of the river bank in time of flood. That is -a common fate for this tree, because of its preference for river banks. -Its range is from Maine to Wisconsin and Iowa. It follows the mountains -to northern Georgia; and west of the Mississippi it grows as far south -as Arkansas. The species is best developed in western New York, -northwestern Pennsylvania, and along the southern shores of Lakes Erie -and Michigan. - -Trees do not clear themselves of branches on their lower trunks very -early in life, and lumber more or less knotty results. It is possible, -however, to cut a fairly large proportion of clear boards. The wood is -of about the same weight as white oak, and is hard, strong, and tough. -Its color is light brown, and the thin sapwood is hardly distinguishable -from the heart. The medullary rays are as large as those of white oak, -but are few. For that reason, swamp white oak does not give very -satisfactory results when quarter-sawed. The bright patches are too -scarce. Neither does it show as many of these rays as chestnut oak. The -wood is very porous, but the large pores are confined to the springwood, -while the broad bands of summerwood are dense. The contrast between the -two parts of annual rings forms a strong, but not particularly handsome -figure when the lumber is sawed tangentially--that is, from the side of -the log. The wood finisher can improve this oak's natural appearance by -employing fillers and stains to lighten shades or deepen tints. The uses -of this oak are numerous. It is excellent fuel, and is rather low in -ash; it is weaker and more brittle than white oak; but it is quite -satisfactory for railroad ties, car building, house finish, furniture, -some parts of heavy vehicles, certain kinds of cooperage, and for farm -implements. - - ROCKY MOUNTAIN BLUE OAK (_Quercus oblongifolia_) is named from the - blue color of its foliage, though what little lumber is cut from it, - is bought and sold as white oak. It is of little importance, yet in - the almost timberless mountains of western Texas it supplies some of - the urgent wants of a scattered population. It bears willow-like - leaves one or two inches long, and less than an inch wide; but on - vigorous shoots they are larger. The acorns are very small. Trees - seldom exceed thirty feet in height, and a diameter of twenty - inches; and often the trunk is divided near the ground in three or - four stout, crooked forks. Ordinarily, it is an impossible tree to - lumber, but sometimes a few logs find their way to sawmills and a - little passable lumber is produced. The wood weighs 58 pounds per - cubic foot. It is strong, but when it breaks, it snaps short. The - heartwood is darker than in most oaks, and the sapwood is brown. The - tree is useful for fuel. Charcoal for local blacksmith shops is - manufactured from the wood. It is abundant on many of the sterile - slopes and mesas of New Mexico and Arizona, but usually in the form - of brush about the heads of canyons. - -[Illustration] - - - - -COW OAK - -[Illustration: COW OAK] - - - - -COW OAK - -(_Quercus Michauxii_) - - -This oak's acorns are remarkably free from the bitterness due to tannin -and are therefore pleasant to the taste. Herbivorous animals eat them -when they are to be had, and the eagerness with which cattle gather them -in the fall is doubtless the reason for calling the tree cow oak. Hogs -and sheep are as eager hunters for the acorns as cattle are, and the -half-wild swine in the southern forests become marketable during the two -months of the acorn season. Children know the excellency of the cow oak -acorns, and gather them in large quantities during the early weeks of -autumn in the South. The tree is widely known as basket oak, and the -name refers to a prevailing use for the wood in early times, and a -rather common use yet. Long before anyone had made a study of the -structure of this wood, it was learned that it splits nicely into long, -slender bands, and these were employed by basket weavers for all sorts -of wares in that line. Tens of thousands of baskets were in use before -the war in the southern cottonfields, and they have not gone out of use -there yet. It is safe to say that millions of dollars worth of cotton -has been picked and "toted" in baskets made of this oak. It was natural, -therefore, that the name basket oak should be given it. Large, coarse -baskets are still made of splits of this wood, and china and other -merchandise are packed in them; while baskets of finer pattern and -workmanship are doing service about the farms and homes of thousands of -people. - -When the structure of wood became a subject of study among -dendrologists, the secret of the cow oak's adaptability to basket making -was discovered. The annual rings of growth are broad, and the bands of -springwood and summerwood are distinct. The springwood is so perforated -with large pores that it contains comparatively little real wood -substance. The early basket maker did not notice that but he found by -experimenting that the wood split along the rings of growth into fine -ribbons. The splitting occurs along the springwood. Ribbons may be -pulled off as thin as the rings of annual growth, that is, from an -eighth to a sixteenth of an inch thick. These are the "splits" of which -baskets are made. When subjected to rough usage, such as being dragged -and hauled about cornfields and cotton plantations, such a basket will -outlast two or three of willow. - -The tree is sometimes called swamp white oak, and swamp chestnut oak. It -bears some resemblance to the swamp white oak (_Quercus platanoides_) -and some people believe that both are of one species, but of slightly -different forms. It is not surprising that there should be a conflict of -names and confusion in identification. The leaf resembles that of the -chestnut oak, and to that fact is due the belief which some hold that -the chief difference between the trees is that the chestnut oak -(_Quercus prinus_) grows on dry land and cow oak in damp situations. -Botanists make a clear distinction between cow oak and all other -species, though it closely resembles some of them in several -particulars. - -From the northern limits of its growth in Delaware, where it is not of -any considerable size, it extends south through the Atlantic states and -into Florida, west in the Gulf states to the Trinity river in Texas, and -up the Mississippi valley, including in its range Arkansas, eastern -Missouri, southern Indiana and Illinois and western Kentucky and -Tennessee. It is distinctly of the South and may be considered the best -southern representative of the white oak group. It does best in swampy -localities where it is found in company with water hickory, sweet -magnolia, planer tree, water oak, willow oak, red maple, and red and -black gum. - -In general appearance the tree gives the impression of massiveness and -strength, offset by the delicate, silvery effect of the bark and the -lining of the foliage. The usual height is sixty or eighty feet, but it -often exceeds a hundred feet, the bole attaining a diameter of as high -as seven feet and showing three log lengths clear. The characteristic -light gray, scaly, white oak bark covers trunk and heavy limbs, which -rise at narrow angles, forming a rounded head and dividing into stout -branches and twigs. The winter buds are not characteristic of white oak, -being long and pointed rather than rounded. They are about a half inch -in length, scaly, with red hairs and usually in threes on the ends of -the twigs. The general texture of the leaves is thick and heavy, their -upper surfaces being dark, lustrous green and the lower white and -covered with hairs. They are from five to seven inches long with -petioles an inch in length and of the general outline of the chestnut -leaf. Their rich crimson color is conspicuous in the fall after turning. - -The wood of cow oak is hard, heavy, very tough, strong, and durable. The -heartwood is light brown, the sapwood darker colored. It weighs 50.10 -pounds per cubic foot, and is not quite up to white oak in strength and -elasticity. In quarter-sawing it does not equal white oak, because the -medullary rays, though broad, are not regularly distributed, and the -surface of the quarter-sawed board has a splotchy appearance, and it is -not as easy to match figures as with white oak. - -Cow oak is one of the most important hardwoods of the South. Its uses -are much the same as those for white oak farther north. The custom of -calling it white oak when it goes to market renders the collection of -statistics of uses difficult. Sawmills seldom or never list cow oak in -making reports of cut. Factories which further manufacture lumber, after -it leaves the mill, sometimes distinguish between cow oak and other -oaks. It has been found suitable material in the South for canthook -handles where it takes the place of hickory which is more expensive. It -is reported for that use in considerable quantity in Louisiana. The -handles are subjected to great strain and violent shocks. The billets -are split to the proper size, because if they are sawed they are liable -to contain cross grain which is a fatal defect. The wood is cut in -dimensions for chair stock and furniture, the better grades usually -going to furniture factories. Defective logs, short lengths, and odds -and ends may be worked into chair stock which contains a large -proportion of small pieces. The making of large plantation baskets of -this wood is still a fairly large business in Louisiana and Mississippi. -Braided bottoms of cheap chairs are of the same workmanship as baskets. - -Vehicle makers in the South are large users of this wood. It is employed -in heavy wagons chiefly, and is worked into many parts, including axles, -bolsters, felloes, hubs, hounds, tongues, reaches, spokes, and -bedbottoms. - -This tree is classed as white oak by coopers who accept it as stave -material. The amount used is much less than of the true white oak, but -the exact quantity taken yearly by barrel makers is not known because -statistics do not list the different white oaks separately. Cow oak -rives well when a trunk is found clear of knots. The trees are usually -smaller and less perfect than true white oak in the North. - -Railroads accept crossties of this species and they give as long service -as white oak, are as hard, and hold spikes as well. The wood is accepted -by car shops for use in repairs and in new work. Trunks are split or -sawed into fence posts and are used in probably larger numbers than any -other southern oak. - -This tree's future seems fairly well assured. It will further decline in -available supply, because it is cut faster than it is growing. That is -the status of all the timber oaks of this country. This one has -advantage over some of the others in that it occupies wet land which -will not soon be in demand for agricultural purposes, and young growth -will be left to develop. - - ENGELMANN OAK (_Quercus engelmanni_) occupies a restricted range in - southwestern California where it is generally spoken of as a desert - tree; but its rate of growth appears to be much more rapid than is - usual with trees in arid situations. It occupies a narrow belt in - San Diego county and its range extends into Lower California. It - forms about one-third of the stand in Palomar mountains, and is much - scarcer in the Cuyamaca mountains. The tree seldom attains a height - greater than forty or fifty feet, or a diameter more than twenty or - thirty inches. The largest trees are of small value for lumber and - in rare instances only, if at all, do they go to sawmills. The - trunks fork and each branch forks, until a fairly large bole near - the ground is divided among numerous limbs. The tree's chief value - is as fuel. It rates high as such. The leaves are bluish-green and - are thick with sharp points on their margins. The leaves vary - greatly in size, and are largest on young shoots. They remain a year - on the tree, and are classed as evergreen. The acorns ripen in one - year. This interesting species was named for Dr. George Engelmann, - whose name is borne also by Engelmann spruce. The wood is among the - heaviest of the oaks, exceeding white oak by more than twelve pounds - per cubic foot. It is brittle and weak, and very dark brown. The - green wood checks and warps badly in seasoning. The medullary rays - are numerous and large, but are so irregularly dispersed that - quarter-sawing promises no satisfactory results, even if logs of - suitable size could be found. The annual rings are indistinct, owing - to no clear line of separation between springwood and summerwood. - Pores are numerous, diffuse, and some of them large. The species is - entitled to recognition only because it is found in a region where - forests are scarce and scrubby, and every trunk has value as fuel, - if for nothing else. It affords a cover for hills which otherwise - would be barren, and it frequently occurs in fairly dense thickets. - -[Illustration] - - - - -PACIFIC POST OAK - -[Illustration: PACIFIC POST OAK] - - - - -PACIFIC POST OAK - -(_Quercus Garryana_) - - -David Douglas named this tree the Garry oak, in honor of Nicholas Garry -of the Hudson Bay Company, who furnished valuable assistance to -botanists and other explorers of early times in the northwestern parts -of America. This tree is best developed in the neighborhood of Puget -Sound, the present state of Washington, and at the period of -explorations in that region by Douglas, who was a Scotchman, the country -was a sort of "no man's land." It was claimed by both England and the -United States, and Russia had cast covetous eyes on it as a southern -extension of her Alaska holdings. England at that time put a good deal -of dependence in the Hudson Bay Company to get possession of and to hold -as much country as possible, and Garry's help given to explorers was -part of a well-laid plan to possess as much of the northwestern country -as possible. Douglas doubtless had that in mind when he named the oak in -honor of Garry. It was a witness and perpetual reminder that the Hudson -Bay Company's strong arms had been stretched in that direction. - -The people in California and Oregon often speak of the tree simply as -white oak, but it is sometimes called Oregon white oak, and more often -Oregon oak without a qualifying word. When it is spoken of as western -white oak, which frequently is the case, it is compared with the -well-known eastern white oak. It bears more resemblance to the eastern -post oak (_Quercus minor_) and for that reason it has been named Pacific -post oak. The leaves and twigs, particularly when they are young, -resemble post oak. - -The northern limit of the tree's range crosses southern British -Columbia. It is found in the lower valley of Frazer river and on -Vancouver island. It is the only oak tree of British Columbia. Its range -extends southward to the Santa Cruz mountains in California, but near -the southern limit of its range it is found chiefly in valleys near the -coast. It is best developed in western Washington and Oregon. It occurs -of good size on dry gravelly slopes of low hills; and it ascends the -Cascade mountains to considerable elevations, but becomes stunted and -shrubby. It is abundant in northwestern California. - -The tree has a height from sixty to a hundred feet; sometimes it attains -a diameter of three and one-half feet. It carries a broad and compact -crown, especially when the tree is surrounded by young coniferous growth -as is the case in its best habitat where natural pruning gets rid of the -lower limbs and causes an outward and later a pendulous growth of the -upper part. The limbs are strong and heavy as are the branches and -twigs. The bark is a grayish-brown with shallow fissures, the broad -ridges being sometimes broken across forming square plates which are -covered with the grayish flakes or scales. The buds are long and acute, -and are coated with a red fuzz. The leaves are from four to six inches -long and are bilaterally developed, having seven or nine coarse round -lobes; the sinuses being rounded or rather shallow. The color is a dark -lustrous green and the texture leathery. - -The acorn is rather large being about an inch and a quarter in length -and usually about half as broad as long; has a shallow cup covered with -pointed sometimes elongated scales. - -This oak is one of the most important hardwoods of the far Northwest. It -is often compared with the eastern white oak, but its physical -properties fall below that species in some important particulars. The -two woods weigh about the same, but the eastern species is stronger and -more elastic, and is of better color and figure. All oaks season -somewhat slowly, but the Pacific post oak is hardly up to the average. -It is a common saying that it must remain two years on the sticks to fit -it for the shop, but that time may be shortened in many instances. -Checking must be carefully guarded against. - -Some of this oak is exceedingly tough, and when carefully sorted and -prepared it is excellent material for heavy wagons; but the best comes -from young and comparatively small trees. When they attain large size -they are apt to become brash. The tree usually grows rapidly, and is not -old in proportion to the size of its trunk. An examination of the wood -shows broad bands of summerwood and narrow, very porous springwood. The -medullary rays are broad and numerous, and ought to show well in -quarter-sawed stock; but it does not appear that much quarter-sawing has -been done. - -Practically all of this species cut in the United States is credited to -Oregon in the census of sawmill output in 1910. The cut was 2,887,000 -feet, and was produced by fourteen sawmills, while in Washington only -one mill reported any oak, and the quantity was only 4,000 feet. On the -northwest Pacific coast it comes in competition with eastern oak and -also with Siberian or Japanese oak. - -Basket makers put this wood to considerable use. Young trees are -selected on account of their toughness. The wood is either split in -long, thin ribbons for basket weaving, or it is first made into veneer -and then cut in ribbons of required width. The largest users are -furniture makers, but boat yards find it convenient material and it -takes the place of imported oak for frames, keels, ribs, sills, and -interior finish. It is durable, and it may be depended upon for long -service in any part of boat construction. Its toughness fits it for ax, -hammer, and other handles. It is far inferior to hickory, but on the -Pacific coast it can be had much cheaper. Its strength and durability -make it one of the best western woods for insulator pins for telephone -and telegraph lines. It is worked into saddle trees and stirrups. - -The scarcity of woods on the Pacific coast suitable for tight cooperage -gives this oak a rather important place, because barrels and casks made -of it hold alcoholic liquors. Available statistics do not show the -quantity of staves produced from this wood, but it is known to be used -for staves in Oregon. - -Much Pacific post oak is employed as rough lumber for various purposes. -Railroads buy crossties, hewed or sawed from small trunks, and country -bridges are occasionally floored with thick planks which wear well and -offer great resistance to decay. - -The quantity of this oak growing in the Northwest is not known. It falls -far below some of the softwoods of the same region, and the area on -which it is found in commercial amounts is not large. It is holding its -ground fairly well. Trees bear full crops of acorns frequently, and if -they fall on damp humus they germinate and grow. The seedlings imitate -the eastern white oak, and send tap roots deep into the ground, and are -then prepared for fortune or adversity. It happens, however, that trees -which bear the most bountiful crops of acorns do not stand in forests -where the ground is damp and humus abundant, but on more open ground on -grass covered slopes. Acorns which fall on sod seldom germinate, and -consequently few seedlings are to be seen in such situations. Open-grown -trees are poorly suited for lumber, on account of many limbs low on the -trunks, but they grow large amounts of cordwood. - - CALIFORNIA SCRUB OAK (_Quercus dumosa_) has been a puzzle to - botanists, and a hopeless enigma to laymen. Some would split the - species into no fewer than three species and three varieties, basing - distinctions on forms of leaves and acorns and other botanical - differences; but Sudworth, after a prolonged study of this matter, - recognized only one species and one variety, but admitted that - "California scrub oak unquestionably varies more than all other oaks - in the form and size of its leaves and acorns." He thought it might - possibly be equalled in that respect by _Quercus undulata_ of the - Rocky Mountains. Some of the leaves of California scrub oak are - three-fourths of an inch long and half an inch wide, while others - may be four inches long. The edges of some leaves are as briery as - the leaves of holly, others are comparatively smooth. The shapes and - sizes of acorns vary as much as the leaves. Some are long and - slender, others short and stocky. This peculiar oak is found only in - California, but it shows a disposition to advance as far as possible - into the sea, for it has gained a foothold on islands lying off the - California coast, and it there finds its most acceptable habitat. It - reaches its largest size in sheltered canyons on the islands, and - attains a height of twenty or twenty-five feet, and a diameter of a - foot or less. It is not large enough to win favor with lumbermen but - in its scrubby form it is abundant in many localities. It is - scattered over several thousand square miles, from nearly sea level - up to 7,000 feet in the mountains of southern California. It is - found scattered through the coast range and the Sierra Nevadas from - Mendocino county to Lower California, 700 miles or more. It grows - from sprouts and from acorns. The leaves adhere to the twigs - thirteen months, and fall after the new crop has appeared. The wood - is light brown, hard, and brittle. No use is made of it, except to a - small extent for fuel. On the mountains it grows in thickets - scarcely five feet high, but they cover the ground in dense jungles, - and the roots go deep in the ground. The species is valuable chiefly - for protection to steep slopes which would otherwise be without much - growth of any kind. Being low on the ground, forest fires are - particularly destructive to this oak; but its ability to send up - sprouts repairs the damage to some extent. - - EMORY OAK (_Quercus emoryi_) grows among the mountains of western - Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, attains a height from thirty to - seventy feet, and a diameter from one to four. The largest size is - found only in sheltered canyons, while on high mountains and in - exposed situations the tree degenerates to a shrub. It always has a - crop of leaves. The old do not fall until the new appear. In shape, - the leaves somewhat resemble those of box elder. The acorns ripen - from June to September, the exact time depending upon the tree's - situation. Trunks large enough for use are not scarce, but the wood - is not of high class. Stair railing and balusters have been made of - it in Texas, but the appearance is rather poor. The grain is coarse, - the figure common, the color unsatisfactory. The heart is very dark, - but the tones are not uniform, and flat surfaces, such as boards and - panels, show streaks which are not sufficiently attractive to be - taken for figure. Trunks are apt to be full of black knots which mar - the appearance of the lumber. The medullary rays are numerous and - broad, and in quarter-sawing, the size and arrangement of the - "mirrors" are all that could be desired, but they have a decidedly - pink color which does not contrast very well with the rest of the - wood. The weight of this oak exceeds per cubic foot white oak, by - more than ten pounds; but it has scarcely half the strength or half - the elasticity of white oak. The springwood is filled with large - pores, the summerwood with smaller ones. It rates high as fuel, and - that is its chief value. Large quantities are cut for cordwood. - Railroad ties are made of it, and more or less goes into mines as - props and lagging. Stock ranches make fences, sheds, and corrals of - this oak, and live stock eats the acorns. The human inhabitants - likewise find the Emory oak acorn crop a source of food. Mexicans - gather them in large quantities and sell what they can spare. The - market for the acorns is found in towns in northwestern Mexico. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHESTNUT OAK - -[Illustration: CHESTNUT OAK] - - - - -CHESTNUT OAK - -(_Quercus Prinus_) - - -This tree is known as rock oak in New York; as rock chestnut oak in -Massachusetts and Rhode Island; as rock oak and rock chestnut oak in -Pennsylvania and Delaware; as tanbark oak and swampy chestnut oak in -North Carolina and as rock chestnut oak and mountain oak in Alabama. - -There is a pretty general disposition to call this tree rock oak. The -name refers to the hardness of the wood, and is not confined to this -species. Other oaks are also given that name, and the adjective "rock" -is applied to two or three species of elm which possess wood remarkable -for its hardness. Cedar and pine are likewise in the class. In all of -these classes "rock" is employed to denote hardness of wood. Iron as an -adjective or ironwood as a noun is used in the same way for a number of -trees. The name swampy chestnut oak as applied in some parts of the -South to this tree, is hardly descriptive, for it is less a swamp tree -than most of the oaks, though it does often grow along the banks of -streams. - -Its distribution ranges from the coast of southern Maine and the Blue -Hills of eastern Massachusetts southward to Delaware and the District of -Columbia; along the Appalachian mountains to northern Georgia and -Alabama; westward to the shores of Lake Champlain and the valley of the -Genesee river, New York; along the northern shores of Lake Erie and to -central Kentucky and Tennessee. It is rare and local in New England and -Ontario, but plentiful on the banks of the lower Hudson river and on the -Appalachian mountains from southern New York to Alabama. It reaches its -best development in the region from West Virginia to North Carolina, -pretty high on the ridges flanking the mountain ranges. - -Leaves are alternate, from five to nine inches long, with coarse teeth -rounded at the top. At maturity, they are thick and firm, yellow-green -and rather lustrous on the upper surface, paler and usually hairy -beneath. In the autumn before falling, they turn a dull orange color or -rusty-brown. - -The flowers appear in May and are solitary or paired on short spurs. The -fruit or acorn is solitary or in pairs, one or two and one-half inches -long, very lustrous and of a bright chestnut-brown color. The acorn cup -is thin, downy-lined and covered with small scales. The kernel is sweet -and edible. The bark of the chestnut oak is thin, smooth, purplish-brown -and often lustrous on young stems and small branches, becoming a thick, -dark, reddish-brown, or nearly black on old trunks, and divided into -broad rounded ridges, separating on the surface into small, closely -appressed scales. The bark of the tree is so dark in color and so deeply -furrowed that it has often been mistaken for one of the black oak group, -although its wavy leaf margins and annual fruit clearly differentiate it -from those species. The bark of the chestnut oak is thicker and rougher -on old trunks than on any other oak. - -The bark of chestnut oak has long been valuable for tanning. There is -tannin in the bark of all oaks, and several of them contain it in paying -quantities, but chestnut oak is more important to the leather industry -than any other oak. In richness of tannin the tanbark oak of California -occupies as high a place, but it is not supplying as much material as -the eastern tree. Statistics showing the annual consumption of tanbark -and tanning extracts in the United States, do not list the oaks -separately, but it is well known that chestnut oak far surpasses all -others in output. Hemlock bark is peeled in large quantities, but -tanneries occasionally mix chestnut oak bark with it to lighten the deep -red color imparted to leather when hemlock bark is the sole material -employed. - -Large quantities of chestnut oak timber have been destroyed to procure -the bark. Fortunately, it is a practice not much indulged in at present, -because the wood now has value, but it formerly had little. It was then -abandoned in the forest after the bark was peeled and hauled away. The -same practice obtained with hemlock years ago. Much chestnut oak is -still cut primarily for the bark, but the logs are worth hauling to -sawmills, unless in remote districts. - -The chestnut oak is a vigorous tree and grows rapidly in dry soil, where -it often forms a great part of the forest. It is not as large as the -white oak or red oak, but is a splendid tree, its bole being very -symmetrical and holding its size well. It grows usually to a height of -from sixty to seventy feet and sometimes 100 feet, with a diameter of -from two to five feet and occasionally as large as seven feet. - -The form of the tree shows great variation, depending upon the situation -in which it grows. Trees in open ground often divide into forks or large -limbs, and the trunks are short and of poor form. Open-grown trees show -a decided tendency to develop crooked boles, and unduly large branches. -No such objection can be urged against it when it grows under forest -conditions. Trunks are straight and are otherwise of good form. - -The wood of chestnut oak differs little from that of white oak in -weight, strength, and stiffness. It is hard, rather tough, durable in -contact with the soil, and is darker in color than white oak. It has -few large, open pores, and requires less filler in finishing than most -oaks. There are many pores, however, and those in the springwood are -arranged in bands. The summerwood is broad and distinct, usually -constituting three-fourths of the annual ring. The medullary rays are as -broad and numerous as in the best furniture oaks. They are regularly -arranged, and spaces between them do not vary much in width. The wood -quarter-saws well. - -The wood has the fault of checking badly in seasoning, unless carefully -attended to. In recent years, these difficulties have been largely -overcome, both in air seasoning and in the drykiln. - -Chestnut oak has a wide range of uses. It is classed as white oak in -many markets, but few users buy it believing it to be true white oak. It -is coming year by year to stand more on its own merits. Some sawmills -which formerly piled it and sold it with other oaks, now keep it -separate, and some factories which once took it only because it came -mixed with other oaks, now buy it for special uses, and make high-class -commodities of it. One of these is mission furniture, which has become -fashionable in recent years. Chestnut oak possesses good fuming -properties, and this constitutes much of its value as furniture -material. - -The wood is found in factories where general furniture is made. It is -largely frame material for furniture though some of it is for outside -finish. It is employed as frames in Maryland in the construction of -canal boats, and the annual demand for that purpose is about a quarter -of a million feet in that state. - -One of the most important places for chestnut oak is in the shop which -makes vehicles. It goes into sills for both heavy and light bodies, -bolsters, and wagon bottoms. It has become a favorite wagon wood in -England and in continental Europe, and there passes as white oak, though -dealers well know that it is not the true white oak. There is no -indication that demand for it will lessen, for it possesses many -characters which fit it for vehicle making. - -In Michigan more chestnut oak is reported by car builders than by any -other class of manufacturers, though wagon makers buy it. Car shops use -about 220,000 feet a year, and work it into hand cars, push cars, -track-laying cars, and cattle guards. - -The large remaining area of timber growth in which chestnut oak appears -is the Appalachian range through eastern Tennessee and western North -Carolina, and the fact that it is comparatively plentiful in the forests -of the Appalachian range will tend to bring it more and more into -prominence as a factor in the making of wagons, cars, boats, staves, and -furniture as the other oaks become scarcer. - -The probable future of chestnut oak is an interesting problem for -study. Few steps have yet been taken looking toward providing for -generations to come. Chestnut oak has been left to take care of itself. -The trees, produced in nature's way, have been ample to supply all needs -in the past, and they will be for the near future. Chestnut oak -possesses some advantages over most of the other oaks. Large trees will -grow on very poor soil, where most other oaks are little more than -shrubs. Trees so grown are little more susceptible to disease than if -produced in good soil, though they develop more slowly and are smaller. -There are many poor flats and sterile ridges in the chestnut oak's -range, and they will produce timber of fairly good kind, if the chestnut -oaks are permitted to have them. Nature gave this tree facilities for -taking possession. Its acorns will grow without being buried. They do -not depend on blue jays to carry them to sunny openings or squirrels to -plant them; but they will sprout where they fall, whether on hard -gravelly soil or dry leaves; and they at once set about getting the tap -roots of the future trees into the ground. In many instances the -chestnut oak's acorns do not wait to fall from the tree before they -sprout. Like the seed of the Florida mangrove, they are often ready to -take root the day they touch the ground. The large acorn is stored with -plantfood which sustains the growing germ for some time, and the ground -must be very hard and exceedingly dry if a young chestnut oak is not -soon firmly established, and good for two or three hundred years, if let -alone. - -The forester who may undertake to grow chestnut oaks must exercise great -care in transplanting the seedlings, or the tap roots will be broken and -the young trees will die. The best plan is to drop acorns on the ground -where trees are expected to grow, and nature will do the rest, provided -birds and beasts leave the acorns alone. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHINQUAPIN OAK - -[Illustration: CHINQUAPIN OAK] - - - - -CHINQUAPIN OAK - -(_Quercus Acuminata_) - - -This tree is known as yellow chestnut oak, chinquapin oak, chestnut oak, -pin oak, yellow oak, scrub oak, dwarf chestnut oak, shrub oak, and rock -oak. It should not be confused with _Quercus prinus_, the true chestnut -oak, although it is commonly known in so many sections of the country by -the latter name; the names yellow oak, pin oak, and scrub oak are -likewise applied to many species, so that the only way to accurately -designate members of this great family is to employ their botanical -names. However, this species should always be known as the chinquapin -oak, which is a distinctive term, and not applied to any other. - -The bark of this tree is light gray and is broken into thin flakes, -silvery-white, sometimes slightly tinted with brown, rarely half an inch -thick. The branchlets are marked with pale lenticels. - -The leaves of the chinquapin oak are from five to seven inches long, -simple and alternate; they have a taper-pointed apex and blunt, -wedge-shaped or pointed base; are sharply toothed. When unfolding they -show bright bronze-green above, tinged with purple, and are covered -underneath with light silvery down; at maturity they become thick and -firm, showing greenish-yellow on the upper surface and silvery-white -below. The midrib is conspicuous and the veins extending outward to the -points of the teeth are well-defined. In autumn the leaves turn orange -and scarlet and are very showy. The leaves are narrow, hardly two inches -wide, and more nearly resemble those of the chestnut than do any other -oak leaves. In their broadest forms they are also similar to those of -the true chestnut oak, although the difference in the quality and color -of the bark, and of the leaves, would prevent either tree from being -mistaken for the other. They are crowded at the ends of the branches and -hang in such a manner as to show their under surfaces with every touch -of breeze. This characteristic gives the chinquapin oak a peculiar -effect of constantly shifting color which is one of its most attractive -features and which puts the observer in mind of the trembling aspen, -although the shading and coloring of the oak is much more striking. - -This tree's range extends from northern New York, along Lake Champlain -and the Hudson river westward through southern Ontario, and southward -into parts of Nebraska and Kansas; on its eastern boundary it extends as -far south as the District of Columbia and along the upper Potomac; the -growth west of the Alleghany mountains reaches into central Alabama and -Mississippi, through Arkansas and the northern portion of Louisiana to -the eastern part of Oklahoma and parts of Texas even to the canyons of -the Guadalupe mountains, in the extreme western part of that state. It -is a timber tree of much importance in Texas, and in 1910 manufacturers -reported the use of 1,152,000 feet in that state, largely for making -furniture and vegetable crates. - -The chinquapin oak is named from the form of its leaf. Its acorn bears -no resemblance to the nut of chinquapin. Trees average smaller in size -than white oak, but when all circumstances are favorable they compare -well with any of the other oaks. In the lower Wabash valley, trees of -this species were found in the original forests 160 feet high and four -or five in diameter. When it grows in crowded stands it develops a tall, -symmetrical trunk, clear of limbs; but it is shorter in open growth. The -base is often much buttressed. - -The wood is very heavy, hard, strong, stiff, and durable. In color the -heartwood is dark, the sapwood lighter. The springwood is narrow and -filled with large pores, the summerwood broad and dense. Medullary rays -are less numerous and scarcely as broad as in chestnut oak, which this -wood resembles. It checks badly in drying, both by kiln and in the open -air; but when properly seasoned it is an excellent wood for most -purposes for which white oak is used. It shows fewer figures when -quarter-sawed than white oak shows, but it is satisfactory for many -kinds of furniture, particularly when finished in mission style. - -Railroads throughout the region where this species is found have laid -chinquapin oak ties in their tracks for many years and they give long -service, because they resist decay and are hard enough to stand the wear -of the rails. In early times in the Ohio valley it helped to fence many -a farm when the material for such fences was the old style fence rail, -eleven feet long, mauled from the straightest, clearest timber afforded -by the primeval forest. It had for companions many other oaks which were -abundant there, and it was on a par with the best of them. In the first -years of steamboating on the Ohio river, when the engines used wood for -fuel, they provided a market for many an old rail fence. The rails were -the best obtainable fuel, and the chinquapin oak rails in the heaps were -carefully looked for by the purchasers, because they were rated high in -fuel value. It is now known that chinquapin oak in combustion develops -considerably more heat than an equal quantity of white oak. - -When southern Indiana and Illinois were furnishing coopers with their -best staves, chinquapin oak was ricked with white oak, and no barrel -maker ever complained. The pores in the wood seem large, but in old -timber which is largely heartwood, the pores become clogged by the -processes of nature, and the wood is made proof against leakage. That is -what gives white oak its superiority as stave timber. It has as many -pores as red oak, but upon close examination under a magnifying glass, -they are found to be plugged, while red oak's pores are wide open. The -result is that red oak barrels leak through the wood; those made of -white oak do not. Chinquapin oak possesses the same properties, which -account for its reputation as stave material. - -The future for chinquapin oak is not quite as promising as that of -chestnut oak. The former's choice growing place is on rich soil and in -damp situations. These happen to be what the farmer wants, and he will -not leave the chinquapin oak alone to grow in nature's method, nor will -he plant its acorns in places where the trees will interfere with his -cornfields and meadows. Consequently, the tree is apt to receive scant -consideration after the original forests have disappeared; while its -poor cousin, the chestnut oak, will be left to make its way on sterile -ridges, and may even receive some help from the forester and woodlot -owner. - - VALLEY OAK (_Quercus lobata_) is often considered to be the largest - hardwood of the Pacific coast. Trunk diameters of ten feet have been - recorded, and heights more than 100; but such measurements belong - only to rare and extraordinary individuals. The average size of the - tree is less than half of that. The most famous tree of this species - is the Sir Joseph Hooker oak, near Chico, California, though it is - not the largest. It is seven feet in diameter and 100 high. It was - named by the botanist Asa Gray in 1877. This species is commonly - called California white oak, which name would be unobjectionable if - it were the only white oak in California. A more distinctive name is - weeping oak, which refers to the appearance of the outer branches. - It is called swamp oak, but without good reason, though the ground - on which it grows is often swampy during the rainy season. The name - valley oak is specially appropriate, since its favorite habitat is - in the broad valleys of central California. Its range does not go - outside that state, neither does the tree grow very high on the - mountains. Its range begins in the upper Sacramento valley and - extends to Tejon, south of Lake Tulare, a distance north and south - of about five hundred miles, while east and west the tree is found - from the Sierra foothills to the sea, 150 or 200 miles. Its - characteristic growth is in scattered stands. It does not form - forests in the ordinary sense. Two or three large trees to the acre - are an average, and often many acres are wholly missed. The form of - trees, and the wide spaces between them, resemble an old apple - orchard, though few apple trees live to attain the dimensions of the - valley oak of ordinary size. The best stands were originally in the - Santa Clara valley and in the central part of the San Joaquin valley - in the salt grass region north of Lake Tulare in Kings and Fresno - counties. Most of the largest trees were cut long ago. - - The leaves are lobed like white oak (_Quercus alba_) but are - smaller, seldom more than four inches long and two wide. The acorns - are uncommonly long, some of them being two and a half inches, sharp - pointed, with shallow cups. The wood of this oak is brash and breaks - easily. It is far below good eastern oak in strength and elasticity. - It weighs 46.17 pounds per cubic foot. The tree grows rapidly, and - its wide, clearly defined annual rings are largely dense summerwood. - The springwood is perforated with large pores. The color of the wood - is light brown, the sapwood lighter. Except as fuel, the uses found - for valley oak hardly come up to what might be expected of a tree so - large. It is not difficult, or at least was not difficult once, to - cut logs sixteen feet long and from three to five in diameter. Such - logs ought to make good lumber. The medullary rays indicate that the - wood can be quarter-sawed to advantage; yet there is no account that - any serious attempt was ever made to convert the valley oak into - lumber. The wood has some objectionable properties, but it has - escaped the sawmill chiefly because hardwood mills have never been - numerous in California, and they have been especially few in the - regions where the best valley oaks grow. The tree has been a great - source of fuel. It usually divides twenty or thirty feet from the - ground into large, wide-spreading branches, tempting to the - woodchopper. In central California, twenty or thirty years ago, it - was not unusual to haul this cordwood twenty-five miles to market. - Stockmen employed posts and rails split from valley oak to enclose - corrals and pens on the open plains for holding cattle, sheep, and - horses. The acorns are edible, and were formerly an article of food - for Indians who gathered them in considerable quantities in the fall - and stored them for winter in large baskets which were secured high - in the forks of trees to be out of reach of all ordinary marauders. - The baskets were made rain proof by roofing and wrapping them with - grass. When the time came for eating the acorns, they were prepared - for use by hulling them and then pounding them into meal in stone - mortars. The hulling was done with the teeth, and was the work of - squaws. The custom of eating the acorns has largely ceased with the - passing of the wild Indians from their former camping places; but - the stone mortars by hundreds remain in the vicinity of former - stands of valley oak. - - This splendid tree is highly ornamental, but it has not been - planted, and perhaps it will not become popular. Nature seems to - have confined it to a certain climate, and it is not known that it - will thrive outside of it. It will certainly disappear from many of - the valleys where the largest trees once grew. The land is being - taken for fields and vineyards, and the oaks are removed. Some will - remain in canyons and rough places where the land is not wanted, and - one of the finest species of the United States will cease to pass - entirely from earth. The largest of these oaks have a spread of - branches covering more than one-third of an acre. - -[Illustration] - - - - -LIVE OAK - -[Illustration: LIVE OAK] - - - - -LIVE OAK - -(_Quercus Virginiana_) - - -The history of this live oak is a reversal of the history of almost -every other important forest tree of the United States. It seems to be -the lone exception to the rule that the use of a certain wood never -decreases until forced by scarcity. There was a time when hardly any -wood in this country was in greater demand than this, and now there is -hardly one in less demand. The decline has not been the result of -scarcity, for there has never been a time when plenty was not in sight. -A few years ago, several fine live oaks were cut in making street -changes in New Orleans, and a number of sound logs, over three feet in -diameter, were rolled aside, and it was publicly announced that anyone -who would take them away could have them. No one took them. It is -doubtful if that could happen with timber of any other kind. - -The situation was different 120 years ago. At that time live oak was in -such demand that the government, soon after the adoption of the -constitution, became anxious lest enough could not be had to meet the -requirements of the navy department. The keels of the first war vessels -built by this government were about to be laid, and the most necessary -material for their construction was live oak. The vessels were to be of -wood, of course; and their strength and reliability depended upon the -size and quality of the heavy braces used in the lower framework. These -braces were called knees and were crooked at right angles. They were -hewed in solid pieces, and the largest weighed nearly 1,000 pounds. No -other wood was as suitable as live oak, which is very strong, and it -grows knees in the form desired. The crooks produced by the junction of -large roots with the base of the trunk were selected, and shipbuilders -with saws, broadaxes, and adzes cut them in the desired sizes and -shapes. - -When the building of the first ships of the navy was undertaken, the -alarm was sounded that live oak was scarce, and that speculators were -buying it to sell to European governments. Congress appropriated large -sums of money and bought islands and other lands along the south -Atlantic and Gulf coast, where the best live oak grew. In Louisiana -alone the government bought 37,000 live oak trees, as well as large -numbers in Florida and Georgia. In some instances the land on which the -trees stood was bought. - -Ship carpenters were sent from New England to hew knees for the first -vessels of the navy. The story of the troubles and triumphs of the -contractors and knee cutters is an interesting one, but too long for -even a summary here; suffice it that in due time the vessels were -finished. The history of those vessels is almost a history of the early -United States navy. Among their first duties when they put to sea was to -fight French warships, when this country was about to get into trouble -with Napoleon. They then fought the pirates of North Africa, and there -one of the ships was burned by its own men to prevent its falling into -the hands of the enemy. "Old Ironsides," another of the live oak -vessels, fought fourteen ships, one at a time, during the war of 1812, -and whipped them all. Another of the vessels was less fortunate. It was -lost in battle, in which its commander, Lawrence, was killed, whose last -words have become historic: "Don't give up the ship." Another came down -to the Civil war and was sunk in Chesapeake bay. - -The invention of iron vessels ended the demand for live oak knees. The -government held its land where this timber grew for a long time, but -finally disposed of most of it. Part of that owned in Florida was -recently incorporated in one of the National Forests of that state. - -Live oak is a tree of striking appearance. It prefers the open, and when -of large size its spread of branches often is twice the height of the -tree. Its trunk is short, but massy, and of enormous strength; otherwise -it could not sustain the great weight of its heavy branches. Some of the -largest limbs are nearly two feet in diameter where they leave the -trunk, and are fifty feet long, and some are seventy-five feet in -length. Probably the only tree in this country with a wider spread of -branches is the valley oak of California. The live oak's trunk is too -short for more than one sawlog, and that of moderate length. The largest -specimens may be seventy feet high and six or seven feet in diameter, -and yet not good for a sixteen-foot log. The enormous roots are of no -use now. When land is cleared of this oak, the stumps are left to rot. - -The range of live oak extends 4,000 miles or more northeast and -southwest. It begins on the coast of Virginia and ends in Central -America. It is found in Lower California and in Cuba. In southern United -States it sticks pretty closely to the coastal plains, though large -trees grow 200 or 300 feet above tide level. In Texas it is inclined to -rise higher on the mountains, but live oak in Texas seldom measures up -to that which grows further east. In southern Texas, where the land is -poor and dry, live oak degenerates into a shrub. Trees only a foot high -sometimes bear acorns. In all its range in this country, it is known by -but one English name, given it because it is evergreen. The leaves -remain on the tree about thirteen months, following the habit of a -number of other oaks. When new leaves appear, the old ones get out of -the way. - -The wood is very heavy, hard, strong, and tough. In strength and -stiffness it rates higher than white oak, and it is twelve pounds a -cubic foot heavier. The sapwood is light in color, the heartwood brown, -sometimes quite dark. The pores in the sapwood are open, but many of -them are closed in heartwood. The annual rings are moderately well -defined. The large pores are in the springwood, and those of the -summerwood are smaller, but numerous. The medullary rays are numerous -and dark. Measured radially, they are shorter than those of many other -oaks. They show well in quarter-sawed lumber, but are arranged -peculiarly, and do not form large groups of figures; but the wood -presents a rather flecked or wavy appearance. The general tone is dark -brown and very rich. It takes a smooth polish. When the wood is worked -into spindles and small articles, and brightly polished, its appearance -suggests dark polished granite, but the similitude is not sustained -under close examination. Grills composed of small spindles and -scrollwork are strikingly beautiful if displayed in light which does the -wood justice. Composite panels are manufactured by joining narrow strips -edge to edge. Selected pieces of dressed live oak suggest Circassian -walnut, but would not pass as an imitation on close inspection. It may -be stated generally that live oak is far from being a dead, flat wood, -but is capable of being worked for various effects. Its value as a -cabinet material has not been appreciated in the past, nor have its -possibilities been suspected. It dropped out of notice when shipbuilders -dispensed with it, and people seem to have taken for granted that it had -no value for anything else. The form of the trunks makes possible the -cutting of short stock only; but there is abundance of it. It fringes a -thousand miles of coast. Many a trunk, short though it is, will cut -easily a thousand feet of lumber. Working the large roots in veneer has -not been undertaken, but good judges of veneers, who know what the -stumps and roots contain, have expressed the opinion that a field is -there awaiting development. - -Published reports of the uses of woods of various states seldom mention -live oak. In Texas some of it is employed in the manufacture of parquet -flooring. It is dark and contrasts with the blocks or strips of maple or -some other light wood. It is turned in the lathe for newel posts for -stairs, and contributes to other parts of stair work. In Louisiana it is -occasionally found in shops where vehicles are made. It meets -requirements as axles for heavy wagons. Stone masons' mauls are made of -live oak knots. They stand nearly as much pounding as lignum-vitae. More -live oak is cut for fuel than for all other purposes. It develops much -heat, but a large quantity of ashes remains. - -The live oak is the most highly valued ornamental tree of the South, -though it has seldom been planted. Nature placed these oaks where they -are growing. Many an old southern homestead sits well back in groves of -live oak. Parks and plazas in towns have them, and would not part with -them on any terms. Tallahassee, Florida, is almost buried under live -oaks which in earlier years sheltered the wigwams of an Indian town. -Villages near the coasts of both the Gulf and the Atlantic in several -southern states have their venerable trees large enough for half the -people to find shade beneath the branches at one time. Many fine stands -have been cut in recent years to make room for corn, cane, and rice. - -Many persons associate the live oak with Spanish moss which festoons its -branches in the Gulf region. The moss is no part of the tree, and -apparently draws no substance from it, though it may smother the leaves -by accumulation, or break the branches by its weight. Strictly speaking, -the beard-like growth is not moss at all, but a sort of pine apple -(_Dendropogon usenoides_) which simply hangs on the limbs and draws its -sustenance from water and air. It is found on other trees, besides live -oak, and dealers in Louisiana alone sell half a million dollars worth of -it a year to upholsterers in all the principal countries of the world. - -[Illustration] - - - - -RED OAK - -[Illustration: RED OAK] - - - - -RED OAK[4] - -(_Quercus Rubra_) - - [4] Red oak belongs to the black oak group. Other species usually - listed as black oaks are Pin oak (_Quercus palustris_), Georgia oak - (_Quercus georgiana_), Texan red oak (_Quercus texana_), Scarlet oak - (_Quercus coccinea_), Yellow oak (_Quercus velutina_), California - black oak (_Quercus californica_), Turkey oak (_Quercus catesbaei_), - Spanish oak (_Quercus digitata_), Black Jack oak (_Quercus - marilandica_), Water oak (_Quercus nigra_), Willow oak (_Quercus - phellos_), Laurel oak (_Quercus laurifolia_), Blue Jack oak - (_Quercus brevifolia_), Shingle oak (_Quercus imbricaria_), - Whiteleaf oak (_Quercus hypoleuca_), Highland oak (_Quercus - wislizeni_), Myrtle oak (_Quercus myrtifolia_), California live oak - (_Quercus agrifolia_--sometimes classed with white oaks), Canyon - live oak (_Quercus chrysolepis_), an evergreen oak with no English - name, (_Quercus tomentella_), Price oak (_Quercus pricei_), Morehus - oak (_Quercus morehus_), Tanbark oak (_Quercus densiflora_), Barren - oak (_Quercus pumila_). - - -When a lumberman speaks of red oak he may mean any one of a good many -kinds of trees, but when a botanist or forester uses that name he means -one particular species and no other. For that reason there is much -uncertainty as to what species is in the lumberman's mind when he speaks -of red oak. It means more to him than a single species, depending to a -considerable extent upon the part of the country where he is doing -business. If he is in the Gulf states, and has in mind a tree which -grows there, he does not refer to the tree known to botanists as red -oak. He may mean the Texan or southern red oak (_Quercus texana_), or -the willow oak (_Quercus phellos_), or the yellow oak (_Quercus -velutina_), or any one of several others which grow in that region; but -the typical red oak does not grow farther south than the mountains of -northern Georgia; and any one who is cutting oak south or southwest of -there, is cutting other than the true red oak. That does not imply that -he is handling something inferior, for very fine oak grows there; but in -an effort to separate the commercial black oaks into respective species, -it is necessary to define them by metes and bounds of ranges as well as -to describe them by characteristics of leaves, acorns, and wood. The -time will probably never come in this country when the sawmill man will -pile each species of oak separately in his yard, and sell separately; -but the tendency is in that direction. The twenty-five or more black -oaks in this country all have some characteristics in common; but they -are by no means all valuable alike, or all useful for the same purposes. -For that reason, the demands of trade require, and will require more and -more as higher utilization is reached, that certain kinds of red oak or -black oak be sold separately. - -What lumbermen call red oaks, speaking in the plural, botanists prefer -to call black oaks. The difference is only a difference in name for the -same group of trees. The general dark color of the bark suggests the -name to botanists, while the red tint of the wood appeals more to the -lumberman, and he prefers the general name red oaks for the group. They -mature their acorns the second year, while the trees belonging to the -white oak group ripen theirs the first year. There are other -differences, some of which are apparent to the casual observer, and -others are seen only by the trained eye--often aided by the -microscope--of the dendrologist. Several of the black oaks have leaves -with sharp pointed lobes, ending in bristles. This helps to separate -them from the white oaks, but not from one another, for the true red -oak, the scarlet oak, the yellow oak, the pin oak, and others, have the -sharp-pointed lobes on their leaves; while the willow oaks have no lobes -or bristles on theirs, yet are as truly in the black oak group as any of -the others. The identification of tree species, particularly when they -are as much alike as some of the oaks are, is too difficult for the -layman if he undertakes to carry it along the whole line; but it is -comparatively easy if confined to the leading woods only. An -understanding of the geographical range of a certain tree often helps to -separate it from others. The knowledge that a tree does not grow in a -particular part of the country, is proof at once that a tree in that -region resembling it must be something else. If that principal is borne -in mind it will greatly lessen mistakes in identifying trees. In -accounts of the black oaks in the following pages, a careful delimiting -of ranges will be attempted in the case of each. - -The range of red oak extends from Nova Scotia and southern New Brunswick -through Quebec and along the northern shore of Lake Huron, west to -Nebraska. It covers the Ohio valley and reaches as far south as middle -Tennessee. It runs south through the Atlantic states to Virginia, while -among the Appalachian mountains the range is prolonged southward into -northern Georgia. That is the tree's extreme southern limit. It reaches -its largest size in the region north of the Ohio river, and among the -mountain valleys of West Virginia, and southward to Tennessee and North -Carolina. It is a northern species. Toward its southern limit it meets -the northern part of the Texan red oak's range (_Quercus texana_). There -is some overlapping, and in many localities the two species grow side by -side. - -The red oak is known by that name in all parts of its range, but in some -regions it is called black oak, and in others Spanish oak. The latter -name properly belongs to another oak (_Quercus digitata_) which touches -it along the southern border of its range. - -The average size of red oak in the best part of its range is a little -under that of white oak, but some specimens are 150 feet high and six -feet in diameter. Heights of seventy and eighty feet are usual, and -diameters of three and four are frequent. The forest grown tree disposes -of its lower limbs early in life, and develops a long, smooth trunk, -with a narrow crown. The bark on young stems and on the upper parts of -limbs of old trees is smooth and light gray. All leaves do not have the -same number of lobes, and they are sharp pointed, and fall early in -autumn. - -The acorns are bitter, and are regarded as poor mast. Hogs will leave -them alone if they can find white oak acorns, and squirrels will do -likewise. The best red oak timber grows from acorns, though stumps will -send up sprouts. The sprout growth may become trees of fairly large -size, but they are apt to decay at the butt. The acorn-grown tree is as -free from defects as the average forest tree. Cracks sometimes develop -in the trunk, extending up and down many feet. Unless the logs are -carefully sawed, a considerable loss occurs where these cracks cross the -boards. Trunks are occasionally bored by worms, as all other oaks may -be. - -Red oak grows rapidly. It will produce small sawlogs in the lifetime of -a man. It is a favorite tree for crossties, and railroads have made -large plantings for that purpose. The ties do not last well in their -natural state, but they are easy to treat with preservatives by which -several years are added to their period of service. It has been a -favorite tree with European planters for the past two hundred years; but -the most of the plantings beyond the sea have been for ornament in parks -and private grounds. - -The principal interest in red oak in this country is due to its value -for lumber. That interest is of comparatively recent date. Some red oak -has always been used for rails, clapboards, slack cooperage, and rough -lumber; but while white oak was cheap and plentiful, sawmill men usually -let red oak alone. It had a poor reputation, which is now known to have -been undeserved. - -Red oak is lighter than white oak, and it is generally regarded as -possessing less strength and stiffness. The wide rings of annual growth, -and the distinct layers of springwood and summerwood, give the basis for -good figure. To this may be added broad and regular medullary rays which -are nicely brought out by quarter-sawing. The tone of the wood is red, -to which fact the name red oak is due. It has large, open pores. A -magnifying glass is not required to see them in the end of a stick. It -is said that smoke may be blown through a piece of red oak a foot in -length. These open pores disqualify the wood for use in tight cooperage. -Liquids will leak through the pores. Statistics of sawmill output in -this country do not separate the white and black oaks, and the quantity -of lumber sawed from any one species is not known. Manufacturers are -disposed to separate them. Some furniture makers use red oak exclusively -for certain purposes, and the same rule is followed by makers of other -commodities. - -[Illustration] - - - - -TEXAN RED OAK - -[Illustration: TEXAN RED OAK] - - - - -TEXAN RED OAK - -(_Quercus Texana_) - - -The line between red oak (_Quercus rubra_) and Texan red oak is closely -drawn by botanists, but lumbermen do not recognize much difference -except toward the extreme ranges of each. Some call one simply red oak -and the other southern red oak, but that leaves doubtful the timber on a -large area occupied by both species. Their ranges overlap two or three -hundred miles in the Ohio valley and on the southern tributaries of the -Ohio river in Kentucky and Tennessee. A large amount of red oak from -that region goes to market, and no one knows, and few care, whether it -is of the northern or southern species. It is usually a mixture of both. -But outside of the common zone where both trees grow, the woods of the -two are kept fairly well separate. Thirty years ago Texan red oak -received slight recognition from botanists. When Charles S. Sargent -compiled in 1880 a volume of over 600 pages, "Forest Trees of North -America," for the United States government, and which was published as -volume 9 of the Tenth Census, he did not so much as accord this tree the -dignity of a species, but called it a variety of the common red oak. Its -range and its great importance were little understood at that time. -Sargent thus described its range: "Western Texas, valley of the Colorado -river with the species and replacing it south and west, extending to the -valley of the Neuces river and the Limpia mountains." - -Compare that restricted range with that given by the same author -twenty-five years later in his "Manual of the Trees of North America." -He gives it thus: "Northeastern Iowa and central Illinois, through -southern Illinois and Indiana and western Kentucky and Tennessee, to the -valley of the Apalachicola river, Florida, northern Georgia, central -South Carolina, and the coast plains of North Carolina, and through -southern Missouri, Arkansas, and Louisiana to the mountains of western -Texas; most abundant and of its largest size on the low bottom lands of -the Mississippi basin, often forming a considerable part of lowland -forests; less abundant in the eastern Gulf states; in western Texas on -low limestone hills and on bottom lands in the neighborhood of streams." - -This quotation is given in full because it shows how scientific men -change their opinions to conform to new evidence. The range of that -particular species was as wide in 1880 as in 1905, but botanists had not -yet worked it out. Thus knowledge increases constantly, and year by year -the resources of American forests are better understood. In this -instance, what in 1880 was supposed to be a rather insignificant -variety, occupying a restricted area in Texas, was found by 1905 to be a -separate species, covering sixteen states in whole or in part. Similar -progress concerning the forests has been made all over the country, not -only by botanists but by lumbermen. Trees which were formerly considered -so nearly alike that no distinctions were made, are now recognized to be -quite different. - -The Texan red oak is frequently called spotted oak. The appearance of -the bark suggests the name. Large, irregular, whitish patches cover the -trunks. That peculiarity is not noticeable everywhere and on all trees, -but is common west of the Mississippi river. The tree is sometimes known -as Spanish oak in the southwestern part of its range, but the name is -ill-advised, for the true Spanish oak (_Quercus digitata_) occurs in the -same region. The most usual name for this species, in nearly all parts -of its range, is simply red oak. - -The Texan red oak varies greatly in size of trees, as is natural in so -wide a geographical range. Trees have been reported 200 feet high and -eight feet in diameter; but sizes like that are extraordinary and -attempts to locate anything approaching them at this day have not been -successful. The average in the lower Mississippi valley is eighty or -ninety feet in height, and two or three in diameter. In Texas this size -is seldom reached, the average not much exceeding half of it. - -The leaves of Texan red oak are about half the size of those of the -northern species. That alone will not serve to separate them, because of -such great variation. It applies only to averages. The southern trees' -leaves are from three to six inches long, two to five wide; the northern -species bears leaves from five to nine inches long and four to six wide. -The acorns of the two species do not show so much difference in size. -The states which use Texan red oak in largest amounts are Alabama, -Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, and Arkansas, though some of this wood -finds its way to northern markets where it passes as red oak without any -questions. That condition renders very difficult the task of separating -the woods. It is not so difficult further south where the true red oak -is seldom seen. Shipments go north, not south. The two red oaks mingle -in the lumber yards north of the Ohio river, but seldom south of the -Tennessee river. - -Investigations made by the Forest Service of the utilization of woods in -various states show that factories report the annual use of Texan red -oak as follows: Louisiana 1,777,000 feet, Mississippi 2,400,000, Texas -2,814,000, Alabama 5,500,000, and Arkansas 39,301,000. This does not -include lumber or other forest products used in the rough, or lumber -shipped out of the respective states. - -Texan red oak is heavier than its northern relative, hard, light, -reddish-brown, much of it of rapid growth, with wide, clearly defined -annual rings. The medullary rays are prominent, and show well in -quarter-sawing. The best of the wood is as strong as red oak, and -compares favorably with it in physical properties. - -One of the most exacting uses of wood is for fixtures, such as counters -in stores, bars in saloons, partitions in banks and counting rooms, and -standing desks in offices. Extra wide and long pieces are required, and -they must show satisfactory figure, and be finished to harmonize with -the interior of the room where they are placed. Texan red oak is -selected by builders in many southern cities for that class of fixtures, -and it meets the requirements. It is used also for interior finish and -furniture, and stair work. - -Like most members of the black oak group, the wood is inclined to rot -quickly in damp situations, but it measures well up to the average of -the group to which it belongs. It is often employed in the South as -bridge material, particularly as flooring for wagon bridges, where the -wood's hardness is its chief recommendation. Much is converted into -flooring for halls, houses, and factories. - -The available supply of this valuable wood in the forests of the South -is not known, but there is little doubt that it exists in larger -quantities than any other species of oak within its range. Perhaps in -total quantity it exceeds red oak (_Quercus rubra_) in the whole United -States. It is quite generally distributed over an area exceeding 300,000 -square miles, and toward the western part, it is the prevailing oak. The -future of this oak is assured. It is now cut at a rapid rate, and -doubtless the annual growth falls short of the yearly demand; but it -occurs in a range so extensive that scarcity will not come for a long -period. If the time ever comes in the South when planted timber must be -depended upon to meet the needs of the people, this oak will fill an -important place in woodlots. It does not grow as rapidly as willow oak, -but its range is more extensive, and it possesses certain desirable -properties not found in willow oak. The acorns are rather poor mast, and -this is in the tree's favor, for the seed will be left to grow instead -of being devoured by hogs and small animals of the woods. In that -respect it has an advantage over cow oak and the other white oaks which -occupy parts of its range. Their acorns are sought as food by domestic -and wild animals. Texan red oak prunes itself well when it grows in -close stands, but is low and limby when it occupies open ground. The -trunks vary in form, but are inclined to enlarge at the base, -particularly when they grow in low, damp situations, as many of the best -do in the South. - - GEORGIA OAK (_Quercus georgiana_) is one of the minor oaks of the - South and has not been found outside of Georgia. It grows in the - central part of the state on Stone mountain and on a few other - granite hills. Whether the species originated there and was never - able to work its way down to the more congenial valleys below, or - whether it once grew lower down and was crowded to its last retreat - by other species, is not known. But an interest attaches to it from - the very fact that its range is so restricted and that its habitat - is on the sterile summits. Lumbermen care nothing about this tree. - Few of them ever saw it or heard of it. The trunk is small, the - acorns only from one-third to half an inch long, and the leaves are - of a form midway between those of pin oak and turkey oak. The - characters of the wood have not been reported, but since there is - not enough of it to have any commercial value, the matter is not - very important. - -[Illustration] - - - - -YELLOW OAK - -[Illustration: YELLOW OAK] - - - - -YELLOW OAK - -(_Quercus Velutina_) - - -This tree is known as black oak in Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, -New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Virginia, West Virginia, -North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, -Louisiana, Texas, Ohio, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, Michigan, -Wisconsin, Minnesota and Ontario; quercitron oak in Delaware, South -Carolina, Louisiana, Kansas and Minnesota; yellow oak in Rhode Island, -New York, Illinois, Texas, Kansas and Minnesota; tanbark oak in -Illinois; yellow-bark oak in Minnesota and Rhode Island; spotted oak in -Missouri; dyer's oak in Texas; and yellow butt oak in Mississippi. - -Those who call this tree black oak have in mind the bark which is -usually quite dark, though all members of this species do not present -the same appearance in that respect. Some trunks are gray, and in color -do not greatly differ from white oaks, but would hardly be mistaken for -them. Tanbark oak, a name occasionally given to this tree, is not -applied in the region where chestnut oak grows, because it is much -inferior to chestnut oak as tanning material. It is not only poorer in -tannin, but the coloring matter associated with the inner bark is -troublesome to the tanner who is compelled to remove it or neutralize it -unless he wants his leather given a yellow tone. Dyer's oak is a name -which refers to the value of the bark for coloring purposes. The -botanical name _velutina_ refers to the velvety texture of the inner -bark. - -This oak is one of the easiest to identify. The inner layer of the bark -is yellow. The point of a knife easily reaches it; cutting through a -deep crack in the bark, and no mistake is possible, for no other oak has -the yellow layer of bark. The tree may be identified by leaves, flowers, -and fruit, but the process is not always easy, for other members of the -black oak group bear more or less resemblance to this one. - -The yellow oak's range extends over nearly or quite a million square -miles. It exceeds the limits of most oaks in its geographical extension. -It endures severe winters and hot summers. The northern limit of its -range lies in Maine; it grows westward across southern Canada to -Minnesota; it extends two hundred miles west of the Mississippi into -eastern Nebraska and Kansas, and follows that meridian south into Texas. -It reaches the Gulf of Mexico east of the Mississippi, and is found in -many localities in all the southern states, and along the foothills of -the Appalachian ranges. It attains its largest size in the lower Ohio -valley. The average height is seventy or eighty feet, and its diameter -two or three feet. In some localities the trees are scrubby and produce -little merchantable timber. - -The growth rings are only moderately wide in the typical yellow oak; the -ring is divided nearly evenly between springwood and summerwood. The -former contains two or three rows of large, open pores. The medullary -rays are fewer and smaller than those commonly found in oaks. A general -average of the properties of the wood is somewhat difficult to give, -because of remarkable variation in trees which grow under different -conditions. In some instances, where the soil is fertile and climate -favorable, the yellow oak produces a large, clear trunk, with sound -wood, of good color, and equal to that of red oak; but the reverse is -often the case--trunks are small and rough, wood hard and brittle, color -not satisfactory, and strength not up to standard. Sometimes first class -yellow oak passes without question as good red oak in the finish and -furniture business, but that is not its usual course. Well developed -wood is heavy, hard, strong, bright brown, tinged with red, with thin, -lighter colored sapwood. Its weight is 43.9 pounds per cubic foot. - -The uses of yellow oak follow red oak pretty closely, but are not so -extensive. Figures cannot be given to show the total annual cut of -yellow oak, but the output is likely much below red oak, though it is -found over a wider area, and some of it gets into the lumber yards in -all regions where it grows. It is made into furniture from Maine to -Louisiana. In cheaper grades of furniture, it may be the outside -material, but its place is usually as frame stock, to give strength, but -is not visible in the finished article. An exception to this is found in -chairs where yellow oak is one of several species which go regularly to -the sawmills which cut chair stock. Massachusetts snow plow makers use -it, but of course it fills no such place in the South. In Mississippi, -Louisiana, and Texas it is bought by manufacturers of agricultural -machinery. It is worked into cotton gins in Mississippi. Some extra fine -stands of this oak occur in the Delta region of Mississippi. Frames of -freight cars are made of it in Louisiana and Texas, and warehouse and -depot floors are occasionally laid of this lumber. It is floor material -in Michigan also, but that is of a better class than is required for -warehouses. It is not infrequently sold as red oak for flooring and -interior finish. Throughout the whole extent of yellow oak's range it -finds its way to wagon shops. It is less tough than white oak, but in -many places, such as bolsters, sandboards, and hounds, it serves as -well. Warehouse trucks and push cars are of this wood in many instances. - -Slack coopers convert this wood into their wares in many regions. The -pores are too open to permit its use as tight cooperage, where liquids -are to be contained, but for barrels and kegs of many kinds, as well as -for boxes, baskets, and crates, it meets all requirements. It is good -fuel. Many burners of brick and pottery show it preference, and charcoal -burners make a clean sweep of it when it occurs in the course of their -operations; though when it is desirable to save the by-products of -charcoal kilns or retorts, yellow oak is considered less valuable than -birch, beech, and maple. - -The bark of this tree is employed less now than formerly for dyeing -purposes. Aniline dyes have taken its place. In pioneer times the bark -was one of the best coloring materials the people had, and every family -looked after its own supply as carefully as it provided sassafras bark -for tea, slippery elm bark for poultices, and witch hazel for gargles. -The oak bark was peeled, dried, and pounded to a powder. The mass was -sifted, and the yellow particles, being finer than the black bark, -passed through the screen, and were set apart for the dye kettle, while -the screenings were rejected. Various arts and sciences were called into -requisition to add to or take from the natural color which the bark gave -the cloth. Salts of iron were commonly employed to modify the deepness -of the yellow. - -The acorns of this oak are bitter, and escape the mast hunters. Old -stumps have little need to send up sprouts, for acorns keep the species -alive. Yellow oaks are in no immediate danger of extermination. Nature -plants generously, and the tree can get along on poor soil where the -farm hunter is not apt to molest it. It has a fairly thick bark, and is -able to take care of itself in a moderate fire, except when the -seedlings are quite small. The young tree's tap root is much developed, -and goes deep for moisture, and the growing sapling flourishes on ground -where some other species would suffer for water. - - WHITELEAF OAK (_Quercus hypoleuca_). The beauty of this small - evergreen oak of the mountains of western Texas, New Mexico, and - Arizona, is in its foliage rather than its wood. Large trunks--that - is, those twenty inches or more in diameter--are apt to be hollow, - but the sound wood is employed in repairing wagons in local shops, - and in rough ranch timbers. Its importance will never extend beyond - the region where it grows, but in that region it will continue to be - used where nothing better can be obtained. The largest trees are - sixty feet high, and two in diameter, but few reach those - dimensions. It is an arid land oak. It grows at from 4,000 to 6,000 - feet elevations on mountains and plateaus. The leaves remain - thirteen months on the twigs. They are of the willow form, ranging - from two to four inches in length and one-half to one in width. The - acorns are small and bitter. The strength of this oak is remarkable, - if it may be judged by the figures given by Sargent. Two samples of - wood procured by himself and Dr. Engelmann on a dry, gravelly ground - among the Santa Rita mountains in Arizona, showed breaking strength - sixty-one per cent greater than the average given by the same author - for white oak. The stiffness of the specimens was a little above - white oak, and the weight three pounds more per cubic foot. It - should be borne in mind, however, that results derived from a test - of only two samples are not a safe basis for concluding that the - wood generally will average of so great strength. The annual rings - of growth are not clearly marked. The wood is porous, but the pores - are not generally arranged in bands, although they occasionally - follow that arrangement. The medullary rays are broad and abundant, - but are rather short, measured along the radial lines. They are of - pink color, a characteristic not unusual with oaks in semi-arid - regions. The foliage is doubtless the most valuable characteristic - of whiteleaf oak. The leaves are silver white below, and dark green - above. When they are agitated by wind the flashing of the different - tones and tints in the sunshine presents an attractive picture. It - belongs to the willow oak branch of the red oak group, and bears - two-year acorns. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SCARLET OAK - -[Illustration: SCARLET OAK] - - - - -SCARLET OAK - -(_Quercus Coccinea_) - - -The name of scarlet oak is in use in Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode -Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, North -Carolina, Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Michigan, -Nebraska, Iowa, and Ontario; red oak is the name in North Carolina, -Alabama, Wisconsin, Nebraska, and Minnesota; black oak in Nebraska, -Illinois, Iowa, and Wisconsin, and Spanish oak in North Carolina. - -The name is descriptive of the autumn leaves. Artists dispute among -themselves whether the leaves are scarlet, red, or crimson. In their -opinion a good deal of difference exists between these colors, rendering -it quite incorrect to give one color the name of another. As for the -artists, they are probably correct in their analysis of colors, but the -general public knows the tree as scarlet oak, and it will doubtless be -called by that name by most people who speak of the tree in the woods, -while those who refer to the wood after it is sawed will speak of it as -red oak. - -The leaves of scarlet oak are rather persistent, and remain on the twigs -late in the season. The brilliancy of this tree is rendered doubly -conspicuous, when it is contrasted with the surrounding sombre, winter -colors. - -In appearance the tree is striking for its delicacy of foliage and -twigs. The crown is always narrow and open, and in forest growth is -compressed. The height, in good specimens, is about one hundred feet, -but it often exceeds that size. In diameter it grows as large as four -feet. The mature bark is dark in color and broken into broad, smooth -ridges and plates, edged with red. It shows a reddish inner bark when -cut and this may be relied upon to identify the tree. The leaves are -four or five inches long; deeply sinused, three or four on a side; long, -bristle-toothed lobes, broad at the base; acorns bitter, mature in two -years; sessile, brown; cup closely drawn in at the edge. - -Its range comprises the northeastern quarter of the United States. -Beginning in southern Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont, it grows through -middle New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Iowa to eastern Nebraska. -Southward it extends along the coast through Virginia and inland along -the mountains to South Carolina and Georgia. The growth is abundant over -most of the range, the favorite habitat being dry, gravelly uplands. It -seems to be most abundant along the northern part of the Atlantic coast -from Massachusetts to New Jersey, and is less common in the interior, -and on the prairies skirting the western margins of the eastern forests. -The average size of the tree is from seventy to eighty feet high and two -or three in diameter. In many regions it is much smaller, while no very -large trees have been reported. - -The wood is heavy, strong, hard; the layers of annual growth are -strongly marked by several rows of large, open ducts; the summerwood is -dense and occupies half the yearly ring; the medullary rays are much -like those of red oak, though scarcely as broad. They run in straight -lines radially, and show well in quarter-sawing. The color of the wood -is light brown or red, the thin sapwood rather darker. - -This wood is practically of the same weight as white oak; but it is -rated considerably stronger and stiffer. A number of writers have listed -scarlet oak low in fuel value. Theoretically, the fuel values of woods -are proportionate to their weights, except that resinous woods must be -compared with resinous, and non-resinous with non-resinous. In practice, -however, every fireman who feeds a furnace with wood knows that -different woods develop different degrees of heat, though they may weigh -the same. Results are modified by various circumstances and conditions, -and for that reason theory and practice are often far apart in -determining how much heat a given quantity of wood is good for. - -It is difficult to procure exact information regarding the uses of -scarlet oak. It never goes to market under its own name. An examination -of wood-using reports from a dozen states within scarlet oak's range -does not reveal a single mention of this wood for any purpose. It is -certain, nevertheless, that much goes to market and that it has many -important uses. It loses its identity and is bought and sold as red oak. -Under the name of that wood it is manufactured into furniture, finish, -agricultural implements, cars, boats, wagons and other vehicles, and -many other articles. One of the most important markets for scarlet oak -is in chair factories. Its grain is attractive enough to give it place -as outside material, and its strength fits it for frames and other parts -which must bear strain. Chair stock mills which clean up woodlots and -patches of forest where scarlet oak grows in mixture with other species -of oak, take all that comes, without being particular as to the exact -kind of oak. Slack coopers follow much the same course. A wood strong -enough to meet requirements, is generally acceptable. Scarlet oak is -usually considered unsuitable for tight cooperage, on account of the -large open pores of the wood, which permit leakage of liquids. It meets -considerable demand in the manufacture of boxes and crates, particularly -the latter. - -The size and quality of logs which a tree may furnish to a sawmill is no -measure of its full value. Scarlet oak is far better known as an -ornamental tree than for its wood. It has been planted in this country -and in Europe. Its brilliant foliage is greatly admired. No other oak -equals it, and it compares favorably with sugar maple, black gum, and -dogwood. It is an ornament to parks and private grounds, though the -brilliancy of its foliage is seldom exhibited to as good advantage in -cultivation as in the native forest where contrasts are more numerous, -and nature does its work unhindered by man. The scarlet oak is not a -rapid grower, and the form of the tree is not perfectly symmetrical. The -spring leaves are red, the summer foliage bright, rich green, the autumn -scarlet--a variety not equalled by many forest trees. - -WILLOW OAK (_Quercus phellos_) is named for its leaves which look like -those of willow. There is a group of such oaks with leaves similar, and -they are known collectively as willow oaks. The one here described may -be considered typical of the group. - -This oak is apt to present rather a surprising appearance to those who -have seen nothing but those oaks whose leaves are lobed or cleft. It -belongs to the red oaks. Like others of this division it has a tendency -to hybridize, several varieties being known. Willow oak is a denizen of -the southern Atlantic and southeastern states and favors rich, moist -soil, either on uplands or on bottoms, along the margins of streams or -swamps. It does not go inland as far as the foothills of the ranges and -is found most abundantly in the basin of the lower Mississippi. -Beginning in New York, the range extends southward into Florida, along -the Gulf states, touching Texas, up through Arkansas, touching Missouri -and Kentucky, down through western Tennessee and southern Georgia -rounding the southern end of the Appalachians. - -Young trees have a slender delicate pendant appearance of twigs and -foliage more typical of the willow than of oak; but in time they become -more rugged, although the branching and foliage are always more delicate -than is usual with oaks. The tree attains a height of eighty feet and a -diameter up to four feet, but usually is about half of this. It is -clothed in a smooth, brown bark, ridged only in older trees. The leaves -are about five inches long and narrow in proportion, are of shiny, -leathery texture, dark above and pale below. The acorns are on short -stalks, solitary or in pairs, and ripen in two years, are short and -rounded and in shallow cups. - -The weight of willow oak is approximately the same as white oak. It is -slightly stronger but less elastic. Its annual rings contain broad bands -of small open ducts parallel to the thin, dark, medullary rays. The wood -is reddish-brown in color, the thick sapwood darker brown. The fuel -value is rated the same as white oak, but the wood contains more ash. - -Willow oak is much used in the South, but usually under the name red -oak. Lumbermen seldom speak of it as willow oak. The species is as -highly developed in Louisiana as anywhere else, and the uses found for -the wood in that state will probably be found for it wherever the tree -grows in commercial quantities. A report on the manufacture of wooden -commodities in Louisiana, published in 1912, listed the following uses -for willow oak: Agricultural implements, balustrades, bar tops, -bedsteads, bottoms for wagon beds, bridge approaches and floors, chairs, -church pews, cot frames, doors, floors, frames, interior finish, -molding, newel posts, pulpits, railing, screens, slack cooperage, -stairwork, store fixtures, wagon axles, and other vehicle parts. - -These uses coincide nearly with those of red oak, and indicate the -important position occupied by willow oak in the country's industries. -Those who handle the wood complain that its seasoning qualities are -poor, and that care is necessary to bring satisfactory results. It works -nicely and stands well after the seasoning is accomplished. - -Willow oak grows rapidly. It is doubtful if any oak in this country -surpasses it. It wants damp, rich soil and a warm climate, to do its -best. Some of the bottom lands in the lower Mississippi valley have -produced splendid stands of willow oak, the trunks being tall and clear -of limbs, and the wood sound. - -The willow oak is much planted for ornamental purposes in the southern -states. It manages to keep alive when planted as far north as -Massachusetts, but the grace of its form is not fully developed much -north of the Potomac river. It is a common street tree in the South, and -its airy foliage forms a pleasing contrast with the heavy, dark-green of -the magnolia. - -[Illustration] - - - - -TURKEY OAK - -[Illustration: TURKEY OAK] - - - - -TURKEY OAK - -(_Quercus Catesbaei_) - - -The claim that this tree is called turkey oak because turkeys feed on -the acorns, is not well founded. In common with nearly all members of -the black oak group, to which this species belongs, the acorns of turkey -oak are bitter, and unless animals are pressed by hunger they do not eat -them. It is evident that the shape of the leaves gives this tree its -name. They bear considerable resemblance to the foot of a turkey. There -is at least enough similitude to suggest the name, and it is not -inappropriate. Many people now use the term without thinking of its -origin, and if asked their opinion say that fondness of turkeys for the -acorns led to the name. - -The tree has other names in different regions. In North Carolina, South -Carolina, Mississippi, and Florida it is known as scrub oak. The name -fits it well in certain places, for when it grows on poor soil and in -adversity, it degenerates into a low, straggling thicket, frequently not -trees at all, but shrubs. It is called black jack in South Carolina but -the name belongs to another species (_Quercus marilandica_). In the same -state it is known as barren scrub oak, because it is very small and is -found on poor lands popularly known as barrens. Some call it forked-leaf -black jack, but the name is usually shorter, and forked-leaf, or -forked-leaf oak, is a name well understood among lumbermen, and the -people generally over much of the tree's range. Some of the leaves show -clearly-defined three forks, the middle one longer than the others; but -in other leaves, often from the same tree, the forks are not so -regularly outlined. This tree, like many other oaks, exhibits -considerable variation in the forms of leaves. - -There is nothing peculiar in the form and appearance of the acorns. They -average about one inch long and three-quarters of an inch wide, and sit -in shallow cups. They mature the second year. The bark of old trees is -black near the ground, rather rough, and an inch or more thick. - -It is difficult to name an average size for turkey oak. The largest -trunks are three or four feet in diameter and eighty feet high, but the -trees cut for sawlogs are only fifty or sixty feet high and two in -diameter, in most of the regions. As previously stated, much of the -stand is stunted and some of it is only brush. All sizes are found, from -large, first rate trunks down to shrubs. Large trees which grow in -forests, prune themselves well and their trunks compare favorably with -red oaks. - -The tree's range has its northeastern limit in North Carolina, and -extends to Peace Creek, Florida. It is found westward to Louisiana where -fair-sized timber grows, but in small quantities. It is usually -considered that its best development is in South Carolina and Georgia, -but good trees are likely to be found in any part of its range. It is -distinctly a tree of the South. It was named by Michaux, the well-known -French botanist who visited the southern states early in the nineteenth -century, and he named it in honor of Mark Catesby who explored the -region much earlier and wrote concerning its trees and other natural -history. - -Turkey oak is one of the little-known trees of the South, as far as -lumbermen are concerned. They know it well enough in the woods, but not -at sawmills. When cut into logs it ceases to be turkey oak and becomes -red oak, and under that name it goes to the lumber yard, and later to -market. Users of red oak lumber do not object to the occasional piece of -turkey oak mixed with it--if they ever find it out, which few of them -do. Nevertheless, the consensus of opinion among sawmill men is that -turkey oak ought to rate below red oak. - -Tests of the wood to determine its character and qualities do not -justify so low an estimate of turkey oak. Sargent found it stronger and -more elastic than white oak, while a little lighter in weight. It is -nearly equal to white oak in fuel value. It is hard, compact, and the -rings of annual growth are marked by several rows of large, open ducts. -The medullary rays are broad and conspicuous. The color is light brown, -tinged with red, the sapwood somewhat lighter. - -A special investigation of the uses of turkey oak in one of the southern -states brought out the fact that it meets requirements well and fills a -place in several wood-using industries in that region. Vehicle makers -find it satisfactory in a number of places. It is made into bottoms of -wagon beds, felloes, bolsters, axles, hubs, hounds, tongues, spokes, -standards, sandboards, and reaches. These constitute nearly all parts of -heavy vehicles. The wood is made into telegraph brackets, but apparently -not in large quantities. Car builders employ it for frames and floors. -It is made into ordinary matched flooring and goes in with other oaks. -It is used as a general furniture wood, both as outside material, and -inside frames. It may be quarter-sawed to advantage. It is employed also -as interior finish, which demands lumber of practically the same grades -as go into furniture. Mantels of this wood compare favorably with those -of red oak. Chair makers cut stock from turkey oak. It is not abundant -anywhere, otherwise it would be of much importance. - -The forests of the United States contain so many valuable oaks that a -scarce and geographically restricted species like turkey oak cannot be -expected to attract much attention in the future. Nevertheless, it is a -strong, interesting tree. It takes advantage of every opportunity to -develop. When an acorn germinates in good soil, and receives sufficient -light and moisture, it produces a merchantable tree; but in poor soil -and under unfavorable circumstances it becomes a stunted bush only. -Woodlots of turkey oak planted in fertile land would probably do as well -as most of the southern red oaks under like conditions. The tree is not -apt to get justice, because of the prejudice against it. - -CALIFORNIA BLACK OAK (_Quercus californica_) ranges from central Oregon -southward through the coast region of California nearly to the Mexican -boundary. It occurs also on the western slope of the Sierra Nevadas in -California. It is not found on the plains or near the sea, but occurs on -mountain slopes, low summits, elevated valleys, and in canyons. In the -North, it ranges from 1,500 to 3,000 feet and in the South it ascends to -9,000 feet. This far western oak bears more resemblance to the yellow -oak (_Quercus velutina_) of the East than to any other. Trees have been -reported 100 feet high and four in diameter, but they are scarce. -Seventy-five feet high and two or three feet in diameter are usual -dimensions of mature timber. The trees are inclined to be angular in the -outlines of their crowns. The leaves fall in autumn, but the acorns -persist two years. They sit deep in their rough cups. The trunk is -habitually crooked. It leans out of plumb, and lacks the nicely balanced -poise which adds to the attractiveness of some oaks. The large boles are -usually hollow, dead at the tops, or otherwise defective. That condition -is apparently due to old age. Trees stand long after they pass maturity -and start on their decline. They die by inches, and not infrequently -they decay and crumble by piecemeal both at the bottom and at the top. -At best the trunk of this oak is of poor form for saw timber. It divides -into large limbs ten or twenty feet from the ground. It is of slow -growth, and it reaches old age--possibly as much as 350 years in extreme -cases. The wood is very porous, but the pores are not in rows. The -medullary rays are thin and distinct. It is not known that any -quarter-sawing has been attempted, and it would hardly be profitable. -The wood is pale red, exceedingly brittle, firm, light for oak, and it -has a distinct odor of tannin with which both the wood and the bark are -heavily charged. The principal uses to which this oak is put in -California and Oregon are as fuel and ranch timbers, the latter being of -the simplest and roughest sort. Its fuel value is high, compared with -other woods of the region. Some use was made of the bark for tanning -purposes years ago on the Pacific slope, but it does not appear to go to -market now. - - BLUE JACK OAK (_Quercus brevifolia_) bears several names, upland - willow oak, to distinguish it from other willow oaks which grow in - swamps, sand jack, referring to the land on which it grows, - high-ground willow oak, turkey oak, shin oak and cinnamon oak. No - reason is known for the last name which is not used outside of - Florida. The tree grows in a narrow strip along the coast from North - Carolina to Texas, crossing northern Florida. The blue jack oak - sometimes attains a height of fifty feet and a diameter of twenty - inches; but that is its best. It is usually fifteen or twenty feet - high and a few inches in diameter. The leaves are from two to five - inches long and quite narrow, closely resembling those of willow. - The acorns are abundant, but small. The tree is of so little value - that it does not interest the lumberman. It occupies waste land, and - may produce a little fuel without crowding more valuable trees, but - is in every way inferior to the black jack oak (_Quercus - marilandica_), which overlaps its range a little, but is a northern - species. The wood of blue jack oak is hard, strong, light brown in - color, with darker-colored sapwood. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SPANISH OAK - -[Illustration: SPANISH OAK] - - - - -SPANISH OAK - -(_Quercus Digitata_) - - -One of the first difficulties in an attempt to clear up the -misunderstandings regarding Spanish oak is to confine the name to the -species to which it belongs. That is no easy task, because the name has -been applied to numerous oaks in various parts of the country, and -without any apparent reason. Some of these bear little resemblance to -Spanish oak and grow almost wholly outside its range. It is not a case -of mistaking one for the other, for there is no mistake. Some speak of -the common red oak as Spanish oak, others bestow that name on yellow -oak, others on black jack oak, or scarlet oak, or any one of several -others. It appears, however, that the name is not applied to any member -of the white oak group. - -It is said that Spanish oak and Norway pine were named by the same -process. Each got its name because it was supposed to be similar to a -species in the old country--the pine like an evergreen of north Europe, -and the oak like a broadleaf tree of Spain. It was learned later that -both the American species were different from those of Europe which they -resembled. - -The peculiar drooping foliage of Spanish oak gives the tree a character -which impresses a person who sees the full-leafed crown for the first -time. The leaves are six or seven inches long and four or five wide. -Their forms vary within wide limits, and their shapes change from week -to week while growing. Some have no lobes or sinuses, others have them -in rudimentary form only, while in still others they are well developed. - -The tree is often called red oak, particularly by lumbermen who cut it -and send it to market with red oak. In Louisiana it is known as Spanish -water oak, there being much resemblance between it and water oak -(_Quercus nigra_) with which it is associated. Its range covers more -than 200,000 square miles, beginning at the north in New Jersey and -following down the coast regions to central Florida. It extends westward -into Texas to the valley of the Brazos river; northward to Missouri and -southern Indiana and Illinois. It does not grow far inland from the -coast in the north Atlantic states, but further south it is common on -the coast plain between the sea and the base of the mountains. It is -often found on dry sand hills in that region. The largest Spanish oaks -on record grew in the lower Ohio valley, particularly along the Wabash -river. It is usually of medium size and large trunks are seldom seen. -The average height is seventy or eighty feet, diameter two or three. In -the open, the crown is broad and low, but in forests the trunk prunes -itself fairly well, and makes good saw timber, as far as form and size -are concerned. The acorns ripen in two years, and are bitter. The bark -is rich in tannin, but tanneries do not use much of it. - -The tree is not generally abundant. Some large areas within its range -have little, and thick stands are unusual anywhere. It is one of the -oaks which lumbermen neither reject nor seek. They cut it in course of -operations, and saw it and sell it under the common name, red oak. - -The wood is heavy, very hard, and strong. It is reputed to decay more -rapidly than most oaks, and it checks badly in seasoning. The annual -rings of growth are broad, and the springwood is marked by several rows -of large open pores. The medullary rays are few but conspicuous; color -light red, the sapwood lighter. The wood weighs about three pounds less -than white oak per cubic foot, and its fuel value is less. - -It is not easy to compile an account of the uses of Spanish oak by the -various industries of this country, for the reason that other oaks pass -by its name and it is known by names which should not be applied to it. -It is shown, however, where special studies of its utilization have been -made that it is a useful wood for many purposes. It is a useful -furniture material, and though statistics do not give separate figures -for it, evidently the total quantity consumed yearly runs into many -millions of feet. It is much employed in the manufacture of tables, -chiefly for frames, but occasionally as the outside material. It may be -quarter-sawed, if good logs are selected. The chair factories in North -Carolina use about 44,000,000 feet of oak yearly, and Spanish oak -supplies a rather large share of the material. It is employed as -interior finish in that state, and also for mission furniture, brackets -for telegraph and telephone poles, refrigerators, and kitchen safes. -Slack coopers and manufacturers of boxes and crates find the wood -suitable for their wares; but its open pores stand in the way of its use -for tight cooperage. - -Similar uses of the wood occur in Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, and -it may be assumed that they occur also in all other portions of Spanish -oak's range. It goes to wagon shops in Texas where it is substituted for -red oak. It is employed also in the manufacture of rice hullers and -cotton gins. Lumbermen in northern Louisiana use log trucks with axles, -felloes, and other heavy parts of Spanish oak, and it is frequently -preferred for stone wagons. - -In practically all large shipments of southern red oak to the North, -some Spanish oak is mixed. It could not be otherwise, since this wood is -cut in the forest with other red oaks, is sawed and stocked with them, -and goes with them to market. - -BLACK JACK OAK (_Quercus marilandica_) is one of the scrub trees of this -country, and few good words are ever heard for it; yet it has redeeming -qualities. Lumbermen have not paid much attention to it and never will, -for only when at its best is the trunk large enough for any kind of -sawlog, and there has been little inclination to use it for anything -else. It attains size fitting it for fence posts, and sometimes it -performs service along that line; but the small trunks are nearly all -sapwood, and decay strikes them quickly. The bark is black, hence the -name, and it is exceedingly rough, and is broken in squares. The leaves -are large and pear-shaped, with the broad end opposite the stem. Some -are slightly lobed. A vigorous black jack oak, standing in open ground, -presents a fine appearance. The crown is wide and is frequently conical, -the limbs small, and are set in the trunk on nearly horizontal lines. -The range of this unloved species covers 600,000 or more square miles, -beginning in New York, running west to central Nebraska, south through -Texas nearly to the Rio Grande, and in Florida to Tampa. It is not an -aggressive tree and has permitted itself to be crowded off the good land -until it has formed the habit of occupying geographical left-overs in -the form of sand banks and wornout fields. In the northeastern part of -its range it is often associated with scrub pine (_Pinus virginiana_), -because the two have similar habits and are content to live in perpetual -poverty on dry gravel or thin sand. Large trunks are not possible under -such circumstances, and first-class wood is unusual. Black jack oak at -its best may attain a height of fifty feet and a diameter of eighteen -inches, but it is oftener twenty feet high and six inches through. It -grows with moderate rapidity and does not live long. - -The annual rings are often indistinct. The wood is hard, heavy, and -strong, and checks badly in seasoning. The medullary rays are broad and -conspicuous, the wood dark brown in color, the sapwood lighter. This oak -is very high in ash contents, more than one per cent of the dry weight -of wood going to ashes when burned. The tree reaches its best -development in the lower Mississippi valley, and in eastern Texas. -Comparatively few uses for it have been found. Cordwood cutters find it -valuable where it abounds in sufficient quantity, and it has been burned -for charcoal for iron foundries and blacksmith shops. Small amounts are -occasionally found in wood-using factories in Texas, but only when logs -with considerable heartwood can be procured. The sap is characterless -and seems to be utterly rejected at the factory. Sometimes the rich -brown of the heartwood is attractive, but more frequently the wood is -ringed and splotched with different colors, not distributed in a way to -give any artistic effect. When a satisfactory stick is found, it can be -worked into balusters and small spindles which show grain well. It is -also worked into broad panels made up of narrow, quarter-sawed strips, -which exhibit the dark flecks of the wood to good advantage. - - TRIDENT OAK (_Quercus tridentata_) is remarkable for its extreme - scarcity, and is of no commercial importance. It was formerly found - in Missouri--a single tree--which was afterwards destroyed. It - occurs in Washtenaw county, Michigan. It appears that no report - showing the character of the wood has been made. - - LEA OAK (_Quercus leana_), which is believed to be a hybrid between - yellow oak (_Quercus velutina_) and shingle oak (_Quercus - imbricaria_), is interesting but not important. Trees are apt to - stand alone, and far apart. They occur from District of Columbia to - Missouri, and south to North Carolina. The range is imperfectly - known. - -[Illustration] - - - - -LAUREL OAK - -[Illustration: LAUREL OAK] - - - - -LAUREL OAK - -(_Quercus Laurifolia_) - - -This representative of the black oak group is found nowhere except in -the southeastern states, and only in their borders. It never ranges far -inland, but sticks to wet localities and the margins of swamps where its -associates are tupelo, southern white cedar, cypress, magnolias, and, -near its southern limit, myrtle and other semi-tropical trees and -shrubs. It is sometimes utilized as an ornament, but that is not its -usual function. It is not a successful competitor as a shade tree with -willow oak and water oak. - -Beginning at the border of the Dismal Swamp in Virginia as the northern -limit of growth, this interesting tree ranges southward along the coast -to Cape Romano in Florida and westward in the lower Gulf states to -southeastern Louisiana. It is seen at its best in eastern Florida. It -puts forth a vigorous growth on the hummock land in the southern part of -that state, where it develops a shapely trunk when in crowded stands. It -grows well in very rocky ground. - -Although the common name laurel oak is prompted by its foliage, the tree -bears various other sectional names. It is known as laurel oak in North -Carolina, South Carolina, Alabama, and Florida; Darlington oak in South -Carolina; willow oak in Florida and South Carolina; water oak in -Georgia. The latter name has a tendency to confuse it with another -species which is properly called water oak (_Quercus nigra_). - -The ornamental qualities of this tree are due to the tall stately bole, -its shapely and symmetrical round-topped head and slender branches and -twigs. It sometimes attains the dignity of one hundred feet in height -with a proportionate diameter of three or four feet. The bark is firm, -of dark, reddish-brown color, and usually is not fissured but finely -broken into small close, scale-like plates. On old trees, especially at -the butt, deep fissures divide it into broad ridges. The buds are shiny -brown, and they narrow abruptly to an acute point. The acorns are either -sessile or have short stalks, and they usually grow alone. They are -short and broad, and are incased in shallow, thin cups. In the flowering -season hairy aments add to the attractiveness of the tree. The leaves -are dark green above and lighter on the lower surface and are grouped -rather closely on the twigs. They attain a length of four inches or -less, and fall gradually after turning yellow. - -Laurel oak seems to be little used. It is occasionally referred to as -rather inferior to other members of the black oak group, but it is not -apparent why it bears that reputation. It may be on account of its poor -seasoning qualities. Like other southern oaks, it is very heavy when -green, and it is inclined to shrink and warp while in the process of -parting with its moisture. If this can be successfully overcome, the -wood ought to be valuable. Tests made on four samples cut on St. John's -river, Florida, recorded in Sargent's tables, show remarkable results. -The wood is 34 per cent stronger and 37 per cent stiffer than white oak, -and is only one pound heavier per cubic foot of dry wood. If these -values are fairly representative of the wood of laurel oak, it should be -exceptionally valuable in vehicle making. It would fall considerably -below hickory, but would stand very high among other woods, and could be -recommended for wagon axles, tongues, and other parts of heavy vehicles. - -It should be borne in mind, however, that tests alone, and particularly -when the number of samples is small, are not sufficient to decide a -wood's place as a manufacturing material. It must be tried in actual -practice, and that has not yet been done in the case of laurel oak as a -wagon wood. When tried out it may exhibit defects, or undesirable -qualities, which are not apparent in samples employed in laboratory -tests. - -There is little exact information available in regard to the supply of -laurel oak in the South. It is not abundant in the sense that willow oak -and Texan red oak are. Neither are the trees generally of good form for -lumber. Little has ever been cut, because the land where it grows is not -demanded for agriculture. It occupies out-of-the-way places, and the -hunter and fisherman are better acquainted with it than the lumberman. - -HIGHLAND OAK (_Quercus wislizeni_) is a California evergreen with leaves -commonly shaped like holly, but sometimes their edges are smooth with no -sign of teeth. The foliage remains longer on this tree than is usual -with evergreen oaks. Old leaves generally fall within a month after the -new crop appears; but those of highland oak remain several months -longer, gradually falling during the second summer. When the tree is at -its best it is a splendid representative of the vegetable kingdom. Its -form does not please lumbermen, for the trunk is short and rough; but -the crown rises seventy or eighty feet, is symmetrical, the foliage dark -green, and the general appearance is that of an enormous holly tree. -Trunks are sometimes five or six feet in diameter. The name highland oak -is somewhat misleading, though the species ascends to an altitude of -6,000 feet or more. It is described as a highland tree to distinguish it -from the California live oak (_Quercus agrifolia_) which grows in the -vicinity of the sea in California. The highland oak ranges from northern -California to the international boundary, following the foothills of the -mountain ranges. It occurs in dry river bottoms and washes and in -desert mountain canyons. It is not choice as to soil but will grow in -loam, sand, gravel, or among rocks. It is not abundant. - -When it grows near the sea it is apt to lose its tree form and become a -shrub. It assumes that form on Santa Cruz and Santa Rosa islands off the -coast of southern California. It grows slowly and is tenacious of life. -When it has once secured a foothold it hangs on with determination, -though exposed to severe storms and inhospitable conditions. The acorns -do not mature until late in the autumn of their second year. They are -sometimes an inch and a half long, and scarcely a third of an inch -thick. The wood of this oak possesses some good qualities which are -locally appreciated by wagon makers who use it for repair work. It is -extensively cut for fuel, and it burns about like eastern white oak, but -leaves more ashes. The dry wood weighs 49 pounds per cubic foot. It is -considerably weaker than white oak and is less elastic. The summerwood -constitutes a large part of the annual growth ring. It is very porous, -the rows of pores running parallel with the medullary rays. This part of -the wood structure is midway between that of deciduous and the evergreen -oaks. The medullary rays are broad but short. When exposed on a -tangential surface, they are from one-fourth to one-half inch long, and -give the wood a flecked appearance. Exposed in cross section, they are -from one inch to four inches in length. This applies, of course, only to -large rays, easily seen with the naked eye. In quarter-sawed lumber, the -rays have a pinkish color and glossy luster which are not pleasing. This -tree belongs in the class with those which are in no danger of being -extirpated by human agencies. It occupies land which man does not need -and will never want. - - MYRTLE OAK (_Quercus myrtifolia_) associates with the laurel oak in - some parts of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, and closely - resembles it, though it is smaller, and gives little promise of ever - becoming important in a commercial way. It is clearly in the scrub - oak class, and does not approach the dignity of even a small tree in - most of its range. Few specimens can be found exceeding a height of - twenty feet and a diameter of five or six inches. Trees approaching - that size grow in western Florida in the region of the Apalachicola - river. Generally this oak covers dry, sandy ridges and islands, and - is shrubby. It forms thickets on some of the islands off the coast - of Alabama and Mississippi, and extends its range westward to the - low, southern parts of Louisiana where the dwarf trees are almost - hidden by tall reeds and grass. Its name refers to the leaf it - bears. It is impossible that man can ever make much use of this - tree. - - MOREHUS OAK (_Quercus morehus_) can never be important in the lumber - industry, but it fills a few places in California where the ground - needs a cover. Its range is in the northern coast range and the - Sierra foothills, extending as far south as Kings river. The edges - of the leaves bear bent hooks like saw teeth. The foliage falls in - late winter. Trees are occasionally a foot or more in diameter. The - wood has not the appearance of possessing much value, and is too - scarce to be important. The most interesting thing connected with - this tree is that it is supposed to be a hybrid--a cross between - highland oak and California black oak. It was first found in 1863, - and a considerable range has since been established for it. - - It is the opinion of some investigators that new tree species have - their origin in crosses between existing species. Of the countless - thousands of such crosses a few, at long intervals of time, may - develop characteristics which enable them to maintain their - existence and to spread into new territory. If that occurs, a new - kind of tree has appeared on earth and is ready to take its place - among the established forests of the region. Cross-fertilization - among trees and plants is very common, but so many adverse - conditions are encountered, that few hybrids ever amount to - anything. - -[Illustration] - - - - -PIN OAK - -[Illustration: PIN OAK] - - - - -PIN OAK - -(_Quercus Palustris_) - - -Pin oak ranges from certain sections of Massachusetts, notably the -Connecticut river valley, and near Amherst, westward as far as the -southeastern part of Missouri; on the south it is found along the lower -Potomac river in Virginia, in Kentucky, Arkansas, and Oklahoma. - -It is known as pin oak in Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New -York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Virginia, Maryland, Arkansas, Missouri, -Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Kansas; in Arkansas and Kansas it is -called swamp Spanish oak; in Rhode Island and Illinois it is often known -as water oak; in Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Kansas as swamp oak; in -Arkansas as water Spanish oak. - -The name pin oak is said to belong to this tree because of a peculiarity -of its branches. They leave the trunk and the larger limbs at nearly -right angles, and criss-cross in all directions, resembling pins thrust -into the wood, and bristling outward at every angle. The crowding to -which they are subjected kills many of them as the tree reaches middle -age, but the stubs do not drop quickly, and as many of the -characteristic pins appear to be present as ever. Such is the usual -explanation given to account for the name, and the facts fit the theory; -but the fact that several other species are called pin oaks is not -accounted for. The habit of the branches of all of them is not the same. -The Gambel oak in its Arizona range has that name. So has the chinquapin -oak in Arkansas and Texas, but that is apparently a shortening of its -true name, the last syllable only being used. They call the Durand oak -pin oak in Texas, but without any known reason. - -The botanical name _palustris_, belonging to this species, refers to the -tree's habit of growing in swamps and damp land along river bottoms. It -is not a swamp tree as cypress is, but is more like swamp white oak, and -finds its most congenial surroundings on the borders of streams and on -fairly well drained lowland where roots readily reach water. - -The leaves are three or five inches long, are simple, and alternate. -They are broad, and have from five to nine lobes which are toothed, and -bristle-tipped on the ends. The sinuses are broad and rounded, and -extend well toward the midrib, which is stout, and from which the veins -branch off conspicuously. In color the leaves are bright green above and -lighter below when young, becoming thin, firm and darker green at -maturity; late in autumn they turn a rich, deep scarlet. They are coated -below with pubescence, and have large tufts of pale hairs in the axils -of the veins. - -The fruit of pin oak is a small acorn which grows either sessile or on a -very short stem; sometimes in clusters, and sometimes singly. In shape -the acorns are nearly hemispherical, and measure about a half inch in -diameter; they are enclosed only at the base, in a thin, saucer-shaped -cup, dark brown, and scaly. - -The bark of a mature tree is dark gray or brownish-green; it is rough, -being full of small furrows, and frequently cracks open and shows the -reddish inner layer of bark. On small branches and young trunks, it is -smoother, lighter, and more lustrous. - -Pin oak is smaller than red oak. Average trees are seventy or eighty -feet high and two or three in diameter. Specimens 120 feet high and four -feet in diameter are heard of but are seldom seen. Near the northern -limit of pin oak's range large trees are not found, nor are small trees -plentiful. This holds true in all parts of New England and northern New -York where the species is found growing naturally. South of -Pennsylvania, along the flood plains of rivers which flow to Chesapeake -bay, a better class of timber is found. The best development of the -species is in the lower Ohio valley. - -It grows rapidly, but falls a little short of the red oak. When young -growth is cut, sprouts will rise from the stumps and flourish for a -time, but merchantable trees are seldom or never produced that way. The -acorn must be depended on. It has been remarked that pin oak does not -prune itself well, but it does better in dense stands than in open -ground. In the latter case the limbs are late in dying and falling. - -Pin oak has proved to be a valuable street and park tree. It possesses -several characteristics which recommend it for that use. It grows -rapidly, and it quickly attains a size which lessens its liability to -injury by accidents. Its shade is tolerably dense; the crown is shapely -and attractive; the leaves fall late; and it seems to stand the smoke -and dust of cities better than many other trees. It is easily and -successfully transplanted if taken when small. Many towns and cities -from Long Island to Washington, D. C., have planted the pin oak along -streets, avenues, and in parks. Several thoroughfares in Washington are -shaded by them. - -Considerable planting of pin oak has been done by railroads which expect -to grow ties. Trees of this species when cut in forests and made into -crossties do not all show similar resistance to decay. Some ties are -perishable in a short time, while others give satisfactory service. The -best endure well without preservative treatment, but all are benefited -by it. If the experimental plantings turn out well, it may be expected -that pin oak will fill an important place in the crosstie business. - -Because of numerous limbs, lumber cut from pin oak is apt to be knotty, -and the percentage of good grades small. The annual rings are wide, and -are about evenly divided between spring and summerwood, though the -latter often exceeds the former. Its general appearance suggests red -oak, but it is more porous in trunks of thrifty growth. The springwood -is largely made up of pores. The medullary rays are hardly as prominent -as those of red oak, but in other ways resemble them. The wood weighs -43.24 pounds per cubic foot, which is a little above red oak. It is hard -and strong, dark brown with thin sapwood of darker color. The lumber -checks and warps badly in seasoning. - -The uses to which pin oak is put must be considered in a general way -because of the absence of exact statistics. The wood is not listed by -the lumber trade under its own name, but goes along with others of the -black oak group. Its uses, however, are known along a number of lines. -Lumbermen cut it wherever it is found mixed with other hardwoods. -Sometimes vehicle manufacturers make a point of securing a supply of -this wood. That occurs oftener with small concerns than large. It is -made into felloes, reaches, and bolsters. Furniture makers use it, and -well selected, quarter-sawed stock is occasionally reduced to veneer. -The articles produced pass for red oak, and it would be very difficult -to detect the difference between pin oak and true red oak when finished -as veneer. Some highly attractive mission furniture is said to be of pin -oak. - -More goes to chair stock mills than to factories which produce higher -classes of furniture. Chairs utilize very small pieces, and that gives -the stock cutter a chance to trim out the knots and produce the maximum -amount of clear stuff. Chair makers in Michigan reported the use of -60,000 feet of pin oak in 1910. Slack coopers work in much the same way -as chair mills, and pin oak is acceptable material for many classes of -barrels and other containers. Small tight knots are frequently not -defects sufficient to cause the rejection of staves. Tight coopers do -not find pin oak suitable, because the wood is too porous to hold -liquids, particularly liquors containing alcohol. The wood is mixed at -mills with red oak and other similar species and is manufactured into -picture frames, boxes, crates, interior finish for houses, and many -other commodities requiring strength or handsome finish. In early years -when the people manufactured by hand what they needed, and obtained -their timber from the nearest forest or woodlot, they split fence rails, -pickets, clapboards, and shingles of pin oak. - -Oak-apples or galls are the round excrescences formed on the limbs by -gallflies and their eggs. They seem particularly fond of this species -and specimens are often seen which are literally covered with them. The -worms which live inside seem to flourish particularly well on the food -they imbibe from pin oak. The primitive school teachers three or four -generations ago turned these oak galls to account. They are rich in -tannin, and were employed in manufacturing the local ink supply. The -teachers were the ink makers as well as the pen cutters when the pens -were whittled from quills. The process of making the ink was simple. The -galls were soaked in a kettle of water and nails. The iron acted on the -tannin and produced the desired blackness, but if special luster was -desired, it was furnished by adding the fruit of the wild greenbrier -(_Smilax rotundifolia_), which grew abundantly in the woods. It was well -that steel pens were not then in use, for the schoolmaster's oak ink -would have eaten up such a pen in a single day. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CALIFORNIA LIVE OAK - -[Illustration: CALIFORNIA LIVE OAK] - - - - -CALIFORNIA LIVE OAK - -(_Quercus Agrifolia_) - - -This fine western tree belongs to the black oak group, yet its acorns -mature in one year, like those of white oaks. It is the only known black -oak with that habit. It is properly classed with canyon live oak which -has many characteristics of white oak, yet matures its acorns the second -year. The two oaks with freakish fruit belong in California, and to some -extent occupy the same range. California live oak is apparently making -an effort to conform to the habit of other black oaks by producing two -year acorns. It has not yet succeeded in doing so, but flowers -occasionally appear in the fall, and young acorns set on the twigs. They -drop during the winter, and it is not believed that any of them hang -till the second season. - -The range of this tree covers most of the California coast region but -does not reach the great interior valleys. The tree is very common in -the southwestern part of the state. It is called an evergreen, and some -individuals deserve that reputation, but the leaves never remain long -after the new crop appears. Frequently the old leaves do not wait for -the new, and when they drop, the branches remain bare for a few weeks. -The form of the leaf is not constant. Some have smooth margins, but the -typical leaf is toothed like holly. One of the early names by which the -tree was known was holly-leaved oak. The bark looks much like the bark -of chestnut oak. It is bought for tanning purposes, but its principal -use is to adulterate the bark of another oak (_Quercus densiflora_). -Trees range in height from twenty-five to seventy-five feet, and from -one foot to four in diameter. The trunks are very short, and seldom -afford clear lengths exceeding eight feet, and often not more than four. -Trees generally grow in the open, but when in thickets, the boles -lengthen somewhat. They are of slow growth and live to old age. - -The wood is hard and brittle. A cubic foot weighs 51.43 pounds when -thoroughly dry. The wood of mature trees is reddish-brown; but young and -middle aged trunks are all sapwood, and are white from bark to center. -When sapwood is exposed to the air a considerable time it changes color -and becomes very dark brown. The medullary rays of this oak are broad, -fairly numerous, and are darker than the surrounding wood. When the log -is quarter-sawed, the exposed flecks of bright surface are the darkest -parts. To that extent, it resembles quarter-sawed sycamore, but the -woods do not look alike in any other particular. This oak is very -porous, and the pores--as is usual with live oaks--are arranged in rows -running from bark to center rather than parallel with the annual rings. -No clear line is distinguishable between spring and summerwood. - -Cordwood constitutes the most important use for California live oak. It -rates high in fuel value, and the many large and crooked limbs make the -tree an ideal one, from the cordwood cutter's viewpoint. By carefully -ricking the wood, with the crooks and elbows in every possible -direction--at which some cordwood cutters are very proficient--a cord of -wood may be constructed in the forest, which, when sold and delivered in -the buyer's shed, contracts like an accordion. - - CANYON LIVE OAK (_Quercus chrysolepis_). This splendid California - oak bears many names. It is an evergreen, and therefore is called - live oak. It is hard when thoroughly seasoned, and this has won for - it the name iron oak. Wagon makers often so designate it. It is - called Valparaiso oak, but for what reason is not apparent. Black - live oak doubtless refers to the dark color of the foliage. The most - shapely trees grow in the bottoms of canyons, and the name, canyon - live oak, refers to that circumstance. Hickory oak is not an - appropriate name, though it doubtless implies that the wood - possesses the toughness of hickory. It is about as tough as white - oak. The name golden cup oak is a translation of its botanical name - which, in Greek, means "golden scale," a reference to a yellow - tomentum or wool which covers the cups of the acorns. The wood's - hardness qualifies it to serve as mauls, hence the name maul oak. - - The northern limit of its growth is in southern Oregon. It goes - south from there on the coast ranges of California and the western - slopes of the Sierra Nevadas to the highlands of southern - California. Its growth on the mountains of southern Arizona and New - Mexico is always shrubby. The lowest limit of its range is about - 1,000 feet above sea level, the best specimens occurring at low - altitudes in the sheltered canyons of the coast ranges of - California. Gradually diminishing in size, it grows to the very tops - of many of the high mountains, sometimes reaching 9,000 feet, being - not more than a foot high at the upper limits of its range. In - appearance this tree resembles the eastern live oak (_Quercus - virginiana_), having the same majestic wide-spreading crown, except - in the high altitudes where it forms dense thickets covering large - areas. - - When in its favorite habitat, the massive proportions and majestic - appearance of this tree are imposing, the crown sometimes being 150 - feet across, the bole short and thick, and the great branches long - and horizontal. It is not clothed in the somber Spanish moss that is - often present on the great live oaks of the southeastern states, but - there is a similarity of appearance in the drooping slender twigs. - One hundred and fifty feet across is cited as an unusual width of - crown, one hundred feet being a good average size, and forty or - fifty feet the usual height, although it sometimes reaches 100. The - bole is vested in a gray-brown, reddish-tinged bark, about an inch - thick, and broken into numerous scales which in old age become flaky - and pliable and fall off. - - The bark is light colored, and has the stringy character of white - oak. The tree would readily pass for a white oak were it not for its - two-year acorns which class it in the black oak group. The wood - resembles white oak, and weighs 52.93 pounds per cubic foot. - - Few oaks, if any, retain their leaves a longer time than this. They - remain on the branches three or four years. Most evergreen oaks shed - theirs at the beginning of the second year. The leaves of this tree - are peculiar in another way. They assume various forms. That in - itself is not unusual and occurs with many species; but the canyon - live oak has one pattern of leaf for the young tree, another for the - old. One form has a margin with sharp, hooked teeth; another has - smooth-margined leaves, and there are various intermediate forms. - Sizes vary no less than shapes of both acorns and leaves. Some - acorns are half an inch in length, others two inches. - - The canyon live oak is believed to be long-lived, but further - information is desirable. The massive trunks represent centuries. - They usually occur in sheltered places which are measurably secure - from the ordinary perils which beset trees, notably the woodsman's - ax and the periodic forest fire. The bottoms of canyons where this - oak makes choice of situation do not usually burn fiercely, and - trees sheltered there escape. Cordwood cutters are the most constant - peril to good fuel trees in California; but many a canyon is safe - from their invasions, because of lack of roads. There the most - magnificent oaks rear their crowns in security, while trees of - inferior size and character, which grow on exposed slopes and flats, - fall before the cordwood cutter, and go to the ricks in village - woodyards. - - The wood of canyon live oak is superior to that of any other oak in - its range. It is of light brown color, and is tough, strong, stiff, - and heavy. The trunks are generally unsuitable for sawlogs, being - too short, but when a chance tree is found that may be cut into - lumber, it is considered a prize. Trunks are seldom good for more - than one sawlog. In that respect this oak may be compared with the - southern live oak. The scarcity of good hardwoods on the Pacific - coast adds to the value of what may be found there. If the canyon - live oak grew in the East, and developed a trunk of the same size - and shape as it has in its present home, it would attract no more - attention from the users of hardwoods than the live oak in the South - attracts now. But place makes great difference. - - Factories in California do not report the use of much of this oak, - yet considerable quantities of it are in service. The most important - place found for it is in country and village blacksmith shops, where - wagons are repaired. Nearly every piece of wood which goes into a - wagon, except the bed, may be this oak. Many persons consider it the - best wagon timber on the Pacific coast, and it is particularly - valued for tongues, not only for wagons, but for heavy log trucks - which are operated by several yoke of oxen. The wood is likewise - made into singletrees. It has always been in use in California for - pack saddles. That article is small, but many saddles were formerly - made, and the pack saddle is still an important article in the - mountains. Trains of mules, horses, and burros thread the narrow - paths, where wheeled vehicles cannot go, and deliver supplies to - camps and mines in remote districts. The pack saddle's strength is - frequently all that intervenes between the load and destruction; for - the snapping of a piece of wood may let the pack go over a precipice - beyond recovery. The pack trains are slowly passing out of use in - the West, as they long ago disappeared from the "bridle paths" of - eastern mountains and forests; but they are still to be seen among - the fastnesses of the Sierra Nevadas, as in the days when a western - poet burst into inspired song of the long pack trains going - - "Up and down o'er the mountain trail - With one horse tied to another's tail." - - HUCKLEBERRY OAK (_Quercus chrysolepis vaccinifolia_) is a variety of - canyon live oak, and is never large enough to supply wood for any - purpose, but is valuable as a covering to the ground on exposed - mountains. It is usually a shrub, and specimens no more than a foot - high are mature and bear acorns enormously out of proportion to the - size of the tree. If the canyon live oak of largest size in the low - hills bore acorns proportionately as large, they would be the size - of barrels. The huckleberry oak's acorns are set in their golden - cups. The name huckleberry is applied because of a fancied - resemblance of the leaves to those of huckleberries. They are - generally less than one inch in length, sometimes not half an inch. - This unique variety of oak ranges on elevated slopes and ridges of - the Sierra Nevada mountains, and the traveler in climbing to the - peaks is often grateful for the privilege of pulling himself up the - steep slopes by grasping in his hands the tops of full grown trees. - - PALMER OAK (_Quercus chrysolepis palmeri_) is considered a variety - of canyon live oak by some, but Sudworth believes it is a distinct - species, and draws his conclusion from forms of leaves, flowers, and - fruit. It forms large thickets on foothills and plateaus near the - southern boundary of California, eighty miles or more east of San - Diego. The trees do not attain sufficient size to give them - commercial importance. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CALIFORNIA TANBARK OAK - -[Illustration: CALIFORNIA TANBARK OAK] - - - - -CALIFORNIA TANBARK OAK - -(_Quercus Densiflora_) - - -Botanists dispute the right of this tree to the name of oak, and some of -them refuse to call it an oak. It is admitted that it possesses -characters not found in any other oak, but these are important to the -botanist only, while laymen have never considered the tree anything but -an oak. It has been variously called tanbark oak, chestnut oak, -California chestnut oak, live oak, and peach oak. The trunk, branches, -and foliage look much like chestnut. The leaf is like the chestnut's, -but it is evergreen. There are three or four crops on the tree at one -time, and none fall until they are three or four years old. Young leaves -are remarkably woolly, but late in their first summer they get rid of -most of the fuzz, and become thick in texture. - -Tanbark oaks are of all sizes, from mere shrubs on high mountains in the -northern Sierra Nevadas to fine and symmetrical timber in the damp -climate of the fog belt between San Francisco and the Oregon line. The -average height of mature trees is from seventy to 100 feet, with -diameters up to six feet in rare cases, though more trunks are under -than over two feet in diameter. - -The range of this oak reaches southern Oregon on the north, and runs -southward three or four hundred miles along the Sierra Nevada mountains, -to Mariposa county, and six hundred miles through the Coast range to -Santa Barbara county. The tree is affected by climatic conditions, and -where surroundings do not suit, it is small and shrubby, often less than -ten feet high. It does best in the redwood belt where fogs from the -Pacific ocean keep the air moist and the ground damp. It sometimes -associates with Douglas fir, and at other times with California live -oak. If it grows in dense side shade it loses its lower branches and -develops a long, clean trunk; but in open ground it keeps its limbs -until late in life. - -This is the most important source of tanbark on the Pacific coast, and -up to the present it has been procurable in large quantities. The annual -output is nearly 40,000 tons, and it commands a higher price than the -bark of any other oak or of hemlock. The absence of other adequate -tanning materials on the Pacific coast gives this tree much importance. -Its range covers several thousand square miles, and the stand is fairly -good on much of it. But on the other hand, the destruction of timber to -secure the bark has been excessive. What occurred with chestnut oak and -hemlock in the East, is occurring with tanbark oak in the West. Trees -are cut and peeled, and are left by thousands to rot in the woods, or -to feed fires and make them more destructive. The bark peelers do their -principal work in the California redwood region, because there the oak -is at its best. Economic conditions make the salvage of the trunks -impossible. The bark can be hauled to market, but the wood is unsalable -at living prices, after the long haul. It has, therefore, been usually -abandoned, and becomes a total loss. It cannot even be sold for fuel, -because the country within reach of it is thinly settled, and wood is -plentiful on every side. - -Large oaks are felled, because the bark can not be stripped from the -trunks in any other way, and small trees are not spared. The peelers -often do not take the trouble to cut them down, but strip off the bark -as high as a man can reach, and leave them standing. A future tree is -thus destroyed for the sake of a strip of bark a few feet long. Such -trees live a year or two, sometimes several years, before yielding to -the inevitable. Usually, as a last expiring effort, they bear an -abnormally large crop of acorns. That performance, in the language of -the bark peelers, is "the last kick." A tanbark slashing, when the -peelers are ready to abandon it, is a sorry spectacle. The barkless and -sun-cracked trunks strew the ground, the tops and limbs are piled in -windrows, the small peeled trees stand dying, and the last ricks of bark -have been sledded down the tote roads, marking the close of operations -in that district. A few months later, when fire runs through, the end of -the tanbark oak on that tract is accomplished. - -Within recent years commendable efforts have been made to use the wood -as well as the bark. One of the first steps in that direction was to -overcome the prejudice against the wood. It was long considered to be -valueless. That belief was founded on the single fact that this oak is -difficult to season. Few woods in this country check as badly as this, -when it is left exposed to sun and wind after the bark has been removed. -It checks both radially and along the annual rings. The medullary rays -are broad and extend much of the distance from the center to the -outside. These are natural lines of cleavage when the log begins to -season and the internal stresses develop. It must be admitted that the -prospect of making anything out of timber of that character is -discouraging; but it has been accomplished, and tanbark oak is now a -material of considerable value. - -The wood has about the strength and stiffness of white oak, while it is -four pounds lighter per cubic foot. The structure is similar to that of -California live oak, but the pores of tanbark oak are smaller. They run -in rows from center to circumference. The medullary rays are broad -enough to show well in quarter-sawing, but the wood's appearance when so -worked is not wholly satisfactory. The exposed flat surfaces of the -rays show a faint purplish or violet tinge which is considered -objectionable. But when the wood is worked plain it is dependable and -substantial. It makes good flooring, fairly good furniture, finish, -vehicles, and agricultural implements. It is perishable when placed in -damp situations, and this detracts somewhat from its value as railway -ties; but the wood's porous nature indicates that it will readily yield -to preservative treatment. - -Since the value of the wood is coming to be understood it is to be -expected that less of it will be destroyed than formerly, and that -second growth will be given opportunity to hold the ground when old -stands are cut. The tree is a prolific seeder, but not every year, and -seedlings come up abundantly in sheltered places. Sprouts rise from -stumps and grow to vigorous trees. It would seem, therefore, that the -tanbark oak will hold at least part of the ground where nature planted -it. - -TOUMEY OAK (_Quercus toumeyi_). No oak in this country has smaller -leaves than this. They are usually less than three-fourths of an inch -long and half an inch wide, and they hang on petioles one-sixteenth inch -long. The leaves have no lobes or notches. They remain all winter and -fall in the spring in time to make room for the new crop. The acorns are -nearly as long as the leaves and ripen in June of the first year. Few -persons ever see this oak, for its known range is restricted to Mule -mountain, in Cochise county, southeastern Arizona. It attains a height -of twenty-five or thirty feet, and a diameter of six or eight inches. -The trunk is not only small, but is of form so poor that it can never be -of value for anything but fuel. It divides near the ground into crooked -branches. The heart of the tree is light brown, the thick sapwood is -lighter. - - WOOLLY OAK (_Quercus tomentella_) has apparently been crowded off - the American continent and has taken refuge on islands off the - southern California coast. As far as known, not a single tree stands - on the mainland, but several groves, with a few isolated specimens, - are found on Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa, and Catalina islands, where - they are huddled together in the bottoms of sheltered canyons. The - leaves are thick, leathery, and are toothed like holly. The trees - are evergreen. The acorns do not mature until the second season. - They are generally more than an inch long. The scarcity of this oak - relegates it to an unimportant place among commercial woods. This - seems unfortunate, for the appearance of the wood indicates that it - possesses excellent properties. No other oak looks like this wood. - It is decidedly yellow, and is dense and firm. The medullary rays - are different from those of any other oak. When seen in cross - section they are arranged in short, wavy lines, broadest in the - middle and tapering toward both ends. The pores are arranged between - the rays, and follow wavy lines also. Trees grow with fair rapidity, - and the largest on the islands are seventy-five feet high and two in - diameter. - - BARREN OAK (_Quercus pumila_) is called dwarf black oak, or simply - scrub oak. Its habit of growing on barren land is responsible for - its common name which some people shorten to "bear" oak. It is one - of the poorest oaks of the East, and it seldom grows more than - twenty-five feet high and a few inches in diameter. Its range - follows the Atlantic coast southward from Mount Desert Island, - Maine, to North Carolina. It is probably more abundant on the pine - barrens of New Jersey than elsewhere. The trunks are too small to be - of use for anything but fuel. - - PRICE OAK (_Quercus pricei_) is a California tree, supposed to be - very local in its range, since it has not been found outside the - drainage basin of a small stream in Monterey county. That locality - on the coast of California appears to be the starting place or - principal abiding place of several tree species, among which are - Monterey cypress and Monterey pine. The Price oak attains a height - of twenty-five or thirty feet, and a diameter of twelve inches or - less; consequently it is too small to be of value to lumbermen, even - if it were abundant. The leaves resemble those of California live - oak, and are believed to remain two summers on the tree. The acorns - mature the second season. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SHINGLE OAK - -[Illustration: SHINGLE OAK] - - - - -SHINGLE OAK - -(_Quercus Imbricaria_) - - -The origin of this tree's name has been the subject of considerable -controversy. According to one account the name was first used by the -French colonists at Kaskaskia, Illinois, nearly 150 years ago. They -found that the wood rived well and it was abundant in the vicinity of -their settlement. They split it for shingles and covered their cabins. -It was the best wood obtainable for the purpose in that region, and they -designated the tree shingle oak, a name translated into Latin by the -botanist Michaux and still retained as the tree's botanical name. The -story of the name appears to be well authenticated, but the fact cannot -be denied that as much reason exists for another theory. A person who -sees a shingle oak tree in full leaf, particularly if it stands in open -ground where its foliage has had opportunity to develop along natural -lines, will at once notice the peculiar and characteristic overlapping -of the leaves. They suggest the courses of shingles nailed on a roof. No -other oak has that arrangement. The similitude is so striking that it -would be surprising if the name shingle oak were not applied. - -It is not a one-name tree, but following the fashion, it carries several -names. It is called laurel oak in some regions. The form and appearance -of the leaf give the name. The oak looks like a mammoth laurel tree more -than like its own species. The shingle oak is known as jack oak in some -parts of Illinois. That is a name liable to be applied to any tree when -its real name is not known. In North Carolina they call the tree water -oak, which name, like jack oak, is often used to conceal ignorance of -the true name. Another southern species (_Quercus nigra_) is properly -named water oak. - -Shingle oak requires good soil for growth but is not partial either to -uplands or bottoms. It is found at its best in the lower Ohio river -basin and in Missouri, but is comparatively rare in the East. From -middle Pennsylvania its range extends southward along the Alleghanies to -northern Georgia, Alabama, Tennessee, and west Arkansas. It is found in -Michigan, Wisconsin, and westward to Kansas. - -It manifests a strong tendency to hybridize with other oaks, and it -readily crosses with black jack oak, pin oak, and yellow oak. It is -believed that a cross between yellow oak and shingle oak produced the -species known as lea oak. - -A mature tree may be one hundred feet high and three or four feet in -diameter. It has a round or pyramidal attractive crown composed of many -slender branches and twigs. The foliage is distinctively grouped at the -ends of the twigs in star-like clusters. The leaves are four or six -inches long, with wedge-shaped or rounded bases, and are deep green and -shiny on the upper side, but lighter below. The acorns are short, -stubby, and rounded, covered one-third of the way with thin shallow -cups. - -Shingle oak grows rapidly, and it is often sold by nurseries which deal -in ornamental forest trees. It is hardy as far north as Massachusetts. -Although it bears great abundance of leaves, they are so arranged that -the crown seems open. One may see through the branches of a large -shingle oak, and it suggests an airiness not common with oaks. - -Differences of opinion exist concerning the value of shingle oak for -commercial purposes. It belongs in the black oak group, and its wood -goes to market as red oak, and apparently is never listed as anything -else. It is never named in market reports; shops and factories never -report it, and it has been pronounced inferior to red oak in strength -and seasoning properties. Tests have been made of some of its physical -properties, and the results do not indicate that the wood belongs with -inferior timbers. Its breaking strength is given at 39 per cent greater -than white oak, and its stiffness at 28 per cent greater. However, these -values, which are calculated from Sargent's tables, are based on tests -of only a few specimens of the wood, and fuller investigation might make -revision necessary. - -The wood is heavy, hard, and is said to check badly in drying. The pores -are large and are arranged in rows; medullary rays are broad and -conspicuous. The wood is light brown, tinged with red, the sapwood much -lighter. The broad medullary rays, running radially, give the wood its -good splitting qualities. - -The tree is fairly abundant in different parts of its range, and is cut -and manufactured with other oaks and hardwoods. Slack coopers use it for -barrels; box makers employ it for crates; chair mills saw dimension -stock and ship it to factories to be finished; some goes to furniture -factories; some is turned for spindles for grills, and for balusters for -stairs; other fills various places as interior finish and molding. But -it all goes to market and passes through factories under names other -than its own. - -WATER OAK (_Quercus nigra_) has several names, some of them bestowed -with little apparent reason. It is called possum oak and duck oak, but -these names are neither descriptive nor definitive. Punk oak is another -name. It may refer to a decayed condition of the wood, but this tree is -no more affected by decay than others of the same region. In Texas it is -sometimes known as spotted oak. It thrives in wet situations though not -actually in swamps. It prefers margins of ponds, banks of rivers, and -low swales where the ground water is just below the surface, but it is -not confined to such situations. It does well, within its range, -wherever willow oak flourishes, but willow oak has a wider range. The -leaves take on various forms, and they change shape as they increase in -size. Some have smooth margins, others are lobed. Some are wedge-shaped, -others coffin-shaped. Their typical form, if it may be said of them that -they have a typical form, is narrow at the stem end and wide at the -other. To this is usually added rudimentary lobes, which are sometimes -nearly as well developed as in any other oak. Their typical form is like -the leaf of the black jack oak; but they are not half as large, and are -thin and delicate, while the black jack's leaf is thick and leathery. - -The range of water oak begins in Delaware and follows the Atlantic -coastal plain south to central Florida, and through the Gulf States to -Texas. It grows as far north as Kentucky and Missouri. It keeps clear of -the Appalachian mountain region, and other hilly districts. It is -plentiful in some parts of its range, and trunks three feet in diameter -and long enough for two or three logs are not unusual, yet large numbers -of water oaks may be seen in the South which are not fit for sawlogs -because they stand in open ground and are limby down to ten feet of the -ground. Many have been planted for shade trees in streets and in parks, -and are justly admired. They grow rapidly and are extremely graceful. -Their leaves are deciduous, but adhere to the branches most of the year. -South of the belt of severe frost, the old leaves frequently hang until -the buds for the new crop are opening. The acorns are bitter, and even -the southern pine hog passes them by until the pinch of famine edges up -his appetite. - -Water oak possesses value as a source of lumber, but it belongs with the -large class of oaks which lose their names and their identity when they -pass the threshold of the sawmill. They come out red oak. Only in rare -instances is water oak called by its own name in the factory and lumber -yard. Wagon makers employ it for bolsters, axles, spokes, tongues, -sandboards, hounds, felloes and reaches. Entire dump carts, except the -iron, are constructed of this wood. Furniture manufacturers use it as -frame material, but seldom as the outside visible parts, though no -reason for not doing so is offered. Objection is made to its seasoning -qualities, but the same objection applies to most red oaks. A -considerable amount of water oak is cut in the South into thick planks -for bridge floors. It is strong and hard, and satisfactorily resists -decay in that place; though, in common with the black oaks generally, it -is liable to decay when exposed to dampness. The wood weighs a little -less than white oak, and is not quite as strong or as stiff. It is -porous, but the pores are small, except one or two rows in the -springwood. The medullary rays are thin and not numerous, but they are -conspicuous, and the wood may be successfully quarter-sawed. The lumber -has the appearance of red oak, though the reddish color is not so -pronounced. - - BARTRAM OAK (_Quercus heterophylla_). This interesting but - commercially unimportant oak was named by Michaux from a single tree - found in a field belonging to John Bartram near Philadelphia more - than a century ago. A few trees have since been found in widely - scattered districts as far south as North Carolina and as far west - as Texas. Botanists believe it is a hybrid, one parent being the - willow oak (_Quercus phellos_) and the other yellow oak (_Quercus - velutina_). It is probable that here may be witnessed the origin of - a tree species. The leaves seem to be a compromise between the - deeply cut foliage of yellow oak and the entire leaf of willow oak. - The new species is so scarce that few people have ever seen it. - -[Illustration] - - - - -RED GUM - -[Illustration: RED GUM] - - - - -RED GUM - -(_Liquidambar Styraciflua_) - - -This tree does not belong to the same group as black gum and tupelo, -which are in the dogwood family, while red gum is of the witch hazel -family. If a tree is to be judged and named by its character, red gum is -more entitled to the name "gum" than any other tree of this country, -because it exudes a yellow resin from wounds in the bark. The botanical -name recognizes that fact. Storax is procured from a closely related -tree is Asia, and has been known in commerce for many centuries. The -other popular names of red gum are sweet gum, liquid-amber gum, gum -tree, alligator wood, bilsted, starleaved gum, and satin walnut. - -The last name originated in England where it was desirable to avoid the -name gum when applied to the wood of this tree. Though botanically it is -about as distantly related to walnut as any tree can be, the figure of -the wood often suggests walnut. The name sweet gum refers to the -pleasant odor of the resin which is sometimes used in France, and -probably elsewhere, to perfume gloves. Alligator wood is descriptive of -warty excrescences on the bark of some trees, but they are not common to -all. Starleaved gum relates to the leaf. It is a lopsided star--a six -point star with one point missing. - -This tree's range in the United States extends from Connecticut to Texas -and as far northwest of the Alleghanies as Missouri and Illinois. It -reaches its greatest size in the lower Mississippi valley in rich bottom -land which is subject to repeated inundation. It is not, however, as -purely a swamp tree as tupelo and cypress. It grows well on land which -is never inundated, but it needs plenty of moisture. The largest -specimens exceed a height of 120 feet and a diameter of four; but logs -from eighteen inches to three feet are the usual sizes. The tree's range -extends southward through Mexico into Central America. - -The rise of red gum lumber into prominence forms an interesting chapter -in the industry. It was formerly considered so difficult to season that -few mills cared to deal with it, but that difficulty has been largely -overcome. In the past, gum, having no market value, was left standing -after logging; or, where the land was cleared for farming, was girdled -and allowed to rot, and then felled and burned. Not only were the trees -a total loss to the farmer, but, from their great size and the labor -required to handle them, they were so serious an obstruction as often to -preclude the clearing of valuable land. Now that there is a market for -the timber, it is profitable to cut gum with other hardwoods, and land -can be cleared more cheaply. This increase in the value of gum timber -will be of great benefit to the South in many ways. - -Throughout its entire life red gum is intolerant of shade. As a rule -seedlings appear only in clearings or in open spots in the forest. It is -seldom that an overtopped tree is found, for the gum dies quickly if -suppressed, and is consequently nearly always a dominant or intermediate -tree. In a hardwood bottom forest, the timber trees are all of nearly -the same age over considerable areas, and there is little young growth -to be found in the older stands. The reason for this is the intolerance -of most of the swamp species. - -Red gum reproduces both by seed and by sprouts, fairly abundantly every -year, but about once in three years there is a heavy production. In the -Mississippi valley the abandoned fields on which young stands of red gum -have sprung up are, for the most part, being rapidly cleared again. The -second growth here is considered of little worth in comparison with the -value of the land for agricultural purposes. - -A large amount of red gum growing in the South can be economically -transported from the forests to the mills only by means of the streams, -owing to the expense of putting in railroads solely for handling the -timber. Green red gum, however, is so heavy that it scarcely floats and, -to overcome this difficulty, various methods of driving out the sap -before the logs are thrown into the river have been tried. One method is -to girdle the trees and leave them standing a year. That partly seasons -them, but does not give time for the sapwood to decay. The logs from -such trees float readily, and the swamps and streams are utilized to -carry the logs to the mills. - -Some years ago that method of seasoning red gum was extensively -advertised in England by contractors who sold paving blocks of this -wood. It was claimed that the common defects of red gum were thus -overcome. Large sales of paving material were made, particularly in -London, and red gum was popular for a time, but it finally lost its hold -as a paving wood in competition with certain Australian woods. The -theory that by girdling a tree and allowing it to die, the amount of -heartwood will be increased has been abandoned. In selecting trees for -cutting, those with doty tops, rotten stumps, and heavy bark, -indications of an old tree which contains a very small proportion of -sapwood, are now chosen. These are found mainly in the drier localities. -In low, wet places the trees have more sapwood and are smaller. The -heartwood forms while the tree is living, not after it dies. - -The rapidity with which red gum has come into use in this country and -elsewhere is the best evidence of the wood's real value. Its range of -uses extends from the most common articles, such as boxes and crates, to -those of highest class, like furniture and interior finish. It is only -moderately strong and stiff, and is not a competitor of hickory, ash, -maple, and oak in vehicle manufacturing and other lines where strength -or elasticity is demanded; but in nearly all other classes of wood uses, -red gum has made itself a place. It has pushed to the front in spite of -prejudice. As soon as the difficulties of seasoning were mastered, its -victory was won. Its annual use in Michigan, the home and center of -hardwood supply, exceeds 20,000,000 feet in manufactured articles, -exclusive of what is employed in rough form. In Illinois, the most -extensive wood-manufacturing state in the Union, red gum stands second -in amount among the hardwoods, the only one above it being white oak. In -Kentucky, only white oak and hickory are more important among the -factory woods, while in Arkansas, where the annual amount of this wood -in factories exceeds 100,000,000 feet, it heads the list of hardwoods. - -As a veneer material, it is demanded in four times the quantity of any -other species. The veneer is nearly all rotary cut, and it goes into -cheap and expensive commodities, from berry crates to pianos. - -The wood weighs 36.83 pounds per cubic foot. It is straight-grained, the -medullary rays are numerous but not prominent, the pores diffuse but -small, and the summerwood forms only a narrow band, like a line. The -annual rings do not produce much figure, but wood has another kind of -figure, the kind that characterizes English and Circassian walnuts, -smoky, cloudy, shaded series of rings, independent of the growth rings. -They have no definite width or constant color, but the color is usually -deeper than the body of the wood. This figure is one of the most prized -properties of red gum. It is that which makes the wood the closest known -imitator of Circassian walnut. - -All red gum is not figured, and that which is figured may be worked in a -way to conceal or make little use of the figure. It shows best in rotary -cut veneer and tangentially sawed lumber. Various woods are imitated -with red gum. It is stained or painted to look like oak, cherry, -mahogany, and even maple. - -Some trees have thin sapwood, and others are all sapwood. This -peculiarity sometimes leads to misunderstandings in lumber transactions. -A buyer specifies red gum, expecting to get red heartwood, but the -seller delivers lumber cut from the red gum tree, though light colored -sapwood may predominate. Properly speaking, the name is applied to the -tree as a whole and does not refer to any particular color of wood in -the tree. The term "red" is said to have referred originally to the -color of autumn leaves, and not to the wood. - -The fruit of red gum is a bur, midway in appearance and size between the -sycamore ball and the chestnut bur. It hangs on the tree until late in -winter. The resin which exudes from wounds in the bark is of much -commercial importance and is shipped from New Orleans and Mexican ports. -Near the northern limit of the species' range the trees yield little -resin, but it is abundant farther south. In the southern states it is -used locally as chewing gum. It is known commercially as copalm balm. - - WITCH HAZEL (_Hamamelis virginiana_) is a cousin to red gum, but - there is small resemblance. It is known as winter bloom, snapping - hazel, and spotted alder. Its range extends from Nova Scotia to - Nebraska, Texas, and Florida. It reaches its largest size among the - southern Appalachian mountains where the extreme height is sometimes - forty feet, with a diameter of eighteen inches; but few people have - ever seen a witch hazel that large. It is usually fifteen or twenty - feet high and three or four inches in diameter. The wood is much - like that of red gum, being diffuse-porous with obscure medullary - rays, and a thin line of summerwood. It is of little commercial use; - in fact, no report has been found that a single foot of it has ever - been used for any purpose. Yet it is a most interesting little tree. - It blooms in the fall, sometimes as late as the middle of November. - Its rusty summer foliage turns yellow in autumn, and as the leaves - begin to fall, the tree bursts into delicately-scented golden - flowers, the most visible part of each consisting of four petals - which float out like streamers. At the same time that flowers are - scenting the air, the seeds are discharging. A full year is required - to ripen them; and when dry, cold weather comes, the contraction of - their envelopes shoots them with sufficient force to send them - fifteen or twenty feet. They depend on neither wings, birds, nor - squirrels to scatter them. The origin of the name witch hazel is - disputed; but the person who examines the open-topped button which - holds the black seeds, and notes the fantastic resemblance to a - weasen face, will feel satisfied that he can guess the origin of the - name. The tree's bark is used for medicine, in extracts and gargles. - -[Illustration] - - - - -BLACK GUM - -[Illustration: BLACK GUM] - - - - -BLACK GUM - -(_Nyssa Sylvatica_) - - -Black gum grows from the Kennebec river in Maine to Tampa bay, Florida; -westward to southern Ontario and southern Michigan; Southward through -Missouri, as far as the Brazos river in Texas. The names by which it is -known in different regions are black gum, sour gum, tupelo, pepperidge, -wild pear tree, gum, and yellow gum. - -The leaves of black gum are simple and alternate; not serrate. They are -attached by very short petioles, which are fuzzy when young; they are a -rich, brilliant green above and lighter below; rather thick, with -prominent midrib. As early as the latter part of August the leaves -commence to turn a gorgeous red. The flowers are greenish and -inconspicuous, growing in thick clusters, the staminate ones small and -plentiful, the pistillate ones larger. They bloom in April, May or June. -The fruit of black gum is a drupe about one and a half inches long; -inside of it is a rough, oval pit; the pulp is acrid until mellowed by -frost. - -The bad name given to black gum by early settlers of this country has -stayed with it, though the faults found with it then, should hold no -longer. The pioneers were nearly all clearers of farms. They went into -the woods with ax, maul, mattock, wedges and gluts, and made fields and -fenced them. The fencing was as important as the clearing, for the woods -were alive with hogs, cattle, and horses, and the crop was safe nowhere -except behind an eight-rail staked and ridered fence. The farmer mauled -the rails from timber which he cut in the clearing, and there it was -that he and black gum got acquainted. The oak, chestnut, walnut, cherry, -yellow poplar, and red cedar were split into rails and built into -fences; but black gum never made a fence rail. No combination of maul, -wedge, glut, determination, and elbow grease ever split a black gum log -within the borders of the American continent. An iron wedge, driven to -its head in the end of a rail cut, will not open a crack large enough to -insert the point of a pocket knife. In fact, it is as easy to split the -log crosswise as endwise. Consequently, the early farmers heaped their -anathemas and maranathas on black gum and passed it by. - -Nevertheless, the tree had its virtues even in the eyes of the -rail-splitters; for, though it was unwedgeable, it helped along the -fence rail industry in a very substantial way by furnishing the material -of which mauls were made. It drove the wedges and gluts which opened -other timbers. About the only maul that would beat out more rails than -one of black gum was that made of a chestnut oak knot. The oak beetle's -only advantage over gum was that it was harder and wore longer. So -involved and interlaced are the fibers of black gum, that they cross one -another not only at right angles, but at every conceivable angle. This -can be seen in examining very thin pieces with a magnifying glass. - -The wood is not hard, but is moderately strong, and stiff. It has been -compared with hickory, but it is so inferior in almost every essential -that no comparison is justified. - -Black gum weighs 39.61 pounds per cubic foot. It is very porous, but the -pores are too small to be seen by the naked eye, and are diffused -through the wood and form no distinct lines or groups. The summerwood is -a thin dark line, not prominent enough to clearly delimit the yearly -rings of growth. The medullary rays are numerous, but very thin. In -quarter-sawed wood they produce a luster, but the individual rays are -practically invisible. The wood is not durable in contact with the soil. - -The standing tree is apt to fall a victim to the agencies of decay. -Hollow trunks, mere shells, are not uncommon. The entire heartwood is -liable to fall away. The pioneers cut these hollow trees, and sawing -them in lengths of about two feet, made beehives of them. They called -them gums because they were cut from gum trees. Larger sizes, used in -place of barrels, were also called gums, but these were usually made -from sycamores. The black gum is not usually large. Individuals have -been measured that were five feet in diameter and more than a hundred in -height, but an average of sixty feet high and two in diameter is -probably too much, except in the southern Appalachian mountains where -the species attains its largest size. - -It is a tree which will always be easily recognized after it has been -seen and identified once. Its general outline, particularly when leaves -are off, is different from other trees associated with it. It might -possibly be mistaken for persimmon unless looked at closely; but there -are easily-recognized points of difference. Its branches are very small, -slender, and short. Its bark is rougher than that of any other gum, and -is much darker in color. It is the bark's color that gives the tree its -name. The leaves have smooth edges. In the fall they change to gorgeous -red, and one of their peculiarities is that half a leaf may be red while -the other half remains green. Toward the end of the season, the green -disappears. The dark blue drupes ripen in October. They do not seem to -be food for any living creature. - -Sawmills include black gum with tupelo in reporting lumber cut, and -generally call both of them gum without distinction. The woods are quite -different, and neither the standing tree nor the lumber of one need be -mistaken for the other. The range of black gum is much more extensive -than that of tupelo. Gum lumber cut north of the Ohio and Potomac rivers -may be safely classed as black gum, though a little of both red and -tupelo gum is found north of those streams. In the South, the species -cannot be separated by regions, for all the gums grow from Texas to -Virginia. The total annual output of black gum is not known, but some -operators estimate it at about 20,000,000 feet a year, or nearly -one-fourth as much as tupelo. - -The bulk of black gum lumber is used in the rough, for floors, -sheathing, frames, and scaffolds; but a considerable portion is further -manufactured. The amounts thus used annually have been ascertained for a -few states, and furnish a basis for estimates for the whole country: -Mississippi, 7,000 feet; Maryland, 85,000; Illinois, 120,000; Louisiana, -120,000; Missouri, 190,000; Texas, 360,000; Massachusetts, 475,000; -Alabama, 486,000. - -The uses are general, except that the wood is not employed where -attractive figure is required, for black gum is as plain as cottonwood. -It is not displeasing in its plainness, for the surface finishes nicely -with a soft gloss which, except that it lacks figure, suggests the sap -of red gum. It is specially useful in situations where noncleavability -is required. Black gum mallets for stone masons and woodworkers are in -the market. Mine rollers require a much larger amount. The entire 85,000 -feet reported in Maryland was made into such rollers. They furnish the -bearing for the rope that hauls the car up the incline out of the coal -pit. Its toughness qualifies it for wagon hubs, but it is sometimes -objected to because its softness causes the mortises to wear larger -where the spokes are inserted, and the wheel does not stand as well as -when the hubs are of good oak. Early farmers and lumbermen preferred -black gum for ox yokes, and some are still seen where oxen are used; but -many other woods are as strong and equally as serviceable for yokes. -Rollers of this wood for glass factories are common. It is made into -hatters' blocks where a wood is wanted which, when thoroughly seasoned, -will hold its shape. It is less popular for this purpose than yellow -poplar. One of the best places for black gum is in the manufacture of -bored water pipe. The wood's interlaced fiber prevents splitting under -the internal stress due to hydrostatic pressure. The shell of such pipes -can be thinner than with most woods. A drawback is found in the -non-durable qualities of black gum. However, the internal pressure of -water keeps the wood thoroughly saturated, and prolongs its life when -used as pipes. - -The makers of firearms employ black gum as gunstocks and pistol grips. -The wood is stained to make it darker. It is cut by the rotary process -into cheap veneer and is made into baskets and berry crates. Less -trouble with the veneer, on account of breaking, is experienced than -might be expected of a wood so cross-grained. It is sawed into thin -lumber for boxes for shipping coffee and other groceries. It is a -substitute for cottonwood and yellow poplar in the manufacture of -certain lines of woodenware, notably, ironing boards, rolling pins, -potato mashers, and chopping bowls. It is made into interior finish for -houses; and furniture manufacturers find many places where it is a -serviceable material. Musical instrument makers employ it, particularly -as trusses for pianos, and in frames of pipe organs. In Louisiana it is -converted into excelsior, and in Mississippi into broom handles, and -parts of agricultural implements, particularly hoppers and seedboxes. - -All gums are hard to season, and this one is no exception. It checks -badly, but the checks are usually very small. - -[Illustration] - - - - -TUPELO - -[Illustration: TUPELO] - - - - -TUPELO - -(_Nyssa Aquatica_) - - -Tupelo is said to be an Indian name. White men have applied it to three -species of gum, all of the same genus, namely, black gum (_Nyssa -sylvatica_), sour tupelo (_Nyssa ogeche_), and tupelo (_Nyssa -aquatica_). Probably, the name tupelo applies as well to one as to the -other, for it is said to refer to the drupe-like fruit; but custom -confines the name to the species now under consideration. It is largest -of the three species, most abundant, and most important. Sour gum is -heard in Arkansas and Missouri, swamp tupelo in South Carolina and -Louisiana, cotton gum in the two Carolinas and Florida, wild olive tree -in Louisiana, and olive tree in Mississippi. - -The range of tupelo extends from Virginia along the coast to Florida, -northward in the Mississippi valley to southern Illinois, and westward -to Arkansas and Texas. It prefers swamps and attains largest size in low -ground which is subject to frequent overflow. The tree will stand in -several feet of water the greater part of the year without injury. It is -closely associated with cypress, the planer tree, and other species -which grow in deep swamps. - -Tupelo has not figured much in tree literature outside the books of -botanists. Travelers and local writers have paid it little attention. It -has not been remarkable for anything in the past, and has escaped -observation to a large extent because it grows in swamps and along -bayous, remote from the usual routes of travel. Its flowers attracted no -attention, its fruit was worthless, and the early settlers did not put -themselves to trouble to procure the wood for any purpose. That was the -situation from the early settlement of the country where this species is -found up to a very recent period when economic conditions began to bring -tupelo into notice. - -It first attracted attention in the markets as a substitute for yellow -poplar. That was brought about by an attempt to pass it as poplar. The -growing scarcity of that wood in the region about Chesapeake bay led to -the trial of tupelo. It was sold as bay poplar, and the purchaser was -left to infer that it was poplar cut in the region tributary to -Chesapeake bay. Probably few buyers were deceived, but they found the -wood a fair substitute for the yellow poplar which they had been -purchasing in the Baltimore and Norfolk markets. It is known as bay -poplar yet in many localities. It goes to England as such. One of its -most important uses in that country is as casing for electric wire -fittings. It has, however, many other important uses in England and on -the continent. It is claimed that it may be stained to imitate -Circassian walnut in the manufacture of furniture. This is possible, but -most probably tupelo has been confused with red gum which is a -well-known substitute for Circassian walnut. - -Tupelo trees attain a height from seventy to a hundred feet, and a -diameter of two to four feet above the swelled base. The general -appearance of the bark suggests both yellow poplar and red gum. Trees -have a habit of forking near the tops. The leaves are five or seven -inches long, sometimes with smooth margins, and often with a few sharp -points. Flowers appear in March and April, and fruit ripens early in -Autumn. It is a dark purple, tough-skinned drupe, about an inch long. - -The wood weighs 32.37 pounds per cubic foot. It is soft, and has about -three-fourths the strength and little more than half the stiffness of -white oak. It is not well suited to places where strength and rigidity -are required. The fibers are interwoven, making the wood difficult to -split. The heart is brown, often nearly white; the sapwood is very -thick; and the annual rings are not clearly defined, because of the -similarity between the springwood and summerwood. The pores are small -but numerous, and are scattered evenly through the whole annual ring. -The wood of roots differs from that of the trunk more than is usual with -hardwoods. It is very light, and has been long employed in the South as -a substitute for cork as floats for fish nets. - -Tupelo is often logged with cypress. The two trees grow in close -association in deep swamps. The butt cuts of tupelo are so heavy that -they float deep, or even go to the bottom. It was formerly customary, -and still is to some extent, to girdle trees whose trunks were to be -floated to the mills. In the course of one season the standing trees dry -sufficiently for the logs to float. At other times, trees are cut green, -the logs are skidded and allowed to dry some months before they are -rafted or floated to the mills. The sapwood is liable to decay, even in -the brief period while the logs are on the skids. The wood may be -protected against decay to some extent by smearing the ends of the logs -with tar or some other substance which prevents the spores of -decay-producing fungus from entering. - -The seasoning of tupelo was formerly a problem exceedingly vexatious to -the lumberman. The wood is full of water, and warping was one of the -troubles which was constantly encountered. Finally experience gained the -mastery, and seasoning troubles are fewer now. Shrinkage of four or five -per cent is not unusual in passing lumber from the green to dry state. - -Tupelo is like hickory in one respect--factories use more wood than the -sawmills cut. The shops and manufacturing plants of ten states use as -much tupelo as is cut by all the sawmills in the United States. These -states are Alabama, Arkansas, Illinois, Louisiana, Maryland, Michigan, -Mississippi, Missouri, North Carolina, and Texas. The reason for factory -use exceeding the sawmill cut is that much reaches factories, in the -form of veneer, which does not pass through a sawmill. The lumber output -of most of the timber trees of this country is from one-third to -one-half greater than the factory use. The difference represents the -rough lumber used, and which never goes to a factory. - -Tupelo lately entered the general market, but the yearly demand now -exceeds 100,000,000 feet. Its uses range from boxes and cheap handles to -interior finish and material for musical instruments. It is particularly -liked for containers for berries and small fruits, on their way to -market. Its whiteness and clean appearance fit it for that use. - -Higher grades of shipping boxes are also made. Wholesale grocers order -largely of this wood for spice, coffee, and tea boxes. These commodities -are exacting in their requirements because their odor, which is often -regarded as the criterion of their value, must not be impaired. A wood -with an odor of its own is immediately ruled out. Cigar box makers use -tupelo, sometimes as thin lumber for the whole box, but usually as -backing over which to lay a thin veneer of Spanish cedar. Plug tobacco -boxes are also made of tupelo. - -In Illinois and Michigan tupelo is listed among woods manufactured into -pianos, organs, mandolins, and guitars. In Maryland they make scows and -barges of it. In Arkansas and Louisiana it is worked into excelsior and -slack cooperage stock. It is a favorite wood in Mississippi for pumplogs -and broom handles. Its leading reported use in Texas is for porch -columns. In Missouri it is manufactured into laundry appliances, such as -washboards, clothes racks, and ironing boards. In nearly all -manufacturing centers of the country it is made into furniture and -interior finish. It is frequently substituted for yellow poplar in -panels, not only in furniture and cabinet work, but in carriage bodies. - -The supply of tupelo in southern forests is fairly large, and will meet -demand for some years, but it is a tree of slow growth, and when present -stands are cut, a new supply will probably never come. - - SOUR TUPELO (_Nyssa ogeche_) appears to be the only member of the - gum group whose fruit is of any value to man, and it is not very - important. The large, dull red drupes ripen in July and August, and - sometimes hang on the trees until late fall, allowing ample time for - gathering them. They are very sour, for which reason the tree is - called sour gum. The fruit is put through a pickling process which - renders it palatable and it is not an infrequent article on southern - pantry shelves. The range of the tree is confined to the region near - the coast from the southern border of South Carolina, through the - Ogeechee river valley in Georgia, to northern and western Florida. - The botanical name refers to the river along whose course the trees - are most abundant. Local names are gopher plum, Ogeechee lime, and - wild lime. The tree is sixty or seventy feet high, one or two in - diameter, and is often divided in several stems. Its wood is - lightest of the gums, weighing only 28.75 pounds per cubic foot. It - is diffuse-porous, and the springwood is scarcely distinguishable - from the summerwood. The annual rings of growth are indistinct, and - the medullary rays are thin and inconspicuous. The wood is weak, - soft, tough, and white, and little difference is apparent between - heart and sapwood. The flowers are rich in honey and are valuable to - bee keepers. It appears that no reports exist of the use of this - wood for any purpose. It is not abundant anywhere. - - WATER GUM (_Nyssa biflora_) is a member of the gum group, and is of - small importance. Trees above thirty feet high are unusual, and the - trunk is of poor form, owing to its greatly enlarged base. This gum - is found on the margins of small ponds in the pine barrens from - North Carolina to the Gulf coast. The leaves turn purple and red in - the fall, and are then conspicuous objects. The fruit is a blue - drupe about a third of an inch long. The wood is light, tough, and - difficult to split. - -[Illustration] - - - - -BLACK WALNUT - -[Illustration: BLACK WALNUT] - - - - -BLACK WALNUT - -(_Juglans Nigra_) - - -This tree has few names. It is called walnut, black walnut, and -walnut-tree. The color of the wood and bark is responsible for the word -black in the name, though some people use the adjective to distinguish -the tree from butternut which is often known as white walnut. The -natural range of black walnut covers 600,000 or 700,000 square miles, -and it has been extended by planting. Its northern limit stretches from -New York to Minnesota, its southern from Florida to Texas. It is -difficult to say where the species found its highest development in the -primeval forests, for very large trees were reported in New York, among -the southern Appalachian mountains, in the Ohio valley, and beyond the -Mississippi in Arkansas, Oklahoma, Missouri, and Kansas. The wood cut in -Ohio and Indiana has been of greater commercial importance than that -from any other portion of its range, but that has been due, in part, to -the fact that it came into market before the best of the forest growth -had been destroyed in those states, and instead of burning it or mauling -it into rails, as eastern farmers did in early times, the farmers of the -Ohio valley sold their walnut. Early in the history of black walnut -lumbering, Indiana and Ohio came to the front as the most important -sources of supply, and they still hold that position, notwithstanding -the original forests of those states were supposed to be nearly -exhausted long ago. The states cutting most black walnut in 1910, in the -order named, were Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, -Missouri, West Virginia, Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Iowa. - -During the period from 1860 to 1880 black walnut was in much demand for -furniture, and the largest yearly cut was 125,000,000 feet. It was -during that period of twenty years that operators pushed into all of the -out-of-the-way places in search of the timber. Logs were hauled on -wagons long distances to bring them out of remote valleys and slopes -where no timber buyer had ever gone before. The walnut buyers made such -a thorough canvas of the country that it was generally supposed no -merchantable tree from Kansas to Virginia would escape. Many a dooryard -giant whose wide branches had shaded the family roof for generations, -fell before the ax of the contractor who was willing to pay fifty -dollars for a single trunk, though it might be twenty miles from the -nearest railroad or navigable stream. In spite of the thoroughness of -the search, many a walnut tree was spared. Logs have been going to -market ever since, and still they go. They will continue to go for -years, generations, and centuries; for walnut trees grow with rapidity. - -The trunk's value increases with age. The dark colored heartwood only is -merchantable, and young trees have little heartwood. The thick, white -sap constitutes most of the trunk until long after the tree has reached -small sawlog size. Then the transformation to the dark, valuable -heartwood goes on with fair rapidity, and the outer shell of sapwood -becomes thinner as the heart increases, and in time a trunk is produced -which is fit for good logs. Value comes only with age. The quarter or -half a century which has passed since the country was so diligently -ransacked for merchantable walnut, has been sufficient to develop many a -tree which was then rejected by the purchasers. Many a tree now a foot -in diameter had scarcely sprouted then. In a region of 700,000 square -miles, walnut trees do not need to grow very close together to produce a -yearly cut of 30,000,000 or 40,000,000 feet. - -Black walnut is valuable for its color, figure, and the fine polish it -takes. It is stronger than white oak, weight for weight, but it is eight -pounds lighter per cubic foot. The figure of the wood is due wholly to -the annual rings, as its medullary rays are invisible to the naked eye. -The wood is very porous, and the pores are diffused in all parts of the -annual rings, except in the thin, pencil-like mark representing the -outward boundary of the summerwood. When sapwood changes to heartwood, -some of the pores disappear, but those which remain are abundantly -sufficient to absorb any stains or fillers which the wood finisher may -wish to apply. - -The annual sawmill cut of black walnut in the United States is from -35,000,000 to 40,000,000 feet, but much goes to foreign countries in the -log, and a considerable quantity goes to veneer mills--about 2,500,000 -feet a year--and a quantity finds its way to various factories where it -is worked up without any statistical record being made of it. - -Black walnut is never used as rough lumber. It all goes to factories of -some kind to be converted into finished commodities. It is not possible -to say where it all goes, for statistics of manufacture are fragmentary -in this country. It may be of interest to know that demand for walnut by -factories in the following states was 11,641,137 feet in 1910: Alabama, -Arkansas, Illinois, Kentucky, Maryland, Massachusetts, Missouri, North -Carolina, and Texas. The wood served so many purposes that a list of -them would be monotonous. In Illinois the largest users are the sewing -machine and the musical instrument industries; in Michigan the makers of -automobiles and of musical instruments; in Kentucky the manufacturers of -coffins, furniture, and musical instruments; in Massachusetts, the -makers of furniture and of firearms. These uses probably afford a fairly -accurate index for the whole country. During the Civil war the largest -demand for walnut came from gunstock makers. Doubtless the largest use -from 1865 to 1885 was for furniture. - -Much of the best black walnut is exported. The logs are flattened on the -four sides to make them fit better in ships and cars, and also to be rid -of most of the sapwood which is valueless. The ends are painted with red -lead or some other substance to lessen liability to check. Sometimes -export walnut is sawed in thick planks. - -Large quantities of old-time walnut furniture have been resurrected in -recent years from granary and garret where it was stored long ago to -have it out of the way. Some of the old beds, lounges, cupboards, and -chairs were of heavy, solid walnut, the kind not made now. Some of it -has been furbished, re-upholstered, and set among the heirlooms; other -pieces have been sold to furniture makers who saw the solid wood in -veneers, and use it again. - -The search for old walnut did not stop with dragging antique furniture -from cubbyholes and attics, but two-inch lumber has been pulled from -floors of old barns, and mills. Many old fence rails were made into gun -stocks during the Civil war. Later, walnut stumps were pulled from field -and wayside, and went to veneer mills. Some finely figured wood comes -from stumps where roots and trunk join. - -An occasional walnut tree develops a large burl which is valued for its -figured wood. Sometimes the burl is the form of a door knob, with the -tree trunk growing through the center. The burl sometimes has a diameter -three or four times as great as the trunk. The origin of such burls is -supposed to be a mass of buds which fail to break through the bark. - -Black walnut has a compound leaf from one to two feet long, with from -fifteen to twenty-three leaflets, each about three inches long and an -inch or two wide. The nuts ripen in the fall, and are valuable. They are -borne chiefly by trees growing in open ground; forest trees do not bear -until old, and then only a few nuts. The walnuts which germinate are -usually those buried by squirrels, and forgotten. - -Within the past twenty or thirty years plantations have been made in -states of the Middle West. Many young planted trees have been cut for -fence posts, with disappointing results. It was known that old walnut is -durable, and it was supposed young trunks would be, when used for posts; -but young trees are nearly all sapwood which rots quickly. - -Forest grown walnut trees vary in size from a diameter of two feet and a -height of fifty, to a diameter of six or more and a height of 100 or -120. Trunks which grow in the shade are tall, clear, and symmetrical; -those in the open are shorter, with more taper. - - PALE-LEAF HICKORY (_Hicoria villosa_) is a small tree but large - enough to be useful wherever it exists in sufficient quantity. The - largest specimens attain a height of fifty feet and a diameter of - eighteen inches. The tree bears nuts when very small, and the kernel - is sweet. The bark of this hickory is rough but not shaggy. The - range extends from New Jersey to Florida and west to Missouri and - Texas. It is most abundant in the lower Appalachian ranges. The wood - possesses the common characteristics of the hickories, and it is cut - with them wherever it is found, but is seldom or never reported - separately in lumber operations. - - SMALL PIGNUT HICKORY (_Hicoria odorata_) is considered a species by - some botanists while others regard it as a variety. It is called - small pignut in Maryland, and occasionally little shagbark. This - last name refers to the roughness of the bark which resembles the - bark of elm. The range of the tree extends from Massachusetts to - Missouri and south to the Ohio and the Potomac rivers. The wood - differs little from that of pignut hickory, and the uses are the - same. No distinction is made between them at the shop and factory. - This tree is by some botanists believed to be a hybrid between - shagbark and pignut. It is sometimes called false shagbark. The nut - is edible. - -[Illustration] - - - - -BUTTERNUT - -[Illustration: BUTTERNUT] - - - - -BUTTERNUT - -(_Juglans Cinerea_) - - -This tree is known as butternut or as white walnut in all parts of its -range. Butternut is in reference to the oily kernel of the nuts, and -white walnut is the name given by those who would distinguish the tree -from black walnut. Persons acquainted with one of the species in its -native woods are usually sure to be acquainted with the other, for their -ranges are practically co-extensive, except that black walnut extends -farther southwest, butternut farther northeast. Butternut grows from New -Brunswick to South Dakota, from Delaware to Arkansas, and along the -Appalachian highlands to northern Georgia and Alabama. - -Butternut resembles black walnut in a good many ways and differs from it -in several. They are very closely related botanically--as closely as are -brothers in the same household. Black walnut is larger, stronger, better -known, and has always dominated and eclipsed the other in usefulness and -public esteem; yet butternut is a tree both useful and interesting. No -person acquainted with both would ever mistake one for the other, winter -or summer. Botanists tell how to distinguish butternut from black walnut -by noting minor differences. The person who is not a botanist needs no -such help. He knows them at sight, and there is no possibility of -mistaking them. - -Butternut in the forest may attain a height of eighty or 100 feet, and a -diameter of three, but few persons ever see a specimen of that size, and -never in open ground. In shade, the butternut does its best to get its -crown up to light and sunshine, but it is weak. It often gives up the -struggle and remains in the shade of trees which overtop it. In that -situation its crown is small, thin, and appears to rest lightly in the -form of a small bunch of yellowish-green leaves on the top of a tall, -spindling bole, which is seldom straight, but is made up of slight, -undulating curves. The pale, yellowish tinge of the bark suggests a -plant deprived of sunshine. - -When butternut grows in open ground where light falls upon its crown and -on all sides, it assumes a different form and presents another figure. -The trunk is nearly as short as that of an apple tree. It divides in -large branches and limbs, and these spread wide; leaves are healthy, yet -the crown of a butternut always looks thin compared with that of the -black walnut. Tests show that butternut wood, when thoroughly dry, is -somewhat stiffer than black walnut; but it is light and weak. It is -about two-thirds as heavy and two-thirds as strong as black walnut. The -growing tree betrays the wood's weakness. Large limbs snap in storms. -Trees become lopsided, and a symmetrical, well-proportioned butternut -crown is an exception. The broken branches leave openings for the -entrance of decay, and butternuts nearly always die of disease rather -than of old age. - -Leaves are compound, and from fifteen to thirty inches in length. Few -trees of this country have larger leaves. There are from eleven to -seventeen leaflets. They are hairy and sticky. Hands that handle them -are covered with mucilage-like substance. The nuts, which grow in -clusters of three or five, are of the same color as the leaves and -covered with the same sticky fuzz. The nuts are two inches or more in -length, and are borne abundantly when trees stand in open ground. Size -rather than age appears to determine the period when trees commence to -bear. Those of extra vigor produce when ten or twelve years old. The -nuts are salable in the market. They fall with the leaves, immediately -after the first sharp frost, and all come down together. A single day -frequently suffices to strip the last leaf from a tree, though some of -the nuts may hang a little longer. The kernels are very rich, when the -nuts are dry, and are apt to cloy the appetite; but they are improved by -freezing where they lie on the ground among the leaves; but they must be -used quickly after they thaw, or they will spoil. Nuts nearly full-grown -but not yet hard are made into pickles, but the fuzz must first be -washed off with hot water. - -Butternut bark has played a rather important role in the country's -affairs. Doctors in the Revolutionary war made much of their medicine of -the roots and bark of this tree. Drugs were unattainable, and physicians -were forced to betake themselves to the woods for substitutes, and their -pharmacopoeias were enriched by the butternut tree. Housewives dyed -cloth a brown color with this bark long before aniline dyes found their -way into this country. Whole companies of Confederate soldiers from the -mountain regions in the Civil war wore clothes dyed in decoctions of -butternut bark, and popularly known as "butternut jeans." - -The annual output of butternut lumber is placed at a little more than -1,000,000 feet a year. It is widely used, but in small amounts. In -Maryland it is made into ceiling and flooring; in North Carolina into -cabinet work, fixtures for stores and offices, and into furniture; in -Michigan its reported uses are boat finish, interior finish for houses, -molding, and screen frames. In Illinois it is used for all the purposes -listed above and also for church altars and car finish. These uses are -doubtless typical, and hold good in all parts of the country where any -use is made of butternut. - -The wood has figure similar to that of black walnut, but the color is -lighter. It is nearer brown than black. The pores are diffused through -the annual ring, but are more numerous and of larger size in the inner -than in the outer part. The springwood blends gradually with the wood of -the latter part of the season, without sharp distinction, but the ring -terminates in a black line which is the chief element of contrast in the -wood's figure. - -The future value of butternut will be less in the lumber than in the -nuts. The tendency in that direction is now apparent. When land is -cleared, the trees which would formerly have gone to the sawmill, are -now left to bear nuts. The averaged price paid by factories in North -Carolina for butternut is $40 a thousand feet. It is cheaper in the Lake -States. - - MEXICAN WALNUT (_Juglans rupestris_) will never amount to much as a - timber tree, though it is by no means useless. It is known by - several names, among them being western walnut, dwarf walnut, little - walnut, and California walnut. The last name is applied in Arizona - through a misunderstanding of the tree's identity. It is there - confused with the California walnut which is a different species. - The Mexican walnut's range extends from central Texas, through New - Mexico to Arizona, and southward into Mexico. It prefers the - limestone banks of streams in Texas where it is usually shrubby, - seldom attaining a height above thirty feet. It reaches its largest - size in canyons among the mountains of New Mexico and Arizona where - it reaches a height of sixty feet. Trunks are sometimes five feet in - diameter. The wood weighs 40.85 pounds per cubic foot, is dark in - color, but the tone is not as regular as that of black walnut; - neither is it as strong and stiff. It polishes well, and is said to - be durable in contact with the soil. It finds its way in small - amounts to local mills, shops, and factories where it is made into - various commodities. It is particularly liked for the lathe, and is - suited better for turnery than for any other purpose. It is made - into gavels, cups, spindles, parts of grills; and it is also worked - into picture frames, handles, and small pieces of furniture. It does - not appear that lumber sawed from this walnut ever gets into the - general market, but the whole output, which is small, is consumed - locally. Trees do not occur in pure stands and the whole supply - consists of isolated trees or small groups, with few trunks large - enough for sawlogs. The nuts are dwarfs. All are not the same size, - but none are as large as a hickory nut. Many that grow on the - diminutive trees along the water courses in western Texas are not as - large, husks and all, as a nutmeg, and the nut itself is about half - the size of a nutmeg, and not dissimilar in appearance. The kernels - of such a nut are too small to have any commercial value, but they - are rare morsels for the native Mexicans and Indians who pick them - by pocketfuls. Trees in the stony canyon of Devil's river, in Texas, - are in full bearing when so small that a man can stand on the ground - and pick walnuts from their highest branches. The Mexican walnut is - occasionally cultivated in the eastern part of the United States and - in Europe. It is hardy as far north as Massachusetts. - - CALIFORNIA WALNUT (_Juglans californica_) is a small tree confined - to California, and pretty close to the coast, though it grows in - Eldorado county. It is most abundant within twenty or thirty miles - of tidewater. In the southern part of the state it ascends to an - elevation of 4,000 feet. It prefers the banks of streams and the - bottoms of canyons where the soil is moist, but it will grow in dry - situations. Trees occur singly or in small groups. Their average - size is fifteen or twenty feet high, and eight or ten inches in - diameter; but trees occasionally are sixty feet high and eighteen - inches through. The leaves are small, measuring from six to nine - inches in length, with from nine to seventeen leaflets. Nuts are - about half the size of eastern black walnuts. The kernel is edible. - The wood is heavier than black walnut, and somewhat lighter in - color. Otherwise the two woods are much alike, except in strength - and stiffness. In these the California wood is inferior. It has not - been reported for any use, but it is suitable for a number of - purposes, provided logs of sufficient size could be had. The trunk, - in addition to being small, is usually short. The tree is intolerant - of shade, and is not often found in forests. It grows rapidly and - will attain a diameter of fifteen inches in twenty years or less; - but it apparently does not live long. Its principal usefulness in - California is as a shade tree, and as a stock in nurseries on which - to graft English walnut. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SHAGBARK HICKORY - -[Illustration: SHAGBARK HICKORY] - - - - -SHAGBARK HICKORY - -(_Hicoria Ovata_) - - -Twelve species of hickory grow in the United States, all east of the -Rocky Mountains. None grow anywhere else in the world, as far as known. -They were widely dispersed over the northern hemisphere in prehistoric -times. The records of geology, written by leaf prints in the rocks, tell -of forests of hickory in Europe, and even in Greenland, probably a -hundred thousand or more years ago, and certainly not in times that can -be called recent. No records there later than the ice age have been -found. This leads to the presumption that the sheet of ice which pushed -down from the North and covered the larger portions of Europe and North -America, overwhelmed the hickory forests, and all others, as far as the -southern limit of the ice's advance. - -In Europe the hickory was utterly destroyed, and it never returned after -the close of the reign of ice; but America was more fortunate. The ice -sheet pushed little farther in its southward course than the Ohio and -Missouri rivers, and forests south of there held their ground, and they -slowly worked their way back north as the ice withdrew. Hickory -recovered part but not all of its lost ground in America, for it is now -found no farther north than southern Canada, which is more than a -thousand miles from its old range in Greenland. - -The early settlers in New England and in the South at once came into -contact with hickory. It was one of the first woods named in this -country, and the name is of Indian origin, and is spelled in no fewer -than seventeen ways in early literature relating to the settlements. It -is probable that John Smith, a prominent man in early Virginia and New -England, was the first man who ever wrote the name. He spelled it as the -Indians pronounced it, "powcohiscora," and it has been trimmed down to -our word hickory. The Indian word was the name of a salad or soup made -of pounded hickory nuts and water, and was only indirectly applied to -the tree itself. - -The first settlers along the Atlantic coast nearly always called this -tree a walnut, and the name white walnut was common. They were -unacquainted with any similar nut-bearing tree in Europe, except the -walnut, and most people preferred applying a name with which they were -already familiar. Hickories and walnuts belong to the same family, and -have many points in common. - -Although there are twelve hickories in the United States, and in many -respects they are similar, all are not of equal value. Some are very -scarce, and the wood of others is not up to standard. From a commercial -standpoint, four surpass the others. These are shagbark (_Hicoria -ovata_), shellbark (_Hicoria laciniosa_), pignut (_Hicoria glabra_), and -mockernut (_Hicoria alba_). The wood of some of the others is as good, -but is scarce; and still others, particularly the pecans, are abundant -enough, but the wood is inferior. It is impossible in business to -separate the hickories. Lumbermen do not do it; manufacturers cannot do -it. In some regions one is more abundant than the others, and -consequently is used in larger quantities, but in some other region a -different species may predominate in the forest and in the factory. It -cannot be truthfully asserted that one hickory is always as good as -another, or even that a certain species in one region is as good as the -same species in another region. All parts of the same tree do not -produce wood of equal value. - -Along certain general lines, hickories have many properties in common. -The wood is ring-porous, that is, the inner edge of the yearly growth -ring has a row of large pores. Others are scattered toward the outer -part of the ring, generally decreasing in number and size outward. There -is no distinct division between spring and summerwood. The medullary -rays are thin and obscure. The unaided eye seldom notices them. The -sapwood is white in all species of hickory, and is usually very thick. -The heartwood is reddish. Common opinion has long held that sapwood is -tougher and more elastic than heartwood, and therefore to be preferred -for most purposes. Tests made a few years ago by the United States -Forest Service ran counter to the long-established opinion of users, by -showing that in most respects the redwood of the heart was as good as -the white sapwood. However, where resiliency is the chief requisite, as -in slender handles, many manufacturers still prefer sapwood. - -Hickory is very strong, probably the strongest wood in common use in -this country. The statement that one wood is stronger than all others is -hardly justified because averages of strength should be taken, and not -isolated instances. Satisfactory averages have not yet been worked out -for a large number of our woods; but, as far as existing figures may be -accepted, hickory is at the head of the list for strength, toughness, -and resiliency. Choice samples of certain woods may exceed the average -of hickory in some of these particulars. Sugar maple, hornbeam, and -locust occasionally show greater strength than hickory, but they lack in -toughness and resiliency--the very properties which give hickory its -chief value for many purposes. - -Considerable misunderstanding exists as to second growth hickory. Some -suppose it consists of trees of commercial size developed from sprouts -where old trees have been cut. That is not generally correct. When -small hickory trees are cut, the stumps often sprout, but hoop poles are -about the only commodity made from that kind of hickory. If sprouts are -left to grow large, the trees produced are generally defective. Good -hickory grows from the nut. The term "second growth" means little, -unless it is explained in each instance just what conditions are -included. In one sense, all young, vigorous trees are second growth, and -that is often the idea in the mind of the speaker. Some would restrict -it to trees which have come up in old fields or partial clearings, where -they have plenty of light, and have grown rapidly. Their trunks are -short, the wood is tough, and there is little red heartwood. The larger -a pine, oak, or poplar, provided it is sound, the better the wood; but -not so with hickory. Great age and large size add no desirable qualities -to this wood. - -Shagbark is largest of the true hickories. The pecans are not usually -regarded as true hickories from the wood-user's viewpoint. Some -shagbarks are 120 feet high and four feet in diameter, but the average -size is about seventy-five tall, two in diameter. There is confusion of -names among all the hickories, and shagbark is misnamed and over-named -as often as any of the others. Many persons do not know shagbark and -shellbark apart, though the ranges of the two species lie only partly in -the same territory. Shagbark is known as shellbark hickory, shagbark -hickory, shellbark, upland hickory, hickory, scaly bark hickory, white -walnut, walnut, white hickory, and red heart hickory. Most of the names -refer to the bark, which separates into thin strips, often a foot or -more long, and six inches or more wide; and this remains more or less -closely attached to the trunk by the middle, giving the shaggy -appearance to which the tree owes its common name. - -The leaf-buds are large and ovate, with yellowish-green and brown -scales. The leaves are compound and alternate; they have rough stalks -containing five or seven leaflets; they are sessile, tapering to a point -and having a rounded base. The lower pair of leaflets is markedly -different from the rest in shape; sharply serrate and thin; dark green -and glabrous above; lighter below. The flowers do not appear until the -leaves have fully matured. They grow in catkins; the staminate ones are -light green, slender, and grow in groups of three on long peduncles; the -pistillate ones grow in spikes of from two to five flowers. The fruit -grows within a dense, green husk, shiny and smooth on the outside, -opening in four parts. The nut is nearly white, four-angled, and -flattened at the sides. The kernel is sweet and of a strong flavor. - -This tree's range is not much short of 1,000,000 square miles, but it is -not equally abundant in all parts. It grows from southern Maine to -western Florida; is found in Minnesota and Nebraska, and southward -beyond the Mississippi. It is most common and of largest size on the -western slopes of the southern Appalachian mountains and in the basin of -the lower Ohio river. Its favorite habitat is on low hills, or near -streams and swamps, in rich and moderately well drained soil. - -The hickories have long tap roots, and they do best in soils which the -tap roots can penetrate, going down like a radish. The root system makes -most hickories difficult trees to transplant. Early in life they do a -large part of their growing under ground, and when that growth is -interrupted, as it must be in transplanting, the young tree seldom -recovers. Those who would grow hickories for timber, nuts, or as -ornaments, should plant the seed where the tree is expected to remain. -Most of the planting of hickory in the forest is done by squirrels which -bury nuts, with the apparent expectation of digging them up later. -Occasionally one is missed, and a young tree starts. - -The uses of this wood are typical of all the other hickories. Handles -and light vehicles consume most of it. The markets are in all parts of -this country, and in manufacturing centers in many foreign lands. - -[Illustration] - - - - -BITTERNUT HICKORY - -[Illustration: BITTERNUT HICKORY] - - - - -BITTERNUT HICKORY - -(_Hicoria Minima_) - - -The tannin in the thin shelled nuts which grow abundantly on this tree -gives the name bitternut. The name is truly descriptive. Gall itself -scarcely exceeds the intense bitterness of the kernel, when crushed -between the teeth. The sense of taste does not immediately detect the -bitterness in its full intensity. A little time seems to be necessary to -dissolve the astringent principal and distribute it to the nerves of -taste. When this has been accomplished, the bitterness remains a long -time, seeming to persist after the last vestige of the cause has been -removed. In that respect it may be likened to the resin of the incense -cedar of California which is among tastes what musk is among odors, -nearly everlasting. The bitterness of this hickory nut has much to do -with the perpetuation of the species. No wild or tame animal will eat -the fruit unless forced by famine. Consequently, the nuts are left to -grow, provided they can get themselves planted. That is not always easy, -for small quadrupeds which bury edible nuts for food, and then -occasionally forget them, show no interest whatever in the unpalatable -bitternut. It is left where it falls, unless running water, or some -other method of locomotion, transports it to another locality. This -happens with sufficient frequency to plant the nuts as widely as those -of any other hickory. It is believed that this is the most abundant of -the hickories. - -The tree bears names other than bitternut. It is called swamp hickory, -though that name is more applicable to a different species, the water -hickory. Pig hickory or pignut are names used in several states, but -without good reason. Hogs may sometimes eat the nuts, but never when -anything better can be found. Besides, pignut is the accepted name of -another species (_Hicoria glabra_). In Louisiana they call it the bitter -pecan tree. Bitter hickory is a common name in many localities. In New -Hampshire it is known as pig walnut, in Vermont as bitter walnut, and in -Texas as white hickory. The names are so many, and so often apply as -well to other hickories as to this, that the name alone is seldom a safe -guide to identification. It has two or three characters which will help -to pick it out from among others. Its leaves and bark bear considerable -resemblance to ash. The leaves are the smallest among the hickories, and -the bark is never shaggy. The small branches always carry yellow buds, -no matter what the season of the year. The compound leaves are from six -to ten inches long, and consist of from five to nine leaflets, always an -odd number. - -Bitternut hickory's range covers pretty generally the eastern part of -the United States. It is one of the largest and commonest hickories of -New England, and is likewise the common hickory of Kansas, Nebraska, and -Iowa. It grows from Maine through southern Canada to Minnesota, follows -down the western side of the Mississippi valley to Texas, and extends -into western Florida. - -Hickory is often lumbered in ways not common with other hardwoods. It is -not generally found in ordinary lumber yards, and is not cut into lumber -as most other woods are. It is in a class by itself. The person who -would consult statistics of lumber cut in the United States to ascertain -the quantity of hickory going to market, would utterly fail to obtain -the desired information. The statistics of lumber cut in the United -States for the year 1910 listed the total for hickory at 272,252,000 -feet, distributed among 33 states, and cut by 6,349 mills. Reports by -users of this wood in a number of states show that probably twice as -much goes to factories to be manufactured into finished commodities, as -all the sawmills cut. This means that much hickory goes to factories -without having passed through sawmills to be first converted into -lumber. It goes as bolts and billets, and as logs of various lengths. -Some sawmills in the hickory region cut dimension stock and sell it to -factories to be further worked up; but that is a comparatively small -part of the hickory that finds its way to factories of various kinds. -Many sawmills refuse to cut hickory, claiming that it does not pay them -to specialize on a scarce wood. Scattered trees occur among other -timber, but these are left when the other logging is done. Special -operators go after the hickory, and distribute it among various -industries which are in the market for it. That method often results in -much waste, because the man who is specializing in one commodity, such -as wagon poles, ax handles, sucker-rods, wheel stock, or the like, is -apt to cut out only what meets his requirements, and abandon the rest. -Some of the hickory camps where such stock is roughed out are spectacles -of carelessness and waste, with heaps of rejected hickory which, though -not meeting requirements for the special articles in view, are valuable -for many other things. Few woods contribute to the trash heap more in -proportion to the total cut than hickory; but the waste nearly all -occurs before the factories which finally work up the products are -reached. These factories are often hundreds of miles from the forests -where the hickory grows. - -Hickory was not a useful farm timber in early times, as oak and chestnut -were. It decayed quickly when exposed to weather, and was not suitable -for fence rails, posts, house logs, or general lumber. It was sometimes -used for barn floors, but when seasoned it was so hard to nail that it -was not well liked. The pioneers were not able to use this wood to -advantage, because it is a manufacturer's material, not a farmer's or a -villager's standby. It can be said to the credit of the pioneers, -however, that they knew its value for certain purposes, and employed as -much of it as they needed. - -Fuel was the most important place for hickory on the farm. All things -considered, it is probably the best firewood of the American forest. The -yawning fireplaces called for cords of wood every month of winter in the -northern states. Enough to make a modern buggy would go up the chimney -in a rich red blaze in an hour, and no one thought that it was waste; -and it was not waste then, because farms had to be cleared, and firewood -was the best use possible for the hickory at that time. Every cord -burned in the chimney was that much less to be rolled into logheaps and -consumed in the clearing for the new cornfield. - -Hickory has always been considered the best material for smoking meat. -More than 30,000 cords a year are now used that way. It was so used in -early times, when every farmer smoked and packed his own meat. Hickory -smoke was supposed to give bacon a flavor equalled by no other wood; and -in addition to that it was believed to keep the skippers out. - -The nuts were made into oil which was thought to be efficacious as a -liniment employed as a remedy against rheumatism to which pioneers were -susceptible because their moccasins were porous and their feet were -often wet. The oil was used also for illuminating purposes. It fed the -flame of a crude lamp. - -No other wood equalled hickory for "split brooms," the kind that swept -the cabins before broom corn was known or carpet sweepers and vacuum -cleaners were invented. The toughness, smoothness, and strength of -hickory made it the best oxbow wood, and the same property fitted it for -barrel hoops. Thousands of fish casks in New England and tobacco -hogsheads in Maryland and Virginia were hooped with hickory before -George Washington was born. The wood's value for ax handles was learned -early. The Indians used it for the long, slender handles of their stone -hammers with which they barked trees in their clearings, and broke the -skulls of enemies in war. - -Bitternut hickory has about ninety-two per cent of the strength of -shagbark, and seventy-three per cent of its stiffness. It yields -considerably more ash when burned, and is rated a little lower in fuel -value. - - MOCKER NUT HICKORY (_Hicoria alba_) has many names. It is called - mocker nut in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, - Delaware, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, - Illinois, Iowa, and Kansas; white heart hickory, Rhode Island, New - York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, North Carolina, Texas, Illinois, - Ontario, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, and Nebraska; black hickory, - Texas, Mississippi, Louisiana, Missouri; big bud and red hickory, - Florida; hardback hickory, Illinois; white hickory, Pennsylvania, - South Carolina; big hickory nut, West Virginia; hognut, Delaware. - The name mocker nut is supposed to refer to the thick shell and - disappointingly small kernel within. The range is not as extensive - as some of the other hickories. Beginning in southern Ontario, it - extends westward and southward to eastern Kansas and the eastern - half of Texas. The region of its most abundant growth is in the - basin of the lower Ohio and in Arkansas, the best specimens - appearing in fertile uplands. This is said to be the only hickory - that invades the southern maritime pinebelt, growing on the low - country along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts in abundance. The leaves - are fragrant with a powerful, resinous odor; they have five or seven - leaflets with hairy petioles or stems. The bark resembles that of - bitternut, and is not scaly like that of shagbark. The wood weighs - 51.21 pounds per cubic foot. It is hard, strong, tough, flexible. It - has about ninety-four per cent of the strength of shagbark, and - eighty per cent of its stiffness. Certain selected specimens of this - species are probably as strong as any hickory; but, as is the case - with all woods, there is great difference between specimens, and - general averages only are to be relied upon. G. W. Letterman, who - collected woods for Sargent's tests, procured a sample of this - hickory near Allenton, Missouri, which showed strength sufficient to - sustain 20,000 pounds per square inch, and its measure of stiffness - was the enormous figure of 2,208,000 pounds per square inch. - - The uses of mocker nut hickory do not differ from those of other - hickories. The tree is frequently nearly all sapwood, to which the - name white hickory is due. Some persons suppose that the heartwood - is white, but that misconception is due to the fact that some pretty - large trees have no heartwood, but are sap clear through. - - The term "black hickory" is sometimes applied to three species with - dark-colored bark which bears some resemblance to the bark of ash. - They are bitternut (_Hicoria minima_), pignut (_Hicoria glabra_), - and mocker nut (_Hicoria alba_). When the word black is thus used, - it refers to the bark and the general outward appearance of the - tree, and not to the wood, which is as white as that of any other - hickory. - -[Illustration] - - - - -PIGNUT HICKORY - -[Illustration: PIGNUT HICKORY] - - - - -PIGNUT HICKORY - -(_Hicoria Glabra_) - - -The name of this tree is unfortunate, although so far as the nuts are -concerned, no injustice is done. It is one of the best hickories in the -quality of its wood, and also as an ornamental tree. It is likewise -abundant in many parts of its range, which extends from Maine to Kansas, -Texas, Florida, and throughout most of the territory enclosed by the -boundary lines thus delimited. - -The name pignut is common in New England, New York, New Jersey, -Pennsylvania, Delaware, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, -Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, Kentucky, -Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, and -Minnesota; bitternut in Arkansas, Illinois, Iowa, and Wisconsin; black -hickory in Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, and -Indiana; broom hickory in Missouri; brown hickory in Mississippi, -Delaware, Texas, Tennessee, Minnesota; hardshell in West Virginia; red -hickory in Delaware; switch bud hickory in Alabama; and white hickory in -New Hampshire and Iowa. - -The nuts are generally bitter, but some trees bear fruit which is not -very offensive to the taste. The avidity with which swine feed upon it -gives the common name. This tree is doubtless confused many times with -bitternut, though their differences are enough to distinguish them -readily if they grow side by side. As far as the woods of the two -species are concerned, there is little occasion to keep them separate. -The pignut is a forked tree more frequently than any other species of -hickory; and the nuts vary in shape and size more than those of any -other. The tree is more remarkable for its variations than for its -regularity. In one thing, however, it is pretty constant: the limbs and -branches are smooth and clean, hence the botanical name _glabra_. As a -name for this tree, smooth hickory would be preferable to pignut. Trunks -attain a height of eighty or ninety feet and a diameter of three or -four, but the extreme sizes are rare. The largest specimens are found in -the lower Ohio valley, and the species is most common in Missouri and -Arkansas. It grows farther south and farther west than any other hickory -except pecan. Its southern limit is in Florida and its western in Texas. - -The uses of hickory fall into general classes. More is manufactured into -vehicles than into any other single class of commodities, but not more -than into all other articles combined. The second largest users of -hickory are the manufacturers of handles. The third largest demand comes -from makers of agricultural implements and farm tools. Large amounts -are required for athletic goods, meat smoking, and various miscellaneous -purposes. The total amount used yearly in this country, and exported to -foreign countries, is not accurately known, but it probably exceeds -500,000,000 feet, board measure. About half of this passes through -sawmills in the usual manner, and the other half goes directly from the -forest to the factory or to the consumer. - -The superiority of American buggies, sulkies, and other light vehicles -is due to the hickory in their construction. No other wood equals this -in combination of desirable physical properties. Though heavy, it is so -strong, tough, and resilient that small amounts suffice, and the weight -of the vehicle can be reduced to a lower point, without sacrificing -efficiency, than when any other wood is employed. It is preeminently a -wood for light vehicles. Oak, ash, maple, and elm answer well enough for -heavy wagons where strength is more essential than toughness and -elasticity. Hickory is suitable for practically all wooden parts of -light vehicles except the body. The slender spokes look like frail -dowels, and seem unable to maintain the load, but appearances are -deceptive. The bent rims are likewise very slender, but they last better -than steel. The shafts and poles with which carriages and carts are -equipped will stand severe strains and twists without starting a -splinter. The manufacturing of the stock is little less than a fine art. -In scarcely any other wood-using industry--probably excepting the making -of handles--is the grain so closely watched. Hickory users generally -speak of the annual growth rings as the grain. The grain must run -straight in spokes, rims, shafts, and poles. If the grain crosses the -stick, a break may occur by the simple process of splitting, and the -hickory in that case is no more dependable than many other woods. - -Handle makers observe the same rule, and must have straight grain. The -more slender the handle, the more strictly the rule must be followed. A -cross grained golf club handle would fail at the first stroke. An ax -handle, if it has cross grain, will last a little longer, but it will -speedily split. Many of the best slender handles are of split hickory. -The line of cleavage follows the grain, but a saw does not always do so. -Heavy handles, like those for picks and sledges, are not so strictly -straight grained, because they are made strong enough to stand much more -strain than is ever likely to be put on them. Red heartwood is -frequently used in handles of that kind. Peavey and canthook handles are -generally split from billets, because the grain must be straight. Though -they are among the largest and heaviest of handles, breakage must be -guarded against with extra care, for the snap of a peavey handle at a -critical moment might cost the operator his life by precipitating a -skidway of logs upon him. - -The hickory which goes into agricultural implements fills many places, -among the most important being connecting rods. It is often made into -springs to take up or check oscillation. It is used for that purpose as -picker sticks in textile mills. - -Furniture makers could get along without hickory, and they do not need -much. It is oftenest seen in dowels, slender spindles, and the rungs of -chairs. The makers of sporting and athletic goods bend it for rackets, -hoops, and rims, or make vaulting poles, bats, or trapezes. - -SHELLBARK HICKORY (_Hicoria laciniosa_) is often mistaken for shagbark. -The ranges of the two species coincide in part only. Shagbark grows -farther east, north and south than shellbark. The latter occupies an -island, as it were, inside the shagbark's range. Shellbark is found from -central New York and eastern Pennsylvania, westward to Kansas, and -southward to North Carolina and middle Tennessee. The species is at its -best in the lower Ohio valley and in Missouri. The largest trees are 120 -feet high and three in diameter, and are often free from branches half -or two-thirds of the length. The species prefers rich, deep bottom -lands, and does not suffer from occasional inundation from overflowing -rivers. The average tree is not quite as large as shagbark. The leaves -are larger than those of any other hickory, ranging in length from -fifteen to twenty-two inches. There are from five to nine leaflets, -usually seven. The upper ones are largest, and may be eight or nine -inches long and four or five wide. In the autumn the leaflets drop from -the petioles which adhere to the branches and furnish means of -identifying the tree in winter. The nuts including the hulls are as -large as small apples. When ripe, the hulls open and the nuts fall out; -but the hulls fall also. The nuts are as large as shagbark nuts, but the -two are seldom distinguished in market, though the shagbark's are a -little richer in flavor. The bark's roughness gives the tree its name. -Strips three or four feet long and five or six inches wide curl up at -the lower ends--sometimes at both ends--and adhere to the trunk several -years. The species has other names. It is known as big shellbark in -Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Kentucky, Missouri, Illinois, -and Kansas; bottom shellbark in Illinois; western shellbark or simply -shellbark in Rhode Island and Kentucky; thick shellbark in South -Carolina, Indiana, and Tennessee; kingnut in Tennessee. - -The wood weighs 50.53 pounds per cubic foot, and is very hard, strong, -tough, and flexible. The heartwood is dark brown, the sapwood nearly -white. This hickory usually has less sapwood in proportion to heart than -other members of the species; but the wood is not kept separate from the -others when it goes to market, and its uses are as extensive as the -other hickories'. It is believed by some foresters that shellbark -hickory is worth cultivating for its nuts, as it is a vigorous bearer; -but little planting has been done. East of the Alleghanies, particularly -in Virginia, some planting has been carried out on old plantations for -ornamental purposes. On account of its long taproot, the tree is -difficult to transplant, and the nuts should be planted where the trees -are expected to remain. - -[Illustration] - - - - -PECAN - -[Illustration: PECAN] - - - - -PECAN - -(_Hicoria Pecan_) - - -The name is pecan in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Alabama, -Mississippi, Texas, Arkansas, Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, and -Kansas; pecan nut and pecan tree in Louisiana. The name is of Indian -origin, and means walnut. The tree's natural range is smaller than the -present area in which the tree is found, for it has been extensively -planted in recent years. It is found as far north as Iowa, south to -Texas, and east to Alabama and Kentucky. The highest development of the -wild tree is in the lower Ohio valley. Forest trees were once found -there which were said to be six feet in diameter and 170 high. Specimens -that large would be hard to find now. - -The pecan is a hickory. As to wood, it is the poorest of the hickories, -and as to nuts it is the best. Its compound leaves are from twelve to -twenty inches long with from nine to seventeen leaflets. The latter are -from four to eight inches in length, and from one to three wide. The -first pairs on the petiole are smallest. The fruit grows in clusters of -from three to eleven, the number exceeding any other hickory. The nuts -are four-angled, and long for their width. - -The wood of pecan has disappointed those who have attempted to use it -like other hickories. It does not differ much from them in appearance, -but it falls low in mechanical tests. In strength, toughness, and -stiffness it is inferior to the poorest of the other hickories. It has -less than half the strength and half the stiffness of shagbark hickory. -It is a fairly good fuel, but is high in ash. - -The inferior quality of the wood has saved many a pecan tree from the -sawmill and the wagon shop. Fine trunks stand near public highways, -along river banks, and in fields, while all merchantable hickories of -other species have been sent to market. The uses of the wood are few. If -some of it goes to wagon shops or to factories where agricultural -vehicles are made, it is employed for parts which are not required to -endure strain or sustain sudden jars. - -Fortunately it is a tree with a value of another kind. It is the most -important nut tree of the United States at this time, and it promises to -remain so. The forest-grown pecans were an article of food for Indians -who once lived in the region, and though white settlers who succeeded -the Indians as occupants of the land, depended less upon forest fruits -than the red men had done, yet the pecan was often of supreme importance -in the early years of settlement. The nuts have constituted an article -of commerce ever since the region had markets. - -Nurserymen were not slow to recognize the value of the pecan tree for -planting purposes, and nursery grown stock has been on the market many -years. Extensive orchards have been planted in Texas, Louisiana, -Florida, and other southern states, and some of the earliest of these -orchards are now in bearing. However, by far the largest part of pecans -on the market is wild fruit from the forests. Many are shipped in from -Mexico, but most grow in the rich woods of southern states. They are -gathered like chestnuts in northern woods. The people who pick them sell -to local stores at low prices, often taking pay in merchandise. Buyers -collect the stock from country and village merchants, and put it on the -general market, often at three or four times the price paid to the -gatherers of the nuts. - -One of the most important matters connected with pecan is the large -number of horticultural varieties which have been produced by -cultivation and selection. More than seventy have been listed in nursery -catalogues and special reports. Some of the nuts are twice the size of -those of the forest, and shells have been reduced in thinness until some -of them are really thinner than they should be to stand the rough usage -which comes to them in reaching markets. - -Dealers occasionally polish pecans to impart the rich, brown color which -is supposed to give them the appearance of being fresh and of high -grade. The polishing is produced by friction, when the nuts in bulk are -shaken violently. Last year's stock takes on as bright a polish as fresh -stock, and the color and smoothness alone are not sufficient to prove -that pecans are fresh from the trees. - -The planted pecan tree grows rapidly and is as easily raised as fruit -trees. The wild tree is long-lived, and the cultivated varieties will -probably be like it. - - NUTMEG HICKORY (_Hicoria myristicaeformis_) is so named because the - nut has the size and the wrinkled surface of a nutmeg, though the - shape is different. The husk enclosing the nut is almost as thin as - paper. The only other name by which it is known is bitter waternut, - in Louisiana. The name scarcely applies, for the kernel is said not - to be bitter. The range of nutmeg hickory extends from the coast of - South Carolina to Arkansas. It is rather abundant in Arkansas, but - scarce in most other parts of its range. The tree has several - interesting features. It was partly discovered a long time before - the discovery was complete. In 1802 Andre F. Michaux saw the nut and - to that extent the species was discovered, but many years passed - before a full description was given to the world by a competent - botanist. The wood rates among the strongest and stiffest of all the - hickories, according to present information; but the calculations - were based on too few tests to be considered final. Two samples of - wood procured near Bonneau's depot, South Carolina, by W. H. - Revenel, showed the remarkable breaking strength of 19,822 pounds - per square inch, and the measure of stiffness exceeded 2,000,000 - pounds to the square inch. That strength is sixteen per cent above - shagbark. The weight of nutmeg hickory is 46.96 pounds to the cubic - foot. The wood is hard, tough, and compact. The structure, including - pores, medullary rays, annual rings, springwood and summerwood, is - similar to the wood of other hickories. Trees grow best in sandy - soil but near swamps and rivers where there is plenty of water. The - largest trunks are eighty or one hundred feet in height and two in - diameter. When use is made of this hickory it serves the same - purposes as the wood of other trees of the group. It is never - reported separately in statistics of wood utilization. It is too - scarce to be important as a timber tree. It apparently has a future - as an ornament, though it has not yet been widely planted. It has - proved a success in the Carolinas and it thrives in the climate of - Washington, D. C. The luster of its foliage makes it the most - beautiful of the hickories. In common with other members of the - genus, its long taproot renders the transplanting of nursery stock - difficult. - - WATER HICKORY (_Hicoria aquatica_) is known as swamp hickory in - South Carolina, Florida, Mississippi, and Louisiana; bitter pecan in - Mississippi and Louisiana, and water bitternut in Tennessee and - South Carolina. The northern limit of this species is in Virginia - near Mobjack bay, the southern limit in the Caloosa valley, Florida, - west to the Brazos river, Texas, and north to southern Illinois. The - wood is hard, heavy, strong, but rather brittle; the sapwood is - thick and often is nearly white, while the heartwood is dark brown. - It is the most porous of the hickories, and the pores are - distributed generally through the annual rings of growth. In other - hickories they are largely restricted to the inner part of each - ring, though a few are dispersed through all parts. In swamp hickory - there is little difference in appearance between the wood grown - early in the season and that produced later. The tree is a rapid - grower. It is an inhabitant of deep swamps, and if the land is - inundated a considerable part of the year, the tree seems to grow - all the better. At its best it may attain a height of 100 feet, and - a diameter of two, but that size is unusual. The nut is small and - wrinkled, and when broken open, pockets of red bitter powder are - frequently found inside the shell. Usually the nuts are too bitter - to be eaten, but it is said that near the western limit of the - tree's range, nuts are sometimes edible. - - The only reported uses for the wood are fuel and fencing. It is poor - fence material, because, like other hickories, it decays in a short - time when exposed to weather. The wood of this genus is rich in - foods on which decay-producing fungi feed. Fungus is a low order of - plant life which sends its hair-like threads into the wood cells and - consumes the material found there; but numerous insects bore into - wood to procure food. Few woods suffer from such attacks more than - hickory. Even after it is seasoned and manufactured into - commodities, it is frequently attacked by various species of powder - post beetles, and much injury results. Water hickory while yet - standing is often greatly damaged by the larvae of certain moths - which find their way into the soft wood just under the bark and - tunnel minute galleries which subsequently fill with brown - substance. According to R. B. Hough, these brown streaks in water - hickory are hard enough to turn the edge of steel tools. They not - only damage the structure of the wood but spoil its appearance. - - BITTER PECAN (_Hicoria texana_) is a Texas species which has not - been reported elsewhere. The average size of the tree is from - fifteen to twenty-five feet in height and eight to ten inches in - diameter; but in rich bottom land, particularly along the Brazos - river, specimens sometimes attain a diameter of three feet and a - height of 100. The leaves are from ten to twelve inches in length, - with from seven to eleven leaflets. The nuts are very bitter, but - are of approximately the same size and shape as edible pecans. The - shells are thin and very brittle. The tree's range extends inland - 100 or 150 miles from the Texas coast. - - NORTH CAROLINA SHAGBARK HICKORY (_Hicoria carolinae-septentrionalis_) - is found in the neighboring parts of the four states: North - Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee, and Alabama. In the best land this - tree is occasionally eighty feet high and two or three in diameter, - but when it occurs on dry hillsides its average height is twenty or - thirty feet, and its diameter about a foot. The compound leaves are - from four to eight inches long, with usually three, but occasionally - five leaflets. The sweet nuts are small and brown. The bark - separates into thick strips a foot or more in length and three or - four inches wide. The rough trunk resembles the northern shagbark - hickory. The wood is very tough, strong, and hard, the heart light - reddish-brown, the thin sapwood nearly white. It is not - distinguished from the other hickories in commerce, and it has the - same uses when any use is made of it. - -[Illustration] - - - - -WHITE ELM - -[Illustration: WHITE ELM] - - - - -WHITE ELM - -(_Ulmus Americana_) - - -Six species of elm occur in the United States, not counting the planer -tree as an elm, though lumbermen usually consider it as such.[5] The -white elm is the most common, is distributed most widely, and is -commercially the most important. More of it is used as lumber, slack -cooperage, and other forms of forest products, than all other elms of -this country combined. The statistics of sawmill output collected -annually by the United States census are not compiled in a way to show -the elms separately. All go in as one. The annual lumber cut of elm in -the whole country is about 265,000,000 feet, distributed over -thirty-four states, with Wisconsin leading, followed in the order named -by Michigan, Indiana, Ohio, Missouri, Arkansas, New York, and Minnesota. -In addition to lumber, elm furnishes about 130,000,000 slack cooperage -staves yearly. - - [5] The elms are white elm (_Ulmus americana_), cork elm (_Ulmus - racemosa_), slippery elm (_Ulmus pubescens_), cedar elm (_Ulmus - crassifolia_), wing elm (_Ulmus alata_), and red elm (_Ulmus - serotina_). They are all confined to the region east of the Rocky - Mountains. - -The elms, taken as a class, are much alike. There is more resemblance -between the species than between species of oaks or pines, yet some -difference exists between elms. This holds not only between different -species, but between individuals of the same species. Climate, -situation, and soil have much to do with the character of the wood of -the same species. So great is the difference at times that fairly good -judges of timber are deceived as to the species. A tree growing on dry, -rocky soil produces wood quite different from one on rich, deep, -well-watered soil. Not only is the wood of one different from that of -the other, but the appearances of the standing trees are not alike. The -differences may not show in leaves, flowers, and fruit as much as in the -shapes and sizes of trees, and the habit of the branches. - -White elm is by common consent the type of the genus, the standard by -which the other species are measured. It is proper to compare certain -properties and characters of other elms with white elm, in order that a -general view of all may be had. The dry weights, per cubic foot, of wood -are as follows: White elm 40.54 pounds, slippery elm 43.35, cedar elm -45.15, cork elm 45.26, and wing elm 46.69. Figures which show the weight -of the southern red elm (_Ulmus serotina_) are not available. White elm -is thus shown to be lightest of the group. - -Its breaking strength averages 12,158 pounds per cubic inch, under the -usual tests by which the strength of woods is determined. Reduced to -everyday language that means that 12,158 pounds would just break a white -elm stick, 2-5/8 inches square, and resting on supports twelve inches -apart. That is the meaning of "breaking strength," or "modulus of -rupture," as the term is used in engineering text books relating to -woods. The following figures for the breaking strength of other elms -make comparisons with white elm easy: Cedar elm 11,000; wing elm 11,162; -slippery elm 12,342; cork elm (often called rock elm) 15,172. It is -shown that two elms are stronger and two weaker than white elm. This -wood rates very little below white oak in strength. - -The different species of elms vary considerably in stiffness, or the -ability to spring back when bent. This factor is expressed by engineers -in high figures, is purely technical, and is based on a wood's ability -to stretch and regain its former position. The only service which the -figures can render to the layman is to furnish a basis for comparing one -wood with another. The stiffer a wood, the greater its resistance to an -effort to stretch it lengthwise. White elm's measure of stiffness -(modulus of elasticity) is 1,070,000 pounds per square inch; wing elm -853,000; cedar elm 981,000; slippery elm 1,318,000; cork elm 1,512,000. -It is shown here, as was shown in the figures representing the strength -of the elms, that two species rate above and two below white elm in -stiffness. - -White elm is known by several names. The color of the bark is -responsible for the name gray elm among lumbermen and woodworkers of the -Lake States. American elm is a translation of its botanical name, and is -neither descriptive nor definitive, because there are other elms as -truly American as this one. White elm distinguishes its wood from the -redder wood of slippery elm, but it would often be difficult if not -impossible to identify the elms, or any one of them, by the color of the -wood alone. Some persons who call this elm white doubtless refer to the -color of the bark, as is the case with those who speak of it as gray -elm. It is known as water elm in several states, but that name is -applied indiscriminately to any elm that frequents river banks, as most -of them do in some part of their range. It is called rock elm when it is -found on stony uplands, and swamp elm on low wet ground. In some parts -of the Appalachian mountain ranges it is called astringent elm to -distinguish it from slippery elm. - -White elm surpasses the others in extent of range. Its northern boundary -stretches from Newfoundland, across Canada to the eastern base of the -Rocky Mountains, a distance of nearly 3,000 miles. It runs south through -the Atlantic states to Florida, a distance of 1,200 miles or more. Its -southwestern limit is in Texas. The area thus bounded is about -2,500,000 square miles. A few other trees have ranges as large, but none -much exceed it. It covers so much of America, and is so important in -many parts of its range, that it is clearly the leading elm in this -country. It is entitled to first place among elms for other reasons. - -It is not easy to give any sure features or characteristics by which the -layman may always distinguish this elm from others with which it is -associated; however, by carefully observing certain features, the -identity of white elm is generally easy to establish. - -The leaves have teeth along the margins like beech and birch. They have -straight primary veins running from the midrib to the points of the -teeth. Before falling in autumn the leaves turn yellow. The foliage is -not very thick, and most of it is near the ends of the limbs. The bloom -comes early in the spring, ahead of the leaves, and the seeds are ripe -and ready for flight before the leaves are grown. Sometimes the seeds -are ripe almost before the leaves are out of the buds. The seeds are -oblong, and about the size of a small lentil. The wing entirely -surrounds the seed, and is about half an inch long. The flight of elm -seeds is an interesting phenomenon. The individual seeds are so small -that they are not easily seen as they sail away from the tall tree top -but when they go in swarms, in fitful puffs of wind, they are not hard -to see. It is chiefly by their fruits that they are known, that is, by -the multitudes of seedlings that appear a few weeks later. If one -seedling elm in a thousand should reach maturity, there would be little -besides elms in the whole country. They spring up by highways and -hedges, in gutters, fields, and even between cobbles and bricks of paved -streets; but in a few days they have crowded one another to death, or -have perished from other causes, and those which manage to live to -maturity do not much more than make up for old trees which perish from -natural causes. - -The botanist Michaux pronounced the white elm "the most magnificent -vegetable of the temperate zone." A number of trees are larger, though -this reaches great size. Sargent sets the limit of the tree at 120 feet -high and eleven feet in trunk diameter. That size is, of course, -unusual, but it has been surpassed at least in height. A tree in -Jefferson county, Pennsylvania, was 140 feet high, and although forest -grown, it had a spread of crown of seventy-six feet. It was sent to the -sawmill where it made 8,820 feet of lumber. That trunk was only five -feet in diameter. - -Some of the finest forest grown elms in this country have been cut in -Michigan. Their trunks were as tall, straight, and shapely as yellow -poplars, and their crowns surpassed those of poplars. It was formerly -not unusual for sawlogs to be cut from elm limbs which branched from the -trunk fifty or more feet from the ground. The best of the forest grown -elm of this country has been cut; but it is still lumbered throughout -the whole eastern half of the United States. - -The finest elms of this country, and doubtless the finest in the world, -are the planted trees in some of the New England villages. The largest -of them have been growing for two hundred years, and in many instances -they still show the vigor of youth. Trunks six or seven feet through are -not uncommon, but the glory of the trees is not alone in the trunks. -Their spread and form of crown are magnificent. The largest are 150 feet -across, and some of the splendid branches, rising in parabolic curves, -are fully 100 feet long, from the junction with the tree to the tips of -the twigs. The most apt comparison for that form of elm is the spray of -a fountain. The upward jet of water corresponds to the trunk of the -tree; the upward, outward, and downward curves of the spray represent -the crown of the elm. Trees which take that form are grown in open -ground where sunlight and air reach every side. Forest grown trees are -less symmetrical, but even in dense woods, the elm frequently rises -clear above the canopy of other trees, and develops the fountain form of -crown. The new England street and park elms surpass those farther west -only because they are older. The splendid trunks and crowns are the work -of centuries. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CORK ELM - -[Illustration: CORK ELM] - - - - -CORK ELM - -(_Ulmus Racemosa_) - - -This tree is called cork elm in Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, -New York, New Jersey, Arkansas, Kentucky, Missouri, Wisconsin, Michigan, -Iowa, and Ohio; rock elm in Rhode Island, Kentucky, West Virginia, -Missouri, Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa, Michigan, Nebraska; hickory elm in -Missouri, Iowa, Illinois, and Indiana; white elm in Ontario; Thomas elm -in Tennessee; northern cork-barked elm in Tennessee; corkbark elm, New -York; northern cork elm, Vermont; wahoo, Ohio; cliff elm in Wisconsin. - -Cork elm is the natural name. It is a descriptive term which a stranger -would be apt to apply on seeing the tree for the first time. The bark of -the branches, after it has attained an age of three or four years, -becomes rough by the growth of ridges and protuberances. This feature is -sometimes so prominent that it at once attracts attention, particularly -when the branches are bare of leaves; hence the name cork elm. - -Lumbermen insist on naming the tree rock elm. They refer to the hardness -of the wood, or they may have in mind the dry, stony situations where -tough, strong elm grows. The latter is often the case, because the name -is applied also to slippery elm and white elm if they grow on stony -ground. A wide-spread opinion prevails that wood which grows among rocks -is harder, tougher, stronger, and more durable than that produced by -deep, fertile soil. It is possible to cite much evidence to support that -view, and the case might be considered proved, but for the fact that an -equal, or greater amount of evidence, in every way as trustworthy, may -be cited on the other side. The strongest hickory, ash, and oak do not -come from stony land. It sometimes happens that a species with tough, -strong wood, is found on rocks, but it is not tough because it is there, -but in spite of being there. - -The name cliff elm which this tree bears in Wisconsin is but another -form of the name rock elm, and clearly has reference to the situation -where the tree grows in that part of the country. Hickory elm, on the -other hand, a name applied to this tree much farther south, is a -recognition of the wood's toughness. - -In some particulars it does not fall much below hickory in toughness, -but is not as strong, elastic, or capable of as smooth polish. The -latter property is one of the recommendations of hickory when used for -handles. It is very smooth to the touch; cork elm is less so. In the -northern woods, elm ax handles are in use, and some axmen prefer them -to hickory. Such is probably the case when the best cork elm and a -medium or poor quality of hickory are in competition. - -The fibers of cork elm are interlaced, rendering the splitting of the -wood difficult. For uses in which that is a desirable property, it is -preferable to hickory. It is better for hubs for large wagons, and that -is a very important use for this elm. - -The wood of all the elms is ring-porous; that is, the springwood, or -inner part of the annual ring, consists of one or more rows of large -ducts. The summerwood contains pores in large numbers, but they are -small, and are usually arranged in short curved lines. The medullary -rays are not prominent in the wood of any of the elms, and -quarter-sawing adds no beauty to the lumber. The wood is practically -without figure, on account of either annual rings or medullary rays; but -it may be stained, polished, and made very attractive. That is done -oftener with white elm than with any other. - -The strength of cork elm created demand for it in boat building at an -early day. The tree is and always was scarce in the vicinity of the -Atlantic sea board, and the earliest boat builders seem not to have been -acquainted with the wood. It was most abundant in the forests of -Michigan, though it extended westward to Nebraska. It was plentiful in -the province of Ontario, and the timbers from that region acquainted -English shipbuilders with the merits of the wood. They sent contractors -into Michigan to buy cork elm, long before the other hardwoods of that -region had attracted the attention of the outside world. The most -convenient supplies of cork elm on the Lower Michigan peninsula thus -passed through Canada to ship yards on the other side of the sea. The -wood is reputed to be more durable than any of the other elms. - -It is generally understood that the country's supply of cork elm is -running short, but there are no statistics which show how much is left -or how much has been cut. It is doubtful if the original forests, -including the whole country, had one tree of cork elm to twenty of white -elm. The average size of cork elm is sixty feet high and two in -diameter. The trunks are well shaped, if forest grown. They develop -small crowns in proportion to the size of trunks; and the crowns are -less graceful than those of white elm--lacking the long, sweeping curves -of the latter. The general contour of the tree has been compared to -white oak. - -Cork elm grows well when planted on the Pacific coast, in environments -quite different from its native habitat. In the forest it increases in -size slowly; when planted it makes much better headway. It has a -disagreeable habit of sprouting which puts it out of favor as a park -tree. - -The wood of the different elms is largely used for manufacturing -purposes. They are sometimes kept separate, but generally not. The -particular place where cork elm is preferred is in the manufacture of -vehicles and boats, but it is by no means confined to those commodities. - -The state of Michigan alone sends 50,000,000 feet of elm a year to its -factories to be converted into articles of general utility. Furniture -makers take over 2,000,000 feet of it, though elm is not classed as a -furniture wood. In certain places it is superior to almost every other -wood. No matter how discolored it becomes by weathering and the -accumulation of foreign substances, a vigorous application of soap, -water, and a scrubbing brush will whiten it. It is liked in certain -parts of refrigerators which need constant scrubbing. Elm to the extent -of 8,000,000 feet goes into refrigerators in Michigan alone. - -The strength and toughness of elm make it suitable for frames of tables. -When thus used, it is generally out of sight, but not infrequently it is -made into table legs as well as frames. Statistics show that more than a -million feet are manufactured yearly into handles in Michigan alone. All -three of the northern elms--white, cork, and slippery--are listed in the -handle industry. - -Many millions of feet of elm are yearly converted into automobile -stock--3,000,000 in Michigan. Horse-drawn vehicles take more. The most -common place for it is the hub, but it serves also as shafts, poles, -reaches, and even as spokes for wagons of the largest size. - -The important place in the slack cooperage industry held by elm is well -known. It is a flour barrel wood, but is employed for barrels of many -other kinds. It stands high as veneer, not the kind of which the visible -parts of furniture are made, but the invisible interior, built up of -veneer sheets glued together. A similar kind of veneer forms the boxes -or frames of trunks--the part to be covered by metal, leather, or cloth. -The slats which strengthen the outside of trunks are frequently of elm. - -This wood is not in favor for one important purpose, hardwood -distillation. It has escaped pretty generally also from being employed -as a farm material, on account of its poor lasting qualities. Some -slippery elm was mauled into fence rails in the pioneer days of Ohio, -Indiana, and southern Michigan, but that was only because it was -plentiful and convenient. Cork elm probably never made a fence rail, -because it is so unwedgeable that no rail splitter would have anything -to do with it. At the best, it is but a temporary makeshift as fence -posts, but by applying creosote and other preservative treatments to -lessen decay, it measures up with most other post woods. - -The elms are not indispensable woods in this country, but their -exhaustion, should it ever come, will leave many places hard to fill. As -far as known, no woodlots of any species of elm have been planted in -this country, and there is little prospect that any will be planted, -because the slow growth of the trees discourages foresters. A century -or two is a long look ahead. - -However, the exhaustion of no species of the elms in this country need -be expected soon. The most apparent peril lies ahead of cork elm, -because it never was abundant, and demand, which has been large for a -long time, is still strong. The species is scattered over more than -200,000 square miles, and a long time must elapse before the last cork -elm finds its way to the sawmill. The situation of white elm is more -promising. It may be among the last trees of the American forests to -take its final departure. Its wide range and its bounteous seed crops -insure a supply, though not necessarily a large one, for a long time. -The greatest peril to elms, as well as to many other forest trees, is -that, when weakened by depletion, some disease will attack them and -destroy the remnants. Experience in New England and elsewhere has shown -that elm has no great resisting power when a strong attack is made upon -it. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SLIPPERY ELM - -[Illustration: SLIPPERY ELM] - - - - -SLIPPERY ELM - -(_Ulmus Pubescens_) - - -This tree is known as slippery elm in every state where it grows, thirty -or more; but in some localities it has other names also. It is doubtful -if any person who is acquainted with the tree would fail to recognize it -by the name slippery elm, though some who are acquainted with the lumber -only might not know it by that name. Those who call it red elm have in -mind the color of the heartwood which is of deeper red than the wood of -any other elm, or they may refer to the tawny pubescence on the young -shoots in winter. The botanical name describes that characteristic. - -In the North, the slippery elm is sometimes known as moose elm. It -furnishes forage in winter for the moose and other herbivorous animals -when ground plants are covered with snow. The moose is able to eat -branches as thick as a man's thumb. The principal food element in the -twigs is the mucilaginous inner bark. It is this which gives the tree -its name slippery elm. The value of the bark as a food has been -questioned. It is agreeable to the taste of both man and beast, but it -is claimed that a human being will starve to death on it, though it will -prolong life several days. The lower animals, however, seem able to -derive more benefit from eating the bark. An incident of the War of 1812 -appears to prove this. The army under General Harrison, operating in the -vicinity of Lake Erie, kept the horses of the expedition alive by -feeding them on slippery elm bark, stripped from the trees and chopped -in small bits. - -The inner bark has long been used for medicinal purposes. It is now -ground fine and is kept for sale in drug stores, but formerly it was a -household remedy which most families in the country provided and kept in -store along with catnip, mandrake, sage, dogwood blossoms, and other -rural remedies which were depended upon to rout diseases in the days -when physicians were few. The slippery elm bark was peeled from the tree -in long strips, the rough outer layers were shaved off, leaving the -mucilaginous inner layer. That was from an eighth to a quarter of an -inch thick. It was dried and put away for use. When needed it was -pounded to a pulp, moistened with water, and applied as a poultice, if -an external remedy was wanted. If a medicine was needed, a decoction was -drunk as tea. There is no question that the remedy often produced good -results when no doctor was within reach. A well-known medical writer -said three-quarters of a century ago that the slippery elm tree was -worth its weight in gold. - -The range of slippery elm extends from the lower St. Lawrence river -through Canada to North Dakota. It is found in Texas as far west as the -San Antonio river, and its western limit is generally from 200 to 300 -miles west of the Mississippi river. Its range extends south nearly to -the Gulf of Mexico. It is not this tree's habit to grow in thick stands, -but it occurs singly or in small groups on the banks of streams or on -rich hillsides. - -The average size is scarcely half that of white elm. Few trees exceed a -height of seventy feet and a diameter of two. It grows rapidly at first, -but does not live to old age. The crown lacks the symmetry and beauty so -conspicuous in white elm. The limbs follow no law of regularity, but -leave the trunk at haphazard. The fruit is mature before the leaves are -half grown. The seeds have more wing area than those of white elm; and, -like those of white elm, the wing surrounds the flat seed on all its -edges. The leaves are rough to the touch, and when crumpled in the hand, -the crunching sensation is unpleasant. - -Next to white elm, slippery elm appears to be more abundant than any -other member of the group; but statistics do not give the basis for -close estimates. The factories of Michigan use 3,700,000 feet of -slippery elm a year, and 44,000,000 of white elm. The proportion of -slippery to white is larger in the factories of Illinois. - -The uses are the same as for other elms. The wood is rated more durable -than the others, but it is not in much demand for outdoor work where -resistance to decay is an important consideration. It is sometimes set -for fence posts, but the results are scarcely satisfactory, particularly -for round posts which are largely sapwood. Posts sawed from the -heartwood of large trees would do better. The deeper red of the -heartwood gives it an advantage over the other elms for furniture and -finish where natural colors are shown; but this is not important because -no elm's natural color stands for much in the estimation of users of -fine woods. The more common use of slippery elm is for boxes and -cooperage. Next to red gum, it is employed in larger quantities for -cooperage in Illinois than any other wood. - -The supply is rapidly decreasing. The cut for lumber is the chief drain, -but a not inconsiderable one is the peeling of trees for bark. This goes -on all over the species' range and much of it is done by boys with -knives and hatchets. It is often hard to find slippery elms within miles -of a town, because all have succumbed to bark hunters. - - CEDAR ELM (_Ulmus crassifolia_) appears to bear this name because it - is often found associated with red cedars on the dry limestone hills - of Texas. There is little in the form and appearance of the tree to - suggest the tall, tapering conical crown of cedar. There is still - less in the wood. In some parts of Texas the species is called red - elm, on account of the color of the wood, while in Arkansas, which - is near the northern boundary of its range, it is locally known as - basket elm, because basket makers find desirable qualities in its - wood. It is a species of rather limited range, but it is abundant in - certain regions. It is found as far east as Sunflower river, - Mississippi, north into Arkansas, west to Pecos river, Texas, and - south into Mexico. It is confined to three states, this side the Rio - Grande. Trees on dry hills are inclined to be shrubby, but in damp - valleys where soil is fertile, specimens attain a height of eighty - feet and a diameter of three, but the average is not nearly so - large. The leaves are small but numerous. The flowering habits of - this elm are somewhat erratic. The usual time for bloom to appear is - August, and a month or six weeks afterwards the small seeds are - ready for flight; but occasionally, as if not satisfied with its - first effort, the tree blooms again in October, and ripens a second - crop late in the fall. The seeds are poorly supplied with wings, - which are reduced to narrow margins surrounding the seed. It does - not appear, however, that the species is in any way handicapped in - securing reproduction. The small shoots are equipped with flat, - corky keels, similar to but much smaller than those of the wing elm. - - This tree is important for the lumber it produces. It is the common - and most abundant elm of Texas, and it is found in a large part of - that state. The wood is the weakest of the elms, and is likewise - quite brittle; but in the region where it is most abundant it - compares favorably with any other. The best is cut from the largest - trees, which grow in valleys where moisture is abundant. The growth - found on the dry hills is of poor quality, and is worth little, even - for fuel. The highest development in Texas, and also the highest in - the species' range, is in the valleys of Trinity and Guadalupe - rivers. In Texas this wood is employed in furniture factories as - inside frames, to be covered by other woods, but it is not employed - as outside parts of furniture, unless in very cheap kinds. It is - suitable for drain boards and floors of refrigerators where it is - wet much of the time. Under such circumstances it is more easily - kept clean than most other woods. It whitens with repeated - scrubbings. One of its most common uses in Texas is for wagon hubs. - Some wheelwrights pronounce it next to the best native wood for that - purpose, the first place being accorded Osage orange. The tree is - often planted for shade along the streets of Texas towns, and - develops thick crowns and satisfactory forms. - - RED ELM (_Ulmus serotina_) is a lately discovered member of the elm - family. It so closely resembles the cork elm that it was supposed to - be of the same species, and the close scrutiny of a botanist was - required to discover that it was a separate species. Sargent - observed the flowers opening in September while those of cork elm - appear in early spring. The seeds ripen in November, while cork - elm's are ripe early in the summer. The tree was named red elm, the - wood being reddish-brown. That name is widely applied to slippery - elm, but it is improbable that much confusion will result. The red - elm's range is quite restricted and in that area the slippery elm is - not important. Red elm occurs on limestone hills and river banks - from central Kentucky to northern Georgia and Alabama. It attains a - height of fifty or sixty feet and a diameter of two or three. The - leaves are from two to four inches in length, and one or two wide, - with margins toothed like the other elms. The midrib is yellow, and - in the autumn the leaves change to an orange yellow before falling. - Branches which are two or three years old develop corky wings, two - or three in number. - - It is not known that mechanical tests of the wood have been made in - a regular way to determine its physical properties, but superficial - examination indicates that it is hard, tough, and strong, apparently - about the same as cork elm. Special lists of uses for this wood have - not been compiled for the reason that lumbermen and operators of - sawmills have never distinguished it from other elms of the region. - Since it has never been left standing in districts where other elms - are cut, it is evident that it has been regularly put to use for - vehicles, agricultural implements, boxes, crates, and slack - cooperage, because such articles have been manufactured in the - region. The red elm has been occasionally planted as a shade tree - along streets of towns in northern Georgia and Alabama. - -[Illustration] - - - - -PLANERTREE - -[Illustration: PLANERTREE] - - - - -PLANERTREE - -(_Planera Aquatica_) - - -This tree is a first cousin of the elms, but it is no more an elm than a -hackberry is an elm. It is a member of the family but is of a different -genus, and it is the sole representative of its genus in the known -world. There is only one kind of planertree, with no nearer relatives -than the elms on one side and hackberry, sugarberry, and palo blanco on -the other. Except those kinsfolk, it is alone on earth. The name is in -honor of Johann Jacob Planer, a German botanist whose efforts did much -for science nearly two hundred years ago. The name of the species -_aquatica_, recognizes the tree's habit of growing where water is -abundant. It is a swamp species, or rather, it prefers situations -subject to periodic overflow. It looks like an elm, and that has led -people to call it water elm. That is the name by which it is usually -known in Florida. In Alabama it is called the American planertree, which -is an unnecessary restriction, since there is no planertree except this -one. The Louisiana French gave it the name plene, and the abridgement of -its name is yet heard in that state. In North Carolina it has acquired -the name sycamore, but without good reason. It does not look in the -least like sycamore. - -It has the leaf of an elm, and it resembles that tree in bark, and -somewhat in general form. The layman detects the first important -difference when he examines the seeds. Those of the elms have wings, but -the planertree's are without those appendages, and they would be useless -if it had them, unless they were as large as the parachute of the -basswood seed. The planertree bears a sort of nut, a third of an inch -long, and too heavy to be transported far on the ordinary membranous -wings of tree seeds. Water is doubtless the principal agent in carrying -the seeds from place to place. Probably few of them are transported far, -because the water about the trees is generally stagnant; and, besides, -the species does not seem to be extending its range or increasing in -numbers. - -The planertree has a history. If the terms which the Roman historian -Tacitus applied to people, could be applied to trees, it might be said -of this species, as he said of certain tribes: "The cowards fly the -farthest and are the last survivors." The planertree is now found only -in certain southern swamps, from North Carolina to Florida, and west to -Missouri and Texas. In former periods, as is shown by the records of -geology, there were several species, and they had a wide range over -portions of the northern hemisphere. They appear to have been a strong -group of trees, able to hold their ground with the best inhabitants of -the forest. They were in the Rocky Mountains, and far north in Alaska. -They were in Europe also, or were represented there by some very similar -species. - -For some reason which is not definitely known, they lost out when -competition with other trees became keen, and in the course of long -periods of time they disappeared from their former ranges in the North -and West. They took to the swamps, just as the tribes of which Tacitus -spoke, took to the morasses when they could no longer face their enemies -on open ground. It was a far cry from Alaska to the Chattahoochee swamps -in Florida, yet that was where A. H. Curtis and Charles Mohr went to -procure typical planertree specimens for the tests which Sargent made of -American woods. - -It has been suggested that tree species which have lost out in -competition for ground, have been those which were at some decided -disadvantage in the matter of getting their seeds properly scattered and -planted. The case has not been proved, because there are as many facts -and as much argument against that hypothesis as for it. The bigtrees of -California are a noted example of a species which lost out and retreated -to a corner, yet their seeds fly like birds. Plainly, something besides -winged seeds is needed to keep the species in the fight. However, it is -not difficult to see that the planertree, with wingless seeds and of so -little use as food that no bird or rodent will carry them or bury them, -has been much handicapped in the long contest which has crowded it from -the arctic circle to the cotton belt. - -It has the habits of the subdued and conquered tree. It has adapted -itself to swamps where few species can grow, and where competition for -light and room is reduced to a minimum. Yet, even there, it is content -to take the leavings of more ambitious species. The crowns make little -effort to rise up to the light, for which many other trees battle during -their whole existence. The planertree's low, broad top of contorted -branches places it perpetually in the shade of any other trees which -overtop it. - -The wood of the planertree is lighter in weight, poorer in fuel value, -weaker, and more brittle than the poorest of the elms. The annual ring -lacks the rows of large open pores common in all the elms, but it has -many small pores scattered through the whole year's growth. It is not -easy to note a difference between the springwood and that which grows -later. The wood is soft, light brown in color, and the nearly white -sapwood is thick. It is often, perhaps generally, a tree of fairly rapid -growth, and since it does not reach large size, it is probably -short-lived, but exact information along that line is lacking. - -The tallest trees seldom exceed a height of forty feet and a diameter of -two. It is evident that a tree of that size and form does not tempt the -lumberman to much exertion to procure it. An examination of reports of -sawmill operations and of the utilization of woods by shops and -factories in the southern states has failed to find a single instance -where the planertree has been reported in use for any purpose whatever. -Doubtless, trees are sometimes cut and the lumber gets into the market, -but not under its own name. The species is interesting for reasons other -than that it ever has had or ever can have a place in the country's -lumber industry. - - WING ELM (_Ulmus alata_), which is the smallest of the elms, is - plentifully supplied with names, but in most parts of its range it - is known as wing or winged elm. It is also called wahoo or wahoo - elm, and the West Virginians have named it witch elm; the North - Carolinans refer to it often as simply elm; from Florida to Texas - some call it cork elm; in Alabama it is water elm; in Arkansas - mountain elm; while in other regions it is corky elm, small-leaf - elm, and red elm. Some of these names are self-explanatory. Wing elm - does not relate to a winged seed, but to winged twigs. That - characteristic of the tree is very prominent. The wings consist of - flattened keels along opposite sides of the branches. A twig no more - than a quarter of an inch in diameter may be decorated with wings - half an inch or more wide, making the twig four or five times as - wide as it is thick. As the twig enlarges, the wings do not broaden - in proportion. The lowest branches and those nearest the trunk are - most generously furnished with wings. They appear to be entirely - ornamental, for it is not known that they serve any useful purpose. - The growth is different from those which give cork elm its name. The - latter occur on the large branches, often in the form of isolated - protuberances, but the wings are fairly continuous for a foot or - more, except that they terminate abruptly at the nodes, but - recommence immediately after. Branches less than a year old seldom - have wings. The name wahoo appears to have lost its etymology if it - ever had any. Dictionaries tell what it means, but they shy at its - origin. It is a southern word which is applied to this elm, and also - to other trees, and occasionally it means a fish instead of a tree. - Some would trace it to the cry of an owl, others to a name in - Gulliver's Travels, with a slight change in spelling. - - Wing elm at its best is about fifty feet high and two in diameter; - but much of the stand is small. The best occurs west of the - Mississippi river. The range extends from Texas to Virginia, south - to Florida, and north to Illinois. In Texas it is a fairly important - wood in furniture factories, the annual supply being about a million - feet. It is used by turners for table legs. In an investigation of - the uses of the wood, the same difficulty is encountered that makes - difficult a study of the uses of all the elms--conflict and - uncertainty of names. There are few regions in the hardwood areas of - this country which produce one elm and no more; and after all - practical means of identification are resorted to, there is often - doubt and uncertainty concerning the exact species of elm lumber - found in use. Fortunately, it generally makes little difference, - because anyone of them is good enough for ordinary use. Wing elm is - extensively planted for shade along the streets of towns in the - lower Mississippi valley, but more frequently on the west side of - the valley. When the trees grow in the open they develop broad - crowns, and the branches, even of comparatively small trees, are - long enough to reach well over the sidewalks, and cast satisfactory - shade. The dark-colored winged twigs add much to the ornamental - value of the street trees. - - FREMONTIA (_Fremontodendron californicum_) is not botanically in the - elm family, but it is popularly known as slippery elm in the region - where it occurs, and for that reason it is here given place among - the elms. It is known also as leatherwood. It is a California - species, ranging among the lower mountains and higher foothills in - dry, gravelly soils, from the Mexican boundary five hundred miles - northward in the state. The mucilaginous inner bark tastes like that - of the true slippery elm. The shape of the leaf much more resembles - sycamore than elm; and it is an evergreen. It bears a bright yellow, - roselike flower, and the seeds are small, reddish-brown. The wood is - fine grained, clear reddish-brown, with thick, whitish sapwood. It - is very soft. The tree attains its largest size among the foothills - of the Sierra Nevada mountains, but even there it is too small to - have much economic value, seldom exceeding thirty feet in height and - a foot in diameter. Its most important use is as a forage plant for - cattle and sheep. In that particular it resembles slippery elm in - northern woods. The tree is occasionally planted in the eastern - states and in Europe for ornament. In its native range it grows - slowly. - -[Illustration] - - - - -HACKBERRY - -[Illustration: HACKBERRY] - - - - -HACKBERRY - -(_Celtis Occidentalis_) - - -Hackberry is a common name for this tree in nearly all parts of its -range, but it has other names. It is sometimes confused with sugarberry -(_Celtis mississippiensis_). They call it nettle tree in Rhode Island, -Massachusetts, Delaware, and Michigan, and in Tennessee it is known as -American nettle-tree. In Vermont it is hoop ash; in Rhode Island -one-berry; hack-tree in Minnesota, and juniper tree in New Jersey. - -The name hackberry is not of American origin. It dates far back in the -languages of western Europe and is believed to have the same origin as -the word haw, which, in its turn meant hedge. If that etymology is -correct, the word really means hedge berry, which is not an -inappropriate name for the tree. The name is sometimes applied to a -small bird cherry in Europe. The New Jersey name juniper-tree is in -recognition of the resemblance of the berries to those of red cedar or -red juniper. No reason has been assigned for the name nettle-tree. - -Its range covers about 2,000,000 square miles in the United States -besides part of Canada. It grows from the Atlantic on the coast of New -England to the tide water of the Pacific on Puget sound; in southern -Florida and in Texas. It is not found in pure stands, but often as -single trees far apart. This is the case in the northeastern part of the -United States in particular where probably not more than one tree might -be found in a whole county. Frequently the people in the neighborhood do -not know what the tree is, and suppose it is the last representative on -earth of some disappearing species. - -It is far from being a disappearing tree. Not only is it widely -dispersed over the United States, but related species are scattered -through many countries of the old world, from Denmark to India. There -are said to be between fifty and sixty species, only two of which are in -the United States. - -It has been claimed by scholars that the lotus referred to by ancient -writers was the hackberry. It was reputed to cause forgetfulness when -eaten, but the claim was fictitious, for the fruit does not produce that -effect. It is not now regarded as human food. Tennyson deals with the -fiction very beautifully in the poem "Lotus Eaters," but he took -liberties with botany when he represented fruit and flowers on the same -branch; for, though the berries hang several months, they drop before -the next season's flowers appear. - -The hackberry belongs to the elm family, being of the same relation as -the planertree. The leaves resemble those of the elm, but are more -sharply pointed. The fruit is usually classed as a berry. It ripens in -September and October, but remains on the tree several months, becoming -dry. It is about one-fourth inch long, dark purple, with a tough, thick -skin, and with flesh dark orange. Most of the pale brown seeds are eaten -by birds. - -The tree varies greatly in size. In some remote corners of its immense -range it is little more than a shrub, while at its best it may attain a -height of 100 feet and a diameter of three or four. Its average size is -about that of slippery elm. The bark varies as much in appearance as the -tree in size. Sometimes it has the smooth surface and pale bluish-green -appearance that suggest the bark of beech; again it is darker and -rougher, like the elm. It frequently exhibits the harsh warty bark which -is peculiar to the hackberry, and when present it is a pretty safe means -of identification. The warts may be conical, oblong, or sharp-pointed, -and probably an inch in height. When closely examined, most of them are -found to consist of parallel strata of bark which may usually be pulled -off without much difficulty. The warts are a decided disadvantage to the -tree in some of the low swampy districts of Louisiana where Spanish moss -is a pest. This moss (which is not a true moss), is propagated -principally by tufts and strands which are carried by wind until they -find anchorage among the branches of trees where they increase and -multiply at a rapid rate until they finally smother or break down the -unfortunate tree which supplied a lodging place. The hackberry's warts -catch and hold every flying strand of moss that touches them, and -hundreds, perhaps thousands of pounds of it may accumulate on a single -tree. The grayish-green color of the moss often exactly matches the hue -of the tree's bark. - -The reported annual cut of hackberry lumber in the United States is less -than 5,000,000 feet. That can be only a fraction of the total output. -Few mills report it separately, but list it as ash. The wood looks more -like ash than elm. It is heavy, but only moderately hard and strong. Its -color is more yellowish than ash, but the annual rings of growth -resemble that wood. The sapwood is thick, and growth is rapid where -conditions are favorable. - -It is doubtless used by industries in thirty states or more, but -comparatively few factories report it. In Texas it is listed in the box -and crate industry. In Louisiana it rises to more importance, for that -is the region where the tree attains its best. Slack coopers make kegs, -tubs, and barrels of it; vehicle manufacturers convert it into parts of -buggy tops and the running gears of wagons; it serves for furniture and -interior finish; and it takes the place of ash for hoe handles and parts -of agricultural implements. The uses are nearly the same in -Mississippi, but it is used there for rustic seats and other outdoor -furniture. In Missouri it is found suitable for cart axles, saddle -trees, stitching horse jaws, and wagon beds. In Arkansas it goes with -ash into flooring, and interior finish for houses. Illinois builders -work it into fixtures for stores. In Michigan it serves the same -purposes as in Texas, baskets, boxes, and crates. These examples -doubtless are representative of its uses wherever the tree is found in -commercial quantities. The wood is not durable in contact with the soil. -It is also liable to attack by boring insects if logs are allowed to -retain their bark. - -The hackberry has been planted to a small extent as a street tree in the -southern towns, but it is not as popular as the elms and oaks. It will -never occupy a more important position in the country's lumber industry -than it holds at present. It is a tree which, for some reason, inspires -little enthusiasm in anybody; but nature takes care of it fairly well, -and the small sweet drupes which it bears are a guarantee that the -species will not want for seed carriers as long as birds continue to -have access to its branches in winter. - -SUGARBERRY (_Celtis mississippiensis_) is frequently mistaken for -hackberry even by persons who ought to be able to distinguish them. -Botanists formerly confused the two, and probably some insist still that -sugarberry is only a variety of hackberry. The leaves generally have -smooth margins, and that would differentiate the tree from the hackberry -were it not that sometimes the sugarberry has serrate leaves. The drupes -are bright orange red and are usually smaller than the purple fruit of -hackberry. As for the wood of the two species, it is not easy to tell -one from the other. The sugarberry's range is not one-third as extensive -as hackberry's, but covers some hundreds of thousands of square miles in -the southeastern quarter of the United States. Its northern limit is in -Illinois and Indiana where it occupies rich bottom lands and the banks -of streams. It reaches its largest size in the lower Ohio river basin, -grows southward into Florida and west into Texas, Arkansas, and -Missouri. It crosses the Rio Grande into Mexico, appearing to outstrip -the hackberry in that direction. It outstrips it in another direction -also, for it is found in the Bermuda islands. The French of Louisiana -called it bois inconnu, or the unknown wood. - -This tree shows a marked tendency to run into varieties, and cultivation -would probably develop the tendency. The differences between the species -and the varieties are plain enough to the systematic botanist, but are -such that the lumberman or other ordinary observer would scarcely notice -them. The variety which has been named _Celtis mississippiensis -reticulata_, but without any English name except sugarberry, is a tree -forty or fifty feet high, covered with blue-gray bark, very rough. It -ranges from Dallas, Texas, to the Rio Grande and westward into New -Mexico, Arizona, and Utah, and into southern California and Lower -California. In eastern Texas it is found on dry limestone hills, but -westward only in mountain canyons in the vicinity of water. In the -southern part of Texas this tree is usually known as palo blanco, but -those who apply that name have no idea that it is a variety of -sugarberry but suppose it is a tree peculiar to their region. In Cameron -and Hidalgo counties, Texas, either because an extra good quality grows -there, or because some opinion exists in its favor, it is liked for -wagon material, and occasionally is turned for table legs and other -parts of furniture. It is quite common in that part of Texas as an -ornamental tree in yards and along streets of small towns. The whiteness -of the bark is the most striking feature. - -[Illustration] - - - - -WHITE ASH - -[Illustration: WHITE ASH] - - - - -WHITE ASH - -(_Fraxinus Americana_) - - -This tree is generally called white or gray ash, or simply ash. American -ash is a translation of its botanical name and is not often used in -business transactions in this country. In some parts of the South the -term cane ash is occasionally employed, but there seems to be no -agreement among those who use the name as to what it means. This is the -common ash in the lumber trade. There are more than a dozen species in -the United States, but white ash goes to market in larger amounts than -all others together. This is known in a general way, but exact figures -cannot be given, because statistics of the cut of different species of -ash are not kept separate. - -The range of this tree covers at least a million square miles, and all -or part of every state east of the Mississippi river and west of it from -Nebraska to Texas. It is reported cut for lumber in thirty states. The -various ashes are lumbered in thirty-nine states. Ash does not occur in -pure stands but is scattered in forests of other species, sometimes -growing in small clumps. It is difficult to name an average size for the -tree, because climate and soil control the growth over a large area -where conditions vary. Trees 120 feet high and six feet in diameter are -said to have stood in the primeval forests in the lower Ohio valley; but -logs four feet through are seldom seen now. Trees seventy or eighty feet -high and three in diameter are above the average in any region where -this tree is now lumbered. Some of the old planted trees of New England -are five or six feet through, and are finely proportioned, but growing -as they do in the open, they have larger crowns than are found in forest -trees. - -All species of ash have compound leaves, and those of white ash are from -eight to twelve inches long. The under sides of the leaflets are white, -and some persons have this fact in mind when they call the species white -ash, while others refer to the bark, and still others to the wood. It is -a characteristic of the tree that most of the leaves grow near the ends -of the limbs. For that reason the crown appears open when viewed from -below, and the larger limbs and branches are naked. The leaves demand -light, and they arrange themselves on the extremities of the limbs to -get it. When the tree is crowded, it sheds its lower limbs and its crown -rises rapidly until it reaches abundance of light. This produces long -trunks in forests. - -The boles are often not quite straight, but have several slight crooks, -yet keep close to a general perpendicular line. That form is due to a -peculiarity of growth. The leading shoot of a growing ash has more than -one terminal bud. If a side bud pushes ahead, the stem leans a little in -that direction; next, a bud on the other side may gain the ascendancy, -producing a slight lean for a few years in that direction; or two side -buds may develop simultaneously, causing a forked trunk. Mature trees -often carry the history of these peculiarities of growth. - -The seeds of white ash are equipped for moderate flight. The wing is -large, but the seed attached to the end of it is heavy enough to give it -a sharp tilt downward when it begins its flight through the air, and it -generally shoots at a steep angle toward the ground. It is not apt to -whirl through the air with a gliding motion like a maple seed. -Consequently, ash seeds are not great travelers. They are dispersed with -economy, however, for all do not come down at once, but many hang on the -tree for months, and a few go with every strong wind, thus getting -themselves scattered in every direction. Their power of germination is -low, and only about forty per cent of seeds are fertile. This is due to -the fact that pistillate and staminate flowers do not grow on the same -tree, and fertilization is imperfect. - -The importance of ash in the industries of the country does not depend -on the quantity but the quality of the wood. Although the various -species are produced in thirty-nine states, as shown by mill statistics, -the total yield is less than 250,000,000 feet a year. That is exceeded -by several woods, among them hickory, elm, beech, basswood, chestnut, -and even larch. - -The wood of ash which has grown rapidly is generally considered superior -to that of slow growth. The reason is found in the fact that trees of -slow growth do most of their growing early in the season, and the wood -is porous; but trees of rapid growth lay summerwood on abundantly, and -it is dense. Few species show a sharper line between spring and -summerwood than ash, for which reason the annual rings are clear-cut and -distinct. What figure ash has is produced by the growth rings, and not -by medullary rays. Quarter-sawing brings out no additional beauty. -Slight crooks in many logs produce a moderate cross grain in lumber, -which gives to finished ash its characteristic figure or grain. When -straight-grained wood is wanted, as when it is for tool handles and -oars, logs without crooks are selected. - -The wood of white ash is heavy, hard, strong, elastic, but rather -brittle. It lacks the toughness of hickory. The medullary rays are -numerous, but small and obscure. The color is brown, the sapwood much -lighter, often nearly white. It is not durable in contact with the soil. -Notwithstanding its name, the wood rates low in ash, and its fuel value -is under that of white oak. The states which produce the largest yearly -cut of this species are, ranging downward in the order named: Arkansas, -Ohio, Wisconsin, Kentucky, Indiana, Michigan, and Tennessee. - -The uses of white ash are so numerous that they can be presented only in -classes. It goes into almost every wood-using industry, but in different -sections of country certain uses lead. Thus in Illinois the makers of -butter tubs take more of it than any other industry; in Michigan -automobiles lead, and in Arkansas the handle factories are largest -buyers; in Louisiana boat oars consume most; in Alabama and Missouri car -construction is in the lead; in Texas boxes and crates; in North -Carolina wagons; in Kentucky handles; in Maryland musical instruments; -and in Massachusetts furniture. The utilization of ash in these states, -scattered over the eastern half of the United States, indicates fairly -well the wood's most important lines of usefulness. A considerable -quantity is made into flooring and interior finish. It is classed among -sanitary woods, that is, it does not stain or taint food products by -contact. - -The total quantity of merchantable white ash in the country is not -known, but there is still enough to meet demand, and the extent of the -tree's range makes supplies convenient in nearly all manufacturing -states. The species grows rather rapidly, and trees a hundred or a -hundred and fifty years old yield logs of good size. - -TEXAS ASH (_Fraxinus texensis_) has been regarded by some as a variety -of white ash, while others, including Sudworth and Sargent, consider it -a distinct species. It is often called mountain ash where it occurs -among the mountains of western Texas. Its range lies wholly in that -state, and extends from the vicinity of Dallas to the valley of Devil's -river. The compound leaves are smaller than those of white ash, and are -usually composed of five leaflets. The winged seeds ripen in May, and -are an inch or less in length. The largest trees are fifty feet high and -two or three in diameter; but generally the trees are much smaller. The -wood is strong, heavy, and hard. The annual rings are marked by one or -more rows of open ducts, and the medullary rays are inconspicuous. The -heartwood is light brown, the sapwood lighter. This ash is employed -within its range for various purposes, but it is not of sufficient -abundance to constitute an important commodity. In market it is not -distinguished from white ash. - -GREGG ASH (_Fraxinus greggii_) has some peculiarities which make it -worthy of mention as one of the minor species. Its range is in the dry -mountains of western Texas where a number of ashes seem to have put in -an appearance as members of the thinly-peopled vegetable kingdom of that -region. The compound leaves of Gregg ash are seldom three inches long, -and the leaflets are often half an inch long and less than a quarter of -an inch wide. The petioles are winged like the twigs of wing elm. The -undersides of the leaves have small black dots. The winged seeds are as -proportionately small as the leaves. The flowers have not been described -by botanists, for the species is not well known. The largest trees are -scarcely twenty-five feet high and eight inches in diameter. More -frequently they are shrubs from four to twelve feet tall. The wood is -heavy, hard, brown in color and of slow growth. - -DWARF ASH (_Fraxinus anomala_) might be mistaken for some other species -were its telltale winged seeds missing. It has lost the leaflets from -its compound leaf, and a single one remains. Occasionally, however, a -stem bearing three leaflets is found. The seeds are equipped with wide, -oblong wings. It is a desert species, and the desolate surroundings of -its habitat explain why nature has dispensed with as much foliage as -possible. It is found in southwestern Colorado, in southern Utah, and on -the western slopes of the Charleston mountains in southern Nevada. Trees -are small and the wood is not of much use for other than fuel, but a few -small ranch timbers are made of it where other kinds are scarce. Trunks -are usually not more than six or seven inches in diameter. The wood is -heavy, hard, and light brown in color. - - FRINGE ASH (_Fraxinus cuspidata_) has some difficulty in proving - that it is entitled to be called a tree in the United States, though - southward in Mexico its right to that title is unquestioned. It is - very small where its range extends over the dry ridges and rocky - slopes of southwestern Texas and southern New Mexico and Arizona. - Its compound leaves are five or seven inches long, and the leaflets - which number from three to seven have long, slender tips. The - trowel-shaped fruit is about one inch long. The wood resembles white - ash, but trunks of considerable size are not found. The name refers - to the flowers, and they give this small tree its value for - ornamental purposes. The flowers appear in April and are extremely - fragrant. - -[Illustration] - - - - -BLACK ASH - -[Illustration: BLACK ASH] - - - - -BLACK ASH - -(_Fraxinus Nigra_) - - -When George Washington was a surveyor locating land on the upper waters -of the Potomac river, and westward on the Kanawha and Ohio rivers, he -always spoke of this ash as "hoop tree" when he marked it with two or -with three "hacks," depending upon whether it designated a "corner" or a -"line," or a "pointer" in the system of surveying then in use. Trees -were used then as landmarks, and were duly recorded in the surveyor's -field notes, and were described in the deeds when the title to the land -passed from one party to another. It was not unusual, if subsequent -litigation came up, to cut blocks from marked trees to prove that such a -corner was at such a place. The "hacks" or ax marks, were sometimes -healed over and invisible at the bark, but were found deep in the wood. -The rings of growth covering the ax marks afforded an admissible record -of the years that had passed since the survey was made. The selection of -the black ash as a landmark was one of the few instances in which -Washington showed poor judgment; because it is a tree of short life, and -might be expected to die before a great many years. - -The name hoop ash is applied to this tree yet. It has always been good -material for barrel hoops, because it splits into thin pieces, and is -sufficiently tough. It is known as basket ash for the same reason. The -New England Indians were making fish baskets of it when the first white -people landed on those shores, and settlers speedily learned the art -from the children of the wilderness. Those untutored savages knew little -of wood technology, but they were able to take advantage of a -peculiarity in the structure of black ash wood, which the white man's -microscope has revealed to him. The Indians doubtless discovered it -accidentally. The springwood in the annual ring of black ash is made up -of large pores, crowded so closely together that there is really very -little actual wood substance there. In other words, the springwood is -chiefly air spaces. The result is, that billets of black ash are easily -separated into thin strips, the cleavage following the weak lines of -springwood. A little beating and bending causes the annual rings to fall -apart. In some way the Indians found that out, and utilized their -knowledge in manufacturing baskets in which to carry fish, acorns, -hickory nuts, and other forest and water commodities. - -The white people extended the scope of application to include chairs and -other furniture in which splits are manipulated. It is worthy of note -that Indians made a similar discovery with northern white cedar or -arborvitae, which separates into thin pieces by beating and bending. -Barrel makers took advantage of the splitting properties of black ash to -make hoops of it, hence the name hoop ash, or hoop tree as Washington -called it. The name basket ash has a similar origin. - -The names swamp ash and water ash refer to situations in which the tree -grows best. It is one of the thirstiest inhabitants of the forest. Its -aggressive roots ramify through the soil and drink up the moisture so -voraciously that if water is not abundant, neighboring trees and plants -may find their roots robbed, and the functions of healthy growth will be -interfered with. This has led to a general belief that black ash poisons -trees that it touches. It simply robs their roots. Carolina and Lombardy -poplars will sometimes do the same thing. - -The name black ash by which this tree is now known in most regions where -it grows refers to the color of the large, prominent, shiny, blue-black -buds in late winter and early spring; to the very dark green leaves in -summer--which at a distance resemble the foliage of post oak--and, to -some extent, to the dark brown color of the heartwood, though the wood -is not always a safe means of identification if judged from superficial -appearance only. The form of the tree assists in identifying it; for it -is the slimmest of the ashes, in proportion to its height. Trunks three -feet through are heard of, but few persons have ever seen one much over -twenty inches, and many are about done growing when they are one foot in -diameter. Yet the trunks of such are very tall, perhaps seventy or -eighty feet. Their appearance has been likened to tall, slender columns -of dark gray granite. They often stand so straight that a plummet line -will not reveal a deviation from the perpendicular. - -The tree has been called elder-leaved ash. The form of the foliage has -something to do with that name, but the odor more. Crush the leaves, and -they smell like elder. The compound leaves are from twelve to sixteen -inches long; the leaflets range from seven to eleven in number, and the -side leaflets have no stalks. The leaves appear late in spring, and they -fall early in autumn. They drop with the butternut leaves, and like -them, all at once. The seed is winged, and the wing forms a margin -entirely round the seed. - -The wood of black ash is rather soft, moderately heavy, tough, but only -moderately strong, not durable in contact with the soil, dark brown in -color with sapwood whiter. The species ranges farther north than any -other ash, and grows in cold swamps and on the low banks of streams and -lakes from Newfoundland to Winnipeg, and southward to Virginia, southern -Illinois, southern Missouri, and Arkansas. - -Black ash fills many important places in the country's wood-using -industries, but the total quantity is not large. In 1910 Michigan -manufacturers reported the annual quantity in that state at 9,110,432 -feet, and in Illinois the total was 9,936,000 feet. The uses for the -wood in Michigan may be regarded as typical of the whole country. The -reported uses were, auto seats, baskets, boat finish, butter tubs, candy -pails, carriage seats, crating, church pews, fish nets, office fixtures, -flooring, furniture, ice chests, interior finish, jelly buckets, kitchen -cabinets, lard tubs, piano frames, putty kegs, racked hoops, spice kegs, -tin plate boxes, veneer, washboards, and woven splint boxes. - -Black ash burls are characteristic excrescences on the trunk. They begin -as small lumps or knobs under the bark, and never cease growing while -the tree lives. They may reach the dimensions of wash tubs, but most do -not exceed the size of a gallon measure. The grain of the wood is -exceedingly distorted and involved. The burls are sliced or sawed in -veneers which are much prized by cabinet makers. Early New Englanders -made bowls of them, which seldom checked or split during generations of -service. The burls are believed to be due to adventitious buds; that is, -buds which originate deep in the wood, but are never able to force their -way through the bark. The internal structure of the ash burl indicates -that the buried bud grows, branches, and sends shoots in various -directions, but all of them are hopelessly enmeshed in the wood -substance, and never are able to free themselves and burst through the -bark. A constantly enlarging excrescence is the result. - -BLUE ASH (_Fraxinus quadrangulata_) is named from a blue dye procured -from the inner bark. The botanical name relates to the square shape of -the young twigs, particularly the twigs of young trees, and was given by -A. F. Michaux who found the species growing in the South. It reaches its -best development on the lower Wabash river in Indiana and Illinois and -on the Big Smoky mountains in Tennessee. Its northern limit reaches -southern Michigan, its western is in Missouri. It is not abundant, if -found at all, east of the Appalachian mountains. Trees may reach a -height of 100 feet and a diameter of three, but about seventy is the -average height, with a diameter of two feet or less. The leaves resemble -those of black ash in form, but the foliage when seen in mass is -yellow-green instead of dark green like that of black ash. The seeds -look like those of black ash. The tree bears perfect flowers, and in -that respect differs from most other species of ash. - -The wood is heavier than that of any other member of the ash group, -except Texas ash. It weighs about the same as white oak, which is six -pounds per cubic foot more than white ash weighs. In general appearance -the wood resembles white ash, but it is usually considered stronger and -more springy. The trunks of young trees are largely or entirely sapwood. -Sometimes no heartwood is formed until an age of seventy or eighty -years is reached. Many manufacturers of ash tool handles prefer this -species to any other ash, because of its thick, white sapwood. It is -often made into handles for hoes, rakes, shovels, pitchforks, spades, -and snaths for scythes. Makers of vehicles draw liberally upon this wood -within its range, as do furniture makers and the manufacturers of -flooring. It is regarded as harder than white ash, and consequently -better flooring material. - - LEATHERLEAF ASH (_Fraxinus velutina_) changes its velvety leaves to - a leathery condition, hence the conflict in the meanings of its two - names. _Velutina_ means velvet-like. The compound leaves are seldom - six inches long, often not three, and they are made up of from three - to nine leaflets. The small seeds are equipped with wings. The tree - is small and would be without any commercial importance except that - it grows in an arid region where any wood is welcome. It is made - into ax, hammer, and pick handles, and wagon makers are often glad - to get it. It is found among the mountains and canyons of western - Texas, in New Mexico, Arizona, southern Nevada, and southeastern - California, near the shores of Owen's lake. The largest trees are - scarcely forty feet high and eight inches in diameter. The wood is - not hard or strong, and is of slow growth. The largest trunks are - apt to be hollow. Sapwood is comparatively thick. - - BERLANDIER ASH (_Fraxinus berlandieriana_) may not be entitled to a - place among native species, of the United States. Some suppose it - was introduced from Mexico by early Spanish settlers in western - Texas. It now grows wild there along Nueces and Blanco rivers where - specimens thirty feet high and a foot in diameter are found. - Southward in Mexico it is a popular street tree, and trunks reach - six or eight feet in diameter. The wood is soft and is used only - locally and in very small quantities. - -[Illustration] - - - - -OREGON ASH - -[Illustration: OREGON ASH] - - - - -OREGON ASH - -(_Fraxinus Oregona_) - - -This tree is unusual in that it has only one common name, and that is a -translation of its botanical name which was given it by Nuttall who -visited the Pacific coast several years before the discovery of gold. - -The moist bottom lands of southwestern Oregon are best suited to its -growth, and here the best individuals and most abundant stands are -found. Moist soil and climate are essential to proper development of -this tree, and in such environment it is found from Puget Sound -southward along the coast to San Francisco. A little further from the -coast it grows along the foothills of the Sierra Nevada mountains, to -the low mountains in San Diego and San Bernardino counties, California, -in the southern extension of its range occupying a rather dry region. - -The trunk grows to a height of eighty or 100 feet, and is often three -feet in diameter. It is covered with a gray-brown bark, exfoliating in -flaky scales. The leaves are from five to fourteen inches long, and have -five or seven firm, light-green leaflets, finely toothed and bluntly -pointed. The flowers appear in April and May and are in compact -panicles; the fruit in clusters, broadly winged and round pointed, and -from one to two inches long. - -The scarcity of good hardwoods on the Pacific coast gives this ash more -importance than it otherwise would have, and the importance which it -possesses has been frequently overstated. It is not abundant of form and -size fitting it for lumber. It has long been cut in small quantities, -but never in large. The census returns for 1910 show that less than -400,000 feet per year are reported in its entire range. Three-fourths of -this is sawed in Oregon, the remainder in Washington. Though the species -has a range of 800 miles north and south through California, no sawmill -reported a foot of it. However, it is probable that census returns fail -to do this wood full justice; for it is well known that considerable -quantities are manufactured into articles without passing through -sawmills. Chief among such commodities is slack cooperage. Butter tubs -of Oregon ash are common. Much goes to wagon shops, and some of it -without aid of sawmills. - -Little or none of this wood is shipped outside its range, and its use is -local. Boat builders work it into finish for cabins and upper parts, and -some serves as ribs. It is often seen as handles for picks, shovels, -spades, pitchforks, and rakes. A little finds place, combined with other -woods, in office and store fixtures. Its grain resembles that of white -ash. It is not as heavy, and it is not believed to be as strong. It is -hard, brittle, brown in color, with thick, lighter-colored sapwood. -Furniture makers list it as shop material, and such is its largest -reported use in Washington. A moderate amount is made into saddletrees -and stirrups, and much is used as fuel. - -Oregon ash has been planted for shade and ornament in both this country -and Europe. It grows rapidly and develops a symmetrical crown. The habit -it has of coming into leaf late in the spring and throwing its foliage -down early in autumn is held by some as a serious objection to it as an -ornamental tree; but it has compensating habits. It is remarkably free -from disease, and, though leaves come late and go early, while its -foliage is on, it is healthy and vigorous. Reproduction is satisfactory -in the tree's wild state, and there is no danger that the species will -disappear. No movement has yet been made to plant this ash for -commercial timber growing. - -GREEN ASH (_Fraxinus lanceolata_) has been given that name on account of -the bright color of its foliage. It has other names, however, which -indicate that its greenness is not always preeminently prominent. In -Iowa and Arkansas they call it blue ash; in Kansas and Nebraska white -ash; in some regions it is known as water ash, and elsewhere swamp ash. -Some botanists do not regard it as a separate species but call it a -variety of red ash, but the consensus of opinion is that it is a -distinct species, though there appear to be connecting forms grading -from red ash into green ash. Certain it is that the two are distinct -enough in certain parts of the country. The range of green ash is more -extensive than that of any other ash in this country. Beginning in -Vermont it passes southward to Florida; northwestward to the -Saskatchewan river several hundred miles north of the international -boundary line; along the base of the Rocky Mountains and over the ranges -to Arizona, and through Texas. This includes more than half of the area -of the United States. Notwithstanding a range so extensive, the total -quantity of green ash timber in the country is not large. No pure -forests or extensive stands exist. Trees are widely dispersed, and when -lumbermen cut them, the wood is sold as some other, usually as white -ash. The wood has the general characters of red ash. It weighs about -forty-four pounds per cubic foot of dry wood; is moderately strong, -fairly stiff and elastic, and, like other species of ash, it is not -durable in contact with the soil. - -Green ash is more planted than any other in the cold and dry regions of -the West and Northwest. It is a prairie tree and is found along highways -and in door yards from Kansas northward into British America. It stands -drought better than any other ash, and resists cold fully as well, and -yet it endures the warm weather and the rains of the South and -flourishes there. It is not a large tree, but of sufficient size for use -as furniture, finish, and vehicle making. It is seldom listed in -statistics of woods which go to sawmills, yet it is known that a good -many logs find their way to mills, while wagon makers and slack coopers -employ it in producing their commodities. The tree is an abundant -seeder, and the seeds continue to fall during most of the winter. - - RED ASH (_Fraxinus pennsylvanica_) is neither a large tree nor very - abundant, yet it has a wide range and is put to use wherever - lumbermen find it convenient. The lumber generally passes in the - market as white ash, and for most purposes it is as good, but is - rated lower than that wood in elasticity. It is called brown ash in - Maine, black ash in New Jersey, river ash in Rhode Island. The last - name is bestowed because the tree prefers moist land near rivers and - ponds, and largest specimens are found in such situations, where it - is often an associate of black ash and is frequently mistaken for - it, though it should not be difficult to tell the species apart. A - slight reddish tinge sometimes shows on the outer bark; the inner - layer of bark is reddish; the small twigs and the under sides of - leaves are clothed with hairs which sometimes suggest redness; and - the heartwood is reddish-brown. Persons who speak of the tree as red - ash probably have one or more of those characteristics in mind. As a - tree it has no striking peculiarities. Its usual height is forty or - sixty feet; its diameter from fifteen to twenty inches; its compound - leaves ten or twelve inches long, with seven or nine leaflets; its - seeds one or two inches in length, narrow, and sharply pointed, with - slender, graceful wing. - - The range of red ash is from New Brunswick to Dakota, and from - Florida to Alabama, with all of the included region of a million - square miles. It attains its best development in the north Atlantic - states, while it is usually inferior west of the Alleghany - mountains. It develops a broad crown in open ground, but even there - its lower limbs die and drop, while in forests the trunk grows tall - and the crown is reduced. It is planted for shade and ornament, but - it seems to have no superiority over white ash for that purpose. - Some of the Michigan manufacturers list red ash separately in their - factories, and apparently this is not done elsewhere in the country. - About three-quarters of a million feet a year are used in that - state, and since uses there are doubtless typical of uses in the - country generally, the list possesses importance: Automobile frames, - boxes, butter tubs, crates, eveners, flooring, furniture, interior - finish, neck yokes, singletrees, wagon poles. Farther east in early - times red ash was occasionally split for fence rails, but that use - is important now only as history. - - PUMPKIN ASH (_Fraxinus profunda_) is a tree of peculiar interest. It - was unknown before 1893, though the region had been settled over a - hundred years. It has the largest leaves, largest fruit, and largest - swelled base of all American ashes. Notwithstanding that, it - remained so deeply hidden in swamps that it escaped discovery. The - botanical name refers to the deep swamps in which the tree chooses - its habitation. Its great, swelled base enables it to stand on the - soft mud of lagoon bottoms, and the abnormal swelling is ribbed like - a pumpkin, hence the only English name the tree has ever had. These - are not the only remarkable things connected with this ash. Its - range includes three or four deep swamps, far apart. One is in - southern Missouri, New Madrid country, another near Varney, - Arkansas, and a third, in a vast morass on the Apalachicola river, - Florida. It is believed to have been originally a Florida species, - and by some freak of nature it reached the Missouri and Arkansas - swamps. Certain other Florida plants accompanied it, one of which - was corkwood (_Leitneria floridana_). It is expected that pumpkin - ash will be found elsewhere in deep swamps intermediate between the - extremes of its range. The uses of this wood are few, because it is - scarce, and the trees are difficult of access on account of being - nearly always surrounded by water. Lumbermen who operate in swamps - occasionally bring out a few ash logs with cypress and tupelo. No - tests seem to have been made of the wood. Trees are sometimes 120 - feet high and three in diameter above the swelled bases. - - WATER ASH (_Fraxinus caroliniana_) is much lighter in weight than - any other American ash, and the wood is also lighter in color. It is - weaker and less elastic than any other, and is lower in fuel value. - It weighs less than white pine. It grows in deep swamps from - southern Virginia to Florida and westward in swamps to Texas. Some - have confused it with pumpkin ash, but the two are quite distinct. - This tree is also called poppy ash. The leaves are from seven to - twelve inches long, with five or seven leaflets which are much - blunter than most other ash leaves. The seeds are nearly in the - center of the broad, long wing, and are better flyers than most ash - seeds. The tree seldom exceeds forty feet in height, or twelve - inches in diameter. It is not known that the wood is ever used. Its - scarcity will keep it from becoming important, though its uncommon - lightness may lead to its employment for certain purposes. - - BILTMORE ASH (_Fraxinus biltmoreana_) is named from Biltmore, N. C., - where the tree attains its best development, a height of forty or - fifty feet and a foot or less in diameter. Its range extends from - northern West Virginia southward along the foothills of the - Appalachian mountains to Georgia, Alabama, and middle Tennessee. The - seed wings are slender, and only slightly narrowed at the end. The - leaf is ten or twelve inches long, with seven or nine leaflets. The - twigs of young trees are hairy. An occasional log doubtless goes to - sawmills, but no report has been made of uses of the wood. - - FLORIDA ASH (_Fraxinus floridana_) is a deep swamp tree, thirty or - forty feet high, and a few inches in diameter. It is found in the - valley of St. Mary's river, southern Georgia, and along the lower - Apalachicola river, Florida. The compound leaves are five or more - inches long with three or five leaflets. The seeds are small but - their wings are wide and long. No report has been made concerning - the quality of the wood, nor has it been used, as far as known. The - supply is very small. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SUGAR MAPLE - -[Illustration: SUGAR MAPLE] - - - - -SUGAR MAPLE - -(_Acer Saccharum_) - - -The makers of sugar in the North call this tree sugar maple, but -lumbermen and users of wood nearly always speak of it as hard maple. All -maples--and there are nearly a dozen--are tolerably hard, and sugar may -be obtained from most of them; but this species is hardest of all, and -the most prolific sugar maker, hence the two names are appropriate. It -is often called rock maple, which name refers to its hard wood. In some -regions the name most heard is sugar tree. - -Its range extends from Newfoundland through Canada to Lake of the Woods, -southward through Minnesota, Iowa, Kansas, and Arkansas to Texas. It is -found in every state east of the Mississippi, but it is not abundant in -the South. Its best development is found from New England across the -northern states to Michigan. Some very fine sugar maple is found in -fertile valleys and on slopes among the Appalachian ranges from -Pennsylvania southward. The largest lumber cut of maple is in the -following states, ranging in the order given: Michigan, Wisconsin, -Pennsylvania, West Virginia, New York, Ohio, Indiana, and Vermont. Since -the different species of maple are not reported separately in -statistics, there is no way of determining how much each of the maples -supplies. It is well known that sugar maple greatly exceeds all others. - -At its best this tree may exceed a height of 100 feet and a diameter of -three; but the average for mature timber in the best part of its range -is sixty or eighty feet in height, and two in diameter. The flowers -appear with the leaves in early spring, but the seeds do not ripen until -autumn, when they are bright red. They are winged, and usually two grow -together, but they sometimes become detached, in which case each is -capable of flight with its single wing. It is characteristic of maple -seeds to whirl rapidly while falling, and if a moderate wind is blowing, -they glide considerable distances. They usually fly farther than the -seeds of ash although their wings are no larger. The immense numbers of -seeds borne by the sugar maple insure abundant reproduction in the -vicinity of parent trees. The seeds sprout readily, but often so closely -crowded together that most of them die the first few weeks. Not one in -ten thousand can even become a large tree, and yet large trees are -exceedingly abundant in extensive regions. They often form nearly pure -stands, crowding to death all rivals that try to obtain a foothold. On -the other hand, this maple often contents itself with a place among -other forest trees. - -It is one of the most vigorous and dependable of trees. It does not grow -fast, but it keeps steadily at it a long time, and enjoys unusually good -health. Its worst enemy is coal smoke, but fortunately, most sugar maple -forests are out of reach of that disturber, though shade trees near -factory towns and in the vicinity of coke ovens often suffer. Woodlots -of sugar maple, occupying corners of farms in the northern states from -Minnesota to Maine, present pictures of health, vigor, cleanliness, and -beauty which no forest tree surpasses. The intense green and the density -of the crowns in summer make the trees conspicuous in any landscape -where they occur, while their brilliant colors in autumn are the chief -glory of the forest where they abound. - -The wood of this tree is hard, strong, and dense. It is three pounds -lighter per cubic foot than white oak, and theoretically it rates a -little lower in fuel value, but those who use both woods as fuel -consider maple worth more. It is thirty per cent stronger than white -oak, and fifty-three per cent stiffer. The wood is diffuse-porous, that -is, the pores are not arranged in bands or rows, as they usually are in -oaks, but are scattered in all parts. They are too small to be seen with -the naked eye, but under a magnifying glass they are visible in large -numbers. The yearly ring is not very distinct, because of the slight -contrast between spring and summerwood. The medullary rays are numerous -but small. In wood sawed along radial lines, from heart to sap, small -silvery flecks are numerous. These are the medullary rays. They add -something to the appearance of quarter-sawed maple, but not enough to -induce mills to turn out much of it. - -Such figures as maple has are brought out best in tangential -sawing--that is, cut like a slab off the side of the log. Three distinct -figures are recognized in sugar maple, and to some extent they belong to -other maples. These forms of wood are known as birdseye, curly, and -blister maple. They are accidental forms and exist in certain trees -only. Students of wood structure are not wholly agreed as to the cause -of these forms, but one of them, the birdseye effect, is believed to be -due to adventitious buds which distort the wood in their vicinity. These -buds start near the center of the tree when it is small, but never -succeed in forcing their way out. They remain just beneath the bark -during most or the whole of the tree's life. A pin-like core, resembling -a fine thread, connects the birdseye with the tree's pith. This thread -is the pith of the embryonic branch formed by the bud which never breaks -through the bark. When the wood is sawed tangentially, small, dark-brown -points or dots show the center of the buds, or the pith line connecting -it with the tree's center. Curly maple and blister maple are not -believed to be formed in the same way as birdseye. - -The uses of sugar maple are nearly universal, where a hard, white wood -is wanted. Many large trees contain little colored heart, and trees are -generally fifty years old before they have any. More maple is worked -into flooring than into any other one commodity. Mills in Michigan -alone, in 1910, made 185,611,662 feet of maple flooring. It was shipped -to practically every civilized country in the world. Many builders -consider it the best wooden floor that can be laid. In a test made in a -large store in Philadelphia some years ago, a marble floor wore through -sooner than maple, when the same wear was on both. - -Nearly all kinds and classes of furniture have places for maple, either -as outside material or inside frames, drawer bottoms, or partitions. -Vehicle manufacturers employ it for heavy axles, running gear, parts of -automobiles, sleigh runners and frames, and hand sleds. It is made into -handles from gimlet sizes to cant hooks. Gymnasium apparatus owes much -to the whiteness, smoothness, and strength of maple. Woodenware from -toothpicks to ironing boards; from butcher blocks to butter molds; from -door knobs to die blocks, is dependent on maple for some of its best -material. It is largely used for boxes, in both solid and veneer form. -Only two woods are now employed in larger amounts for veneers in the -United States than maple. They are red gum and yellow pine. - -Maple is one of the three woods most largely employed in hardwood -distillation in this country; beech and birch are the others. Maple -sugar is a product of this tree almost exclusively, and the business is -large. In some parts of New England it is claimed that a grove is worth -more for sugar than the land is worth for agriculture. - - SILVER MAPLE (_Acer saccharinum_) is generally called soft maple by - lumbermen. It is known also as white maple, river maple, - silver-leaved maple, swamp maple, and water maple. The sinuses of - the leaves are very deep. The lighter color of its bark and the pale - green of the leaves distinguish soft maple at a glance from sugar - maple when both are in full leaf. The greenish-yellow flowers open - in early spring, and the seeds are ripe in April or May, depending - on the season and region. The seeds have large wings and fly well. - They germinate in a few days after they find suitable soil, and - before the end of the summer the seedlings have grown several - leaves. The vigor thus displayed continues until the tree is large. - It is a fast grower, and for that reason has been extensively - planted as a street and park tree. The wisdom of doing so is - doubtful, for this maple throws out long limbs which are often - broken by wind. The trunk is subject to disease, and a row of old - soft maples nearly always presents a ragged, unkempt, neglected - appearance. As to beauty of form and crown, there is little - comparison between it and the planted sugar maple. Soft maples in - forests range from seventy-five to 120 feet in height, and two to - four in diameter; that is, they attain about the same size as sugar - maples. The species covers a million square miles, practically the - whole country east of the Mississippi, some west of that river, and - most of eastern Canada. - - It is a useful wood for many purposes. The custom of mixing this - with sugar maple makes it impossible to clearly separate the two - woods afterwards. It is the opinion of some well-informed - manufacturers that about five per cent of the total maple cut in the - United States is soft maple. The ratio is less in the North and more - in the South. The wood is hard, strong, rather brittle, easily - worked, pale brown with thick, white sapwood. Some rather large - trunks have no sapwood. It is in general use, but not for as many - purposes as sugar maple. The largest places found for it are as - flooring and woodenware, though furniture and boxes, particularly - veneer boxes, consume much. Its weight is three-fourths that of - sugar maple. The largest trees and the best wood grow in the lower - Ohio valley. - -[Illustration] - - - - -RED MAPLE - -[Illustration: RED MAPLE] - - - - -RED MAPLE - -(_Acer Rubrum_) - - -This tree's names describe it. Some refer to color of leaves, flowers, -and fruit, others to situation where it grows best. It is known as red -maple and swamp maple; also as water maple, white maple, scarlet maple, -and shoepeg maple. New York Indians called it ah-we-hot-kwah, which -meant red flower. Most trees looked alike to Indians, and when they gave -a name, it was descriptive. - -The redness of this maple is so marked that it cannot escape notice. The -flowers, fruit, twigs, and leaves all possess the property at one time -or another during the season. The flower comes before the leaf, during -the first warm days of spring. That is pretty early in the South, and -later in the North. The flowers are bright scarlet, and very -conspicuous, growing in umbel-like, drooping clusters. The staminate and -pistillate ones frequently grow on different trees, and always in -separate clusters. - -The fruit ripens quickly, and is sometimes almost mature before the -leaves appear. The date of ripening depends upon latitude. The tree's -range north and south exceeds a thousand miles and that makes much -difference in climate. In the South the fruit outstrips the leaves and -has about reached maturity before the unfolding leaves are large enough -to hide it; but in New England and New York the leaves are large before -the fruit is mature. The seed is the characteristic maple key, with a -wing to carry it. The fruit--and by that term the seed with its attached -wing is meant--is bright red, and a tree loaded with the vivid clusters -is a beautiful spectacle. Two seeds are generally fast together, and -they make surprising flights in that condition, passing with whirling -motion through the air. Gravity spins them, but wind carries them -forward, and the random of their flight depends on the strength of the -wind, which happens to be blowing when they sever their connection with -the tree. - -The seeds germinate quickly when they light on damp soil. If they do not -find such situations, they soon perish; because they do not retain their -vitality long. By the middle of summer the young trees have several -leaves, and from that time on the struggle is mainly among themselves -for space and moisture, because they stand so thick that it is a -survival of the fittest. - -The young twigs are generally red in spring, but they do not present as -conspicuous a mass as the flowers and fruit do. The leaves are simple, -with long reddish petioles. They have three or five lobes, the lower -pair often entirely missing, and small if present. Each lobe has a -pointed apex, and is irregularly serrate. The base of the leaf is -rounded; also the sinuses, which extend far into the body of the leaf. -The upper surface of the leaf is bright green, the lower a -silvery-white. In the fall this tree is entitled to the name scarlet; -for then the brilliant hues of the leaves are remarkably fine. - -The range of red maple covers more than a million square miles, and -touches every state east of the Mississippi river, and west of that -stream it extends from South Dakota to Texas. It prefers rather swampy -ground, but wants fertile soil. It is frequently found on the banks of -creeks and rivers, and rarely on hillsides. It is most abundant in the -South, particularly in the lower Mississippi valley, while trees of -larger size are found in the valley of the lower Ohio. In the North it -takes more to low wet swamps where it sometimes grows in such thickets -as almost to exclude other species. - -The best red maple trees attain a height of 100 feet or more, and a -diameter of four feet or less. The average size is seventy feet high and -two in diameter. The form of the tree, like that of all other maples, -depends much upon the situation in which it grows. Good saw timber is -not often cut from this species near the outer borders of its range. - -The wood is about three-fourths as strong as hard maple, and is five -pounds lighter per cubic foot, but is about six pounds heavier than soft -or silver maple. It may, therefore, be considered that in some important -points red maple is midway between hard and soft maple. In color it is -light brown, slightly tinged with red. The sapwood is thick and lighter -in color than the heart. The tree is usually not of rapid growth. The -contrast between the springwood and summerwood is not strong. The wood -is very porous, but the pores are so small that the unaided eye cannot -discern them. The medullary rays are numerous, but thin, and are seldom -considered in working the lumber. - -Mills which saw this maple do not separate the lumber from other maples. -The woodsman knows the difference, but the lumberman does not consider -it worth while to pile the sawed stock separately. It sometimes goes to -market as hard maple, sometimes as soft, but never under its own name. -Consequently, it has no uses which are not also common to other maples. -Lumbermen cut it when they find it mixed with other hardwoods where they -are carrying on logging operations. - -Red maple is made into flooring, interior finish, and veneer box -material. Veneers are also made for furniture. These are the most -important uses for the wood, but the manufacturers of woodenware employ -it for numerous commodities, such as trays, bowls, ironing boards, grain -scoops, snow shovels, clothes racks, garment hangers, and clothes pins. -This species shows birdseye effect similar to that of sugar maple, but -less of the stock goes to market. Logs with birdseye wood are generally -reduced to veneer by the rotary process. Curly and wavy grains also -occur in this maple. The wavy grain was much sought after by the early -hunters who equipped their long rifles with stocks. Having found a piece -of timber with the desired wavy grain, the hunter proceeded to shave and -whittle until the stock was fitted to the barrel, and the gun was -complete. Some of the stocks made with no tools but an ax, drawing -knife, and a pocket knife, were works of art which are worthy of -preservation in museums. - -Occasionally some unknown rural Stradivari made a violin and selected -the curly wood of red maple for the neck and sides. A few of these -instruments are floating about the country, but an age of fifty or a -hundred years has not yet imparted classic value to them, but the wood -is unsurpassed in delicacy of grain and figure. - -Sugar may be manufactured from red maple, but in smaller quantity than -from sugar maple. In the days when every frontier settlement did its own -manufacturing, inks and dyes were made from the bark of this tree. The -tannin boiled from the bark was treated with sulphate of iron, and it -became ink; when alum was added it became black dye; when the sulphate -of iron was omitted, and alum alone was put in, a cinnamon-colored dye -resulted. - -Red maple is one of the most desirable trees for planting in parks and -by roadsides. Nurserymen complain that seedlings are more difficult to -manage than silver maples; nor do they grow as rapidly, but the trees -are worth much more when once established. They have shorter and -stronger branches than silver maple; are less liable to be attacked by -disease; are more handsome in every way; but they demand damper soil, -and succeed poorly in any other. That drawback tends to restrict the -artificial planting of this tree. - - MOUNTAIN MAPLE (_Acer spicatum_) is known also as moose maple, low - maple, and water maple. It is a small tree at its best, seldom more - than twenty-five feet high and eight inches in diameter, while in - most parts of its range it is only a shrub. Its best growth is on - mountain slopes of eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina. It - likes moist, rich hillsides, and does not object to shade. The - flowers come late, but within a month or six weeks after the bloom - appears, the fruit is full grown, but it remains on the tree till - autumn. The tree's bark is smooth and very thin. The absence of - stripes distinguishes this tree from striped maple, which has nearly - the same range. Mountain maple grows from Maine to Minnesota, - southward to Michigan, and along the mountains to Georgia. The wood - is light, soft, brown tinged with red. The small size of the trunk - forbids its conversion into ordinary lumber. The only commercial use - reported for it is in Pennsylvania where it is cut along with other - hardwoods for destructive distillation. - - FLORIDA MAPLE (_Acer floridanum_) is a species according to some, - and according to others is a variety of the hard maple. Its range is - limited, and the available quantity of the wood is small. It is - found in the swamps of southern Georgia and western Florida, and - westward to Texas, Louisiana, and southern Arkansas. Near the - southwestern limits of its range in Texas and Mexico, it is often a - shrub; but in the best part of its range it becomes a tree fifty or - sixty feet high and two or three in diameter. The wood passes for - hard maple when sawed into lumber, but it is not often sent to - sawmills. The makers of bent wood rustic furniture in some of the - southern towns, particularly in Louisiana, have found the slender - branches of Florida maple well suited to that purpose. - - DRUMMOND MAPLE (_Acer rubrum drummondii_) is a variety of red maple, - not a separate species. Its range lies in the coastal plain of - Alabama and Georgia, western Louisiana, eastern Texas, southwestern - Tennessee, and southern Arkansas. It grows in deep swamps, and has - three-lobed leaves, and large-winged fruit, ripening in April and - May. The wood is too scarce to be important in the lumber trade, but - where it can be had it is used. Violin makers have procured some - finely curled wood of this maple in Union Parish, Louisiana. Some of - the wood from that district has been made into gunstocks also. - - WHITEBARK MAPLE (_Acer leucoderme_) has been classed as a variety of - sugar maple, and also as a separate species. It is named from the - light gray color of the bark of young stems; but the color turns - dark with age. The tree is usually twenty or thirty feet high with a - diameter of a foot or more. The wood is of good quality, but no - uses, except fuel, have been reported. Trees are not abundant, but - the range covers parts of North Carolina, Tennessee, Georgia, - Alabama, Louisiana, and Arkansas. It is occasionally planted as a - shade tree along the streets of towns of Georgia and Alabama. - -[Illustration] - - - - -OREGON MAPLE - -[Illustration: OREGON MAPLE] - - - - -OREGON MAPLE - -(_Acer Macrophyllum_) - - -Botanists prefer to call this tree broadleaf maple. The name is not -inappropriate, as its extraordinarily broad leaves constitute the most -striking feature of the tree where it stands in the woods. The leaf is -usually wider than it is long. Some exceed a foot in both measurements. -Bigleaf maple is not an uncommon name for the tree in Oregon, where it -attains its highest development in damp valleys where the soil is good. -The name white maple is not particularly descriptive of any feature of -the tree, though the name is applied in both Oregon and Washington. In -California it is known simply as maple. There is small likelihood in -that region that it will be confused with any other member of the maple -household; nor is there much danger of such a thing in any part of the -Pacific coast, for, though four species of maple occur there, no one of -them bears close enough resemblance to this one to be mistaken for it. - -The Oregon maple's range north and south covers twenty degrees of -latitude. In that particular it is not much surpassed, if surpassed at -all, by any maple of this country. Its northern limit lies in Alaska, -its southern close to the Mexican boundary, in San Diego county, -California. Its range east and west is restricted. It has a width of -about one hundred and fifty miles in California, where it grows from the -coast to the foothills of the Sierra Nevada mountains. An altitude of -5,600 feet appears to be the limit of its range upward. It attains -altitudes above 5,000 feet at several points in the Sierra Nevada range. -It descends nearly to sea level. Its geographical range is similar to -the ranges of several other Pacific coast species which occupy long -ribbons of territory stretching north and south parallel with the coast -of the Pacific ocean. - -This maple's leaves change to a clear reddish-yellow before falling. -Flowers appear after the leaves are grown, and the seeds ripen late in -autumn. Some of them hang until late in winter, but the habit varies in -different parts of the range, as is natural in view of its great -extension north and south. The trees which stand in open ground are very -abundant seeders, but those in dense stands produce sparingly, in that -particular following the habit of most trees. This maple often grows in -dense, nearly pure stands in Oregon and Washington where soil and other -conditions are favorable. - -The sizes and forms of Oregon maple vary greatly. John Muir spoke of -forests whose trees were eighty or one hundred feet high, so dense with -leaves and so abundantly supplied with branches that moss and ferns -formed a canopy with foliage and limbs high over head, like an aerial -garden; while George B. Sudworth described it in certain situations as a -short-stemmed, crooked tree from twenty-five to thirty feet high and -under a foot in diameter. - -This maple has been called the most valuable hardwood of the Pacific -coast, but that claim is made also for other trees. Some persons rate it -with the hard maple of the East, in properties which commend it for use. -It is doubtful if the claim can be substantiated. According to Sargent's -figures for strength, stiffness, weight, and fuel value, it lacks much -of equalling the eastern tree. It is twelve pounds per cubic foot -lighter; has not three-fourths the fuel value; and is little more than -half as strong or as stiff. The comparison is more in favor of the -western tree when color of wood and appearance of grain are considered. -The wood is light brown with pale tint of red. The rings of annual -growth are tolerably distinct, with a thin, dark line separating the -summerwood of one year from the springwood of the next. The pores are -scattered with fair evenness in all parts of the ring. They are small -and numerous. The medullary rays are thin and abundant. In quarter-sawed -wood they show much the same as in hard maple, but are rather darker in -color. The mirrors are decidedly tinged with brown. The wood is reported -poor in resisting decay when in contact with the soil. - -The largest use of Oregon maple appears to be for furniture, second, for -interior finish, and following these are numerous miscellaneous uses. -Statistics of the cut of this wood, as shown by sawmill reports, are -unsatisfactory. Census returns include it with all other maples of the -country, without figures for species. The cut of maple for all the -western states seems too small to give this wood justice. The amount -reported used in Washington, Oregon, and California exceeds the total -reported sawmill cut in the West. - -Oregon maple is an important handlewood. The smooth grain appeals to -broom makers. The wood is made into ax handles, but for that use it is -much below hickory, or even hard maple or white oak. It is converted -into pulleys in Washington, also into saddle trees, and tent toggles. -Boat makers employ it for finish material, in which capacity it fills -the same place, and must meet the same requirements as in interior -finish for houses. Curly or wavy wood is occasionally found and this is -worked into finish and also into furniture. The figure is as handsome as -in eastern maple, but birdseye is less frequent. Counter tops for stores -and bar tops for saloons are sometimes made of figured maple. It is seen -also in grill work and show cases, but in order to show the figured wood -to the best advantage it should be worked in flat surfaces. - -Oregon maple is converted into flooring of the ordinary tongued and -grooved kind, and also into parquet flooring. Rotary veneers are made -into boxes and baskets. Solid logs are turned for rollers of various -sizes and kinds. Mill yards use them for offbearing lumber, and house -movers find them about the best local material to be had. This maple has -been successfully stained in imitation of mahogany, and is said to pass -satisfactory tests where the color is the principal consideration. - -The amount of this species available in the Northwest is not definitely -known, but it is a relatively scarce wood. No attention has ever been -given to planting it as a commercial proposition. It is not of very -rapid growth, and unless it is in dense stands, it develops a short -trunk and large crown. It is better suited for shade and ornament, and -is to be seen as a street tree in some western towns. It does not -flourish in the eastern states, but has found the climate of western -Europe more congenial and is occasionally found as an ornamental tree -there. - -The relative importance of this maple in the state of Washington is -indicated by the amount used annually compared with certain other -hardwoods. In 1911 the consumption of willow was 2,000 feet, vine maple -10,000, Oregon ash 58,000, Oregon oak 197,000, western birch 315,000, -Oregon maple 932,500, red alder 1,881,500, and black cottonwood -32,572,200. - -VINE MAPLE (_Acer circinatum_) is sometimes called mountain maple, -though the name is misleading. It may grow among mountains, but always -near streams. It is found at various altitudes from near sea level to -5,000 feet above. It ranges from the coast region of British Columbia -southward through Washington and Oregon to Mendocino county, California. -This tree is more useful than might be inferred from its name, or even -from a study of it in its usual form. Only an occasional tree is good -for the wood user. A height of twenty feet and a diameter of six inches -are above the average. It is called vine maple because of its habit of -sprawling on the ground like a vine. The trunk lacks sufficient -stiffness to hold it erect. It grows upward to a certain point, then -leans over and the branches lie on the ground. Some of them take root -and in course of time what was first a single stem becomes a thicket of -branches and stems. The winter snow often has much to do with bending -the trunk, which appears to have no power to get back to the -perpendicular when once bowed down. The damp situation where this tree -thrives best, induces a luxuriant growth of moss and mold which help to -bury the branches that lie on the ground. - -The tree prospers in deep shade. The young leaves are rose red, and in -the fall become yellow or scarlet. The fruit is the characteristic maple -key. The wing becomes rose-red before falling in autumn. Though this -tree is more a curiosity than a lumberman's asset, it is not without -value. Handle makers use 10,000 feet of it a year in the state of -Washington. It is shaved and turned for ax and shovel handles. It has -two-thirds the strength and less than half the stiffness of eastern hard -maple. The tree grows slowly and the annual rings are very narrow and -indistinct. Seventy or eighty years are required to produce a trunk five -inches in diameter. The wood is hard, and checks badly in seasoning. The -bark is very pale brown--suggesting the color of a potato sprout that -has grown in a dark cellar. The Indians liked the wood for fish net -bows, though there appears to have been no very good reason why they -preferred it to other woods of the region. Its most extensive use at -present is as fuel, but it is not particularly sought after. The tree's -future is not promising. Under domestication it does not take on its -fantastic, moldy, moss-grown form, and its forest growth will never be -encouraged by lumbermen. - -DWARF MAPLE (_Acer glabrum_) is one of the smallest of the maples, but -in a north and south direction its range is equal to that of any other. -Its southern limit is among the canyons of Arizona, and its northern on -the coast of Alaska within six or seven degrees of the Arctic circle. It -extends to Nebraska, and is found east of the continental divide far -north in British America. It reaches its largest size on Vancouver -island and on the Blue mountains in Oregon. It here is large enough to -make small sawlogs, but it is usually shrubby in other parts of its -range. It grows from sea level in Alaska to 9,000 feet altitude among -the Sierra Nevada mountains of California. Two forms of leaf occur. One -is three-lobed; the other is a compound leaf, the lobes having formed -separate leaves. The bright upper surface of the leaf gives the species -its botanical name. The seeds have large, wide wings. It cannot be -ascertained that the wood of this maple has ever been used for anything. - -[Illustration] - - - - -BOX ELDER - -[Illustration: BOX ELDER] - - - - -BOX ELDER - -(_Acer Negundo_) - - -Attempts to ascertain the meaning of the word _negundo_ which botanists -apply to this species have not been crowned with entire success. It is -known to be a word in the Malayalam language of the Malabar coast of -India, and is there applied to a tree, apparently referring to a -peculiar form of leaf. The name was transferred to the box elder by -Moench, and has been generally adopted by botanists, although at least -seven other scientific names have been given the tree. It bears ten or -more English names in different regions. Among these names are -ash-leaved maple, known from Massachusetts to Montana and Texas; -cut-leaved maple in Colorado; three-leaved maple in Pennsylvania; black -ash in Tennessee; stinking ash in South Carolina; sugar ash in Florida; -water ash in the Dakotas; and box elder wherever it grows. - -The tree's geographical range does not fall much short of 3,000,000 -square miles, and is equalled by few species of this country. It extends -from New England across Canada to Alberta, thence to Arizona, and -includes practically all the United States east and south of those -lines. It thrives in hot and cold climates, and high and low elevations; -in regions of much rain, and in those with little. That fact has been -turned to account by tree planters, particularly in the years when the -western plains were being settled by homesteaders. The box elder was the -chief tree on many a timber claim where the letter of the law rather -than the spirit was carried out. It afforded the earliest protection -against scorching summer sun and the keen winds of winter about many a -frontiersman's cabin on the plains. It was the earliest street tree in -many western towns. The people planted it because they knew it would -grow, and they were not so sure of a good many other trees. Green ash -was often its companion in pioneer plantings on the plains. Many towns -which set box elders along the streets when they did not know of -anything better, still have the trees, though they would willingly -exchange them for something else. They are not ideal street and park -trees; do not produce shapely trunks and crowns; and drop leaves all -summer and seeds all winter. The tree is reputed to be short lived, yet -some of those planted a generation or two ago show no symptoms of -decline. - -There is no good reason why this tree should be called an elder, or an -ash, except that its leaves are compound. If that is a reason, it might -be called a hickory or a walnut, since they bear compound leaves. It is -clearly a maple. Its fruit shows it to be so, and Indians of the far -Northwest who had no other maple, formerly manufactured sugar from this -tree, collecting the sap in wood or bark troughs and boiling it with hot -stones. - -The compound leaf does not necessarily take it out of the maple group. -It requires no great exercise of imagination to understand how a lobed -leaf, by deepening the sinuses between the lobes, might become a -compound leaf in the process of evolution. There may be no visible -evidence that the box elder's leaf reached its present form by that -process, but there is another maple which is at the present time -developing a compound leaf in that way, or seems to be doing so. It is -the dwarf maple (_Acer glabrum_) of the Northwest coast. Lobed leaves -and compound leaves may occur on the same tree. - -The seeds of box elder resemble those of other maples. They ripen in the -fall, and are blown off by wind, few at a time, during several months. -The trees are from fifty to seventy feet high, and from one and a half -to three feet in diameter. The trunk is apt to divide near the ground in -several large branches, and is not of good form for sawlogs, being often -crooked as well as short. The small branches, particularly those less -than a year old, are usually nearly as green as the leaves. This fact -may assist in identifying the tree when the leaves are off. The bark -bears more resemblance to ash and basswood than to maple. - -The wood is lightest of the maples. It weighs less than twenty-seven -pounds to the cubic foot; has less than half the strength and about -forty per cent of the stiffness of sugar maple; and is much inferior to -it in most mechanical properties. It is equal, if not superior to most -maples in whiteness. The pores are small, numerous, and scattered -through all parts of the growth ring, as is characteristic of maple -wood. The tree grows rapidly. The summerwood is a thin, dark line, -separating one annual ring from another. The medullary rays are many and -obscure, but when wood is sawed or split along a radial line, they are -easily seen, and show the true maple luster. - -The uses of box elder are similar to those of soft maple. The wood is -seldom reported under its own name. In fact, an examination of -wood-using reports of various states, shows that in only two states, -Michigan and Texas, has box elder been listed separately. Its uses in -the former state were for boxes, crates, flooring, handles, woodenware, -and interior finish, while in Texas it was made into furniture. The tree -is of commercial size in at least thirty states, and is cut and marketed -in all of them. Tests of the wood for pulp are said to be satisfactory, -and it finds its way in rather large amounts to cooper shops where it is -made into slack barrels. It is cut as acid wood along with other maples, -beech, and birch, and is converted into charcoal and other products of -distillation. - -It may be expected that box elder will exist in the United States as -long as any other forest tree remains. It is willing to be crowded off -good land into low places, which are almost swamps, and there it grows -free from disturbance; but if given the opportunity it will appropriate -the most fertile soil within reach of it; and by scattering seeds during -four or five months of the year, it manages to do much effective -planting. - - CALIFORNIA BOX ELDER (_Acer negundo californicum_) is a variety of - box elder, and not a separate species. As the name implies, it is a - California tree, and it occurs in the valleys and among the Coast - Range mountains from the lower Sacramento valley to the western - slopes of the San Bernardino mountains. The tree is from twenty to - fifty feet high and from ten to thirty inches in diameter. The - leaves and young twigs are hairy, in that respect differing from the - eastern box elder. The seeds are scattered during winter. The wood - is very pale lemon-yellow or creamy-white, the heart and sapwood - hardly distinguishable. The wood is soft and brittle, but is suited - to the same purposes as the eastern box elder. No reports of its - uses appear to have been made. It is found on the borders of streams - and in the bottoms of moist canyons. It is believed to be a - short-lived tree. - - STRIPED MAPLE (_Acer pennsylvanicum_) is usually thirty or forty - feet high, and eight or ten inches in diameter. Its range extends - from Quebec to northern Georgia, westward to Minnesota, and is of - largest size on the slopes of Big Smoky mountains of Tennessee, and - the Blue Ridge in North and South Carolina. It grows best in shade, - but maintains itself in open ground; is generally shrubby in the - northern part of its range. The name refers to the bark. The stripes - are longitudinal and are caused by the parting of the outer bark and - the exposure to view of the lighter colored inner layers. The bark - of small trees is greenish, but later in life the color is darker, - and the stripes largely disappear. Among its names are moosewood, so - called because it is good browse for moose and other deer; goosefoot - maple, a reference to the form of the leaf; whistlewood, an allusion - to the ease with which the bark slips from young branches in spring - when boys with jack-knives are on the search for whistle material. - The names mountain alder and striped dogwood are based on - misunderstanding of the tree's family relations. - - The young leaves are rose colored when they unfold, and when full - grown are six inches wide. The wood is light and soft, and light - brown in color, the thick sapwood lighter. The wood is liable to - contain small brown pith flecks, which in longitudinal sections - appear as brown streaks an inch or less in length and as thick as a - pin, and in cross section they are brown dots. They are not natural - to the wood but are caused by the larvae of certain moths which - burrow into the cambium layer, or soft inner bark, and excavate - narrow galleries up and down the trunk. The galleries afterwards - fill with dark material. The insects sometimes attack other maples, - the birches, service, and other trees. The wood of striped maple is - little used, because of the small size of the trees. The species is - planted for ornament in this country and Europe. - - BLACK MAPLE (_Acer nigrum_) has been by some considered a variety of - sugar or hard maple, and by others a separate species. It is as - large as the sugar maple and its range is much the same, but it is - more abundant in the western part of its range than in the East. The - name refers to the color of the bark of old trunks. If the name had - considered the bark of young twigs it would have been yellow or - orange maple, because the twigs are of that color. In summer the - peculiar drooping posture of the leaves calls attention to this - tree. However, the bark, twigs, and leaves combined are not - sufficient to set it apart, in the eyes of most people, for it - generally passes without question as sugar maple, even when it - stands side by side with that tree. It yields sugar abundantly. The - wood is a little heavier than that of sugar maple, but the - difference cannot be noticed except when the two woods are weighed. - Their uses are the same. No maker of furniture, flooring, or finish - ever protests against black maple. The tree generally prefers lower - and damper ground than sugar maple, and is often found along - streams. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SERVICEBERRY - -[Illustration: SERVICEBERRY] - - - - -SERVICEBERRY - -(_Amelanchier Canadensis_) - - -This tree will never be other than a minor species in the United States, -but it is not a worthless member of the forest. It belongs to the rose -family, and therefore is near akin to the haws, thorns, and crabapples. -The genus is found in Europe, Asia, and Africa, as well as in the United -States. Two tree species occur in this country, or, according to some -botanists, three, one west of the Rocky Mountains, two east. - -The serviceberry has a number of names: June berry, service-tree, May -cherry, Indian cherry, wild Indian pear, currant tree, shadberry, -savice, and sarvice. The northern limit of its range is in Newfoundland, -the southern in Florida. It grows westward to Minnesota and Arkansas; -but it is not plentiful except in certain restricted localities. It is -most abundant among the ranges of the Appalachian mountains, and of its -largest size toward the south. It is dispersed through forests -generally, a tree or bush here and there; but it prefers the borders of -forests, the brinks of cliffs, banks of streams, or some other open -space where light is abundant. It prospers most in rich soil but does -fairly well in ground thin and dry. - -The bloom, where it occurs, is a conspicuous feature of the landscape, -though generally a tree on ten or twenty acres represents the density of -its stand. The white, showy bloom comes early in spring, when most trees -are yet bare of leaves. Occasionally, however, the serviceberry is more -abundant, and the rows and clumps of blooming trees along creek banks or -about the margins of glades or other openings in the forests, look like -distant snowdrifts. - -The fruit is a berry a half inch or less in diameter, bright red when -fully grown in early summer, and changing to purple when ripe. The seeds -are brown and very small, and each berry contains from five to ten. When -circumstances are favorable, the tree is a prolific bearer, the slender -branches bending beneath the weight. The tree need not reach any -particular size before beginning to bear. On some of the severely burned -summits of the Alleghany mountains in West Virginia, 4,000 feet or more -above sea level, this tree, when only two or three feet high, bears -abundantly. Such trees are probably sprouts from roots of older trunks -destroyed by fire. At its best, it reaches a height of forty or fifty -feet and a diameter of one or possibly two feet. Trunks of largest size -occur among the southern Appalachian ranges. - -The wood is heavy and very hard and strong. It is liable to check and -warp in seasoning, is satiny, and is susceptible of a good polish. -Medullary rays are very numerous, but obscure; color, dark brown, often -tinged with red. The wood is stronger, stiffer and heavier than white -oak. It possesses most of the properties to make it a wood of great -value, but its scarcity, and the usual small size of the trees, relegate -it to the class of minor woods. Some use is made of it in turnery and -for other small articles. It is frequently planted in gardens for its -bloom and berries. In such situations it lacks some of the charm which -it holds as part and parcel of the wildwoods where its early spring -bloom is thrown against a background of leafless branches. - -WESTERN SERVICEBERRY (_Amelanchier alnifolia_) is also called -pigeonberry and sarvice. Its botanical name refers to the resemblance of -its leaves to those of alder. Its range covers a million square miles, -and the species reaches its best development on islands and rich bottom -lands of the lower Columbia river. It is found as far south as -California, north to Yukon territory, east to Lake Superior and northern -Michigan. It is nowhere a tree of attractive size, and is usually a -shrub about ten feet tall and one inch thick. Trees are sometimes thirty -feet high and six or eight inches in diameter. The fruit is blue-black -and sweet, and pleasant to the taste if not overripe. Indians in the -northern and western range of this tree gather the berries industriously -while they last, and many of the white settlers do likewise. The birds -flock to the thickets for their share, and though the berries are small, -the bears in the region consider them worthy of prompt and continued -attention. The berries are generally a little more than half an inch in -diameter, and ripen in July or August, depending on latitude. Cattle, -sheep, goats, and deer find this small tree or bush a source of food. -They do not object to eating the berries when obtainable, but their -principal attack is on the leaves and tender shoots which afford -excellent browse. Fortunately, the serviceberry is so tenacious of life -that it is next to impossible to browse it to death. If eaten down to -the ground, with little left but bare and barked trunks sticking up like -bean poles, the roots will throw up sprouts year after year, making the -service thicket a permanent browse-pasture. Fire is not able to destroy -such a thicket, for, when the tops are burned off, the sprouts will -quickly spring up with vigor unimpaired. As a source of food for -insects, birds, beasts, and men, few trees, in proportion to size and -quantity, are the equal of western serviceberry. Flowers, fruit, leaves -and sprouts are all food for something. - -LONGLEAF SERVICE TREE (_Amelanchier obovalis_) is by some regarded a -variety rather than a species. It occupies in part the same range as -serviceberry, but runs much farther north, reaching the valley of -Mackenzie river in latitude 65. It is found in North Carolina and -Alabama, but it is only a shrub in the extreme southern part of its -range. The fruit ripens in early summer and is reddish purple. Trees are -seldom more than thirty feet high and eight inches in diameter. A -variety with large fruit is occasionally planted as an ornamental tree. -Unless the crop of serviceberries is unusually plentiful in a locality, -the most of it is eaten by birds which temporarily abandon nearly all -other sources of food and give their undivided attention to the -perishable harvest which must be garnered in at once or it will be lost. - -NARROWLEAF CRAB (_Malus angustifolia_) is one of the wild crabapples of -the United States. They are of the genus _Malus_ and the thousands of -varieties of cultivated apples are derived from them, or from other -species found in the old world which are very similar. They belong to -the rose family. The narrowleaf crab is found from Pennsylvania to -Florida and westward to Tennessee and Louisiana. It thrives best in open -spaces in the forest and is often found in glades and along the banks of -streams in the North, while in the South it occurs in depressions in the -pine barrens. The flowers are much like those of apple, very fragrant, -and in color are white, pink, or rose. When in full bloom, the tree is a -beautiful object, and its odor is carried long distances. The fruit is -an apple in all respects except size and taste. It is somewhat -flattened, and is an inch or less across. It is fragrant when fully -ripe, and many a person has been led by appearances to taste, only to -meet disappointment. The flesh is hard and sour, and unfit for food in -its natural state, but by cooking and artificial sweetening, it is made -into preserves. The tree reaches a height of twenty or thirty feet and a -diameter of eight or ten inches. It is smaller than the sweet crab. The -wood is hard, heavy, light brown, tinged with red, with thick yellow -sapwood. It is not put to many uses, but is occasionally made into small -handles, and levers. It has been much used as stock on which to graft -apples. Farmers who wanted orchards formerly dug up small crabapples in -the surrounding woods and fields, planted them in an orchard, and when -securely rooted, the apples of desired kinds were grafted on. If -successful, the apple finally replaced the crab by spreading its own -bark and wood over the entire trunk, until no part of the original stock -remained visible. The sweet crab was also employed as a stock on which -to graft apples. - -SWEET CRAB (_Malus coronaria_) is the wild crab of the northeastern -states, although it intrudes on the region to the southwest to a limited -extent. It finds use in ornamental planting in the region of best -growth. It is known as American crab, sweet scented crab, crab apple, -wild crab, crab, American crab apple, and fragrant crab. Its range -extends from the shores of Lake Erie in Canada, south through New York -and Pennsylvania, along the Alleghany mountains to Alabama; west to -Minnesota, eastern Nebraska, Kansas, Louisiana, and eastern Texas. It -needs moist soil for good growth and the best types are found in the -lower Ohio basin. In height this tree rarely exceeds thirty feet and it -is bushy, having short rigid limbs. The leaves are rounded and sharply -toothed, the blossoms generally white and very fragrant; the fruit -small, dry, yellow, tinged with red. The wood is heavy, not strong, -heart light red, sapwood yellow. It is used for tool handles, small -turned articles, and for carving and engraving. - -OREGON CRABAPPLE (_Malus rivularis_) grows wild from the Aleutian -Islands, Alaska, southward to central California, and is of largest size -in Washington and Oregon where trees are occasionally forty feet high -and eighteen inches in diameter, but they are generally about ten feet -high and form dense thickets. The fruit is oblong, ripens late in -autumn, is greenish, or reddish, or clear lemon yellow in color, and -rather pleasant to the taste. The tree grows slowly, the wood is hard, -and light reddish-brown in color, and is suitable for tool handles. - -IOWA CRAB (_Malus ioensis_) grows from Minnesota to Texas and is the -common crabapple of the Mississippi basin. Large trees are twenty-five -feet high and a foot in diameter. It is believed that this tree crosses -with the common apple, and produces a variety known as the soulard apple -(_Malus soulardi_). Wild apple (_Malus malus_) is a European species -introduced into this country and now running wild. - - MOUNTAIN ASH (_Pyrus americana_) is closely related to the crabs. It - occurs from Newfoundland to Manitoba, and southward along the - mountains to North Carolina. Trees have compound leaves, red berries - the size of small cherries, and reach a height of thirty feet and a - diameter of a foot or more. There are several forms or varieties, - among them the small fruit mountain ash (_Pyrus americana - microcarpa_) of the Alleghany mountains. - -[Illustration] - - - - -RED HAW - -[Illustration: RED HAW] - - - - -RED HAW - -(_Crataegus Coccinea_) - - -This tree belongs to the rose family, and the genus _Crataegus_ consists -of a large group of small, thorny trees, scattered through many parts of -the world. They are known by their thorns, but comparatively few of them -are known by name to the ordinary observer, and they afford a perpetual -source of study, victory, and bewilderment to the trained botanist. "No -other group of American trees," says Sudworth, "presents such almost -insurmountable difficulties in point of distinctive characters. It is -impossible, and fortunately unnecessary, for the practical forester to -know them all, and exceedingly difficult even for the specialist." More -than one hundred species of these thorn trees occur in the United -States, exclusive of shrubs. Their bloom resembles that of apple and -pear trees. Bees and insects swarm round the flowering trees, assisting -in cross fertilization. The various species are aggressive. They force -their way into vacant spaces, and their thorns protect them against -browsing animals. The wood is sappy and heavy, and for most of the -species it is valueless. The growing brambles, however, perform an -important service in forest economy. Seeds of various valuable trees are -blown by wind or carried by birds and mammals into the thickets where -they germinate and get a start under the protecting shelter of the -thorns. Finally the seedlings overtop the brambles, gain the mastery, -shade the thorns to death, and develop valuable forests. The thorn trees -shed their leaves annually. Their seeds are slow to germinate, some not -sprouting until the second year. The fruit is worthless for human -consumption, but some of it has a tart and not unpleasant taste. It is -of many colors and sizes, depending on species. - -No attempt is here made to name or to list the species. Such a list -would, for most people, be a dull catalogue of names, and many of them -in Latin because there are no English equivalents. A few representative -species are given. The red haw, though not the most abundant, is widely -distributed, and is probably as well known as any. Its range extends -from Newfoundland westward through southern Canada to the eastern base -of the Rocky Mountains, thence south to Texas and Florida. It covers -one-half of the United States. In the northern part of its range the red -haw is confined to the slopes of low hills and along water courses, but -south in the Appalachian mountains it grows at an elevation of several -thousand feet. - -It has various names in different regions. It is called scarlet haw, -red haw, white thorn, scarlet thorn, scarlet-fruited thorn, red thorn, -thorn, thorn bush, thorn apple, and hedge thorn. The fact is worthy of -note that it is well known and is clearly recognized in every region -where it grows, though various names are given it. - -The red haw never reaches large size. In rare cases it may attain a -height of thirty feet and a diameter of ten inches, but it is usually -less than half that size. Where it grows in the open it develops a round -crown. The branches are armed with chestnut-brown thorns from an inch to -an inch and a half in length. The bright scarlet color of the fruit -gives name to the tree. It ripens late in September or in October, and -at that time the tree presents a beautiful appearance. The branches -frequently remain laden with fruit after the leaves have fallen. - -The wood of red haw is of a high character and but for its scarcity -would have wide commercial use. It is among the heavy woods of this -country. A cubic foot of it, thoroughly seasoned, weighs 53.71 pounds. -The tree is of slow growth and therefore the annual rings are narrow, -and the wood is dense. The evenness and uniformity of the rings of -yearly growth make the wood susceptible of a high polish. The medullary -rays are very obscure in red haw, and for that reason the appearance of -the wood is much the same, irrespective of the direction in which it is -cut. In that respect it is similar to the wood of most members of the -thorn family--usually being too small to be quarter-sawed. However, even -if the trees were large enough, quarter-sawing would bring out little -figure. - -Red haw is a lathe wood. It is well suited to some other purposes, and -has been used for engraving blocks, small wedges, and rulers, but the -best results come from the lathe. If it is thoroughly seasoned it is not -liable to crack or check, though cut thin in such articles as goblets -and napkin rings. The turner sometimes objects to the wood because of -its hardness and the rapidity with which it dulls tools. This drawback, -however, is compensated for by the smoothness and fine polish which may -be given to the finished article. Red haw checker pieces have been -compared with ebony for wearing quality. In color the ebony is more -handsome, and on that account is generally preferred. - -Perhaps the most extensive use of red haw is in the manufacture of -canes. Most of the species of thorn are suitable for that purpose on -account of their weight, strength, and hardness. Red haw is not -specially preferred, but is used with others. As a source of wood -supply, the tree will never be important, but as an adornment to the -landscape it will always be valuable, and at the same time will fill a -minor place in the country's list of commercial woods. - -SUMMER HAW (_Crataegus aestivalis_) is a southern species which -contributes more or less to the food supply of the people within its -range. It is known also as May haw and apple haw. The flowers appear in -February and March, are about one inch in diameter, and flushed with red -toward the apex. The fruit ripens in May, is bright red, very fragrant, -and is from half to three-fourths of an inch in diameter. The flesh is -of a pleasant taste, and is gathered in large quantities by country -people for making preserves and jelly. It is sold in town and city -markets, particularly in New Orleans. The range of this thorn tree is -from South Carolina and Florida, to Texas. It attains a height of twenty -or thirty feet, and a diameter sometimes as great as eighteen inches. It -reaches its largest size in Louisiana and Texas. It grows well on land -which may be submerged several weeks in winter. The wood has not been -reported for any use. - -COCKSPUR (_Crataegus crus-galli_) may be taken as the type of more than -twenty species of cockspur thorns growing in this country. Its other -names are red haw, Newcastle thorn, thorn apple, thorn bush, pin thorn, -haw, and hawthorn. It grows southwestward from Canada to Texas, and -extends into Florida. The largest trees are twenty-five feet high and a -foot in diameter. The fruit is dull red, half inch in diameter, ripens -in September and October, and hangs on the branches until late winter. -Hogs eat the fruit when they can get it, and boys utilize the small -apples as bullets for elder pop guns. The thorns are formidable slender -spines from three to eight inches long, strong, and extremely sharp. -They were formerly used as pins to close wool sacks in rural carding -mills. The many species of cockspur thorns are multiplied by numerous -varieties. Fence posts and fuel are cut from the best trunks. - -PEAR HAW (_Crataegus tomentosa_) is a representative of at least ten -species. It is called pear haw without any very satisfactory reason, -since the fruit bears little resemblance to pears. It is half an inch in -diameter, dull orange red in color, and sweet to the taste, but it is of -little value as food. The tree has been occasionally planted for -ornament, but never for fruit. The flowers are showy. Trees at their -best are fifteen or twenty feet high and five or six inches in diameter. -They have few thorns and such as they have are small. The tree's range -extends from New York to Missouri, and along the Appalachian mountains -to northern Georgia, and west to Texas and Arkansas. It is known in -different parts of its range as black thorn, red haw, pear thorn, white -thorn, common thorn, hawthorn, thorn apple, and thorn plum. - -HOG HAW (_Crataegus brachyacantha_) is distinguished by its blue fruit. -The name indicates that the fruit is unfit for human food but is eaten -by swine. In some parts of Louisiana the dense thickets produce -considerable quantities of forage for hogs. The range is not extensive, -being confined to Louisiana and eastern Texas where the tree occurs in -low, wet prairies. The largest specimens are forty or fifty feet high -and eighteen inches in diameter. It is one of the largest of the thorns, -and the best trunks are of size to make small, very short sawlogs, but -it does not appear that the wood has ever been manufactured into -commodities of any kind. The tree is occasionally planted for ornament. - -BLACK HAW (_Crataegus douglasii_) reaches its best development on the -Pacific coast where trees occur thirty or more feet in height and a foot -and a half in diameter. The principal range is west of the Rocky -Mountains, from British Columbia to northern California, but it extends -eastward to Wyoming, and the tree is found also in northern Michigan. -The fruit is black or very dark purple, is edible, and matures in early -autumn, falling soon after. The heartwood is brownish-red. No use for -the wood has been found on the Pacific coast. - -WASHINGTON HAW (_Crataegus cordata_), also known as Washington thorn, -Virginia thorn, heart-leaved thorn, and red haw, grows on banks of -streams from the valley of the upper Potomac river southward through the -Appalachian ranges to northern Georgia, and westward to Missouri and -Arkansas. Flowers are rose-colored, the fruit ripens in the fall and -hangs till late winter. Trees are twenty or thirty feet high, and a foot -or less in diameter. Washington haw is frequently planted in this -country and in Europe. - -ENGLISH HAWTHORN (_Crataegus oxyacantha_) was introduced into this -country from Europe and has become naturalized in some of the eastern -states. Thirty or more varieties are distinguished in cultivation. It is -worthy of note that, although the United States has more than 130 -species of thorn trees of its own, with varieties so numerous that no -one has yet named or counted all of them, a foreign thorn has been -introduced and added to the number. - -[Illustration] - - - - -MAHOGANY - -[Illustration: MAHOGANY] - - - - -MAHOGANY - -(_Swietenia Mahagoni_) - - -This tree belongs to the family _Meliaceae_ which has about forty genera, -all of which are confined to the tropic except _Swietenia_ to which -mahogany belongs. This tree has made its way up from southern latitudes -and has secured a foothold in Florida where it is confined to the -islands and the most southern part of the mainland. - -No attempt is here made to settle or even to take part in the disputes -among dendrologists as to what mahogany is. There are said to be more -than forty different trees which pass as mahogany in lumber markets. -Various descriptions and keys have been published for the purpose of -separating and identifying different woods which are bought and sold as -mahogany. These woods grow on every continent except Europe; but those -which pass as mahogany nearly all come from Africa or America. Some are -well known, both as to origin and botany, while others are doubtful. -Logs sometimes appear in markets and no one knows where they come from, -or the species which produce them. It has been maintained that annual -rings will separate true mahogany from the false--that the true has no -annual rings. At the best, this evidence is only negative and is worth -little, since many tropical trees show no annual rings, and yet are no -kin to mahogany. Neither is it certain that true mahogany shows no -yearly rings. Some trees do not, but others may. The ring, as is well -known, is produced because the tree grows part of the year and rests -part. In the tropics where growth is continuous, the ring may not exist, -but it sometimes does exist, and thus upsets the theory. Besides, it -proves little in the case of mahogany which has a range extending from -south of the equator northward into the temperate zone, where there are -seasonal changes. It also grows near sea level and at considerable -altitudes, and elevation alone might make considerable variation in the -character of the wood. - -The two most important mahoganies of commerce--leaving botany out of the -question--grow in Africa and in America. The most important of the -African mahoganies is _Khaya senegalensis_, and of the American is -_Swietenia mahagoni_. It is the latter which extends its range into the -United States, and it alone will be considered in these pages as true -mahogany; the status of foreign woods which pass as mahogany will not be -discussed. - -Leaves of the mahogany tree are three or four inches long, and an inch -or more wide. They are compound, with from three to five pairs of -leaflets. The tree is an evergreen and presents a fine appearance. The -flowers appear in July and August, are small and cup-shaped. Fruit is -four or five inches long and two or more wide. It ripens in late fall or -early winter. The nearly square seeds are three-fourths of an inch long. -In Florida the tree rarely exceeds fifty feet in height and two in -diameter; but in tropical countries it may exceed a height of 100 and a -diameter of eight or ten. The bark is thin. - -The wood is practically of the same weight as white oak, but is stronger -and more elastic. It is exceedingly hard, very durable, and is -susceptible of high polish. Medullary rays are numerous but small and -obscure. The color is rich reddish-brown, turning darker with age, but -the thin sapwood is yellow. It is known in Florida as mahogany, madeira, -and redwood. - -The uses of mahogany are so many and so well-known that it is -unnecessary to speak of them in detail. There were importations into the -United States nearly three hundred years ago, and it has been coming -ever since. One thing about this wood deserves mention: the price has -not varied much in three hundred years. Different prices have prevailed, -owing to distance from supply and differences in grade and quality; and -that holds true today; but for similar grades, the prices have been -remarkable for their evenness. - -Florida never figured largely in the world's supply of mahogany. At -their best, the trees were neither large nor numerous, but their quality -was good. Cutting of this timber ceased in Florida about three-quarters -of a century ago. The islands and the small area of the mainland where -the timber grew, were stripped. The logs were shipped to the Bahama -islands and it is said they found their ultimate market in England. A -few trees were overlooked here and there, and some that were small -seventy-five years ago, have grown to merchantable size since. These -have been cut, a few at a time, and the cutting is still going on. The -total is now only a few thousand feet a year, and one of the markets for -the logs, probably the chief market, is Miami, Florida. The logs are -small, and are generally cut and brought in by negroes who find a tree -now and then, cut the logs, and float them as near to market as -possible, and haul them the rest of the way. The scarcity of the trees -may be inferred from the fact that the average resident of south -Florida, where the range of the mahogany lies, never saw one. In -appearance the tree when seen at a little distance, resembles a young, -vigorous black walnut tree. - -CHINA TREE (_Melia azedarach_) belongs to the same family as mahogany -but is of a different genus. It is not native in the United States, but -has been extensively planted and is running wild. It is a forest tree in -some parts of Louisiana, but is found under pure forest conditions only -here and there. As such, the trunk and thin crown look like a forest -grown butternut tree in Wisconsin. It is abundant in yards and along -streets, where it is often called Chinaball tree. A little of the wood -is used. The color resembles mahogany, but the texture is much coarser. -Annual rings are clearly marked by rows of large pores, and the wood -does not polish well. It is sometimes known as pride of India, which -country is its native home, or it was carried there from Persia at an -early date. A variety, commonly known as the Texas Umbrella tree (_Melia -azedarach umbraculifera_), has been widely planted, and is known by its -short trunk and dense, round crown. - -SOAPBERRY (_Sapindus saponaria_), known also as false dogwood, is a -species of south Florida, and is one of three soap trees in this -country. It has no family kinship with mahogany, but the appearance of -the trees leads some persons to conclude that they are related to the -China tree. In fact, one of the species is locally known as wild China -and Chinaberry. They are called soap trees because their fruit has a -property which causes water to foam, and the natives of the West Indies -once used it for soap. The botanical name _Sapindus_ means "Indian -soap." The tree is twenty-five or thirty feet high, and ten or twelve -inches in diameter. The bloom appears in November in Florida, and the -fruit ripens the following spring. The wood is heavy, rather hard, and -is light brown, tinged with yellow. It reaches largest size on the -Thousand Islands, Florida. Another species is _Sapindus marginatus_ -which attains size similar to that of the first. It is found in southern -Florida, but is not abundant. It grows as far north as the mouth of the -St. John river. A third species is _Sapindus drummondi_ which has its -range from western Louisiana, Arkansas, and southern Kansas, through -Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, to Mexico. The flowers appear in May and -June, and the fruit ripens in September and October, but it hangs on the -trees until the following spring. When first ripe, it is half an inch in -diameter, and yellow, but when it dries it turns black. Trees attain -diameters up to two feet, and heights of forty or fifty. It is commonly -supposed to be the Chinaberry, by persons who judge by general -appearances, but the two are not related. The wood's appearance suggests -the heartwood of ash. It probably reaches its best development in Texas -where it is manufactured into boxes, crates, and even furniture, but not -in large amounts. It is reputed to be a rapid grower, and it may be -under the most favorable circumstances, but it is usually of rather slow -growth. The wood splits readily into thin strips which are employed in -making baskets for harvesting cotton. In western Texas it is made into -pack saddle frames. - - MOUNTAIN MAHOGANY (_Cercocarpus ledifolius_) is not a mahogany, and - is not even in the same family. It belongs to the rose family, and - is closely related to the crabapple; but since it is commonly known - as mahogany, it is proper to mention it here. Extensive - consideration is unnecessary, for the tree is not important as a - source of wood. Three species are recognized by some botanists, four - by others. All are western, and are noted for their long-tailed - fruit. The generic name refers to that feature. The seed, with its - tail, is carried by the wind, or it catches in the wool of sheep and - the hair of cattle and goats, or the feathers of birds, and is - carried far and near. The mountain mahogany sometimes is thirty feet - high, and two in diameter. It grows from 5,000 to 9,000 feet - elevation, sometimes on steep cliffs. Its range extends from Wyoming - and Montana to Oregon, California, Arizona, and New Mexico. The wood - is bright, clear red, or rich dark brown. It reaches its largest - size on the mountains of central Nevada. Another species is known as - valley mahogany (_Cercocarpus parvifolius_). It ranges from Nebraska - to Oregon, and Texas to California. Its rate of growth is very slow, - and it seldom exceeds a height of thirty feet and a diameter of ten - inches. The wood is reddish-brown. A third species, called Trask - mahogany (_Cercocarpus traskiae_) is chiefly notable on account of - its restricted range. It occurs as far as known, in a single canyon - of Santa Catalina island, off the southern coast of California. Some - of the specimens are twenty feet high and six inches in diameter. A - fourth species, or a variety, is known as short-flower mahogany - (_Cercocarpus parvifolius breviflorus_). It occurs in western Texas, - southern New Mexico and Arizona, usually at elevations about 5,000 - feet above sea level where the largest trees are not more than eight - inches in diameter and twenty-five feet high. - - VAUQUELINIA (_Vauquelinia californica_) belongs to the same family - as the so-called western mahoganies, that is, the rose family; but - it is of a different genus. Its range is largely south of the - international boundary, but it extends into southern Arizona where - the best development of the species occurs about 5,000 feet above - the sea on grassy slopes. It is seldom more than a bush, and the - wood is very heavy and hard, and is dark-brown, streaked with red. - -[Illustration] - - - - -BLACK WILLOW - -[Illustration: BLACK WILLOW] - - - - -BLACK WILLOW - -(_Salix Nigra_) - - -The willows and the cottonwoods belong to the same family of trees, -_Salicaceae_, and the family is fairly numerous, and it has some -well-defined traits of character. The quinine-bitter of the bark is ever -present, but more marked in willows than in cottonwoods. Though quite -unpleasant to the taste, it is harmless. The leaves never grow in pairs, -and in most instances they fall early in autumn, and some without -changing color. Male and female flowers are borne on different trees, -and fertilizing is done by insects, often by honey bees and bumblebees. -Fruit ripens in late spring, and the seeds are equipped for flight by -being provided with exceedingly fine silky hairs. The wind carries them -long distances. The trees generally grow in the immediate vicinity of -streams or in situations where the soil is damp, but there are -exceptions. - -The willow family consists of two genera, one the cottonwoods or -poplars, the other the willows proper. There are about seventy-five -species of willow in America, twenty of them trees. Some, however, are -quite small and only occasionally attain sizes which place them in the -tree class. The willows are old residents of this continent. They grew -in the central portion of what is now the United States in the -Cretaceous age, as is proved by their leaf prints in the rocks. They -have held their ground ever since, and there is no likelihood that they -are about to give it up. Few species are better fitted for holding what -they have. A few trees are capable of seeding a large region in a few -years, and if soil and situation are suitable, reproduction will be -abundant. The willows' tenacity of life is often remarkable. It -sometimes seems next to impossible to kill them by cutting off their -tops. There are said to be instances in Europe where willows have been -pollarded successively during hundreds of years, the crops of sprouts -being used for wickerwork and other purposes. No such records exist in -this country, but the willow's sprouting habit is well known. A shoot -stuck in the ground will grow, and a fence post will sprout. Many -willows develop large stools, or roots, and repeatedly send up numerous -sprouts, and it makes little difference how often they are cut, others -will come up. - -Comparatively few willows that start in life ever become trees. They are -suppressed by crowding, or meet misfortunes of one kind or another which -keep them small, but occasionally a tree of good size results. Willow -trees are usually not old. Probably few reach an age exceeding 150 -years. Large trunks, in old age, are apt to be hollow or otherwise -defective, though a willow tree will live many years after much of its -trunk has disappeared. A little green bark on the side, and sprouts from -the stump will maintain life long after all usefulness has ceased. - -Young willows are usually pliant and tough, old are stiff and brash. -They range from sea level up to 10,000 feet or more; grow profusely in -the wet lands about the gulf of Mexico, and likewise on the bleak coasts -of the Arctic ocean. Commander Peary found willows blooming in -considerable profusion on the extreme northern shore of Greenland, where -they produce enough growth during the few weeks of summer sunshine to -afford the muskox the means of eking out a living during his sojourn in -those inhospitable regions. - -The identification of willows is one of the most difficult tasks that -fall to the botanists. Black willow is unquestionably the most important -willow in this country from the lumberman's standpoint. It is the common -tree willow that attains size suitable for sawlogs. If a forest grown -willow of large size is encountered east of the Rocky Mountains in the -United States, it is pretty safe to class it as black willow. There are -some others which grow large, but not many. Planted willows, both large -and small, may be foreign species, and white willows, which are not -native in this country, but have been widely planted, and are running -wild, may be occasionally found of ample size for saw timber. - -Black willow's range extends from New Brunswick to Florida, west to the -Dakotas, and south to Texas, thence passing into Mexico, New Mexico, -Arizona, and California. It attains its best size in the Ohio and -Mississippi valleys, though large trees are found in other parts of its -range. It is difficult to say what its average size is, for some black -willows are only a few feet high and an inch or two in diameter. The -largest trees exceed 100 feet in height and three in diameter. An -extreme size of seven feet in diameter has been reported. It is not -unusual to see willow logs three feet in diameter in mill yards in -Louisiana, Mississippi, and Arkansas, and logs four feet in diameter are -not so unusual as to excite much comment. The average sizes, however, of -willow sawlogs in that region are from eighteen inches to two feet. - -The wood of black willow is pale reddish-brown. When freshly cut it is -sometimes purple, almost black. When sawed in lumber and exposed to the -air the dark color fades. The wood is soft but firm. It has about fifty -per cent of the strength of white oak, and forty per cent of its -stiffness. It weighs 27.77 pounds per cubic foot; and considering its -weight, it is tolerably strong and stiff. - -Probably no other wood in the United States is as systematically cheated -out of its just credit as this one. Many of the oaks are seldom given -their proper names, but they are listed as oak in sawmill output, and -thus the genus, if not the species is given credit. But willow is almost -totally ignored. The United States census in 1910 credited to all the -willow lumber in this country an amount less than a million and a half -feet; yet a single mill in Louisiana, and not a large mill at that, cut -and sold four times that much during that year. The wood was cut by -hundreds of other mills, some a few logs only, others considerable -quantities. - -It is sold for various purposes, and much of it goes as cottonwood. In -some instances it is called brown cottonwood. Probably ninety per cent -is made into boxes, but it has many other uses. It is cut into -excelsior, made into rotary cut veneer, and finds place in the -manufacture of furniture; it is a common woodenware material; slack -coopers make barrels of it; and it is turned for baseball bats. - -The supply of black willow in this country is not small. It is usually -found in wet situations along streams. Sometimes islands and low flats -are taken possession of and pure stands result. The growth is sometimes -phenomenal. Trunks may add nearly or quite an inch to their diameter per -year when conditions are exceptionally favorable. Instances, apparently -well authenticated, are reported of abandoned fields along the -Mississippi, which in sixty years grew 100,000 feet of willow per acre. - - LONGSTALK WILLOW (_Salix longipes_) sometimes grows to a height of - thirty feet with a diameter of six or eight inches. Its range - extends from Maryland to Texas, and is at its best in the Ozark - region of southwestern Missouri and northwestern Arkansas. - - ALMONDLEAF WILLOW (_Salix amygdaloides_) grows across northern - United States and southern Canada from New York to Oregon, and - occurs as far south as Missouri and Ohio, and is abundant in the - lower Ohio valley. At its best it is seventy feet high and two feet - in diameter. The wood is light, soft, and the heartwood is brown. - - SMOOTHLEAF WILLOW (_Salix laevigata_) attains a diameter of one foot - and a height of forty or fifty. It is a Pacific coast tree, - occurring in California on the western slopes of the Sierra Nevadas - up to an altitude of 3,000 feet. It is known as black willow. The - wood is pale reddish-brown. - - SILVERLEAF WILLOW (_Salix sessilifolia_) looks like longleaf willow, - and though usually a shrub it sometimes is twenty-five feet high and - ten inches in diameter. It grows from the mouth of the Columbia - river to southern California. - - YEWLEAF WILLOW (_Salix taxifolia_) ranges from western Texas, - through southern Arizona into Mexico and Central America. Trees are - occasionally forty feet high and more than one foot in diameter. A - little fuel and fence posts are cut from this willow. - - BEBB WILLOW (_Salix bebbiana_) is nearly always shrubby, but - occasionally reaches a trunk diameter of six or eight inches and a - height of twenty feet. Its northern limit lies within the Arctic - circle, its southern in Pennsylvania, Nebraska, and Arizona. West of - Hudson bay it forms almost impenetrable thickets, and in Colorado it - ascends mountains to elevations of 10,000 feet. - - GLAUCOUS WILLOW (_Salix discolor_), commonly known as silver or - pussy willow, ranges from Nova Scotia to Manitoba, and southward to - Delaware, West Virginia, Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri. It is one - of the best known willows within its range, on account of its - flowers which are among the earliest of the season, and very showy. - The largest specimens are scarcely twenty-five feet high and twelve - inches in diameter. - - MACKENZIE WILLOW (_Salix cordata mackenzieana_) is not abundant, and - is one of the smallest of the tree willows. It is nearly always a - shrub. Its range extends from California nearly to the Arctic - circle, where it occurs in gravelly soil on the borders of mountain - streams. - - MISSOURI WILLOW (_Salix missouriensis_) is so named because it - occurs principally in Missouri, but its range extends into Kansas - and Iowa. It is occasionally forty feet high and a foot in diameter. - It is used for fence posts. - - BIGELOW WILLOW (_Salix lasiolepis_) is generally called white willow - on account of its gray bark. It occurs in California and Arizona, - and at its best it is twenty-five feet high and ten inches in - diameter. Some use is made of it as fuel, where other wood is - scarce. - - NUTTALL WILLOW (_Salix nuttallii_), called also mountain willow in - Montana, ranges from British America, east of the Rocky Mountains, - to southern California. Its usual height is twenty or twenty-five - feet, and its diameter six or eight inches. In southern California - it grows 10,000 feet above sea level. - - HOOKER WILLOW (_Salix hookeriana_) occurs in the coast region from - Vancouver island to southern Oregon, and varies in height from a - sprawling shrub to a height of thirty feet and a diameter of one. - Little use is made of it. - - SILKY WILLOW (_Salix sitchensis_), known also as Sitka willow, - ranges from Alaska to southern California. The largest specimens are - twenty-five feet high and ten inches in diameter. Trunks are largely - sapwood and are of little commercial importance. - - BROADLEAF WILLOW (_Salix amplifolia_), known also as feltleaf - willow, was discovered in Alaska in 1899. The leaves are woolly. The - largest trees rarely exceed a height of thirty feet and a diameter - of six inches. Its range extends to the valley of the Mackenzie - river. - - A number of foreign willows have become naturalized in the United - States. Among them is white willow (_Salix alba_), which grows to - large size, probably as large as black willow; crack willow (_Salix - fragilis_), so named on account of the brittleness of its twigs; and - weeping willow (_Salix babylonica_). The botanical name is based on - the supposition that it was this willow, growing by the rivers near - Babylon, on which the captive Hebrews hung their harps. Basket - willow is planted for its osiers in several eastern states. It is - not a single species, but a group of varieties developed by - cultivation. - -[Illustration] - - - - -HARDY CATALPA - -[Illustration: HARDY CATALPA] - - - - -HARDY CATALPA - -(_Catalpa Speciosa_) - - -This tree belongs to the family _Bignoniaceae_ which has its name from -Abbe Bignon, librarian of Louis XV. About one hundred genera belong to -this family, only three of which reach the size of trees in the United -States. These include the catalpas, the desert willow, and the black -calabash tree. - -Seven species of catalpa are known, two of them occurring in the United -States. Others are found in China and the West Indies. The name is an -Indian word and was first heard among the tribes of the Carolinas. It -seems probable that the name catalpa as applied to a tree and catawba, -applied to a grape, have the same origin, and in some way refer to the -Catawba Indians, a small tribe--said to be Sioux--that lived two hundred -years ago in the western part of the Carolinas and neighboring regions -where one of the catalpa species was first heard of by Europeans. The -tree in that region is still often called catawba. - -The two catalpas of this country are known to botanists as _Catalpa -speciosa_ and _Catalpa catalpa_. Much confusion has resulted from -attempts to distinguish one from the other. Botanists are able to clear -the matter up among themselves, but the general public has not been so -successful. John P. Brown, of Connersville, Indiana, specialized on -catalpas during many years, and published numerous tracts, pamphlets, -and books for the purpose of educating the public to the point where the -differences between common catalpa and hardy catalpa could be -distinguished. His labor was likewise directed toward inducing land -owners to plant catalpa for commercial purposes. Due to his efforts, and -otherwise, catalpa was for a time the most advertised plantation tree in -this country. Some supposed that hardy catalpa was the wood which was to -save the country from a threatened timber famine. Claims made for it -were wide and far reaching. - -The judgment of history has been--if it may be classed as a matter of -history--that the tree fell short of expectation. This does not imply an -inferiority of the wood itself, or a slower rate of growth than was -claimed for it; but exceptional cases were interpreted as averages, and -for that reason the whole situation was overestimated. When all -conditions are perfect, hardy catalpa grows rapidly and grows large, but -it demands nearly perfect conditions or it will disappoint. It wants -ground rich enough and damp enough to grow good crops of corn, and -farmers are not generally willing to put that class of land to growing -fence posts and railroad ties. - -The range of hardy catalpa before the species was spread by artificial -planting, was through southern Illinois and Indiana, southeastern -Missouri and northeastern Arkansas, western Louisiana and eastern Texas, -and western Kentucky and Tennessee. Its position on the fertile banks of -streams, and on flood plains subject to frequent inundation, indicates -that the spread of the species was effected by running water. In that -case, the dispersal of seeds would be down stream, implying that the -starting place of the species was along the lower reaches of the Wabash -river. - -The catalpa may reach a height of 100 or 120 feet and a diameter of four -feet; but few trees attain that size. The leaves are ten or twelve -inches long and seven or eight wide, and are considerably larger than -those of common catalpa. The flowers appear late in May or early in -June, and are showy. The prevailing colors are white and purple, and the -blossoms are about two inches long and two and a half wide. - -The fruit is a pod from eight to twenty inches long, and the enclosed -seeds are nearly an inch long, shaped like beans. The trees are prolific -bearers. - -The tree is known by several names in different parts of its range, -including the territory where it is known only from plantings. It is -called western catalpa to distinguish it from the other species found -farther east and south. In Missouri and Iowa it is known as cigar tree. -The name Indian bean is an allusion to the large seeds. Shawneewood is -another name referring to the supposed interest of Indians in the tree. -Shawnee was the name of a tribe of Indians in the Ohio valley in early -times. - -The wood weighs less than twenty-six pounds per cubic foot, and is soft -and weak. It is rated very durable in contact with the soil, and this is -one of the chief advantages claimed for it. The annual rings are clearly -marked by several bands or rows of large open ducts, and the denser -summerwood forms a narrow band. The medullary rays are numerous and -obscure. The heartwood is brown, the sapwood lighter. In appearance, the -heartwood suggests butternut, but it is coarser, and lacks the gloss -shown by polished butternut. Quarter-sawing produces no figure, but when -sawed at right angles to the radial lines, the annual rings are cut in a -way to give figure resembling that of ash or chestnut. - -The wood of this catalpa has been thoroughly tried out for a number of -purposes. Furniture and finish have been made of it with varying -success, and molding and picture frames are listed among its uses. It is -not a sawlog tree. Statistics of lumber cut seldom mention it, though -now and then a log finds its way to a mill. Efforts have been made to -pass the wood as mahogany, but with poor success. The counterfeit is -easily detected, since the artificial color which may be imparted to -catalpa is about the only resemblance to mahogany. - -In the lower Mississippi valley some success, but on a very small scale, -has resulted from attempts to induce catalpa to grow in crooks suitable -for small boat knees. The young trunk, after being hacked on one side, -is bent and induced to grow the crook or knee. Natural crooks have been -utilized in the manufacture of knees for small boats in Louisiana. - -Probably ninety per cent of all the catalpa ever cut has gone into fence -posts. It is habitually crooked. A straight bole is the exception; -though in plantations trees are crowded and pruned until they grow -fairly straight, and sometimes trunks of forest grown trees of large -size are nearly faultless in their symmetry. - -It was once believed in some quarters that catalpa would solve the -railroad tie problem by growing good ties quickly. It must be admitted, -however, that in spite of extensive plantings, the railroad tie problem -has not yet been solved by catalpa. - -COMMON CATALPA (_Catalpa catalpa_) originated many hundred miles outside -the range of hardy catalpa, to judge by the localities in which it was -first found by white men. It is supposed to have been indigenous in -southwestern Georgia, central Alabama, and Mississippi, and northwestern -Florida. Its range has been greatly extended by planting, and it grows -in most parts of the country east of the Rocky Mountains, as far north -as New England. It has been planted in many parts of Europe. Its leaves, -flowers, fruit, and the tree itself are smaller than hardy catalpa. The -pods hang unopened all winter. The trunks sometimes are three feet in -diameter and sixty high, but are generally small, crooked, rather -angular, and poor in appearance, but the leaves and flowers are -ornamental. The wood is durable in contact with the ground, and its -largest use has been for posts, crossties, and poles. - -DESERT WILLOW (_Chilopsis linearis_) does not even belong to the willow -family, notwithstanding its names, all of which are based on the -presumption that it is a willow. The shape and size of its leaves are -responsible for that misapprehension. The very narrow leaves may be a -foot long. It is called flowering willow and Texas flowering willow. Its -flowers are always emphasized when it is compared with willow, for they -are totally different from the willow's characteristic catkins. The -flowers appear in early summer in racemes three or four inches long, and -continue open during several months in succession. The fruit is a pod -seven or nine inches long, and as slender as a lead pencil. It is this -pod which gives the plainest hint of its relationship to the catalpas, -for it is in good standing in the family with them. The seeds resemble -very small beans with wings at each end. They are light, and the wind -disperses them. The tree is a prolific seeder. - -The range of this small tree extends across western Texas, New Mexico, -Arizona, Utah, Nevada, into San Diego county, California. The tree -occurs in dry, gravelly, porous soil near the banks of streams and in -depressions in the desert. The wood is weak and soft, the heart brown, -streaked with yellow. No use has been found for it. The tree is -cultivated for ornament in Mexico and sometimes in the southern states. -The flowers look well when they are encountered in the desert. They are -white, faintly tinged with purple, with bright yellow spots inside. They -are funnel shaped and have the odor of violets. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CUCUMBER - -[Illustration: CUCUMBER] - - - - -CUCUMBER - -(_Magnolia Acuminata_) - - -This tree is a member of the magnolia family which has ten genera in -North America, two of them, magnolia and liriodendron, being trees. -The family has its name from Pierre Magnol, a French botanist who died -in 1715. The genus magnolia has seven species in the United States, -all of which are of tree size. They are evergreen magnolia (_Magnolia -foetida_), sweet magnolia (_Magnolia glauca_), cucumber (_Magnolia -acuminata_), largeleaf umbrella (_Magnolia macrophylla_), umbrella -tree (_Magnolia tripetala_), Fraser umbrella (_Magnolia fraseri_), and -pyramidal magnolia (_Magnolia pyramidata_). The remaining member of the -magnolia family is the yellow poplar (_Liriodendron tulipifera_). Though -of the same family it is of a different genus from the seven other -magnolias. - -The cucumber is the hardiest member of the magnolia family. It is found -in natural growth farther north than any other, yet it has the -appearance of a southern tree. All magnolias look like trees belonging -in the South. Their large leaves indicate as much, and some of them do -not venture far outside of the warm latitudes. It is one of the oldest -of all the families of broadleaf trees, and it has been a family that -during an immense period of the earth's history has clung near the old -homestead where it came into existence countless ages ago. There were -magnolias growing in the middle Appalachian region, and eastward to the -present Atlantic coast, so far in the past that the time can be measured -only by hundreds of thousands of years. Leaf prints in rocks, which were -once mud flats, tell the story--though but a page here and there--of the -magnolia's ancient history, doubtless antedating by long periods the -earliest appearance of man on earth. - -Next to the yellow poplar, the cucumber tree is the most important -species of the magnolia family, at least as a source of lumber. As an -ornamental tree it may not equal some of the others, particularly -certain of the southern species which are evergreen and produce large, -showy flowers. - -The cucumber tree receives its name from its fruit, which looks like a -cucumber when seen at a distance, but it is far from being one. Its -intense bitter makes it safe from the attacks of birds and beasts. So -far as known, it is not eaten, tasted, or touched by any living -creature--except man. Some of the pioneer settlers, in the days when -there was precious little to eat on the frontiers, discovered a way of -extracting the bitter from the wild cucumber, and making some sort of a -pickle of the remainder; but the art seems to have been lost with the -passing of the pioneers of the Daniel Boone type, and the wild cucumber -now hangs untouched, and tempts nobody. It is three inches or less in -length, generally slightly curved, and is green in color until fully -ripe. Even the flowers which produce the fruit are green, with the -merest suggestion of yellow. They are so inconspicuous that few persons -ever notice them, even though cucumber trees stand in door yards. The -ripe cucumbers are dark red or scarlet, or rather the seeds are, which -grow on the surface like grains of corn on a cob, though fewer in number -and farther apart. Something seems to be lacking in the machinery by -which the flowers are fertilized, with the result that often nearly half -the seeds which ought to cover the surface of the cucumber, fail to -materialize. There are many blank spaces representing flowers which the -pollen missed. - -There is likewise something missing in the modus operandi of scattering -the seeds. They have no wings, and the wind is powerless to carry them. -They are as bitter as quinine and no bird, squirrel, or mouse will -plant, carry, or touch them. Nature appears to have forgotten to provide -any other means for dispersing the seeds of this remarkable tree. When -seeds are fully ripe, they drop away from the parent fruit--the -cucumber--but the fall of each seed is arrested by a small thread which -suspends it from one to three inches below the fruit. There the seeds -hang, swinging and dangling in the wind. What part the threads play in -the economy of nature is not apparent, unless their purpose is to expose -the seeds to a chance of becoming entangled with the wings, feet, or -feathers of flying birds, whereby they may be carried away and dropped -in suitable places for growing. There can be no doubt that this happens -occasionally, and constitutes one of the methods of seed dispersal. -Others are transported by flowing water. - -The chances seem to be greatly against the survival of the cucumber tree -in competition with maples, birches, pines, and cottonwoods, whose -winged seeds are wind-borne; or with oaks, hickories, and walnuts whose -heavy, wingless nuts are planted hither and thither by accommodating -squirrels which are intent only on providing for their own winter wants, -but in reality are industrious and effective forest planters. -Notwithstanding the disadvantages under which the cucumber tree is -placed, it has managed to hold its ground in the forest during immense -periods of time, and it seems to be as firmly established now as ever. - -The leaves of this tree are from seven to ten inches long, and four to -six wide. In autumn before they fall they turn a blotched yellow-brown -color. The first severe frost brings them all down in a heap. At sunset -the tree may be laden with leaves, and by the next noon all will be on -the ground. They are so heavy that the wind does not move them far, and -they drop in heaps beneath the branches. In color they resemble owl -feathers, and the suggestion that comes to one's mind, who happens to -pass under a cucumber tree the morning following the first frost, is -that during the night some prowler picked a roost of owls and scattered -the feathers on the ground. - -The range of cucumber extends from western New York to Alabama, -following the Appalachian mountains; and westward to Illinois and -Mississippi, appearing west of the Mississippi river in Arkansas. It -occurs on low rocky slopes, the banks of mountain streams, and on rich -bottom land. It is of largest size and is most abundant in the narrow -valleys in eastern Tennessee and the western parts of the Carolinas. The -tree is from two to four feet in diameter, and sixty to ninety feet -high. The trunk is of good form for sawlogs. Among its local names are -pointed-leaf magnolia, black lin, magnolia, and mountain magnolia. - -The wood of cucumber resembles that of yellow poplar in appearance and -in physical properties, except that it is ten per cent heavier than -poplar. It usually passes for that wood at sawmill and factory. The -Federal census credits it with less than a million feet a year as -lumber. That is much too small. It is valuable and finds ready sale. -Manufacturers of wooden pumps regard it as the best material for the -bored logs. It is worked into interior finish for houses, flooring for -cars, interior parts of furniture, woodenware, boxes and crates, slack -cooperage, including veneer barrels. - -The tree is planted for ornament in the northern states and Europe. The -chief value lies in its large, green leaves and symmetrical crown. The -red fruit adds to the tree's attractiveness late in summer. - - LARGELEAF UMBRELLA (_Magnolia macrophylla_) is valuable chiefly as a - sort of ornamental curiosity, on account of its enormous leaves and - flowers. The leaf is from twenty to thirty inches long and ten to - twelve wide. It drops in autumn before its green color has undergone - much change. The leaves lack toughness, and the wind whips them into - strings long before the summer is ended. Thus what otherwise would - be highly ornamental becomes somewhat unsightly. When well protected - from wind by surrounding objects, the leaves fare better and last - longer. The white, fragrant flowers are likewise remarkable on - account of size. They are cup-shaped and some of them are almost a - foot across. They pay a penalty no less severe than the leaves pay, - on account of large size, and are liable to be thumped and bruised - by swinging leaves and branches. - - The largeleaf umbrella is a tree of the southern Appalachian - mountains although its range extends southwest to Louisiana, and - northward from there to Arkansas. It is at its best in deep rich - soil of sheltered valleys, occurring in isolated groups, but never - in pure forests. It is known as large-leaved cucumber tree, - great-leaved magnolia, large-leaved umbrella tree, and long-leaved - magnolia. The fruit is nearly a sphere, from two to three inches in - diameter, and bright rose color when fully ripe. The seeds are - two-thirds of an inch long. The smooth, light gray bark is usually - less than a quarter of an inch thick. Large trees are forty or fifty - feet high and twenty inches in diameter. It is not considered - valuable for lumber, because of scarcity and small size. The wood is - considerably heavier than yellow poplar, and is hard but not strong; - light brown in color with thick, light yellow sapwood. Reports do - not show that the wood is put to any use. Planted trees are hardy as - far north as Massachusetts, and success has attended the tree's - introduction in the parks and gardens of southern Europe. - - YELLOW FLOWERED CUCUMBER TREE (_Magnolia acuminata cordata_) is - usually considered a variety of the common cucumber tree, rather - than a separate species. The most noticeable feature is the yellow - blossom which gives the names by which it is generally known, among - such being yellow-flowered magnolia, and yellow cucumber tree. It is - not a garden variety, for it grows wild; but it has been cultivated - during more than a century, and has undergone changes which are not - matched by wild trees. The finest forms of the forest variety are - found on the Blue Ridge in South Carolina, and in central Alabama. - The cultivated tree is distinguished by its darker green leaves, and - by its smaller, bright, canary-yellow flowers. The variety has no - value as a timber tree, but is widely appreciated as an ornament. - Cultivated trees generally remain small in size, and do not develop - the long, clean trunks common with the cucumber tree under forest - conditions. - - UMBRELLA TREE (_Magnolia tripetala_) is one of the magnolias and - should not be confounded with the Asiatic umbrella tree often - planted in yards. The flower is surrounded by a whorl of leaves - resembling an umbrella, hence the name. It is also known as - cucumber, magnolia, and elkwood. The range of the tree extends from - Pennsylvania to Alabama and west to Arkansas. It prefers the margins - of swamps and the rich soil along mountain streams. Leaves are - eighteen inches long and half as wide. They fall in autumn. Flowers - are cup-shaped and creamy-white. The fruit somewhat resembles that - of the common cucumber tree, but is rose colored when fully ripe. - Trees are thirty or forty feet high and a foot or more in diameter. - The brown heartwood is light, soft, and weak, and is used little or - not at all for commercial purposes. The tree is cultivated for - ornament in the northern states and in Europe. - -[Illustration] - - - - -YELLOW POPLAR - -[Illustration: YELLOW POPLAR] - - - - -YELLOW POPLAR - -(_Liriodendron Tulipifera_) - - -In diameter of trunk the yellow poplar is, next to sycamore, the largest -hardwood tree of the United States, and if both height and trunk -diameter are considered, it surpasses the sycamore in size. It belongs -to a very old group of hardwoods which have come down from remote -geological ages, and the species is now found only in the United States -and China. Mature trees are from three to eight feet in diameter and -from 90 to 180 in height. - -It has many names in different parts of its range, but it is never -mistaken for any other tree. The peculiar notched leaf is a sure means -of identification. The resemblance of the flower to the tulip has given -it the name tulip tree in some localities, and botanists prefer that -name. It is so called in Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, -Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Pennsylvania, Virginia, -West Virginia, District of Columbia, North Carolina, South Carolina, -Georgia, Arkansas, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Ontario. Wood -users in New England and in some of the other northern states prefer the -name whitewood and it is so known, in part at least, in New England, New -York, New Jersey, Delaware, South Carolina, Kentucky, Ohio, Michigan, -and Illinois. Yellow poplar is the name preferred by lumbermen in nearly -all regions where the tree is found in commercial quantities, notably in -New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Virginia, West Virginia, -North and South Carolina, Alabama, Arkansas, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, -Illinois, Missouri, and Tennessee. The name is often shortened to -poplar, which is used in Rhode Island, Delaware, North and South -Carolina, Florida, Virginia, West Virginia, Ohio, and Indiana. The name -tulip poplar is less frequently heard, and blue poplar and hickory -poplar are terms used in West Virginia, Virginia, and North Carolina, -but generally under the impression that they refer to a different form -or species. In Rhode Island it is called popple, in New York cucumber -tree, and canoe wood in Tennessee and in the upper Ohio valley. - -The botanical range of yellow poplar is wider than its commercial range; -that is, a few trees are found in regions surrounding the borders of the -district where the tree is profitably lumbered. The boundaries of its -range run from southwestern Vermont, westward to Lake Michigan near -Grand Haven, southward to northern Florida, and west of the Mississippi -river in Missouri and Arkansas. The productive yellow poplar timber belt -has never been that large but has clung pretty closely to the southern -Appalachian mountain ranges and to certain districts lying both east and -west of them. The best original stands were in Pennsylvania, Maryland, -Virginia, West Virginia, western North Carolina, eastern Kentucky and -Tennessee, and in some parts of Ohio and Indiana. However, considerable -quantities of good yellow poplar have been cut in other regions. - -The physical properties of the wood of yellow poplar fit it for many -purposes but not for all. It is not very strong and is tolerably -brittle. It is light in weight, medium soft, and is easily worked. The -annual rings of growth are not prominent compared with some of the oaks, -yet select logs show nicely in quarter-sawing. The medullary rays are -numerous, but small and not prominent, for which reason bright streaks -and flecks are not characteristic of the wood. Yellow poplar is fairly -stiff and elastic, but is not often selected on account of those -qualities. In color it is light yellow or brown. The color gives name to -the tree. The sapwood is whiter, and it is the abnormally thick sapwood -of some trees which causes them to be called white poplar. The wood has -little figure, and it is seldom employed for fine work without stain or -paint of some kind. It is not usually classed as long lasting when -exposed to the weather, yet cases are known where weather boarding of -houses, and bridge and mill timbers of yellow poplar have outlasted the -generation of builders. - -The quantity of yellow poplar in the country is but a remnant of the -former enormous supply that covered the rich valleys and fertile coves -in a region exceeding 200,000 square miles. It occupied the best land, -and much was destroyed by farmers in clearing fields. It was not -generally found in groves or dense stands, but as solitary trees -scattered through forests of other woods. The trunks are tall and -shapely, the crowns comparatively small. The form is ideal for sawlogs, -and very few trees of America produce a higher percentage of clear, -first class lumber. That is because the forest-grown poplar early sheds -its lower branches, and the trunks lay on nothing but clear wood. In the -yellow poplar's region it was the principal wood of which the pioneers -made their canoes for crossing and navigating rivers. It is still best -known by the name canoewood in some regions. It worked easily and was -light, and a thin-shelled canoe lasted many years, barring floods and -other accidents. Builders of pirogues, keelboats, barges, and other -vessels for inland navigation in early times when roads were few and -streams were the principal highways of commerce, found no timber -superior to yellow poplar. It could be had in planks of great size and -free from defects, and while not as strong as oak, it was strong enough -to withstand the usual knocks and buffetings of river traffic. - -Yellow poplar sawlogs have probably exceeded in number any other wood, -except white pine, floated down rivers and creeks to market. The wood -floats well and lumbermen have usually pushed far up the rivers, ahead -of other lumber operations, to procure it. Enormous drives have gone and -are still going out of rivers in the Appalachian region. - -The uses of yellow poplar are so many that an enumeration is -impracticable, except by general classes. These are boxes and -woodenware, vehicles, furniture, interior finish, and car building. -There is another class consisting of low-grade work, such as common -lumber, pulpwood, and the like. - -There is a class of commodities which are usually packed in boxes and -require a wood that will impart neither taste nor stain. That -requirement is met by yellow poplar. It has been an important wood for -boxes in which food products are shipped. It is so used less frequently -now than formerly because of increased cost, but veneer is employed to a -large extent, and while the total quantity of wood going into box -factories is smaller than formerly, the actual number and contents of -poplar boxes are perhaps about the same. It is a white wood and shows -printing and stenciling clearly. That is an important point with many -manufacturers who wish to print their advertisements on the boxes which -they send out. Woodenware, particularly ironing boards, bread boards, -and pantry and kitchen utensils, are largely made of poplar because it -is light, attractive, and easily kept clean. It is popular as pumplogs -for the same reason. - -As a vehicle wood, yellow poplar is not a competitor of oak and hickory. -They are for running gear and frames; poplar for tops and bodies. No -wood excels it for wide panels. It receives finish and paint so well -that it is not surpassed by the smoothest metals. Many of the finest -carriage and automobile tops are largely of this wood. In case of slight -accidents it resists dints much better than sheet metal. - -Cheap furniture was once made of yellow poplar. It now enters into the -best kinds, and is finished in imitation of costly woods, notably -mahogany, birch, and cherry. No American wood will take a higher polish. -It is also much employed as an interior wood by furniture manufacturers. -It fills an important place as cores or backing over which veneers are -glued. - -When used as an interior house finish and in car building, it is nearly -always stained or painted. Many of the broad handsome panels in -passenger cars, which pass for cherry, birch, mahogany, or rosewood, are -yellow poplar, to which the finisher and decorator have given their best -touches. - -All poplar lumber is not wide, clear stock, though much of it is. The -lower grades go as common lumber and small trees are cut for pulpwood. A -large part of the demand for high-grade yellow poplar is in foreign -countries, and a regular oversea trade is carried on by exporters. -Foreign manufacturers put the wood to practically the same uses as the -best grades in this country. - -Yellow poplar seasons well, and is a satisfactory wood to handle. When -thoroughly dry it holds its shape with the best of woods. Bluing is apt -to affect the green wood if unduly exposed. Fresh poplar chips in damp -situations sometimes change to a conspicuous blue color within a day or -two. However, millmen do not experience much difficulty in preventing -the bluing of the lumber. - -GYMINDA (_Gyminda grisebachii_) is also called false boxwood, and -belongs to the staff family. The name gyminda is artificial and -meaningless. The genus has a single species which occurs in the islands -of southern Florida where trees of largest size are scarcely twenty-five -feet high and six inches in diameter. The wood is very heavy, hard, -fine-grained, and is nearly black. It is suitable for small articles, -but it is not known to be so used, and its scarcity renders improbable -any important future use of the wood. The fruit is a small berry, -ripening in November. The range of the species extends to Cuba, Porto -Rico, and other islands of the West Indies. - -[Illustration] - - - - -EVERGREEN MAGNOLIA - -[Illustration: EVERGREEN MAGNOLIA] - - - - -EVERGREEN MAGNOLIA - -(_Magnolia Foetida_) - - -This is not a timber tree of first importance. A few years ago it was -seldom cut except in very small quantities; but it was found to possess -good qualities, and now it goes regularly to the mills which saw -hardwoods in the region where it grows. The wood of different magnolia -trees, or even the wood of the same tree, shows lack of uniformity. Some -of it looks like yellow poplar and compares favorably with it in several -particulars, while other of it is very dark, with hard flinty streaks -which not only present a poor appearance, but dull the tools of the -woodworking machines and create an unfavorable impression of the wood -generally. This magnolia holds pretty closely to the damp lands in all -parts of its range. The amount of the annual cut is not known, because -it goes in with the minor species in most places and no separate account -is taken. It is coming into more notice every year, and some -manufacturers have been so successful in finding ways to make it -serviceable that the best grades are easily sold. The wood does not hold -its color very well. The light-colored sapwood is apt to become darker -after exposure to the air, and the dark heartwood fades a little. The -tree is so handsome in the forest that it is occasionally spared when -the surrounding trees are removed. - -It is doubtful if any American tree surpasses it as an ornament when its -leaves, trunk, flowers, and bark are considered. It is not perfect in -all of these particulars; in fact, it possesses some serious faults. The -crown is often too small for the tree's height; the branches straggle, -many on some parts of the trunk and few on others; the flowers are -objectionable because of strong odor which is unpleasant to most people. -But these shortcomings are more than compensated for by splendid -qualities. The rich, dark green of the leaves, their size and profusion, -their changeless luster, place them in a position almost beyond the -reach of rivalry from any other tree. - -Those who see this splendid inhabitant of the forest only where it has -been planted in northern states, and elsewhere outside of its natural -range, miss much of the best it has to give. It belongs in the South. -The wet lands, the small elevations in deep swamps, the flat country -where forests are dense, are its home. The yellowish-green trunk rises -through the tangled foliage that keeps near the ground, and towers fifty -feet above, and there spreads in a crown of green so deep that it is -almost black. It likes company, and seldom grows solitary. Its -associates are the southern maples, red gum, tupelo, cypress, a dozen -species of oak, and occasionally pines on nearby higher ground. -Festoons of grayish-green Spanish moss often add to the tropical -character of the scene. The moss seldom hangs on the magnolia, but is -frequently abundant on surrounding trees. - -Lumbermen formerly left the evergreen magnolia trees on tracts from -which they cut nearly everything else. Large areas which had once been -regarded as swamps were thus converted into parks of giant magnolias, -many of which towered seventy or eighty feet. The tracts were left wild, -and those who so left them had no purpose of providing ornament, but -they did so. Many a scene was made grand by its magnolias, after other -forest growth had been cut away. - -The range of evergreen magnolia is from North Carolina to Florida and -west to Arkansas and Texas. The species reaches largest size in the -vicinity of the Mississippi, both east and west of it. Trees eighty feet -high and four feet in diameter occur, and trunks are often without limbs -one-half or two-thirds their length, when they grow in forests. - -The common name for the tree in most parts of its range is simply -magnolia, though that name fails to distinguish it from several other -species, some of which are associated with it. Occasionally it is called -big laurel, great laurel magnolia, laurel-leaved magnolia, laurel, and -laurel bay. Bull bay is a common name for it in Georgia, Alabama, and -Mississippi. It is called bat tree, but the reason for such a name is -not known. - -Leaves are from five to eight inches long and two or three wide, and -dark green above, but lighter below. They fall in the spring after -remaining on the branches two whole years. - -The odor of the flowers is unpleasant, but they are attractive to the -sight, being six or eight inches across, with purple bases. The -flowering habit of this tree is all that could be desired. It is in -bloom from April till August. - -The fruit resembles that of the other magnolias and is three or four -inches long and two or less wide. Its color is rusty-brown. The ripe -seeds hang awhile by short threads, according to the habit of the -family. The wood is stronger than poplar, fully as stiff, and nearly -fifty per cent heavier. The annual rings are rather vaguely marked by -narrow bands of summerwood. Pores are diffuse, plentiful, and very -small. Medullary rays are larger than those of yellow poplar, and show -fairly well in quarter-sawed stock. The wood is compact and easily -worked, except when hard streaks are encountered. The surface finishes -with a satiny luster; color creamy-white, yellowish-white, or often -light brown. Occasionally the wood is nearly diametrically the opposite -of this, and is of all darker shades up to purple, black, and blue -black. The appearance of the dark wood suggests decay, but those who -pass it through machines, or work it by hand, consider it as sound as -the lighter colored wood. - -The uses of magnolia are much the same in all parts of its range, and -those of Louisiana, where the utilization of the wood has been studied -more closely than in other regions, indicate the scope of its -usefulness. It is there made into parts of boats, bar fixtures, boxes, -broom handles, brush backs, crates, door panels, dugout canoes, -excelsior, furniture shelving, interior finish, ox yokes, panels, and -wagon boxes. In Texas where the annual consumption probably exceeds a -million feet, it is employed by furniture makers, and appears in window -blinds, packing boxes, sash, and molding. In Mississippi, fine mantels -are made of carefully selected wood, quarter-sawed to bring out the -small, square "mirrors" produced by radial cutting of the medullary -rays. - -Evergreen magnolia has long been planted for ornament in this country -and Europe. It survives the winters at Philadelphia. Several varieties -have been developed by cultivation and are sold by nurseries. - -Southern forests have contributed, and still contribute, large -quantities of magnolia leaves for decorations in northern cities during -winter. The flowers are not successfully shipped because they are easily -bruised, and they quickly lose their freshness and beauty. - - SWEET MAGNOLIA (_Magnolia glauca_) ranges from Massachusetts to - Texas and south to Florida. It reaches its largest size on the - hummock lands of the latter state. Trees are occasionally seventy - feet high and three or more in diameter, but in many parts of its - range it is small, even shrubby. Among the names by which it is - known are white bay, swamp laurel, swamp sassafras, swamp magnolia, - white laurel, and beaver-tree. It inhabits swamps in the northern - part of its range, hence the frequency of the word "swamp" in - coining names for it. Beaver-tree as a name is probably due to its - former abundance about beaver dams, where impounded water made the - ground swampy. In the North, sweet magnolia's chief value is in its - flowers, which are two or three inches across, creamy-white, and - fragrant. They were formerly very abundant near the mouth of the - Susquehanna river in Maryland and Pennsylvania, and northward - through New Jersey; but the traffic in the flowers has destroyed the - growth in many places where once plentiful. It is not important as a - timber resource, but it is employed for a number of useful purposes - where logs of fair size may be had. The sapwood is creamy-white, but - the heart is nearly as dark as mahogany, and in Texas it is used to - imitate that wood. The brown and other shades combine with fine - effect. One of its common uses is for broom handles. Heartwood is - worked into high-grade chairs. It takes a beautiful polish. - - FRASER UMBRELLA (_Magnolia fraseri_) ranges south from the Virginia - mountains to Florida and west to Mississippi. It is of largest size - in South Carolina where trees are sometimes thirty feet high and a - foot or more in diameter. The leaves fall in autumn of the first - year; the creamy-white, sweetly-scented flowers are eight or ten - inches in diameter, and the fruit resembles that of the other - magnolias. The wood is weak, soft, and light. The heart is clear - brown, the sapwood nearly white. It has not been reported in use for - any commercial purpose. Among its other names it is known as - long-leaved cucumber tree, ear-leaved umbrella tree, Indian bitters, - water lily tree, and mountain magnolia. In cultivation this species - is hardy as far north as Massachusetts, and it is planted for - ornament in Europe. - - PYRAMID MAGNOLIA (_Magnolia pyramidata_) seems to have generally - escaped the notice of laymen, and it therefore has no English name - except the translation of the Latin term by which botanists know it. - Its habitat lies in southern Georgia and Alabama, and western - Florida, and it is occasionally seen in cultivation in western - Europe. It is a slender tree, twenty feet or more in height. Its - flowers are three or four inches in diameter, and creamy-white in - color. A tree so scarce cannot be expected to be commercially - important. - - WESTERN BLACK WILLOW (_Salix lasiandra_) is a rather large tree when - at its best, reaching a diameter of two feet or more, and a height - of fifty, but in other parts of its range it rarely exceeds ten feet - in height. It follows the western mountain ranges southward from - British Columbia into California. The wood is soft, light, and - brittle, and is used little if at all. Lyall willow (_Salix - lasiandra lyalli_) is a well marked variety of this species and is a - tree of respectable size. - - GLOSSYLEAF WILLOW (_Salix lucida_) is a far northern species which - has its southern limit in Pennsylvania and Nebraska. It grows nearly - to the Arctic circle. Trees twenty-five feet high and six or eight - inches in diameter are the best this species affords. - - LONGLEAF WILLOW (_Salix fluviatilis_) is known also as sandbar - willow, narrowleaf willow, shrub, white, red, and osier willow, and - by still other names. It ranges from the Arctic circle to Mexico, - reaching Maryland on the Atlantic coast, and California on the - Pacific. In rare cases it is sixty feet high, and two in diameter, - but it is usually less than twenty feet high. - -[Illustration] - - - - -WAHOO - -[Illustration: WAHOO] - - - - -WAHOO - -(_Evonymus Atropurpureus_) - - -No one seems to know what the original meaning of the word wahoo was. It -is applied to no fewer than six different trees in this country, four of -them elms, one a basswood, and one the tree now under consideration. The -generic name, _Evonymus_, appears to be an effort to put somebody's seal -of approval on the name, for it means in the Greek language "of good -name." - -It belongs to the family _Celastraceae_, which means the staff family. -Some designate members of this group as "Spindle trees," because -formerly in Europe the wood was employed for knitting needles, hooks for -embroidering, spindles for spinning wheels, and the like. Unless the -members of the family in Europe have wood quite different from that of -the wahoo tree in this country, no adequate reason can be found for the -use of the wood for spindles or staffs, because it is poor material for -that purpose. It may be compared with basswood. - -This beautiful little tree, scarcely more than a shrub in most regions -of its growth, is a widely distributed species, its range extending -through western New York to Nebraska, southeastern South Dakota and -eastern Kansas, and in the valley of the upper Missouri river, Montana, -southward to northern Florida, southern Arkansas and Oklahoma. In these -localities it is generally a shrub, rarely reaching a height of more -than nine or ten feet. It attains the proportions of a tree only in the -bottom lands of southern Arkansas, Oklahoma, and in the lower -Appalachian regions. The most favorable habitat of the tree is moist -soil along the banks of streams. In the southern and western parts of -its range, under favorable conditions of soil and climate, and when -isolated from other species, the wahoo tree grows to rather large size -and develops a wide flat top of slender spreading branches. - -The largest and most beautiful specimens of wahoo grow in the -mountainous regions of West Virginia, eastern Tennessee, and western -North Carolina. In these sections it is no unusual thing for a tree of -this species to attain a height of sixty or seventy feet and a diameter -of twenty or twenty-four inches. It is never found in pure stands but is -isolated along the edge of the forest, and thrives best near water -courses. - -The tree is known by a variety of names in the different parts of the -country. The Indians are said to have called it wahoo. Burning bush, a -very popular name, is especially appropriate, as no brighter dash of -color is displayed by any tree than the scarlet fruit of this growth, -which remains on the branches long after the leaves have fallen, often -until the winter storms beat it to the ground. The growth is also -called occasionally by the name bleeding-heart tree, in reference to the -blood-red contents revealed by the bursting fruit. - -The wahoo in the fall of the year may be identified by the flaming color -of its fruit, or rather the seeds of the fruit. The hull bursts and -exposes the bright red seeds within. These, contrary to the usual run of -red fruits, are not of a glossy surface, and in this the tree is unique. -During the summer season, however, identification is not such a simple -matter, for the foliage is quite ordinary, and the flat, unassuming -flowers have little that is distinctive about them; but as the autumn -approaches and the leaves turn a pale yellow color, the tree becomes a -conspicuous and beautiful object with its scarlet berries. - -The bark of the wahoo is ashen gray, thin, furrowed, and divided into -minute scales. On the branchlets it is a dark purplish-brown, later -becoming brownish-gray. - -The heartwood of wahoo is white, with a slight tinge of orange. The -sapwood, scarcely distinguishable from the heartwood, is more nearly -white in tone. The wood is heavy and close-grained but not very hard. It -weighs when seasoned a little less than forty pounds to the cubic foot. -Such of this wood as is sawed into lumber, which is but a small -quantity, sells commercially with poplar saps, thus masquerading like -its forest fellow, the cucumber tree. The character of the wood is such -that it will not stand exposure to the weather any length of time. It is -far from durable, but is remarkably clear from defects and answers -admirably many purposes for which sap poplar is desirable. - -The leaves of the tree are waxy in appearance, opposite, entire, -elliptical or ovate in shape, from two to four inches long, one to two -broad. They are finely serrate and pointed at both apex and base, and -the stems are short and stout. - -The flowers, which appear in May and June, are definitely four-parted, -presenting a Maltese cross in shape. They are half an inch across, and -their rounded petals are deep purple in color. The fruit which succeeds -these flowers and which ripens in October is also four-parted. It is -about half an inch across, a pale purple when full size, and hangs on -long slender stems. When ripe the purple husk bursts and reveals the -seed enveloped in a scarlet outer coat that fits it loosely. The leaves, -bark, and fruit of the wahoo are acrid and are reputed to be poisonous. - -The wood is one-third heavier than that of yellow poplar, and it is -evident that it would not pass as poplar with any one disposed to reject -it. It is also much harder than poplar, and is more difficult to season, -as it checks badly. The medullary rays are so thin as to be scarcely -discernible. The wood contains many very small pores. The bark is said -to possess some value for medicinal purposes. No special uses for the -wood have been reported, and it is too scarce to be of much value. The -tree's principal importance is as an ornament, and it shows well in -winter borders where the bright colors of the seeds are exposed. It is -planted both in this country and in Europe. The plantings seldom or -never reach tree size. - -FLORIDA BOXWOOD (_Schaefferia frutescens_) is of the same family as wahoo -but of another genus, and is quite a different kind of tree. The generic -name is in honor of Jakob Christian Schaeffer, a distinguished German -naturalist who died in 1790. Two species of this tree occur in the -United States, one the Florida boxwood, the other a small, shrubby -growth in the dry regions of western Texas and northern Mexico. Florida -boxwood is a West Indies tree which flourishes in the Bahamas and -southward along the other islands to Venezuela. It has gained a foothold -on the islands of southern Florida where it has found conditions -favorable and it grows to a height of thirty or forty feet, and reaches -a trunk diameter of ten inches, but such are trees of the largest size. -The leaves are bright yellow-green, about two inches long, and one or -less in width. They appear in Florida in April and persist a full year, -until the foliage of the succeeding crop displaces them. The flowers -which are small and inconspicuous, open about the same time as the -leaves. The fruit is a scarlet berry which ripens in November, and has a -decidedly disagreeable flavor. The bark is very thin. - -When sound wood in sufficiently large pieces is obtainable it is -valuable for a number of purposes, but chiefly as a substitute for -Turkish boxwood as engraving blocks. The trees are always small in -Florida, which is the only place in the United States where they occur, -and the largest are often hollow or otherwise defective. The wood weighs -48.27 pounds per cubic foot, thoroughly dry, which is about two pounds -heavier than white oak. It is rich in ashes, having about four times as -much as white oak. The color of the heartwood is a bright, clear yellow -to which is due the name yellow-wood occasionally applied to the tree in -the region where it grows, as well as in markets where it is sold. This -is not the tree known in commerce as West Indies boxwood, though it may -be an occasional substitute. It is said that Florida boxwood was -formerly much more abundant in this country than it is now. It was -lumbered for the European market at about the same time that the south -of Florida was stripped of its mahogany. It is suitable for many small -articles where a hard, even-grained wood is wanted. - -IRONWOOD (_Cyrilla racemiflora_) ranges from the coast region of North -Carolina to Florida, and west near the coast to Texas. It is known as -leatherwood, burnwood, burnwood bark, firewood, red titi, and white -titi. Ten woods besides this are called ironwood in some parts of this -country. The name is applied because the hardness of the wood suggests -iron. It is not remarkable for its weight nor its strength. The -medullary rays are thin and inconspicuous. In color it is brown, tinged -with red. It is not apparent why it is a favorite fire wood, for its -fuel value does not rate high theoretically, being much below many -species with which it is associated. The largest trees rarely exceed a -height of thirty feet and a diameter of twelve inches. They flourish in -shady river bottoms and along the borders of sandy swamps and shallow -ponds. - -The tree occasionally assumes the form of a bush and sends up many stems -which produce almost impenetrable thickets. Aside from its use as fuel, -it is in small demand anywhere. In Texas it is sometimes made into -wedges, and similar uses for it are doubtless found in other regions -where it is abundant. It is named from Domenico Cirillo, an Italian -naturalist who died in 1799. - -TITI (_Cliftonia monophylla_) is of the _cyrilla_ family and is one of -three species which occasionally pass under that name. It sometimes -reaches a height of fifty feet and a diameter of one or more. Its range -follows the coast region from South Carolina to Louisiana. It betakes -itself to swamps and flourishes in situations that would be fatal to -many species. Half under water during many months of the year it is -placed at no disadvantage. It grows equally well in shallow swamps which -are rarely overflowed. Near the southern limits of its range in Florida -it is reduced to a shrub. It is known as ironwood and buckwheat tree. -The last name is due to its seeds which are about the size of a -buckwheat grain and otherwise resemble it. The flowers appear in early -spring on long racemes, and are very fragrant. The wood weighs about -thirty-nine pounds per cubic foot, is not strong, but is moderately -hard. It is valuable as fuel and burns with a clear, bright flame. - -[Illustration] - - - - -MOUNTAIN LAUREL - -[Illustration: MOUNTAIN LAUREL] - - - - -MOUNTAIN LAUREL - -(_Kalmia Latifolia_) - - -This tree belongs to the heath family and not to the laurels, as the -name seems to imply. The same is true of rhododendron. The kalmia genus -has five or six species in this country, but only one of tree size, and -then only when at its best. Mountain laurel reaches its best development -in North and South Carolina in a few secluded valleys between the Blue -Ridge and the western mountains of the Appalachian ranges. The largest -specimens are forty or fifty feet high and a foot or a foot and a half -in diameter. Trunks are contorted and unshapely, and lumber is never -sawed from them. - -The tree has many names, most of them, however, are applied to the -species in its shrubby form. A common name is simply laurel, but that -does not distinguish it from the great laurel which is often associated -with it. Calico bush is one of its names, and is supposed to be -descriptive of the flowers. Spoonwood is one of its northern names, -dating back to the times when early settlers, who carried little -silverware with them to their frontier homes, augmented the supply by -making spoons and ladles of laurel roots. Ivy is a common name, -sometimes mountain ivy, or poison ivy. Poison laurel and sheep laurel -are among the names also. The leaves are poisonous, and if sheep feed on -them, death is apt to follow. The exact nature of the poison is not -understood. Sheep seldom feed on the leaves, and do so only when driven -by hunger. Other names are small laurel, wood laurel, and kalmia. The -last is the name of the genus, and is in honor of Peter Kalm, a Swedish -naturalist. - -The species is found from New Brunswick to Louisiana, but principally -among the ranges of the Appalachian mountains. Its thin bark makes it an -easy prey to fire and the top is killed by a moderate blaze. The root -generally remains uninjured and sends up sprouts in large numbers. -Thickets almost impenetrable are sometimes produced in that way. - -Flowers and foliage of mountain laurel are highly esteemed as -decorations, foliage in winter, and the flowers in May and June. The -bloom appears in large clusters, and various colors are in evidence, -white, rose, pink, and numerous combinations. The seeds are ripe in -September, and the pods which bear them burst soon after. - -The wood of mountain laurel weighs 44.62 pounds per cubic foot. It is -hard, strong, rather brittle, of slow growth, brown in color, tinged -with red, with lighter colored sapwood. This description applies to the -wood of the trunk; but in nearly all cases where mention is made of the -wood of this tree, it refers to the roots. These consist of enlargements -or stools, often protruding considerably above the ground. If the area -has been visited repeatedly by fire, the roots are generally out of -proportion to the size of the tops. In that respect they resemble -mesquite, except that the enlarged root of mesquite penetrates far -beneath the surface while that of mountain laurel remains just below the -surface or rises partly above it. - -The utilization of mountain laurel is not confined to the trunks which -reach tree size. Generally it is the root that is wanted. Roots are -usually sold by weight, because of the difficulty of measuring them as -lumber or even by the cord. The annual product of this material in North -Carolina alone amounts to about 85,000 pounds, all of which goes to -manufacturers of tobacco pipes and cigar holders. The use of the laurel -root for pipes is as old as its use for spoons. Pioneers who raised and -cured their own tobacco smoked it in pipes which were their own -handiwork. The laurel root was selected then as now because it carves -easily, is not inclined to split, does not burn readily, and darkens in -color with age. It is cheap material, is found throughout an extensive -region, and the supply is so large that exhaustion in the near future is -not anticipated. - -The wood is employed in the manufacture of many small articles other -than tobacco pipes. Paper knives, small rulers, turned boxes for pins -and buttons, trays, plaques, penholders, handles for buckets, dippers, -and firewood, are among the uses for which laurel is found suitable. - -It is of no small importance for ornamental purposes, and is often seen -growing in clumps and borders in public parks and private yards, where -its evergreen foliage and its bloom make it a valuable shrub. It is -planted in Europe as well as in this country. - -GREAT LAUREL (_Rhododendron maximum_) is also in the heath family. More -than two hundred species of _rhododendron_ are known, and seventeen are -in this country, but only one attains tree size. The generic name means -"rose tree," and the name is well selected. The flowers are the most -conspicuous feature belonging to this species, and few wild trees or -shrubs equal it for beauty. It is not native much west of the Alleghany -mountains, but grows north and east to Nova Scotia. It is at its best -among the mountains, thrives in deep ravines where the shade is dense, -and on steep slopes and stony mountain tops. It forms extensive thickets -which are often so deep and tangled that it is difficult to pass through -them. This laurel is seldom found growing on limestone. It reaches its -largest size in the South. Trees thirty or forty feet high and a foot in -diameter occur in favored localities. It grows on the Alleghany -mountains in West Virginia at an elevation exceeding 4,000 feet and -there forms vast thickets. Some use is made of the wood for engraving -blocks and as tool handles. It is hard, strong, brittle, of slow growth, -and light clear brown. It is frequently planted in parks in this country -and Europe, and three or more varieties are distinguished in -cultivation. This laurel's leaves have a peculiar habit of shrinking and -rolling up when the thermometer falls to zero or near it. Among the -names applied to it are great laurel, rose bay, dwarf rose bay tree, -wild rose bay, bigleaf laurel, deer tongue, laurel, spoon hutch, and -rhododendron. - -CATAWBA RHODODENDRON (_Rhododendron catawbiense_) is a rare, -large-flowered species of the mountain regions from West Virginia -southward to Georgia and Alabama. The wood is not put to use, and the -species is chiefly valuable as an ornamental shrub. It seldom reaches -large size. - -SOURWOOD (_Oxydendrum arboreum_) follows the Alleghany mountain ranges -south from Pennsylvania, and extends into Florida, reaching the Atlantic -coast in Virginia, and Indiana, Tennessee, and Louisiana westward. The -best development of the species is found among the western slopes of the -Big Smoky mountains in Tennessee. It is called sorrel-tree, sour gum, -and sour gum bush, on account of the acidity of the leaves when chewed. -Arrow-wood, another name, refers to the long, straight stems between the -whorls of branches of young trees--those three or four feet high. The -stems are of proper size for arrows, and amateur bowmen use them. Those -who designate the tree as lily-of-the-valley have in mind the flowers. -The shape suggests an opening lily, but the size does not. The flower is -about one-third of an inch long, but panicles several inches long are -covered with them. They open in July and August, and in September the -fruit is ripe. The seed is pale brown and one-eighth of an inch long. - -The sourwood tree at its best is fifty or sixty feet high and from -twelve to eighteen inches in diameter. The bark of young trees is -smooth, but on mature trunks it resembles the exceedingly rough bark of -an old black gum. In fact, many people suppose this tree to be black -gum, never having noticed the difference of leaf, fruit, and flower. The -genus consists of a single species. The wood is heavy, hard, compact, -and it takes good polish. The medullary rays are numerous, but thin, and -they contribute little or nothing to the figure of the wood. The annual -rings show little difference between springwood and summerwood, and -consequently produce poor figure when the lumber is sawed tangentially. -The pores are many and small and are regularly distributed through the -yearly ring. Heartwood is brown, tinged with red, the sapwood lighter. -The strength and elasticity of sourwood are moderate. The wood is made -into sled runners in some of the mountain districts where it occurs, but -no particular qualities fit it for that use. It is occasionally employed -for machinery bearings. It has been reported for mallets and mauls, but -since it is not very well suited for those articles, the conclusion is -that those who so report it have confused it with black gum which it -resembles in the living tree, but not much in the wood. Small handles -are made of it, and it gives good service, provided great strength and -stiffness are not required. Sourwood is not abundant anywhere, and -seldom are more than a few trees found in a group. - - TREE HUCKLEBERRY (_Vaccinium arboreum_) is the only tree form of - twenty-five or thirty species of huckleberry in this country. The - cranberry is one of the best known species. The range of tree - huckleberry extends from North Carolina to Texas, and it reaches its - largest size in the latter state where trunks thirty feet high and - ten inches in diameter occur, but not in great abundance. The fruit - which this tree bears has some resemblance to the common - huckleberry, but is inferior in flavor, besides being dry and - granular. It ripens in October and remains on the branches most of - the winter. The fruit is about a quarter of an inch in diameter, - dark and lustrous, and is a conspicuous and tempting bait for - feathered inhabitants of swamp and forest. The bark of the roots is - sometimes used for medicine, and that from the trunk for tanning, - but it is too scarce to become important in the leather industry. - The tree is known in different parts of its range as farkleberry, - sparkleberry, myrtle berry, bluet, and in North Carolina it is known - as gooseberry. The wood is hard, heavy, and very compact; is liable - to warp, twist, and check in drying; polishes with a fine, satiny - finish. Medullary rays are numerous, broad, and conspicuous; wood - light brown, tinged with red. Small articles are turned from it. - -[Illustration] - - - - -OSAGE ORANGE - -[Illustration: OSAGE ORANGE] - - - - -OSAGE ORANGE - -(_Toxylon Pomiferum_) - - -Osage orange belongs to the mulberry family. There are fifty-four -genera, three of which are found in the United States, the mulberries, -the Osage orange, and the figs. Osage orange is known by several names, -the principal one of which refers to the Osage Indians, who formerly -lived in the region where the tree grows. It is called orange because -the fruit, which is from two to five inches in diameter, looks like a -green orange, but it is unfit for food. In its range most people call it -bodark or bodock, that being a corruption of the name by which the -French designated it, bois d'arc, which means bow wood. It was so called -from the fact that Indians made bows of it when they could get nothing -better. Its value as material for bows seems to be traditional and -greatly overestimated. It is lower in elasticity than white oak and very -much lower than hickory, and, theoretically, at least, it is not well -suited for bows. The wood is known also as mock orange, bow-wood, Osage -apple tree, yellow-wood, hedge, and hedge tree. The last name is given -because many hedges have been made of it. - -Osage orange has been planted in perhaps every state of the Union, and -grows successfully in most of them. It is one of the most widely -distributed of American forest trees, but its distribution has been -chiefly artificial. It was found originally in a very restricted region, -from which it was carried for hedge and ornamental planting far and -wide. Its natural home, to which it was confined when first discovered, -embraced little more than ten thousand square miles, and probably half -of that small area produced no trees of commercial size. Its northern -limit was near Atoka, Oklahoma, its southern a little south of Dallas, -Texas; a range north and south of approximately one hundred miles. Its -broadest extent east and west was along Red River, through Cooke, -Grayson, Fanning, Lamar, and Red River counties, Texas, about 120 miles. -Some Osage orange of commercial size grew outside the area thus -delimited, but no large amount. Much of that region, particularly south -of Red River, was prairie, without timber of any kind; but scattered -here and there were belts, strips, thickets, and clumps of Osage orange -mixed with other species. On the very best of its range, and before -disturbed by white men, this wood seldom formed pure stands of as much -as 100 acres in one body, and since the country's settlement, the stands -have become smaller or have been entirely cleared to make farms. All -accounts agree that the Osage orange reaches its highest development on -the fertile lands along Boggy and Blue rivers in Oklahoma, though fine -bodies of it once grew south of the Red River in Texas, and much is -still cut there though the choicest long ago disappeared. Few trees are -less exacting in soil, yet when it can make choice it chooses the best. -In its natural habitat it holds its place in the black, fertile flats -and valleys, and is seldom found on sandy soil. It is not a swamp tree, -though it is uninjured by occasional floods. The tracts where it grows -are sometimes called "bodark swamps," though marshy in wet weather only. - -The tree attains a height of fifty or sixty feet when at its best, but -specimens that tall are unusual. Trunks are occasionally two or three -feet in diameter, but that size is very rare. At the present time -probably ten trees under a foot in diameter are cut for every one over -that size. - -Rough and unshapely as Osage trees are, they have been more closely -utilized than most timbers. Fence posts are the largest item. The board -measure equivalent of the annual cut of posts has been placed at -18,400,000. The posts are shipped to surrounding states, in addition to -fencing nearly 40,000 square miles of northern Texas and southern -Oklahoma. Houseblocks constitute another important use. These are short -posts set under the corners of buildings in place of stone foundations. -The annual demand for this kind of material amounts to about 1,000,000 -board feet. An equal amount goes into bridge piling. The principal -demand comes from highway commissioners. Telephone poles take a -considerable quantity, and insulator pins more. - -One of the most important uses of Osage orange is found in the -manufacture of wagon wheels, though the total quantity so used is -smaller than that demanded for fence posts. - -About 10,000 or 12,000 wagons with Osage orange felloes or rims are -manufactured annually in the United States. That use of the wood is not -new. It began in a small way soon after the settlement of the region. At -first the work was hand-done by local blacksmiths and wheelwrights. They -found the wood objectionable, from the workman's standpoint, on account -of its extreme hardness and the difficulty of cutting it. That objection -is still urged against it though machines have taken the place of the -hand tools of former times. Saws and bits are quickly dulled, and the -cost of grinding, repair, and replacement increases the operator's -expense much above ordinary mill outlay for such purposes. On that -account many prefer to work the wood green. It is then softer, and cuts -more smoothly. If seasoned before it is passed through the machines it -is liable to "pull." That term is used to indicate a rough-breaking of -the fibres by the impact of knives. The readiness with which the wood -splits calls for extraordinary care in boring it, and many felloes are -spoiled in finishing them to receive the tenoned ends of spokes. - -A number of commodities are made of Osage orange but in quantities so -small that the total wood used does not constitute a serious drain upon -the supply. Police clubs are occasionally made as a by-product of the -rim mill. Some years ago at the Texas state fair at Dallas, a piano was -exhibited, all visible wood being Osage orange, handsomely polished. The -rich color of this wood distinguishes it from all other American -species. When oiled it retains the yellow color, but unoiled wood fades -on long exposure. Clock cases of Osage have been manufactured locally, -and gun stocks made of it are much admired, though the wood's weight is -an argument against it for gun stocks. Canes split from straight-grained -blocks, and shaved and polished by hand, are occasionally met with, but -none manufactured by machinery have been reported. Sawmills in the Osage -orange region use the wood as rollers for carriages and off-bearing -tables. Rustic rockers and benches of the wood, with the bark or without -it, figure to a small extent in local trade. It has been tried -experimentally for parquetry floors, with satisfactory results. Sections -of streets have been paved with Osage orange blocks. The wood wears well -and is nearly proof against decay, but no considerable demand for such -blocks appears ever to have existed. Railroads which were built through -the region years ago cut Osage for ties and culvert timber, but no such -use is now reported. The demand for the wood for tobacco pipes is -increasing, more than 100,000 blocks for such pipes having been sold -during a single year. - -Osage orange weighs 48.21 pounds per cubic foot. It is twenty-eight per -cent stronger than white oak, but is not quite as stiff, is very -brittle, and under heavy impact, will crumble. For that reason, Osage -wagon felloes will not stand rocky roads. The bark is sometimes used for -tanning, and the wood for dyeing. - - RED MULBERRY (_Morus rubra_) is frequently spoken of simply as - mulberry, and is sometimes called black mulberry. The full grown - fruit is red, but turns black or very dark purple when ripe. The - berry is composed of a compact and adhering cluster of drupes, each - drupe about one thirty-second of an inch long. What seems to be a - single berry is really an aggregation of very small fruits, each - resembling a tiny cherry. The mulberry is naturally a forest tree, - but it is permitted to grow about the margins of fields, and is - often planted in door yards for its fruit and its shade. It is - looked upon by many as a tame species. - - Two mulberries grow naturally in this country. The red species - ranges from Massachusetts west to Kansas, and south to Texas and - Florida. Its best growth is found in the lower Ohio valley and the - southern foot hills of the Appalachian mountains. The largest trees - are seventy feet high and three or four in diameter. If this tree - were abundant the wood's place in furniture and finish would be - important. The heartwood is dark, of good figure, and fairly strong. - It takes a fine polish, and resembles black walnut, though usually - of a little lighter shade. Its largest use is as fence posts. It is - durable in contact with the soil. The effect when made into - furniture, finish, and various kinds of turnery, is pleasing. Farm - tools, particularly scythe snaths, are made of it, and it has been - reported for slack cooperage and boat building, but such uses are - apparently infrequent. The wood is evidently sold under some other - name, or without a name, for the total sawmill output in the United - States is given in government statistics at only 1,000 feet, which - is probably not one per cent of the cut. - - MEXICAN MULBERRY (_Morus celtidifolia_) ranges from southern Texas - to Arizona. Trees are seldom more than thirty feet high and one in - diameter. The berry is about half an inch long, black, and made up - of a hundred or more very small drupes. It is edible, but its taste - is insipid. The wood is heavy and is of dark orange or dark brown - color. It is suitable for small turnery and other articles, but no - reports of uses for it have been found. The tree is occasionally - planted for its fruit by Mexicans, but Americans care little for it. - - Two foreign mulberries have been extensively planted in this - country, and in some localities they are running wild and are - mistaken for native species. One is the white mulberry (_Morus - alba_), a native of China; the other is the paper mulberry - (_Broussonetia papyrifera_) a different genus, but of the same - family. It is a native of Japan, and has been naturalized in some of - the southern states. Nine varieties of the white mulberry have been - distinguished in cultivation. - -[Illustration] - - - - -PERSIMMON - -[Illustration: PERSIMMON] - - - - -PERSIMMON - -(_Diospyros Virginiana_) - - -Persimmon belongs to the ebony family, and the family has contributed to -the civilization of the human race since very early times. Some of the -oldest furniture in existence, that which was found hidden in the ruins -of ancient Egypt, is ebony, and there is evidence among the old records -in the land of the Nile that the Egyptians made voyages southward -through the Red sea and brought back cargoes of ebony from Punt, a -region in eastern Africa. The name ebony is believed to be derived from -a Hebrew word, probably brought to Palestine by some of Solomon's -captains who traded along the south coast of Asia or the east coast of -Africa about the time of the building of the first temple. The botanical -name for the genus (_diospyros_) is made up of two words meaning -"Jupiter's wheat"--supposed to be a reference to the value of persimmons -as food. The name, however, is not as old as the Hebrew word, nor is the -Hebrew as old as the references to ebony in the records of Egypt. A -piece of the old furniture--not less than 4,000 years old--is still in -existence. It probably matches in age the cedar of Lebanon coffins in -the oldest Egyptian tombs. - -The ebony family consists of five genera, one of which is persimmon -(_diospyros_). This genus consists of 160 species, only two of them in -the United States. Thus the persimmon trees of this country are a very -small part of the family to which they belong, but they are a highly -respectable part of it. The word persimmon is of Indian origin, and was -used by the tribes near the Atlantic coast. The original spelling was -"pessimin," and that was probably about the pronunciation given it by -the aborigines. - -It has never been called by many names. It is known as date plum in New -Jersey and Tennessee, and as possumwood in Florida. The avidity with -which opossums feed on the fruit is responsible for the name. - -The range of persimmon extends from Connecticut to Florida, and westward -to Iowa, Missouri, and Texas. It reaches its largest size in the South. -It is of vigorous growth, spreading by means of seeds, and also by -roots. The latter is the most common method where the ground is open. -Such situations as old, abandoned fields invite the spread of -persimmons. Roots ramify under the ground, and sprouts spring up, often -producing thickets of an acre or more. Trees do not generally reach -large size if they grow in that way, but their crowded condition does -not make them fruitless as can be attested to by many a boy who -penetrates the persimmon thickets by means of devious paths that wind -with many a labyrinthic turn which takes in all that is worth finding. - -The variation in the quality of persimmons is greater than that of most -wild fruits. Nature usually sets a standard and sticks closely to it, -but the rule is not adhered to in the case of persimmons. Some are twice -as large as others; some are never fit to eat, no matter how severely or -how often they are frosted; others require at least one fierce frost to -soften their austerity; but some may be eaten with relish without the -ameliorating influence of frost. - -The austerity of a green persimmon is due to tannin. It is supposed that -cultivation might remove some of this objectionable quality, but no -great success has thus far attended efforts in that direction. Japanese -persimmons, which are of a different species, are cultivated with -success in California. - -The sizes of persimmon trees vary according to soil, climate, and -situation. They average rather small, but occasionally reach a height of -100 feet and a diameter of nearly two. Mature trunks are usually little -over twelve inches in diameter, and many never reach that size. - -The dry wood weighs 49.28 pounds per cubic foot, which is about the -weight of hickory. It is hard, strong, compact, and is susceptible of a -high polish. The yearly rings are marked by one or more bands of open -ducts, and scattered ducts occur in the rest of the wood. The medullary -rays are thin and inconspicuous; color of heartwood dark brown, often -nearly black; the sapwood is light brown, and frequently contains darker -spots. - -The value of persimmon depends largely upon the proportion of sapwood to -heartwood. That was the case formerly more than it is now; for until -recent years the heartwood of persimmon was generally thrown away, and -the sapwood only was wanted; but demand for the heart has recently -increased. There is much difference in the proportion of heartwood to -sapwood in different trees. It does not seem to be a matter of size, nor -wholly of age. Small trunks sometimes have more heart than large ones. A -tree a hundred years old may have heartwood scarcely larger than a lead -pencil, and occasionally there is none. In other instances the heart is -comparatively large. - -Persimmon has never been a wood of many uses, as hickory and oak have -been. In early times it was considered valuable almost wholly on account -of its fruit, and that had no commercial value, as it was seldom offered -for sale in the market. In the language of the southern negroes who -fully appreciated the fruit, it was "something good to run at"--meaning -that the ripe persimmons were gathered and eaten from the trees while -they lasted, but that few were preserved. - -It is recorded that the "small wheel" of the pioneer cabins was -occasionally made of persimmon wood. The wheel so designated was the -machine on which wool and flax were spun by the people in their homes. -Spinning wheels were of two kinds, one large, with the operator walking -to and fro, the other small, with the operator sitting. It was the small -wheel which was sometimes made of persimmon. There is no apparent reason -why it should have been made of that wood in preference to any one of a -dozen others. - -The demand for persimmon in a serious way began with its use as shuttles -in textile factories. Weavers had made shuttles of it for home use on -hand looms for many years before the demand came from power looms where -the shuttles were thrown to and fro by machinery. Up to some thirty -years ago, shuttles for factories were generally made of Turkish -boxwood, but the supply fell short and the advance in price caused a -search for substitutes. Two satisfactory shuttlewoods were found in this -country, persimmon and dogwood. The demand came not only from textile -mills in America but from those of Europe. The manufacture of shuttle -blocks became an industry of considerable importance. - -Persimmon wood is suitable for shuttles because it wears smooth, is -hard, strong, tough, and of proper weight. Most woods that have been -tried for this article fail on account of splintering, splitting, -quickly wearing out, or wearing rough. The shuttle is not regarded as -satisfactory unless it stands 1,000 hours of actual work. Some woods -which are satisfactory for many other purposes will not last an hour as -a shuttle. - -The manufacture of shuttles, after the square has been roughed out, -requires twenty-two operations. Probably more shuttlewood comes from -Arkansas than from any other section, though a dozen or more states -contribute persimmon. The total sawmill cut of this wood in the United -States is about 2,500,000 feet, but this does not include that which -never passes through a sawmill. - -The wood has other uses. It has lately met demand from manufacturers of -golf heads. Skewers are made of it in North Carolina, and billiard cues -and mallets in Massachusetts. - -The heartwood is dark and shuttle makers and golfhead manufacturers will -not have it. Until recently it was customary to throw it away, because -no sale for it could be found. It is now known to be suitable for -parquet flooring and for brush backs, and the demand for the heartwood -is as reliable as for the sapwood. A little of the dark wood is cut in -veneer and is employed in panel work, and other is used in turnery. - -The seeds of persimmon furnished one of the early substitutes for coffee -in backwoods settlements when the genuine article could not be obtained. -They were parched and pounded until sufficiently pulverized. During the -Civil war many a confederate camp in the South was fragrant with the -aroma of persimmon seed coffee, after the soldiers had added the fruit -to their rations of cornbread. - -MEXICAN PERSIMMON (_Diospyros texana_) grows in Texas and Mexico. It is -most abundant in southern and western Texas, where it suits itself to -different soils, is found on rich moist ground near the borders of -prairies, and also in rocky canyons and dry mesas. The largest trees are -fifty feet high and twenty inches in diameter, but trunks that large are -not abundant. The tree differs from the eastern persimmon in that the -sapwood is thinner, and the heartwood makes up a much greater proportion -of the trunk; the uses are consequently different, since it is taken for -its dark wood, the eastern tree for its light-colored sap. The fruit of -the Mexican persimmon is little esteemed. It is small, black, and the -thin layer of pulp between the skin and the seed is insipid. Until fully -ripe it is exceedingly austere. The Mexicans in the Rio Grande valley -make a dye of the persimmons and use it to color sheep skins. The -fruit's supply of tannin probably contributes to the tanning as well as -the dyeing of the sheep pelts. The wood is heavier than eastern -persimmon, and has more than three fold more ashes in a cord of wood, -amounting to about 160 pounds. The bark is thin and the trunk gnarled. -The dark color of the wood gives it the name black persimmon in Texas. -Mexicans call it chapote. Sargent pronounces it the best American -substitute for boxwood for engraving purposes, but it does not appear to -be used outside of Texas. The wood is irregular in color, even in the -same piece, being variegated with lighter and darker streaks, and cloudy -effects. It ought to be fine brush-back material. It is worked into tool -handles, lodge furniture, canes, rules, pen holders, picture frames, -curtain rings, door knobs, parasol handles, and maul sticks for artists. - -[Illustration] - - - - -FLOWERING DOGWOOD - -[Illustration: FLOWERING DOGWOOD] - - - - -FLOWERING DOGWOOD - -(_Cornus Florida_) - - -The dogwood or cornel family is old but not numerous. It originated -several hundred thousand years ago and spread over much of the world, -but preferred the temperate latitudes. One species at least crossed the -equator and established itself in the highlands of Peru. There are forty -or fifty species in all, about one-third of them in the United States, -but most are shrubs. Black gum and tupelo are members of the family, and -are giants compared with the dogwoods. In Europe the tree is usually -called cornel, and that has been made the family name. It is a very old -word, coined by the Romans before the days of Caesar. They so named it -because it was hard like horn (_cornus_ meaning horn in the Latin -language). They used it as shafts of spears, and so common was that use -that when a speaker referred to a spear he simply called it by the name -of the wood of the handle or shaft, as when Virgil described a combat -which was supposed to have occurred 800 years before the Christian era, -and used the words: "Clogged in the wound the Italian _cornel_ stood." - -The qualities of this wood which led to important uses among the Romans, -have always made dogwood a valuable material. Civilized nations do not -need it for spear shafts, but they have other demands which call for -large amounts. - -The flowering dogwood has other names in this country. It is generally -known simply as dogwood, but it is called boxwood in Connecticut, Rhode -Island, New York, Mississippi, Michigan, Kentucky, and Indiana; false -box-dogwood in Kentucky; New England boxwood in Tennessee; flowering -cornel in Rhode Island; and cornel in Texas. - -Its range extends from Massachusetts through Ontario and Michigan to -Missouri, south to Florida, and west to Texas. The area where it grows -includes about 800,000 square miles. It is most common and of largest -size in the South, comparatively rare in the North, generally occurs in -the shade of taller trees, and prefers well-drained soil, but is not -particular whether it is fertile or thin. - -The dogwood is valuable as ornament and for its wood. It was formerly a -source of medicine, from roots, bark, and flowers; but it seems to have -been largely displaced by other drugs; was once considered a good -substitute for quinine, that use having been learned from Indian -doctors. The Indians dug roots for a scarlet dye with which the vain -warrior stained escutcheons on buckskin, and colored porcupine quills -and bald eagle feathers for decorating his moccasins and his hair. - -The dogwood varies in size from a shrub with many branches to a tree -forty feet high, eighteen inches in diameter, and with a flat but -shapely crown. The trunk rises as a shaft with little taper, until the -first branches are reached. All the branches start at the same place, -and the trunk ends abruptly--divides into branches. Flowers are an -important part of the tree, as might be inferred from the prominence -given them in the tree's names. In the South the flowers appear in -March, in the North in May, and in both regions before the opening of -the leaves. The flowers on vigorous trees are three or four inches -across, white, and very showy. A dogwood tree in full bloom against a -hillside in spring is a most conspicuous object, and is justly admired -by all who have appreciation of beauty. The flowers fall as leaves -appear, and for some months the tree occupies its little space in the -forest unobserved; but in the autumn it bursts again into glory, and -while not quite as conspicuous an object as when in bloom, it is no less -worthy of admiration. The fall of the leaves reveals the brilliant -scarlet fruit which ladens the branches. The berries are just large -enough for a good mouthful for a bird, but birds spare them until fully -ripe to the harvest, and they then harvest them very rapidly. The tree -is thus permitted to display its fruit a considerable time before -yielding it to the feathered inhabitants of the air whose mission in -forest economy is to scatter the seeds of trees, when nature provides -the seeds themselves with no wings for flying. - -The two periods in the year when dogwood is highly ornamental, the -flowers in spring before leaves appear, and fruit in autumn after leaves -fall, are responsible for this tree's importance in ornamental planting. -It is a common park tree, but it is small, generally not more than -fifteen feet high, and it occupies subordinate places in the plans of -the landscape garden. It is a filler between oaks, pines, and spruces, -and it passes unnoticed, except when in bloom and in fruit. - -Dogwood is about four pounds per cubic foot heavier than white oak, has -the same breaking strength, and is lower in elasticity. It is quite -commonly believed that this tree has no heartwood, but the belief is -erroneous. It seldom has much, and small trunks often none; but when -dogwood reaches maturity it develops heart. Sometimes the heartwood is -no larger than a lead pencil in trunks forty or fifty years old. The -heart is brown, sapwood is white, and is the part wanted by the users of -dogwood. Annual rings are obscure and it is a tree of slow growth. The -wood is as nearly without figure as any in this country. It seldom or -never goes to sawmills. The logs are too small. Most of the supply is -bought by manufacturers of shuttles and golf stick heads, in this -country and Europe. They purchase it by the cord or piece. It does not -figure much in any part of the lumber business, but is cut and marketed -in ways peculiar to itself. Log cutters in hardwood forests pay little -attention to it. The dogwood harvest comes principally from southern -states. Village merchants are the chief collectors, and they sell to -contractors who ship to buyers in the manufacturing centers. The village -merchants buy from farmers, who cut a stick here and there as they find -it in woodlots, forests, or by the wayside, on their own land or -somebody else's. When the cutter next drives to town he throws his few -dogwoods in the wagon, and trades them to the store keeper for groceries -or other merchandise. It is small business, but in the aggregate it -brings together enough dogwood to supply the trade. - -Dogwood has many uses, but none other approaches shuttle making and -golfhead manufacture in importance. The wood is made into brush blocks, -wedges, engraver's blocks, tool handles, machinery bearings as a -substitute for lignum-vitae, small hubs, and many kinds of turnery and -other small articles. - -WESTERN DOGWOOD (_Cornus nuttallii_) is a larger, taller tree than the -eastern flowering dogwood. A height of 100 feet is claimed for it in the -low country along the coast of British Columbia, but there are no -authentic reports of trees so large anywhere south of the boundary -between Canada and the United States. Its height ranges from twenty to -fifty feet, and its diameter from six to twenty inches. The appearance -is much the same as its eastern relative. Its berries are red, and grow -in clusters of forty or less; the bark on old trunks is rough, but is -smooth on those of medium size; the flowers are generally described as -very large and showy, but the true flower is quite an inconspicuous -affair, being a small, greenish-yellow, button-like cluster, surrounded -by four or six snowy-white or sometimes pinkish scales which are -popularly but erroneously supposed to form a portion of the real flower. -The western dogwood in its native forest often puts out flowers in -autumn; is well supplied with foliage which assumes red and orange -colors in the fall when the showy berries are at their best. However, -the tree has not yet won its way into the good graces of landscape -gardeners, and has not been much planted in parks. It wants some of the -good points possessed by the flowering dogwood. The western tree shows -to best advantage in its native forest where it thrives on gentle -mountain slopes and in low bottoms, valleys, and gulches, provided the -soil is well drained and rich. It runs southward fifteen hundred miles -from Vancouver island to southern California. It cares little for -sunshine, and often is found growing nicely in dense shade. Seedlings do -better where shade is deep. The wood is lighter but somewhat stronger -than that of the flowering dogwood; is pale reddish-brown, with thick -sapwood; is hard, and checks badly in seasoning. Mature trees are from -100 to 150 years. - -BLUE DOGWOOD (_Cornus alternifolia_) is given that name because of the -blue fruit it bears. It has a number of other names, among them being -purple dogwood, green osier, umbrella tree, pigeonberry, and -alternate-leaved dogwood, the last being simply a translation of its -botanical name. It grows in more northern latitudes than the flowering -dogwood, and does not range as far south. It is found from Nova Scotia -to Alabama, and westward to Minnesota, but its southern habitat lies -along the Appalachian mountain ranges. It attains size and assumes form -similar to the flowering dogwood. The wood is heavy, hard, brown, tinged -with red, the sapwood white. It is a deep forest tree, but has been -domesticated in a few instances where it has been planted as ornament. -The wood seems to possess the good qualities of flowering dogwood, but -no reports of uses for it have been made. - -Two varieties of flowering dogwood have been produced by cultivation, -weeping dogwood (_Cornus florida pendula_), and red-bract dogwood -(_Cornus florida rubra_). English cornel or dogwood (_Cornus mas_) has -been planted in many parts of this country. The so-called Jamaica -dogwood is not in the dogwood family. - - - ANDROMEDA (_Andromeda ferruginea_) is a small southern tree of South - Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, and in the latter state is sometimes - known as titi, though other trees also bear that name. The largest - are thirty feet high, if by chance one can be found standing erect, - for most of them prefer to sprawl at full length on the ground. The - fruit is a small berry of no value. The wood is weak, but hard and - sufficiently compact to receive fine polish. The heartwood is light - brown, tinged with red. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CALIFORNIA LAUREL - -[Illustration: CALIFORNIA LAUREL] - - - - -CALIFORNIA LAUREL - -(_Umbellularia Californica_) - - -This tree's range lies in southern Oregon and in California. It is a -member of the laurel family and is closely related to the eastern -sassafras and the red and the swamp bays of the southern states; but it -is not near kin to the eastern laurels which, strange as it may appear, -do not belong to the laurel family, notwithstanding the names they bear. - -The people of California and Oregon have several names for this -interesting tree. It is known as mountain laurel, California bay tree, -myrtle tree, cajeput, California olive, spice tree, laurel, bay tree, -oreodaphne, and California sassafras. - -Those who call it laurel name it on account of its large, lustrous, -thick leaves which adhere to the branches from two to six years. All new -leaves do not come at once, as with most trees, but appear a few at a -time during the whole summer. - -The names which connect this tree with sassafras, spice and cajeput are -based on odor and taste. All members of the laurel family in this -country are characterized by pungent, aromatic odor and taste, and the -one under consideration shares these properties in a remarkable degree. -When the leaves and the green bark are crushed, they give off a light, -volatile oil in follicles which float in the air, like those of an -onion, and when inhaled it produces severe pain over the eyes, and may -induce dizziness and violent sneezing. Though the symptoms are alarming -to one who is undergoing the experience for the first time, no serious -inconvenience follows. Dried leaves are capable of producing a similar -effect but with less violence. The California laurel's close -relationship to the camphor tree is readily believed by persons who -inhale some of the oily spray from the crushed leaves. - -Attempts have been made to produce the commercial oil of cajeput, or a -substitute for it, by distilling the leaves and bark of this laurel. A -passable substitute has been manufactured, but it cannot be marketed as -the genuine article. By distilling the fruit a product known as -umbellulic acid has been obtained. - -The California laurel carries a very dense crown of leaves. This is due -partly to the old crops which hang so long, and to the tree's habit of -lengthening its leading shoots during the growing season, and the -constant appearance of young leaves on the lengthening shoots. It can -stand an almost unlimited amount of shade itself, and is by no means -backward in giving abundance of shade to small growth which is trying -to struggle up to light from below. It delights in dense thickets, but -it prefers thickets of its own species. - -Its fruiting habits and its disposition to occupy the damp, rich soil -along the banks of small water courses, are responsible for the thick -stands. The fruit itself is an interesting thing. It is yellowish-green -in color, as large as a good-sized olive, and looks much like it. The -fruit ripens in October, and falls in time to get the benefit of the -autumn rains which visit the Pacific coast. Since the trees generally -grow along gulches, the fruit falls and rolls to the bottom. The first -dashing rain sends a flood down the gulches, the laurel drupes are -carried along and are buried in mud wherever they can find a resting -place. Germination takes place soon after. The fruit remains under the -mud, attached to the roots of the young plants, until the following -summer. - -The result is that if a laurel gets a foothold in a gulch through which -water occasionally flows, lines of young laurels will eventually cover -the banks of the gulch as far down stream as conditions are favorable. - -The wood of California laurel weighs 40.60 pounds per cubic foot when -kiln-dried. That is nine pounds heavier than sassafras. It is very heavy -when green and sinks when placed in water. It is hard and very firm, -rich yellowish brown in color, often beautifully mottled; but this -applies to the heartwood only, and not to the thick sapwood. - -Lumbermen have discovered that the wood's color can be materially -changed by immersing the logs when green, and leaving them submerged a -long time. The beautiful "black myrtle," which has been so much admired, -is nothing more than California laurel which has undergone the cold -water treatment. - -The annual rings of growth are clearly marked by dark bands of -summerwood. The rings are often wide, but not always, for sometimes the -growth is very slow. The wood is diffuse-porous, and the pores are small -and not numerous. The wood's figure is brought out best by tangential -sawing, as is the case with so many woods which have clearly-marked -rings but small and obscure medullary rays. Figure is not uniform; that -is, one trunk may produce a pattern quite different from another. The -figure of some logs is particularly beautiful; these logs are selected -for special purposes. Sudworth says that none of our hardwoods excels it -in beautiful grain when finished, and Sargent is still more emphatic -when he declares that it is "the most valuable wood produced in the -forests of Pacific North America for interior finish of houses and for -furniture." - -The wood of this tree has more than ninety per cent of the strength of -white oak, is considerably stiffer, and contains a smaller amount of -ash, weight for weight of wood. The species reaches its best development -in the rich valleys of southwestern Oregon, where, with the broadleaf -maple, it forms a considerable part of the forest growth. The largest -trees are from sixty to eighty feet high, and two to four in diameter. -In crowded stands the trunks are shapely, and often measure thirty or -forty feet to the first limbs; but more commonly the trunk is short. - -The boat yards in southwestern Oregon were the first to use California -laurel for commercial purposes, but early settlers made a point of -procuring it for fuel when they could. The oil in the wood causes it to -burn with a cheerful blaze, and campers in the mountains consider -themselves fortunate when they find a supply for the evening bonfire. - -Shipbuilders have drawn upon this wood for fifty years for material. It -is made into pilot wheels, interior finish, cleats, crossties, and -sometimes deck planking. Furniture makers long ago made a specialty of -the wood for their San Francisco trade. For thirty years travelers -admired the superb furniture of the Palace hotel in that city, and -wondered of what wood it was made. It was the California laurel. The -hotel's furniture was hand-made, or largely so, at a time when -woodworking factories were few on the Pacific coast. The furniture was -finally destroyed in the San Francisco earthquake. Furniture is still -one of the products made of the wood, but the quantity is small. Other -products are interior finish; fixtures for banks, stores and offices; -musical instruments, including organs; mathematical instruments, and -carpenters' tools, including rulers, straight-edges, spirit levels, -bench screws and clamps, and handles of many kinds. - -Makers of novelties and small turnery find it serviceable for paper -knives, pin trays, match safes, brush backs, and many articles of like -kind. One of the largest uses for it is as walking beams for pumping -oilwells in central and southern California. The beauty of grain has -nothing to do with this use. - -Country blacksmiths repair wagons and agricultural implements with this -wood. Farmers have long employed it about their premises for posts, -gates, floors, and building material. Cooks flavor soup with the leaves, -and poultrymen make henroosts of poles, believing that the wood's odor -will keep insects away. This is probably the old sassafras superstition -carried west by early California settlers. - - - RED BAY (_Persea borbonia_) is a southern member of the laurel - family, and close akin to sassafras and the California laurel. The - bark is red, hence the name; but it is known also as bay galls, - laurel tree, Florida mahogany, false mahogany, and sweet bay. It - grows from Virginia to Texas, but is most abundant near the coast, - yet it ascends the Mississippi valley to Arkansas. The leaves remain - on the tree a full year, but turn yellow toward the last, in - consequence of which the species is not evergreen. In shape and - color the leaves resemble laurel. The fruit is a small, dark blue - drupe, with thin flesh. The wood is heavy, hard, very strong, - rather brittle, bright red, with thin, lighter-colored sapwood. It - was once very popular in the South for furniture. Rare pieces, some - 150 years old, are still found in southern homes. The wood was - exported prior to 1741 from the Carolinas, and the quantity seems to - have been considerable. It was then regarded as a finer wood than - mahogany. It was exported to the West Indies, where mahogany was - abundant, and was made into furniture and finish for the homes of - wealthy planters and merchants. An old report describes the wood as - resembling "watered satin." It was in early demand by shipbuilders, - but it has now ceased to go to boat yards. Except in rare instances, - it is not reported by any wood-using industries. In Texas a little - is made into pin trays, small picture frames, canes, and shelves. It - deserves a more important place, for when polished and finished, it - is one of the handsomest woods of this country. Trees attain a - height of sixty or seventy feet, and a diameter of two or three. - - SWAMP BAY (_Persea pubescens_) attains a height of thirty or forty - feet, but is seldom more than a foot in diameter, and is too small - for saw timber. The wood is strong, heavy, rather soft, orange - colored, streaked with brown, and not as handsome as its larger - relative, red bay, which is associated with it from North Carolina - to Mississippi. It is an evergreen in some cases, but in others the - leaves turn yellow the second spring. The black fruit is a drupe - nearly an inch long. The wood is without attractive figure, since - its medullary rays are obscure, and the annual rings are indistinct - and produce little contrast when the trunks are sawed tangentially. - Color is the chief attraction that can be claimed for the wood. A - little is occasionally worked into interior finish. - -[Illustration] - - - - -LOCUST - -[Illustration: LOCUST] - - - - -LOCUST - -(_Robinia Pseudacacia_) - - -Locust belongs to the pea family, known in botany as _Leguminosae_.[6] In -most parts of its range it is known simply as locust, but in some -localities it is called black locust, an allusion to the color of the -bark; yellow locust, descriptive of the heartwood; white locust, -referring to the bloom; red locust, probably a reference to the wood, -and green locust for the same reason; acacia and false acacia; honey -locust, a name which belongs to another species; post locust, because it -has always been a favorite tree for fence posts; and pea-flower locust, -a reference to the bloom. - - [6] This is a very large family, containing trees, shrubs, and - vines, such as locusts, acacias, beans, and clovers. There are 430 - genera in the world, and many times that many species. The United - States has seventeen genera and thirty species of the pea family - that are large enough to be classed as trees. Their common names - follow: Florida Cat's Claw, Huajillo, Texan Ebony, Wild Tamarind, - Huisache, Texas Cat's Claw, Devil's Claw, Leucaena, Chalky Leucaena, - Screwbean, Mesquite, Redbud, Texas Redbud, Honey Locust, Water - Locust, Coffeetree, Horsebean, Small-leaf Horsebean, Greenbark - Acacia, Palo Verde, Frijolito, Sophora, Yellow-wood, Eysenhardtia, - Indigo Thorn, Locust, New Mexican Locust, Clammy Locust, Sonora - Ironwood, Jamaica Dogwood. These species are treated separately in - the following pages, and are given space according to their relative - commercial importance in the particular regions where they grow. - -Several of the names refer to the color of the wood, and seem -contradictory, for yellow, green, and red are not the same; yet the -names describe with fair accuracy. Color of the heartwood varies with -different trees, yellow with some, tinged with red with others, and -sometimes it might be appropriately called blue locust, for the -heartwood is nearer that color than any other. - -The natural range of locust seems to have been confined to the -Appalachian mountain ranges from Pennsylvania to Georgia. It probably -existed as a low shrub in parts of Arkansas and Oklahoma. Its range has -been extended by planting until it now reaches practically all the -states, but is running wild in only about half of them. It has received -a great deal of attention from foresters and tree planters. It attracted -notice very early, because of its hardness, strength, and lasting -properties. At one time the planting of locust came nearly being a fad. -In England it was supposed that it would rise to great importance in -shipbuilding, and in France it was looked upon as no less important. -Books were written on the subject in both English and French. All the -details of planting and utilization were discussed. Its generic name, -_Robinia_, is in honor of a Frenchman, Robin. Extravagant claims were -once made for the wood. When American ships were gaining victory after -victory over English vessels in the war of 1812, it was asserted in -England that the cause of American success was the locust timber in -their ships. The claim may have been partly true, but other factors -contributed to the phenomenal series of successes. - -The locust craze died a natural death. Too much was claimed for the -wood. Possibilities in the way of growth were over estimated. It was -assumed that the tree, if planted, would grow everywhere as vigorously -as on its native mountains in Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, -where trees two or three feet in diameter and eighty feet high were -found. Experience proved later that nature had planted the locust in the -best place for it, and when transplanted elsewhere it was apt to fall -short of expectations. Outside of its natural range it grows vigorously -for a time, and occasionally reaches large size; but in recent years the -locust borer has defeated the efforts of man to extend the range of this -species and make it profitable in regions distant from its native home. -The tree is often devoured piecemeal, branches and twigs breaking and -falling, and trunks gradually disappearing beneath the attacks of the -hungry borers. No effective method of combating the pest is known. The -planting of locust trees, once so common, has now nearly ceased. - -Within its native range, and beyond that range when it has a chance, -locust is a valuable and beautiful tree. It is valuable at all times on -account of the superior wood which it furnishes, and beautiful when in -bloom and in leaf. A locust in full flower is not surpassed in -ornamental qualities by any tree of this country. It is a mass of white, -exceedingly rich in perfume. It blooms in May or June. During the summer -its foliage shows tropical luxuriance with exquisite grace. Its compound -leaves are from eight to fourteen inches long, with seven to nine -leaflets. They come late in spring and go early in autumn. The tree's -thorns, resembling cat claws, are affixed to the bark only, and usually -fall with the leaves. The fruit is a pod three or four inches long, and -contains four or eight wingless seeds. They depend on animals to carry -them to planting places. The pods dry on the branches, and rattle in the -wind most of the autumn. The tree spreads by underground roots which -send up sprouts. A locust in winter is not a thing of beauty. It appears -to be dead; not a bud visible. Its black, angular branches lack every -line of grace. - -Locust wood is remarkable for strength, hardness, and durability. It is -about one pound per cubic foot lighter than white oak, but is -thirty-four per cent stiffer and forty-five per cent stronger. Its -strength exceeds that of shagbark hickory, and it is doubtful whether a -stronger wood exists in the United States. Its hardness is equally -remarkable, and is said to be due to crystals formed in the wood cells, -and known as "rhaphides." Its durability is probably equal to that of -Osage orange, mesquite, and catalpa, but it is not easy to fix a -standard of durability by which to compare different woods. Locust is -the best fence post wood in this country, because it is usually much -straighter than other very durable woods. The posts are expected to last -at least thirty years, and have been known to stand twice that long. - -For more than 150 years locust was almost indispensable in shipbuilding, -furnishing the tree nails or large pins which held the timbers together. -It supplied material for other parts of ships also, but in smaller -quantities. The substitution of steel ships for wooden lessened demand -for locust pins, and in many instances large iron nails are used to -fasten timbers together. In spite of this, the demand for locust tree -nails is nearly always ahead of supply. - -The wood's figure is fairly strong, due to the contrast between the -springwood and that grown later, but not to the medullary rays, which -are small and inconspicuous. The wood is not in much demand for -ornamental purposes. Small amounts are made into policemen's clubs, rake -teeth, hubs for buggy wheels, ladder rungs, and tool handles. - -The tree grows rapidly where conditions are favorable, and very slowly -when they are not. Usually trees of fence post size are twenty years old -at least, but trunks thirty five years old have been known to produce a -post for each two years of age, though that was exceptional. Railroads, -especially in Pennsylvania, planted locust largely a few years ago for -ties. It has been reported that in some instances expectations of growth -have not been fully realized. - - CLAMMY LOCUST (_Robinia viscosa_) was originally confined to the - mountains of North Carolina and South Carolina where its attractive - flowers brought it to the notice of nurserymen who have enlarged its - natural range a hundred if not a thousand fold. It is now grown in - parks and gardens not only in the United States east of the - Mississippi river and as far north as Massachusetts, but in most - foreign countries that have temperate climates. It is usually a - shrub, but on some of the North Carolina mountains it attains a - height of forty feet and a diameter of twelve inches. The wood is - seldom or never used for any commercial purpose. The leaves are from - seven to twelve inches long, and contain thirteen to twenty-one - leaflets. The flowers appear in June, possess little odor, and are - admired solely for their beauty. They are mingled red and rose - color. The pods are from two to three and a half inches long, and - contain small, mottled seeds. The wood is hard and heavy, the heart - brown and the sap yellow. In its wild haunts it is usually a shrub - five or six feet high. - - NEW MEXICAN LOCUST (_Robinia neo-mexicana_) is a small southwestern - tree, seldom exceeding a height of twenty-five feet or a diameter of - eight inches. It ranges from Colorado to Arizona, and takes its name - from its presence in New Mexico. It reaches its largest size near - Trinidad, Colorado. It is found at elevations of 7,000 feet. Leaves - are from six to twelve inches long, and the leaflets number from - fifteen to twenty-one. The flowers appear in May and are less showy - than those of the eastern locust. The wood is heavy, exceedingly - hard, the heartwood yellow, streaked with brown, the thin sapwood - light yellow. This locust is occasionally used locally for small - posts or stakes, but is generally too small. It is sometimes met - with in cultivation in Europe and the eastern states. - - TEXAN EBONY (_Zygia flexicaulis_) ranges from the Texas coast - through Mexico to Lower California. It reaches a height of thirty - feet or more, and a diameter of two or less. It is a beautiful tree - along the lower Rio Grande where it reaches its largest size. The - light yellow or cream-colored, very fragrant flowers bloom from June - till August; the fruit ripens in Autumn but adheres several months - to the branches. Mexicans roast the seeds as a substitute for - coffee. The color of the heartwood gives this tree its name, but it - is not a true ebony. The wood of the roots is blacker than that of - the trunk, and small articles made of roots resemble black ebony of - Ceylon. The trunk wood is liable to be streaked with black, brown, - and medium yellow. The rings of annual growth are frequently of - different colors. Considerable demand is made upon this wood in - Texas for crossties. It is very durable, but is so hard that holes - must be bored for the spikes. It is sold in large amounts as - cordwood, and it burns well. Other articles made of this so-called - ebony are foundation blocks for buildings and rollers for moving - houses. It is used also for small turnery. - - HUAJILLO (_Zygia brevifolia_) has no English name, but Americans in - the Rio Grande valley where this tree grows call it by its Mexican - name. It is a larger tree in Mexico than on this side of the river. - It is not often more than thirty feet high and six inches in - diameter, and is generally a shrub. Its beautiful foliage looks like - masses of ferns, and the flowers range from white to violet-yellow. - The wood is dark, hard, heavy, and is seldom used for anything but - fuel. - - FLORIDA CAT'S CLAW (_Zygia unguis-cati_), with a Latin name that - would make Julius Caesar stare and gasp, reaches its largest size in - the United States on Elliott's Key, Florida. Its name refers to its - curved thorns. Trunks twenty-five feet high and eight inches in - diameter are the largest in this country. It bears pods, but the - leaves are not compound, thus differing from most trees of the pea - family. The wood is not put to any use, though it is very hard and - heavy, rich red, varying to purple, with clear yellow sapwood. It is - said to check badly in drying. The bark is used for medicine in some - of the islands of the West Indies. - -[Illustration] - - - - -HONEY LOCUST - -[Illustration: HONEY LOCUST] - - - - -HONEY LOCUST - -(_Gleditsia Triacanthos_) - - -This tree has never suffered for want of names, but most of them refer -either to the sweetness of the pod or to the fierceness of the thorns. -The belief has long prevailed that it was the pods of this tree on which -John the Baptist fed while a recluse in the Syrian desert. The tradition -should not be taken seriously. It was certainly not this tree, if any, -which furnished food to the prophet in the wilderness, for it does not -grow in Syria. Some related species may grow there, for species of -_Gleditsia_ occur in western Asia as well as in China, Japan, and west -Africa. The generic name is in honor of Johann Gottlieb Gleditsch, a -German botanist who died in 1786. - -The name honey locust refers to the pod, not the flowers. The latter are -greenish, inconspicuous, and though eagerly sought by bees, they offer -no particular attractions to people. Few persons ever notice them. - -In some of the southwestern states the tree is called black locust, -though for what reason it is not apparent. Sweet locust, by which name -it is known in several states, has reference to the pods, as do the -names honey, and honey-shucks locust, applied in different localities. -Many persons in naming the tree have thorns in mind. It is known as -three-thorned acacia, thorn locust, thorn tree, thorny locust, and -thorny acacia. The botanist who named it considered thorns a -characteristic, for _Triacanthos_ means "three-thorned." - -No one who has ever had dealings with the thorns, will fail to duly -consider them. They are about the most ferocious product of American -forests. The tree's trunk and largest branches bristle with them, -standing out like porcupine quills, and sharper than any needle devised -by human ingenuity. Microscopists use them for picking up and handling -minute objects, their points being smooth and delicate though their -shafts may be strong and rough. Thorns are arrested branches, coming -from deep down in the wood. No more can one of them be pulled out than a -limb can be extracted by the roots. They come from the center of the -tree or limb. Some put out leaves and become true branches, but others -sharpen their points, assume an attitude of hostility, and remain thorns -to the end of their lives. Some of them are a foot long, and are so -strong that birds flying against them are impaled and meet cruel death. -A well-armed trunk is proof against the agility and skill of the -squirrel. He cannot negotiate the thorns, and probably he tries only -once. The hot pursuit of a dog will not compel him to attempt it. All -trees, however, are not formidably thorned; some have few, and certain -varieties have none. - -The honey locust is sometimes called the Confederate pin tree in the -South. This is a reference to the Civil war, and the use occasionally -made of the thorns by soldiers in mending the rents in their torn -uniforms. The thorns were once put to a somewhat similar use among the -Alleghany mountains where local factories for carding and spinning -country wool employed them to pin up the mouths of wool sacks. - -The natural range of honey locust has been greatly extended by man. It -was not originally found east of the Alleghany mountains. It grew from -western Pennsylvania to northern Alabama and Mississippi, and westward -to Nebraska and Texas. It is now naturalized east of the Alleghanies, -and southward to the Gulf of Mexico. Planting for ornamental purposes -and for hedges has been the cause of its extension into new territory. -In spite of thorns, it is ornamental. Its foliage is thin, and its -flowers inconspicuous, but the tree possesses a grace which wins it -favor. It grows very rapidly, and in a short time a seedling becomes a -respectable tree, and continues its rapid growth a long time. In -southern Indiana and Illinois, which is the best part of its range, -trees have attained a height of 140 feet and a diameter of six. The -average size of forest-grown specimens is seventy-five feet in height, -and two or more in diameter. - -The leaves are seven or eight inches long, doubly compound; the fruit a -pod a foot or more in length, which assumes a twist when ripe, or -sometimes warps several ways. The green pod contains a sweet substance -often eaten by children, but it is believed to be of little value for -human food. Cattle devour the pods when in the sugary condition; but -they cannot often obtain them, because thorns intervene, when the pods -would otherwise be in reach. In rural districts, a domestic beer is -brewed from the young fruit. The juice extracted from it is permitted to -ferment, but the beverage is probably never sold in the market. - -The pods are in no hurry to let go and fall, even after they are fully -ripe. They become dry, distort themselves with a number of corkscrew -twists, and hang until late fall or early winter, rattling in the wind -and occasionally shaking out a seed or two. - -Honey locust has never been considered important from the lumberman's -standpoint. Sawlogs go to mills here and there, but never many in one -place. The wood is not listed under its own name, but is put in with -something else. Occasionally, it is said, it passes as sycamore in the -furniture factory, though the difference ought not be difficult to -detect. It doubtless depends to a considerable degree on the particular -wood, for all honey locust does not look alike when converted into -lumber. Some of that in the lower Mississippi valley might pass as -sycamore if inspection is not too conscientiously carried out. The -medullary rays, being darker than the body of the wood, suggest sycamore -in quarter-sawed stock. Some of it goes into furniture, finish, -balusters, newel posts, panels, and molding, particularly in eastern -Texas. In Louisiana, where wood of similar texture and appearance might -be expected, it is not looked on with favor, but is employed only in the -cheapest, roughest work. - -The principal use of the wood is for posts and railroad ties. It lasts -well, and is strong. Claims have been made that it is generally equal -and in some ways superior to locust. It is difficult to see on what -these claims are based. It is lighter, less elastic, and much weaker. -Figures showing the comparative durability of the two woods are not -available, but in like situations, locust would doubtless last much -longer. As timber trees, the former may have the advantage over locust -in being free from attacks of borers, attaining greater size, and -thriving in a much larger area. It has been planted for ornament in -other lands than this, and is now prospering in all the important -countries of the temperate zone. One variety is thornless, and is known -to botanists as _Gleditsia triacanthos laevis_; another has short thorns. - - WATER LOCUST (_Gleditsia aquatica_) looks so much like honey locust - that the two are often supposed to be the same species in Louisiana; - yet there are a number of differences. Water locust has fewer thorns - and they are smaller, and often flat like a knife blade. The pods - are entirely different from those of honey locust, being short and - wide. The two species share the same range to some extent, but that - of water locust is smaller, extending from South Carolina to Texas, - Illinois, and Missouri; but the best of the species is west of the - lower Mississippi where trees may reach a height of sixty feet and a - diameter of two. The wood is heavy, hard, and strong, the heartwood - rich bright brown, tinged with red, the sapwood yellow. The wood is - much like that of honey locust, and when used at all is employed in - the same way. - - TEXAS LOCUST (_Gleditsia texana_) is of no importance as a timber - tree, and deserves mention only because its extremely restricted - range gives it an interest. It exists, as far as known, in a single - grove on the bottom lands of the Brazos river, near Brazoria, Texas, - where some of the trees exceed 100 feet in height, and a diameter of - two. The bark is smooth and thin, the leaves resemble those of honey - locust, and the pods are about one-third as long. - - HUISACHE (_Acacia farnesiana_) is native along the Rio Grande in - Texas, but it is running wild in Florida from planted trees. It is - one of the most widely distributed species in the world, both by - natural dispersal and by planting; and it is one of the handsomest - members of the large group of acacias which includes more than 400 - species. It bears delicate double-compound leaves, small and - graceful. A tree in full leaf in its native wilds along the Rio - Grande looks like a trembling fluffy mass of green silk. Nature - formed the tree for ornament, not for timber. It attains a height of - from twenty to forty feet, diameter eighteen inches or less. Trunk - usually divides into several branches near the ground. Perhaps the - only place in this country where the wood is used is in southern - Texas where is it called "cassie," a shortening of acacia. The wood - so much resembles mesquite that locally they are considered the - same. Huisache warps and checks in seasoning, but it is employed in - a small way for furniture, usually as small table legs, spindles, - knobs, and ornaments. It takes high polish, and resembles the best - grades of black walnut, but is much heavier, harder, and stronger. - It is next to impossible to drive a nail into it without first - boring a hole. When used as crossties, holes must be bored for the - spikes. The heartwood resists decay a long time, but the thin - sapwood is liable to be riddled by small boring insects, which - seldom or never enter the heartwood. - - TEXAS CAT'S CLAW (_Acacia wrightii_) is a hardluck tree of western - Texas where it is usually found on dry, gravelly hills and in stony - ravines. Its twice-compound leaves are among the smallest of the - acacias, seldom exceeding two inches in length. The fragrant, light - yellow flowers appear from March to May, and the short pods ripen in - midsummer, but like so many trees of the pea family, they are in no - hurry to fall. The largest trees are thirty feet high and one in - diameter, but most people associate cat's claw with low, tangled - brush, tough as wire, and armed with curved thorns so strong that - their hold on clothing can hardly be broken. When a cat's claw bush - strikes out to become a tree--which is infrequent--it grows rapidly. - It has been known to attain a diameter of nine inches in - twenty-three years. The heart is dark in color and exceedingly hard. - The color varies from nearly red to nearly black, and takes a polish - almost like ivory. The thin yellow sapwood is preyed on by boring - insects. Heartwood is made into canes, umbrella sticks, tool - handles, rulers, and turned novelties. - - DEVIL'S CLAW (_Acacia greggii_) has such paradoxical names as - paradise flower, ramshorn, and cat's claw. It deserves them all - where it grows wild on the semi-deserts of the Southwest from Texas - to California. The double-compound leaves are one or two inches - long, its bright, creamy-yellow and exquisitely fragrant flowers are - the glory of desert places, while its masses of thorns readily - suggest the common name by which it is known. The wood is scarce, - but extraordinarily fine. It is dark rich red, but clouded with - streaks and patches of other shades, becoming at times gray, at - others green. No nail can be driven into it, and an ordinary gimlet - will hardly bore it. It is so saturated with oil that it is greasy - to the touch. It is manufactured into small articles, but apparently - is not used outside of the locality where it grows. The wood is - often contorted, due to pits and cavities which slowly close as the - tree advances in age. They add to rather than detract from the - wood's beauty. - -[Illustration] - - - - -COFFEE TREE - -[Illustration: COFFEE TREE] - - - - -COFFEETREE - -(_Gymnocladus Dioicus_) - - -This tree is scarce though its range covers several hundred thousand -square miles, from New York to Minnesota, and from Tennessee to -Oklahoma. It never occurs in thick stands, and usually the trees are -widely scattered. Many districts of large size within the limits of its -range appear to have none. - -The names coffeetree and Kentucky coffeetree refer to the custom of the -pioneers, who settled the region south of the Ohio river, and who used -the grotesque fruit as a substitute for coffee at a time when the -genuine article could not be procured. The seed is a very hard bean that -can be procured in abundance, where trees abound. - -The beans were softened by roasting or parching, and were then pounded -into meal with hammers, and boiled for coffee. The beverage was black -and bitter, and a little of it would go a long way with a modern coffee -drinker. When the Kentuckians were able to procure coffee they let the -wild substitute alone. - -The name was sometimes varied by calling it coffeenut or coffeenut tree, -and sometimes it was known as coffeebean and coffeebean tree. It is less -easy to explain why it was called mahogany in New York, and virgilia in -Tennessee. Some knew it as the nicker tree, but the reason for the name -is not known. Stump tree was another of its names. This was meant to be -descriptive of the tree's appearance after it had shed its leaves. It -has remarkable foliage, double compound leaves two or three feet long, -with four or five dozen leaflets. When leaves fall in autumn it looks as -if the tree is shedding its twigs; and when all are down, the stripped -and barren appearance of the branches suggests the name stump tree. - -The flowers are greenish-purple and are inconspicuous. In this respect -they differ from many trees of the pea family which are noted for their -attractive bloom. The fruit is among the largest of the tree pods of -this country, ranging in length from six to ten inches and from one and -a half to two in width. When fully grown they are heavy enough to make -their presence felt if they drop on the heads of persons beneath. They -are slow to fall, however, and it is not unusual for them to cling to -the branches until late winter or early spring. - -The coffeetree has been known to attain a diameter of five feet and a -height of more than a hundred, but the usual size is about half of that. -It prefers rich bottom lands, and the trunks generally separate into -several stems a few feet above the ground. Only one species exists in -this country, and as far as known, only one other species elsewhere, and -that grows in southern China where it is said the natives make soap of -the pods. It is not known that any such utilization has been attempted -in this country. - -The coffeetree's range has been considerably extended by planting for -ornament. In summer it is attractive, but from the first autumn frost -until the leaves put out the following spring, it is uninteresting. The -spring leaves are late, and the branches are bare more than half the -year. - -The wood is heavy, strong, and durable in contact with the soil. The -heart is rich light brown, tinged with red, the sapwood thin and lighter -colored. Annual rings are distinct. The springwood is porous and wide, -the summerwood dense. The medullary rays are inconspicuous and of no -value in giving figure to the wood. When the annual rings are cut -diagonally across they give figure like that of ash. The wood of the -coffeetree has never been in much demand. Furniture makers may use it -sometimes, but specific instances of such use do not exist in -manufacturers' reports. There are many places in furniture and finish -which it might fill in a satisfactory manner. - -It is suitable for fence posts, and that is where it commonly gives -service. It is occasionally employed as frame work in house and barn -building, but is not sought for that purpose, and is used only when it -happens to be at hand. Though the tree has the habit of branching, some -of the trunks grow tall and shapely, and are good for two or three -sawlogs or railcuts. An occasional tree serves as fuel. Medicine is -sometimes made of a decoction of the fresh green pulp of unripe pods; -and the leaves are reported to produce a fly poison if soaked in water. - -REDBUD (_Cercis canadensis_) is also known as Judas tree, red Judas -tree, Canadian Judas tree, and salad tree. The last name refers to a -custom in some parts of its range of making salad of the flowers. It is -the flower rather than the bud that is red and gives the tree its name, -the bloom being conspicuous in early spring. The tree ranges from New -Jersey to Missouri, Texas, Louisiana, and Florida, but reaches its -fullest development in southern Arkansas, Oklahoma, and eastern Texas -where trunks fifty feet high and a foot in diameter are found. It is -shrubby in many parts of its range. Leaves are not compound. The fruit -is a pink or rose-colored pod two or three inches in length, and by some -is considered nearly as ornamental though not as showy as the flowers. -No one ever thinks of redbud as a timber tree or considers its wood, yet -it might be used for a number of purposes. It is heavy and hard, but -weak; and the heartwood is rich dark brown tinged with red. The tree is -planted for ornament in this country and Europe. - -TEXAS REDBUD (_Cercis reniformis_) differs somewhat from the common -redbud, but it takes a botanist to point out the differences. The -largest trees are forty feet high and a foot in diameter; the range -extends from eastern Texas into Mexico; the wood closely resembles that -of the other species, and is not known to be used for any purpose. - -CALIFORNIA REDBUD (_Cercis occidentalis_) is often classed as a shrub, -but Sudworth gives it a place among the forest trees of the Pacific -coast. The pea-shaped flowers are a clear magenta color. The pods turn -purple when ripening but afterwards change to russet-brown. The wood is -dark yellowish-brown, but because of the smallness of the trunks, it can -never be important. The tree is found along the California mountains, -six hundred miles north and south; is an abundant seeder, and is -valuable as a protection to slopes and ravines, and as an ornament. - -HORSEBEAN (_Parkinsonia aculeata_) is generally called retama in the -valley of the lower Rio Grande in Texas where the species attains its -largest size. Trees are occasionally thirty feet high and a foot or more -in diameter. Trunks usually separate in several stems near the ground. -The range extends from southern Texas to California, and the species is -naturalized in south Florida, the West Indies, and many tropical -countries. Leaves vary in form, and are occasionally eighteen inches -long. Fruit consists of pods, each containing from two to eight beans. -The yellow flowers are small and fragrant; the bark on young twigs is -green, but on older trunks is brown. The brown, however, is easily -rubbed off, exposing the green beneath, as may be seen in school grounds -in some of the southern towns in Texas where this tree has been planted -for ornament, and abrasions, due to children climbing about the -spreading stems, keep the bark green. The upper branches are armed with -thorns which discourage the climbing propensities of children. The wood -is heavy, hard, tinged with yellow, and is made into small novelties, -but is not of much importance. - -SMALL-LEAF HORSEBEAN (_Parkinsonia microphylla_) is well named, for the -compound leaves, with four or six pairs of leaflets, are about an inch -long, covered with hairs, and fall at the end of a few weeks. -Consequently, the tree is bare most of the year, except for the pale -yellow flowers which appear in spring before the leaves, and the -clusters of striped pods, each containing from one to three beans. The -pods are nearly always present, for they have the pea family habit of -adhering to the branches a long time. Trees reach a height of fifteen or -twenty feet, and a diameter of ten inches or less. The wood is very hard -and dense, in color deep yellowish-brown, often mottled and streaked -with dull red; the sapwood thick and yellow. The wood is suitable for -small articles, but its scarcity renders it of little importance. It is -found in the deserts of southern Arizona and the adjacent parts of -California, and is usually a small shrub. - -JAMAICA DOGWOOD (_Ichthyomethia piscipula_) is the lone representative -of the genus, and is found in this country only in southern Florida. It -is not in the same family with the dogwoods, and its name is misleading. -The Carib Indians formerly used the leaves to stupify fish and render -them easier to catch; hence the botanical name. The leaves are compound, -but bear little resemblance to the foliage of most members of the pea -family to which this tree belongs. The flowers are the tree's chief -source of beauty, and are delicately clustered, hanging in bunches a -foot long. The fruit is a pod three or four inches long, with four wings -running the full length. The wings are useless for flying. Trees are -forty or fifty feet high and two or three feet in diameter; are common -in southern Florida and on the islands. The wood is of considerable -importance in the region where it grows but figures little in general -markets. It weighs 54.43 pounds per cubic foot, and is moderately strong -and stiff. In color it is a clear yellow-brown, with thick, lighter -colored sapwood. It is very durable in contact with the ground, and in -Florida it is used for posts, and occasionally for railway ties. It has -been commonly reported as a wood for boatbuilding in Florida, but its -importance for that purpose has probably been overstated, since an -investigation of the boatbuilding industry in Florida failed to find one -foot of this wood in use, although some may be employed but not listed -in reports. - -[Illustration] - - - - -YELLOW-WOOD - -[Illustration: Yellow-wood] - - - - -YELLOW-WOOD - -(_Cladrastis Lutea_) - - -This wood's color is evidently responsible for its names yellow ash, -yellow locust, and yellow-wood in Tennessee, North Carolina, and -Kentucky, but no reason is offered for the name gopherwood by which it -is known in some parts of Tennessee. The botanical name is based on the -brittleness of the twigs. It is the only species of the genus, and it is -not known to grow anywhere, except by planting, outside of Kentucky, -Tennessee, Alabama, and North Carolina. - -It occurs in an area not much exceeding 60,000 square miles, and it is -not abundant in that area. It prefers limestone ridges and slopes, and -does best where the soil is fertile. It often overhangs the banks of -mountain streams, and is most abundant and of largest size in the -vicinity of Nashville, Tennessee, where a few trees have reached a -diameter of three or four feet and a height of fifty or sixty. A -diameter of eighteen or twenty-four inches is a good average. - -The tree's habit of dividing six or seven feet from the ground into two -or more stems is responsible for the scarcity of trunks suitable for saw -timber, even in localities where trees of large size are found. However, -an occasional trunk develops a shapely form. It goes to sawmills so -seldom that it is never mentioned in statistics of lumber cut or -wood-utilization. - -Most people who are acquainted with this tree, know it as planted stock -in parks and yards where it is a favorite on account of its flowers. The -bloom may properly be described as rare from two viewpoints. The beauty -of its large clusters of white flowers differs from those of all -associated trees; and it seldom blooms. One year of plenty is generally -followed by several lean years. Those who plant the tree understand -this, and feel amply repaid for the long wait, when the flowering year -arrives. The planted tree is often known as virgilia, that being the -name under which nurseries sell it. Flowers appear about the middle of -June, in clusters a foot or more in length. It is claimed, but with what -correctness cannot at present be stated, that the odor of flowers of -different trees varies greatly, being faint with some, and strong and -luxurious with others. - -The leaves are compound, but have no resemblance to those of locust and -the acacias. They are eight or twelve inches long, with five or seven -leaflets. In autumn before falling they change to a clear yellow, but -adhere to the branches until rather late in the season. The fruit, which -consists of small pods hanging in clusters, is ripe in September. - -Yellow-wood is a little below white oak in strength and seven pounds per -cubic foot under it in weight; is hard, compact, and susceptible of a -beautiful polish. Rings of yearly growth are clearly marked by rows of -open ducts, and contain many evenly-distributed smaller ducts. The wood -is bright, clear yellow, changing to brown on exposure; sapwood nearly -white. Trunks of largest size are generally hollow or otherwise -defective. - -The uses of yellow-wood have been few. In the days when families in -remote regions were under the necessity of manufacturing, growing, or -otherwise producing nearly every commodity that entered into daily life, -the settlers among the mountains of Kentucky and Tennessee discovered -that the wood of this tree, particularly the roots, yielded a clear, -yellow dye. The process of manufacture was simple. The wood was reduced -to chips with an ordinary ax, and the chips were boiled until the yellow -coloring matter was extracted. The resulting liquor was the dye, and it -gave the yellow stripe to many a piece of home-made cloth in the cabins -of mountaineers. - -The women usually attended to the dye making and the manufacture of yarn -and cloth; but the men found a way to utilize yellow-wood in producing -an article once so common in Tennessee and Kentucky that no cabin was -without it--the trusty rifle. The gunsmith, assisted by the blacksmith, -made the barrel and the other metal parts, but the hunter generally was -able to whittle out the wooden stock. Yellow-wood's lightness, strength, -and color suited the gun stock maker's purpose, and he slowly hewed and -whittled the article, fitted it to the barrel, adjusted it to his -shoulder, and completed a weapon which never failed the owner in time of -need. - -FRIJOLITO (_Sophora secundiflora_) is found in Texas, New Mexico, and -southward in Mexico. The name is Spanish and means "little bean." A -common name for it in English is coral bean. Sophora is said to be an -Arabic word of uncertain meaning, except that it refers to some kind of -a tree that bears pods. It is a species, therefore, which draws its -names from four languages, while the name applied to it by Comanche -Indians is translated "sleep-bush." The bright scarlet seeds, as large -as beans, but in shape like door-knobs, grow from one to eight in a pod, -and contain a narcotic poison, "sophorin." It is probable that Indians -discovered that the beans, if eaten, produced sleep, hence the name. The -tree is from twenty-five to thirty-five feet high, and from six to ten -inches in diameter. The leaves are compound, and consist of seven or -nine leaflets. The small, violet-blue flowers appear in early spring. -They are not conspicuous, but their presence cannot escape the notice of -a traveler in the dry, semi-barren canyons and on the bluffs where the -tree holds its ground. Their odor calls attention to their presence. The -perfume is powerful but pleasant, unless the contact is too close. The -pods are from one to seven inches long, and hang on the boughs until -late winter. It is not believed that birds or mammals distribute the -seeds, as their poison renders them unfit for food. Running water -appears to be the principal agent of distribution. The tree reaches its -largest size in the vicinity of Metagorda bay, Texas. Among the dry -western canyons it is usually a shrub. The small size of this tree -stands in the way of extensive use of the wood. It burns well and its -principal importance is as fuel. The weight is 61.34 pounds per cubic -foot; it is hard, compact, susceptible of a beautiful polish; medullary -rays are numerous and thin; color is orange, streaked with red, the -sapwood brown or yellow. The wood is worked into a few small articles. - -SOPHORA (_Sophora affinis_) ranges through portions of Arkansas and -Texas. It is popularly supposed to be a locust, and is called pink -locust or beaded locust, the first name based on the color of the wood, -the last on the appearance of the pod which looks like a short string of -beads, sometimes three inches in length, but usually shorter. In early -times the pioneers manufactured ink from the pods. It was a fairly -serviceable article, but was never sold, each family making its own. -This tree's flowers appear in early spring with the leaves. Trunks reach -a height of twenty feet and a diameter of eight or ten inches; but the -habit of separating into several stems a few feet above the ground -lessens the use of the wood, even as posts, for the stems are usually -very crooked. The tree's preferred habitat is on limestone bluffs, or -along the borders of streams, or in depressions in the prairie where -small groves often occur. The wood weighs fifty-three pounds per cubic -foot, and is very hard and strong. The annual rings are clearly marked -with bands of large, open pores; medullary rays are thin and -inconspicuous; color of the heartwood light red, the sapwood yellow. The -wood is not sawed into lumber, but is whittled into canes and tool -handles. - -GREENBARK ACACIA (_Cercidium floridum_) is properly named. Its green -bark makes up for its scarcity of leaves, and answers the purpose of -foliage. The manufacture of the tree's food goes on in the bark, because -the leaves are too small to do the work. The foliage resembles that of -locust and acacia in form, but the compound leaves are about an inch in -length, and the leaflets are one-sixteenth of an inch long. Flowers are -small, but the tree puts on three or four crops of them in a single -summer. The pods are two inches long. The tree is found in the United -States only in the south and west of Texas, where it is occasionally -called palo verde. It attains a height of twenty feet and a diameter of -ten inches when at its best. The wood is pale yellow tinged with green, -and, because of small size, is of little importance. - -PALO VERDE (_Cercidium torreyanum_) sheds its leaves and its pods so -early in the season that its branches are bare most of the year. Trees -are from fifteen to thirty feet high, and some are considerably more -than a foot in diameter. Its range covers a portion of southern -California, the lower part of the Gila valley in Arizona, and extends -southward into Mexico. It is a typical tree of the desert, and its -extreme poverty of foliage enables it to live in a dry, hot climate. It -clings to the sides of desert gulches and canyons, ekes out a dreary -life in depressions among desolate dunes and hills of sand and gravel, -and spends its allotted period of years in solitude, growing either -singly or in small groups where the full foliage at the best time of -year is insufficient to offer much obstruction to the full glare of the -sun from a cloudless sky. The small flowers have little beauty or -sweetness, but what they have is wasted on the desert air. Wayfarers in -the barren country use the wood for camp fires. - - INDIGO THORN (_Dalea spinosa_) receives its name from the color of - its flowers which appear in June. The tree has few leaves and they - fall in a short time. This appears to be a provision of nature to - enable the tree to endure the heat and dryness of its desert home. - Its range covers the lower Gila valley in Arizona, and extends into - the Colorado desert in southern California. It is not abundant, and - if it were, it is of a size so small that it is practically - valueless for commercial purposes. Some trees are a foot in diameter - and twenty feet high. The wood is light, soft, and of a rich - chocolate-brown color. It is known also as indigo bush and dalea. - - EYSENHARDTIA (_Eysenhardtia orthocarpa_) is so little known that it - has no English name. It grows from western Texas to southern - Arizona, but reaches tree size only near the summit of Santa - Catalina mountains in Arizona where it is twenty feet or less in - height and seldom more than eight inches in diameter. It inhabits an - arid region, and bears fruit sparingly, with usually a single seed - in a pod. The wood is heavy and hard, light reddish-brown in color, - with thin yellow sap. It is not of commercial importance and - probably never will be. - -[Illustration] - - - - -MESQUITE - -[Illustration: MESQUITE] - - - - -MESQUITE - -(_Prosopis Juliflora_) - - -There are known to be sixteen species at least of mesquite in the world, -in Asia, Africa, and North and South America. The one here considered -has a geographical range of at least seven thousand miles north and -south, from Kansas to Patagonia, and an east and west range of four -thousand miles, if the naturalized growth in Hawaii may be considered -the western outpost of the species.[7] - - [7] Botanists have had much controversy among themselves concerning - mesquite, particularly as to what is its correct name. In giving in - these pages some of the important facts concerning this interesting - tree, or group of species and varieties, it is not necessary to - touch the points in dispute. - -The generic name _prosopis_ is a Greek word meaning "burdock;" the rest -of the botanical name is Latin, meaning "July flower." Mesquite is an -Aztec word (mezquitl), coming down through the Spanish. Other names for -the tree are algaroba, honey locust, honey pod, and ironwood. - -The largest size of mesquite is found along the Rio Grande in southern -Texas where trees three feet in diameter and fifty feet high are found, -but individuals of that size are rare. The species is supposed not to -extend west of New Mexico, but varieties grow farther west. - -The leaves are compound, with twenty or more leaflets. The foliage is -thin and casts a penumbrous shadow; trees generally occur wide apart, -and there is enough sunshine reaching the ground to satisfy grass and -other plants growing there. The pods are from four to nine inches long, -and each contains from ten to twenty seeds. The principal growth of this -tree in the United States is in Texas. It has been planted in Hawaii and -has run wild in some of the islands of the group. It is of slow growth, -but of remarkable vitality, holds its own, and gains ground in the face -of obstacles. - -Persons well acquainted with conditions in Texas, both past and present, -say that the mesquite area is at least double now what it was when the -state came into the Union. Old stands were scattered here and there, but -hundreds of square miles which were in grass only, and little of that, -half a century ago, now support forests of mesquite. It is perhaps a -misnomer to designate some of these stands as forests, for they present -a rather ragged and sorry appearance, but they are forests in the -process of forming. The old growth, which is found principally in the -counties bordering on the lower Rio Grande, is made up of trunks of -large size, but the stands that have come on within the past fifty or -sixty years are of smaller trees. A large mesquite trunk is from one to -three feet in diameter; a small one from one foot down to an inch or -two. A person would need to hunt from center to circumference of Texas -to find many mesquite trunks that would make a straight sawlog twelve -feet long. The tree is generally one of the most crooked, deformed and -unpromising in the whole country; and its habit of dividing into forks -near the ground, like a peach tree, makes it still more difficult to -make use of. In fact, in winter when mesquite trees are bare of leaves -the appearance of a forest reminds the observer of an old, neglected, -diseased, moss-grown peach orchard in the eastern states; but in summer -the leaves conceal much of the trunk scaliness and deformity, and there -is something positively restful and attractive in the prospect of a wide -range of these trees, covering hills and prairies. The leaves are -compound like the acacias, and are delicate and graceful. - -The spread of mesquite in the last fifty or seventy-five years has been -attributed to the checking of grass fires which Indians once set yearly -to keep the prairies open. The dispersion of the trees is facilitated by -the scattering of seeds by cattle which feed on the pods. It is a tree -hard to kill. Roots send up sprouts year after year during long periods. -Sometimes, but not often in Texas, when adverse circumstances become so -severe that the mesquite tree can no longer survive above the surface, -it grows beneath the ground, sending only a few sprouts up for air. "Dig -for wood" is a term applied to trees of that kind, when fuel is dragged -out with mattocks, grab hooks, and oxen. - -The roots of the mesquite penetrate farther beneath the surface for -water than any other known tree in this country. Depths of fifty or -sixty feet are occasionally reached. Well diggers on the frontiers -learned to go to the mesquite for water. Large trunks never develop -unless their roots are abundantly supplied with moisture. Railroad -engineers on the "Staked Plains" of northwestern Texas turned that -knowledge to account in boring wells. - -Though mesquite is seldom or never mentioned in the lumber business, it -is and has been one of the most important trees of the region. Its fuel -value is very great. It has cooked more food, warmed more buildings, -burned more bricks, than any other wood in Texas. The tannic acid in it -injures boilers and it is not much used for steam purposes. It is very -high in ash. A cord of mesquite wood when burned leaves from ninety to -one hundred pounds of ashes. This exceeds five fold the ashes left when -white oak is burned. - -Mesquite is a high-grade furniture material, though it is difficult to -work because of its exceeding hardness. Ordinary wood-working tools and -machinery will not stand it. Suites of nine pieces are sold in some -southwestern cities at $200 or $300. The merchants find difficulty in -getting mesquite furniture made. Factories do not want to handle it, -though the articles sell higher than mahogany. Large, heavy tables, -deeply carved, are sold in some of the cities, but all seem to be made -to order and largely by hand. The appearance of the polished and -finished wood is a little lighter in color than mahogany. It is not -uniform in color, but shades from tone to tone in the same piece. A -little of the lighter colored sapwood is worked in with pleasing effect. -Some of the tones resemble black walnut, and some suggest the luster of -polished cherry. - -Mesquite is brittle. Pieces of large size may be broken by a few blows -with an ax. It has about half the strength of white oak, and is very low -in elasticity. The wood has been used for two hundred years--possibly -for thousands of years--as beams and sills for adobe houses; but it is -not required to carry much weight. Spaniards employed it in building -their churches and forts within its range. A timber taken from the -Alamo, at San Antonio, Texas, in 1912, was said to have served more than -190 years with no sign of decay. Fence posts survive the men who set -them. Paving blocks outlast sandstone subjected to the same use. -Railroads in southern Texas employ this wood for crossties, but it is so -hard that holes must be bored for the spikes. - -Mesquite baskets are made by hand of splits the size of knitting -needles, some of white sapwood, others of dark heartwood. Such baskets, -large enough to contain five quarts, sell in the curio shops at San -Antonio for $1.25 each. Some wagon makers insist that mesquite is in the -same class with Osage orange for wagon felloes in hot, dry regions; but -it does not appear that much of it is so used. The brittleness of the -wood is against it, in use as felloes, except for vehicles of the -heaviest sort where large pieces are demanded. - -Among the uses of mesquite, by-products are an important consideration. -The pods are food for farm stock. Before the first railroad reached San -Antonio mesquite pods were a regular market commodity. The Mexicans know -how to make bread and brew beer from the fruit; tan leather with the -resin; dye leather, cloth, and crockery with the tree's sap; make ropes -and baskets of the bark. Parched pods are a substitute for coffee; bees -store honey from the bloom which remains two months on the trees; riled -water is purified with a decoction of mesquite chips; vinegar is made -from the fermented juice of the legumes; tomales of mesquite bean meal, -pepper, chicken, and cornshucks; mucilage from the gum; and candy and -gum drops from the dried sap. - -One of the most promising uses for this wood is in turnery. Short -lengths can be utilized to advantage. The artistic color fits it for the -manufacture of lodge gavels, curtain rings, goblets, plaques, trays, -and numerous kinds of novelties. Spindles for grills and stairways do -not suffer in comparison with black walnut, mahogany, cherry, and teak. -The wood is porous, annual rings narrow and indistinct, and the -medullary rays thin and inconspicuous. - -A variety (_Prosopis juliflora glandulosa_) is found from Kansas to -eastern Texas, and also in Arizona and California. It is the common -mesquite of eastern Texas. Another variety (_Prosopis juliflora -velutina_) occurs in some of the hot valleys of southern Arizona and -southward in Mexico. - - SCREWBEAN (_Prosopis odorata_) is known also as screwpod mesquite, - and tornillo. The name is due to the pod's habit of growing in - spiral form, there being a dozen or more tight twists. The flowers - appear in early spring and new crops follow until summer. The pods - ripen early in autumn or late in summer, and many become infested - with grubs. The tree is from twenty-five to thirty feet high, and a - foot or less in diameter. Its range extends from western Texas and - Utah and Nevada through New Mexico and Arizona to southern - California. The wood is stronger and stiffer than common mesquite, - but a little lighter. Its uses are much the same, and it has the - same habits of growth, including its disposition to develop enormous - roots. The name might lead to the conclusion that the flower is rich - in perfume, but such is not the case. The tree grows slowly and - lives to old age, if it escapes fire and other accidents. - - CHALKY LEUCAENA (_Leucaena pulverulenta_), commonly called mimosa, - occurs in the United States only in southern Texas, but is somewhat - abundant in Mexico, where trees sixty feet high and nearly two feet - in diameter are sometimes manufactured into lumber. Along the Rio - Grande it is called "tepeguaja" by Mexicans. This name is said to be - equivalent to "hardwood," which is an appropriate name. It is very - smooth and handsome when finished, and is used for tool handles, - small spindles, grills, and other small articles, particularly - products of the lathe. In color it resembles the lighter shades of - mahogany; weighs about forty-two pounds per cubic foot; foliage - extremely delicate and the tree is highly valuable for ornamental - purposes. It has been planted outside of its natural range. The pods - sometimes exceed a foot in length. - - LEUCAENA (_Leucaena glauca_) is small and probably will never be of - much importance. Trunks are seldom more than five inches in diameter - and twenty feet high. The tree grows in canyons and ravines in - western Texas. The compound leaves are six or seven inches long, - with thirty or less pairs of leaflets; fruit is a pod six or eight - inches long. The rich brown wood is streaked with red. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SWEET BIRCH - -[Illustration: SWEET BIRCH] - - - - -SWEET BIRCH - -(_Betula Lenta_) - - -Ten species of birch occur in the United States, including Alaska. Six -are eastern and four western.[8] Sweet birch is known by that name in -many localities, but in others as black birch, cherry birch, river -birch, mahogany birch, and mountain mahogany. Its range extends from -Newfoundland to northwestern Ontario, south to southern Indiana, -Kentucky, and along the Appalachian mountains to Tennessee and North -Carolina. Probably the best development of the species is found in the -Adirondack region of northern New York, in the northern peninsula of -Michigan, through southern Ontario, and along the mountain ranges -southward through Pennsylvania and West Virginia. - - [8] The eastern species, which do not extend west of the continental - divide, are, Sweet Birch (_Betula lenta_), Yellow Birch (_Betula - lutea_), River Birch (_Betula nigra_), Paper Birch (_Betula - papyrifera_), White Birch (_Betula populifolia_) and Blue Birch - (_Betula caerulea_). The western birches, none of which are known to - extend much east of the continental divide, are: Western Birch - (_Betula occidentalis_), Mountain Birch (_Betula fontinalis_), White - Alaska Birch (_Betula alaskana_), and Kenai Birch (_Betula - kenaica_). The last two occur in Alaska, but not in United States - proper. - -It attains a height of seventy or eighty feet, and a diameter of two or -three. It prefers deep, moist, rich soil, but will grow in comparatively -dry, rocky ground. Its seeds are produced in large numbers and are -scattered by the wind a hundred feet or more from the parent tree. They -lack the wing power and the buoyancy of the seeds of some of the other -birches, but they manage to get themselves sown in sufficient numbers, -and their powers of germination are good. - -The young seedling comes into existence with smooth bark, but it does -not keep it through life. As age increases, the bark becomes rough and -black. It is not shed in papery rolls and flakes as is the bark of river -birch, yellow birch, and paper birch, with which it is associated in -some parts of its range. It is generally an easy tree to identify and -the black, rough bark is generally a sufficient guide. - -The sweet birch is tapped like sugar maple, but not for the same purpose -or to the same extent--only an occasional tree. Immense quantities of -sap will flow from it during the two or three weeks when the buds are -swelling in the spring. It is said that as much as two tons has been -known to flow from a medium sized birch in a single season. The sap is -made into a beer which has some commercial value, but is chiefly used -locally. One of the ways of making it, employed by farmers and woodsmen, -is to jug the sap, put in a handful of shelled corn, and let -fermentation do the rest. - -A substance known in commerce as oil of wintergreen is procured almost -exclusively from this birch, though occasionally it is made from the -small wintergreen plant (_Gaultheria procumbens_). The product is -manufactured in very crude stills made by mountaineers in Pennsylvania -and southward along the mountains where sweet birch is abundant. -Frequently the woodsman's whole family go into the business, chopping -down birch bushes and hacking them with hatchets into chips of the -desired sizes. The oil is extracted from the hogged mass by a steaming -and roasting process. It is sold by the quart to country storekeepers -who ship it to wholesale druggists where it is refined and used to -flavor candy, medicine, and drugs. The woodsman who manufactures the oil -prefers young birches from half an inch to two or three inches in -diameter, and he usually procures them in old logging grounds where -seedlings have sprung up. It is said that on an average one hundred -small birch trees are destroyed for each quart of oil that goes to -market. It is a process wasteful in the extreme. - -In the open ground, sweet birch develops a full crown, short trunk, -abundance of limbs, with numerous slender, graceful twigs and small -branches. Its leaves form a dense mass, and they are so free from -attacks by insects and worms that diseased foliage is unusual. That -cannot be said, however, of the trunk. It is not particularly liable to -disease, but many old trees show the results of decay. It is of slow -growth, and a small tree may be much older than its size indicates. The -sapwood is generally thick, heartwood forms slowly, and the contrast in -color between sap and heart is strong. - -The wood of sweet birch had few uses in early times, except fuel. The -pioneer sawmill had little to do with it. Lumber was hard to saw and was -seasoned with difficulty. Its tendency to warp was too great a tax on -the lumberman's patience and ingenuity. The only way he could hold it -straight was to cob a few layers in the bottom of a pile, and stack -thousands of feet of other lumber on top, and leave it a year or two. -That was generally too much trouble, particularly when the wood had slow -sale, and the price was low. Birch reached market in large quantities -only when modern mills and improved drykilns came into existence. - -The wood is heavy, strong, hard, in color dark brown tinged with red. -The light brown or yellow sapwood generally makes up seventy or eighty -annual rings. The difference between springwood and that of the later -season is not clearly marked, and consequently the rings are often -indistinct. The wood is very porous, and the pores are diffused through -all parts of the ring. They are too small to be seen with the naked eye, -except under the most favorable conditions. The medullary rays are -numerous but so small that they appear on the quartered wood merely as a -gloss, which, however, gives the surface a rich appearance. - -Forms known as curly and wavy birch are highly esteemed. They are -accidents of growth, well developed in birch, and occurring in several -other woods. Difficulties are encountered in assigning sweet birch its -individual place in the industrial world. As a tree it is well known, -but that is not the case when its lumber goes to market. The sweet birch -log goes into the sawmill, but when the lumber goes out at the other end -of the mill, it is often simply birch having lost the adjective "sweet" -somewhere in the operation. The reason is that sweet birch and yellow -birch, quite distinct in the forest, are often mixed and become one, to -all intents and purposes, when they reach the market. That is not always -the case, but it frequently is. Something depends on the region. The -yellow birch's range is more extensive, and in areas where it is -abundant, and sweet birch is not, it prevails in the lumber markets. But -south and southeast of the great lakes, as well as in the northeastern -part of the country, the two species mingle, and they are apt to go to -market simply as birch. The woods may be distinguished by a microscopic -examination, but the ordinary observer would make many mistakes if he -attempted to tell one from the other in the lumber yard. - -The two woods are different in several physical properties. Both are -heavy, but sweet birch weighs 47.47 pounds per cubic foot, while yellow -birch weighs only 40.84 pounds, according to tests averaged by Sargent. -Yellow birch rates a little above the other in breaking strength. Both -are very stiff, but yellow birch rates superior. In most respects the -two woods are put to similar uses--flooring, interior finish, -furniture--but for some purposes sweet birch is preferred. It is -substituted oftener for cherry and mahogany, and for that reason is -known as cherry birch or mahogany birch. Its color makes the -substitution easy, and the appearance of the grain, with a little -doctoring with stains and fillers, helps in the deception. The buyer may -be deceived as to the exact kind of wood he is getting, but he is not -cheated in the quality. Birch is substituted where strength is required, -as in the rails of beds, the frames of sofas, davenports, large chairs, -and certain parts of large musical instruments. It is much stronger, and -fully as hard as cherry or mahogany, and as its appearance is so much -like them, the article is actually better on account of the -substitution. Sweet birch is largely employed for various parts of -vehicle manufacture, particularly for wagon hubs and frames of -automobiles. It is also much used in the manufacture of sleds, boats, -and handles. - -The demand is heavy and the supply is diminishing. The tree is of such -slow growth that few timber owners will be inclined to wait for a second -crop, after the old trees have been cut, since 150 years are necessary -under forest conditions to produce a merchantable tree. - - SONORA IRONWOOD (_Olneya tesota_) is a desert tree, and the only - representative of the genus. It takes its name from the Mexican - state where it is most abundant and where it was discovered in 1852. - It grows in southern California and Arizona, and there it thrives in - gulches and depressions in the desert, frequently associated with - mesquite. It is so heavy that perfectly dry wood will sink in water. - The heartwood is deep chocolate-brown, mottled with red, the thin - sapwood is lemon-yellow. Its hardness renders it difficult to work, - and it can scarcely be split. The wood is made into canes and other - small articles of great beauty. It is not abundant, and the small - supply is remote from manufacturing centers; otherwise it would be - more valuable. It is excellent fuel, but it is burned chiefly by - stockmen and miners in their camps. The largest trees are thirty - feet high and eighteen inches in diameter. It is an evergreen, and - its pea-like flowers brighten many a remote desert place. - - WILD TAMARIND (_Lysiloma latisiliqua_) is forty or fifty feet high, - two or three in diameter, grows in southern Florida, and has - double-compound leaves, four or five inches long. The fruit is a pod - one inch wide and five or less in length. The wood weighs forty - pounds to the cubic foot, is neither strong nor tough, very low in - elasticity, is rich dark brown tinged with red, the sapwood white. - It has been reported for boatbuilding, and claims have been made - that it is equal to mahogany for that purpose, but the claim is of - doubtful validity, in view of the rather poor showing it makes in - several physical properties, though it takes good polish. - -[Illustration] - - - - -YELLOW BIRCH - -[Illustration: YELLOW BIRCH] - - - - -YELLOW BIRCH - -(_Betula Lutea_) - - -There is little likelihood of mistaking the yellow birch for any other -as it stands in the woods. Its points of individuality may be discovered -on slight acquaintance, and there is little need of studying leaves, -flowers, and fruit to find ways of distinguishing this birch from other -members of the family. Its tattered, yellow and gray bark fixes it in -the memory of all who have seen it a few times. Two other eastern -birches have tattered, curling bark also, but they do not look like -this. They are the paper birch and the river birch. The former is too -white to be mistaken for yellow birch, and the river birch is too much -the color of bronze or copper. Yellow birch is named from the color of -its bark, the part which shows when the outer layers break and roll -back, disclosing the fresh, smooth, satiny layers below. Sometimes the -tree is called silver birch, gray birch, or swamp birch. - -Its geographic range is bounded by a line drawn from Newfoundland to -northern Minnesota, southward through the Lake States, and along the -Atlantic coast to Delaware. It follows the Appalachian ranges of -mountains to eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina. Generally the -tree is small near the southern limit of its range. The best grows in -Michigan and Wisconsin, but it is of considerable importance in -Minnesota. - -Few trees are better equipped than yellow birch to perpetuate their -species. It is an abundant seeder, and the seeds are light, winged, and -they are scattered by wind over long distances. Sometimes they are -carried miles. Of course, most of them fall in unfavorable places, and -either do not germinate or perish soon after; but they are not -particularly choice in situations, and will grow on bare mineral soil, -even in old fields, where they are flooded with sunshine, or they will -grow in deep shade where a beam of sunlight seldom touches them. They -often germinate without touching mineral soil, and take root quickly and -grow vigorously. - -It is not unusual in the northern part of the tree's range, and on high -mountains farther south, to see yellow birches standing on high, -spreading roots, two, three, or four feet above the ground. That -peculiar attitude is brought about by the manner in which the seed -begins to grow. It falls on moss which occupies the top of a log or a -stump. The moss in the deep shade retains much moisture, and the seed -germinates, grows, sends roots down the sides of the log or the stump -until they strike mineral soil, and become firmly fixed. In course of -time the log or stump decays, and the spreading roots continue to -sustain the trunk, high above the ground. This attitude of the yellow -birch tree is very common in damp woods. Occasionally the seed finds -lodgment in the moss on top of a large rock. The roots descend the sides -until they reach the ground, and as the rock does not decay, the tree -grows to maturity on the rock. The most favorable seed bed for this -species is a mass of rotten wood where a log has decayed and fallen to -pieces. Frequently such a plot is covered with yellow birch seedlings. -They have the space all to themselves, because the seeds of few trees or -plants will grow in rotten wood, unmixed with mineral soil. - -The trunk of yellow birch averages a little smaller than that of sweet -birch, but may equal it in some instances. Trees reach a height of 100 -feet and a diameter of three or four, but a more common size, even in -the regions of best development, is a height of sixty or seventy feet, -and a diameter of two or less. - -Yellow birch was a long time coming into use. One of the first things -learned about it by early settlers in the region where it was abundant, -was that it decays quickly in situations alternately wet and dry. That -prejudiced the woodsmen against it, and they were not disposed to give -it a fair trial, as long as there was plenty of other timber. All -birches are subject to quick decay, if conditions are right to produce -it. Yellow birch in the woods sometimes dies standing, and when that -happens, the wood falls to pieces so quickly that the bark may remain -standing with very little inside of it except powder of decayed wood. -This tree is seldom mentioned in early accounts of lumber operations, -and practically never with a good word. Operators generally left it -standing when they cut the timber which grew with it. - -Yellow birch is heavy, very strong, hard, light brown tinged with red, -with thin, nearly white sapwood. The color of the heartwood varies -considerably. The pores are very numerous, rather small, and are -scattered through the wood with little tendency to run in bands or -groups. The springwood blends gradually with the summerwood in a way to -make the boundaries of the annual rings somewhat indistinct. Medullary -rays are numerous, but very thin and obscure. Quarter-sawing adds little -or nothing to the appearance of the wood. It has poor figure, except an -occasional tree with wavy or curly grain, or with burls. - -The wood may be readily stained. The pores hold the coloring matter -applied, and by varying the application, the appearance of the surface -can be varied. The colors of mahogany and of cherry are easily imparted, -and yellow birch often imitates those woods. - -Vehicle makers choose this wood for its strength and elasticity. In the -North it is manufactured into frames for cutters and sleighs of all -kinds. It is a competitor of sugar maple for that purpose. Hubs are made -of it for horse-drawn vehicles, and its hardness gives long wear where -the spokes are inserted. That is one of the first points of failure when -a soft, inferior wood is used for hubs. The spokes work loose. - -Manufacturers of automobiles have tried out yellow birch as material for -frames; it has stood the test, and is much used in competition with -other woods. The amount demanded for that purpose is not necessarily -large, but it must be the best wood that can be had. - -This material reaches the markets in all grades. Large amounts are used -for packing boxes, crates, and shipping containers. Low grades answer -for these purposes, leaving the better sorts for the more exacting -industries. The logs are cut in rotary veneer for baskets, and for ply -work. Some of the veneer in three-ply is worked into commodities of high -class, such as seats and backs of theater chairs. - -Birch flooring competes closely with maple for popular favor. It may -lack something of maple's whiteness, but it takes no second place in -hardness, smoothness, and wearing qualities. It is made into parquet -flooring as well as the ordinary tongued and grooved article. As such, -the sap matches the light colored woods, and the heart the dark. - -It goes into all kinds of interior house finish, from floor to ceiling, -and the finest grades are often devoted to stair work. Door and window -frames are made of it in large quantities, but it is not suited to -outside work exposed to weather, because of its tendencies to decay. It -is much employed as door material. Furniture demands the same class of -wood. Medium priced articles may be of solid birch, but the best -commodities are made of veneers laid upon other woods. Figured birch is -a favorite material for that class of work. - -The more common commodities manufactured of this wood can be listed only -by groups, because of their great number. Novelties constitute a large -class. One of the earliest demands was from the manufacturers of pill -boxes, such as apothecaries use. That was before anyone had tried to -sell yellow birch in the general market, and the demand came principally -from New England and New York. Another early demand came from coopers -who found that barrel hoops of yellow birch were highly satisfactory for -certain kinds of vessels. Fish kits were among the first to appear in -birch hoops. Small saplings were used, not over two inches in diameter. -They are large enough to make two hoops by splitting. The bark was left -on, and the identity of the wood was never in doubt, because when the -sapling is of that size, the bark is a fine yellow. It has not yet -commenced to crack open and roll up, as it does later. Millions of birch -hoops are still produced yearly in the United States, but all of them -are not of this species. The hoop business has existed much more than a -century, and millions of young birches have been cut every year to meet -the demand. - -Birch broom handles have been a commodity since the first lathe went to -work on that product. They are made of all the commercial birches, but -yellow birch contributes a large part. Other handles are manufactured of -it also, such as are fitted to hand saws, planes, drawing knives, -chisels, and augers. - -[Illustration] - - - - -RIVER BIRCH - -[Illustration: RIVER BIRCH] - - - - -RIVER BIRCH - -(_Betula Nigra_) - - -This tree is known as red birch, river birch, water birch, blue birch, -black birch, and simply as birch. The name red birch refers to the color -of the bark which is exposed to view in the process of exfoliation. The -trunk is constantly getting rid of its outer bark, and in doing so, the -exterior layers are rolled back, hang a while, and are gradually whipped -off by the wind. The new bark which is exposed to view when the old is -rolled back is reddish. Its color varies considerably, sometimes -suggesting the tint of old brass, again it is brown, but people in -widely separated regions have seen fit to call the tree red birch -because of the color of its bark. The name black birch is not -appropriate, though the old bark near the base of large trunks may -suggest it. No reason can be assigned for calling it blue birch, unless -the foliage in early summer may warrant such a term. River birch and -water birch are more appropriate, as these names indicate the situations -where the species grows. It clings to water courses almost as closely as -sycamore. A favorite attitude of the tree is to lean over a river or -pond, with the long, graceful limbs almost touching the water. - -Nature seems to recognize the tree's habit of hanging over muddy banks, -and has prepared it for that manner of life. Seeds are ripe early in -summer when the rivers are falling. They are scattered by myriads on the -muddy shores and upon the water. Those which fall in the mud find at -once a suitable place for germination, and those whose fortune it is to -drop in the water float away with the current or they are driven by the -wind until they lodge along the shores, and the receding water leaves -them in a few days, and they spring up quickly. Before the autumn or -early winter high water comes, they are well rooted in the mud and sand, -ready to put up a fight for their lives. - -The provision is a wise one. If the seeds matured in the fall, when -water is low, they would be strewn along the low shores, and before they -could take root and establish themselves, the high water and the ice of -winter would destroy them. The seeds need mud to give them a start in -life, and they need that start early in summer. - -The range of river birch is less extensive than that of the other -important eastern birches, yet it is by no means limited. Its eastern -boundary is in Massachusetts, its western in Minnesota, and it adheres -fairly well to a line drawn between the two states. Its range extends -200 miles west of the Mississippi and covers most of the southern -states. It is found in an area of nearly 1,000,000 square miles, but is -scarce in most of it. In certain restricted localities it is fairly -abundant, but there are thousands of square miles in the limits of its -range which have not a single tree. Its greatest development is in the -south Atlantic states, and in the lower Mississippi basin. - -Trees at their best are from eighty to ninety feet high and from two to -four in diameter, but most trunks are less than two feet in diameter. -The tree frequently forks fifteen or twenty feet from the ground, or -occasionally sends up several stems from the ground. Forms of that kind -are practically useless for lumber. - -The wood is among the lightest of the birches and weighs 35.91 pounds -per cubic foot. It is rather hard, medium strong, the heartwood light -brown in color, with thick, pale sapwood. It rates below sweet and -yellow birch in stiffness, is very porous, but the pores are quite -small, and can scarcely be seen without a magnifying glass. They are -diffused throughout the entire annual ring. There is no marked -difference in the appearance of the springwood and that of the late -season. The medullary rays are very small and have little effect on the -appearance of the wood, no matter in what way the sawing is done. - -The wood is apt to contain pith flecks and streaks. These are small, -brown spots or lines scattered at random through the wood. They are a -blemish which is not easily covered up if the wood is to be polished; -but they are small and may not be objectionable. The flecks are caused -by insects which, early in the season, bore through the bark into the -cambium layer (the newly-formed wood), where eggs are deposited. The -young insect cuts a tunnel up or down along the cambium layer, an inch -or less in length and a sixteenth of an inch wide. This gallery -subsequently fills with brown deposits which remain permanently in the -wood. Sometimes these deposits are sufficiently hard to turn the edge of -tools. - -River birch is widely used but in small amounts. It may properly be -described as a neighborhood wood--that is, wherever it grows in -considerable quantity it is put to use, but nearly always in a local -way. For example, in Louisiana, where it is as abundant as in any other -state, it is a favorite material for ox yokes, and no report from that -state has been made of its employment for any other purpose. The reason -given for its extensive use for ox yokes there is that it is very strong -for its weight, and that it resists decay. The yokes there are usually -left out of doors when not in use, and the dampness and hot weather -cause rapid decay of most woods. The birches are usually listed as -quick-decaying woods, but the verdict from Louisiana seems to be that -river birch is an exception. - -Plain furniture is made of it, and the manufacturers of woodenware find -it suitable for most of their commodities. It is sometimes listed as -wooden shoe material, but no particular instance has been reported where -it has been so used in this country. In Maryland some of the -manufacturers of peach baskets make bands or hoops of it, and pronounce -it as satisfactory for that purpose as elm. - -The supply is not in much danger of exhaustion. The species is equipped -to take care of itself, occupying as it does, ground not in demand for -farming purposes. When a tree once gets a start it has a chance to -escape the ax until large enough for use. - -WHITE ALASKA BIRCH (_Betula alaskana_) is usually called simply white -birch where it grows. It is not exclusively an Alaska species though -that is the only place where it touches the territory of the United -States. It is supposed by some to be closely related to the white -birches of northern Asia, but the relationship, if it exists, has not -been established. In Alaska it grows as far north as any timber extends. -It was first discovered and reported in 1858 on the Saskatchewan river, -east of the Rocky Mountains, and its range is now known to extend down -the valley of the Mackenzie river toward the Arctic ocean to a point -more than 100 miles north of the Arctic circle. It is common in many -parts of Alaska both along the coast and in the interior. In some -portions of that territory it is an important source of fuel. Trees are -from twenty-five to sixty feet high, and from six to eighteen inches in -diameter. The bark is thin and often nearly white, separating into thin -scales. The tree bears typical birch cones, but larger than those of -some of the other species. No tests of the wood's physical properties -have been made, but it looks like the wood of paper birch, and will -probably attain to considerable importance in the future, since it grows -over a large area, and in many parts is abundant. There remain many -things for both botanists and wood-users to investigate concerning this -tree which has a range of more than half a million square miles. - -WESTERN BIRCH (_Betula occidentalis_) is believed to be the largest -birch in the world, and yet it is not of much commercial importance in -the United States, because of scarcity, occurring only in northwestern -Washington and in the adjacent parts of British Columbia, as far as its -range has been determined. It resembles paper birch, and has often been -supposed to be that tree. The people in the restricted region where it -grows speak of it simply as birch. The largest trees are 100 feet high -and four feet in diameter, clear of limbs forty or fifty feet. A height -of seventy feet and a diameter of two are common. The general color of -the trunk is orange-brown, the new bark, exposed by exfoliation, is -yellow. The tree prefers the border of streams and the shores of lakes. -Though it is the largest of the birches, its seeds are among the -smallest. They are provided with two wings and are good flyers. -Manufacturers of flooring and interior finish in Washington reported the -use of 315,000 feet of this birch in 1911. That was the only use found -for it in the only state where it grows. Information is meager as to the -probable quantity of this birch available. It has been reported in -Idaho, but exact information on the subject is lacking. - - MOUNTAIN BIRCH (_Betula fontanalis_) is a minor species concerning - which there has been much contention among botanists. It has finally - been called mountain birch because it grows on mountains, as high as - 10,000 feet among the Sierra Nevadas in California. It has many - local names for a tree so small as to be almost a shrub throughout - most of its range: Black birch, sweet birch, cherry birch, water - birch, and canyon birch. Its bark is of the color of old copper; - wood is light yellowish-brown, with thick white sapwood; trunks - seldom exceed ten inches in diameter and thirty feet high; range - extends from northern British Columbia to California, and along the - Rocky Mountains to Colorado and possibly further south. The uses of - the wood are few. - -[Illustration] - - - - -PAPER BIRCH - -[Illustration: PAPER BIRCH] - - - - -PAPER BIRCH - -(_Betula Papyrifera_) - - -This tree is called paper birch because the bark parts in thin sheets -like paper. It is known as canoe birch from the fact that Indians and -early white explorers and travelers constructed canoes of the bark. The -name silver birch is an allusion to the color of the bark; and big white -birch is the name used when the purpose is to distinguish it from the -white birch with which it is associated in the northeastern part of its -range. It grows as far north as Arctic British America, east to -Labrador, south to Michigan and Pennsylvania, and west nearly or quite -to the base of the Rocky Mountains. This indicated area exceeds -1,000,000 square miles. The quantity of birch of this species in the -forests is unknown, but it runs into billions of feet, probably -exceeding any other single species of birch. The tree sometimes grows -dispersed through forests of other woods, sometimes in nearly pure -stands. Persons well acquainted with the species have expressed the -opinion that paper birch exists in larger quantities now than at the -time when the country was first explored by white men. That can be said -of few other species; but probably holds true of lodgepole pine in the -West, loblolly pine in the Southeast, and mesquite in the Southwest. -Each of these species took advantage of man's presence and influence to -extend its range. Cattle spread the mesquite; the lodgepole pine came up -in fire-burned tracts; loblolly pine spread into abandoned fields; and -paper birch profited by fires which destroyed large tracts of timber. - -The seeds are light, are furnished with wings which sail them long -distances through the air, and they are quickly scattered over the -burned areas where they spring up. In the contest, they are competitors -of aspen. Birch often captures the ground, but does not always do it. -Some of the largest stands in the Northeast occupy tracts bared by fire -half a century or more ago. When paper birch does not find open tracts, -it contents itself with sharing ground with other species. That was the -usual manner of its growth in the original forests; but it has been -quick to seize opportunities to take full possession. - -It does not like shade and, if crowded, one of the first things it does -is to rid its lower trunk of all branches. Only limbs remain which are -at the top where they receive plenty of light. Therefore, forest-grown -paper birches have long, clean trunks, though they are not always -straight. The largest trees are seventy feet high and three in diameter, -but those fifty feet in height and eighteen inches in diameter are above -rather than under the average. - -The bark of paper birch has played an important part in American -history, story, and poetry. It was the canoe material, the roof, and the -utensil in its region. The Indians had brought the art of canoe making -to perfection before white men went among them. The bark peels from the -trunks in large pieces, and may be separated into thin sheets, which are -very tough, strong, and durable. The Indians sewed pieces of bark -together, using the long, slender roots of tamarack for thread. The bark -was stretched and tied over a frame, the shape of the canoe, and made of -northern white cedar, or some other light wood. Holes in the bark, and -the partings at the seams, were stopped with resin from balsam fir, wax -from balm of Gilead, or resin from pine. The forest supplied all the -material needed by the Indian, and a canoe thus made, and large enough -to carry 800 or 1,000 pounds, weighed no more than fifty pounds. Frail -as it seemed, it was good for long service on rivers and lakes, and -could weather storms of no small severity. - -White men adopted the bark canoes at once, and learned from Indians how -to make them. The daring explorers and venturesome fur traders who -threaded every river and navigated every important lake of British -America, found the birch canoe equal to every requirement, even to -attacking whales in the tidewater of the Arctic ocean. The bark from -this birch was used for tents and the roofs of cabins; vessels in which -to store or carry food were made of it, as well as beds on which to -sleep, and wrapping material for bundles. These uses have now -practically ceased; but as sport, recreation, and for the novelty, -articles, from canoes to visiting cards, are still made of the bark. - -The wood of paper birch is valuable for certain purposes. The trees are -largely white sapwood, which is without figure. It is as plain a wood as -grows in the forest, but it may be stained. That, however, is seldom -done. The heartwood is dark or red, and is made into brush backs and -parquet flooring, but the hearts are small, and no large quantity of -that wood is used. The largest use of paper birch is for spools, the -common kind for thread. Some of larger size are made for use in mills. -The sapwood only is accepted by makers of spools. The heart is cut out, -and most of it is thrown away or burned under the boilers. The qualities -of paper birch which appeal to spool makers are, white color, small -liability to warp, and the ease with which it may be cut without dulling -the tools. The logs are worked into bars of the various spool sizes, and -are carefully seasoned. One of the problems that must be constantly -solved is the prevention of sap stain while the bars are seasoning. The -wood discolors quickly and deeply. - -Tooth picks, shoe pegs, and shoe shanks are other important commodities -manufactured from paper birch. It has not yet been satisfactorily -converted into lumber, because it is more valuable for spools, tooth -picks, pegs, and the like. This wood is frequently listed as a pulpwood, -and it is quite generally believed that its use for that purpose is -important. This is apparently an error, as the wood is not even -mentioned in statistics of pulpwood output in this country. - -Paper birch weighs 37.11 pounds per cubic foot, is strong, hard, tough; -medullary rays are numerous but very small and obscure; wood is -diffuse-porous, and earlywood blends gradually with latewood in the -annual rings which are not very distinct. - -This is one of the woods which does not threaten to become soon -exhausted. A supply for half a century, at present rate of use, is in -sight, if no more should grow; but in fifty years new forests, now -young, will be large enough to use. - - KENAI BIRCH (_Betula kenaica_) is an Alaska species concerning which - comparatively little is known, except that its botanical identity - and something of its range have been established. Its small size, - and the remote regions where it grows, do not necessarily indicate - that it can never be important. Scarcity of other woods may give it - a place which it does not now occupy. No reports on the properties - of the wood have been made. The bark is deep brown in color. Trees - are from twenty to thirty feet high and from twelve to eighteen - inches in diameter. The trunks are very short. Cones are an inch or - less in length and the double winged seeds are very small. The name - applied to this species relates to the region where the best - developed trees have been found. As far as known, the species is - confined to the coast region of Alaska and to adjacent islands from - the head of Lynn canal westward. It has been reported on Koyukuk - river above the Arctic circle. - - WHITE BIRCH (_Betula populifolia_) is known also as gray birch, - old-field birch, poverty birch, poplar-leaved birch, and small white - birch. It is chiefly confined to the northeastern part of the United - States, but grows as far east as Nova Scotia, and west to the - southern shore of Lake Ontario. It occurs on the Atlantic coast - south to Delaware, and along mountain ranges to West Virginia. The - names describe either the habits or the appearance of the tree. The - bark is white, and is the most prominent feature of a thicket of - these graceful but practically worthless little birches. It is - called an old-field species because it quickly scatters its small, - winged seeds over abandoned farmland and takes possession when it - does not have to compete with stronger species. Poverty birch is an - allusion, either to the poor ground it occupies or the unpromising - nature of the tree itself. The resemblance of its leaves to those of - cottonwood leads some people to prefer the name poplar-leaved birch. - The tree at its best is seldom more than forty feet high and - eighteen inches in diameter. A height of twenty or thirty feet is - the usual size. The stem is generally clothed with branches nearly - to the ground. The wood is light, soft, not strong or durable, heart - light brown, thick sap nearly white. The form and size of the trunk - exclude it from sawmills, but it has some special uses: Spools, shoe - pegs, and hoops. Its small size does not disqualify it for service - along those lines. The tree springs up quickly, grows with fair - rapidity, and dies young. It is cut for cordwood in New England and - makes good fuel. It takes possession of areas bared by fire, and - protects the ground, furnishing shelter for more valuable species - which come later. - - BLUE BIRCH (_Betula caerulea_) is a small tree of which more - information is to be desired. It is rarely more than thirty feet - high with a diameter of eight or ten inches. Its leaves are - long-pointed, its cones about an inch in length, the bark is thin, - white tinged with rose, and is lustrous. Bark is not easily - separated into layers, in that respect differing from the paper - birch. The inner bark is of light orange color. It is probably put - to no use, unless for fuel or as hoops. It is smallest of New - England birches, and its range has not been fully determined, but it - is known to grow in Maine and Vermont, and probably will be found in - other parts of New England and in the adjacent regions of Canada. It - has been compared with a European species of birch, the _Betula - pendula_. - -[Illustration] - - - - -RED ALDER - -[Illustration: RED ALDER] - - - - -RED ALDER - -(_Alnus Oregona_) - - -Many species of alder are found in various parts of the world, and on -both sides of the equator, but chiefly in the northern hemisphere. Some -of these are trees, others are shrubs. Six species belonging in the tree -class grow in the United States, besides others which remain shrubs. -Some trees are burdened with names, changing them with locality, but not -so with alder. An adjective may accompany the name, as red, white, -seaside, or mountain, to describe it, but it is always alder, no matter -where it grows. The different species cover much of the United States, -and few large areas are found which have not one or more species. It -grows from sea level up to 7,000 feet or more, but some species thrive -at one elevation, and others above or below. - -The alders are old inhabitants of the earth. They had a place in the -Eocene and Miocene forests of the old world and new. It is not apparent -that they have either gained or lost in extent of range during the -hundreds of thousands of years which measure their tenancy on the earth. -They have not been aggressive in pushing their way, nor have they shown -a disposition to retire before the aggression of other trees. Some -alders bear seeds equipped with wings for wind distribution, others -produce wingless seeds which depend on water to bear them to suitable -situations and plant them. Of course, the water-borne seeds are planted -on muddy shores or on the banks of running streams, and the trees of -those species are confined to such situations. The alders belong to the -birch family. - -Red alder is the largest of the alder group in this country. Mature -trees are from forty to ninety feet high, and from one to three feet in -diameter. The northern limit of its range crosses southern Alaska; its -southern border is in southern California. It is a Pacific coast tree, -with a north and south range of 2,000 miles. Trunks are straight, and -branches are generally slender. The largest specimens grow in the -vicinity of Puget Sound. The bark is thin, leaves are from three to ten -inches long, cones from one-half to one inch in length, seeds have very -narrow, thin wings, and are about the size of radish seeds. The cones -remain green in color until the seeds are fully ripe, but they finally -turn brown, and seeds are liberated during the fall and winter. - -Red alder is given that name because the newly cut wood is liable to -change quickly to a reddish-brown. This applies to the whitish sapwood -only; but since the trunk is largely sapwood, it is an important matter. -It is not apparent whether the change in color is due to attack by -fungi, or to some chemical change in the sap. It is not believed that -the change in color weakens the wood, at least it does not appear to do -so immediately. The heart is reddish, and when dressed and polished, it -presents a fine appearance. - -Red alder when thoroughly air dry weighs about thirty pounds per cubic -foot, which is slightly above the weight of basswood. It is strong for -its weight, rating only eight per cent below white oak, while in -stiffness or elasticity it is about twelve per cent above white oak. It -is not difficult to season, is soft, stands well when made up, and is -one of the most important hardwoods of the northwest Pacific coast. More -than 2,000,000 feet a year go to wood-using factories in Washington and -Oregon. - -The Indians of the Northwest, when they had only stone hatchets or the -crudest kinds of metal tools, found red alder a wood which worked so -easily that they specialized with it. They made canoes of the largest -trunks, and all manner of troughs, trays, trenches, platters, and -dugouts, some of no more than a pint in capacity, others holding three -or four bushels. The Field Museum in Chicago has a collection of these -Indian utensils made of alder. The workmanship shows considerable skill -mixed with barbaric art. There are carvings of eagles and bears which -are not entirely grotesque. The utensils were designed primarily to -contain food at ceremonial feasts, or it was stored for times of -scarcity. Among them are cooking vessels of alder in which meat was -boiled by filling the troughs with water and dropping in hot stones. - -Furniture manufacturers are the largest users of red alder. Carefully -selected heartwood, finished in the proper color, looks much like -cherry, though it lacks something of the characteristic cherry luster. -The sapwood in its natural color resembles the sapwood of yellow birch. -The annual rings are defined by narrow bands of dense summerwood. The -pores are small and diffused through the entire ring, as with birch. -Medullary rays are very thin and do not show much figure; neither do the -rings of growth, in tangential sawing, display much contrast. It is, -therefore, a figureless wood, entering into practically all grades of -furniture, in the region where alder is plentiful, but it shows to -particularly good advantage in panels. - -Reports on wood-utilization on the Pacific coast list this wood for -archery bows but particulars as to amount used, and why it is used at -all, are not given. The physical properties of the wood do not seem to -fit it for that use. It is wanting in both strength and elasticity which -are the prime, almost the only, factors considered in selecting bow -wood. No account has been found of any employment of alder for bows by -Indians of the region where it grows. - -Broom handle turners in Washington use 350,000 feet of alder a year. The -smooth finish which may be imparted to the wood constitutes its chief -value for broom handles. It is well liked for porch columns. When the -center is bored out, the wood seldom checks. In that respect it -resembles yellow poplar. It takes paint well and holds it a long time. -Comparatively large amounts are converted into interior finish. It is -made into spindles, newel posts, railing, panels, molding, ornaments, -and pedestals. Occasionally it is finished in the wood's natural color. - -Many minor places are found for red alder. Frames of pack saddles are -made of it; it forms parts of pulleys; is available for small turnery; -and it is sometimes worked into bodies and compartments for business -wagons, such as butchers and bakers use. The bark is rich in tannin and -is said to be employed in local tanneries, but no statistics are -available showing the annual supply. - -WHITE ALDER (_Alnus rhombifolia_) is known simply as alder in the region -where it grows. Where this tree and red alder occupy the same range they -are commonly supposed to be the same. The range of white alder extends -from northern Idaho to southern California. It is the common alder of -central California where it attains its best development, and the only -alder at low altitudes in southern California. Trees vary in height from -thirty to eighty feet, and in diameter from one to three. A common size -is fifty feet high and fifteen inches in diameter. Like most alders, it -sticks close to water courses, and is usually found in the bottoms of -gulches where water flows most of the year. The flowers begin to appear -in midsummer as dark, olive-brown catkins less than an inch in length. -By midwinter they are fully developed, and the tree is loaded with -catkins from four to six inches long and thick as lead pencils. In the -gulches among the elevated foothills it is not unusual for trees to be -bending beneath snow and flowers at the same time. That is about the -period when the seeds of the preceding year complete their dispersal. -The cones hang closed nearly a whole twelve months, and when they give -up their seeds, they often do it slowly. The seeds are the size of pin -heads, and seem to have had wings once, but lost them. The remnants -remain, but are of no use. If running water does not carry seeds to new -grounds they lie beneath the parent tree. The wood of white alder is -five pounds lighter per cubic foot than red alder. Its structure is less -satisfactory. Medullary rays are irregular, some being thin as those of -sweet birch, while others are as broad as rays of chestnut oak. Those of -large size seem to be scattered at haphazard, and are so irregular and -uncertain that no dependence can be placed in them for figure. Trees are -largely sapwood, which is nearly white when freshly cut, but it quickly -turns brown; heartwood is pale, yellowish-brown. This is said to be one -of most quickly-decaying woods of the western forests when logs are left -lying in damp woods. The white alder ought to be suitable for nearly -every purpose for which red alder is used. - - MOUNTAIN ALDER (_Alnus tenuifolia_) is too small to contribute much - to the lumber supply of the country, though it may yield fuel in - some localities where there is little else. Its range extends from - Yukon territory to Lower California, a distance of 4,000 miles, and - it nearly touches both the torrid and frigid zones. It is found from - the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific in the United States. Few trunks - exceed twenty-five feet in height or six inches in diameter; but the - form is generally brush, in tangled thickets along the courses of - mountain streams, and on boggy slopes, up to 7,000 feet in altitude. - The wood is light brown, and there are no reports showing its use - for any purpose except firewood. - - SITKA ALDER (_Alnus sitchensis_) is one of the smallest of the - arborescent species, and in most instances it is a shrub a few feet - high. At its best it is thirty feet high and eight inches in - diameter. It grows from Alaska to Oregon, and eastward to Alberta - and Montana. It is found in mountain regions 4,000 feet above the - sea. The wood is valuable for fuel only. This species was discovered - about eighty years ago, but was practically lost sight of until - recently. Many persons saw it but supposed it to be one of the other - alders. - - LANCELEAF ALDER (_Alnus acuminata_) is a southwestern species, - ranging through southern New Mexico and southern Arizona and south - 4,000 miles to Peru. In the United States it ascends to altitudes of - 4,000 or 6,000 feet where it fringes the banks of streams, and - flourishes in the bottoms of canyons. The largest trees are thirty - feet high and eight inches in diameter. Flowers open in February - before the appearance of the leaves. The seeds have small wings - which are of little or no use. - - SEASIDE ALDER (_Alnus maritima_) grows in Maryland, Delaware, and - Oklahoma, and the largest trunks are thirty feet high and five - inches in diameter. It is found on the banks of ponds and streams. - The flowers appear in July, and the seeds of last year's crop ripen - at the same time. The wood is light, soft, and brown, heart and sap - being scarcely distinguishable. The wood is not used. - - The European Alder (_Alnus glutinosa_) has been naturalized in a few - places in the United States, and several varieties are distinguished - in cultivation. A native shrubby species (_Alnus rugosa_) is common - in many parts of the eastern states. It is not usually listed as a - tree, being too small, but it is sometimes twenty-five feet high and - three or four inches in diameter. In Europe the charcoal made from - alder is considered excellent material for the manufacture of gun - powder, and considerable areas of alder in England are held in - reserve against an emergency. It is probable that the American - alders would answer as well as the European species. - -[Illustration] - - - - -HORNBEAM - -[Illustration: HORNBEAM] - - - - -HORNBEAM - -(_Ostrya Virginiana_) - - -This tree belongs to the birch family and is closely related to the -alders and to blue beech. Four species of hornbeam are known in the -world, and two of them are in the United States. One is well known to -most persons who are familiar with eastern hardwood forests, but the -other is seldom seen because of the limited extent of its range. - -The well-known hornbeam is found in the valley of the St. Lawrence -river, throughout Nova Scotia and Ottawa, along the northern shore of -Lake Huron to northern Minnesota, south through the northern states and -along the Alleghany mountains to the Chattahoochee region of western -Florida; through eastern Iowa, southeastern Missouri and Arkansas, -eastern Kansas, Oklahoma and the Trinity river region of Texas. It is -known as ironwood, hop-hornbeam, leverwood, and hardhack. - -The Indians were small users of wood except for fuel, but they had -places where they put wood to special uses. They chose hornbeam, when -they could get it, for one of these places. It was a favorite material -for the handles of their stone warclubs. The stone heads were chipped to -various forms, but were usually egg-shaped with a groove round the -middle for fixing the handle. This was made fast with thongs of rawhide, -and was generally nearly or quite two feet long, and slender as a golf -stick. Great strength and a high degree of elasticity were required to -stand the strain when a warrior swung his club in battle. Hornbeam meets -these requirements exactly, and doubtless the Indian found this out by -experience. It is about thirty per cent stronger than white oak, and -forty-six per cent more elastic. The demand for warclub handles made no -great inroads on the hornbeam supply, but it affords proof that the -Indians sometimes used good judgment. - -The different names of this tree describe some characteristic of the -wood or foliage. The fruit resembles hops, hence one of the names. -Hardness gives it the other names by which it is known. It is the custom -nearly everywhere to call any wood ironwood if it is extra hard. No -fewer than eleven species of the United States are known as ironwood in -some parts of their ranges. - -The leaves of hornbeam are simple and alternate; they taper to a sharp -point at the end, while the base is rounded. They are doubly and sharply -serrate. In color they are dark green above, and lighter below, tufted -in places, resembling birch leaves in some respects, although they are -quite different in texture, the leaves of birch being glossy, while -those of ironwood are rough. They are joined to the twig with a short -petiole, hardly a fourth of an inch in length. - -The flowers grow in long catkins, staminate ones sometimes more than two -inches long, covered with fringed scales. The pistillate catkins are -usually shorter. Hornbeam blooms in April and May and its fruit ripens -in August and September. The seed is a small nut equipped with -balloon-like wings, intended for wind distribution. The seeds are often -carried, rolled, and tumbled considerable distances. They keep on going -until their wings are torn off or wear out, or until they become -inextricably entangled among twigs or other obstacles. Comparatively few -of the seeds ever find lodgment in situations suitable for germination. -Consequently, hornbeam is scarce. - -It is not easy to state the average size of the hornbeam, though it is -usually small and never very large. Sometimes it reaches a height of -fifty or sixty feet and a diameter of two or more, but such sizes are -unusual. Trees a foot in diameter and forty feet high are more common. -The foliage is thin, and the tree is satisfied to grow in shade, -provided the shadows are not too dense. The leaves must have a little -sunshine, and the flecks that fall through the open spaces in the forest -canopy high above, suffice. The hornbeam makes no effort to overtop its -fellow trees; but when it grows in the open, as on a rocky bank or -ridge, where it catches the full light, the crown puts on more leaves, -and multiplies its branches, and it is no longer the lean tree which -some of the Indians called it. Forest grown specimens produce clear -trunks, but those in the open are limby almost to the ground. - -Hornbeam has neither smell nor taste. It burns well, the embers glowing -brightly in still air. The weight of a cubic foot of seasoned wood is -fifty-one pounds. It is strong, hard, heavy, tough, and exceedingly -durable when exposed to variable weather, or when in contact with the -soil. It takes a beautiful polish. Trees more than a foot in diameter -are often found to be hollow. - -The wood is strong, hard, tough, durable in contact with the soil; -heartwood light brown, tinged with red, or often nearly white; thick, -pale sapwood which generally does not change to heart for forty or fifty -years. The annual rings are not uniform in appearance. Some are easily -distinguishable, while others are vague. This variation is due to the -irregular development of the dark summerwood in the outer portion of the -rings. It is at times distinct and again is hardly discernible. - -The wood is diffuse-porous, and the pores are too small to be easily -seen by the naked eye. The medullary rays are small and obscure. In -quarter-sawed wood they show as a silvery gloss, but the appearance is -too monotonous to be attractive. Neither is there striking figure when -the wood is sawed tangentially, because of the small contrast in the -different parts of the yearly ring. Hornbeam may, therefore, be listed -among woods which have little or no figure. No one ever thinks of using -it for the sake of its beauty. Because of the small size and limited -quantity hornbeam will never come into commercial prominence. Its uses -are almost entirely local and domestic. The lumberman or the farmer -selects a hornbeam sapling as being the best material obtainable for -making a wagon or sleigh tongue, a skid, or a lever. The farmer often -laboriously works a section of the flint-like wood into minor -agricultural implements. - -The statistics of sawmill cut in the United States do not mention -hornbeam even among such minor species as holly, Osage orange, alder, -and apple. However, it is known that an occasional log goes to sawmills -in the Lake States, and doubtless in other regions, and in some -instances the wood is kept separate from others and is sold to fill -special orders. Manufacturers of farm tools consider it the best wood -for rake teeth. That use has come down from the time when farmers made -their own rakes and pitchforks. They learned the wood's value by -experience, and manufacturers cater to the trade. - -It is sometimes called lever wood, and that name dates from long ago -when the man who needed a lever went into the woods and cut one to suit -his needs. The modern lever is usually somewhat different and partakes -more of the nature of a handle. They are seen in sawmills where they -manipulate the carriage machinery; on certain agricultural implements -where their function is to throw clutches in and out of gear; sometimes -they are used as the handle by which the rudder of a small boat is -controlled; and occasionally the lever has a place as an adjunct of a -wagon or log-car brake. In all of these uses strength and stiffness are -required, and durability is duly considered. - -Wagon makers and repairers find several uses for hornbeam. It would be -more frequently employed if it were more plentiful. Nearly any -blacksmith who runs a repair shop for vehicles will testify to that. It -fulfills every requisite for axles; is made into felloes for heavy -wagons; and is considered the best obtainable wood for the tongues of -heavy logging wheels and stone wagons. - -Among various occasional uses of this wood it is listed by the -manufacturers of reels for garden hose; rungs for long ladders; stakes -for sleds, and also for cross pieces and parts of runners of sleds; -wedges for the makers of machinery; and hammer and hatchet handles. It -is a pretty active competitor of dogwood for some of these uses, and it -has been suggested for shuttles, but no report of its use in that -capacity seems to have been made. - -One of its most common uses is as fence posts. Few lines of fence are -built exclusively of hornbeam posts, because not enough can be had in -one place; but posts are cut singly or a few together from Maine to -Arkansas, and the aggregate number is large. The wood is said to outlast -the heartwood of white oak when in contact with the ground, and it is so -strong that posts of small size stand the pull of wires or the weight of -planks or pickets. - -Hornbeam is of slow growth and there is little reason to believe that it -will ever be seriously considered by timber growers; but it will -doubtless win its way to favor as an ornamental tree. It has been -planted in city parks in New England and elsewhere, and its form, -foliage, and habits are much liked. The pale green pods or cones--they -are not exactly the one or the other--remain a long time on the branches -and are delicately ornamental until after the autumn frosts change their -green into brown. Then comes the flying time of the balloon seeds, and -that is an interesting period in parks and yards where the tree's habits -may be closely studied. - - KNOWLTON HORNBEAM (_Ostrya knowltoni_) is interesting chiefly on - account of its extremely limited range, and its far removal from all - its kin. It is an exile in a distant country. It has thus far been - found only on the southern slope of the canyon of the Colorado river - in Arizona, about seventy miles north of Flagstaff. It occurs at an - elevation of 6,000 or 7,000 feet above the sea. Trees are twenty or - thirty feet high and twelve or eighteen inches in diameter, and - trunks usually divide a foot or two above the ground into three or - more branches, which are often crooked and contorted. Such sizes and - forms could not be of much value for anything but fuel, even if - abundant. The heart is light reddish-brown, sapwood thin. The leaves - are round instead of pointed at the apex, as with the other - hornbeam; but the flowers and fruit are much the same. Botanists - speculate in vain as to how this species happens to be so far - removed from other members of its family. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SILVERBELL - -[Illustration: SILVERBELL] - - - - -SILVERBELL TREE - -(_Mohrodendron Carolinum_) - - -This tree belongs to the storax family, which is not a very numerous -family as forest families are generally counted, but it is old and -highly respectable. Its members are found in the old world and the new -in both North and South America, in Europe, Asia, and the Malay -Archipelago. Trees of the storax family produce, or they are supposed to -produce, resins and gums, balsams, and aromatic exudations, but some -give little or none. The priests and soothsayers of idolatrous nations -of ancient times laid great stress on storax. They insisted on having -the resin as an adjunct to their superstitious rites. It was the incense -offered in their worship, and they compassed sea and land to obtain it -for that purpose. It is not improbable that the southern peninsulas of -Asia and the far-off Molucca islands were visited in ancient times to -procure the incense which ultimately found its way to the Mediterranean -regions. - -It is, therefore, interesting to find that two members of the old storax -family are quietly living in the coast region and among the mountains of -the southeastern part of the United States. No one has ever suspected -that they might be capable of yielding resinous incense suitable for the -altars of heathen gods. They are the silverbell tree, and its little -cousin, the snowdrop tree (_Mohrodendron dipterum_). They have had -common names a long time, but their botanical names are the result of a -recent christening. They are named from Charles Mohr who wrote an -interesting book on the flora of Alabama. The silverbell tree is the -larger of the two and deserves first consideration. - -It has a somewhat extensive range, but in some parts it is so scarce -that few persons ever see it. It is found from the mountains of West -Virginia to southern Illinois, south to middle Florida, northern -Alabama, and Mississippi, and through Arkansas and western Louisiana to -eastern Texas. Under cultivation, this tree is known as the snowdrop -tree in Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, South Carolina, -Florida, and Louisiana. In Rhode Island, under cultivation, it is also -sometimes known as the silverbell tree, and bears the same name in -Alabama, Florida, and Mississippi. In parts of Tennessee it is known as -the wild olive tree, and in other parts of the state as the bell tree. -In various localities in Alabama it is referred to as the four-winged -halesia; and in others as opossumwood. It is indiscriminately known in -various sections of Texas as the rattlebox and calicowood, and some of -the furniture manufacturers in North Carolina list it as box elder, -though it is only distantly related to the true box elder. In the Great -Smoky mountains in Tennessee, where the species reaches its greatest -development, it bears a variety of names, among them being tisswood, -peawood, bellwood, and chittamwood. - -The tree varies in size from a shrubby form so small that it is scarcely -entitled to the name of tree, up to a height of eighty, ninety, and even -more than 100 feet with diameters up to nearly four feet. The largest -sizes occur only among the ranges of the Great Smoky mountains in -Blount, Sevier, and Monroe counties, Tennessee. No reason is known why -this tree in that region should so greatly exceed its largest dimensions -in other areas; but most species have a locality where the greatest -development is reached, and this has found the favorable conditions in -the mountains of eastern Tennessee. Some of the trees measure sixty feet -or more to the first limbs. - -Lumbermen of the country are not generally acquainted with silverbell, -as is natural since its commercial range is so limited. It is not listed -in statistics of sawmill cut or of veneer mills. The wood-using -industries of the country do not report it, except in the one state, -North Carolina, and there in very small amounts. Doubtless, it is -occasionally used elsewhere, but it escapes mention in most instances. -It has been made into mantels at Knoxville, Tennessee, and passes as -birch. - -The wood is light, soft, usually narrow-ringed, color light brown, the -thick sapwood lighter. It weighs thirty-five pounds per cubic foot, and -when burned it yields a low percentage of ash. The wood's chief value is -due to its color and figure. Best results are not obtained by sawing the -logs into lumber, because the handsomest part of the figure is apt to be -lost. It is preeminently suited to the cutting of rotary veneer. By that -method of conversion the birdseye and the pitted and mottled effects are -brought out in the best possible manner. Veneers so cut from logs -selected for the figure, possess a rare beauty which no other American -wood equals. There is a pleasing blend of tones, which are due to the -direction in which the distorted grain is cut. This distinguishes the -wood from all others and gives it an individuality. Much of the figure -appears to be due to the presence of adventitious buds, similar to those -supposed to be responsible for the birdseye effect in maple. - -The leaves of silverbell are bright green at maturity and are from four -to six inches long and two or three wide. They turn yellow before -falling in autumn. The flowers give the tree its name, for they resemble -delicate bells, about one inch in length. They appear in early spring -when the leaves are one-third grown, on slender, drooping stems from one -to two inches long. The trees are loaded throughout the whole crown, -and present an appearance that is seldom surpassed for beauty in the -forests of this country. - -The fruit is peculiar and is not particularly graceful. It has too much -the appearance of the load carried by a well-fruited vine of hops. It -ripens late in autumn and persists during most of the winter. There is -nothing in its color, shape, or taste to tempt birds or other creatures -to make food of it, though, under stress of circumstances, they may -sometimes do so. The fruit is two inches or less in length and an inch -wide, and has four wings, which seem to be practically useless for -flight. The seed is about half an inch long. - -The bark of the trunk is bright red-brown and about half an inch thick, -with broad ridges which separate on the surface into thin papery scales. -The young branches wear an early coat of thick, pale wool or hairs, -light, reddish-brown during the first summer, but later changing to an -orange color. - -The botanical range of the species is extensive, though the tree-form is -confined to a few counties among the southern Appalachian mountains. The -northern limit of its range is in West Virginia where it is so scarce -that many a woodsman never recognizes it. Unless it is caught while in -the full glory of its bloom, it attracts no attention. It is not there a -tree, but a shrub, hidden away among other growth, along mountain -streams or on slopes where the soil is fertile. The blooming shrub -might, at a distance, be mistaken for a dogwood in full blossom, but a -closer inspection corrects the mistake. - -It is true of this species as of many others that the range has been -greatly extended by planting. The bell-like white flowers early drew -attention of nurserymen who were on the lookout for trees for ornamental -planting. It was carried to Europe long ago, and graces many a yard and -park in the central and northern countries of that continent. It now -grows and thrives in the United States six hundred miles northeast of -its natural range, where it endures the winters of eastern -Massachusetts, blooms as bounteously as in its native haunts among the -shaded streams of the Alleghany mountains. - -SNOWDROP TREE (_Mohrodendron dipterum_) is a near relative of the -silverbell tree, and looks much like it, except that it is smaller, has -larger leaves, and the flowers are creamy-white. The two occupy the same -territory in part of their ranges, but they differ in one respect. The -silverbell tree grows with great luxuriance among the mountains while -the snowdrop tree keeps to the low country and is seldom or never found -growing naturally at any considerable elevation. It prefers swamps or -damp situations near the coast. While the silverbell tree's range -includes West Virginia, that of the snowdrop extends no farther north -than South Carolina. It follows the coast to Texas, and runs north -through Louisiana to central Arkansas. Its range has been greatly -enlarged by planting, and the northern winters do not kill it on the -southern shores of Lake Erie. The largest trees are about thirty feet -high and six inches in diameter, but the growth in most places is -shrubby. Leaves are four or five inches long and three or four wide. -Flowers are one inch long and are borne in profusion. They constitute -the tree's chief value as an ornament, though the foliage is attractive. -The bloom lasts a month or six weeks, from the middle of March till the -last of April. The fruit has two wings instead of four, as with -silverbell, but occasionally two rudimentary wings are present. The wood -is light, soft, strong, color light brown, with thicker, lighter -sapwood. The smallness of the trunks makes their use for lumber -impossible. The species is valuable for ornamental purposes only, and -has been planted both in this country and Europe. It has a number of -names by which it is known in different localities, among them being -cowlicks in Louisiana, and silverbell tree in the North where it has -been planted outside of its natural range. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SYCAMORE - -[Illustration: SYCAMORE] - - - - -SYCAMORE - -(_Platanus Occidentalis_) - - -Probably no person with a practical knowledge of trees ever mistakes -sycamore for anything else. The tree stands clear-cut and distinct. -Until the trunk becomes old, it sheds its outer layer of bark yearly, or -at least frequently, and the exfoliation exposes the white, new bark -below. The upper part of the trunk and the large branches are white and -conspicuous in the spring, and are recognizable at a long distance. No -other tree in the American forest is as white. The nearest approach to -it is the paper birch of the North, or the white birch of New England. - -Notwithstanding the tree's individuality, it has a good many names. It -is generally known as sycamore throughout the states of the Union, but -it is frequently called buttonwood in Vermont, New Hampshire, Rhode -Island, Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, -South Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, -Missouri, Illinois, Nebraska, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, and Ontario; -buttonball tree in several of the eastern states and occasionally in -Illinois, Iowa, Ohio, Michigan, and Nebraska; the plane tree in Rhode -Island, Delaware, South Carolina, Kansas, Nebraska, and Iowa; the water -beech in Delaware; the platane, cottonier, and bois puant in Louisiana. -Probably the finest growth of the sycamore ever encountered was in Ohio -and Indiana, and these states still contain isolated patches of -magnificent specimens of the wood. The Black Swamp of Ohio was -originally a famous sycamore country, of which Defiance was the center -of lumber manufacture. Many parts of Indiana produced a good sycamore -growth, and a considerable amount of timber of excellent quality still -exists, but is now largely owned by farmers who are generally holding it -out of the market. - -The range of sycamore extends from Maine to Nebraska, and south to Texas -and Florida. It is one of the largest of American hardwoods, and in -diameter of trunk it is exceeded by none. Trees are on record that were -from ten to fourteen feet in diameter, and it was not unusual in the -primeval forests for them to tower nearly or quite 125. In height a -number of hardwoods exceed it, the yellow poplar in particular; but none -of them has a larger trunk than the largest sycamores. However, the -mammoths are generally hollow. The heart decays as rings of new growth -are added to the outside of the shell. So large were the cavities in -some of the sycamores in the original forests that more than one case is -on record of their being used by early settlers as places of abode. - -The tree thrives best in the immediate vicinity of rivers and creeks. It -needs abundance of water for its roots, but is not insistent in its -demand for deep, fertile soil, for it grows on gravel bars along water -courses, provided some soil and sand are mixed with the gravel. Great -age is doubtless attained, but records are necessarily lacking in cases -where the annual rings of growth must be depended upon; because the -hollow trunks have lost most of their rings by decay. - -Sycamore bears abundance of light seed which is scattered short -distances by wind and much farther by running water. Its ideal place for -germinating is on muddy shores and wet flats. Here the seeds are -deposited by wind and water, and in a short time multitudes of seedlings -spring up. Though most of them are doomed to perish before they attain a -height of a few feet, survivors are sufficient to assure thick stands on -small areas. The trunks grow tall rapidly, and until they reach -considerable size, they remain solid and make good sawlogs; but at an -age of seventy-five or 100 years, deterioration is apt to set in; some -die, others become hollow, and the result is a good stand of large -sycamores is unusual. The veterans are generally scattered through -forests of other species. - -The statement has often been made in recent years that sycamore is -becoming very scarce and that the annual output is rapidly declining. -Statistics do not show a declining output. The cut of sycamore in 1909 -was approximately twice as great as in 1899. It is true that the supply -is not very large, and it never was large compared with some other -hardwoods; but it appears to be holding its own as well as most forest -trees. The cut in the United States in 1910 was 45,000,000, and it was -credited to twenty-six states. Indiana was the largest contributor, and -it had held that position a long time. States next below it in the order -named were Missouri, Arkansas, Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, and Illinois. -Doubtless some of the sycamore lumber now going to market has grown -since old settlers cut the primeval stands when they cleared their -fields. It will continue to grow, and since it usually occupies waste -places, it may be depended upon to contribute pretty regularly year by -year during time to come. It is one of the forest trees which have never -suffered much from fires, because it grows in damp situations. - -The wood of sycamore weighs 35.39 pounds per cubic foot, is hard, but -not strong, difficult to split and work; the annual rings are limited by -narrow bands of dark summerwood. The rings are very porous. The -medullary rays are rather small, but can be easily seen without a glass. -They run in regular, radial lines, close together, and the pores are in -rows between. The rays of sycamore vary from the rule with most woods, -in that they are darker than the body of the wood. - -One of the earliest uses of sycamore was by farmers who cut hollow -trunks, sawed them in lengths of three or four feet, nailed bottoms in -them, and used them for barrels for grain. They were called gums. Solid -logs two or three feet in diameter were cut in lengths of a foot or -less, bored through the center, and used as wheels for ox carts. The ox -yoke was often made of sycamore. Butchers used sycamore sections about -three feet high for meat blocks. The wood is tough, and continual -hacking fails to split it. The use for meat blocks continues at the -present time. In Illinois 1,600,000 feet were so employed in 1910. - -One of the earliest employments of the wood for commercial purposes was -in the manufacture of boxes for plug tobacco; but it has now been -largely replaced by cheaper woods. Its freedom from stain and odor is -its chief recommendation for tobacco boxes. Some of it is in demand for -cigar boxes. - -The modern uses of sycamore are many. It is made into ordinary crates -and shipping boxes in most regions where it grows. Rotary cut veneer is -worked into berry crates and baskets, and into barrels. Ice boxes and -refrigerators are among the products. Slack coopers are among the -largest users, but some of the manufactured stave articles belong more -properly to woodenware, such as tubs, washing machines, candy buckets, -and lard pails. - -Furniture makers demand the best grades, and most of the quarter-sawed -stock goes to them, though the manufacturers of musical instruments buy -some of the finest. Use is pretty general from pipe organs and pianos -down to mandolins, guitars and phonographs. It enters extensively into -the making of miscellaneous commodities. As small a toy as the -stereoscope consumes much sycamore. Makers of trunks find it suitable -for slats, and it serves as small squares and borders in parquetry. It -is a choice wood for barber poles and saddle trees, and its fine -appearance when worked in broad panels leads to its employment as -interior finish for houses, boats, and passenger cars. - - CALIFORNIA SYCAMORE (_Platanus racemosa_) is one of the three - species of sycamore now found growing naturally in the United - States. They are survivors of a very old family and appear to have - been crowded down from the far North by the cold, or to have made - their way south for some other reason. Sycamores flourished in - Greenland in the Cretaceous age, some millions of years ago, as is - shown by fossil remains dug up in that land of ice and eternal - winter. They grew in central Europe, about the same time, but long - ago disappeared from there. Sycamores were growing in the United - States an immense period of time ago, and were doubtless lifting - their giant white branches high above the banks of ancient rivers - while the gorgeous bloom of yellow poplars brightened the forests on - the rich bottom lands farther back. Several species of sycamores - which grew in the United States during the Tertiary age are now - extinct. All seem to have been much like those which have come down - to the present day. - - The California sycamore is found in the southern half of that state, - and in Lower California. It grows from sea level up to 5,000 feet, - and has the same habits as the larger sycamore of the East, and - prefers the banks of streams and the wet land in the bottoms of - canyons. It attains a height of from forty to eighty feet, and a - diameter of from two to five. Some trees are larger, one in - particular near Los Angeles having a trunk diameter of nine feet. - The tree is usually extremely distorted and misshaped, leaning, - twisted, and forking and reforking until a practical lumberman would - pronounce it a hopeless proposition. This applies, however, to - trunks which grow in the open, and that is where most of them grow. - When they are found crowded in thick stands in the bottoms of - canyons, their trunks are shapely enough for short sawlogs. The wood - is very similar to that of eastern sycamore, and it is used for - similar purposes, when used at all. The balls are strung five on one - tough stem, which is from six to ten inches long. The eastern - sycamore usually has a stem for each ball. The seeding habits of - both trees are the same. - - ARIZONA SYCAMORE (_Platanus wrightii_) has its range in southern New - Mexico, southern Arizona, and neighboring regions in Mexico, where - it grows in the bottoms of canyons up to 6,000 feet above sea. The - tree attains a height of from thirty to eighty feet, and a diameter - of two to five. The trunk is seldom shapely, but often divides in - large branches, some of which are fifty or sixty feet long. There - are usually three balls on a stem, and the leaf is shaped much like - the leaf of red gum, but there is considerable variation in form. - The wood resembles eastern sycamore in color and most other - features, but when quarter-sawed the flecks produced by the - medullary rays are generally smaller, and give a mottled effect. The - wood has not been much used, but apparently it is not inferior to - eastern sycamore. - -[Illustration] - - - - -BLACK CHERRY - -[Illustration: BLACK CHERRY] - - - - -BLACK CHERRY - -(_Prunus Serotina_) - - -This widely distributed tree supplies the cherry wood of commerce. Its -natural range extends from Nova Scotia westward through the Canadian -provinces to the Kaministiquia river; south to Tampa bay in Florida and -west to North Dakota, eastern Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and eastern -Texas. The tree is known as wild black cherry, wild cherry, black -cherry, rum cherry, whiskey cherry, and choke cherry. - -Cherry belongs to a remarkably large family and the ordinary observer -would never suspect the relationship that exists between it and other -growths to which it bears little resemblance. It is in the rose family -(_Rosaceae_). It has multitudes of small and large cousins, most of them -small, however. Among them are the crabapple, the serviceberry, the -haws, thorns, plums, and the peach, besides plants which do not rise to -the dignity of trees. - -The crown of black cherry is narrow and the branches are horizontal. In -height the tree ranges from fifty to one hundred or more feet. The bark -is a dark reddish-brown, rough and broken into plates, becoming smoother -toward the top. The branchlets are a rich reddish-brown, and are marked -with tiny orange-colored dots. The leaves are small, alternate, oblong -or oval lanceolate, taper-pointed at the apex and pointed or rounded at -the base, finely serrate; at maturity glabrous, firm, glossy, the light -colored midrib being very distinct. The flowers are white and grow on -pedicels in long slender racemes, which terminate leafy shoots. The -fruit is almost black, showing deep red coloring beneath and is a small -round drupe; vinous, although not disagreeable to the taste. In most -instances a liking for it must be acquired, but comparatively few people -ever take the trouble to acquire it. The old settlers among the -Alleghany mountains had a way of pressing the juice from the drupes and -by some simple process converting it into "cherry bounce," a beverage -somewhat bitter but it never went begging when the old-time mountaineers -were around. This was doubtless what persons had in mind who called it -rum cherry. Few fruits, either wild or tame, contain more juice in -proportion to bulk. Ripe fruit is employed as a flavor for alcoholic -liquors. The bark contains hydrocyanic acid and is used in medicine. The -peculiar odor of cherry bark is due to this acid. - -In early years the ripening of the cherry crop among the ranges of the -Appalachian mountains was a signal for bears to congregate where cherry -trees were thickest. The cubs were then large enough to follow their -mothers--in August--and it was considered a dangerous season in the -cherry woods, because the old bears would grow fierce if molested while -feeding. The mountaineers knew enough to stay away from the danger -points at that time, unless they went there purposely to engage in a -bear fight. It was a common saying among those people that "cherry -bears" should be let alone. - -The cherry's chief importance in this country has been due to its -lumber. Unfortunately, that value lies chiefly in the past, for the -supply is running low. It never was very great, for, though the species -has a large range, it is sparingly dispersed through the forests. In -many parts of its range a person might travel all day in the woods and -see few cherry trees, and perhaps none. The best stands hardly ever -cover more than a few acres. Generally the trees grow singly or in -clumps. It appears to be nearly wholly a matter of soil and light, for -the seeds, which are carried by birds, are scattered in immense numbers, -and only those grow which chance to find conditions just right. The tree -wants rich ground and plenty of room, which is a combination not often -found in primeval forest regions; but, since the country has been -largely cleared, cherry trees spring up along fence rows and in nooks -and corners. If let alone they grow rapidly, but trunks so produced are -of little value for lumber, because too short and limby. In the forest -the tree lifts its light crown high on a slender trunk to reach the -sunshine, and such trunks supply the cherry lumber of commerce. Near the -northern limit of its range it seems to abandon its demand for good soil -and is content if it is supplied with light only. It betakes itself to -the face of cliffs, sometimes overhanging the sea, and so near it that -the branches are drenched in spray thrown up by breakers. It is needless -to say that no good lumber is produced under such circumstances. - -The first loss of cherry occurred when the farms were cleared. It stood -on the best ground, and the land-hungry Anglo-Saxon wanted that for -himself. He cut the tall shapely cherry trees, built fences and barns of -some of the logs, and burned the balance in the clearing. Then came the -pioneer lumberman who did not take much, because his old up-and-down -saw, which was run by water, would cut only about a thousand feet a day, -and there was plenty of other kinds of timber. But when the steam mill -put in its appearance, cherry went fast. Its price was high enough to -pay for a long haul. From that day till this, cherry has gone to market -as rapidly as millmen could get to it. - -Next to walnut, it is the highest priced lumber produced in the United -States. The average cut per mill, according to returns of those who -sawed it in 1909, was only 11,200 feet, and the total output that year -was only 24,594,000 feet, contributed by twenty-nine states. The five -leading producers were, in the order named, West Virginia, -Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, and Indiana. The next year the total -output fell to 18,237,000 feet, and cherry went down to a place among -the "minor species," such as dogwood, alder, locust, and buckeye. The -day of its importance in the lumber industry is past. It has become too -scarce to attract much attention, but there will always be some cherry -in the market, though veteran trunks, three and four feet through and -good for four sixteen-foot logs, will be seldom seen in the years to -come. - -While good taste ordinarily dictates that cherry be finished in a tone -approximating its natural color, it is quite frequent that it -masquerades as mahogany. A well-known and perfect method of making -cherry look like mahogany is to have the wood rubbed with diluted nitric -acid, which prepares it for the materials to be subsequently applied; -afterwards, to a filtered mixture of an ounce and a half of dragon's -blood dissolved in a pint of spirits of wine, is added one-third that -quantity of carbonate of soda, the whole constituting a very thin liquid -which is applied to the wood with a soft brush. This process is repeated -at short intervals until the wood assumes the external appearance of -mahogany. While cherry is employed as an imitation of mahogany, it is in -its turn imitated also. Sweet birch is finished to look like cherry, and -for that reason is sometimes known as cherry birch. - -Cherry weighs 36.28 pounds per cubic foot; it is very porous, but the -pores are small and are diffused through all parts of the annual ring. -The wood has no figure. Its value is due to color and luster. The -medullary rays are numerous but small, and in quarter-sawing they do not -show as mirrors, like oak, but as a soft luster covering the whole -surface. - -The principal uses of cherry have always been in furniture and finish, -but it has many minor uses, such as tool handles, boxes for garden -seeds, spirit levels and other tools, and implements, patterns, -penholders, actions for organs and piano players, baseblocks for -electrotypes and other printing plates, and cores for high-class panels. -Aside from its color, its chief value is due to its comparative freedom -from checking and warping. This cherry is one of the few trees that -cross the equator. It extends from Canada far down the west coast of -South America. - - CHOKE CHERRY (_Prunus virginiana_) is widely distributed in North - America from Canada to Mexico. It is said to attain its largest size - in the Southwest where trees are sometimes forty feet high and a - foot in diameter. The name is due to the astringency of the half - ripe fruit which can scarcely be eaten. When fully ripe it is a - little more tolerable, and is then black, but is red before it is - ripe. The color of immature cherries deceives the unsophisticated - into believing they are ripe. In Canada the fruit is made into pies - and jelly, and it is said the tree is occasionally planted for its - fruit. The Indians of former times made food of it. The tree is - small, and bruised branches emit a disagreeable odor; leaves contain - prussic acid, and when partly withered, they are poisonous to - cattle. The trunks are nearly always too small for commercial - purposes, and are apt to be affected with a fungous disease known as - black knot. - - WESTERN CHOKE CHERRY (_Prunus demissa_) grows from the Rocky - Mountains to the Pacific in the United States. It is often regarded - as the western form of choke cherry, but it has more palatable - fruit, and trees are a little larger, while trunks are so crooked - that no user of wood cares to have anything to do with them. The - wood is weak, but is hard and heavy. - - BITTER CHERRY (_Prunus emarginata_) belongs to the far West, and is - found from British Columbia to southern California. In size it - ranges from a low shrub to a tree a foot in diameter and forty feet - high. The largest sizes are found in western Washington and Oregon. - The wood is soft and brittle, brown streaked with green. It is not - known that any attempt has been made to put the wood of this tree to - any useful purpose. The bark and the leaves are exceedingly bitter. - Fruit ripens from June to August, depending on region and elevation, - and it is from one-fourth to one-half inch in diameter, black, and - intensely bitter. - - HOLLYLEAF CHERRY (_Prunus ilicifolia_) is a California species - growing in the bottoms of canyons from San Francisco bay to the - Mexican line. It is rarely more than thirty feet high, but has a - large trunk, sometimes two feet in diameter. The wood is heavy, - hard, and strong, and it ought to be valuable in the manufacture of - small articles, but fuel is the only use reported for it. The fruit - is insipid, and ripens late in autumn. The foliage is much admired - and has led to the planting of the species for ornamental purposes. - -[Illustration] - - - - -WILD RED CHERRY - -[Illustration: WILD RED CHERRY] - - - - -WILD RED CHERRY - -(_Prunus Pennsylvanica_) - - -In addition to the name wild red cherry by which this tree is known in -most parts of its range, it is called bird cherry in Maine, New -Hampshire, New York, Pennsylvania, Minnesota, Iowa; red cherry in Maine -and Rhode Island; fire cherry in New York and many other localities; pin -cherry in Vermont, New Hampshire, New York, Michigan, Iowa, and North -Dakota; pigeon cherry in Vermont, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, New York, -Ontario, and North Dakota; and wild cherry in Tennessee and New York. -Its range extends from Newfoundland to Hudson bay, west to British -Columbia, south through the Rocky Mountains to Colorado, and in the East -along the Appalachian ranges to North Carolina and Tennessee. It reaches -its largest size among the Big Smoky mountains in Tennessee and North -Carolina. - -It is ordinarily a tree thirty or forty feet high, and from eight to ten -inches in diameter, though trunks are sometimes twenty inches through. -It grows fast, but is very short-lived. Many stands disappear in thirty -years or less, but individuals survive two or three times that long, if -they stand in open ground. One of its names is fire cherry, and that -fitly describes it. Like paper birch and lodgepole pine, it follows -forest fires where the ground is laid bare by the burning. Nature seems -to have made peculiar provisions whereby this tree clothes barren tracts -which have been recently burned. In the first place, it is a prolific -seeder. Its small, red cherries are borne by bushels on very young -trees. Birds feed on them almost exclusively while they last, and the -seeds are scattered over the surrounding country. They have such thick -shells that few germinate unless they pass through a moderate fire, -which cracks the shells, or at least they do not sprout until they come -in direct contact with mineral soil. When a fire burns a forest, -thousands of the cherry seedlings spring up. Many persons have wondered -where they come from so quickly. They were already scattered among the -forest leaves before the fire passed. The heat crazed their shells, and -the burning of the leaflitter let them down on the mineral soil where -they germinated and soon came up by thousands. The case is a little -different with paper birch and with aspen, which are also fire trees. -Their seeds cannot pass through fire without perishing, and when birches -and aspens follow a fire it means that the seeds were scattered by the -wind after the passing of the fire. Doubtless cherry seeds are often -scattered after the fire has passed; but it is believed that most of -those which spring up so quickly have passed through the fire without -being destroyed. - -This small cherry is one of the means by which damage by forest fires is -repaired. The tree is of little value for lumber or even for fuel; but -it acts as a nurse tree--that is, it shelters and protects the seedlings -of other species until they obtain a start. By the time the cherry trees -die, the seedlings which they have nursed are able to take care of -themselves, and a young forest of valuable species is established. - -Except in this indirect way, the wild red cherry is of little use to -man. The wood is soft, light, and of pleasing color, but trees are -nearly always too small to be worked into useful articles. About the -only industry of which there is any record, which draws supplies from -this source, is the manufacture of pipe stems. The straight, slender, -bright-barked branches are cut into requisite lengths and bored endwise, -and serve for stems of cheap pipes, and occasionally for those more -expensive. The bark, like that of most cherries, is marked by dark bands -running part way round the stems. These are known as lenticels, and -exist in the bark of most trees, but they are usually less conspicuous -in others than in cherry. It is this characteristic marking which gives -the cherry pipe stem its value. - -Wild red cherry blooms from May to July, depending on latitude and -elevation, and the fruit ripens from July to September. The cherries -hang in bunches, are bright red, quite sour, and the seed is the largest -part. They are occasionally made into jelly, wine, and form the basis of -certain cough syrups. - -WEST INDIA CHERRY (_Prunus sphaerocarpa_) grows near the shores of -Biscayne bay, Florida. It there blooms in November and the fruit ripens -the next spring. The tree attains a height of from twenty-five to thirty -feet, and a diameter of five or six inches. When grown in the open at -Miami, Florida, it is larger, and is much liked as an ornament. The -thin, smooth bark is brown, tinged with red, and is marked by large -conspicuous lenticels. The wood is hard and light, and of light clear -red color. It is too scarce to be of much importance, but paper knives, -napkin rings, and other novelties made of it are sold in souvenir stores -in southern Florida. Its range extends south to Brazil. - -WILLOWLEAF CHERRY (_Prunus salicifolia_) is a small tree, also called -Mexican cherry, is more common south of the United States than in this -country, ranging as far south as Peru. It is found on some of the -mountains of southern New Mexico and Arizona. - -LAUREL CHERRY (_Prunus caroliniana_) is a southern species which sticks -close to the coast in most of its range from South Carolina to Texas. It -has many names, among them wild peach, wild orange, mock orange, -evergreen cherry, mock olive, and Carolina cherry. Leaves hang two -years, and the fruit remains nearly one. The latter is black and about -half an inch long. The withered leaves are poisonous if eaten by cattle. -The tree is thirty or forty feet high, and eight or ten inches in -diameter. The wood is heavy, hard, and strong, color light brown to -dark, rich brown, sometimes of much beauty, but no record has been found -of any use for it. The tree is often planted for ornament. - - WILD PLUM (_Prunus americana_) is found from New Jersey to Montana, - southward to New Mexico and Texas, and extends to Florida and - Mexico. Its range covers about a million square miles. There are - seven or more species of wild plums in the United States. The fruit - of all of them is edible. They have been planted accidentally or - otherwise in many localities where they were not found before the - country was settled. The plum was an important fruit in the - country's early history. The pioneers gathered wild fruits before - planted orchards came into bearing, and the plum was one of the best - which nature supplied. Early travelers among the Indians in the - South frequently spoke of Indian peaches. Such references have led - some to believe that the peach was native in that region, but it is - safe to conclude that what was called the peach was really some - species of wild plum. These fruits were among the earliest to become - domesticated. In fact, they were abundant about the sites of Indian - towns and old fields, where the savages had scattered seeds without - any purpose on their part of planting trees; and early settlers - imitated the Indians, and plums were soon growing in the vicinity of - most of the cabins. As a forest tree, it usually thrived best on the - banks of streams, for there it could find more sunshine than in the - deep woods, and it bore much more fruit. The ranges of several - species of plums overlapped, and different sizes and colors of fruit - were found in the same locality even before white men assisted the - spread of species. The common plum, known to botanists as _Prunus - americana_, is recognized under many names among laymen; among these - names are yellow plum, red plum, horse plum, hog plum, August plum, - native plum, and goose plum. Usually the plum's skin is red, and the - flesh yellow, which accounts for its names, both red and yellow. The - tree ranges in height from twenty to thirty-five feet, and from five - to ten inches in diameter. The wood is heavy, hard, and strong, and - dark rich-brown. It is suitable for turnery and small novelties, but - little of it has been used. - - CANADA PLUM (_Prunus nigra_) appears to be the most northern member - of the plum group. It grows from Newfoundland to Manitoba, and south - into the northern tier of states. Its range has been much extended - by planting, and a number of varieties have appeared. It is twenty - or thirty feet high, and five to eight inches in diameter. Flowers - appear in April and May, and the fruit is ripe in September and - October. The plums are about an inch long, orange-red in color, with - yellow flesh. The wood is heavy, hard, and strong. Those who - cultivate this tree often do so for the beauty of the flowers, - rather than for the value of the fruit. The wood is not used for - commercial purposes. - - BLACK SLOE (_Prunus umbellata_), known also as southern bullace - plum, hog plum, and wild plum, ranges from South Carolina, round the - coast through Florida, to Louisiana and up the Mississippi valley - into Arkansas. The tree is fifteen or twenty feet high and from six - to ten inches in diameter. The fruit ripens from July to September, - is black when ripe, and often nearly an inch long. The people where - it grows use it for jelly. It is not reported that the wood is used - for any purpose. - - WESTERN PLUM (_Prunus subcordata_) grows west of the Cascade - mountains from southern Oregon to central California. It is often a - low bush, but at its best forms a tree twenty feet high and six - inches in diameter, but its wood is of no economic importance. Its - deep, purple-red plums ripen in autumn and are an excellent wild - fruit, juicy and tart. During the fruit season the plum thickets - were formerly infested by both bears and Indians, and many a fight - for possession took place, with victory sometimes on one side, - sometimes on the other. The white inhabitants now make jam and jelly - of the fruit. - - ALLEGHANY SLOE (_Prunus allegheniensis_) is so named because it is - best developed among the Alleghany mountains of Pennsylvania. The - tree is eighteen or twenty feet high and six or eight inches in - diameter. The wood is without value for commercial purposes, but the - tree's fruit has some local importance. It ripens about the middle - of August, and is somewhat less than an inch in diameter, with dark, - reddish-purple skin, covering yellow flesh. - - CHICKASAW PLUM (_Prunus angustifolia_) is a well-known wild plum of - the South from Delaware to Texas, and north to Kansas. Its natural - range is not known, because it has been so widely planted, - accidentally or otherwise, near farm houses and in fence corners. - Its bright, red fruit goes only to local markets. Negroes gather - most of the crop in the South. The wood is not considered to have - any value, but, in common with other plums, it possesses qualities - which fit it for many small articles. - - GARDEN WILD PLUM (_Prunus hortulana_) is supposed to have originated - in Kentucky from a cross between the Chickasaw plum and the common - wild plum (Prunus americana). It has spread from Virginia to Texas. - The largest trees are thirty feet high and a foot in diameter. The - fruit ripens in September and October, is deep red or yellow, with - hard, austere, thin flesh, quite sour. The fruit is called wild - goose or simply goose plum in Tennessee and Kentucky. - Horticulturists have made many experiments with this plum. - - COCOA PLUM (_Chrysobalanus icaco_), also called gopher plum, grows - in southern Florida, and its insipid fruit is seldom eaten except by - negroes and Seminole Indians. There is little sale for it in the - local markets. Trees are sometimes thirty feet high and a foot in - diameter. The light brown wood is heavy, hard, and strong, but it is - seldom used. The tree grows in Africa and South America as well as - in Florida. - -[Illustration] - - - - -BEECH - -[Illustration: BEECH] - - - - -BEECH - -(_Fagus Atropunicea_) - - -There is only one beech in the United States, and four or five in Europe -and Asia. The southern portion of South America has several species -which usually pass for beech. One or more of them are evergreen. Old -world species are sometimes planted in parks and cemeteries in this -country, but as forest trees they have no importance in the United -States and probably never will have. It becomes a simple matter, -therefore, to deal with the tree in this country. It is alone, and has -no nearer relatives than the chestnuts, chinquapins, and the oaks, all -of which are members of the same family, and the beech gives the name to -the family--_Fagaceae_. The blue beech, which is common in most states -east of the Mississippi river and in some west, is not a member of the -same family, though it looks enough like beech to be closely related to -it. - -The name has come down from remote antiquity. It is one of the oldest -names in use. It is said to have descended through thousands of years -from old Aryan tribes of Asia which were among the earliest to use a -written language. For the want of better material, they cut the letters -on beech bark, and a piece of such writing was called "boc." It was but -a step from that word to book--a collection of writings. Both beech and -book came from the same word "boc" and the connection between them is -very evident. The pronunciation has been little changed by the Germanic -races during thousands of years, but the Romans translated it into Latin -and called it "liber," from which we have the word library. Doubtless in -very ancient times, say 5,000 years before the building of Solomon's -temple, the libraries beyond the Euphrates river consisted of several -cords of trimmed and lettered beech bark. Such material being -perishable, it has wholly disappeared. The matter is not now directly -connected with the lumber interests, but it increases one's respect for -beech to know how important a part it must have played in the ancient -world, whereby it stamped its name so indelibly upon the language of the -most intelligent portion of the human race. - -The word buckwheat has the same origin. It means beech wheat, so named -because the grains are triangular like beech nuts. The tree is always -known as beech in this country, though it may have a qualifying word -such as red, white, ridge. - -It usually grows in mixed forests of hardwoods, but it is often found in -the immediate presence of hemlock and spruce, grows from Maine to -Florida, and west to Arkansas. Considerable areas are often occupied by -little else. This is attested by the frequency with which such names as -"beech flat," "beech ridge," "beech woods," and "beech bottom" are -encountered in local geography. Perhaps the finest examples of beech -growth in the United States occur in the higher altitudes of the lower -Appalachian range in eastern Tennessee, and western North Carolina, -where trees are frequently encountered, showing a bole of perfectly -symmetrical form, of from three to more than four feet in diameter, and -of a sheer height of seventy feet before a limb is encountered. The wood -which grows in this section is nearly as hard as that of the North, but -that growing on lower levels in the South is of a much softer texture -and lighter color, the heart being pinkish rather than reddish-brown. - -Beech is one of the truly beautiful trees of the forest. In the eyes of -many, the beech is as much to be admired as the American elm or sugar -maple. Certainly in spring when it is covered with its staminate -blossoms, it is a splendid sight, and its perfect leaves are seldom -spotted or eaten by insects. In winter, it is particularly interesting. -Its beautiful bark then appears very bright. After its fine leaves have -fallen, though many of them, pale and dry, cling to the branches -throughout the winter, the structure of its massive head is seen to -advantage. In the Canadian markets and those of many of the middle and -western states, its nuts are gathered and sold in considerable -quantities. These nuts are favorite food of both the red and gray -squirrel and these rodents collect them in considerable quantities -during the late fall, and store them in tree hollows for their winter's -supply of food. It often happens, in felling beech trees in the winter, -that shelled beech nuts to the quantity of a quart or more will be found -secreted in some hollow by these provident little animals. - -Formerly beech was little used for lumber, but was long ago given an -important place as firewood and material for charcoal. Its excellent -qualities as lumber have now made it popular in most markets. The -sapwood is comparatively thin and the heart is very much esteemed for -many purposes. Many millions of feet of it are converted into flooring -and the "pure red" product is very highly esteemed for ornamental -floors. It has not as good working qualities as maple, but still it -stays in place even better than does that famous flooring material. -Nearly all the large flooring factories of the North, whose principal -output is maple, have a side line of beech flooring, and in the South, -notably in Nashville, a considerable quantity of the wood is made into -flooring. In full growth this beautiful tree is round topped, with wide -spreading and horizontal branches, and shows a normal altitude of about -sixty feet. In this form of growth branches appear on the body very -close to the ground, and their ends often trail upon it. In its forest -form, where trees of any sort are of commercial importance, it often -attains a height of ninety or 100 feet, with smooth rounded bole as -symmetrical as the pillar of a cathedral, with a diameter of from two to -four feet. Its time to bloom is April or May, and its nuts ripen in -October. The bark is a light bluish-gray, and remarkably smooth; the -leaves are simple, alternate, with very short petioles, oblong with -pointed apex and rounded or narrowed base. The ribs are straight, -unbranching, and terminate in remote teeth. The fruit is a pair of -three-sided nuts with a sweet and edible kernel which grows in a -four-celled prickly burr, splitting when ripe. - -Beech is an excellent fuel and it has long been used for that purpose. -It is so regularly dispersed over the country that most neighborhoods -were able to get it in the years when families cut their own firewood. -Later, when charcoal was burned to supply primitive iron furnaces, -before coke could be had, beech was always sought for. Still later, when -large commercial plants were built to carry on destructive distillation -of wood, beech was still a favorite. Its modern uses are many. There is -scarcely a plant east of the Rocky Mountains, engaged in the manufacture -of hardwood commodities, which does not use beech. In Michigan alone -nearly 30,000,000 feet a year are demanded by box makers, and more than -that much more by manufacturers of other commodities. It is widely -employed for furniture, filing cabinets, vehicles, interior finish, -agricultural implements, woodenware, and musical instruments. It is one -of the heaviest and strongest of the common hardwoods, and gives long -service when kept dry, but does not last well in damp situations. - -Beech is strictly a forest tree. This does not mean that it will not -grow in the open, but when it does grow there it makes poor lumber, -short and limby. The seedlings must have shade if they are to do any -good, but after they attain a certain size they can endure the light. -The roots lie close to the surface of the ground, and the trampling of -cattle often kills large trees. - -BLUE BEECH (_Carpinus caroliniana_) is not in the beech family, but the -name by which it is commonly known, and its resemblance to beech, -justify its consideration with beech. The bluish color of the bark is -responsible for its common name, but it is known by several others, -among them being water beech, because it often grows on or near the -banks of streams, and it seldom seems more at home than when it is -hanging over the bank of a creek where shade is deep and moisture -plentiful. It is often called hornbeam and ironwood, and it is closely -related to hop hornbeam (_Ostrya virginiana_). It grows from Quebec, to -Florida and from Dakota to Texas, reaching its largest size in eastern -Texas where it is sometimes sixty feet high and two in diameter, though -this size is unusual. Few trees develop a bole less acceptable to -lumbermen. In addition to being short, crooked, twisted, and covered -with limbs, it is nearly always ribbed and fluted, so that a log, even -if but a few feet long, is apt to be almost any shape except round. The -thick sapwood is pale white, heart pale brown. The annual rings are -usually easily seen, but they are vague, because of so little difference -between the springwood and summerwood; diffuse-porous; medullary rays -thin and usually seen only in the aggregate as a white luster where wood -is sawed radially. The uses of this wood are many, but the amounts very -small. It is made into singletrees and ax and hammer handles in -Michigan, wagon felloes in Texas and other parts of the Southwest; -levers and other parts of agricultural implements in various localities. -It seldom goes to sawmills, is generally marketed in the form of bolts, -and is hard, stiff, and strong. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHESTNUT - -[Illustration: CHESTNUT] - - - - -CHESTNUT - -(_Castanea Dentata_) - - -Five species of chestnut are known, three of them in the United States. -One of these, _Castanea alnifolia_, is a shrub and has no place in a -list of trees. Chestnut and chinquapin are the two others. They are in -the beech family to which oaks belong also. The ancient Greeks -designated these as food trees (_Fagaceae_), not an inappropriate name -for chestnut which probably furnishes more human food than any other -wild tree. Its range extends from Maine to Michigan and southward to -North Carolina and Tennessee. It attains its greatest size in western -North Carolina and eastern Tennessee. It is one of the few well-known -woods of the United States that does not bear a half dozen or more local -names in the various localities of its growth, but the wood is -invariably known as chestnut. - -Trees vary in size from sixty to 100 feet in height, and from two to -four in diameter. Trunks six feet through occur where trees have grown -in the open, but such are not tall, and are not valuable for lumber. -Chestnut trees are sometimes heard of in this country with trunks ten -and twelve feet through, but such must be very scarce, because no one -seems to know just where they are located. It is not improbable that in -rare cases such sizes have existed. In France and Italy trees much -larger are well authenticated, but that chestnut is of a species -different from ours. - -Chestnut is a very long-lived tree where it is fortunate enough to -escape the attacks of worms and disease; but as age comes on, it is -almost certain to be attacked. Insects bore the wood, and fungus induces -decay. Frequently the heartwood of large trunks is all gone, and the -trees stand mere shells with scarcely enough sound wood left to support -the diseased tops. - -Few species sprout with more vigor than chestnut. In the mountains of -eastern Tennessee, W. W. Ashe found that ninety-nine per cent of stumps -sprout. This applies as well to veterans of three hundred years as to -young growth. Sprouts which rise from the top of a high stump are liable -to meet misfortune, because, under their disadvantage they cannot -develop adequate root systems; but sprouts which spring from the root -collar, or near it, may grow to large trees. It is claimed by some that -a chestnut which grows from a sprout has straighter grain than one -springing from seed. The latter's trunk is liable to develop a spiral -twist, not only of the wood, but also of the bark; but the sprout-grown -tree lacks the twist. - -Chestnut blooms in midsummer, and the profusion of pale golden catkins -makes the isolated tree a conspicuous object at that time. Bloom is -nearly always abundant, but the nut crop fails frequently. Several -accidents may happen, but the most frequent cause of scarcity in the -chestnut crop is a spell of rainy weather while the trees are in bloom. -The rain hinders proper pollenization. - -Many thousands of bushels of chestnuts are sent to market yearly in the -United States. The nuts are smaller but sweeter than those of European -chestnut. The largest part of the crop is collected from trees in open -ground. Those in dense forests bear only a few nuts at the top. -Open-grown trees develop enormous and shapely crowns; and it is not -unusual for farmers who value their nut bearing trees to pollard them. -This puts the tree out of consideration as a source of lumber. Its -branches multiply, but the trunk remains short. It is claimed that a -chestnut orchard of good form and in a region where large crops are -frequent, is more profitable than an apple orchard. The tree does not -demand rich land, but must have well-drained soil. It grows on rocky -slopes and ridges, and will prosper where most other valuable trees will -barely exist. - -It grows rapidly in its early life, but does not maintain the rate many -decades. Large trees are old. In the southern Appalachians the ages of -telegraph poles forty feet long and six inches in diameter at the top -range from forty-five to sixty-five years. Trees of round fence-post -size may grow in fifteen years. Few trees will produce posts more -quickly or in larger numbers per acre. In some instances nearly a -thousand saplings large enough for posts stand on a single acre. -Sprout-growth chestnut often forms nearly pure stands of considerable -extent. - -The value of this tree is in its wood as well as its nuts. More than -500,000,000 feet of lumber are cut from it yearly. Long before it was -much thought of as a sawmill proposition, it was manufactured in large -amounts into rails and posts by farmers, particularly in New England and -in the Appalachian region. Axes, crosscut saws, mauls, and wedges were -the means of manufacture. Untold millions of fence rails were split -before wire fences were thought of. It is a durable wood, made so by the -tannic acid it contains. As fence rails, it was more durable than the -best oak, and where both were equally convenient, farmers nearly always -chose chestnut. On high and dry ridges a chestnut rail fence would last -from twenty-five to fifty years, and in extreme cases very much longer, -even a full century it is claimed. - -Dry chestnut wood weighs 28.07 pounds per cubic foot, which makes it a -light wood. Its annual rings are as clearly marked as those of any tree -in this country. The springwood is filled with large open pores, the -summerwood with small ones. The medullary rays are minute, and of no -value in giving figure to the wood. Nevertheless, chestnut has strong -figure, but it is due solely to the arrangement of the spring and -summerwood of the annual rings. It is commonly classed as a -coarse-grained wood. The finisher can greatly alter its appearance by -rubbing the pores full of coloring matter. The wood is likewise -susceptible to change in tone in the fumes of ammonia, and by similar -treatment with other chemicals. The light colors of mission furniture -are generally the result of treatment of that kind. - -The largest cut of chestnut lumber comes from West Virginia, -Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Connecticut. The largest use by any single -industry is probably by the manufacturers of musical instruments, though -the honor may be divided with furniture, interior house finish, and -coffins and caskets. It is much employed as core or backing on which to -glue veneers. The lumber of old, mature trees is best liked for this -purpose, because it is not apt to shrink and swell, and it holds glue. -It is no detriment that it is riddled with worm holes the size of pins. -That kind of chestnut is known in the trade as "sound wormy." Some -persons claim that such lumber is better as backing for veneer than -sound pieces, because it is lighter, is sufficiently strong, and the -small holes seem to help the glue to stick. Wormy chestnut is frequently -not objected to for outside work because the small holes are not hard to -fill and cover up. The uses of chestnut are many. Between 6,000,000 and -7,000,000 crossties go into railroad construction yearly. From 16,000 to -20,000 tons of wood are demanded annually for tanning extract. Every -part of the tree is available. - -In recent years a disease due to fungus has attacked chestnut forests of -Pennsylvania and neighboring regions. It has destroyed the timber on -large areas, and the loss threatens to increase. A tree usually dies in -one or two years after it is attacked. The fungus works beneath the bark -and completely girdles the tree. The spores of the fungus are believed -to be carried from tree to tree on the feet of birds, on the bodies of -insects, and by the wind. - - GOLDENLEAF CHINQUAPIN (_Castanopsis chrysophylla_) occurs on the - Pacific coast from the Columbia river to southern California. It is - of its largest dimensions in the coast valleys of northern - California where it occasionally attains a size equal to the - chestnut tree of the eastern states, but in many other parts of its - range it is shrubby. It is an evergreen, and its name is descriptive - of the underside of the leaf. Late in summer, flowers and fruit in - several stages of growth may be seen at the same time. The nuts are - sweet and edible. In northern California the bark is sometimes mixed - with that of tanbark oak and sold to tanneries. The wood is - considerably heavier than chestnut, and is sometimes employed in the - making of agricultural implements. It has small and obscure - medullary rays, and its pores are arranged more like those of live - oak than of chestnut; that is they run in wavy, radial lines and not - in concentric rings as in chestnut. The heartwood is darker than - chestnut. - - CHINQUAPIN (_Castanea pumila_) is a little chestnut that grows from - Pennsylvania to Texas. It is generally a shrub or a bush ten or - fifteen feet high east of the Alleghany mountains, but in some of - the southern states it reaches a height of fifty feet and a diameter - of two or more, and is of largest size in southern Arkansas and - eastern Texas. It has no name but chinquapin which is an Indian word - supposed to have the same meaning that it now has. The nut is from - one-fourth to one-half as large as a chestnut, and is fully as - sweet. It is sold in the markets of the South and Southwest, but is - not an important article of commerce. Where the trees are large - enough, the wood is put to the same uses as chestnut. It is - manufactured into furniture in Texas, and is bought by railroads for - ties. - -[Illustration] - - - - -BASSWOOD - -[Illustration: BASSWOOD] - - - - -BASSWOOD - -(_Tilia Americana_) - - -There are about twenty species of basswood in the world, and from three -to six of them are in the United States. Authors do not agree on the -number of species in this country. There are at least three, and they -occupy, in part, the same range, with consequent confusion. They are -much alike in general appearance, and not one person in twenty knows one -from the other. The same names apply to all, when they occur in the same -region. Few trees carry more names, and with less reason. Basswood is -generally not difficult to identify in summer, but in winter a person -only slightly acquainted with different trees might take it for -cucumber, and if of small size, it might possibly be mistaken for ash or -mountain maple. When the tree is bearing leaves, flowers, and fruit, -there is no excuse for mistaking it for any other. The fruit, a cluster -of four or five berry-like globes, hangs under a leaf, fixed by a short -stem to the midrib. This feature alone should be sufficient to identify -the basswood in this country. - -Among the many names by which this tree is known, in addition to -basswood, are American linden, linn, lynn, limetree, whitewood, beetree, -black limetree, wickup, whistle wood, and yellow basswood. - -The range is extensive, its northeastern boundary lying in New -Brunswick, its southwestern in Texas. It reaches Lake Winnipeg, and is -found in Georgia. This delimited area is little short of a million -square miles. It reaches a height of from sixty to 120 feet, and a -diameter of from eighteen inches to four feet. It has a decided -preference for rich soil, and the best lumber is cut in fertile coves -and flats, or in low land near streams. The largest trees formerly grew -in the forests of the lower Ohio valley, but few of the giants of former -times are to be found in that region now. They went to market a -generation or two ago. The largest cut of basswood lumber now is in -Wisconsin, Michigan, and West Virginia, but most of that from West -Virginia is white basswood (_Tilia heterophylla_). - -The wood weighs 28.20 pounds per cubic foot, which is more than the -other basswoods in this country weigh. The rings of annual growth are -not very clearly marked. They may be distinguished, in most cases, by a -narrow, light-colored line. This is the springwood. In some trees it is -much more distinct than in others. The wood is very porous, but the -pores are small, cannot readily be seen with the naked eye, and are -scattered pretty evenly through the yearly ring. The medullary rays are -small but numerous. They give quarter-sawed lumber a pleasing luster, -but are too minute to develop much figure. The general tone of the wood -is white. It is soft, works easily, holds its shape well, and is tough, -but is in no sense a competitor of oak and hickory in toughness, though -it shows the quality best in thin panels which resist splitting and -breaking. - -In the days when it was customary to ceil houses with boards, both -overhead and the walls of rooms, carpenters were partial to basswood -because of its softness. Dressing lumber was then nearly always done by -hand, and the carpenter who pushed the jack plane ten or twelve hours a -day, looked pretty carefully to the softness of the wood he handled. In -tongued and grooved work, as in ceiling and wainscoting, it was not -necessary to dress the fitting edges as carefully when basswood was used -as in using some others, because it is so soft that fittings can be -forced, and cracks may be closed by driving the boards together. - -Slack coopers have long employed basswood for barrel headings, and also -in the manufacture of various kinds of small stave ware, such as pails, -tubs, and kegs. In this use, as in ceiling, the softness of the wood is -a prime consideration, because the pressure of the hoops will close any -small openings. Its whiteness and its freedom from stains and unpleasant -odors are likewise important when vessels are to contain food products. -Box makers like the wood on that account, and large quantities are -manufactured into containers for articles of food. - -Much basswood is cut into veneer, some of which serves in single sheets -as in making small baskets and cups for berries and small fruits, but a -large part of the output is devoted to ply work. Usually three sheets -are glued together, but sometimes there are five. By crossing the -sheets, to make the grain of one lie at right angles to the next, plies -of great strength and toughness are produced. Trunk makers are large -users of such, and many panels of that kind are employed by -manufacturers of furniture and musical instruments. - -Woodenware factories find basswood one of their most serviceable -materials, and it is made into ironing boards, wash boards, bread -boards, and cutting boards for cobblers, saddlers, and glass cutters. -Its lightness and toughness make it serviceable as valves and other -parts of bellows for blacksmiths, organs, and piano players. Makers of -gilt picture frames prefer it for molding which is to be overlaid with -the gilt or gold. It is serviceable for advertising signs because its -whiteness contrasts well with printing. Makers of thermometers use it -frequently for the wooden body of the instrument, and yard sticks are -made of it. Apiarists find no wood more suitable for the small, light -frames in which bees build the comb. - -The uses of this wood are so many and so various that lists would prove -monotonous. The annual cut in this country, exclusive of veneer, is -nearly 350,000,000 feet, and the demand for veneer takes many millions -more. - -Basswood is named for the bark, and the spelling was formerly bastwood. -The manufacture of articles from the bark was once a considerable -industry, not so much in this country as in Europe. However, some use -has been made of the bark here. Louisiana negroes make horse collars of -it by braiding many strands together, and chair bottoms are woven of it -in lieu of cane and rattan, and it is likewise woven into baskets of -coarse kinds. Bark is prepared for this use by soaking it in water, by -which the annual layers of the bark are separated, long, thin sheets are -produced, and these are reduced to strips of the desired width. - -The annual cut of basswood lumber is declining with no probability that -it will ever again come up to past figures; but basswood is in no -immediate danger of disappearing from American forests. It is not -impossible that it may be planted for commercial purposes. In central -Europe, forests of basswood, there called linden, are maintained for the -honey which bees gather from the bloom. In this country it is often -called beetree because of the richness of its flowers in nectar. -Possibly bee owners may grow forests for the honey, and when trees are -mature, dispose of them for lumber. - - WHITE BASSWOOD (_Tilia heterophylla_) attains a trunk diameter as - great as that of the common basswood, but is not as tall. Trees - sixty or seventy feet high are among the tallest. This species - ranges from New York to Alabama, and is found as far west as - southern Illinois, and its best development is among the rich - valleys and fertile slopes of the Appalachian mountains from - Pennsylvania southward. It is the prevailing basswood of West - Virginia, and reaches its largest size on the high mountains of - North Carolina and Tennessee. It averages about two pounds lighter - per cubic foot than the common basswood, but ordinarily neither the - lumber nor the standing trees of the two species are distinguished. - Only persons somewhat skilled in botany are able to tell one species - of basswood from another as they occur in the forests of this - country. - - DOWNY BASSWOOD (_Tilia pubescens_) is a southern member of the - basswood group, and is scarce. Its range extends from North Carolina - to Arkansas and Texas. Trees are rarely more than forty feet high - and fifteen inches in diameter. The wood is light brown, tinged with - red, and the sap is hardly distinguishable from the heart. As far as - it is used at all, its uses are similar to those of other basswoods. - - SOUTHERN BASSWOOD (_Tilia australis_) is confined, as far as is now - known, to a small section of Alabama, where it attains a height of - sixty feet in rich woodlands. No reports on the quality of the wood - have been published, and the species is too scarce to possess much - interest to others than systematic botanists. - - FLORIDA BASSWOOD (_Tilia floridana_), as its name suggests, is a - Florida species, and has not been reported elsewhere. It seems to be - the smallest of American basswoods, the largest trees being little - more than thirty feet high. No tests of the wood have been made and - no uses reported. - - MICHAUX BASSWOOD (_Tilia michauxii_) has been listed for a long - time, but is still not well known. Its range extends from Canada to - Georgia and westward to Texas. Trees three feet in diameter and - eighty feet high have been reported. Only botanists distinguish it - from other species of basswood with which it is associated. - - PAWPAW (_Asimina triloba_) is of more value for its fruit than its - wood. It grows from New York to Texas, but in certain localities - only. It is the most northern species of the custard apple family, - and is usually of little importance above an altitude of 1,500 feet. - In Arkansas and some other southwestern regions it is called banana. - It is usually a shrub, but may reach a height of forty feet and a - diameter of twelve inches. The wood is light, soft, and weak. Pond - apple (_Annona glabra_), called custard apple in some parts of its - range in Florida, is a member of the same family. It attains the - size of pawpaw, and the wood is similar. - -[Illustration] - - - - -AMERICAN HOLLY - -[Illustration: AMERICAN HOLLY] - - - - -AMERICAN HOLLY - -(_Ilex Opaca_) - - -Holly is a characteristic member of a large family scattered through -most temperate and tropical regions of the world. It belongs to the -family _Aquifoliaceae_, a name which conveys little meaning to an English -reader until botanists explain that it means trees with needles on their -leaves, _acus_ meaning needle, and _folium_ leaf. How well holly, with -its spiny leaves, fits in that family is seen at once. - -About 175 species of holly are dispersed in various parts of the world, -the largest number occurring in Brazil and Guiana. _Ilex_ is the -classical name of the evergreen oak in southern Europe. - -The glossy green foliage and the brilliant red berries of the holly tree -have long been associated in the popular mind with the Christmas season. -Mingled with the white berries and dull green foliage of the mistletoe, -it is the chief Yuletime decoration, and many hundred trees are annually -stripped of their branches to supply this demand. The growth is still -quite abundant, but if the destruction and waste continue, American -holly will soon be exhausted. - -Its range extends from Massachusetts to Texas and from Missouri to -Florida. In New England, the trees are few and small, and the same holds -true in many parts of the Appalachian region. The largest trees are -found in southern Arkansas and eastern Texas. In the North it grows in -rather dry, gravelly soil, often on the margins of oak woods, but in the -South it takes to swamps, and does best on river bottoms where the soil -is rich. It is often associated with evergreen magnolia, which it -resembles at a distance, though differences are plain enough on close -examination. The light, grayish-green barks of the two trees look much -alike; but the magnolia's leaves are larger, thicker, and lack the -briers on the margins. - -Holly varies in size from small straggling bushes to well-formed trees -fifty or sixty feet high and two or three in diameter. The principal -value of holly is not in its wood, but in its leaves and berries. Some -persons suppose that holly leaves never fall. That is true of no tree -that attains any considerable age. An examination of a holly thicket, or -a single tree, in the spring of the year will reveal a fair sprinkling -of dead leaves on the ground, though none may be missed from the -branches. Those that fall are three years old, and they come down in the -spring. There are always two full years of leaves on the trees. - -Flowers are the least attractive part of holly. Few people ever notice -the small, unobtrusive cymes, scattered along the base of the young -shoots in the early spring, with the crop of young leaves. Nothing showy -about them attracts attention. - -The fruit is the well-known berry, the glory of winter decorations. It -is usually red, but sometimes yellow. The latter color is not often seen -in decorations because it is a poor contrast with the glossy green of -the leaves. The berries ripen late in autumn and hang until nearly -spring, provided they are let alone. That is seldom their fortune, for -if they escape the wreath hunter at Christmas, they remain subject to -incessant attacks by birds. Fortunately, the berries are not very choice -food for the feathered bevies that fly in winter; otherwise, the trees -would be stripped in a day or two. Birds are attracted by the color, and -they keep pecking away, taking one or two berries at a bait, and in the -course of a long winter they get most of them. - -The gathering of holly leaves and berries is an industry of much -importance, taken as a whole; but it lasts only a short time, and is -carried on without much system. The greatest source of supply is -northern Alabama, and the neighboring parts of surrounding states; but -some holly is gathered in all regions where it is found. Those who -collect it for market make small wages, but the harvest comes at a -season when little else is doing, and the few dimes and dollars picked -up are regarded as clear gain--particularly since most of the holly -harvesters have no land of their own and forage for supplies on other -people's possessions. - -The seeds of holly are a long time in germinating, and those who plant -them without knowing this are apt to despair too soon. The great -differences in the germinating habits of trees are remarkable. Some of -the maples bear seeds which sprout within a few days after they come in -contact with damp soil, certain members of the black oak group of trees -drop their acorns with sprouts already bursting the hulls, and mangroves -are in a still greater hurry, and let fall their seeds with roots -several inches long ready to penetrate the mud at once. But holly is in -no hurry. Its seeds lie buried in soil until the second year before they -send their radicles into the soil. They are so slow that nurserymen -usually prefer to go into the woods and dig up seedlings which are -already of plantable size. - -Users of woods find many places for holly but not in large amounts. The -reported output by all the sawmills in the United States in 1909 was -37,000 feet, and Maryland produced more than any other state. The wood -is employed for inlay work, parquetry, marquetry, small musical -instruments, and keys for pianos and organs. Engravers find it suitable -for various classes of work, its whiteness giving the principal value. -It approaches ivory in color nearer than any other American wood. Brush -back manufacturers convert it into their choice wares. It is -occasionally worked into small articles of furniture, but probably never -is used in large pieces. - -The wood is rather light, and the vague boundaries between the annual -rings, and the smallness and inconspicuousness of the medullary rays, -are responsible for the almost total absence of figure, no matter in -what way the wood is worked. The so-called California holly -(_Heteromeles arbutifolia_) is of a different family, and is not a -holly. - -DAHOON HOLLY (_Ilex cassine_) grows in cold swamps and on their borders -in the coast region from southern Virginia to southern Florida, and -westward to Louisiana. It is often found on the borders of pine barrens, -is most common in western Florida and southern Alabama, and when at its -best, is from twenty-five to thirty feet high and a foot or more in -diameter. The leaves are nearly twice as long as those of common holly, -and are generally spineless or nearly so. The fruit ripens late in -autumn and hangs on the branches until the following spring. The berries -are sometimes bright red, oftener dull red, and those fully up to size -are a quarter of an inch in diameter. Some hang solitary, others in -clusters of three. The wood is light and soft, weighing less than thirty -pounds per cubic foot. The heart is pale brown, and the thick sapwood -nearly white. The tree is known locally as yaupon, dahoon, dahoon holly, -and Henderson wood. This species passes gradually into a form designated -as _Ilex myrtifolia_, which Sargent surmises may be a distinct species. -Another form, narrowleaf dahoon (_Ilex cassine angustifolia_), is listed -by Sudworth. - -YAUPON HOLLY (_Ilex vomitoria_) is a small, much-branched tree, often -shrubby, and at its best is seldom more than twenty-five feet high and -six inches in diameter. Its range follows the coast from southern -Virginia to St. John's river, Florida, and westward to eastern Texas. It -sticks closely to tidewater in most parts of its habitat, but when it -reaches the Mississippi valley it runs north into Arkansas. It attains -its largest size in Texas, and is little more than a shrub elsewhere. -Berries are produced in great abundance, are red when ripe, but they -usually fall in a short time and are not much in demand for decorations. -The wood weighs over forty-five pounds per cubic foot, is hard, and -nearly white, but turns yellow with exposure. The leaves of this holly -were once gathered by Indians in the southeastern states for medicine. -The savages journeyed once a year to the coast where the holly was -abundant, boiled the leaves in water, and produced what they called the -"black drink." It was nauseating in the extreme, but they drank copious -draughts of it during several days, then departed for their homes, -confident that good health was assured for another year. - - MOUNTAIN HOLLY (_Ilex monticola_) is so named because it grows among - the Appalachian ranges from New York to Alabama. It is best - developed in the elevated district where Tennessee and North and - South Carolina meet near one common boundary. It is elsewhere - shrubby. The leaves are deciduous, and the bright scarlet berries - are nearly as large as cherries. They fall too early to make them - acceptable as Christmas decorations. The wood is hard, heavy, and - creamy-white, and if it could be had in adequate quantities, would - be valuable. The trees are sometimes a foot in diameter and forty - feet high, but they are not abundant. Their leaves bear small - resemblance to the typical holly leaf, but look more like those of - cherry or plum. - - DECIDUOUS HOLLY (_Ilex decidua_) is called bearberry in Mississippi - and possum haw in Florida, while in other regions it is known as - swamp holly because of its habit of clinging to the banks of streams - and betaking itself to swamps. It keeps away from mountains, though - it is found in a shrubby form between the Blue Ridge and the sea in - the Atlantic states, from Virginia southward. It runs west through - the Gulf region to Texas, and ascends the Mississippi valley to - Illinois and Missouri, attaining tree size only west of the - Mississippi. The wood is as heavy as white oak, hard, and - creamy-white, both heart and sap. Doubtless small quantities are - employed in different industries, but the only direct report of its - use comes from Texas where it is turned for drawer and door knobs in - furniture factories. Most but not all of the leaves fall in early - winter. The berries obey the same rule, some fall and others hang - till spring. They are orange or orange-scarlet. - -[Illustration] - - - - -YELLOW BUCKEYE - -[Illustration: YELLOW BUCKEYE] - - - - -YELLOW BUCKEYE - -(_Aesculus Octandra_) - - -Four species and one variety of buckeye are native in the United States, -yellow buckeye, Ohio buckeye, California buckeye, small buckeye, and -purple buckeye. They belong in the horse chestnut family. The so-called -Texas buckeye is in a different family, and is not a true buckeye, but -is close kin to the soapberry. The buckeyes are named for the large -white spot on the smooth, brown nut, resembling the eye of a deer. The -yellow buckeye is the most important of the group, is the largest and -most abundant. It is known by the name of buckeye in North Carolina, -South Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, and Kentucky. It -is called sweet buckeye in West Virginia, Mississippi, Texas, Missouri, -and Indiana, probably owing to the fact that it does not exhale the -disagreeable odor characteristic of other members of the family. Yellow -buckeye is the term applied to it in South Carolina and Alabama; large -buckeye in Tennessee; big buckeye in Tennessee and Texas. It flourishes -from Allegheny county, Pennsylvania, southward along the Alleghany -mountains to northern Georgia and Alabama, westward along the valley of -the Ohio river to southern Iowa, through Oklahoma and the valley of the -Brazos river in eastern Texas. It thrives best along streams and in -dense, rich woods. It reaches its fullest development on the slopes of -the Alleghany mountains in North Carolina and Tennessee. - -The leaves of the buckeye are compound, with from five to seven -leaflets; flowers appear in May or June and are dull yellow; the fruit -is a large brown nut, one or two of which are enclosed in a rough, -uneven husk, about two inches or more in diameter. The tree grows from -forty to 100 feet in height, and attains a diameter of from one to three -and a half feet. - -Buckeye grows intermingled with poplar, oak, maple, beech and a variety -of other hardwoods. From its comparatively limited growth as compared -with the totality of the average hardwood forest, it never has been -recognized, and probably never will be, as a distinctive type of -American commercial wood. The timber is felled with the other valuable -trees surrounding it, and its appearance, when manufactured into lumber -is so similar to that of the sap of poplar or whitewood that almost -without exception it is assorted with poplar saps, and goes on the -market masquerading as that wood. There is probably not one lumberman in -a thousand, handling poplar, that is able to distinguish buckeye from -sap poplar in his shipments of that wood. - -Sawmills make no distinction between the different species. All that -comes is buckeye, but nearly all of it is the yellow species, though -doubtless a little of all the others is cut into lumber and veneer, or -goes to the slack cooperage shop, or to the pulp mill. The woods of all -are quite similar, and they are used for the same purposes. If one is -employed in larger quantities than another, it is because it is more -convenient, or of better form or larger size. - -Early uses of buckeye were as important as those of the present day, -though amounts were smaller. Many an Ohio statesman of former times -boasted that, as a baby, he was rocked in a buckeye sugar trough for a -cradle. They claimed with pride that the prevalance of the custom caused -Ohio to be known as the buckeye state, a name which clings to it still. -Next to yellow poplar, buckeye was considered the best wood from which -to hew the small troughs which collected the sugar water from the tapped -maples in early spring; but the range of buckeye did not extend -northward into the real maple area, and the troughs like those which -rocked the inchoate Ohio statesmen were unknown in the North, but were -familiar along the mountain ranges southward. Dough trays, bread boards, -chopping bowls, and troughs in which to salt bacon and pork, were hewed -from buckeye by farmers and village woodworkers. - -It weighs 27.24 pounds per cubic foot; is diffuse-porous, and the slight -difference between the wood grown in spring and that of late summer -renders the annual rings indistinct. It has little figure, no matter how -it is sawed; medullary rays are thin and obscure. Softness is one of the -principal qualities, and it is also weak, and is wanting in rigidity. -These are its faults, but it has virtues. It is tasteless and odorless, -and these properties make it valuable in the manufacture of boxes in -which food products are shipped. The reported cut of buckeye in the -United States is from 11,000,000 to 13,000,000 feet a year. The reports -of factories which use the wood in making commodities throw light on the -question of actual use. North Carolina works 10,000 feet a year into -cabinets and office fixtures; Michigan 100,000 into candy and chocolate -boxes, dishes, and bowls; Maryland uses 200,000 feet yearly for -practically the same purposes, but with the added commodities of spice -drawers and tea chests. Makers of artificial limbs consider buckeye one -of their best materials, but it is second to willow. The "cork legs" are -usually either buckeye or willow. Pulp mills grind the wood for paper, -but it is not separately listed in pulp statistics, and the total cut -cannot be stated. It is converted into veneer and finds many places of -usefulness, but here, also, no separate figures are to be had. - -The nuts are large and abundant, but almost wholly useless for man or -beast. Bookbinders make paste of them, as a substitute for flour, and -with satisfactory results. The paste resists ferments much better than -that manufactured from flour; but the demand upon the nut supply for -that purpose is very small. Squirrels and other small animals leave -buckeyes alone. Some writers, whose acquaintance with this tree was -apparently acquired at long range, state that the nuts are food for -cattle. No person with knowledge of the buckeye says that. Cattle -occasionally eat a few, but are poisoned thereby, and if they recover, -they never again have anything to do with buckeyes. - -This tree is ornamental during a few months of the year. Its flowers are -attractive, and its large, vigorous leaves and conspicuous fruit are -admired in summer; but early in the fall the leaves come down, the husks -burst from the nuts and strew the ground with unsightly fragments. The -tree is seldom planted, but the horse chestnut, a foreign species, takes -its place. - -OHIO BUCKEYE (_Aesculus glabra_) was once thought to be more abundant in -Ohio than elsewhere, hence the name; but its best development is in -Tennessee and northern Alabama. The disagreeable odor emitted by the -bark gives it the names fetid and stinking buckeye, and it is known also -as American horse chestnut. Its range is approximately the same as that -of yellow buckeye, but it is a smaller tree, rarely more than thirty -feet high, though it is seventy in exceptional cases. In common with -other trees of the species, it prefers rich soil along water courses. -The wood was formerly in demand for chip hats, but that use has -apparently ceased. The sapwood is darker than the heart which is an -exception to the general rule. Dark streaks, probably stains due to -fungus, occasionally run through the trunk. In weight, strength, and -stiffness the wood is approximately the same as yellow buckeye. Its odor -is sufficient to distinguish it from that species, and it associates -with no other except on rare occasions when it may be found with the -small buckeye in western Tennessee and southern Missouri. - -CALIFORNIA BUCKEYE (_Aesculus californica_) occurs only in the state -whose name it bears. It is a short, much-branched, ill-formed tree; root -large and shaped somewhat like an inverted tub, often standing a foot or -more above the ground, and the branches rising from it. A tree so formed -is without value to the general lumberman, but cabinet makers sometimes -grub out the root and saw it transversely into thin lumber or veneer and -make small articles which possess considerable figure, due to the -involved growth, but little variety of color. Its tone is light yellow. -The tree is found in the central part of California, from near sea level -up to 4,500 in the Sierra Nevadas. It gets away from the immediate -vicinity of water courses and grows on hillsides. It is heavier than any -other American buckeye, and has very thin sapwood. The other properties -of the wood, and the botanical characters of the tree are common to -other members of the species. The seeds depend for their dispersal on -running water, when the tree grows by a stream, or on gravity, if -situated on a hillside. The seed will not grow unless buried in moist -soil, and it retains its vitality only a few months. Few trees in the -United States have larger seeds than buckeyes. The tree is short-lived, -reaching maturity in most cases in less than a hundred years. It is -sometimes planted for ornament in this country and in Europe. - -SMALL BUCKEYE (_Aesculus austrina_) is one of the latest recognized -members of the buckeye household. It seldom attains a diameter above -five or six inches, or a height of twenty-five feet. It is, therefore, -too small to be seriously considered as a source of lumber, and even if -trunks were large enough, the species is too scarce to furnish many -logs. It grows on rich uplands from western Tennessee and southern -Missouri to Texas. The bright red flowers open in April, the fruit falls -in October. - -PURPLE BUCKEYE (_Aesculus octandra hybrida_) is a variety characterized -by red or purple flowers and by leaves woolly on the under sides, and -bark of lighter color than that of yellow buckeye. The range follows the -Appalachian mountains from West Virginia southward. It has been reported -in Texas also. If the wood is used at all, it goes for the same purposes -as yellow buckeye. - -[Illustration] - - - - -SASSAFRAS - -[Illustration: SASSAFRAS] - - - - -SASSAFRAS - -(_Sassafras Sassafras_) - - -The French settlers in Florida were the first white men to give the name -sassafras to this tree, but the Indians called it by that name long -before. It was a tree which Indians were sure to name, because it had an -individuality which appealed to them. It is not known what the real -meaning of the word was, when the southern Indians used it. After the -French adopted the name in Florida, it passed to other colonies and -other languages, and has led to numerous disputes since. Many have -erroneously supposed that the name is of Latin origin. When the English -colony was founded at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607, the tree was well -known by that name, but it was pronounced so variously and spelled in so -many ways that it was often almost unrecognizable. It is pronounced -variously and spelled differently yet. It is called sassafras in most -regions, and in others is saxifrax, sassafas, sassafac, sassafrac, and -saxifrax tree. - -Its range covers the territory from Massachusetts to Iowa and Kansas, -and south to Florida and Texas. Some of that range it has occupied for -vast periods of time, for sassafras leaves have been found embedded in -the Cretaceous formations of Long Island. Near the northern limit of its -range it is generally small, often of brush size; but further south it -becomes a tree which sometimes exceeds 100 feet in height, and three or -four in diameter. The best development of the species is in Arkansas and -Missouri. - -Sassafras belongs to the laurel family. Strangely enough, the two trees -which are usually supposed to be typical laurels--namely, mountain -laurel (_Kalmia latifolia_) and great rhododendron, do not belong to the -laurel family, but the heath family. The laurel family to which -sassafras belongs includes many species in all parts of the world, some -are evergreen, others are not, but all characterized by the strong, -pungent odor of their wood or bark, and all having fruit with a single -seed like a plum or cherry. The camphor tree from the distillation of -whose wood commercial camphor (except synthetic camphor made largely -from turpentine) is derived, belongs to this family, as do certain bay -trees of the southern states. It was formerly supposed that sassafras -existed only in the eastern half of the United States; but a species -closely resembling ours, if not identical with it, has recently been -found in China. The California laurel (_Umbellularia californica_) is in -the same family with sassafras. - -This tree has had a peculiar history. It was once supposed to possess -miraculous healing powers, and was shipped from Virginia to England in -one of the first cargoes to go to that country from the present -territory of the United States. Its supposed value did not consist in -its use as lumber, but in some medicinal property which it was reputed -to possess. People appeared to believe that it would renew the youth of -the human race. Some portion of this superstition has clung round -sassafras to this day, and it is not entirely confined to ignorant -people. Bedsteads made of sassafras were supposed to drive away certain -nightly visitors which disturb slumber. In southeastern Arkansas and -northwestern Mississippi, bedsteads are still made of this wood, with -the belief that sleep will be sounder. The same custom doubtless -prevails elsewhere. In northern Louisiana floors of sassafras are -occasionally laid in negro cabins because of the same superstition, and -in the firm belief that it will keep out animals as large as rats and -mice. Some of the mountaineers of Kentucky, where each family makes its -own soap, insist that the kettle must be stirred with a sassafras stick -or it will produce a poor quality of soap. Among the mountains of West -Virginia many a farmer equips his henhouse with sassafras poles for -roosts, fully convinced that he has put an effective quietus on all -tribes, shoals, and kindred of _menopon pallidum_, and the hens will -sleep better. - -The production of sassafras oil is perhaps the largest industry -dependent upon this tree. Roots are grubbed by the ton and are subjected -to destructive distillation. Much of this work is carried on in Virginia -where sassafras spreads quickly into abandoned fields, springing up from -seeds carried by birds. Veritable thickets soon take possession. Here is -where the sassafras oil supply comes from. Contractors often clear the -old fields and make them ready for tillage, taking the roots for pay. - -The wood weighs 31.42 pounds per cubic foot; is very durable when -exposed to dampness; is slightly aromatic; inclined to check in drying; -the layers of annual growth are marked by rings of large pores; -summerwood is quite distinct from the earlier growth; medullary rays are -many and thin; color dull orange-brown, the thin sapwood light yellow. - -Sassafras goes to sawmills in all regions where it is large enough for -lumber, but the total cut is small. Reports from sawmills in 1909 -credited this species with only 25,000 feet in the United States, and it -was still less in 1910. It is evident that this is only a small portion -of the total output, and probably Tennessee alone produces that much. -The wood is sold with other species and loses its name, frequently -passing as ash. The wood bears considerable resemblance to ash, in grain -and color, but is lighter in weight, and much lower in strength. - -Sassafras was one of the canoe woods of early times along the lower -Mississippi and its tributaries. Its two principal advantages over most -woods with which it was associated was its light weight and lasting -qualities. Canoes of this timber in Louisiana have given continued -service for a third of a century. - -In all parts of its range, wherever it is of sufficient size, it has -been used for posts. It is generally considered good for about twenty -years. Large trunks were formerly split for rails, and a few are -utilized in that way still, but most timber large enough for rails, now -goes to sawmills. In Texas most of the sassafras supplied by sawmills is -manufactured into furniture, but is listed as ash. The same thing is -done in Arkansas and Missouri, but the use in the latter state is -extended to interior house finish and office and bank fixtures. -Sometimes it is made the outside wood, and the figure caused by sawing -the logs tangentially is accentuated by stains and fillers. The figure -of quarter-sawed wood is not attractive because the medullary rays are -too small. It lasts well as railroad ties and a few are found in service -in many parts of the tree's range, but those who see it in the track are -liable to mistake it for chestnut. - -A by-product of sassafras deserves mention--tea made from the flowers or -from the bark of the roots. It is relished in the early spring, and is -popular in most regions where the tree is known. The bark is a -commercial commodity. It is tied in small bundles, and the price at -retail ranges from a nickel to a dime each. Drug stores and grocers sell -it. In the city of Washington in early spring sassafras peddlers canvas -the city from center to circumference. They are generally negro men and -women who dig the roots on the neighboring hills of Virginia and -Maryland, strip the bark, tie it in small bundles, and by diligence and -perseverance, succeed in converting the merchandise into money. - -Sassafras is often cited as an example of a tree with leaves of -different forms. Three shapes are common, and all frequently occur on -the same tree, and even on the same twig. One has no lobes, another has -one lobe like the thumb of a mitten, and another has three. - -LANCEWOOD (_Ocotea catesbyana_) is a small evergreen tree, looks much -like laurel, and grows in southern Florida, on the islands and on the -mainland in the vicinity of Biscayne bay. It is closely related to -sassafras, and the bark has an aromatic odor. It belongs to a group of -trees with nearly 200 species scattered in hot regions of both -hemispheres. This is the only one belonging to the United States, and it -appears to be a newcomer on these shores, from the fact that it has -succeeded in obtaining so limited a foothold. It keeps well south of the -region where it is likely to be frosted and it seldom exceeds a height -of thirty feet and a diameter of eighteen inches. The fruit ripens in -autumn and is dark blue with flesh thin and dry. The wood is hard, -heavy, strong, checks badly in drying, and has a rich brown color, the -sapwood being yellow. Rings of annual growth are marked with many small, -regularly-distributed open ducts; medullary rays are thin and numerous; -wood weighs 47.94 pounds per cubic foot; durable in contact with the -soil, beautifully colored, and is highly prized for small cabinet work -and novelties. At Miami, Florida, small trunks cut on neighboring -hummocks, or brought from the keys, are worked into souvenirs to be sold -to visitors. Lancewood fishing rods are among the strongest and most -expensive on the market; but little of the material of which they are -made grows in Florida. It is also manufactured into billiard cues and -small handles. - -[Illustration] - - - - -MADRONA - -[Illustration: MADRONA] - - - - -MADRONA - -(_Arbutus Menziesii_) - - -Madrona is an interesting tree which ranges from British Columbia -southward to central California, attaining its greatest development in -the redwood forests of northern California, where trees are sometimes -one hundred feet high and six or seven feet in diameter. It is not only -an interesting tree itself, but it has many interesting relatives, some -of which are trees, others shrubs, and still others only small plants or -vines. It may be called a second cousin to the common huckleberry, the -mountain laurel, trailing arbutus, the azaleas, the tiny wintergreen, -and the great rhododendron. It has some poor relations, but many that -are highly respectable. It belongs to the heath family, of which there -are seventy genera, and more than a thousand species; but less than half -of them are in America, the others being scattered widely over the -world. - -The madrona, when at its best, is one of the largest members of the -family; but it is not always at its best. It sometimes degenerates into -a sprawling shrub, where it grows on poor ground and on cold, dry -mountain tops. It is manifestly not fair to study any tree at its worst, -and it is particularly not fair to the madrona, which varies so greatly -in its appearance. At one place it may be scarcely large enough to shade -the lair of a jackrabbit, and at another it spreads its branches wide -enough to shade an army--a small army, however, say, about two thousand -men. A tree of that size may be found within a few hours' ride of San -Francisco. Its branches cover an area of from eight thousand to ten -thousand square feet. - -When madrona grows in the open it throws out wide limbs like a southern -live oak, though not so large or long. Its crown is rounded and -graceful; but when it grows in forests, where other trees crowd it, the -trunk rises straight up to lift the crown into the sunlight and fresh -air. The madrona is seen in all its glory in northwestern California, -where it catches some of the warmth and the moist air from the Pacific. -It follows the ranges of the Siskiyou mountains eastward near the -boundary of California and Oregon. It is usually mixed with other forest -trees, but sometimes large stands nearly pure are encountered, and there -the long trunks, rather gray near the ground, but wine-colored above, -rise in imposing beauty and are lost in the evergreen crowns. - -The leaves suggest those of laurel, but are broader. The large clusters -of white flowers are among the glories of the vegetable kingdom. George -B. Sudworth, dendrologist of the United States Forest Service, who -usually describes in strictly prosaic terms, breaks away from that habit -long enough to compare madrona flowers to lilies of the valley, in his -"Forest Trees of the Pacific Slope." The flowers appear from March to -May, depending on latitude and elevation. - -The brilliant orange-red fruit ripens in the fall, and is often borne in -great abundance. It renders the crowns of the trees very beautiful. The -fruit is about half an inch long and contains many small angular seeds. -The fruit is said to contain a substance which puts to sleep wild -creatures that feed on it. The claim is probably mythical, for birds -breakfast extravagantly on it in the morning, and apparently do not do -any sleeping until after sunset. - -This tree was discovered by and named for Archibald Menzies, a Scotch -botanist who traveled in the Northwest more than a hundred years ago. It -has several local names, among them being madrove, laurel wood, -madrone-tree, laurel, and manzanita. The last is the proper name of -another small tree which is associated with madrona and is closely -related to it. - -The wood weighs 43.95 pounds per cubic foot. It is a little below -eastern white oak in fuel value, a little above it in strength, and -somewhat under it in stiffness. The color is pale reddish-brown, -resembling applewood in tone, but generally not quite so dark. The wood -is porous, but the pores are very small. Medullary rays are numerous but -thin. On account of the rays being of a little deeper red than the other -wood, quarter-sawed stock is handsome and of somewhat peculiar -appearance. The figure is much like quarter-sawed beech, but of deeper, -more handsome color. The contrast between springwood and summerwood is -not strong, though easily seen. Generally, the summerwood constitutes -about one-fourth of the annual ring. The tree grows slowly, but with -much irregularity. The increase in one season may be four or five times -as great as in another. The bark exfoliates, and is quite thin. - -Madrona has never been put to much use. Difficulties in seasoning it -have stood in the way. The wood warps and checks. Similar difficulties -with other woods have been overcome, and such troubles should not be -unduly discouraging. The beauty of the wood is unquestioned. It presents -a fine appearance when worked into furniture, particularly in small -panels and turned work, like spindles, knobs, and small posts. When made -into grills it shows a surprising richness of tone. The wood polishes -almost to the smoothness of holly. Small quantities are made into -flooring; a little goes to the furniture makers; lathes turn some of it -for novelties and souvenirs; fuel cutters sell it as cordwood; and -tanbark peelers cut the trees for the thin, papery bark. In that case -the trunks are left to decay, unless they happen to be convenient to a -cordwood market. - -One of the most extensive uses for the wood of madrona is for charcoal -burning. Blacksmiths buy it because it is cheaper than coal, and some is -used in shops where soldering and welding are done; but the most -exacting demand comes from gunpowder manufacturers. They find this wood -almost equal to alder and willow as a source of charcoal suitable for -powder. - -MEXICAN MADRONA (_Arbutus xalapensis_) might properly be called Texas -madrona as it occurs in that state and probably in no other, but its -range extends southward into Mexico. It produces a poorly shaped trunk -seldom much more than twenty feet high and one foot in diameter, and -usually divided into several branches near the ground. It blooms in -March and ripens its fruit in midsummer. The tree is found on dry -limestone hills, and in the valley of the Rio Blanco, and among the -Eagle mountains. Cabinet makers in Texas put the wood to rather exacting -uses after they have carefully seasoned it to overcome its natural -tendency to check. It is very hard; its color is a little lighter than -applewood which it resembles; annual rings are scarcely visible, so -regular and even is the year's growth. In Texas the wood is made into -plane stocks, tool handles, and mathematical instruments. - -ARIZONA MADRONA (_Arbutus arizonica_) has a restricted range on the -Santa Catalina and Santa Rita mountains of southern Arizona, where it -ascends to an altitude of 8,000 feet. The species extends southward into -Mexico. The largest trees attain a height of fifty feet and a diameter -of two. Trunks are usually straight and shapely, and show the thin, red -bark common to the genus. The wood resembles that of the species in -Texas, and doubtless is suited to the same purposes, but no utilization -of it has been reported, except for fuel, and for fences and sheds on -mountain ranches. When the region becomes more thickly settled, the -value of the wood will be appreciated. - - MANZANITA (_Arctostaphylos manzanita_) is not generally welcomed by - botanists into the tree class. They say it is too small; but it is - as large as some of the laurels which go as trees without question, - and is shaped much like them. There are several species of - manzanita. The word is Spanish and means "little apple." The name is - natural, for one of the most noticeable things about manzanita is - the fruit, the size of well-grown huckleberries. It is shaped like - an apple, and its tart taste suggests that fruit. The Digger Indians - along the foothills of the Sierra Nevada mountains in California - gather the berries by the sack, dry them, and keep them for - winter--if they can. It is often impossible to keep them because, - like other fruit, they are apt to become wormy. When the Indians - discover them in that condition they display rare thrift and economy - for savages, by soaking the fruit and pressing out the juice, which - is said to pass for a pretty fair quality of cider, but it must be - quickly consumed or it will mother and change to vinegar. Indians - now put the berries to use less frequently than in early times when - they were nearly always hungry. - - Manzanita is of the same family as madrona. Its range extends along - the mountains of the Pacific coast ranges from Oregon to Mexico, and - inland to Utah. The largest trees are about twenty feet high and a - foot or less in diameter; very much divided and branched, with limbs - crooked in more ways, perhaps, than those of any other - representative of the vegetable kingdom. Thousands of canes are cut - from the branches, and if any living man ever saw a straight one he - failed to report it. Manzanita grows in almost impenetrable thickets - on dry slopes and ridges. Its thin foliage casts so pale a shadow - that the tree's shade is little cooler than the boiling sun upon the - open naked ground and rocks. The bark is a reddish-chocolate color, - and exfoliates in scales of papery thinness. The heart is nearly of - the same color as the bark, but the sap is white and very thin. The - wood is hard, strong, stiff, but exceedingly brittle. If a branch is - sharply bent it will fly into splinters. - - The uses of the wood are numerous, but the total quantity demanded - is moderate. Novelty stores sell small articles to tourists in - California, sometimes passing the wood off as mountain mahogany - which does not so much as belong to the same family. The most common - articles manufactured by novelty shops from manzanita are canes, - paper weights, paper knives, rulers, spoons, napkin rings, curtain - rings, cuff buttons, dominos, manicure sticks, jewel boxes, match - safes, pin trays, and photo frames. - -[Illustration] - - - - -COTTONWOOD - -[Illustration: COTTONWOOD] - - - - -COTTONWOOD[9] - -(_Populus Deltoides_) - - [9] The following species grow in the United States: Cottonwood - (_Populus deltoides_), Aspen (_Populus tremuloides_), Largetooth - aspen (_Populus grandidentata_), Swamp Cottonwood (_Populus - heterophylla_), Balm of Gilead (_Populus balsamifera_), Lanceleaf - Cottonwood (_Populus acuminata_), Narrowleaf Cottonwood (_Populus - angustifolia_), Black Cottonwood (_Populus trichocarpa_), Fremont - Cottonwood (_Populus fremontii_), Mexican Cottonwood (_Populus - mexicana_), Texas Cottonwood (_Populus wislizeni_). - - -Eleven species of cottonwood are found in the United States, if all -trees of the genus _Populus_ are classed as cottonwoods. It is not -universally admitted, however, that they should be so classed. The -common cottonwood is the most widely known of all of them, but it is -recognized under different names in different regions, viz.: Big -cottonwood, yellow cottonwood, cotton tree, Carolina poplar, necklace -poplar, broadleaf poplar, and whitewood. - -Its range covers practically all of the United States east of the Rocky -Mountains. It is rare or missing in eastern New England and southern -Florida, and most abundant in the Mississippi valley, and there the -largest trees are found. Some exceed 100 feet in height, and four in -diameter. Extreme sizes of 140 feet in height with diameters of from -seven to nine have been reported. The cottonwood was a frontier tree on -the western plains when settlers began to push into the region. It grew -as far west as any hardwood of the eastern forests, and was found beyond -meridian 100, which was supposed to be the boundary between the region -of rains and the semi-arid country. The cottonwood clung to the river -banks and to islands in the rivers, and by that means escaped the -Indian's prairie and forest fires which he kindled every year to improve -the range for the buffalo. It is supposed that most of the open country -east of meridian 100 was originally timbered, and that the Indians -destroyed the forests by their long-continued habit of burning the woods -and prairies every year to improve the pasture. Cottonwood was the -longest survivor, because it grew in damp places where fires did not -burn fiercely. Black willow was its most frequent companion on the -western outposts of the forests. - -The cottonwood was fitted for holding its ground, and pushing forward. -Its light seeds are carried by millions on the wind and by water. The -tree bears large quantities of cotton (hence the name), and when the -wind whips it from the tree, seeds are caught among the fibers and -carried along, to be scattered miles away. - -This tree was not much thought of by eastern people who had plenty of -other kinds of wood, but pioneers on the plains who had a hard time to -get any, found cottonwood useful. It made fences, corncribs, stables, -cabins, ox yokes, and fuel. The first canoes made by white men on the -upper Missouri river were of cottonwood. Lumber cut from this tree is -inclined to warp and check unless carefully handled, and this prejudiced -it in the eyes of many; but difficulties of that kind were easily -mastered, and instead of being a neglected wood it became popular. Some -of the largest early orders came from Germany. Vehicle makers in this -country employed it for wagon beds, as a substitute for yellow poplar -when that wood's cost advanced. Manufacturers of agricultural implements -were pioneers in its use, it being excellent material for hoppers, -chutes, and boxes. - -Cottonwood weighs 24.24 pounds per cubic foot, which is approximately -the weight of white pine. It has about the stiffness of white oak, but -only about eighty per cent of white oak's strength, and fifty per cent -of its fuel value. The wood is very porous, but the pores are small, -usually invisible to the naked eye. The medullary rays are small and -obscure. The appearance of the wood is not improved by quarter-sawing. -The summerwood forms a thin, dark line, so faint that the annual rings -are often scarcely distinguishable. The tree is generally a rapid -grower; heartwood is brown, sapwood lighter, but as a whole, this tree -produces white wood. - -The annual cut is declining. It was little more than half in 1910 what -it was in 1899. Some regions where large trees were once abundant now -have few. The sawmill output in 1910 for the United States--including -several species--was 220,000,000 feet. The veneer cut was 33,000,000 -feet, log measure; the slack cooperage staves, chiefly for flour -barrels, numbered 44,000,000; and pulpwood amounted to about 18,000,000 -feet. The lumber cut was largest in the following states in the order -named: Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, Tennessee, Iowa, -Wisconsin, Michigan, Oklahoma, and Minnesota. The tree was lumbered in -forty-one states. - -Cottonwood is a standard material in several lines of manufacturing. It -is made into nearly every kind of box that goes on the market, from the -cigar box to those in which pianos are shipped. Manufacturers of food -products are particularly anxious to procure this wood, and it is one of -the best for woodenware, such as dough boards, ironing boards, and cloth -boards. It is used by manufacturers of agricultural implements, interior -finish, bank and office fixtures, musical instruments, furniture, -vehicle tops, trunks, excelsior, saddle trees, caskets and coffins, and -numerous others. - -There is no danger that cottonwood will disappear from this country, but -it will become scarce. It is being cut much faster than it is growing, -and is losing favor as a planted shade and park tree, because of its -habit of shedding cotton in the spring and its leaves in the early -autumn. - -SWAMP COTTONWOOD (_Populus heterophylla_) is known also as river -cottonwood, black cottonwood, downy poplar, and swamp poplar. Its range -describes a crude horseshoe, running from Rhode Island down the Atlantic -coast in a narrow strip, where it is neither abundant nor of large size; -touching northern Florida; running westward to eastern Texas and thence -up the Mississippi basin and the Ohio river to southwestern Ohio. There -is nothing handsome about its appearance with its heavy limbs and -sparse, rounded crown. In the eastern range the average height is -probably not more than fifty feet but in the fertile Mississippi valley -it reaches 100 and has a long merchantable bole three feet in diameter. -Its bark is rugged, dirty-brown and broken into loose, conspicuous -ridges. It is easily distinguished from the other cottonwoods by the -orange-colored pith in the twigs. The buds are rounded and red and have -a resinous odor. Sawmills and factories never list this wood separately. -It comes and goes as cottonwood. Its uses are the same as those of -common cottonwood. The two species grow in mixture throughout the entire -range of the swamp cottonwood. - -TEXAS COTTONWOOD (_Populus wislizeni_) is a rather large tree and is the -common cottonwood in the upper valley of the Rio Grande in New Mexico -and western Texas. The yellowish color of the twigs is apt to attract -attention. The wood is used about ranches and occasionally a log finds -its way to local sawmills; but its importance is limited to the region -where it grows. - -MEXICAN COTTONWOOD (_Populus mexicana_) extends its range north of the -Mexican boundary into southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico. It -is abundant in Mexico where the largest trees are eighty feet high and -three or four in diameter. It is smaller near the northern limits of its -range, and there it hugs the banks of mountain streams. Stockmen use the -trunks, which are usually small enough to be called poles, to make -fences and sheds. - -NARROWLEAF COTTONWOOD (_Populus angustifolia_)is a mountain species -which manages to live in the semi-arid regions from the Rocky Mountains -of Canada to Arizona, but is seldom found below an elevation of 5,000 -feet, and it ranges up to 10,000. Trunks are eighteen inches or less in -diameter, and fifty or sixty feet high. The seeds are larger than those -of most other cottonwoods. It being a semi-desert species, its wood is -appreciated where it is accessible, and it has local uses only. - -LANCELEAF COTTONWOOD (_Populus acuminata_) is a small tree with limited -range, growing in the arid region along the eastern base of the Rocky -Mountains, southward from the Black Hills. It is found also north of the -Canadian border. It is usually fifteen or eighteen inches in diameter, -and thirty or forty feet high. Trunks seldom go to sawmills, but some -local use is made of the wood. Trees are occasionally planted for shade -in towns of western Nebraska and Wyoming. - -FREMONT COTTONWOOD (_Populus fremontii_), called white cottonwood in New -Mexico, but elsewhere simply cottonwood, grows from western Texas to -California, and as far north as Utah and Colorado. It sometimes attains -a diameter of five or six feet and a height of 100. The Indians in New -Mexico formerly made rude, clumsy ox carts of this wood, without a scrap -of iron or other metal in the vehicles. One of the carts is preserved in -the National Museum, Washington, D. C. The wood is tough and light, but -it is dull white, with no attractive figure. Even the annual rings are -hardly distinguishable. Logs are occasionally sawed into lumber, and -farmers in western Texas make wagon beds of it. - -[Illustration] - - - - -BALM OF GILEAD - -[Illustration: BALM OF GILEAD] - - - - -BALM OF GILEAD - -(_Populus Balsamifera_) - - -This tree is known in different regions by the following names: Balsam, -balm of Gilead, cottonwood, poplar, balsam poplar, and tacamahac. The -usual name, balm of Gilead, is applied in recognition of the supposed -healing virtue of the wax which covers the buds and young leaves. It has -long been used in medicine, but its exact value is still a matter of -discussion. The wild Indians of the North discovered a use for the -balsam in mending their bark dishes, and plugging knot holes in the -wooden trenchers. The wax is slow to dissolve in water, and it resisted -for a long time such soups as were known to the redman's culinary art. -Bees know the value of the wax and use it to seal cracks and crevices in -their hives and to hold the comb in place. It is popularly believed that -the economy of the wax on the buds is to keep them from freezing. That -view is erroneous, for it would take more than a coating of wax to keep -the buds warm with the thermometer from fifty to seventy degrees below -zero, as it is every winter in some parts of this tree's range. - -Balm of Gilead is a native of the North from the Atlantic to the -Pacific, but its finest growth is about the headwaters of the Mackenzie -river, on Peace and Laird rivers, and the lower valley of the Athabaska. -Sixty years ago Sir John Franklin reported that most of the driftwood of -the Arctic ocean was this species. Since that time the range has been -more definitely determined, and it is now known that the tree grows so -far north that it is for some weeks in darkness, and again in summer for -some weeks in unbroken sunshine. It grows in Alaska nearly 200 miles -north of the Arctic circle. Its natural range southward reaches New -England, New York, Michigan, Nebraska, Nevada, and Oregon. - -Trees of all sizes abound, from mere shrubs in the outskirts of its -range to trunks 100 feet high and six feet in diameter in favored -localities. In the United States the best timber seldom exceeds thirty -inches in diameter and sixty or seventy feet in height. The bark on -limbs and young trunks is brownish-gray, frequently so tinged with green -that it is noticeable at a considerable distance; but usually large -trees have reddish-gray bark with deep furrows and wide ridges. Year-old -twigs are clear, shiny reddish-brown; end buds are about an inch long, -the side buds somewhat shorter. - -The wood is not distinguishable in appearance from that of the other -poplars or cottonwoods, but it is lighter than most of them, weighing -22.65 pounds per cubic foot, has a breaking strength which places it -among the weakest woods, but in stiffness making a much better showing. -The pores are small, numerous, and are distributed equally through all -parts of the wood. - -Balm of Gilead bears seeds abundantly and scatters them widely. It must -do its planting quickly in the short summers of the cold North. It -sticks close to alluvial flats, banks of rivers, borders of lakes and -swamps, and gravelly soils. It grows to a diameter of fifteen inches in -about forty-five years. - -Though balm of Gilead is not one of the most important timber trees of -this country, its place is by no means obscure. No separate tally is -kept of it among woods cut for pulp, but it goes with aspen and other -similar species as "poplar." A little better account is kept of the -amount passing through wood-using factories. The annual quantity so -reported in Illinois is 2,775,000 feet, and it is made into boxes and -crates. The lumber is shipped from the North, since it does not grow as -far south as Illinois. The situation is different in Michigan, for balm -of Gilead grows there. The amount going yearly into factories in that -state is reported at 4,912,000 feet. It is made into many commodities, -but boxes and crates take most of it. The wood is reduced to veneer and -converted into berry buckets, grape baskets, fruit and egg crates, and -other small shipping containers. It is made into excelsior and woodwool -which are used as packing material. Druggist's barrels are manufactured -from this wood. These are small, two-piece vessels, bored hollow, with a -closely fitting lid, and varying in size from a couple of inches high, -to nearly a foot. They contain powders, perfumes, pills, and other -commodities in small bulk. The wood is worked into pails, tubs, and -kegs. Furniture makers put balm of Gilead to use in several ways. It is -cut thin for shelving; it is made into panels, and is employed as cores -over which to lay veneers of more expensive materials. Woodenware -factories generally keep it in stock in the northern states. - -The supply is ample at present to meet all demands. Cutters of pulpwood -probably take more than sawmills, and are satisfied with smaller timber. -Trees are often planted for ornament, but few if any have yet been -propagated for forestry purposes. - -HAIRY BALM OF GILEAD (_Populus balsamifera candicans_) is not a species -but a variety, and it is so different from balm of Gilead that it is -entitled to a place of its own. Ordinarily it passes under the common -names applied to balm of Gilead. It is a cultivated tree in eastern -Canada and northeastern United States, where it has escaped from -cultivation and is running wild. Both Sargent and Sudworth say that -nothing is definitely known of the tree's native range; while it has -been claimed by others that it once grew wild in Michigan but was -destroyed by lumbermen. Probably most planted balm of Gileads are of -this variety, as they are very ornamental. It is a large tree with -branches less upright and crowns more open than in the wild species. The -leaves are wide, heart-shaped, and are usually silvery white beneath -with minute hairs on the margins, on the veins, and leaf stems. It is -not improbable that this variety could be more profitably planted for -forestry purposes than the species which grows wild; but there is no -present indication that foresters favorably consider either of them. - -LARGETOOTH ASPEN (_Populus grandidentata_) is named on account of the -shape of the leaves. It is sometimes called aspen, popple, white poplar, -and large poplar. The wood weighs 28.87 pounds per cubic foot, and is -the heaviest of the poplar group except Fremont cottonwood of the arid -southwestern regions. The wood is white, attractive, but not strong. It -was formerly manufactured into chip hats and shoe heels in New England, -and is now used for baskets, crates, boxes, buckets, refrigerators, -excelsior, and pulp. Northern factories usually give it the general name -"poplar," and for that reason its importance in the lumber trade is -underestimated. Trees may reach a height of seventy feet with a diameter -of two; but a height of forty or fifty is more usual. The species' range -extends from Nova Scotia to Minnesota, southward to Delaware and -Illinois, and along the Appalachian mountains to North Carolina and -Tennessee. - -GUMBO LIMBO (_Bursera simaruba_) is a south Florida species and is known -also as West Indian birch. It is in a family by itself with no near -relative. It is not a birch. The wood is spongy and very light, weighing -less than nineteen pounds per cubic foot. It decays with remarkable -rapidity. Branches thrust in the ground take root and grow. An aromatic -resin, exuding from wounds in the bark, is manufactured into varnish. -The leaves are substituted for tea, and gout remedies are made from the -resin. Large trees are fifty feet high and two feet or more in diameter. -Another Florida tree, not in the same family as this, is also called -gumbo limbo (_Simarouba glauca_), paradise tree, and bitter wood. -Ailanthus (_Ailanthus glandulosa_) is in the same family as paradise -tree, but is not native in this country, though extensively planted -here. - -ANGELICA TREE (_Aralia spinosa_). This is a small tree, which usually -develops little or no heartwood. The springwood, or the inner and porous -part of the ring, is broad and yellow, the summerwood, or exterior part -of the ring, is narrow and dark. The wood's figure, due to the marked -contrast between the outer and inner portions of the rings, is strong. -When finished it shows a rich yellow, but somewhat lighter than dwarf -sumach which it resembles. It is made into small shop articles, like -button boxes, photograph frames, pen racks, stools, and arms for -rocking chairs. Its range extends from Pennsylvania to Texas. It is -sometimes known as Hercules' club. - - ASPEN (_Populus tremuloides_) is widely known but not everywhere by - the same name. It is called quaking asp, mountain asp, aspen leaf, - white poplar, popple, poplar, and trembling poplar. The peculiarity - of the tree which is apt to attract attention, and which gives it - most of the names it carries, is the leaf's habit of being nearly - always in motion. The day is remarkably still if aspen foliage is - not stirring. This is due to the long, flat leaf stem, which is so - limber that it offers little resistance to air currents. The - difference in color between the upper and lower sides of the leaves - affords sufficient contrast to attract notice, and for that reason a - person will observe the motion of aspen leaves when he might fail to - see a similar movement among the leaves of other species where the - contrast of colors is not so marked. Aspen is credited with being - the most widely distributed tree of North America. It grows from - Tennessee to the Arctic ocean, from Mexico to northern Alaska, from - Labrador to Bering strait. It is found at sea level, and at 10,000 - feet elevation among the mountains of California. Its very small - seeds grow in enormous numbers. Winds carry them miles, and scatter - them by millions. They spring up quickly when they fall on mineral - soil. This places it in the class with "fire trees"--those which - take possession of burned tracts. Paper birch is in this class. - Aspen has replaced pines over large burned areas of the Rocky - Mountains. It grows quickly but is weak if it has to contend with - other trees. If crowded it speedily gives up the fight and dies. The - wood is not strong, but is useful for several purposes. Next to - spruce and hemlock, it is the most important pulpwood in this - country, and it is coming into considerable use as lumber. The - whiteness of the wood--it looks much like holly--makes it a favorite - for small boxes and vessels for shipping and containing foods. It is - made into jelly buckets, lard pails, fish kits, spice kegs, sugar - buckets and a long line of similar articles. It turns well, and is - made into wooden dishes. Michigan alone uses two and a half million - feet of it a year; and it is in demand along the whole northern tier - of states from Maine to Washington, but because it is not separately - listed in lumber output, it is difficult to say how much is used. - Trees are usually small, though trunks three feet in diameter are - not unknown. It grows rapidly, and may be expected to fill an - important place in this country's future timber supply. There will - be no occasion to plant it by artificial means, for nature will - attend to the planting. - -[Illustration] - - - - -BLACK COTTONWOOD - -[Illustration: BLACK COTTONWOOD] - - - - -BLACK COTTONWOOD - -(_Populus Trichocarpa_) - - -This member of the cottonwood group is a strong tree that holds its -ground in various latitudes and at many elevations, ranging from sea -level up to eight or nine thousand feet, and in latitude from Alaska to -southern California, a distance of nearly three thousand miles. Its east -and west extension is more restricted and seldom exceeds four hundred -miles. Its habitat covers an area of half a million square miles, and in -that space it finds conditions which vary so greatly that the tree which -can meet them must possess remarkable powers of adaptation. - -Beginning in Alaska and the interior of Yukon territory, it has an -arctic climate. It there not only grows on the coast, but it strikes the -interior. It appears on the headwaters of several streams which flow -into the Mackenzie or Hudson bay. It passes south through British -Columbia and enters the United States west of the Rocky Mountains. It -has been reported as far east as Idaho and Montana, but further -information is needed before its limits in that direction can be -definitely fixed. - -When it enters California it prefers the elevated valleys and canyons of -the Sierra Nevadas, though it occurs sparingly among the coast ranges. -It is generally found in the Sierras at elevations of from 3,000 to -6,000 feet, though it occurs between 8,000 and 9,000. Among the San -Jacinto mountains of southern California it grows at an altitude of -6,000 feet. - -When it occurs at low levels it is usually found on river bottoms and -sand bars, in sandy and humous soils, and there the largest trees are -found. At higher elevations it is more apt to occur in canyon bottoms -and gulches, in moist, sandy or gravelly soil, and in such situations -the black cottonwood is smaller. The best growth occurs where the -climate is humid and the precipitation is great. Beyond the reach of sea -fogs, where the tree depends on soil moisture chiefly, it is smaller. - -It is an intolerant tree. It must have light. When it is crowded a tall, -slender trunk is developed and the small crown is lifted clear above its -competitors into the full light. If it cannot succeed in gaining that -position its growth is stunted or the tree meets an early death. - -The black cottonwood is the greatest of the cottonwoods. This country -produces no other to match it, and, as far as known, the whole world has -none. The Pacific coast is remarkable for the giant trees it produces, -but most of them are softwoods--the redwoods, the bigtree, the sugar -pine, Douglas fir, western larch, noble fir, Sitka spruce and western -red cedar. This cottonwood is the largest of the Pacific coast -hardwoods. In trunk diameter it is excelled by the weeping oak in the -interior valleys of California, but when both height and diameter are -considered, the black cottonwood is in the West what yellow poplar is in -the East, the largest of the hardwoods. - -Sargent says this tree reaches a height of two hundred feet and a -diameter of eight, but Sudworth is more conservative and places the -trunk limit at six feet. The average size is much below the figures -given, but abundance of logs exceeding three feet in diameter reach the -sawmills of Washington and Oregon. - -Old trees range from 150 to 200 years in age, but trees under 100 years -old are large enough for saw timber. Records of the ages of the largest -trunks have not been reported. - -Black cottonwood is a prolific seeder, but the seeds do not long retain -their vitality. If they find lodgment in damp situations, where other -conditions are favorable, the rate of germination is high. Seedlings are -often very numerous on wet bars. - -The excellent quality of the wood and its suitability for many purposes -bring it much demand on the Pacific coast. In the state of Washington -more than 30,000,000 feet were used by wood-using industries in 1910. -Smaller quantities were reported in Oregon and California. - -In strength the wood is approximately the same as common cottonwood, but -in stiffness it much exceeds the eastern species. Its elasticity rates -high, and compares favorably with some of the valuable eastern -hardwoods. In weight it is slightly under common cottonwood. Trees are -of fine form, nearly always straight, and are generally free from limbs -to a considerable height. - -The wood is grayish-white, soft, tough, odorless, tasteless, -long-fibered, nails well, is easily glued, and cuts into excellent -rotary veneer with comparatively small expenditure of power. It does not -split easily after it has undergone seasoning, and this property -commends it to box makers. It is little disposed to shrink and swell in -atmospheric changes. The absence of odor and taste gives it much of its -value for box making, because foods are not contaminated by contact with -it. - -It is manufactured into veneer berry baskets and is one of the most -suitable woods on the Pacific coast for that purpose. Candy barrel -makers use it in preference to most others, and a long line of -woodenware articles draw much of their material from this source. Many -thousands of cords are cut yearly for the pulp mills, where material for -paper is produced. Black cottonwood and white fir are the principal -woods used for pulp on the Pacific coast. - -Not only is it used for rotary-cut veneer, but it is made into cores or -backing on which veneers of costly woods are glued in the manufacture of -furniture, interior finish and fixtures for banks, stores and offices. -It serves in the same way in casket making, and is demanded in millions -of feet. - -It is employed in amounts larger than any other wood by excelsior mills -in the northern Pacific coast region. It is the only wood demanded by -that industry in Washington and 6,400,000 feet were cut into that -product in 1910. - -Slack coopers find it as valuable in their business in the far West as -the common cottonwood is in the East, and hundreds of thousands of -staves are made yearly. It is in demand for the manufacture of flour -barrels and those intended for other food products. - -Trunk makers use it in three-ply veneers for the bodies, trays, boxes -and compartments of trunks and for suit cases. Though soft and light, it -is very tough, and sheets of veneer with the grains placed transversely -resist strains much better than solid wood of the same thickness. - -Vehicle makers employ black cottonwood for the tops and shelves of -business wagons. Another of its uses is as bottoms of drawers for -bureaus, wardrobes, and chiffoniers, and as partitions in desk -compartments. A full line of kitchen and pantry furniture is made wholly -or in part of this wood in the regions where it is cheap and abundant. - -The cottonwoods belong to a very ancient race of broadleaf trees, and -like several others, they seem to have had their origin, or at least a -very early home, in the far North, where intense cold now excludes -almost every form of vegetable growth except the lowest orders. The -Cretaceous age saw cottonwoods growing in Greenland. The cotton which -then, as now, carried the seeds and planted them fell on more hospitable -shores then than can now be found in the far frozen North. The genus was -not confined to the arctic and subarctic regions, however, for there -were cottonwoods at that time, or later, in more southern latitudes. -There were many species in the central portion of this country, and also -in Europe, long before the ice age destroyed all the forests north of -the Ohio and the Missouri rivers. Some of the old species long ago -ceased to exist, but others appear to have come down to the present time -without great change. - -The cottonwood shows wonderful vitality, which is doubtless a survival -of the characteristic which enabled it to come down from former geologic -epochs to the present time. A damaged and mutilated tree will recover. A -broken limb, thrust in the ground, will grow. - - BLACK POPLAR (_Populus nigra_) is quite distinct from black - cottonwood, though both belong to the same family. The latter is a - Pacific coast species, while the former belongs in Europe, although - it may have been introduced into that country from Persia or some - other eastern region. It is common in the United States, on account - of having escaped from cultivation. The best known variety of this - tree is the Lombardy poplar (_Populus nigra italica_). It is easily - recognized by the characteristic attitude of the branches which grow - upward close against the trunk. The crowns of the trees are very - long and slender, sometimes not ten feet across though fifty feet - high. Their slimness gives the trees the appearance of being much - taller than they really are. They were formerly popular for planting - along lanes and in door yards. Their slender and pointed spires cut - the horizon with a peculiar effect. Planting is less common now than - formerly, because people have come to know the trees better. They - are probably the most limby of all the members of the cottonwood - group. The long trunks are masses of knots when the limbs have been - trimmed away, and any desire to make lumber of the trees is apt to - be discouraged, though not infrequently logs go to local sawmills, - and farmers haul the boards home to put them to some use about the - place. In Michigan and Ohio, box makers use the lumber for the - rougher and cheaper articles which they turn out. - - The most discouraging thing about Lombardy poplar is the tendency of - the trees to send up sprouts. The living trees do it, and the stumps - are worse. The sprouts are not confined to the ground immediately - round the base of the tree, but spring up many feet or many yards - distant, until they produce a veritable jungle. Years are often - required to complete their extermination by grubbing and cutting. - - WHITE POPLAR (_Populus alba_) is a European species but has become - naturalized in the United States. It is widely planted as a shade - tree, and has escaped from cultivation. It may be known by the white - undersides of its small leaves, and by its yellowish-green bark - which remains smooth, except on large trunks. It is not yet - important as a source of lumber, but the vigor of its growth - indicates that it may sometime become so. The wood is soft, white, - and light. Some persons consider the tree objectionable as an - ornament because of its habit of sending up sprouts from the roots, - and because its woolly leaves collect dust and smoke until they are - almost black by the end of summer. - -[Illustration] - - - - -MANGROVE - -[Illustration: MANGROVE] - - - - -MANGROVE - -(_Rhizophora Mangle_) - - -The mangrove family is large and widely scattered, but only one member -has gained a foothold in the United States, and it occupies only limited -areas in south Florida, at the delta of the Mississippi, and on the -coast of Texas. The family's fifteen genera are confined to the tropics, -with a little overlapping on the temperate zones. The botanical name -_Rhizophora_ refers to the tree's peculiar roots, and _mangle_ is the -Spanish for mangrove. This is one of the few trees in this country which -are known by a single name. It is always called mangrove, and attains -its best development in Florida. - -The leaves hang two years, are from three to five inches long and one or -two wide. Flowers are not showy, but they are nearly always present, -blooming the year round, the yellow blossom about an inch in diameter. -The fruit proper is about an inch long, but its habit of sprouting while -still on the tree and sending down a long stem-like root, gives the -impression that the fruit is several inches long, sometimes a foot. - -It is not an easy matter to state the average size of mangrove trees. -Peculiar habits of growth make measurements difficult. Neither is it -easy to tell where a tree begins and where it ends. Mangrove thickets -along some of the rivers of south Florida, within the influence of tide -water, are strange forms of vegetation. If the foliage alone is -considered from a little distance, it reminds one of a row of fig trees -in Louisiana or California. The color and general appearance suggests -fig trees. A nearer approach reveals beneath the crowns a mass of roots, -stems, and limbs, joined with the ground beneath and the crowns above. -In addition to these, there are many others that dangle from above, like -rope ends, some nearly touching the ground, others several feet above. -These are roots or limbs, by whichever name one cares to call them. They -grow from overhead branches, and strike for the ground. When they touch -the soil, they quickly anchor themselves, and become stems. They then -look like slender poles set as props under the branches of an overladen -fruit tree. - -This strange habit of growth gives the tree its character. Most -mangroves stand in water. They fringe the banks of rivers and bayous, -extending the fringe as far as the water is shallow. Growth of that kind -is generally from ten to twenty feet high, and the largest stems from an -inch in diameter up to three or four; but these dimensions cannot be -taken as limits to size. Sometimes the trees are sixty or seventy feet -high, but those which stand in water seldom reach that size. Trees -which have their beginning in the water sometimes end their days high -and dry on the land. - -The mangrove is a land builder. The sycamore and willow are land -builders on a small scale, along northern water-courses, but mangrove -excels them a hundred or a thousand fold where it grows on the low -shores of Florida. The seed is prepared for land-building work before it -drops from the tree. It sprouts a long, peculiar root--it looks like a -very slender, big-ended cucumber--the large, heavy end down. This -attains a length of several inches or a foot. When it drops from the -branch, the end sticks in the mud and takes root, grows, and produces a -tree. But generally it falls in water, and not on a mud bank. In that -case it floats away, the heavy end down, the light end barely appearing -on the surface. Winds and currents drive it about until the lower tip -finally touches bottom in some shallow place. There it takes root, and -unless circumstances are extremely adverse, it holds fast, finally -becomes a tree, sends branches down from above to take root at the -bottom of the water, and a clump is produced. The tangled mass of stems -and roots catches driftwood and mud, resulting finally in a little -island, and later the island is joined to the mainland. Thus the land is -built. Many large flats in Florida owe their origin to this tree. When -land is permanently above water, the mangrove loses, to some extent, its -ability to send roots down from the limbs. Nature seldom does something -for nothing, and since the mangrove's aerial roots no longer serve a -useful purpose in nature's economy, they are dispensed with. Trunks then -reach much larger size, and become timber instead of thickets. The -accompanying picture shows a mangrove that no longer stands in water, -and its habit of growth is changing. - -Thickets of mangrove are useful, not only in building new land, but in -protecting that already built. Frequently the force of waves is broken, -which otherwise would destroy low shores. Tremendous seas, in time of -storms, will roll over thickets of mangrove without uprooting them or -breaking the stems. Again nature's fine engineering is apparent. When -men build lighthouses which must endure the shocks of waves, they have -learned to construct them of open beams and lattice work. The wave -passes through without delivering the full impact of the blow to the -structure. No solid masonry will stand what a comparatively light open -frame will endure without injury, because it allows the waves to pass -on. A large wave may strike with a force of 6,000 pounds to the square -foot. The mangrove thickets are like the open-framed lighthouse--they -let the waves pass through and spend their force gradually beyond, but -they hold the shore against washing. - -Admirable and wonderful as is nature's provision for protecting the -land by a fringe of lattice work of branches and stems, the marvelous -efficiency of the provision has been greatly increased in another way. -Suppose, for illustration, that cottonwood instead of mangrove formed -the protective thickets along stormy shores. The first hour of heavy -seas would reduce the trees to fragments. The weak, brittle trunks and -limbs would quickly break to pieces. But mangrove passes through storm -after storm unharmed. It is scarcely believable that accident accounts -for the fact that the best wood for the place is in the place; but it is -probable, rather, that ages of development and natural selection gave to -mangrove the qualities which make possible the accomplishment of its -work. It is one of the strongest, and as far as available data may be -depended upon, it is absolutely the most elastic wood in the United -States. Shellbark hickory is rated high in both strength and elasticity; -but mangrove rates higher. Sargent gives hickory's measure of elasticity -at 1,925,000 pounds per square inch; but mangrove's is 2,333,000 pounds. - -It is thus fitted in the highest manner to perform the work needed. It -plants itself in the right place; develops stems which will endure most -and suffer least; possesses enormous strength for resisting force, yet -is so extremely elastic that the force of waves is exhausted upon the -trunks and branches without flattening them upon the ground or crushing -them. Few things of the vegetable world show more perfect adaptation to -environment. The wood's very heaviness seems to add one more quality -fitting it for its place. When a trunk falls in the water, it does not -float away as most trees would, but sinks like iron, lies on the bottom, -helps to hold the forming island or bar in place, and in its death as in -its life it is a land-builder. Its efficiency in that particular is -increased by the fact that it is little affected by marine borers which, -in the warm, brackish waters, usually destroy wood in a short time. - -Mangrove is not important commercially, though it is used for a number -of purposes. The wood weighs 72.4 pounds per cubic foot, takes good -polish, though it is inclined to check in drying; it contains many small -pores; medullary rays numerous and thin; color reddish-brown streaked -with lighter brown. The principal use of the bark is for tanning and the -trunks for piles. It is well fitted for fence posts, but not many have -been used in the region where it grows. It rates high as fuel, but its -great weight increases transportation charges if the haul is long. - -Tanbark peelers in Florida have cut much of the large mangrove forest. -They took the bark, and abandoned the trunks. There is no likelihood -that the species will be exterminated. Much of the growth is practically -inaccessible, and the trunks are too small to tempt bark peelers, and -cordwood cutters find plenty of material more convenient. - - OTHER SPECIES.--Two other trees of this country are called mangrove - though they are not even in the same family. One is the black - mangrove (_Avicennia nitida_), called also blackwood and black tree. - It is a Florida species of the family Verbenaceae, and has some of - the mangrove's habits. It takes root and grows on muddy shores and - is a land builder. The largest trees are sixty or seventy feet high - and two in diameter, but are usually less than thirty feet high. The - bark is used in tanning, and no use for the wood is reported, except - for fuel. White mangrove (_Laguncularia racemosa_), known also as - white buttonwood, is a Florida species. It attains a height of - thirty or forty feet and a diameter of a foot or more. It reaches - its largest size on the shores of Shark river, Florida. The wood is - dark yellow-brown, and the bark is rich in tannin, and the tree may - become valuable as a source of tanbark. - - Near akin to white mangrove is Florida buttonwood (_Conocarpus - erecta_) which is highly esteemed as fuel. It burns slowly like - charcoal. Trees are from twenty to fifty feet high. Its range lies - in southern Florida. Black olive tree (_Terminalia buceras_) belongs - in the south Florida group, and the wood is exceedingly hard and - heavy. The trunk is often two or three feet in diameter, but lies on - the ground like a log, with upright stems growing from it. Tanners - make use of the bark. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CABBAGE PALMETTO - -[Illustration: CABBAGE PALMETTO] - - - - -THE PALMS - - -Lumbermen in this country could get along very well without the palms, -as they are little used for ordinary lumber. Their wood does not grow in -concentric rings, like that of the ordinary tree. The stems are usually -single, cylindrical, and unbranched. The fruit is berry-like, and is -usually one seeded, though sometimes there are two or three. When a seed -sprouts, it puts out at first a single leaf, like a grain of corn. About -130 genera of palms are recognized in the world, most of them in the -tropics, but several in the United States are of tree size. Botanists -divide the palms of the United States into two groups, the palm family -and the lily family. The yuccas belong in the lily family. In the very -brief treatment that can be given the subject here, it is not necessary -to recognize strict family divisions. - -CABBAGE PALMETTO (_Sabal palmetto_) grows in the coast region from North -Carolina to southern Florida, and west to the Apalachicola river. It is -sometimes called Bank's palmetto, cabbage tree, and tree palmetto. The -name cabbage is due to the large leaf-bud in the top of the stem which -is cooked as a substitute for cabbage. A sharp hatchet and some -experience are necessary to a successful operation in extracting the bud -from the tough fibers which surround it. - -This palm is a familiar sight in the coast region within its range. The -tall trunks, with tufts of leaves at the tops, suggest the supposed -scenery of the Carboniferous age. Usually the trunks, in thick stands, -rise straight like columns from twenty to forty feet high, but -occasionally they bend in long, graceful curves, as if the weight of the -tops caused them to careen, which is probably what does happen. They -vary in diameter from eight inches to two feet. - -The leaves are five or six feet long, and seven or eight wide, with -stems six or seven feet long. Flowers occur in racemes two feet or more -in length. The fruit is spherical and about a third of an inch in -diameter. The roots are an important part of this palm, and are adapted -to their environment, forming a rounded mass four or five feet in -diameter, while small rope-like roots, half an inch in diameter, -penetrate the wet marshy soil fifteen or twenty feet. The large, -globe-like mass gives support in the soft soil, and the stringy roots -supply water and mineral substances essential to growth. The wood is -light, soft, pale-brown, with numerous hard, fibro-vascular bundles, the -outer rim about two inches thick and much lighter and softer than the -interior. The most important use for the wood at present is as wharf -piles. It lasts well and is ideal in form. It is of historical interest -that Fort Moultrie which defended Charleston, South Carolina, in the -Revolutionary war, was built of palmetto logs. When the British made -their memorable attack in 1776, their cannon balls buried in the spongy -logs without dislodging them, and the fort successfully withstood the -bombardment of ten hours, and disabled nine of the ten British ships -taking part in the assault. - -The wood is employed to a small extent in furniture making, and the bark -for scrubbing brushes. Some of the finest forests of palmetto in Florida -are much injured by fire that runs up the trunks to feed on stubs of -leaves. - -SILKTOP PALMETTO (_Thrinax parviflora_) and silvertop palmetto (_Thrinax -microcarpa_) are species met with on some of the islands off the coast -of southern Florida. - -MEXICAN PALMETTO (_Sabal mexicana_) is much like cabbage palmetto in -size and general appearance, and is put to similar uses, except that the -leaf-bud does not appear to be used as food. The tree occurs in Texas -along the lower Rio Grande, and southward into Mexico where the leaves -are employed as house thatch by improvident Mexicans and Indians who do -not care to exert themselves to procure better roofing material. In the -vicinity of Brownsville, Texas, trunks of this palm are employed as -porch posts and present a rustic appearance. They are said to last many -years. The average size of trunks in Texas is fifteen or twenty feet -high and a foot or less in diameter, but some much larger are found in -Mexico. Some of the wharfs along the Texas coast are built on palmetto -piles. It is said the trunks are not as strong as those of the cabbage -palmetto in Florida. - -SARGENT PALM (_Pseudophoenix sargentii_) is interesting but not -commercially important, but may become so as an ornamental plant. It is -occasionally planted on lawns in south Florida. Leaves are five or six -feet long with stems still longer. The clusters of flowers are sometimes -three feet in length. A single species is known, occurring on certain -keys in southern Florida, and is so limited in its range that it would -be possible to count every tree in existence. A grove of 200 or 300 -trees occurs on Key Largo. - -ROYAL PALM (_Oreodoxa regia_) is one of the largest palms of this -country. It is said to reach a height of eighty feet, but such sizes are -rare. The trunk rises from an enlarged base, and may be two feet in -diameter. Bark is light gray in color, and its appearance suggests a -column of cement. Leaves are ten or twelve feet long, and the stems -increase the total length to twenty feet or more. Flowers are two feet -in length, and in Florida open in January and February. The fruit is -smaller than would be expected of a tree so large. It is a drupe about -the size of a half-grown grape. The wood is spongy, but the outer -portion of the stem is strong and is made into canes and other small -articles. Trunks are sometimes used as wharf piles. This palm's range is -confined to south Florida in this country, but it is common in the West -Indies. In Miami and other towns of southern Florida it is much planted -for ornament. - -FANLEAF PALM (_Neowashingtonia filamentosa_) also called Washington -palm, California fan palm, Arizona palm, and wild date, ranges through -southern California, and occupies depressions in the desert west of the -Colorado river. There are said to be several forms and varieties. It -ranges in height from thirty-five to seventy feet and in diameter from -twenty to thirty inches. Trunks are of nearly the same diameter from -bottom to top, or taper very gradually. They usually lean a little. Dead -leaves hang about the trunks and blaze quickly when fire touches them, -but the palm is seldom killed by fire. The small black fruit is about a -third of an inch in diameter, and of no commercial importance; wood is -little used; and the tree is chiefly ornamental, and has been much -planted in California. - -MOHAVE YUCCA (_Yucca mohavensis_) is one of a half dozen or more palms -of the yucca genus and the lily family. Trees of this group are -characterized by their stiff, sharp-pointed leaves, some of which are -called daggers and others bayonets. Both names are appropriate. The -Mohave yucca takes its name from the Mohave desert in California, where -it is occasionally an important feature of the doleful landscape. The -ragged, leather-like leaves, forming the tops of the short, weird trees, -rattle in the wind, or resound with the patter of pebbles when -sandstorms sweep across the dry wastes. It is believed to be one of the -most slowly-growing trees of this country. Trunks are seldom more than -fifteen feet high and eight or ten inches in diameter. The wood is -spongy and interlaced with tough, stringy fibers. Stockmen whose ranges -include this tree, make corrals of the stems by setting them in the -ground as palisades. When weathered by wind and made bone dry by the -sun's fierce heat, the trunks are reduced to almost cork-lightness. -Other yuccas are the Spanish bayonet (_Yucca treculeana_) of Texas; -Joshua-tree (_Yucca arborescens_), which ranges from Utah to California -and is known as tree yucca, yucca cactus, and the Joshua; Schott yucca -(_Yucca brevifolia_) of southern Arizona; broadfruit yucca (_Yucca -macrocarpa_) of southwestern Texas; aloe-leaf yucca (_Yucca aloifolia_) -with a range from North Carolina near the coast to Louisiana; and -Spanish dagger (_Yucca gloriosa_), on the coast and islands of South -Carolina. - - GIANT CACTUS (_Cereus giganteus_) is a leafless tree of Arizona and - attains a height of forty or sixty feet, diameter of one or two. - About twenty genera of cactus are known in the world and a large - number of species. Two genera, the cereuses and opuntias, have - representatives of tree size in this country. The two genera differ - in form. Cereus in the Latin language means a candle, and the - cactuses of that genus stand up in straight stems like candles, or - have branches like old-fashioned candlesticks. The opuntias have - flat, jointed stems, like thick leaves. Giant cactus bears flowers - four inches long and two wide; fruit two inches long and one wide, - and edible. Indians derive a considerable part of their food from - this cactus. They use the wood for rafters, fences, fuel, lances, - and bows. The trunks consist of bundles of fiber, very hard and - strong. In the dry region where this cactus grows, the woody parts - of fallen stems last long periods, some say for centuries, but there - are no records. Schott cactus (_Cereus schottii_) and Thurber cactus - (_Cereus thurberi_) are found in southern Arizona and southward in - Mexico. - - CHOLLA (_Opuntia fulgida_) ranges from Nevada southward into Mexico. - It is popularly called "divil's tongue cactus," but there are other - species with the same name. Trunks are occasionally ten or twelve - feet high, and the wood is made into canes and small articles of - furniture, but as lumber it is not important. The fruit is not - eaten. A closely-related species is known as tassajo (_Opuntia - sponsior_). It is found on the dry mesas of southern Arizona where - trunks may be ten feet high and a few inches in diameter. It has the - same uses as cholla. A third species is _Opuntia versicolor_ of - southern Arizona. It is similar to the other opuntias. Attempts have - been made to grow spineless varieties of this group of cactuses. It - is believed that cattle, sheep, and goats would thrive on the pulpy - growth, if the thorns could be gotten rid of. The semi-desert - regions of the Southwest produce enormous quantities of cactus of - many kinds, and if those worthless species could be made way with - and thornless varieties substituted, it is probable that much land - now worthless would become valuable. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: YELLOW CEDAR] - - - - -MINOR SPECIES - - -A considerable number of trees grow in this country which, taken singly, -are of small importance, but in the aggregate they fill a place which -would be difficult to fill without them. Most of them are local, and are -seldom heard of outside of the regions where they grow. Some are small, -and for that reason are not demanded by the ordinary user of lumber; but -small size is not necessarily a bar to the use of a wood. Many places -may be filled by pieces too small for the sawmill. Sometimes a -diminutive trunk contains material of extraordinary hardness, or it may -be polished to a rare smoothness, or the colors may be exquisite. -Numerous commodities can be successfully manufactured from blocks or -billets which are only a few inches in diameter and a foot or two in -length. This is particularly true of some of the rare hardwoods of -Florida and southern Texas where tropical species have extended their -ranges northward over the borders of the United States. Some of the -small trees in that group are known by name in only the immediate -locality where they grow, and their qualities are scarcely appreciated -even there. In some instances railroad ties are hewed from wood which is -fit for the finest furniture. - -It is no uncommon thing for Mexicans along the Rio Grande to warm their -huts and cook their meals with fuel chopped from trunks of Texas ebony, -algarita, cat's claw, bluewood, huisache, retama, and junco. Those who -have traveled among the Indian rancherias of New Mexico and Utah have -grown familiar with the peculiar odor filling the air in the vicinity of -camp fires. It is the smoke of the rare junipers which the Indians burn -for fuel; and yet it is wood of such soft tones and exquisite blending -of colors that the shades of a Persian rug suffer by comparison. Among -the ten thousand islands which fringe the coasts of south Florida, and -also among the hummocks of the mainland, are rare trees whose wood is -unsurpassed in hardness, fineness of texture, and beauty. These are not -being used at all, or only as fuel to feed some fisherman's or camper's -fire, or to make a smoke to drive away mosquitoes. The time will come -when small and scarce woods will be sought, if they are valuable for any -special purpose. In preceding pages of this book many minor species have -been listed and briefly described in connection with those more -important, and with which they are closely related. There are more than -a hundred others which were necessarily omitted from former pages. A few -of these deserve at least a brief mention, and are listed in the -following paragraphs. - -KOEBERLINIA (_Koeberlinia spinosa_) is commonly considered a -curiosity; a tree without a relative in the world, and without leaves, -flowers, or fruit. The popular notion is wrong, of course, for no tree -is without relatives, and none without leaves, flowers, and fruit, or -something that takes their place. The flowers, leaves, and fruit of this -tree are small and escape notice of the casual observer, but they exist. -Its nearest relative in this country is the paradise tree of Florida and -the ailanthus introduced from China. It has a small, thorny, crooked -trunk; the wood is dark, turning nearly black with exposure; it is rich -with oil; and it is very hard. The species grows in certain places along -the Rio Grande. The wood is made into canes, rulers, knife handles, -turned articles, and a little furniture of the smaller kinds. The trunks -are too small for ordinary sizes of lumber. - -GUM ELASTIC (_Bumelia lanuginosa_) ranges from Georgia to Texas, and in -Florida is called black haw. Children in Texas mix its berries with -chewing gum, to increase the quantity, and the name which they apply to -it is "gum stretch it." An exuded resin is also used for chewing gum. -Trees are sometimes sixty feet high and two in diameter, and a -considerable number of logs go to hardwood mills, where they lose their -name, and possibly appear as ash lumber, or occasionally as maple. The -wood is white, tinged with yellow, and is manufactured into agricultural -implements. A scarce and smaller species, known as buckthorn bumelia and -ironwood (_Bumelia lycioides_) covers nearly the same range. From a tree -of the same family in southern Asia the gutta percha of commerce is -obtained. Other woods of the same family in this country are mastic -(_Sideroxylon mastichodendron_) of south Florida, a tree sometimes sixty -feet high and three feet in diameter, useful for boat building; -satinleaf (_Chrysophyllum monopyrenum_), also of Florida, a tree -twenty-five feet high and one in diameter, the wood very heavy, hard, -and strong; tough bumelia (_Bumelia tenax_), ranging from South Carolina -to Florida, a tree twenty feet high and six inches in diameter, called -black haw in some parts of its range; saffron plum or ant's wood -(_Bumelia angustifolia_), growing in Florida and Texas, the trunk twenty -feet high and six inches in diameter; wood orange colored, and the fruit -sweet; bustic (_Dipholis salicifolia_), in south Florida, a tree forty -feet high and eighteen inches in diameter, with wood exceedingly hard, -strong, and heavy, and dark brown or red in color; wild sapodilla or -dilly (_Mimusops sieberi_), a tree of south Florida with rich, very dark -brown wood, height of tree twenty feet, diameter one foot. - -DWARF SUMACH (_Rhus copallina_) is known by many names. It is -distinguished from staghorn sumach by its smooth branches, those of -staghorn being hairy. Sumach's chief importance is due to its value as -tanning material. Leaves and small branches are used. The family has -some well-known members in other parts of the world, among them the -mangoes. The name dwarf sumach is not well selected, for the species is -nearly as large as any other sumach. Trees are sometimes thirty feet -high and ten inches in diameter. The tree's range extends from New -England to Florida and Texas. It reaches its largest size west of the -Mississippi river. In the East and North it is usually a shrub. Trees of -largest size are not believed to exceed fifty years in age. The wood is -richly striped with yellow and black. Balls turned of it, seven inches -in diameter, are used for newel-post ornaments, and smaller balls are -made for use in darning stockings. Cups are turned on the lathe, and the -bright stripes in the wood give the wares a striking appearance. It was -formerly much employed for spiles in tapping maple trees for sugar -making. Staghorn sumach (_Rhus hirta_) is of a different species but of -the same genus. Its range extends from New Brunswick nearly to the -Mississippi river. Its name refers to the down on the young branches -resembling the velvet on the horns of a deer at certain seasons. The -tree is known as Virginia sumach and hairy sumach. Its compound leaves -are sometimes two feet long--two or three times the size of dwarf -sumach's. Trunks have been reported forty feet high and more than a foot -through. The uses of this wood are the same as of dwarf sumach, -including tanning. It is more abundant east than west of the -Alleghanies. Poisonwood (_Rhus metopium_) belongs to the same family. It -is known in Florida as doctor gum, hog plum, coral sumach, bumwood, and -mountain manchineel. The juice is exceedingly poisonous, and gum -produced by wounding the bark is reported to have medicinal value. Trees -are sometimes forty feet high and two feet in diameter. The American -smoke tree (_Cotinus cotinoides_) is another member of the sumach -family. It is found in the southern states from eastern Tennessee to -Texas. It is nowhere common, and its only reported use is as fence -posts. Trees may be a foot in diameter and thirty feet high. The wood is -a bright clear orange color, and a yellow dye has been manufactured from -it. Poison sumach (_Rhus vernix_) is not the same as poisonwood, though -sometimes the two are confounded. It is usually a shrub, and rarely -twenty feet high. It is overloaded with names, as might be expected of a -plant considered as dangerous as this. Among its names are poison elder, -poison dogwood, swamp sumach, poison oak, poisonwood, poisontree, and -thunderwood. It grows from New England to Georgia, and west to Minnesota -and Louisiana. It is apt to occur in wet swamps, and Sargent pronounces -it "one of the most dangerous plants of the North American flora." A -black, lustrous varnish can be made of the acrid poisonous juice, and -this may sometime give the species a commercial value. When the skin is -poisoned by contact with this tree, an effective remedy may be found in -a saturated alcoholic solution of acetate of lead, if applied as a wash -within an hour or two after the poisoning occurs. A wash with pure -alcohol is also effective if applied within an hour. Following either -treatment the skin should be thoroughly washed with soap and water. -Western sumach (_Rhus integrifolia_), a closely related California -species, is a small evergreen, seldom more than twenty feet high and a -foot in diameter. The wood is heavy, hard, and red, is used as fuel, and -occasionally in small turnery. The fruit is a berry half an inch long. - -CASCARA BUCKTHORN (_Rhamnus purshiana_) is of the buckthorn family, and -is known by many names on the Pacific coast where the species is best -developed. It grows as far east as Colorado and Texas. Cascara sagrada, -its Mexican name, is often used for this tree. It is known also as -bearberry, bearwood, yellow-wood, pigeonberry, coffeeberry, bayberry, -and California coffee. The tree's usual size is from ten to thirty feet -high and twelve to twenty inches in diameter. It is often shrubby, and -is more valuable for its bark than its wood. Large quantities are peeled -for medicinal uses, and many trees are thus destroyed. A little of the -wood is burned as fuel, and some is made into handles. Yellow buckthorn -(_Rhamnus caroliniana_), with a range from New York to Texas, and -evergreen buckthorn (_Rhamnus crocea_), a California species, are -closely related to cascara buckthorn, but are of comparatively little -importance. Blue myrtle (_Ceanothus thyrsiflorus_) is a California -species, sometimes called wild lilac or blue blossoms. It ranges in -height from thirty-five feet, among the redwoods on the Santa Cruz -mountains, to only one foot high on some of the wind-swept coasts. The -wood is pale yellowish-brown, and is somewhat used for novelties. Tree -myrtle (_Ceanothus arboreus_), often known as lilac, is also a -California tree, closely related to blue myrtle, but is of smaller size -and of very restricted range. Its prospective value lies more in its -bloom than in its wood. Naked-wood (_Colubrina reclinata_), a Florida -species, is of a kindred genus. Trees are sometimes fifty feet high and -three in diameter. The wood is hard, very strong, and is dark brown -tinged with yellow. - -LIGNUM-VITAE (_Guajacum sanctum_) grows in Florida, and a species which -is probably the same is found in south Texas along the Rio Grande. In -Texas the tree is known as guayacon, which name has come down from the -times when the Carib Indians ruled the West Indies. That was their name -for the tree. The annual rings are usually too vague and too involved to -be counted, but the tree is known to be of slow growth. The wood is -pitted and it contains cavities and creases; but the clear wood is very -hard and of fine and various colors. It is dark green, brown, black, -yellow and of mixed colors, and clouded effects, all in the same block. -Small pieces of furniture, like bureau cabinets, present attractive -combinations of colors. The wood is of such exceeding hardness that it -turns, breaks, or batters the carpenter's tools. Candlesticks, egg cups, -goblets, vases, checker pieces, dominos, boxes, trays, canes, paper -knives, and souvenirs are manufactured in a small way. Trees attain a -height of thirty feet and a diameter of two or more. The compound leaves -adhere to the branches until those of the following season appear. The -fruit is an orange-colored pod three-fourths of an inch long. - -PRICKLY ASH (_Xanthoxylum clava-herculis_). Some know this species as -toothache tree, tear-blanket, sting-tongue, and Hercules' club. The wood -shows little difference in color between heartwood and sap, and bears -some resemblance to buckeye. It takes good polish and some of it looks -like birdseye maple, but the figure does not seem to be due to -adventitious buds. It has been made into picture frames and looks well. -It is a rapid grower, and since its color fits it for the stencil, it -might be worthy of consideration for box material. Trees reach a height -of twenty-five or thirty feet, and a diameter of a foot or more. Its -range extends from Virginia to Texas. Satinwood (_Xanthoxylum -cribrosum_) is of the same genus, but it does not grow north of Florida -where it is sometimes called yellow-wood. Mature trees are a foot or -more in diameter and twenty-five or thirty-five feet high; wood heavy, -exceedingly hard and brittle, but not strong; color light orange. It has -some use as furniture material, and for certain classes of handles which -need not be strong. Wild lime (_Xanthoxylum fagara_) is a similar tree, -growing in both Florida and Texas, but it is of small size. Hoptree -(_Ptelea trifoliata_) is another member of the family. Its fruit is -sometimes substituted for hops for brewing beer. It is known also as -wafer ash, wahoo, and quinine tree; the last name being due to its -bitter bark. It grows from Canada to Florida, and west to New Mexico, -and seldom exceeds twenty feet in height. Baretta (_Helietta -parvifolia_) which occurs as a small tree in southern Texas, is a near -relative. Torchwood (_Amyris maritima_), so named because of its fine -properties as fuel, grows in southern Florida, sometimes reaching a -height of forty feet and a diameter of one. Canotia (_Canotia -holacantha_) is a small, scarce tree of Arizona and California and has -fine-grained, rich brown wood. - -NANNYBERRY (_Viburnum prunifolium_), known as black haw, sloe, -sheepberry, and stagbush, grows from Connecticut to Oklahoma and is -usually a shrub which springs up along highways and hedges, but it -sometimes reaches a height of twenty feet and a diameter of eight -inches. It is valuable in some localities in the manufacture of canes -and umbrella sticks. Rusty nannyberry (_Viburnum rufotomentosum_) is a -similar species, but attains a larger size, and grows from Virginia to -Texas. The wood may be known by its disagreeable odor. Sheepberry -(_Vibernum lentago_) has a more northern range, from Quebec to -Saskatchewan, and south along the mountains to Georgia. - -BLUE ELDER (_Sambucus glauca_) is one of three tree elders in the United -States, the others being Mexican elder (_Sambucus mexicana_) and -red-berried elder (_Sambucus callicarpa_). They are ornamental rather -than useful. The three species occur on the Pacific coast. The largest -recorded size of an elder was forty feet high and twenty-eight inches in -diameter. Its age was about fifty years. - -FRINGE TREE (_Chionanthus virginica_) is known also as white fringe, -American fringe, white ash, old man's beard, flowering ash, and -sunflower tree. Its natural range extends from Pennsylvania to Florida -and west to Texas, but it has been widely planted in this country and -Europe. It is seldom more than twenty feet high and eight inches in -diameter. The bark possesses medicinal value. Devilwood (_Osmanthus -americanus_) belongs to the same family, but to a different genus. It -grows from North Carolina to Florida and west to Louisiana. The largest -trunks are a foot in diameter and forty feet high. The wood is strong, -heavy, hard, dark brown, and difficult to work. - -BLACK IRONWOOD (_Rhamnidium ferreum_) of Florida is among the heaviest, -probably is the heaviest, wood of the United States. It weighs 81.14 -pounds per cubic foot, and when a hundred pounds of the wood is burned, -it leaves eight pounds of ashes--the highest in ash of all woods of the -United States. Its fuel value is very high. Trees are small, seldom more -than thirty feet high and six inches in diameter. Bluewood (_Condalia -obovata_) is a related Texas species, called also logwood and purple -haw. It produces heavy, hard, close-grained wood, light red in color. -Trees six inches in diameter and twenty-five feet high are fully up to -the average. Along the lower Rio Grande it forms dense, tangled -thickets. Red ironwood (_Reynosia latifolia_) of southern Florida -belongs to a related species, and is sometimes called darling plum, -because its purple fruit is edible. The tree is small, the wood heavy, -hard, strong, and of rich brown color. White ironwood (_Hypelate -trifoliata_) belongs to a different family. It occurs in Florida where -trees are sometimes thirty-five feet high and eighteen inches in -diameter. The heavy, hard, rich brown wood is durable in contact with -the ground, and is used for fence posts, handles, and boats. Inkwood -(_Exothea paniculata_) is of the same family as white ironwood but of a -different genus. It is also a Florida species and is known in some -localities as ironwood. The tree is occasionally a foot in diameter and -forty feet high, wood very hard, heavy, and strong, and bright red in -color. It is used by boat builders, for wharfs, and as handle wood. - -CINNAMON BARK (_Canella winterana_), also called whitewood and wild -cinnamon, is a south Florida species seldom more than twenty-five feet -high and ten inches in diameter. The wood is exceedingly heavy, hard, -and strong, and of dark reddish-brown color. The wild cinnamon bark of -commerce comes from this tree. - -JOEWOOD (_Jaquinia armillaris_) grows in the Florida everglades. The -dark and beautiful medullary rays of this wood may sometime make it -valuable for turnery and small novelties. Trunks seldom exceed six or -seven inches in diameter. Marlberry (_Icacorea paniculata_) belongs in -the same family with joewood. Trunks are small, but the hard, rich brown -wood is beautifully marked with dark medullary rays. - -CRABWOOD (_Gymnanthes lucida_) is known chiefly by the fine canes made -of it. The tree occurs in southern Florida where it is sometimes known -as poisonwood. It is dark brown, streaked with yellow. Trunks more than -eight inches in diameter are unusual. Manchineel (_Hippomane -mancinella_) is of the same family, and occurs in Florida. The wood is -light and soft. - -SINGLELEAF PINON (_Pinus monophylla_). This is the only pine in this -country with single needles. They are one and one-half inches long, and -are curved like the old fashioned sewing awl used by shoemakers. The -needles fall during the fourth and fifth years. The cones are one and -one-half or two and one-half inches long. The trees are small, averaging -fifteen or twenty feet high and eight or twelve inches in diameter. Its -range covers portions of Utah, Arizona, Nevada, and California, but it -occupies dry, sterile regions as nearly under desert conditions as can -be found in this country. The tree maintains a foothold on the eastern -slope of the Sierra Nevada mountains at an altitude of 9,000 feet and it -descends into the Colorado desert in California at an elevation of 2,000 -feet. It endures winter cold below zero on the mountains, and summer -temperature of 122 in the Mojave desert. It is fitted to live in a dry, -sterile region. The leaves are small and the branches bear few of them. -The thin foliage uses little water, which is a fortunate circumstance, -for there is little to use. Slow growth is the result. The trunk often -adds less than an inch to its diameter in twenty years. The trees form -very open forest, resembling old orchards, and the greenness usually -associated with pine landscapes is generally wanting. The singleleaf -pine has filled an important place in the development of the region, and -furnishes an example of the great service which a small, crooked tree -can give when it is the only one to be had. Mines worth many millions of -dollars have been worked with little of any other wood. This has been -the fuel for the kitchen, the engine house, the blacksmith shop. It has -supplied the props, posts, stulls, and lagging for the underground -operations. Fences for stock corrals, sheds, stables, cabins, and -bridges have been constructed of the small, crooked trunks and the -distorted limbs, when no other wood could be had in fifty or a hundred -miles. Extensive tracts have been cut clean in the vicinity of mines. -The product of the singleleaf pine forest cannot be measured in board or -log feet, because of the smallness of the trunks and branches, but by -the cord. The wood is medium heavy, rather high in fuel value, very -weak, brittle, and soft. The resin passages are few and small, color -yellow or light brown, the sapwood nearly white. In contact with the -soil the wood is not durable, but its principal use has been in a very -dry climate, and it lasts well there. It is the most important of the -nut pines. - -It produces enormous crops which are larger some years than others. John -Muir believed that the singleleaf pinon's annual nut yield surpassed -California's yield of wheat. Only a small part of the nut crop is ever -put to use by man. Scattered over mountains, mesas, and deserts, 100,000 -square miles in extent, most of the nuts fall and decay, though the -animals of the rocks and sands, and the birds of the air live on them -while they last. The Indians of the region long looked upon the nut -crop, as the Egyptians upon the overflow of the Nile--a guarantee -against famine. The Indians are not so dependent on the nuts now as -formerly because scattered settlements throughout the region supply -other sources of food. Many nuts are still gathered, and are sold in -stores from San Francisco to Denver. They look like peanuts, but are -richer in oil, and if eaten raw they speedily cloy the appetite. The -Indians usually roast them, and frequently crush them into meal. When -the harvest is ripe the Indians gather from all sides and camp during a -month or more, thrash the cones from the trees with poles, extract the -nuts, and keep up the operation until all present needs are supplied, -and every available basket is filled for future use. The packhorses and -burros of the mining country in Nevada where this pine grows, acquire a -liking for the nuts. They are as nourishing as oats, and the pack -animals like them better. Indians do considerable business collecting -the nuts and selling them by the gunny sack to pack trains, for horse -feed. A single Indian will sometimes gather thirty or forty bushels, for -which he can get a dollar a bushel when he has carried them to market. - -The singleleaf pine's future will be about as its past has been, as far -as can now be foreseen. Little planting will ever be done, nor is it -necessary. Nature plants all that the sterile soil will support. It is -of too slow growth to tempt the forester. A century is required to -produce a fence post, and 200 years for a crosstie. Forest fires do -little injury, for the ground is generally so bare that fire dies out of -its own accord in a short distance. The tree can never be planted much -for ornament. Even if it would grow outside of its dry habitat, it -possesses no more beauty than a half-dead apple tree in a neglected -orchard. The trunks resemble mesquite in Texas; but the Texas tree is -redeemed by the beauty of its foliage in summer, while the foliage of -the singleleaf pine is so pale and thin that it attracts no attention. - -CAROLINA HEMLOCK (_Tsuga caroliniana_) is of far less importance than -its northern neighbor which goes south along the Appalachian mountains -to meet it. The two species mingle on the mountain tops from -southwestern Virginia to northern Georgia. The Carolina hemlock is -usually confined to altitudes 2,500 or 3,000 feet above sea level, and -prefers rocky banks of streams. It does not usually occur in dense -stands of even moderate size, as the northern hemlock does. A few trees -in clumps or scattered solitary represent its habit of growth. Typical -development of the species occurs on the headwaters of the Savannah -river in South Carolina. For a long time this hemlock and its northern -relative were supposed to be the same. Botanists did not formerly -separate them, and the mountaineers do not generally do so now. There -are several differences, however, which may be observed upon close -examination, and by comparing the two species. The Carolina hemlock's -leaves have more rows of stomata and therefore are a little whiter on -the under side. The leaves are also longer, and the cones are larger. -The tree does not attain the dimensions of the northern species, its -average size being forty or fifty feet in height, and two or less in -diameter. It is not abundant, and has never been and never can be much -used for commercial purposes. It is an attractive park tree and has been -widely planted. - -LIMBER PINE (_Pinus flexilis_) owes its name to its long, drooping -branches. It is often called white pine, Rocky Mountain white pine, -western white pine, and limber twig pine. It is not the tree usually -called western white pine (_Pinus monticola_), but is a high mountain -species, ranging from the Rocky Mountains of Montana to western Texas; -it grows also on the mountains of Arizona, Utah, Nevada, and California. -The upper limit of its range in the Sierra Nevadas is 12,000 feet. It -descends to an altitude of only 4,000 feet in the Rocky Mountains, and -forms open, scattered stands of round-topped trees of little commercial -value, and is usually associated with western yellow pine or Rocky -Mountain cedar. At altitudes of 8,500 or 10,000 feet it is more stunted, -and associates with Lyall larch and other high mountain species. -Intermediate between its lower and its higher belts it produces a little -merchantable lumber. The wood is light, soft, medium brittle, of slow -growth and with narrow bands of summerwood. The resin passages are large -and numerous. The wood, when a choice trunk is found, resembles that of -eastern white pine; but generally the trunks are inferior in size and -form. The heartwood is light, clear yellow, the sapwood nearly white. -Trees range in height from thirty to fifty feet, and one to three in -diameter. A sawlog ten feet long is about as much as can be had from a -trunk, and of course, when compared with commercial trees, it holds a -low place; but in some remote mountain regions it is the principal wood -available, and to that extent it is of importance. When green, the wood -is very heavy, and sometimes will sink. It is used for posts and in the -mines. The farmer seasons posts on the stump. He peels the trees six -months before cutting them. They immediately exude resin over the whole -peeled surface, and the tree quickly dies. At the end of six months the -trunk is seasoned, and is cut for posts. The ends are smeared with -resin. Such posts have lasted twenty years with little decay. Railroads -make ties of fire-killed limber pine. Charcoal burners use it also. The -growing trees resist the fumes of copper smelters better than any other -species associated with it. - - PARRY PINON (_Pinus quadrifolia_). The names by which this tree is - known in the region where it grows indicate one of its leading - features, a bearer of nuts. It is called nut pine, Parry's nut pine, - pinon, and Mexican pinon. The nuts exceed half an inch in length, - are reddish-brown, and the wings narrow and small. They cannot carry - the nuts far, and the species is not spreading. Reproduction takes - place beneath the parent tree, and frequently the old trunk dies - without having succeeded in planting a single seed to perpetuate the - species. The nuts are nutritious, and are eagerly sought by birds, - rodents, and larger animals, including human beings. The cones are - seldom two inches long, and the leaves are little more than an inch. - They are usually in clusters of four, and fall the third year. The - tree's characteristics betray its environment. It is fitted for dry, - sterile situations. Its abnormally large seeds provide food for the - seedling until it can get its rootlets deep enough in the poor soil - to get a start. The Parry pinon's range is confined to the extreme - southern part of California and to Lower California where it - occupies arid mesas and low mountain slopes. It is common on Santa - Rosa mountains, California, at an elevation of 5,000 feet. It is too - small to be worth much for lumber, the usual height being less than - thirty feet, the trunk diameter from ten to sixteen inches. The wood - is medium heavy, weak, low in elasticity, but rather high in fuel - value. The annual rings are very narrow, and the thin bands of - summerwood are not conspicuous. It is one of the slowest-growing of - the pines, and probably it is surpassed in that respect by lodgepole - pine alone. Its only uses are fuel, a few fence posts, and small - ranch timbers. - - KNOBCONE PINE (_Pinus attenuata_). This pine is known as - prickly-cone pine, sun-loving pine, sunny-slope pine, narrow-cone - pine, and knobcone pine. Its leaves are in clusters of three, and - are four and five inches long. The cones are from three to six - inches long. They often adhere to the branches thirty or forty - years, and may become entirely overgrown and hidden by bark and - wood--hence the name knobcone. The wood is light, soft, weak, - brittle; the growth is slow and the annual rings are narrow. The - resin passages are large and numerous. The average height of the - mature knobcone pine is from twenty-five to forty feet, and the - trunk diameter eight to twelve inches. It grows on dry mountain - regions of California and Oregon, and is not a valuable timber tree. - A little is occasionally sawed in small dimensions, but the - principal use is for mine props. It is short lived, even when it - does not fall a victim to accidents. In accordance with the - provisions of nature, it prepares for early death by bearing seeds - when only five or six feet high. The cones act as storing places for - seed, sometimes during the whole life of the tree. Thus a knobcone - pine may hold in its tightly closed cones the seeds produced during - the tree's whole life. When death overtakes it, the cones open and - scatter the seeds. The accumulated crops may total three or four - pounds of seeds. Fire usually kills the trees, but the heat is - generally not sufficient to burn the cones. When they open soon - after the fire has passed, they find a bared mineral soil ready to - receive them. The knobcone pine lives in adversity and usually dies - by violence. - - ARIZONA PINE (_Pinus arizonica_). This tree is confined to the - mountains of southern Arizona at from 6,000 to 8,000 feet above sea - level. It is the prevailing pine near the summit of the Santa - Catalina mountains. Much of the timber is of small size and yields - only inferior lumber; but when larger trunks are obtainable, the - lumber grades with western yellow pine, and goes to market with it. - Arizona pine is medium light, soft, not strong, rather brittle, of - slow growth, with the summerwood comparatively broad and very - resinous; color, light red or often yellow, the sapwood lighter - yellow or white. The leaves are in clusters of five and are tufted - at the ends of the branches. They are from five to seven inches - long, and are deciduous the third year. - - DWARF JUNIPER (_Juniperus communis_) is an interesting tree because - its range practically runs round the world in the north temperate - and frigid zones, but in the United States the only reported use of - the wood is in southern Illinois where it grows on the limestone - hills and is occasionally cut for fence posts. In nearly all other - parts of its range in this country it is little more than a shrub. - Some trees with a spread of limbs twenty feet across are only three - or four feet high. The seeds mature slowly, not ripening until the - third year; and they often hang a year or two after ripening. The - wood is narrow-ringed, hard, very durable in contact with the soil, - of light brown color, with pale sapwood. In Europe the aromatic - fruit of this tree is used in large quantities to flavor gin, but - there is no report that it has been so employed in this country. In - the United States it occurs in Pennsylvania and northward, and - northward from Illinois, and throughout the Rocky Mountains north of - Texas. It occurs on the Pacific coast north of California. It grows - from Greenland to Alaska, and through Siberia, and northern Europe. - - DROOPING JUNIPER (_Juniperus flaccida_) is confined in the United - States to the Chisos mountains in western Texas, but grows in - Mexico. The tree attains a height of thirty feet and a diameter of - one. Its name refers to its graceful branches. It has been planted - in this country less than in southern Europe and northern Africa. - The bark is light cinnamon-brown, and easily separates in loose, - papery scales. The lumberman will never go far to procure drooping - juniper logs. They are too small, scarce, and of form too poor. The - wood has the usual characteristics of the junipers which grow in - western mountains. It looks more like alligator juniper than any - other. In Texas it goes to the lathe to be manufactured into - candlesticks, pin boxes, picture molding, and other articles of - turnery. - - UTAH JUNIPER (_Juniperus utahensis_) is known also as juniper, - desert juniper, and western red cedar. The last name is properly - applied to a different tree in Washington and Oregon. The Utah - juniper occupies the great basin between the Rocky Mountains and the - Sierra Nevadas, particularly in Utah, Nevada, California, Arizona, - and Colorado. It thrives best about 8,000 feet above the sea, but - descends to 5,000 feet or less. It is a desert tree, usually small, - often a mere shrub, but occasionally attaining a height of twenty - feet or more and a diameter of one or two. The trunk is irregular in - shape, and is generally deeply fluted. The wood is light brown in - color, though it varies greatly in different specimens, and even in - the same tree. The sapwood is thick and nearly white. The tree has - not been much used except for fence posts and fuel. The Indians of - the region eat the berries raw or bake them in cakes. - - - - -INDEX TO COMMON NAMES - - - Acacia, 535 - African mahogany, 463 - Ailanthus, 676 - Alaska cypress, 121 - Alaska pine, 193 - Alder, 589 - Algaroba, 559 - Alleghany sloe, 622 - Alligator juniper, 111 - Alligator wood, 325 - Almondleaf willow, 471 - Aloe-leaf yucca, 693 - Alpine fir, 166 - Alpine larch, 88 - Alpine spruce, 195 - Alpine western spruce, 196 - Alpine whitebark pine, 37 - Alternate-leaved dogwood, 526 - Alvord oak, 220 - Amabilis fir, 165 - American apple, 553 - American arborvitae, 97 - American ash, 409 - American crab, 453 - American fringe, 700 - American holly, 643 - American larch, 80 - American linden, 637 - American planertree, 397 - American smoke-tree, 697 - Andromeda, 526 - Angelica-tree, 676 - Ant's wood, 696 - Apple haw, 459 - Arborvitae, 97 - Arizona cork fir, 154 - Arizona cypress, 142 - Arizona madrona, 663 - Arizona palm, 693 - Arizona pine, 705 - Arizona spruce, 135 - Arizona sycamore, 610 - Arizona white oak, 218 - Arrow-wood, 507 - Ash-leaved maple, 445 - Aspen, 667, 675 - Aspen-leaf, 675 - August plum, 621 - - Bald cypress, 139 - Balm of Gilead, 145, 667, 673 - Balm of Gilead fir, 145 - Balsam, 135, 136, 151, 166, 673 - Balsam fir, 145, 151, 159 - Balsam poplar, 673 - Baltimore oak, 205 - Banana, 640 - Baretta, 699 - Barren oak, 316 - Barren scrub oak, 283 - Bartram oak, 322 - Basket elm, 393 - Basket oak, 208, 229 - Basket willow, 472 - Basswood, 637 - Bat-tree, 494 - Bayberry, 698 - Bay poplar, 337 - Bay tree, 529 - Beaded locust, 555 - Bearberry, 646, 698 - Bear oak, 315 - Bearwood, 698 - Beaver-tree, 495 - Bebb willow, 471 - Beech, 625 - Beetree, 637 - Bell-tree, 601 - Bellwood, 602 - Berlandier ash, 418 - Big buckeye, 649 - Big-bud, 363 - Big-bud hickory, 363 - Bigcone pine, 68 - Bigcone spruce, 172 - Big cottonwood, 667 - Bigelow willow, 472 - Big hickory nut, 363 - Big laurel, 494 - Bigleaf laurel, 507 - Bigleaf maple, 439 - Big pine, 31 - Big shellbark, 369 - Bigtree, 175 - Big white birch, 583 - Biltmore ash, 424 - Birch, 565 - Bird cherry, 619 - Bishop's pine, 69 - Bitter cherry, 616 - Bitter hickory, 361 - Bitternut, 367 - Bitternut hickory, 361 - Bitter pecan, 361, 375 - Bitter walnut, 361 - Bitter waternut, 374 - Bitterwood, 676 - Black ash, 415, 416, 423, 445 - Blackbark pine, 75 - Black birch, 565, 577, 580 - Black calabash, 475 - Black cherry, 613 - Black cottonwood, 667, 669, 679 - Black gum, 159, 331 - Black haw, 460 - Black hickory, 364, 367, 696, 699 - Black ironwood, 700 - Black jack, 283 - Black jack oak, 291 - Black larch, 80 - Black limetree, 637 - Black locust, 535, 541 - Black mangrove, 688 - Black maple, 447 - Black mulberry, 513 - Black oak, 259, 260, 271, 277 - Black olivetree, 688 - Black pine, 63, 67, 70, 75 - Black poplar, 681 - Black slash pine, 55 - Black sloe, 621 - Black spruce, 129 - Black thorn, 459 - Blacktree, 688 - Black walnut, 343 - Black willow, 469 - Black wood, 688 - Bleeding-heart tree, 500 - Blister pine, 145, 151 - Blue ash, 417, 422 - Blue beech, 627 - Blue birch, 565, 577, 585 - Blue blossoms, 698 - Blue dogwood, 526 - Blue elder, 700 - Blue jack oak, 285 - Blue myrtle, 698 - Blue oak, 205, 213, 226 - Blue spruce, 136 - Bluet, 508 - Bluewood, 700 - Bodark, 511 - Bodock, 511 - Bog spruce, 130 - Bois d'arc, 511 - Bois inconnu, 405 - Bottom shellbark, 369 - Bow-wood, 511 - Box elder, 445, 601 - Box oak, 223 - Box white oak, 223 - Boxwood, 523 - Bracted fir, 157 - Brash oak, 223 - Brewer oak, 220 - Bristlecone fir, 171 - Bristlecone pine, 19, 38 - Broadfruit yucca, 693 - Broadleaf maple, 439 - Broadleaf willow, 472 - Broom hickory, 367 - Brown ash, 423 - Brown hickory, 367 - Brown pine, 43 - Buckeye, 649 - Buckthorn bumelia, 696 - Buckwheat-tree, 502 - Bullace plum, 621 - Bull bay, 494 - Bull pine, 49, 75 - Bumwood, 697 - Burning bush, 499 - Burnwood, 502 - Bur oak, 211 - Bustic, 696 - Butternut, 349 - Buttonball, 607 - Buttonwood, 607 - - Cabbage palmetto, 691 - Cabbage-tree, 691 - Cactus, 693 - Cajeput, 529 - Calico-bush, 505 - Calicowood, 601 - California bay tree, 529 - California black oak, 285 - California blue oak, 229 - California box elder, 447 - California buckeye, 649, 651 - California chestnut oak, 313 - California coffee, 698 - California fan palm, 693 - California hemlock spruce, 193 - California holly, 645 - California juniper, 112 - California laurel, 529, 655 - California live oak, 307 - California nutmeg, 201 - California olive, 529 - California post cedar, 109 - California red bud, 549 - California red fir, 164 - California sassafras, 529 - California scrub oak, 237 - California swamp pine, 69 - California sycamore, 609 - California tanbark oak, 313 - California walnut, 351 - California white oak, 249 - California white pine, 67 - Canada plum, 621 - Canadian Judas tree, 548 - Canadian red pine, 61 - Canoe birch, 583 - Canoe cedar, 115 - Canoewood, 487 - Canotia, 699 - Canyon birch, 580 - Canyon live oak, 308 - Carolina cherry, 620 - Carolina hemlock, 703 - Carolina pine, 49 - Carolina poplar, 667 - Cascara buckthorn, 698 - Cascara sagrada, 698 - Catalpa, 475 - Catawba, 475 - Catawba rhododendron, 507 - Cat spruce, 130 - Cedar, 91, 97, 109, 118 - Cedar elm, 380, 392 - Cedar pine, 57 - Cereuses, 693 - Chalky leucaena, 562 - Chapman oak, 208 - Chattahoochee pine, 202 - Check pine, 70 - Checkered-barked juniper, 111 - Cherry birch, 565, 580 - Chestnut, 631 - Chestnut oak, 241, 313 - Chickasaw plum, 622 - Chihuahua pine, 76 - Chinaberry, 665 - China-tree, 664 - Chinquapin, 634 - Chinquapin oak, 247 - Chittamwood, 602 - Cholla, 691 - Cigartree, 476 - Cinnamon bark, 701 - Cinnamon oak, 286 - Clammy locust, 537 - Cliff elm, 385 - Cockspur, 459 - Cocoa plum, 622 - Coffeebean, 547 - Coffee-berry, 698 - Coffeenut, 547 - Coffeetree, 547 - Colorado blue spruce, 136 - Common catalpa, 475, 477 - Common thorn, 459 - Cornel, 523 - Coral bean, 554 - Coral sumach, 697 - Cork-barked Douglas spruce, 169 - Cork elm, 380, 385, 399 - Cork pine, 19 - Corkwood, 423 - Corky elm, 399 - Cotton gum, 337 - Cottonwood, 667, 673 - Cotton-tree, 667 - Coulter pine, 68 - Cowlicks, 604 - Cow oak, 229 - Crab, 453 - Crab apple, 453 - Crabwood, 701 - Crack willow, 472 - Creeping pine, 37 - Cuban pine, 45 - Cucumber, 481 - Cucumber tree, 487 - Currant-tree, 451 - Custard apple, 640 - Cut-leaved maple, 445 - Cypress, 70, 139 - - Dahoon holly, 645 - Darling plum, 700 - Darlington oak, 295 - Date plum, 517 - Deciduous holly, 646 - Deer tongue, 507 - Delmar pine, 64 - Desert juniper, 705 - Desert willow, 477 - Devil's claw, 544 - Devil's tongue cactus, 694 - Devilwood, 700 - Digger pine, 75 - Dilly, 696 - Doctor gum, 697 - Dogwood, 523 - Double fir, 151 - Double spruce, 130 - Douglas fir, 169 - Douglas spruce, 169 - Douglas-tree, 169 - Down-cone, 166 - Downy basswood, 639 - Downy-cone subalpine fir, 166 - Downy poplar, 669 - Drooping juniper, 705 - Drummond maple, 436 - Duck oak, 320 - Durand oak, 208 - Dwarf ash, 412 - Dwarf chestnut oak, 247 - Dwarf cypress, 184 - Dwarf juniper, 705 - Dwarf maple, 442, 446 - Dwarf marine pine, 69 - Dwarf rose bay, 507 - Dwarf sumach, 696 - Dwarf walnut, 351 - Dyer's oak, 271 - - Ebony, 517 - Elder, 700 - Elderleaf ash, 416 - Emory oak, 238 - Engelmann oak, 231 - Engelmann spruce, 135 - English cornel, 526 - English dogwood, 526 - English hawthorn, 460 - European alder, 592 - Evergreen buckthorn, 698 - Evergreen cherry, 620 - Evergreen magnolia, 481, 493 - Eysenhardtia, 526 - - False acacia, 535 - False box-dogwood, 523 - False mahogany, 531 - False shagbark, 346 - Fanleaf palm, 693 - Farkleberry, 508 - Fat pine, 43 - Feather-cone red fir, 157 - Feather-leaf, 97 - Fetid buckeye, 651 - Fetid yew, 202 - Fighting wood, 199 - Finger-cone pine, 25 - Fir balsam, 151 - Fire cherry, 619 - Firewood, 502 - Fir pine, 145 - Florida ash, 412 - Florida basswood, 639 - Florida boxwood, 501 - Florida buttonwood, 688 - Florida cat's claw, 538 - Florida mahogany, 531 - Florida maple, 435 - Florida pine, 43 - Florida torreya, 202 - Florida yew, 201 - Flowering ash, 700 - Flowering cornel, 523 - Flowering dogwood, 523 - Flowering willow, 477 - Forked-leaf black jack, 283 - Forked-leaf oak, 217, 283 - Forked-leaf white oak, 217 - Four-winged halesia, 601 - Foxtail pine, 19, 38, 39 - Fragrant crab, 453 - Fraser fir, 151 - Fraser umbrella, 481, 495 - Fremont cottonwood, 667, 670 - Fremontia, 400 - Frijolito, 554 - Fringe ash, 412 - Fringetree, 700 - - Gambel oak, 214 - Garden wild plum, 622 - Georgia oak, 267 - Georgia pine, 43 - Giant arborvitae, 115 - Giant cactus, 693 - Gigantic cedar, 115 - Glaucous willow, 472 - Glossyleaf willow, 496 - Golden cup oak, 308 - Golden fir, 164 - Goldenleaf chinquapin, 633 - Gooseberry, 508 - Goose plum, 621, 622 - Gopherwood, 553 - Gowen cypress, 184 - Grand fir, 163 - Gray birch, 585 - Gray elm, 380 - Gray pine, 75 - Great California fir, 163 - Great laurel, 494, 505 - Great western larch, 86 - Green ash, 422 - Greenbark acacia, 555 - Green osier, 526 - Gregg ash, 411 - Guayacon, 698 - Gum, 325 - Gumbo limbo, 676 - Gum elastic, 696 - Gum stretch it, 696 - Gum-tree, 325 - Gyminda, 49 - - Hackberry, 403 - Hackmatack, 80, 86 - Hack-tree, 403 - Hairy balm of Gilead, 674 - Hardbark hickory, 363 - Hardhack, 595 - Hard maple, 427 - Hard pine, 43, 61, 63 - Hardshell, 363 - Hardwoods, 4 - Hardy catalpa, 475 - Haw, 459 - Hawthorn, 459 - Healing balsam, 151 - Heart-leaved thorn, 460 - Heart pine, 43 - Heartwood, 5 - Heavy pine, 67 - Heavy-wooded pine, 67 - Hedge, 511 - Hedge-tree, 511 - Hemlock, 187 - Hemlock spruce, 187, 193, 195 - Hercules' club, 676, 699 - Hickory, 357 - Hickory elm, 385 - Hickory oak, 308 - Hickory pine, 38, 52 - Hickory poplar, 487 - High-ground willow oak, 286 - Highland oak, 296 - Hog haw, 459 - Hog plum, 621, 697 - Holly, 643 - Hollyleaf cherry, 616 - Honey locust, 535, 541, 559 - Honey-shucks locust, 541 - Honey pod, 559 - Hooker's oak, 249 - Hooker willow, 472 - Hoop ash, 403, 415 - Hooptree, 415 - Hop hornbeam, 595 - Hoptree, 699 - Hornbeam, 595, 627 - Horsebean, 549 - Horse chestnut, 651 - Horse plum, 621 - Huajillo, 538 - Huckleberry, 508 - Huckleberry oak, 309 - - Incense cedar, 109 - Indian bean, 476 - Indian cherry, 451 - Indian pear, 451 - Indigo thorn, 556 - Inkwood, 700 - Iowa crab, 454 - Iron oak, 223, 308 - Ironwood, 501, 502, 559, 595, 627, 696 - Ivy, 505 - - Jack oak, 319 - Jack pine, 69 - Jamaica dogwood, 526, 550 - Jeffrey pine, 75 - Jersey pine, 57 - Joewood, 701 - Joshua-tree, 693 - Judas tree, 548 - June berry, 451 - Juniper, 70, 91, 99, 109, 118, 706 - Juniper-bush, 91 - Juniper cedar, 99 - Juniper tree, 403 - - Kalmia, 505 - Kenai birch, 565, 585 - Kingnut, 369 - Kingstree, 51 - Knobcone pine, 704 - Knowlton hornbeam, 598 - Koeberlinia, 697 - - Lanceleaf alder, 592 - Lanceleaf cottonwood, 667, 670 - Lancewood, 657 - Larch, 79, 165 - Large buckeye, 649 - Largeleaf umbrella, 481, 483 - Large poplar, 675 - Largetooth aspen, 667, 675 - Laurel, 494, 505, 507, 529 - Laurel bay, 494 - Laurel cherry, 620 - Laurel-leaved magnolia, 494 - Laurel oak, 295, 319 - Laurel tree, 531 - Lea oak, 292 - Leatherleaf ash, 418 - Leatherwood, 400, 502 - Leucaena, 562 - Leverwood, 595 - Lignum-vitae, 698 - Lilac, 698 - Limber pine, 19, 703 - Limber-twig pine, 703 - Linn, 637 - Liquid-amber, 325 - Little shagbark, 346 - Little sugar pine, 25 - Little walnut, 351 - Live oak, 253, 313 - Loblolly pine, 55 - Locust, 535 - Lodgepole pine, 73 - Logwood, 700 - Lombardy poplar, 682 - Longcone pine, 68 - Longleaf pine, 43 - Longleaf service, 452 - Longleaf willow, 496 - Longleaved pine, 63 - Longschat, 63 - Longshucks pine, 55 - Longstalk willow, 471 - Longstraw pine, 55 - Lovely fir, 165 - Lovely red fir, 165 - Lowland spruce pine, 51 - Low maple, 435 - Lyall willow, 496 - Lynn, 637 - - Mackenzie willow, 472 - Macnab cypress, 178 - Madrona, 661 - Magnificent fir, 164 - Magnolia, 494 - Mahogany, 463, 547 - Mahogany birch, 565 - Manchineel, 701 - Mangrove, 685 - Manzanita, 663 - Maple, 439 - Marlberry, 701 - Mastic, 696 - Maul oak, 308 - May cherry, 451 - May haw, 459 - Meadow pine, 45, 55 - Menzies' spruce, 133 - Mesquite, 559, 562 - Mexican cottonwood, 667, 669 - Mexican elder, 700 - Mexican madrona, 663 - Mexican mulberry, 514 - Mexican palmetto, 692 - Mexican persimmon, 517 - Mexican pinon, 19, 33, 704 - Mexican walnut, 351 - Mexican white pine, 19 - Michaux basswood, 639 - Mimosa, 562 - Minor species, 695 - Missouri willow, 473 - Mocker nut, 356, 363 - Mocker nut hickory, 363 - Mock olive, 620 - Mock orange, 511, 620 - Mohave yucca, 693 - Monterey cypress, 141 - Monterey pine, 69 - Moose elm, 391 - Moose maple, 435 - Morehus oak, 297 - Mountain alder, 592 - Mountain ash, 411, 454, 675 - Mountain balsam, 151, 166 - Mountain birch, 580 - Mountain cedar, 111 - Mountain elm, 399 - Mountain hemlock, 195 - Mountain holly, 645 - Mountain ivy, 505 - Mountain juniper, 99 - Mountain laurel, 505, 529 - Mountain mahogany, 199, 465 - Mountain manchineel, 697 - Mountain maple, 435, 441 - Mountain pine, 25 - Mountain spruce, 135 - Mountain white oak, 213 - Mulberry, 513 - Myrtleberry, 508 - Myrtle-tree, 529 - Myrtle oak, 297 - - Naked-wood, 698 - Narrowberry, 699 - Narrowcone pine, 704 - Narrowleaf cottonwood, 667, 669 - Narrowleaf crab, 453 - Narrowleaf willow, 496 - Native plum, 621 - Necklace poplar, 667 - Netleaf oak, 219 - Nettle-tree, 403 - New England boxwood, 523 - Newcastle thorn, 459 - New Mexican locust, 537 - New Mexican pinon, 28 - Noble fir, 157 - Nootka cypress, 121 - North American red spruce, 127 - North Carolina pine, 49 - North Carolina shagbark hickory, 376 - Northern cork elm, 385 - Northern spruce pine, 19 - Northern white cedar, 97 - Norway pine, 61 - Nutmeg hickory, 374 - Nutpine, 28, 33, 68, 704 - Nuttall willow, 472 - - Oak-barked cedar, 111 - Obispo pine, 69 - Ohio buckeye, 649, 651 - Old-field birch, 585 - Old-field pine, 49 - Old man's beard, 700 - Olivetree, 337 - One-berry, 403 - One-seed juniper, 99 - Opossum wood, 601 - Opuntias, 694 - Oregon ash, 421 - Oregon balsam, 166 - Oregon crabapple, 454 - Oregon fir, 163 - Oregon maple, 439 - Oregon oak, 235 - Oregon pine, 169 - Oregon white oak, 235 - Oreodaphne, 529 - Osage apple tree, 511 - Osage orange, 511 - Osier willow, 496 - Overcup oak, 217, 223 - - Pacific post oak, 235 - Pacific yew, 199 - Pale-leaf hickory, 345 - Palmer oak, 310 - Palms, 691 - Palmetto, 691 - Palo blanco, 406 - Palo verde, 556 - Paper birch, 565, 583 - Paper mulberry, 514 - Paradise-tree, 676 - Parry nut pine, 19, 704 - Parry pinon, 703 - Parry's spruce, 136 - Patton's spruce, 196 - Peach oak, 313 - Pea-flower locust, 535 - Peawood, 602 - Pear haw, 459 - Pear thorn, 459 - Pecan, 357, 373 - Pecan nut, 373 - Pecan tree, 373 - Persimmon, 517 - Pessimin, 517 - Pigeonberry, 452, 526 - Pigeon cherry, 619 - Pignut, 356, 361, 367 - Pignut hickory, 367 - Pig walnut, 361 - Pin cherry, 619 - Pine, 19 - Pink locust, 555 - Pin oak, 208, 247, 301 - Pinon, 19, 28 - Pinon pine, 28, 33 - Pin thorn, 459 - Pitch pine, 43, 45, 49, 63 - Planertree, 397 - Plane-tree, 607 - Plum, 621, 622 - Poison dogwood, 697 - Poison elder, 697 - Poison ivy, 505 - Poison laurel, 505 - Poison oak, 697 - Poison sumach, 697 - Poisontree, 697 - Poisonwood, 697, 701 - Pond apple, 640 - Pond cypress, 141 - Pond pine, 57 - Poorfield pine, 49 - Poor pine, 51 - Poplar, 487, 673 - Poplar-leaved birch, 585 - Popple, 487, 675 - Poppy ash, 424 - Possum haw, 646 - Possum oak, 320 - Possumwood, 517 - Port Orford cedar, 123 - Post cedar, 103, 109 - Post locust, 535 - Post oak, 223 - Poverty birch, 585 - Powcohiscora, 355 - Price oak, 315 - Pricklecone pine, 69, 704 - Prickly ash, 699 - Prickly pine, 52 - Prickly spruce, 136 - Prince's pine, 70 - Puget sound pine, 169 - Pumpkin ash, 423 - Pumpkin pine, 19 - Pumpkin-tree, 166 - Punk oak, 320 - Purple buckeye, 649, 652 - Purple dogwood, 526 - Purple haw, 700 - Pyramidal magnolia, 481, 496 - - Quaking asp, 675 - Quinine-tree, 699 - - Rattlebox, 601 - Red alder, 589 - Red ash, 423 - Redbark fir, 164 - Redbark pine, 75 - Red bay, 531 - Red-berried elder, 700 - Red birch, 577 - Red-bract dogwood, 526 - Redbud, 548 - Red cedar, 91, 109 - Red elm, 393, 399 - Red fir, 157, 164, 169 - Red gum, 325 - Red haw, 457, 459, 460 - Redheart hickory, 357 - Red hickory, 363 - Red ironwood, 700 - Red larch, 80 - Red locust, 535 - Red maple, 433 - Red mulberry, 513 - Red oak, 259, 265, 277, 280, 289 - Red pine, 61, 169 - Red plum, 621 - Red silver fir, 165 - Red spruce, 127 - Red thorn, 458 - Red titi, 502 - Red willow, 496 - Redwood, 181 - Retama, 549 - Rhododendron, 507 - River ash, 423 - River birch, 565, 577 - River cottonwood, 667 - Rock chestnut oak, 241 - Rock elm, 380, 385 - Rock maple, 427 - Rock oak, 241 - Rocky Mountain juniper, 124 - Rocky Mountain oak, 219, 226 - Rocky Mountain white pine, 703 - Rose bay, 507 - Rosemary pine, 49, 55 - Royal palm, 692 - Rum cherry, 603 - Rusty nannyberry, 700 - - Sadler oak, 220 - Saffron plum, 696 - Salad-tree, 548 - Sandbar willow, 496 - Sand jack, 286 - Sand pine, 46 - Sapwood pine, 75 - Sargent palm, 692 - Sarvice, 451 - Sassafac, 655 - Sassafas, 655 - Sassafrac, 655 - Sassafras, 655 - Satinleaf, 696 - Satin walnut, 325 - Satinwood, 699 - Savice, 451, 452 - Savin, 91 - Saxifrax, 655 - Scaly bark hickory, 357 - Scarlet haw, 457 - Scarlet maple, 433 - Scarlet oak, 277 - Schott cactus, 694 - Schott yucca, 693 - Screwbean, 562 - Screw-pod, 562 - Scrub oak, 220, 247, 283 - Scrub pine, 37, 57, 70 - Seaside alder, 592 - Second growth, 357 - Serviceberry, 451 - Service-tree, 451 - Shadberry, 451 - Shagbark hickory, 355, 357 - Shasta red fir, 165 - Shawneewood, 476 - She balsam, 151 - Sheepberry, 699, 700 - Sheepbush, 554 - Sheep laurel, 505 - Shellbark, 356, 357 - Shellbark hickory, 369 - Shingle cedar, 115 - Shingle oak, 301, 319 - Shin oak, 208, 286 - Shoepeg maple, 433 - Short-flower mahogany, 466 - Shortleaf pine, 49 - Shortleaved pine, 57 - Shortshat, 49 - Shrub willow, 496 - Sierra brownbark pine, 67 - Silktop palmetto, 692 - Silky willow, 472 - Silverbell tree, 601, 604 - Silver fir, 159, 163, 165 - Silverleaf willow, 471 - Silver-leaved maple, 429 - Silver maple, 429 - Silver pine, 145 - Silver spruce, 136, 145 - Silvertop palmetto, 692 - Singleleaf pinon, 19, 701 - Single spruce, 130 - Sir Joseph Banks' pine, 70 - Slash pine, 45, 49, 55 - Sitka alder, 592 - Sitka spruce, 133 - Skunk spruce, 130 - Slippery elm, 380, 391, 400 - Sloe, 699 - Small buckeye, 649, 652 - Small fruit mountain ash, 454 - Small-leaf elm, 399 - Small-leaf horsebean, 549 - Small laurel, 505 - Small pignut, 346 - Small pignut hickory, 346 - Small white birch, 585 - Smooth cypress, 142 - Smoothleaf willow, 471 - Snowdrop-tree, 601, 603 - Soapberry, 465 - Soap-tree, 465 - Soft maple, 429 - Soft pine, 19, 25 - Softwoods, 4 - Soledad pine, 64 - Sonora ironwood, 568 - Sophora, 555 - Sorrel-tree, 507 - Soulard crab, 454 - Sour gum, 337, 339, 507 - Sour gum bush, 507 - Sour tupelo, 339 - Sourwood, 507 - Southern basswood, 639 - Southern mountain pine, 52 - Southern red juniper, 94 - Southern red oak, 265 - Southern white cedar, 103 - Southern yellow pine, 43 - Spanish bayonet, 693 - Spanish dagger, 693 - Spanish moss, 256 - Spanish oak, 200, 277, 289 - Spanish red oak, 289 - Sparkleberry, 508 - Spice-tree, 529 - Spoon-hutch, 507 - Spoonwood, 505 - Springwood, 7 - Spotted oak, 266, 271, 320 - Spruce, 127, 169 - Spruce pine, 45, 49, 51, 57, 187 - Spruce-tree, 187 - Stackpole pine, 151 - Stagbush, 699 - Staghorn sumach, 697 - Star-leaved gum, 325 - Stave oak, 205 - Stiffness of wood, 11 - Sting-tongue, 699 - Stinking ash, 445 - Stinking buckeye, 651 - Stinking cedar, 201, 202 - Stinking savin, 202 - Strength of wood, 11 - Striped maple, 447 - Stone-seed Mexican pinon, 33 - Stump tree, 547 - Sugar ash, 445 - Sugarberry, 403, 405, 406 - Sugar maple, 427 - Sugar pine, 19, 31 - Sugar-tree, 427 - Sumach, 696 - Summer haw, 458 - Summerwood, 7 - Sunflower-tree, 700 - Sun-loving pine, 704 - Sunny-slope pine, 704 - Swamp ash, 416, 422 - Swamp bay, 531 - Swamp cedar, 103 - Swamp chestnut oak, 229 - Swamp cottonwood, 667, 669 - Swamp hickory, 361, 375 - Swamp holly, 646 - Swamp laurel, 495 - Swamp magnolia, 495 - Swamp maple, 429, 433 - Swamp oak, 225, 249, 301 - Swamp poplar, 669 - Swamp sassafras, 495 - Swamp Spanish oak, 301 - Swamp tupelo, 337 - Swamp white oak, 217, 229 - Swampy chestnut oak, 241 - Sweet bay, 531 - Sweet birch, 565, 580 - Sweet crab, 453 - Sweet gum, 325 - Sweet locust, 541 - Sweet magnolia, 481, 495 - Sweet scented crab, 453 - Switch-bud hickory, 367 - Sycamore, 397, 607 - - Table mountain pine, 52 - Tacamahac, 673 - Tamarack, 79, 86 - Tanbark oak, 241, 271 - Tassajo, 694 - Tear-blanket, 699 - Texan ebony, 538 - Texan red oak, 265 - Texas ash, 411 - Texas buckeye, 649 - Texas cottonwood, 667, 669 - Texas flowering willow, 477 - Texas redbud, 549 - Texas umbrella-tree, 465 - Thick shellbark, 369 - Thomas elm, 385 - Thorn apple, 459 - Thorn bush, 459 - Thorn locust, 541 - Thorn plum, 459 - Thorn-tree, 541 - Thorny acacia, 541 - Thorny locust, 541 - Three-leaved maple, 445 - Three-thorned acacia, 541 - Thunderwood, 697 - Thurber cactus, 694 - Tideland spruce, 133 - Tisswood, 602 - Titi, 502, 526 - Toothache-tree, 699 - Torch pine, 55 - Torchwood, 699 - Tornillo, 562 - Torrey pine, 64 - Tough bumelia, 696 - Tourney oak, 315 - Trask mahogany, 466 - Tree huckleberry, 508 - Tree myrtle, 698 - Tree palmetto, 691 - Tree yucca, 693 - Trident oak, 292 - Tuck-tuck, 157 - Tulip poplar, 487 - Tulip-tree, 487 - Tupelo, 337 - Turkey oak, 283, 286 - - Umbrella tree, 481, 484, 526 - Upland hickory, 357 - Upland willow, 285 - Utah juniper, 706 - - Valley mahogany, 466 - Valley oak, 249 - Valparaiso oak, 308 - Vauquelinia, 466 - Vine maple, 441 - Virgilia, 547 - Virginia pine, 55 - Virginia thorn, 460 - - Wadsworth oak, 225 - Wafer ash, 699 - Wahoo, 385, 399, 492, 499, 699 - Wahoo elm, 399 - Walnut, 343 - Walnut-tree, 343 - Washington haw, 460 - Washington palm, 693 - Washington pine, 193 - Washington thorn, 460 - Water ash, 422, 424, 445 - Water beech, 607 - Water birch, 577, 580 - Water bitternut, 375 - Water elm, 380 - Water hickory, 375 - Water maple, 429, 433, 435 - Water oak, 295, 319, 320 - Water Spanish oak, 301 - Water white oak, 217 - Weeping dogwood, 526 - Weeping oak, 249 - Weeping spruce, 136, 195 - Weeping willow, 472 - Western birch, 565, 579 - Western black willow, 496 - Western catalpa, 476 - Western cedar, 115, 118 - Western choke cherry, 616 - Western dogwood, 525 - Western hemlock, 193 - Western hemlock fir, 193 - Western hemlock spruce, 193 - Western juniper, 118 - Western larch, 85 - Western plum, 621 - Western red cedar, 115, 118, 706 - Western serviceberry, 452 - Western shellbark, 369 - Western spruce, 133 - Western sumach, 698 - Western walnut, 351 - Western white fir, 163 - Western white oak, 235 - Western white pine, 19, 25, 703 - Western yellow pine, 67 - Western yew, 199 - West Indian birch, 676 - West Indian cherry, 620 - Weymouth pine, 19 - Whiskey cherry, 613 - Whistlewood, 637 - White alder, 591 - White Alaska birch, 565, 579 - White ash, 409, 422, 700 - White balsam, 159, 166 - White bark, 37 - Whitebark maple, 436 - Whitebark pine, 19, 37 - White basswood, 639 - White bay, 495 - White birch, 565, 579, 585 - White buttonwood, 688 - White cedar, 97, 103, 109 - White cottonwood, 670 - White elm, 379, 385, 397 - Whiteheart hickory, 363 - White hickory, 357, 361, 367 - White fir, 159, 163, 166 - White ironwood, 700 - White laurel, 495 - Whiteleaf oak, 273 - White locust, 535 - White mangrove, 688 - White maple, 433, 439 - White mulberry, 514 - White oak, 205, 208, 213, 223, 235 - White pine, 19, 51, 703 - White poplar, 675, 682 - White spruce, 130, 135, 136 - White stem pine, 37 - White thorn, 459 - White titi, 502 - White walnut, 355, 357 - White willow, 472 - Whitewood, 487, 667, 701 - Wickup, 637 - Wild apple, 454 - Wild black cherry, 613 - Wild cherry, 613, 619 - Wild China, 465 - Wild cinnamon, 701 - Wild crab, 453 - Wild date, 693 - Wild lilac, 698 - Wild lime, 699 - Wild olive-tree, 337, 601 - Wild orange, 620 - Wild peach, 620 - Wild plum, 621 - Wild red cherry, 619 - Wild rose bay, 507 - Wild sapodilla, 696 - Wild tamarind, 568 - Wild thorn, 459 - Williamson's spruce, 195 - Willow, 469 - Willow-leaf cherry, 620 - Willow oak, 279, 295 - Wing elm, 399 - Witch elm, 399 - Witch hazel, 328 - Wood laurel, 505 - Woolly oak, 315 - - Yaupon, 645 - Yaupon holly, 645 - Yellow ash, 553 - Yellow bark oak, 271 - Yellow basswood, 637 - Yellow birch, 565, 571 - Yellow buckeye, 649 - Yellow buckthorn, 698 - Yellow-butt oak, 271 - Yellow cedar, 118, 121 - Yellow chestnut oak, 247 - Yellow cottonwood, 667 - Yellow cypress, 121 - Yellow fir, 163, 169 - Yellow-leaf willow, 471 - Yellow-flowered cucumber tree, 484 - Yellow locust, 535, 553 - Yellow oak, 247, 271 - Yellow pine, 43, 63 - Yellow plum, 621 - Yellow poplar, 481, 487 - Yellow spruce, 127 - Yellow-wood, 511, 553, 698, 699 - Yew, 199, 201 - Yucca, 693 - - - - -INDEX TO LATIN NAMES - - - Abies amabilis, 165 - Abies arizonica, 154 - Abies balsamea, 145 - Abies concolor, 159 - Abies fraseri, 151 - Abies grandis, 163 - Abies lasiocarpa, 166 - Abies magnifica, 164 - Abies nobilis, 79, 157 - Abies shastensis, 165 - Abies venusta, 171 - Acacia farnesiana, 543 - Acacia greggii, 544 - Acacia wrightii, 544 - Acer circinatum, 441 - Acer floridanum, 435 - Acer glabrum, 442, 446 - Acer leucoderme, 436 - Acer macrophyllum, 439 - Acer negundo, 445 - Acer negundo californicum, 447 - Acer nigrum, 447 - Acer pennsylvanicum, 447 - Acer rubrum, 433 - Acer rubrum drummondii, 436 - Acer saccharinum, 429 - Acer saccharum, 427 - Acer spicatum, 435 - Aesculus austrina, 652 - Aesculus californica, 651 - Aesculus glabra, 651 - Aesculus octandra, 649 - Aesculus octandra hybrida, 652 - Ailanthus glandulosa, 676 - Alnus acuminata,592 - Alnus glutinosa, 592 - Alnus maritima, 592 - Alnus oregona, 589 - Alnus rhombifolia, 591 - Alnus rugosa, 592 - Alnus sitchensis, 592 - Alnus tenuifolia, 596 - Amelanchier alnifolia, 452 - Amelanchier canadensis, 451 - Amelanchier obovalis, 452 - Amyris maritima, 699 - Andromeda ferruginea, 526 - Annona glabra, 640 - Aralia spinosa, 675 - Arbutus arizonica, 663 - Arbutus menziesii, 661 - Arbutus xalapensis, 663 - Arctostaphylos manzanita, 663 - Asimina triloba, 640 - Avicennia nitida, 688 - - Betula alaskana, 579 - Betula caerulea, 565, 585 - Betula fontinalis, 565, 580 - Betula kenaica, 565, 585 - Betula lenta, 565 - Betula lutea, 565, 571 - Betula nigra, 565, 577 - Betula occidentalis, 565, 579 - Betula papyrifera, 565, 583 - Betula pendula, 586 - Betula populifolia, 565, 585 - Broussonetia papyrifera, 514 - Bumelia angustifolia, 696 - Bumelia lanuginosa, 696 - Bumelia lycioides, 696 - Bumelia tenax, 696 - Bursera simaruba, 677 - - Camaecyparis lawsoniana, 123 - Camaecyparis nootkatensis, 121 - Camaecyparis thyoides, 103 - Canella winterana, 701 - Canotia holacantha, 699 - Carpinus caroliniana, 627 - Castanea dentata, 631 - Castanea pumila, 634 - Castanopsis chrysophylla, 633 - Catalpa catalpa, 475, 477 - Catalpa speciosa, 475 - Celastraceae, 499 - Celtis mississippiensis, 403, 405 - Celtis occidentalis, 403 - Celtis reticulata, 406 - Cercidium floridum, 555 - Cercidium torreyanum, 556 - Cercis canadensis, 548 - Cercis occidentalis, 549 - Cercis reniformis, 549 - Cercocarpus ledifolius, 466 - Cercocarpus parvifolius, 466 - Cercocarpus parvifolius breviflorus, 466 - Cercocarpus traskiae, 466 - Cereus giganteus, 693 - Cereus schottii, 694 - Cereus thurberi, 694 - Chilopsis linearis, 477 - Chionanthus virginica, 700 - Chrysobalanus icaco, 622 - Chrysophyllum monopyrenum, 696 - Cladrastis lutea, 553 - Cleanothus arboreus, 698 - Cleanothus thyrsiflorus, 698 - Cliftonia monophylla, 502 - Colubrina reclinata, 698 - Condalia obovata, 700 - Conocarpus erecta, 688 - Cornus alternifolia, 526 - Cornus florida, 523 - Cornus florida pendula, 526 - Cornus florida rubra, 526 - Cornus nuttallii, 525 - Cotinus cotinoides, 697 - Crataegus, 457 - Crataegus aestivalis, 458 - Crataegus brachyacantha, 459 - Crataegus coccinea, 457 - Crataegus cordata, 460 - Crataegus crus-galli, 459 - Crataegus douglasii, 460 - Crataegus oxyacantha, 460 - Crataegus tomentosa, 459 - Cupressus arizonica, 139, 142 - Cupressus glabra, 139, 142 - Cupressus goveniana, 139, 184 - Cupressus macnabiana, 139, 178 - Cupressus macrocarpa, 139, 141 - Cupressus pygmaea, 139, 184 - Cyrilla racemiflora, 501 - - Dalea spinosa, 556 - Dendropogon usenoides, 256 - Diospyros texana, 520 - Diospyros virginiana, 517 - Dipholis salicifolia, 696 - - Evonymus atropurpureus, 499 - Exothea paniculata, 700 - Eysenhardtia orthocarpa, 556 - - Fagus atropunicea, 625 - Fraxinus americana, 409 - Fraxinus anomala, 412 - Fraxinus berlandieriana, 418 - Fraxinus biltmoreana, 424 - Fraxinus caroliniana, 424 - Fraxinus cuspidata, 412 - Fraxinus floridana, 424 - Fraxinus greggii, 411 - Fraxinus lanceolata, 422 - Fraxinus nigra, 415 - Fraxinus oregona, 421 - Fraxinus pennsylvanica, 423 - Fraxinus profunda, 423 - Fraxinus quadrangulata, 417 - Fraxinus texensis, 411 - Fraxinus velutina, 418 - Fremontodendron californicum, 400 - - Gaultheria procumbens, 566 - Gleditsia aquatica, 543 - Gleditsia texana, 543 - Gleditsia triacanthos, 541 - Guajacum sanctum, 698 - Gyminda grisebachii, 490 - Gymnanthes lucida, 701 - Gymnocladus dioicus, 547 - - Hamamelis virginiana, 328 - Helietta parvifolia, 699 - Heteromeles arbutifolia, 645 - Hicoria alba, 356, 363, 364 - Hicoria aquatica, 375 - Hicoria carolinae-septentrionalis, 376 - Hicoria glabra, 356, 361, 364, 367 - Hicoria laciniosa, 369 - Hicoria minima, 361, 364 - Hicoria myristicaeformis, 374 - Hicoria odorata, 346 - Hicoria ovata, 355, 356 - Hicoria texana, 375 - Hicoria villosa, 345 - Hippomane mancinella, 701 - Hypelate trifoliata, 700 - - Icacorea paniculata, 701 - Ichthyomethia piscipula, 550 - Ilex cassine, 645 - Ilex cassine angustifolia, 645 - Ilex decidua, 646 - Ilex monticola, 645 - Ilex myrtifolia, 645 - Ilex opaca, 643 - Ilex vomitoria, 645 - - Jaquinia armillaris, 701 - Juglans californica, 351 - Juglans cinerea, 359 - Juglans nigra, 243 - Juglans rupestris, 351 - Juniperus barbadensis, 94 - Juniperus californica, 112 - Juniperus communis, 705 - Juniperus flaccida, 705 - Juniperus monosperma, 99 - Juniperus occidentalis, 118 - Juniperus pachyphloea, 111 - Juniperus sabinoides, 99 - Juniperus scopulorum, 124 - Juniperus utahensis, 706 - Juniperus virginiana, 91 - - Kalmia latifolia, 505, 655 - Khaya senegalensis, 463 - Koeberlinia spinosa, 695 - - Laguncularia racemosa, 688 - Larix americana, 80 - Larix laricina, 79 - Larix lyallii, 88 - Larix occidentalis, 85 - Leitneria floridana, 423 - Leucaena glauca, 562 - Leucaena pulverulenta, 562 - Libocedrus decurrens, 109 - Liquidambar styraciflua, 325 - Liriodendron tulipifera, 481 - Lysiloma latisiliqua, 568 - - Magnolia acuminata, 481 - Magnolia acuminata cordata, 484 - Magnolia foetida, 481, 493 - Magnolia fraseri, 481 - Magnolia glauca, 481, 495 - Magnolia macrophylla, 481, 483 - Magnolia pyramidata, 481, 496 - Magnolia tripetala, 481, 484 - Malus angustifolia, 453 - Malus coronaria, 453 - Malus ioensis, 454 - Malus malus, 454 - Malus rivularis, 454 - Malus soulardi, 454 - Meliaceae, 463 - Melia azedarach, 464 - Melia azedarach umbraculifera, 165 - Mimusops sieberi, 696 - Mohrodendron carolinum, 601 - Mohrodendron dipterum, 601 - Morus alba, 514 - Morus celtidifolia, 514 - Morus rubra, 513 - - Neowashingtonia filamentosa, 693 - Nyssa aquatica, 337 - Nyssa biflora, 340 - Nyssa ogeche, 337, 339 - Nyssa sylvatica, 337 - - Ocotea catesbyana, 657 - Olneya tesota, 568 - Opuntia fulgida, 694 - Opuntia sponsior, 694 - Opuntia versicolor, 694 - Oreodoxa regia, 692 - Osmanthus americanus, 700 - Ostrya knowltoni, 598 - Ostrya virginiana, 595 - Oxydendrum arboreum, 507 - - Persea borbonia, 531 - Persea pubescens, 532 - Picea breweriana, 136 - Picea canadensis, 130 - Picea engelmanni, 135 - Picea mariana, 129 - Picea parryana, 136 - Picea rubens, 127 - Picea sitchensis, 133 - Pinus albicaulis, 19, 37 - Pinus aristata, 19, 38, 43 - Pinus arizonica, 43, 705 - Pinus attenuata, 704 - Pinus balfouriana, 19, 38 - Pinus cembroides, 19, 33 - Pinus chihuahuana, 43, 76 - Pinus clausa, 43, 46 - Pinus contorta, 43, 73 - Pinus coulteri, 43, 68 - Pinus divaricata, 43, 69 - Pinus echinata, 43, 49 - Pinus edulis, 19, 28 - Pinus flexilis, 19, 703 - Pinus glabra, 43, 51 - Pinus heterophylla, 43, 45 - Pinus jeffreyi, 75 - Pinus lambertiana, 19, 25, 31 - Pinus monophylla, 19, 701 - Pinus monticola, 19, 25 - Pinus muricata, 43, 69 - Pinus palustris, 43 - Pinus ponderosa, 43, 67 - Pinus pungens, 43, 52 - Pinus quadrifolia, 19, 704 - Pinus radiata, 43, 69 - Pinus resinosa, 43, 61 - Pinus rigida, 43, 63 - Pinus sabiniana, 43, 75 - Pinus serotina, 43, 57 - Pinus strobiformis, 19, 27 - Pinus strobus, 19, 25 - Pinus taeda, 43, 55 - Pinus torreyana, 43, 64 - Pinus virginiana, 43, 57 - Planera aquatica, 397 - Platanus occidentalis, 607 - Platanus racemosa, 609 - Platanus wrightii, 610 - Populus acuminata, 667, 670 - Populus alba, 682 - Populus angustifolia, 667, 669 - Populus balsamifera, 667, 673 - Populus balsamifera candicans, 673 - Populus deltoides, 667 - Populus fremontii, 667, 670 - Populus grandidentata, 667, 675 - Populus heterophylla, 667, 669 - Populus mexicana, 667, 669 - Populus nigra, 681 - Populus nigra italica, 682 - Populus tremuloides, 667, 676 - Populus trichocarpa, 667, 669 - Populus wislizeni, 667, 669 - Parkinsonia aculeata, 549 - Parkinsonia microphylla, 549 - Prosopis juliflora, 559 - Prosopis juliflora glandulosa, 562 - Prosopis juliflora velutina, 562 - Prosopis odorata, 562 - Prunus allegheniensis, 622 - Prunus americana, 621 - Prunus angustifolia, 622 - Prunus caroliniana, 620 - Prunus demissa, 616 - Prunus emarginata, 616 - Prunus hortulana, 622 - Prunus ilicifolia, 616 - Prunus nigra, 621 - Prunus pennsylvanica, 619 - Prunus salicifolia, 620 - Prunus serotina, 613 - Prunus sphaerocarpa, 620 - Prunus subcordata, 621 - Prunus umbellata, 621 - Prunus virginiana, 615 - Pseudophoenix sargentii, 692 - Pseudotsuga macrocarpa, 172 - Pseudotsuga taxifolia, 169 - Ptelea trifoliata, 699 - Pyrus americana, 454 - Pyrus microcarpa, 454 - - Quercus acuminata, 247 - Quercus agrifolia, 307 - Quercus alba, 205 - Quercus alvordiana, 220 - Quercus arizonica, 205, 218 - Quercus brevifolia, 285 - Quercus breviloba, 208 - Quercus breweri, 205, 220 - Quercus californica, 285 - Quercus catesbaei, 259, 283 - Quercus chapmani, 208 - Quercus chrysolepis, 308 - Quercus chrysolepis palmeri, 301 - Quercus chrysolepis vaccinifolia, 309 - Quercus coccinea, 277 - Quercus densiflora, 313 - Quercus digitata, 259, 289 - Quercus douglasii, 213 - Quercus dumosa, 205, 237 - Quercus emoryi, 205, 238 - Quercus engelmanni, 205, 231 - Quercus gambelii, 205, 214 - Quercus garryana, 205, 235 - Quercus georgiana, 259, 267 - Quercus heterophylla, 322 - Quercus hypoleuca, 259, 273 - Quercus imbricaria, 259, 319 - Quercus laurifolia, 259, 319 - Quercus leana, 292 - Quercus lobata, 205, 249 - Quercus lyrata, 205, 217 - Quercus macrocarpa, 205, 211 - Quercus marilandica, 259, 291 - Quercus michauxii, 205, 229 - Quercus minor, 223, 241 - Quercus morehus, 259, 297 - Quercus myrtifolia, 259, 297 - Quercus nigra, 259, 320 - Quercus oblongifolia, 205, 226 - Quercus palustris, 259, 301 - Quercus phellos, 259, 279 - Quercus platanoides, 205, 225 - Quercus pricei, 259, 315 - Quercus prinoides, 205 - Quercus prinus, 205, 241 - Quercus pumila, 259, 315 - Quercus reticulata, 205, 219 - Quercus rubra, 259 - Quercus sadleri, 205, 220 - Quercus texana, 259, 265 - Quercus tomentella, 315 - Quercus toumeyi, 205, 315 - Quercus tridentata, 292 - Quercus undulata, 205, 219 - Quercus velutina, 259, 271 - Quercus virginiana, 205, 253 - Quercus wislizeni, 259, 296 - - Reynosia latifolia, 700 - Rhamnidium ferreum, 700 - Rhamnus caroliniana, 698 - Rhamnus crocea, 698 - Rhamnus purshiana, 698 - Rhizophora mangle, 685 - Rhododendron catawbiense, 507 - Rhododendron maximum, 506 - Rhus copallina, 696 - Rhus hirta, 697 - Rhus integrifolia, 698 - Rhus metopium, 697 - Rhus vernix, 697 - Robinia neo-mexicana, 537 - Robinia pseudacacia, 535 - Robinia viscosa, 537 - - Sabal mexicana, 692 - Sabal palmetto, 691 - Salix alba, 472 - Salix amplifolia, 472 - Salix amygdaloides, 471 - Salix babylonica, 472 - Salix bebbiana, 471 - Salix cordata mackenzieana, 472 - Salix discolor, 472 - Salix fluviatilis, 496 - Salix hookeriana, 472 - Salix laevigata, 471 - Salix lasiandra, 496 - Salix lasiandra lyalli, 496 - Salix lasiolepis, 472 - Salix longipes, 471 - Salix lucida, 496 - Salix missouriensis, 472 - Salix nigra, 496 - Salix nuttallii, 472 - Salix sessilifolia, 471 - Salix sitchensis, 472 - Salix taxifolia, 471 - Sambucus callicarpa, 700 - Sambucus glauca, 700 - Sambucus mexicana, 700 - Sapindus drummondi, 465 - Sapindus marginatus, 465 - Sapindus saponaria, 465 - Sassafras sassafras, 655 - Schaefferia frutescens, 501 - Sequoia sempervirens, 181 - Sequoia washingtoniana, 175 - Sideroxylon mastichodendron, 692 - Simarouba glauca, 676 - Sophora affinis, 555 - Sophora secundiflora, 554 - Swietenia mahagoni, 463 - - Taxodium distichum, 139 - Taxodium imbricarium, 139, 141 - Taxus brevifolia, 199 - Taxus floridana, 201 - Terminalia buceras, 688 - Thrinax microcarpa, 692 - Thrinax parviflora, 692 - Thuja occidentalis, 97 - Thuja plicata, 115 - Tilia americana, 637 - Tilia australis, 639 - Tilia floridana, 639 - Tilia heterophylla, 637, 639 - Tilia michauxii, 639 - Tilia pubescens, 639 - Toxylon pomiferum, 511 - Tsuga canadensis, 187 - Tsuga caroliniana, 187, 703 - Tsuga heterophylla, 187, 193 - Tsuga mertensiana, 187, 195 - Tumion californicum, 201 - Tumion taxifolium, 202 - - Ulmus alata, 379, 399 - Ulmus americana, 379 - Ulmus crassifolia, 379, 392 - Ulmus pubescens, 379, 391 - Ulmus racemosa, 379, 385 - Ulmus serotina, 379, 393 - Umbellularia californica, 529, 655 - - Vaccinium arboreum, 508 - Vauquelinia californica, 466 - Viburnum lentago, 700 - Viburnum prunifolium, 699 - Viburnum rufotomentosum, 700 - - Xanthoxylum clava-herculis, 699 - Xanthoxylum cribrosum, 699 - Xanthoxylum fagara, 699 - - Yucca aloifolia, 693 - Yucca arborescens, 693 - Yucca brevifolia, 693 - Yucca gloriosa, 693 - Yucca macrocarpa, 693 - Yucca mohavensis, 693 - Yucca treculeana, 693 - - Zygia brevifolia, 538 - Zygia flexicaulis, 538 - Zygia unguis-cati, 538 - - - - - * * * * * * - - - - -Transcriber's note: - -This text follows the text of the original publication; inconsistent -hyphenation, spacing, capitalisation, punctuation etc. have been -retained except as mentioned below. - -Non-English words have not been corrected, except as mentioned below. - -Some entries in the indexes have been moved to their proper alphabetical -order. - -Remarks on the text: - -Page 111, Juniperus pachyphlaea/pachyphloea: both spellings seem to be -used, the original gives pachyphloea; this has been retained. - -Page 187: ... in England it is called ... should possibly read ... in -New England it is called .... - -Page 423: New Madrid country: should possibly read New Madrid County. - -Page 433: ... and the random of their flight ...: probably there is a -word missing from this sentence. - -Page 627: ... and more than that much more by manufacturers of ... -should possibly read ... and much more than that by manufacturers of -.... - -Changes made: - -The pages with photographs of the Tamarack and the Western Larch have -been interchanged. - -Some obvious punctuation errors and missing punctuation have been -corrected silently. - -Page 7: Spring and summerwood changed to Spring- and summerwood - -Page 13: possess then changed to possess them - -Page 32: wastful changed to wasteful - -Page 63: Norway pine has past changed to Norway pine has passed - -Page 91: oldfield changed to old-field - -Page 104: Gottleib Mittelberger changed to Gottlieb Mittelberger - -Page 105: stagnant logoons changed to stagnant lagoons - -Page 111: separating into forkes changed to separating into forks - -Page 118: juniper, cedar changed to juniper cedar - -Page 124: interoir changed to interior - -Page 128: careful culling changed to careful cutting - -Page 130: Eruope changed to Europe - -Page 139: pygmaea changed to pygmaea as elsewhere; ninty-nine changed to -ninety-nine - -Page 146: are quit distinct changed to are quite distinct - -Page 171: Cupressus macrocorpa changed to Cupressus macrocarpa - -Page 188: which carriers on changed to which carries on - -Page 248: Guadaloupe river changed to Guadalupe river - -Page 255: lignum-vitae changed to lignum-vitae - -Page 273: sappling changed to sapling - -Page 289: anyone changed to any one - -Page 301: pubescense changed to pubescence - -Page 325: liquid-amber, gum changed to liquid-amber gum - -Page 363: hogshead changed to hogsheads - -Page 364: ferquently changed to frequently; Sargents' changed to -Sargent's - -Page 385: the woods toughness changed to the wood's toughness - -Page 399: Vriginians changed to Virginians - -Page 403: new Jersey name changed to New Jersey name - -Page 404: doubltess changed to doubtless - -Page 410: traveller changed to traveler as elsewhere - -Page 412: drawing rotated 90 deg. - -Page 415: in other woods changed to in other words - -Page 422: concensus changed to consensus - -Page 429: sinuouses changed to sinuses; unkept, neglected appearance -changed to unkempt, neglected appearance - -Page 433: New York Indianas changed to New York Indians - -Page 436: drawing rotated 90 deg. - -Page 463: Swientenia changed to Swietenia - -Page 465: Soapbeery changed to Soapberry - -Page 475: Abbe Bignon changed to Abbe Bignon - -Page 502: Domenico Civillo changed to Domenoci Cirillo - -Page 518: specie changed to species - -Page 529: pugent changed to pungent - -Page 537: as for north changed to as far north - -Page 544: clowded changed to clouded - -Page 555: mammels changed to mammals - -Page 566: Gualtheria procumbens changed to Gaultheria procumbens - -Page 573: manufactures changed to manufacturers - -Page 580: Betula fontanalis changed to Betula fontinalis - -Page 589: raddish changed to radish - -Page 592: aborescent changed to arborescent - -Page 595: Trintiy river changed to Trinity river - -Page 619: it a prolific seeder changed to it is a prolific seeder - -Page 622: Chikasaw Plum changed to Chickasaw Plum - -Page 633: course-grained changed to coarse-grained - -Page 656: losses its name changed to loses its name - -Page 675: Simaruba glauca changed to Simarouba glauca - -Page 693: Mahave desert changed to Mohave desert - -Page 694: opunitas changed to opuntias. - -In the indexes the folowing changes have been made so that the indexes -use the same spelling as the text: - -Page i: Alligator-wood to Alligator wood, Bay-tree to Bay tree - -Page ii: California bay-tree to California bay tree, Calico-bush to -Calico bush - -Page iii: Cucumber-tree to Cucumber tree - -Page iv: Glaucus willow to Glaucous willow, Holly-leaf cherry to -Hollyleaf cherry, Forked-leaf blackjack to Forked-leaf black jack - -Page v: Juneberry to June berry, Kingtree to Kingstree, Longchat to -Longschat, Judas-tree to Judas tree, Juniper-tree to Juniper tree, -Liquidamber to Liquid-amber - -Page vi: Oldfield to Old-field (2x), Nakedwood to Naked-wood, Osage -appletree to Osage apple tree - -Page vii: Scalybark hickory to Scaly bark hickory, Single-leaf pinon to -Signleleaf pinon, Smooth-leaf willow to Smoothleaf willow - -Page ix: Wild china to Wild China - -Page x: cucumber-tree to cucumber tree - -Page xi: Andromida ferruginea to Andromeda ferruginea, Cledrastris lutea -to Cladrastris lutea, Columbrina reclinata to Colubrina reclinata, -Candalia obovata to Condalia obovata, Canotia holocantha to Canotia -holacantha, Acer leucoderma to Acer leucoderme, Bumelia lycoides to -Bumelia lycioides, Alnus tennuifolia to Alnus tenuifolia - -Page xii: Juglans cinera to Juglans cinerea, Delea spinosa to Dalea -spinosa, Crataegus oxacantha to Crataegus oxyacantha - -Page xiii: Pinus jefferi to Pinus jeffreyi, Neowashingtoniana -filamentosa to Neowashingtonia filamentosa, Oxydendron arboreum to -Oxydendrum arboreum - -Page xiv: Tilia amerciana to Tilia americana, Robinia neomexicana to -Robinia neo-mexicana, Salix sessifolia to Salix sessilifolia. - - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN FOREST TREES*** - - -******* This file should be named 42124.txt or 42124.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/4/2/1/2/42124 - 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