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diff --git a/42098-8.txt b/42098-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index d0dcbc7..0000000 --- a/42098-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12620 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Windows, A Book About Stained & Painted -Glass, by Lewis F. Day - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Windows, A Book About Stained & Painted Glass - -Author: Lewis F. Day - -Release Date: February 15, 2013 [EBook #42098] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WINDOWS *** - - - - -Produced by Pat McCoy, Chris Curnow and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - WINDOWS - a book about - STAINED - & PAINTED GLASS - - by - - LEWIS F. DAY - author of Nature - in Ornament & - other Text-books - of Design. - - 1897 LONDON - B·T·BATSFORD 94 High Holborn, W.C. - - - - - BRADBURY, AGNEW, & CO. LD., PRINTERS, - LONDON AND TONBRIDGE. - - - - - TO THOSE WHO KNOW NOTHING OF STAINED GLASS; TO THOSE WHO KNOW - SOMETHING, AND WANT TO KNOW MORE; TO THOSE WHO KNOW ALL ABOUT IT, - AND YET CARE TO KNOW WHAT ANOTHER MAY HAVE TO SAY UPON THE - SUBJECT;--I DEDICATE THIS BOOK. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -A stained glass window is itself the best possible illustration of the -difference it makes whether we look at a thing from this side or from -that. Goethe used this particular image in one of his little parables, -comparing poems to painted windows, dark and dull from the market-place, -bright with colour and alive with meaning only when we have crossed the -threshold of the church. - -I may claim to have entered the sanctuary, and not irreverently. My -earliest training in design was in the workshops of artists in stained -glass. For many years I worked exclusively at glass design, and for over -a quarter of a century I have spent great part of my leisure in hunting -glass all Europe over. - -This book has grown out of my experience. It makes no claim to -learnedness. It tells only what the windows have told me, or what I -understood them to say. I have gone to glass to get pleasure out of it, -to learn something from it, to find out the way it was done, and why it -was done so, and what might yet perhaps be done. Anything apart from -that did not so much interest me. Those, therefore, who desire minuter -and more precise historic information must consult the works of Winston, -Mr. Westlake, and the many continental authorities, with whose learned -writings this more practical, and, in a sense, popular, volume does not -enter into any sort of competition. - -My point of view is that of art and workmanship, or, more precisely -speaking, workmanship and art, workmanship being naturally the beginning -and root of art. We are workmen first and artists afterwards--perhaps. - -What I have tried to do is this: In the first place (Book I.), I set -out to trace the course of _workmanship_, to follow the technique of the -workman from the twelfth century to the seventeenth, from mosaic to -painting, from archaism to pictorial accomplishment; and to indicate at -what cost of perhaps more decorative qualities the later masterpieces of -glass painting were bought. - -In the second place (Book II.), I have endeavoured to show the course of -_design_ in glass, from the earliest Mediæval window to the latest glass -picture of the Renaissance. - -Finally (Book III.), I have set apart for separate discussion questions -not in the direct line either of design or workmanship, or which, if -taken by the way, would have hindered the narrative and confused the -issue. - -The rather lengthy chapter on "_Style_" is addressed to that large -number of persons who, knowing as yet nothing about the subject, may -want _data_ by which to form some idea as to the period of a window when -they see it: the postscript more nearly concerns the designer and the -worker in glass. - -In all this I have tried to put personality as much as possible aside, -and to tell my story faithfully and without conscious bias. But I make -no claim to impartiality, as the judge upon the bench understands it. We -take up art or law according to our temperament. I can pretend to judge -only as one interested, to be impartial only as an artist may. - - LEWIS F. DAY. - - 13, MECKLENBURGH SQUARE, LONDON. - _January 29th, 1897._ - - - - -_NOTE IN REFERENCE TO ILLUSTRATIONS._ - - -_Theoretically the illustrations to a book about windows should be in -colour. Practically coloured illustrations of stained glass are out of -the question, as all who appreciate its quality well know. It may be -possible, although it has hardly proved so as yet, to print adequate -representations of coloured windows, but only at a cost which would -defeat the end here in view._ - -_The_ EFFECT _of glass is best suggested by process renderings of -photographs from actual windows or from very careful water-colour -drawings, such as those very kindly placed at my disposal by Mr. T. M. -Rooke (pages 128, 159, 337) and Mr. John R. Clayton (pages 51, 74, 98, -186, 207, 252, 286, 304, 342), an artist whose studio has been the -nursery of a whole generation of glass designers._ - -_Details of_ DESIGN _are often better seen in the reproductions of -tracings or slight pen-drawings, little more than diagrams it may be, -but done to illustrate a point. That is the intention throughout, to -illustrate what is said, not simply to beautify the book._ - -_The direction of the pen-lines gives, wherever it was possible, a key -to the colour scheme. Red, that is to say, is represented by vertical -lines, blue by horizontal, yellow by dots, and so on, according to -heraldic custom._ - - - - -TABLE OF CONTENTS. - - - BOOK I. - THE COURSE OF CRAFTSMANSHIP. - - CHAP. PAGE - I. THE BEGINNINGS OF GLASS 1 - II. THE MAKING OF A WINDOW 5 - III. GLAZING 15 - IV. EARLY MOSAIC WINDOWS 32 - V. PAINTED MOSAIC 43 - VI. GLASS PAINTING (MEDIÆVAL) 59 - VII. GLASS PAINTING (RENAISSANCE) 67 - VIII. ENAMEL PAINTING 77 - IX. THE NEEDLE-POINT IN GLASS PAINTING 87 - X. THE RESOURCES OF THE GLASS WORKER (A RECAPITULATION) 95 - - BOOK II. - THE COURSE OF DESIGN. - - XI. THE DESIGN OF EARLY GLASS 111 - XII. MEDALLION WINDOWS 123 - XIII. EARLY GRISAILLE 137 - XIV. WINDOWS OF MANY LIGHTS 151 - XV. MIDDLE GOTHIC DETAIL 162 - XVI. LATE GOTHIC WINDOWS 178 - XVII. SIXTEENTH CENTURY WINDOWS 201 - XVIII. LATER RENAISSANCE WINDOWS 220 - XIX. PICTURE WINDOWS 236 - XX. LANDSCAPE IN GLASS 251 - XXI. ITALIAN GLASS 260 - XXII. TRACERY LIGHTS AND ROSE WINDOWS 272 - XXIII. QUARRY WINDOWS 283 - XXIV. DOMESTIC GLASS 296 - XXV. THE USE OF THE CANOPY 311 - XXVI. A PLEA FOR ORNAMENT 317 - - BOOK III. - BY THE WAY. - - XXVII. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF STYLE 322 - XXVIII. STYLE IN MODERN GLASS (A POSTSCRIPT) 354 - XXIX. JESSE WINDOWS, AND OTHER EXCEPTIONS IN DESIGN 360 - XXX. STORY WINDOWS 371 - XXXI. HOW TO SEE WINDOWS 380 - XXXII. WINDOWS WORTH SEEING 385 - XXXIII. A WORD ON RESTORATION 404 - - - - -WINDOWS, A BOOK ABOUT STAINED GLASS - - - - -BOOK I. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE BEGINNINGS OF GLASS. - - -The point of view from which the subject of stained glass is approached -in these chapters relieves me, happily, from the very difficult task of -determining the date or the whereabouts of the remote origin of coloured -windows, and the still remoter beginnings of glass itself. The briefest -summary of scarcely disputable facts bearing upon the evolution of the -art of window making, is here enough. We need not vex our minds with -speculation. - -White glass (and that of extreme purity) would seem to have been known -to the Chinese as long ago as 2300 B.C., for they were then already -using astronomical instruments, of which the lenses were presumably of -glass. Of coloured glass there is yet earlier record. Egyptologists tell -us that at least five if not six thousand years ago the Egyptians made -jewels of glass. Indeed, it is more than probable that this was the -earliest use to which stained glass was put, and that the very _raison -d'être_ of glass making was a species of forgery. In some of the most -ancient tombs have been found scarabs of glass in deliberate imitation -of rubies and emeralds, sapphires and other precious stones. The glass -beads found broadcast in three quarters of the globe were quite possibly -passed off by Phoenician traders upon the confiding barbarian as -jewels of great price. At all events, glass beads, according to Sir -John Lubbock, were in use in the bronze age; and, if we may trust the -evidence of etymology, "bedes" are perhaps as ancient as praying. - -Apart from trickery and fraud, to imitate seems to be a foible of -humanity. The Greeks and their Roman successors made glass in imitation -of agate and onyx and all kinds of precious marbles. They devised also -coloured glass coated with white glass, which could be cut -cameo-fashion--a kind of glass much used, though in a different way, in -later Mediæval windows. - -The Venetians carried further the pretty Greek invention of embedding -vitreous threads of milky white or colour in clear glass, the most -beautiful form of which is that known as _latticelli_, or _reticelli_ -(reticulated or lace glass), from the elaborate twisting and interlacing -of the threads; but nothing certain seems to be known about Venetian -glass until the end of the eleventh century, although by the thirteenth -the neighbouring island of Murano was famous for its production. The -Venetians found a new stone to imitate, aventurine, and they imitated it -marvellously. - -So far, however, glass was used in the first instance for jewellery, and -in the second for vessels of various kinds. Its use in architecture was -confined mainly to mosaic, originally, no doubt, to supply the place of -brighter tints not forthcoming in marble. - -Of the use of glass in windows there is not very ancient mention. The -climate of Greece or Egypt, and the way of life there, gave scant -occasion for it. But at Herculaneum and Pompeii, there have been found -fair sized slabs of window glass, not of very perfect manufacture, -apparently cast, and probably at no time very translucent. Remains also -of what was presumably window glass have been found among the ruins of -Roman villas in England. In the basilicas of Christian Rome the arched -window openings were sometimes filled with slabs of marble, in which -were piercings to receive glass (which may or may not have been -coloured), foreshadowing, so to speak, the plate tracery of Early Gothic -builders. According to M. Lévy, the windows of Early Mediæval Flemish -churches were often filled in this Roman way with plaques of stone -pierced with circular openings to receive glass. - -Another Roman practice was to set panes of glass in bronze or copper -framing, and even in lead. Here we have the beginning of the practice -identified with Mediæval glaziers. - -There is no reason to suppose that the ancients practised glass painting -as we understand it. Discs of Greek glass have been found which are -indeed painted, but not (I imagine) with colour fused with the material; -and certainly these were not used for windows. - -The very early Christians were not in a position to indulge in, or even -to desire, luxuries such as stained glass windows, but St. Jerome and -St. Chrysostom make allusion to them. It is pretty certain that these -must have been simple mosaics in stained glass, unpainted: one reads -that between the lines of the records that have come down to us. - -Stained and painted glass, such as we find in the earliest existing -Mediæval windows, may possibly date back to the reign of Charlemagne -(800), but it may safely be said not to occur earlier than the Holy -Roman Empire. A couple of hundred years later mention of it begins to -occur rather frequently in Church records; and there is one particular -account of the furnishing of the chapel of the first Benedictine -Monastery at Monte Cassino with a whole series of windows in 1066--which -fixes the date of the Norman Conquest as a period at which stained glass -windows can no longer have been uncommon. The Cistercian interdict, -restricting the order to the use of white glass (1134), argues something -like ecclesiastical over-indulgence in rich windows before the middle of -the next century. - -Fragments, more or less plentiful, of the very earliest glass may still -remain embedded in windows of a later period (the material was too -precious not to have been carefully preserved); but archæologists appear -to be agreed that no complete window of the ninth or tenth century has -been preserved, and that even of the eleventh there is nothing that can -quite certainly be identified. After that doctors begin to differ. But -the general consensus of opinion is, that there is comparatively little -that can be incontrovertibly set down even to the twelfth century. The -great mass of Early Gothic Glass belongs indubitably to the thirteenth -century; and when one speaks of Early Glass it is usually thirteenth -century work which is meant. - -The remote origin of glass, then, remains for ever lost in the mist of -legendary days. There is even a fable to the effect that it dates from -the building of the Tower of Babel, when God's fire from heaven -vitrified the bricks employed by its too presumptuous builders. - -Coloured glass comes to us from the East; that much it is safe to -conclude. From ancient Egypt, probably, the art of the glass-worker -found its way to Phoenicia, thence to Greece and Rome, and so to -Byzantium, Venice, and eventually France, where stained glass windows, -as we know them, first occur. - -It is probably to the French that Europe owes the introduction of -coloured windows, a colony of Venetian glass-workers having, they say, -settled at Limoges in the year 979. - -Some of the earliest French glass is to be found at Chartres, Le Mans, -Angers, Reims, and Châlons-sûr-Marne; and at the _Musée des Arts -Décoratifs_, at Paris, there are some fragments of twelfth century work -which may be more conveniently examined than the work _in sitû_. The -oldest to which one can assign a definite date is that at St. Denis -(1108) but its value is almost nullified by expert restoration. - -In Germany the oldest date is ascribed to some small windows at -Augsburg, executed, it is said, by the monks of Tegernsee about the year -1000. There is also a certain amount of twelfth century work -incorporated in the later windows at Strasbourg. The oldest remains of -glass in England are, in all probability, certain fragments in the nave -of York Minster. The more important windows at Canterbury, Salisbury, -and Lincoln are of the thirteenth century. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE MAKING OF A WINDOW. - - -Since it is proposed to approach the subject of stained glass in the -first place from the workmanlike and artistic, rather than the -historical or antiquarian, point of view, it may be as well to begin by -explaining precisely what a stained glass window is. - -It is usual to confound "stained" with "painted" glass. Literally -speaking, these are two quite distinct things. Stained glass is glass -which is coloured, as the phrase goes, "in the pot;" that is to say, -there is mixed with the molten white glass a metallic oxide which stains -it green, yellow, blue, purple, and so on, as the case may be; for which -reason this self-tinted glass is called "pot-metal." This is a term -which will recur again and again. Once for all, "pot-metal" is glass in -which the colour is _in_ the glass and not painted _upon_ it. - -It goes without explanation that, each separate sheet of pot-metal glass -being all of one colour, a varicoloured window can only be produced in -it by breaking up the sheets and putting them together in the form of a -mosaic: in fact, that is how the earliest windows were executed, and -they go by the name of mosaic glass. The glass is, however, not broken -up into tesseræ, but shaped according to the forms of the design. In -short, those portions of it which are white have to be cut out of a -sheet of white glass, those which are blue out of a sheet of blue glass, -those which are yellow out of a sheet of yellow, and so on; and it is -these pieces of variously tinted glass, bound together by strips of -lead, just as the tesseræ of a pavement or wall picture are held in -place by cement, which constitute a stained glass window. The artist is -as yet not concerned in painting, but in glazing--that is to say, -putting together little bits of glass, just as an inlayer does, or as a -mosaic worker puts together pieces of wood, or marble, or burnt clay, or -even opaque glass. - -There is illustrated opposite a piece of Old Burmese incrusted -decoration, a mosaic of white and coloured glass bound together by -strips of metal, which, were it but clear instead of silvered at the -back, would be precisely the same thing as an early mosaic window, even -to the completion of the face by means of paint--of which more -presently. In painted glass, on the other hand, the colour is not in the -glass but upon it, more or less firmly attached to it by the action of -the fire. A metallic colour which has some affinity with glass, or which -is ground up with finely powdered glass, is used as a pigment, precisely -as ceramic colours are used in pottery painting. The painted glass is -then put into a kiln and heated to the temperature at which it is on the -point of melting, whilst the colour actually does melt into it. By this -means it is possible to paint a coloured picture upon a single sheet of -white glass, as has been proved at Sèvres. - -Strictly speaking, then, stained and painted glass are the very opposite -one to the other. But in practice the two processes of glazing and -painting were never kept apart. The very earliest glass was no doubt -pure mosaic. It was only in our own day that the achievement (scientific -rather than artistic) of a painted window of any size, independent of -glazier's work, was possible. Painting was at first always subsidiary to -glazier's work; after that, for a time, glazier and painter worked hand -in hand upon equal terms; eventually the painter took precedence, and -the glazier became ever more and more subservient to him. But from the -twelfth to the seventeenth century there is little of what we call, -rather loosely, sometimes "stained" and sometimes "painted" glass, in -which there is not both staining and painting--that is to say, stained -glass is used, and there is painting upon it. The difference is that in -the earlier work the painting is only used to help out the stained -glass, and in the later the stained glass is introduced to help the -painting. - -[Illustration: 1. INCRUSTED GLASS MOSAIC, BURMESE (B. M.).] - -That amounts, it may be thought, to much the same thing; and there does -come a point where staining and painting fulfil each such an important -part in the window that it is difficult to say which is the -predominating partner in the concern. For the most part, however, there -is no manner of doubt as to which practice was uppermost in the -designer's mind, as to the idea with which he set out, painting or -glazing; and it makes all the difference in the work--the difference, -for example, between a window of the thirteenth century and one of the -sixteenth, a difference about which a child could scarcely make a -mistake, once it had been pointed out to him. - -Here perhaps it will be as well to describe, once for all, the making of -a mosaic window, and the part taken in it by the glazier and the painter -respectively. It will be easier then to discriminate between the two -processes employed, and to discuss them each in relation to the other. - -The actual construction of an early window is very much like the putting -together of a puzzle. The puzzle of our childhood usually took the form -of a map. It has occurred to me, therefore, to show how an artist -working strictly after the manner of the thirteenth century--the period, -that is to say, when painting was subsidiary to glazing--would set about -putting into glass a map of modern Italy. In the first place, he would -draw his map to the size required. This he would do with the utmost -precision, firmly marking upon the paper (the mediæval artist would have -drawn directly on his wooden bench) the boundary line of each separate -patch of colour in his design. Then, according to the colour each -separate province or division was to be, he would take a separate sheet -of "pot-metal" and lay it over the drawing, so as to be able to trace -upon the glass itself the outline of such province or division. That -done, he would proceed to cut out or shape the various pieces of glass -to the given forms. In the case of a simple and compact province, such -as Rome, Tuscany, Umbria (overleaf), that would be easy enough. On the -other hand, a more irregular shape, say the province of Naples, with its -promontories, would present considerable difficulties--difficulties -practically insuperable by the early glazier, to whom the diamond as a -cutting instrument was unknown, and whose appliances for shaping were of -the rudest and most rudimentary. - -If with the point of a red-hot iron you describe upon a sheet of glass a -line, and then, taking the material between your two hands, proceed to -snap it across, the fracture will take approximately the direction of -the line thus drawn. That is how the thirteenth century glazier went to -work, subsequently with a notched iron instrument, or "grozing iron" as -it was called, laboriously chipping away the edges until he had reduced -each piece of glass to the precise shape he wanted. - -It will be seen at once that the simpler the line and the easier its -sweep the more likely the glass would be to break clean to the line, -whereas in the case of a jagged or irregular line there would always be -great danger that at any one sharp turn in it the fracture would take -that convenient opportunity of going in the way it should not. For -example, the south coast of Italy would be dangerous. You might draw the -line of the sole of the foot, but when it came to breaking the glass the -high heel would be sure to snap off (there is a little nick there -designed as if for the purpose of bringing about that catastrophe), and -similarly that over-delicate instep would certainly not bear the strain -put upon it, and would be bound to give way. It should be mentioned that -even were such pieces once safely cut (which would nowadays be possible) -the glass would surely crack at those points the first time there was -any pressure of wind upon the window, and so the prudent man would still -forestall that event by designing his glass as it could conveniently be -cut, without attempting any _tour de force_, and strengthening it at the -weak points with a line of lead, as has been done in the glass map -opposite. There is a jutting promontory on the coast of Africa, which, -even if safely cut, would be sure to break sooner or later at the point -indicated by the dotted line. - -The scale of execution would determine whether each or any province -could be cut out of a single sheet of glass, but the lines of latitude -and longitude would give an opportunity of using often three or four -pieces of glass to a province without introducing lines which formed no -part of the design. That, however, would be contrary to early usage, -which was never to make use of the leads as independent lines, but only -as boundaries between two colours. There is a reason for this reticence. -You will see that in the surface of the sea, where the latitudinal and -longitudinal lines come in most usefully, it is necessary to use also -other leads, which mean nothing but that a joint is there desirable. -These constructional leads, when they merely break up a background, are -quite unobjectionable--they even give an opportunity of getting variety -in the colour of the ground--but when some of the leads are meant to -assert themselves as drawing lines and some are not, the result is -inevitably confused. - -[Illustration: 2. THE WAY A WINDOW IS GLAZED.] - -All that the glass gives us in our mosaic map is the local colour of -sea and land--the sea, let us say, dark blue, the countries, provinces, -and islands each of its own distinctive tint. When it comes to giving -their names, it would be possible indeed on a very large scale to cut -the letters out of glass of darker colour, and glaze them in as shown in -the title word "Italy." That would involve, as will be seen, a network -of connecting lead lines. On a much smaller scale there would be nothing -for it but to have recourse to the supplementary process, and paint -them. The words Germany, Austria, Turkey, Naples, Sicily, and the rest -would have to be simply painted in opaque colour upon the translucent -glass. - -But, once we have begun to use paint, there are intermediate ways -between these two methods of inscription, either of which would be -adopted according to the scale of the lettering. These are shown in the -names of the seas. In the word "Mediterranean" each separate letter -would be cut out of a piece of glass, corresponding as nearly as -possible to its general outline or circumference, and its shape would be -made perfect by "painting out"--that is to say, by obscuring with solid -pigment that part of the glass (indicated by dots in the drawing) which -was meant to retire into the background. Presuming this wording to be in -a light colour and the background darkish, this amount of painting -would, as a matter of fact, be quite lost in the dark colour. In the -lesser descriptions "Tyrrhenian" and "Adriatic Sea," each separate word, -instead of each letter, would be cut out of one piece of glass (or -perhaps two in the longer words), and the background would be painted -out as already described. - -Paint would further be used to indicate the rivers, the mountains, the -towns, or any other detail it was necessary to give, as well as to mark -such indentations in the coastline as were too minute to be followed by -the thick lead. As a matter of practice, it is usual to paint a marginal -line of opaque colour round the glass representing just a little more -than that portion eventually to be covered by the flange of the lead, so -as to make sure that that will not by any chance cut off from view what -may be an important feature in the design. - -For example, the mere projection of a lead which too nearly approached -the delicate profile of a small face might easily destroy its outline. -The glazier's lead, it should be explained, is a wire of about a quarter -of an inch diameter, deeply grooved on two sides for the insertion of -the glass. Imagine the surfaces exposed to view on each face of the -window to be flattened, and you have a section very much like the letter -=H=, the uprights representing the flanges, and the cross-bar the "core," -which holds them together and supports the glass mosaic. - -The process of painting employed so far is of the simplest; it consists -merely in obscuring the glass with solid paint. This is laid on with a -long-haired pencil or "tracing brush." The paint itself may be mixed -with oil or gum and water, or any medium which will temporarily attach -it to the glass and disappear in the kiln; for the real fixing of the -paint is done solely by the action of the fire. The pigment employed -consists, that is to say, of per-oxides of iron and manganese ground up -with a sufficient amount of powdered flint-glass or some equivalent -silicate, which by the action of the fire is fused with the glass -(reduced to very nearly red heat), and becomes practically part and -parcel of it. - -Whenever a glass painter speaks of painted glass that is what he -means--viz., that the colour is thus indelibly burnt in. After the -middle of the sixteenth century various metallic oxides were used to -produce various more or less transparent pigments (enamel colours as -they are called to distinguish them from the pot-metal colours), but in -the thirteenth century transparent enamel colours were as yet unknown to -the glass painter, and he confined himself to the solid deep brown -pigment already spoken of--an enamel also, strictly speaking, but by no -means to be confounded with the enamel colours of later centuries. Those -were colours used for colour's sake; this is simply an opaque substance -used solely on account of its capacity to stop out so much of the colour -of pot-metal glass as may be necessary in order to define form and give -the drawing of detail; and in effect the brown, when seen against the -light, does not tell as colour at all but merely as so much blackness. -The only colour in the window is the colour of the various component -pieces of glass. Thus in the case of an early figure (page 33) the face -would be cut out of a sheet of pinkish glass and the features painted -upon it in brown lines; each garment would be cut out of the tint it was -meant to be, and the folds of the drapery outlined upon the pot-metal. -In like manner a tree would be cut out of green glass, its stem perhaps -out of brown, and only the forms of the leaves, and their veining, if -any, would be traced in paint. In the execution of the map there is no -occasion for further painting than this simplest and fittest kind of -work, little more than the glazier would himself have done had his means -allowed him. And in the very earliest glass the painter was almost as -sparing of paint as this: he did, however--it was inevitable that he -should--use lines, whether in drawing the features of a face or the -folds of drapery, which were not quite solid, and which consequently -only deepened the colour of the pot-metal, and did not quite obscure it: -he went so far even as to pass a smear of still thinner colour, a half -tint or less, over portions of the glass which he wished to lower in -tone. He began, in fact, however tentatively, to introduce shading. -Happily he was careful always to use it only as a softening influence in -his design, and never to sacrifice to it anything of the intrinsic -beauty and brilliancy of his glass. - -The glass duly painted and burnt, the puzzle would be put together again -on the bench, and bands of lead, grooved at each side to admit and hold -the glass, would be inserted between the two pieces. These would be -soldered together at the joints where two leads met; a putty-like -composition or "cement" would be rubbed into the interstices between -lead and glass to stiffen it, and make it air-and water-tight; and, that -done, the window was finished. - -It would only remain (what would in practice have been done before -cementing) to solder to the leads at intervals sundry loose ends of -copper-wire, eventually to be twisted round the iron saddle bars let -into the stone framework of the window to support it; it would then be -ready to be fixed in its place. - -In contradistinction to the mosaic method of execution adopted by the -thirteenth century glazier, a glass painter of the eighteenth century, -and perhaps of the seventeenth, would, even though there were no -necessity for longitudinal and latitudinal lines, cut up his window into -oblong pieces of convenient size, only, of course, parallel and at right -angles to one another. - -The sea he might or might not glaze in blue glass; here and there -perhaps, but not necessarily at all, an occasional province might be -leaded in with a piece of pot-metal; but for the most part he would use -panes of white glass, and rely for the colour of the provinces upon -enamel. He would have no need to separate his enamel colours by a line -of lead, and where he wanted a dividing line he would just paint it in -opaque brown. This method of glass painting forms an altogether separate -division of the subject, not yet under discussion. It is referred to -here only by way of contrast, and to emphasise the fact that, though we -are in the habit of using the term stained glass rather loosely--though -a stained glass window is almost invariably helped out to some extent by -painting (unless it be what is technically known as "leaded glass" or -"plain glazing"), and though a painted window is seldom altogether -innocent of glass that is stained--there are, as a matter of fact, two -methods of producing coloured windows, the mosaic and the enamelled; and -that however customary it may be to eke out either method by the other -more or less, windows divide themselves into two broad divisions, -according as it is pot-metal or enamel upon which the artist relies for -his effect. - -Between these two widely different ideals there are all manners and all -degrees of compromise, and methods were employed which, to describe at -this point, would only complicate matters. It will be my purpose -presently to describe in detail the steps by which mere glazing -developed into painted glass, and how painting came to supersede -glazing; to show in how far painting was a help to the glazier, and in -how far it was to his hurt; to describe, in short, the progress of the -glass painter's art, to better and to worse; and to distinguish, as far -as may be, the principles which govern or should govern it. - -[Illustration: 3. ANCIENT ARAB WINDOW.] - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -GLAZING. - - -The art of the glass painter was at first only the art of the glazier. -To say that may seem like self-contradiction. But it is not so. On the -contrary, it is almost literally the truth; and it is difficult to find -words which would more vividly express the actual fact. - -We are accustomed to think of a painter as using pigment always in some -liquid form, and applying it to wood or plaster, canvas or paper, with a -brush. Should he lay it on with a palette knife, as he sometimes does, -it is painting still. If he could by any possibility put together his -colours in mid-air without the aid of paper, canvas, or other solid -substance, it would still be painting. This is very much what the worker -in stained glass, by the help of strips of intervening lead, practically -succeeded in doing. - -As a painter places side by side dabs of paint, so the glazier put side -by side little pieces of coloured glass. (Glass, you see, was the medium -in which his colour was fixed, just as oil, varnish, wax, or gum is the -vehicle in which the painter's pigment is ordinarily held in -suspension.) He could execute in this way upon the bench or the sloped -easel quite an elaborate pattern in coloured glass; and although, in -order to hold the parts together in a window frame, he had perforce to -resort to some sort of binding, in lead or what not, he may still -reasonably be said, if not actually to have painted in glass, at all -events to have worked in it. In fact, until about the twelfth century, -there were no glass painters, but only glaziers. Nay, more, it is to -glaziers that we owe the glory of the thirteenth century windows, in -which, be it remembered, each separate touch of colour is represented by -a separate piece of glass, and each separate piece of glass is bounded -by a framework of lead connecting it with the neighbouring pieces, -whilst the detail added by the painter goes for not very much. - -[Illustration: 4. ARAB WINDOW LATTICE, GEOMETRIC.] - -No strictly defined, nor indeed any approximate, date can safely be -given at which the art of the glass-worker sprang into existence. Arts -do not spring into existence; they grow, developing themselves in most -cases very slowly. The art of working in stained glass can only have -been the result of a species of evolution. The germ of it lay in the -circumstance that glass was originally made in comparatively small -pieces (there were no large sheets of glass a thousand years or more -ago), and so it was necessary, in order to glaze any but the smallest -window opening, that these small pieces should be in some way cemented -together. It followed naturally, in days when art was a matter of -every-day concern, the common flower of wayside craftsmanship, that the -idea of putting these pieces together in more or less ornamental -fashion, should occur to the workman, since they must be put together -somehow; and so, almost as a matter of course, would be developed the -mosaic of transparent glass, which was undoubtedly the form stained -glass windows first took. - -It has been suggested that in some of the earliest windows the glazing -is meant to take the form of tesseræ; but the examples instanced in -support of that idea afford very little ground for supposing any such -intention on the part of the first glass-workers. It may more reasonably -be presumed that any resemblance there may be between early glass and -earlier wall mosaic comes of working in the same way; like methods -inevitably lead to like results. - -It is by no means certain, even, that the first glaziers were directly -inspired by mosaic, whether of marble or of opaque glass. They were -probably much more immediately influenced by the work of the enameller. - -That may appear at the first mention strange, considering what has been -said about the absolute divergence between mosaic and enamelled glass. -But it must be remembered that enamelling itself among the Lombard -Franks, the Merovingians, and the Anglo-Saxons, was a very different -thing from what the Limousin made it in the sixteenth century. It was, -in fact, a quite different operation, the only point in common between -the two being that they were executed in vitreous colour upon a metal -ground. The enamel referred to as having probably influenced the early -glazier is of the severer kinds familiar in Byzantine work, and known as -_champlevé_ and _cloisonné_. In the one, you know, the design is scooped -out of the metal ground, in the other its outline is bent in flat wire -and soldered to the ground. In either case the resulting cells are -filled with coloured paste, which, under the action of the fire, -vitrifies and becomes embodied with the metal. In _champlevé_ enamel -naturally the metal ground is usually a distinguishing feature. In -_cloisonné_ the ground as well as the pattern is, of course, in enamel; -but in either case the outlines, and, indeed, all drawing lines, are in -metal. In _cloisonné_ enamel the metal "_cloisons_," as they are called, -fulfil precisely the function of the leads in glass windows; and it -would have been more convenient to have left altogether out of account -the sister process, were it not that, in the painting of quite early -glass, the strokes with which the lines of the drapery and suchlike are -rendered, bear quite unmistakable likeness to the convention of the -Byzantine worker in _champlevé_. For that matter, one sees also in very -early altar-pieces painted on wood, where gold is used for marking the -folds of drapery, the very obvious inspiration of Byzantine enamel--but -that is rather by the way. - -[Illustration: 5. ARAB LATTICE, GEOMETRIC.] - -The popular idea of an early window is that of a picture, or series of -pictures, very imperfectly rendered. It may much more justly be likened -to a magnified plaque of Byzantine enamel with the light shining through -it. The Byzantine craftsman, or his descendants, at all events, did -produce, in addition to the ordinary opaque enamel, a translucent kind, -in imitation presumably of precious stones; and it might very well be -that it was from thence the glazier first derived the idea of coloured -windows. Quite certainly that was nearer to his thoughts than any form -of painting, as we understand painting nowadays; and, what is more, had -he aimed deliberately at the effect of enamel (as practised in his day), -he could not have got much nearer to it. His proceeding was almost -identical with that of the enamel worker. In place of vitreous pastes he -used glass itself; in place of brass, lead; and, for supplementary -detail, in place of engraved lines, lines traced in paint. Side by side -with the early European window glazing, and most likely before it, there -was practised in the East a form of stained glass window building of -which no mention has yet been made. In the East, also, windows were from -an early date built up of little pieces of coloured glass; but the -Mohammedan law forbidding all attempt at pictorial representation of -animate things, there was no temptation to employ painting; the glazier -could do all he wanted without it. His plan was to pierce small openings -in large slabs of stone, and in the piercings to set numerous little -jewels of coloured glass. The Romans, by the way, appear also to have -sometimes filled window spaces with slabs of marble framing discs of -coloured glass, but these were comparatively wide apart, more like -separate window-lets, each glazed with its small sheet of coloured -glass. The Oriental windows, on the contrary, were most elaborately -designed, the piercings taking the form of intricate patterns, geometric -or floral. Sometimes the design would include an inscription ingeniously -turned to ornamental use after the manner of the Moorish decorators of -the Alhambra (page 15). A further development of the Oriental idea was -to imbed the glass in plaster, a process easy enough before the plaster -had set hard. This kind of thing is common enough in Cairo to this day, -and specimens of it are to be found at the South Kensington Museum. - -M. Vogué illustrates in his book, _La Syrie Centrale_, an important -series of windows in the Mosque of Omar (Temple of Jerusalem), erected -in 1528, by Sultan Soliman. The plaster, says M. Vogué, was strengthened -by ribs of iron and rods of cane imbedded in the stouter divisions of -the framework, a precaution not necessary in the smaller Cairene -lattices (measuring as a rule about four superficial feet), in which the -pattern is simply scooped out of the half-dry plaster. - -[Illustration: 6. ARAB LATTICE, FLORAL.] - -The piercings in these Oriental windows and window lattices are not made -at right angles to the slab of stone or plaster, but are cut through at -an angle, varying according to the position and height of the window, -with a view to as little interference as possible with the coloured -light. The glass, however, being fixed nearest the outside of the -window, there is always both shadow and reflection from the deep sides -of the openings, much to the enhancement of the mellowness and mystery -of colour. In the Temple windows referred to, still further subtlety of -effect is arrived at by an outer screen or lattice of _faïence_. Thus -subdued and tempered, even crude glass may be turned to beautiful -account. - -Whence the mediæval Arabs got their glass, and the quality of the -material, are matters of conjecture. If we may judge by the not very -ancient specimens which reach us in this country, the glass used in -Cairene lattices is generally thin and raw; but set, as above described, -in jewels as it were, isolated each in its separate shadow cell, the -poorest material looks rich. The lattices here illustrated are none of -them of very early period; but, where the character of design is so -traditional and changes so slowly, the actual date of the work, always -difficult to determine, matters little. - -[Illustration: 7. ARAB GLAZING IN PLASTER.] - -It is more than probable, it is almost certain, that the Venetian -glass-workers, who in the tenth century brought their art to France, -were familiar with the coloured lattices of the Levant; for, as we know, -in the middle-ages Venice was the great trading port of Italy, in -constant communication with the East. If that was so, the Italians, -always prone to imitate, would be sure to found their practice, as they -did in other crafts, more or less upon Persian and Arabian models. At -all events, there is every reason to suppose that at first they, -practically speaking, only did in lead what the Eastern artificer did in -stone or plaster, and that the windows which, according to various -trustworthy but vague accounts, adorned the early Christian basilicas as -early as the sixth century, bore strong likeness to Mohammedan -glass--Christianised, so to speak. This is not to unsay what was before -said about the affinity of early glass to enamel. A river has not of -necessity one only and unmistakable source; and though we may not be -able to trace back through the distant years the very fountain of this -craft, we may quite certainly affirm that its current was swollen by -more than one side-stream, and that its course was shaped by all manner -of obstinate circumstances and conditions of the time, before it went to -join the broad and brimming stream of early mediæval art. - -[Illustration: 8. ARAB GLAZING IN PLASTER.] - -One more source, at least, there was at which the early glazier drew -inspiration--namely, the art of jewel setting. Coloured glass, as was -said a while ago, was itself probably first made only in imitation of -precious stones, and, being made in small pieces, it had to be set -somewhat in the manner of jewellery. In all probability the enameller -himself wrought at first only in imitation of jewellery, and afterwards -in emulation with it. - -Just as white glass was called crystal, and no doubt passed for it, so -coloured glass actually went by the name of ruby, sapphire, emerald, and -so on. It is recorded even (falsely, of course) how sapphires were -ground to powder and mixed with glass to give it its deep blue colour; -indeed, this wilful confusion of terms goes far to explain the mystery -of the monster jewels of which we read in history or the fable which not -so very long ago passed for it. Stories of diamond thrones and emerald -tables seem to lead straight into fairyland; but the glass-worker -explains such fancies, and brings us back again to reality. - -Bearing in mind, then, the preciousness of glass, and the well-kept -secrecy with regard to its composition, it is not beyond the bounds of -supposition that the glazier of the dark ages not only intended -deliberately to imitate jewellery, but meant that his glass should pass -with the ignorant (we forget how very ignorant the masses were) for -veritably precious stones. - -Even though we exempt glaziers from all charge of trickery, it was -inevitable that they should attempt to rival the work of the jeweller, -and to do in large what he had done only in small. That certainly they -did, and with such success that, even when it comes to glass of the -twelfth, and, indeed, of the thirteenth century, when already pictorial -considerations begin to enter the mind of the artist, the resemblance is -unmistakable. - -[Illustration: 9. ARAB GLAZING IN PLASTER.] - -Try to describe the effect of an early mosaic window, and you are -compelled to liken it to jewellery. Jewelled is the only term which -expresses it. And the earlier it is the more jewel-like it is in effect. - -So long as the workman looked upon his glass as a species of jewellery, -it followed, as a matter of course, from the very estimation in which he -held his material, that he did not think of obscuring it by -paint--defiling it, as he would have held. It is not so much that he -would have been ashamed to depend on the painter to put his colour -right, as that the thought of such a thing never entered his mind; he -was a glazier. It was the painter first thought of that, and his time -had not yet come. - -Possibly it may have occurred to the reader, _apropos_ of the diagram on -page 10, in which it was shown how far the glazier could go towards the -production of a map in glass, that that was not far. Certainly he does -not go very far towards making a chart of any geographical value, but he -does go a long way towards making a window; for the first and foremost -qualities in coloured glass are colour and translucency--and for -translucent colour the glazier, after the glass-maker, is alone -responsible. It is in some respects very much to be deplored that the -Gothic craftsman so early took to the use of supplementary painting, -which in the end diverted his attention from a possible development of -his craft in a direction not only natural to it but big with -possibilities never to this day realised. - -Of richly jewelled Gothic glass all innocent of paint, no single window -remains to us; but there are fairly numerous examples extant of pattern -windows glazed in white glass, whether in obedience to the Cistercian -rule which forbade colour, or with a view to letting light into the -churches--and it is to churches, prevalent as domestic glass may once -have been, we must now go for our Gothic windows. - -[Illustration: 10. GLAZING IN PLASTER, SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.] - -Some of this white pattern work is ascribed to a period almost as early -as that of any glass we know; but it is almost impossible to speak -positively as to the date of anything so extremely simple in its -execution; in which there is no technique of painting to tell tales; and -which, when once "storied" windows came into fashion, was probably left -to the tender mercies of lesser craftsmen, who may not have disdained to -save themselves the trouble of design, and to repeat the old, old -patterns. - -The earlier glazier, it was said, painted, figuratively speaking, in -glass. It is scarcely a figure of speech to say that he drew in -leadwork. - -This mode of draughtsmanship was employed in all strictly mosaic glass; -but it is in the white windows (or the pale green windows, which were -the nearest he could get to white, and which it is convenient to call -white) that this drawing with the leads is most apparent--in patterns, -that is to say, in which the design is formed entirely by the leadwork. - -You have only to look at such patterns as Nos. 11 to 17, to see how this -was so; they are all designed in outline, and the outline is given in -lead. It is perfectly plain there how every separate line the glazier -laid down in charcoal upon his bench stood for a strip of lead. And, -looking at the glass, we see that it is the lead which makes the -pattern. It is no straining of terms to call this designing in the -lead. The ingenuity in designing such patterns as those below and -opposite, which is very considerable, consists in so scheming them that -every lead line shall fulfil alike a constructive and an artistic -function; that is to say, that every line in the design shall be -necessary to its artistic effect, that there shall be no lead line which -is not an outline, no outline which is not a lead. - -[Illustration: 11. PLAIN GLAZING, BONLIEU.] - -It is not always that the glazier was so conscientious as this. M. -Viollet le Duc pointed out, in the most helpful article in his famous -Dictionary of Architecture, under the head of _Vitrail_, how in the -little window from Bonlieu, here illustrated, the mediæval craftsman -resorted to a dodge, more ingenious than ingenuous, by which he managed -to economise labour. Each separate lead line there does not enclose a -separate piece of glass. The lines are all of lead; but some of them are -mere dummies, strips of metal, holding nothing, carried across the face -of the glass only, and soldered on to the more businesslike leads at -each end. The extent of _bonâ fide_ glazing is indicated in the -right-hand corner of the drawing. I confess I was inclined at first to -think that Viollet le Duc might, in ascribing this glass to the twelfth -century, very possibly have dated it too far back; for this is the kind -of trick one would more naturally expect from the later and more -sophisticated workman; but I have since come upon the same device -myself, both at Reims and Châlons, in work certainly as old as the -thirteenth century. You see, cutting the glass was the difficulty in -those days, and sometimes it was shirked. - -It should be noted that the subterfuge employed at Bonlieu and in the -specimens from Châlons, opposite, was not in order to evade any -difficulty in glazing--the designs present none--but merely to save -trouble. There would have been more occasion for evasion in executing -the design from Aix-la-Chapelle (14), where the sharp points of the -fleur-de-lys give background shapes difficult for the glazier to cut. It -will be noticed that to the left of the panel one of the points joins -the necking-piece, which holds the fleur-de-lys together. That is a much -more practical piece of glazing than the free point, which presents a -difficulty in cutting the background, indicative of the late period to -which the glass belongs. The earlier mediæval glazier worked with -primitive tools, which kept him perforce within the bounds of simplicity -and dignified restraint. - -[Illustration: 12. CHÂLONS.] - -In white windows, so called, he did not by any means confine himself -wholly to the use of what it is convenient to call "white glass." From a -very early date, perhaps from the very first, he would enrich it with -some slight amount of colour. Having devised, as it were, a lattice of -white lines, as in the left-hand pattern from Salisbury (overleaf), it -was a very simple thing to fill here and there a division of his design -with a piece of coloured instead of white glass, as in the pattern next -to it in order. The third pattern, to the right, shows how he would even -introduce a separate jewel of colour, perhaps painted, which had to be -connected with the design by leads forming no part of the pattern. - -[Illustration: 13. CHÂLONS.] - -Colour spots are more ingeniously introduced in the example from -Brabourne Church, Kent, (said to be Norman) where the darker tints are -ingeniously thrown into the background. But here again, although this is -perhaps as early a specimen of glazing as we have in this country, the -glazier resorts in his central rosettes to the aid of paint. - -[Illustration: 14. AIX-LA-CHAPELLE.] - -[Illustration: 15. SOUTH TRANSEPT, SALISBURY.] - -It will be observed that in the marginal lines which frame this window, -and again in the white bands in two out of the three patterns from -Salisbury, leads are introduced which have only a constructional use, -and rather confuse the design. That they do not absolutely destroy it is -due to its marked simplicity, and to the proportion of the narrow bands -to the broad spaces. This is yet more clearly marked in the very -satisfactory glazing designs from S. Serge at Angers. The fact is, there -is a limit to the possibilities of design, such as that from Sens (page -96), in which literally only four leads (viz., those from the points of -the central diamond shape) are introduced wholly and solely for -strength; and when it comes to windows of any considerable size, such as -clerestory windows, to which plain glazing is peculiarly suited, leads -which merely strengthen become absolutely necessary. The art of the -designer consists in so scheming them that they shall not seriously -interfere with the pattern. - -[Illustration: 16. BRABOURNE CHURCH KENT.] - -Were the pattern in lines of colour upon white, the crosslines -strengthening them would of course be lost in the darker tint; but, as -it happens, we do not find in the earliest glazing lines of interlacing -colour, though they occur by way of border lines, as at S. Serge -(below), where a marginal line of yellow is enclosed between strips of -white. - -[Illustration: 17. S. SERGE, ANGERS.] - -The interlacing character of several of the white glazing patterns -illustrated betrays of course Romanesque influence; but there would not -have been so many designs consisting of interlacing bands of white upon -a white ground, enclosing, at intervals more or less rare, what had best -be called jewels of colour, had it not been that the forms of -interlacing strapwork lend themselves kindly to glazing. - -Every time a strap disappears, as it were, behind another, you have just -the break in its continuity which the glazier desires, and if only the -interlacings are frequent enough (as on page 96) they give him all he -wants. - -So far the examples illustrated are, for the most part, in outline; that -is to say, on a ground of white the pattern appears as a network of -leads, flowing or geometric as the case may be, emphasised here and -there by a touch of dark colour, focussing them as it were. Without such -points of colour a design looks sometimes too much like a mere outline, -meant to be filled in with colour, and, in short, unfinished; but as yet -the darker and lighter tints of white are not used to emphasise the -pattern, as they would have done if, for example, the interlacing straps -had been glazed in a slightly purer white than the ground. On the -contrary, notwithstanding the very great variety in the tints of -greenish-white, which resulted from the chemically imperfect manufacture -of the glass, they were employed very much at haphazard, and so far from -ever defining the design, go to obviate anything harsh or mechanical -there may be in it. There is else, of course, a tendency in geometric -pattern to look too merely geometric. One wants always to feel it is a -window that is there, and not just so many feet of diaper. - -Another practical form of design is that in which it is not the network -of leads, but the spaces they inclose, which constitutes the pattern; -where lines are not so much thought of as masses; where the main -consideration is colour, and contour is of quite secondary account. The -leads fulfil still their artistic function of marking the division of -the colours, as they fulfil the practical one of binding the bits of -coloured glass together; the glazier still draws in lead lines; but -attention is not called to them especially; indeed, with identically the -same lead lines one could produce two or three quite different effects, -according as one emphasised by stronger colour one series of shapes or -another. In the case of a framework of strictly geometric lines, -straight or curved, one gets patterns such as we see in marble inlay. -The slab of marble mosaic and the stained glass border opposite are more -than alike; the one is simply a carrying further of the other. The glass -design might just as well have been executed in marble, or the marble -design in glass. In the upper church at Assisi are some borders of -geometric inlay, one of which is given on page 96, identical in -character with the minute geometric inlay (which, by the way, was also -in glass, though opaque), with which the Cosmati illuminated, so to -speak, their marble shrines and monuments. This species of pattern work, -appropriate as it is to glass mosaic, transparent as well as opaque, -does not seem to have been much used in glass, even in Italy; where it -does occur it is in association, as at Assisi and Orvieto, with painted -work of the thirteenth or fourteenth century, though from its Byzantine -character it might as well be centuries earlier. It appears that this, -which was, theoretically, the simplest and most obvious form of leaded -pattern work, and might, therefore, well have been the earliest, was -never adopted to anything like the extent to which interlacing ornament -was carried. - -[Illustration: 18. MARBLE MOSAIC, ROMAN.] - -[Illustration: 19. GLASS, ORVIETO.] - -Mediæval glaziers did not attempt anything like foliated ornament in -leaded glass, and for good reason. In such work the difficulty of doing -without lines detrimental to the design is greatly increased, whereas -abstract forms you can bend to your will, as you can bend your strip of -lead. The more natural the forms employed the more nature has to be -considered in rendering them, and nature declines to go always in the -direction of simple glazing. It might seem easy enough (to those who do -not know the difficulty) to glaze together bits of heart-shaped green -glass for leaves, and red for petals, with a dot of yellow for the eye -of the flower, and to make use of the lead not only for outlines but for -the stalks of the leaves and so on, all on a paler ground; but it is not -so easy as that. The designer cannot go far without wanting other -connecting leads (besides those used for the stalk); and when some leads -are meant very emphatically to be seen and some to be ignored, there is -no knowing what the actual effect may be: the drawing lines may be quite -lost in a network of connecting leads. Again, the mediæval glazier did -not, so far as we have any knowledge, build up in lead glazing a boldly -pronounced pattern, light on dark or dark on light. This he might -easily have done. On a small scale plain glazing must perforce be -modest; but, given a scale large enough, almost any design in silhouette -can be expressed in plain glazing. You may want in that case plenty of -purely constructional leads, not meant to be seen, or in any case meant -to be ignored; but if the contrast between design and background be only -strong enough (say colour on white or white on colour), they do not in -the least hurt the general effect. On the contrary, they are of the -utmost use to the workman who knows his materials, enabling him to get -that infinite variety of colour which is the crowning charm of glass. - -What the designer of leaded glass had to consider was, in the first -place, the difficulty of shaping the pieces. That is now no longer very -great, thanks to the diamond, which makes cutting so easy that there is -even a danger lest the workman's skill of hand may outrun his judgment, -and tempt him to indulge in useless _tours de force_. The absurdity of -taking the greatest possible pains to the least possible purpose is -obvious. The more important consideration is now, therefore, the -substantiality of the window once made. Think of the force of a gale of -wind and its pressure upon the window: it is tremendous; and glazing -does not long keep a smooth face before it. Except there is a solid iron -bar to keep it in place, it soon bulges inwards, and presents a surface -as undulous, on a smaller scale, as the pavement of St. Mark's; and, as -it begins to yield, snap go the awkwardly shaped pieces of glass which -the glazier has been at such pains to cut. The mediæval artist, -therefore, exercised no more than common sense, when he shaped the -pieces of glass he employed with a view to security, avoiding sharp -turns or elbows in the glass, or very long and narrow strips, or even -very acutely pointed wedge-shaped pieces. No doubt the difficulty of -cutting helped to keep him in the way he should go; probably, also, he -was under no temptation to indulge in pieces of glass so large that, -incapable of yielding, they were bound to break under pressure of the -wind. That he sometimes used pieces so small as in time to get clogged -with dust and dirt, was owing to the natural desire to use up the -precious fragments which, under his clumsy system of cutting, must have -accumulated in great quantity. Where most he showed his mastery was, in -foreseeing where the strain would come, and introducing always a lead -joint where the crack might occur, anticipating and warding off the -danger to come. He was workman enough frankly to accept the limitations -of his trade. Occasionally (as at Bonlieu) he may have shirked work; but -he accommodated himself to the nature of his materials. Never pretending -to do what he could not, he betrayed neither its weakness nor his own. - -Mere _glazing_ has here been discussed at a length which perhaps neither -existing work of the kind nor the modern practice of the craft (more is -the pity) might seem to demand. It is the most modest, the rudest even, -of stained glass; but it is the beginning and the foundation of glass -window making, and it affects most deeply even the fully developed art -of the sixteenth century. - -The leading of a window is the framework of its design, the skeleton to -be filled out presently and clothed in colour; and, if the anatomy is -wrong, nothing will ever make the picture right. The leads are the -bones, which it is necessary to study, even though they were -intrinsically without interest, for on them depends the form which shall -eventually charm us. Beauty is not skin deep: it is the philosophy of -the poet which is shallow. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -EARLY MOSAIC WINDOWS. - - -It has been explained already at how very early a period "stained" glass -begins also to be "painted" glass more or less. - -But for the fond desire to be something more than an artist--to teach, -to preach, to tell a story--the glazier would possibly have been quite -content with the mere jewellery of glass, and might have gone on for -years, and for generations, using his pot-metal as it left the pot. As -it was, working always in the service of the Church, in whose eyes it -was of much more importance that a window should be "storied" than that -it should be "richly dight," he found it necessary from the first to -adopt the use of paint--not, as already explained, for the purpose of -giving colour, but of shutting it out, or at most modifying it. His work -was still essentially, and in the first place, mosaic. He conceived his -window, that is to say, as made up of a multiplicity of little pieces of -coloured glass, the outlines supplied, for the most part, by the strong -lines of connecting leadwork, and the details traced in lines of opaque -pigment. He still designed with the leads, as I have expressed it, and -throughout the thirteenth century (though less emphatically than in the -twelfth) his design is commonly quite legible at a distance at which the -painted detail is altogether lost; but in designing his leads he had -always in view, of course, that they were to be helped out by paint. - -In the late thirteenth century or early fourteenth century figure from -Troyes, on page 336, which depends very little indeed upon any painted -detail to be deciphered, the lighter figure glazed upon a ground of dark -trellis-work is not only readable, but suggestive of considerable -feeling; and in the undoubtedly fourteenth century figure on page 241, -where, with the exception of the hands and face, there is absolutely no -indication of the paint with which the artist eventually completed his -drawing, there is no mistaking the recumbent figure of Jesse, even -without any help of colour. But the earlier the glass, the less was -there of painting, and the more the burden of design fell upon the -glazier. The two figures from Le Mans, here given (generally allowed to -belong to about the year 1100) show very plainly both the amount and the -character of the painting used, and the extent to which the design -depends upon it. There is no mistake about the value of the lead lines -there, or the extreme simplicity of the painted detail. - -[Illustration: 20. FIGURES FROM ASCENSION, LE MANS.] - -It will be seen that paint is there used for three purposes: to paint -out the ground round about the feet, hands, and faces; to mark the folds -of the drapery, and just an indication of shading upon it; and to -blacken the hair. It was only in thus rendering the human hair that the -earliest craftsman ever used paint as local colour. In that case he had -a way of scraping out of it lines of light to indicate detail. If such -lines showed too bright, it was easy to tone them down with a film of -thinner paint. In these particular figures from Le Mans the artist had -not yet arrived at that process; but from the very first it was a quite -common custom, instead of painting very small ornamental detail, to -obscure the glass with solid pigment, and then scrape out the ornament. - -[Illustration: 21. HITCHIN CHURCH.] - -The fact is, that in early windows a much larger proportion of the glass -is obscured, and had need to be obscured, than would be supposed. It -will be seen what a considerable area of paint surrounds the feet of the -two apostles on page 33. This is partly owing to the then difficulty of -exactly shaping the pieces of glass employed; but it is largely due to -the actual necessity of sufficient area of dark to counteract the -tendency of the lighter shades of glass, such as the brownish-pink -employed for flesh tints, to spread their rays and obliterate the -drawing. Not only would the extremely attenuated fingers, shown in the -scraps from Hitchin Church above look quite well fleshed in the glass, -but it was essential that they should be so painted in order to come out -satisfactorily--that is, without the aid of shading, to which painters -did not yet much resort. On the contrary, they were at first very chary -of half tint--employing it, indeed, for the rounding of flesh and so on, -but not to degrade the colour of the glass, small though their palette -was. - -[Illustration: 22. S. REMI, REIMS.] - -Something, however, had to be done to prevent especially the whites, -yellows, and pale blues, and in some degree all but the dark colours, -from taking more than their due part in the general effect. It was not -always possible to reduce the area of the glass of an aggressive tint to -the dimensions required. To have reduced a line of white, for example, -to the narrowness at which it would tell for what was wanted, would have -been to make it so narrow that the accumulation of dust and dirt -between the leads would soon have clogged it and blotted it out -altogether. What they did was to paint it heavily with pattern. For -example, they would paint out great part of a white line and leave only -a row of beads, with so much paint between and around them that -certainly not more than one-third of the area of the glass was left -clear, and the effect at the right distance (as at Angers, page 116) -would be that of a continuous string of pearls. They would in the same -way paint a strip of glass solid, and merely pick out a zig-zag or some -such pattern upon it, with or without a marginal thread of light on each -side (Le Mans). Rather than lower the brightness of the glass by a tint -of pigment they would coat it with solid brown, and pick out upon it a -minute diaper of cross-hatched lines and dots, by that means reducing -the volume of transmitted light without much interfering with its purity -(S. Remi, Reims, below). Diaper of more interesting kind afforded a -ready means of lowering shades of glass which were too light or too -bright for the purpose required, and for supplying in effect the -deficiencies of the pot-metal palette. Overleaf are some fragments of -diaper pattern so picked out, from Canterbury, which would possibly -never have been devised if the designer had had to his hand just the -shade of blue glass he wanted. Something certainly of the elaboration of -pattern which distinguishes the earliest glass comes of the desire to -qualify its colour. Viollet le Duc endeavours to explain with scientific -precision which are the colours which spread most, and how they spread. -His analysis is useful as well as interesting; but absolute definition -of the effect of radiation is possible only with regard to a rigidly -fixed range of colours to which no colourist would ever confine himself. -A man gets by experience to know the value of his colours in their -place, and thinks out his scheme accordingly. He puts, as a matter of -course, more painting into pale draperies than into dark, and so on; but -to a great extent he acts upon that subtle sort of reasoning which we -call feeling. Intuition it may be, but it is the intuition of a man who -knows. - -The simple method of early execution went hand in hand with equal -simplicity of design--the one almost necessitated the other--and the -earlier the window the more plainly is its pattern pronounced, light -against dark, or, less usually, (as in some most interesting remains of -very early glass from Châlons now at the _Musée des Arts Décoratifs_ at -Paris) in full, strong colour upon white. In twelfth century work -especially, figures and ornament alike are always frankly shown _en -silhouette_. Witness the design on pages 33 and 115. Similar relief or -isolation of the figure against the background is shown in the -thirteenth century bishops, occupying two divisions of a rose window at -Salisbury, on page 275; and again in the little subject from Lyons, -where S. Peter is being led off by the gaoler to prison. - -[Illustration: 23. CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL.] - -In proportion as the aim of the artist becomes more pictorial he groups -his figures more in clumps (you see indications of that at Canterbury), -whence comes much of the confusion of effect characteristic of the -thirteenth century as it advances, not in this respect in the direction -of improvement. In his haste to tell a story he tells it less -effectively. Where an early subject is unintelligible (supposing it to -be in good preservation) it is almost invariably owing to the figures -not being clearly enough cut out against the background. Isolation of -the design seems to be a necessary condition of success in glass of the -simple, scarcely painted, kind. In ornament, where the artist had -nothing to think of but artistic effect, he invariably and to a much -later period defined it unmistakably against contrasting colour. That is -illustrated on page 117, part of a thirteenth century window at -Salisbury, and in the border below, as well as various others of the -period, pages 129, 130, and elsewhere. - -[Illustration: 24. POITIERS CATHEDRAL. (Compare with 59.)] - -It is the almost unanimous verdict of the inexpert that the lead lines -very seriously detract from the beauty of early windows. How much more -beautiful they would be, it is said, without those ugly black lines! -Possibly the expert and the lover of old glass have unconsciously -brought themselves not to see what they do not want to see; and the -leads may, soberly and judiciously speaking, seriously interfere with -the form of the design. But, in the first place, the beauty of early -glass is in its colour, not in its form. That is very clearly shown in -the illustrations to this chapter and the next; which give, -unfortunately, nothing of the beauty and real glory of the glass, but -only its design and execution; they appear perhaps in black and white so -merely grotesque, that it may be difficult to any one not familiar with -the glass itself to understand why so much should be said in its praise. -In reality the lack of beauty, especially apparent in the figure drawing -of the early glass painters when reduced to monochrome, taken in -conjunction with the magnificent effect of many of the earliest windows -(which no colourist has ever yet been known to deny) is proof in itself -how entirely their art depended upon colour--colour, it should be added, -of a quality quite unapproachable by any other medium than that of -translucent glass or actual jewellery. No one who appreciates at -anything like its full value the magnificence of that colour will think -the interference of occasional lead lines a heavy price to pay for it. - -[Illustration: 25. S. KUNIBERT, COLOGNE.] - -For--and this is the second point to be explained in reference to -leading--the leads, were they never so objectionable, are actually the -price we pay for the glory of early glass. It is by their aid we get -those mosaics of pot-metal, the depth and richness of which to this day, -with all our science of chemistry, we cannot approach by any process of -enamelling. Moreover, though merely constructional leads, taking a -direction contrary to the design, may at times disturb the eye, (they -scarcely ever disturb the effect) they add to the richness of the glass -in a way its unlearned admirers little dream. Not only is the depth and -intensity of the colour very greatly enhanced by the deep black setting -of lead, a veritable network of shade in which jewels of bright colour -are caught, but it is by the use of a multiplicity of small pieces of -glass (instead of a single sheet, out of which the drapery of a figure -could be cut all in one piece--the ideal of the ignorant!), that the -supreme beauty of colour is reached. Examine the bloom of a peach or of -a child's complexion, and see how it is made up of specks of blue and -grey and purple and yellow amongst the pink and white of which it is -supposed to consist. Every artist, of course, knows that a colour is -beautiful according to the variety in it; and a "Ruby" background (as it -is usually called), which is made up of little bits of glass of various -shades of red, not only crimson, scarlet, and orange, but purple and -wine-colour of all shades from deepest claret to tawny port, is as far -beyond what is possible in a sheet of even red glass as the colour of a -lady's hand is beyond the possible competition of pearl powder or a pink -kid glove. Not only, therefore, were the small pieces of glass in early -windows, and the consequent leads, inevitable, but they are actually at -the very root of its beauty; and the artificer of the dark ages was -wiser in his generation than the children of this era of enlightenment. -He did not butt his head against immovable obstacles, but built upon -them as a foundation. Hence his success, and in it a lesson to the -glazier for all time--which was taken to heart (as will be shown -presently) by craftsmen even of a period too readily supposed to have -been given over entirely to painting upon glass. - -Let there be no misunderstanding about what is claimed for the earliest -windows. The method of mosaic, eked out with a minimum of tracing in -opaque pigment, does not lend itself very kindly to picture; and it is -in ornament that the thirteenth century glazier is pre-eminent. There is -even something barbaric about the splendour of his achievement. Might it -not be said that in all absolutely ornamental decoration there is -something of the barbaric?--which may go to account for the rarity of -real ornament, or any true appreciation of it, among modern people. - -We might not have to scratch the civilised man very deep to reach the -savage in him, but he is, at all events, sophisticated enough to have -lost his unaffected delight in strong bright colours and "meaningless" -twistings of ornament. Be that as it may, the figure work of the -thirteenth century window designer is distinctly less perfect than his -scrolls and suchlike, partly, it is true, because of his inadequate -figure drawing, but partly also because his materials were not well -adapted to anything remotely like pictorial representation. The figures -in his subjects have, as before said, to be cut out against the -background in order to be intelligible. Hence a stiff and ultra-formal -scheme of design, and also a certain exaggeration of attitude, which in -the hands of a _naïve_ and sometimes almost childish draughtsman becomes -absolutely grotesque. This is most strikingly the case in the larger -figures, sometimes considerably over lifesize, standing all in a row in -the clerestory lights of some of the great French cathedrals. - -[Illustration: 26. LYONS.] - -The scale of these figures gave opportunity (heads all-of-a-piece show -that it did not actually make it a necessity) for glazing the faces in -several pieces of glass; and it was quite the usual thing, as at Lyons -(opposite) to glaze the flesh in pinkish-brown, the beard in white or -grey or yellow or some dark colour--not seldom blue, which had at a -distance very much the value of black--and the eyes in white. Sometimes -even, as at Reims, the iris of the eye was not represented by a blot of -paint but was itself glazed in blue. The effect of this might have been -happier if the lines of the painting had been more of the same strength -as the leads, and so strong enough to support them. As it is, the great -white eyes start out of the picture and spoil it. They have a way of -glaring at you fixedly; there is no speculation in their stare; they -look more like huge goggles than live eyes. And it is not these only -which are grotesque; the smaller figures in subject windows are, for the -most part, rude and crude, to a degree which precludes one, or any one -but an archæologist _pur sang_, from taking them seriously as figure -design. They are often really not so much like human figures as -"bogies," ugly enough to frighten a child. What is more to be deplored -is that they are so ugly as actually to have frightened away many a -would-be artist in glass from the study of them--a study really -essential to the proper understanding of his _métier_; for repellant as -those bogey figures may be, they show more effectually than later, more -attractive, and much more accomplished painting, the direction in which -the glass painter should go, and must go, if he wants to make figures -tell, say, in the clerestory of a great church. - -Apart from the halo of sentiment about the earliest work--and who shall -say how much of that sentiment we bring to it ourselves?--apart from the -actual picturesqueness--and how much of that is due to age and -accident?--there _is_ in the earliest glass a feeling for the material -and a sense of treatment seldom found in the work of more accomplished -glass painters. If there is not actually more to be learnt from it than -from later and more consummate workmanship, there is at least no danger -of its teaching a false gospel, as that may do. - -From the grossest and most archaic figures, ungainly in form and -fantastic in feature, stiff in pose and extravagant in action, out of -all proportion to their place in the window, there are at least two -invaluable lessons to be learnt--the value of broad patches of -unexpected colour, interrupting that monotony of effect to which the -best-considered schemes of ornament incline, and the value of -simplicity, directness, and downright rigidity of design. Severity of -design is essential to largeness of style; it brings the glass into -keeping with the grandeur of a noble church, into tune with the solemn -chords of the organ. Modern windows may sometimes astound us by their -aggressive cleverness, the old soothe and satisfy at the same time that -they humble the devout admirer. - -The confused effect of Early glass (except when the figures are on a -very large scale) is commonly described as "kaleidoscopic." That is not -a very clever description, and it is rather a misleading one. For, -except in the case of the rose or wheel windows, common in France, Early -glass is not designed on the radiating lines which the kaleidoscope -inevitably gives. It is enough for the casual observer that the effect -is made up of broken bits of bright colour; and if they happen to occupy -a circular space the likeness is complete to him. But to know the lines -on which an Early Gothic window was built, is to see, through all -confusion of effect, the evidence of design, and to resent the -implication of thoughtless mechanism implied in the word kaleidoscopic. -Nevertheless, little as the mediæval glaziers meant it--they were lavish -of the thought they put into their art--their glass does often delight -us, something as the toy amuses children, because the first impression -it produces upon us is a sense of colour, in which there is no too -definite form to break the charm. There comes a point in our -satisfaction in mere beauty (to some it comes sooner than to others--too -soon, perhaps) at which we feel the want of a meaning in it--must find -one, or our pleasure in it is spoilt; we even go so far as to put a -meaning into it if it is not there; but at first it is the mysterious -which most attracts the imagination. - -And even afterwards, when the mystery is solved, we are not sorry to -forget its meaning for a while, to be free to put our own interpretation -upon beauty, or to let it sway us without asking why, just as we are -moved by music which carries us we know not where, we care not. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -PAINTED MOSAIC GLASS. - - -The glass so far vaguely spoken of as "Early" belongs to the period when -the glazier designed his leads without thinking too much about painting. - -[Illustration: 27. CHARTRES.] - -There followed a period when the workman gave about equal thought to the -glazing and the painting of his window. - -Then came a time when he thought first of painting, and glazing was a -secondary consideration with him. - -[Illustration: 28. S. KUNIBERT, COLOGNE.] - -According as we contemplate glass painting from the earlier or the later -standpoint, from the point of view of glass or of painting, we are sure -to prefer one period to the other, to glory perhaps in the advance of -painting, or to regret the lesser part that coloured glass eventually -plays in the making of a window. To claim for one or the other manner -that it is the true and only way, were to betray the prejudice of the -partizan. Each justifies itself by the masterly work done in it, each is -admirable in its way. It is not until the painter began, as he -eventually did, to take no thought of the glass he was using, and the -way it was going to be glazed, that he can be said with certainty to -have taken the downward road in craftsmanship. We shall come to that -soon enough; meanwhile, throughout the Gothic period at least, he kept -true to a craftsmanlike ideal, and never quite forsook the traditions of -earlier workmanship; and until well into the fourteenth century he -began, we may say, with glazing. In the fourteenth century borders -overleaf and in the figure on page 47, no less than in the earlier -examples on pages 43 and 46, the glazing lines fulfil a very important -part in the design, emphasising the outlines of the forms, if they do -not of themselves form an actual pattern. Naturally, once the glazier -resorted to the use of paint, he schemed his leads with a view to -supplementary painting, and had always a shrewd idea as to the details -he meant to add; but it will be clear to any one with the least -experience in design that a man might map out the leadwork of such -borders as those shown below with only the vaguest idea as to how he was -going to fill them in with paint, and yet be sure of fitting them with -effective foliage. So the architectural canopies on pages 134, 135, 154, -were pretty surely first blocked out according to their lead lines; and -not till the design was thus mapped out in colour did the designer begin -to draw the detail of his pinnacles and crockets. The invariable -adherence to a traditional type of design made it the easier for him to -keep in mind the detail to come. For he had not so much to imagine as to -remember. He was free, however, always to follow any spontaneous impulse -of design. - -[Illustration: 29. S. OUEN, ROUEN.] - -It was told in Chapter IV. how, in the beginning, pigment was used only -to paint out the light, to emphasise drawing, and to give detail--such -as the features of the face, the curls of the hair, and so on. That was -the ruling idea of procedure. In practice, however, it is not very easy -to paint perfectly solid lines on glass. At the end of a stroke always, -and whenever the brush is not charged full of colour, the lines -insensibly get thin, not perfectly opaque, that is to say; and so, in -spite of himself, the painter would continually be obtaining something -like translucency--a tint, in fact, and not a solid brown. Not to have -taken advantage of this half tint, would have been to prove himself -something less than a good workman, less than a reasonable one; and he -did from the first help out his drawing by a smear of paint, more or -less in the nature of shading. In flesh painting of the twelfth century -(or attributed to that early date) there are indications of such -shading, used, however, with great moderation, and only to supplement -the strong lines of solid brown in which the face was mainly drawn. The -features were first very determinedly drawn in line ("traced" is the -technical term), and then, by way of shade, a slight scum of paint was -added. - -Still, in thirteenth century work, there is frequently no evidence of -such shading; the painter has been quite content with the traced line. -In the fourteenth century a looser kind of handling is observed. The -painter would trace a head in not quite solid lines of brown, and then -strengthen them here and there with perfectly opaque colour, producing -by that means a much softer quality of line. In any case, the painting -until well into the century was at the best rude, and the half tint, -such as it was, used, one may say, to be smeared on. Here again practice -followed the line of least resistance. It was difficult with the -appliances then in use to paint a gradated tint which would give the -effect of modelling; and accordingly very little of the kind was -attempted. Eventually, however, the painter began to stipple his smear -of shadow, at once softening it and letting light into it. - -Towards the end of the century this stippling process was carried a step -further. It occurred to the workman to coat his glass all over (or all -of it except what was meant to remain quite clear) with thin brown, and -then, with a big dry brush, dab it until it assumed a granular or -stippled surface (darker or lighter, according to the amount of -stippling). This was not only more translucent than the smeared colour -but more easily graduated, and capable of being so manipulated, and so -softened at the edges, as readily to give a very fair amount of -modelling. This shading was often supplemented by dark lines or -hatchings put in with a brush, as well as by lines scraped out of the -tint to lighten it. But in any case there was for a while nothing like -heavy shading. Even in work belonging to the fifteenth century, and -especially in English glass, as at York, Cirencester, Ross, &c., it is -quite a common thing to find that the drawing is mainly in line, very -delicately done, helped out by the merest hint of shading in tint. This -glass is sometimes a little flat in effect, and it is not equal in force -to contemporary foreign work; but it is peculiarly refined in execution, -and it has qualities of glass-like sparkle and translucency which more -than make amends for any lack of solidity in painting. Solidity is just -the one thing we can best dispense with in glass. - -[Illustration: 30. SALISBURY.] - -A comparison of the two borders on pages 38 and 175, both German work, -will show how little difference of principle there was between the -thirteenth century craftsman and his immediate successor. The difference -in style between the two is strikingly marked--the one is quite -Romanesque in character, the detail of the other is comparatively -naturalistic; but when you come to look at the way they are executed, -the way the glazing is mapped out, the way the leads emphasise the -outlines, whilst paint is only used to make out details which lead could -not give--you will see that the new man has altered his mind more with -regard to what he wants to do in glass than as to how he wants to do it. -Very much might be said with regard to the two figures on this page and -the opposite. The French designer has departed from the archaic -composition of the earlier Englishman, and put more life and action into -his figure, but there is very little difference in the technique of the -two men, less than appears in the illustrations; for, as it happens, one -drawing aims at giving the lines of the glass, the other at showing its -effect. The fourteenth century figure on page 51 relies more than these -last upon painting. The folds of the saint's tunic, for example, are not -merely traced in outline, but there is some effect of modelling in them. - -It will be instructive also to compare the fourteenth century hop -pattern on page 173 with the fourteenth century vine on page 364, and -the fifteenth century example on page 345. In the first the method of -proceeding is almost as strictly mosaic as though it had been a scroll -of the preceding century. Leaves, stalks, and fruits are glazed in light -colour upon dark, and bounded by the constructional lines of lead. In -the second, though the main forms are still outlined by the leads, much -greater use is made of paint: the topmost leaf is in one piece of glass -with the stalk of the tree, and all the leaves are relieved by means of -shading. In the third the artist has practically drawn his vine scroll, -and then thought how best he could glaze it; and the leads come very -much as they may. - -This last-mentioned proceeding is typical of a period not yet under -discussion, but the second illustrates very fairly the supplementary use -of paint made in the fourteenth century. - -[Illustration: 31. S. URBAIN, TROYES.] - -A rather unusual but suggestive form of fourteenth century glazing is -shown on page 176. It was the almost invariable practice at this period, -as in the preceding centuries, to distinguish the pattern, whether of -scroll or border, by relieving it against a background of contrasting -colour, usually light against dark; but here the border is varicoloured, -without other ground than the opaque pigment used for painting out the -forms of the leaves, etc., and filling in between them. The method lends -itself only to design in which the forms are so closely packed as to -leave not too much ground to be filled in. A fair amount of solid paint -about the leaves and stalks does no harm. A good deal was used in Early -work, and it results in happier effects than when minute bits of -background are laboriously leaded in. The main point is--and it is one -the early glaziers very carefully observed--that the glass through which -the light is allowed to come should not be made dirty with paint. It was -mentioned before (page 35) how, from the first, a background would be -painted solid and a diaper picked out of it. Further examples of that -are shown overleaf and on pages 88 and 103, though, as will be seen, a -considerable portion of the glass is by this means obscured, the effect -is still brilliant; and in proportion as lighter and brighter tints of -glass came into use, it became more and more necessary; in fact, it -never died out. The diaper opposite belongs to the fifteenth century, -and the minuter of the three diapers above, as well as those on pages 88 -and 103, belong to the sixteenth century. - -[Illustration: 32. DIAPERS SCRATCHED OUT.] - -Now that the reader may be presumed to have a perfectly clear idea of -the process of the early glazier, and to realise the distinctly mosaic -character of old glass, it is time mention should be made of two -important intermediate methods of glass staining which presently began -to affect the character of stained glass windows. - -Allusion has been made (page 2) to the Roman practice of making glass in -strata of two colours, which they carved cameo-fashion in imitation of -onyx and the like; at least, one _tour de force_ of this kind is -familiar to every one in the famous Portland vase, in which the outer -layer of white glass is in great part ground away, leaving the design in -cameo upon dark blue. The mediæval glass-blower seems from the first to -have been acquainted with this method of coating a sheet of glass with -glass of a different colour. As the Roman coated his dull blue with -opaque white glass, so he coated translucent white with rich pot-metal -colour. It was not a very difficult operation. He had only to dip his -lump of molten white into a pot of coloured glass, and, according to -the quantity of coloured material adhering to it, so his bubble of glass -(and consequently the sheet into which it was opened out) was spread -with a thinner or thicker skin of colour. The Gothic craftsman took -advantage of this facility, in so far as he had any occasion for its -use. The occasion arose owing to the density of the red glass he -employed, which was such that, if he had made it of the thickness of the -rest of his glass, it would have been practically opaque. To have made -it very much thinner would have been to make it more fragile; and in any -case, it was easier to make a good job of the glazing when the glass was -all pretty much of a thickness. A layer of red upon white offered a -simple and practical way out of the difficulty. - -What is called "ruby" glass, therefore, is not red all through, but only -throughout one half or a third of its thickness. The colour is only, so -to speak, the jam upon the bread; but the red and the white glass are -amalgamated at such a temperature as to be all but indivisible, to all -intents and purposes as thoroughly one as ordinary pot-metal glass. - -[Illustration: 33. DIAPER SCRATCHED OUT.] - -For a long while glass painters used this ruby glass and a blue glass -made in the same way precisely as though it had been self-coloured. But -in shaping a piece of ruby glass, especially with their inadequate -appliances, they would be bound sometimes to chip off at the edges -little flakes of red, revealing as many little flaws of white. This -would be sure to suggest, sooner or later, the deliberate grinding away -of the ruby stratum in places where a spot of white was needed smaller -than could conveniently be leaded in. As to the precise date at which -some ingenious artist may first have used this device, it may be left to -archæology to speculate. It must have been a very laborious process; and -the early mediæval ideal of design was not one that offered any great -temptation to resort to it during the thirteenth or even the fourteenth -century. It was not, in fact, until the painting of windows was carried -to a point at which there was some difficulty in so scheming the lines -of the lead that they should not in any way mar its delicacy, that the -practice of "flashing" glass, as it is termed, became common. That is -why no mention of it has been made till now. It will be seen that it is -a perfectly practical and workmanlike process, rendering possible -effects not otherwise to be got in glass, but lending itself rather to -minuteness of execution and elaboration of detail than to splendour of -colour or breadth of effect. - -[Illustration: 34. QUEEN OF SHEBA, FAIRFORD.] - -The second intermediate method of staining glass began earlier to affect -the design and execution of windows; and the character of fourteenth -century glass is distinctly modified by it; and, curiously enough, -whilst flashing applied to red and blue glass, this applies to yellow. - -It was discovered about the beginning of the fourteenth century that -white glass painted with a solution of silver would take in the kiln a -pure transparent stain of yellow, varying, according to its strength and -the heat of the furnace, from palest lemon to deepest orange. Observe -that this yellow stain is neither an enamel nor a pot-metal colour, but -literally a stain, the only stain used upon glass. In pot-metal the -stain (if it may be so called) is _in_ the glass, this is _upon_ it. But -it is absolutely indelible; it can only be removed with the surface of -the glass itself; time has no more effect upon it than if the glass were -coated with yellow pot-metal. This silver stain was not only of a -singularly pure and delicate colour, compared to which pot-metal yellows -were hot and harsh, but it had all the variety of a wash of -water-colour, shading off by imperceptible degrees from dark to light, -and that so easily that the difficulty would have been in getting a -perfectly flat tint. - -[Illustration: 35. S. GREGORY, ALL SOULS' COLLEGE, OXFORD.] - -Moreover, it could be as readily traced in lines or little touches of -colour as it could be floated on in broad surfaces. By its aid it was as -easy to render the white pearls on a bishop's golden mitre as to give -the golden hair of a white-faced angel, or to relieve a white figure -against a yellow ground--and all without the use of intervening lead. - -[Illustration: 36. DIAPER IN WHITE AND STAIN, ALL SAINTS' CHURCH, YORK.] - -It is not surprising that such a discovery had a very important effect -upon the development of the glass painter's practice. By means of it -were produced extraordinarily beautiful effects, as of gold and silver, -peculiarly characteristic of later Gothic work. The crockets and finials -of white canopies would be touched with it as with gold, the hair of -angels and the crowns of kings; or the nimbus itself would be stained, -the head now being habitually painted on one piece of white glass with -the nimbus. The crown and the pearl-edged head-band of the Queen of -Sheba, from Fairford, (page 50), are stained upon the white glass out of -which the head is cut. In the figure of S. Gregory on page 51 the triple -crown is stained yellow, and so is the nimbus of the bull, whose wings -also are shaded in stain varying from light to dark. - -Of the elaborate diapering of white drapery, with patterns in rich -stain, more and more resorted to as the fifteenth century advanced, a -specimen is here given, in which the design is figured in white upon a -yellow ground, outlined with a delicately traced line of brown. Stain -was seldom used on white without such outline. - -In the end white and stain predominated. Early glass was likened to -jewellery; now the jewels seem to be set in gold and silver. There was a -loss in dignity and grandeur, but there was a gain in gaiety and -brightness. How far stain encouraged the more abundant use of white -glass which prevailed in the fifteenth century it might be rash to say; -at any rate, it fitted in to perfection with the tendency of the times, -which was ever more and more in the direction of light, until the later -Gothic windows became, in many instances, not so much coloured windows -as windows of white and stain enclosing panels or pictures in colour. -Even in these pictures very often not more than about one-third of the -glass was in rich colour. And not only was more white glass used, but -the white itself was purer and more silvery, lighter, and at the same -time thinner, giving occasion and excuse for that more delicate painting -which perhaps was one great reason for the change in its quality. At all -events, the more transparent character of the material necessitated more -painting than was desirable in the case of the hornier texture of the -older make. Hence the prevalence of diaper already referred to. - -By the latter half of the fifteenth century painting plays a very -important part in stained glass windows. We have arrived at a period -when it is no longer subsidiary to mosaic; still it has not yet begun to -take precedence of it. The artist is now a painter, and he relies for -much of his effect upon painting; but he is a glazier, too, and careful -to make the most of what glass can do. He designs invariably with a view -to the glazing of his design, and with full knowledge of what that -means. He knows perfectly well what can be done in glass, and what -cannot. He has not yet carried painting to the perfection to which it -came eventually to be carried, but neither has he begun to rely upon it -for what can best be done in mosaic. He can scarcely be said to prefer -one medium to another; he uses both to equally workmanlike purpose. He -does not, like the early glazier, design in lead any longer, but neither -does he leave the consideration of leading till after he has designed -his picture, as painters came subsequently to do. - -It amounts, it might be thought, to much the same thing whether the -artist begins with his lead lines and works up to his painting, as at -first he did, or begins with his painting and works up to the leads, as -became the practice,--so long as in either case he has always in mind -the after-process, and works with a view to it. But the truth seems to -be that few men have ever a thing quite so clearly in their minds as -when they have it in concrete form before their eyes. The glazier may -reckon upon the paint to come, but he does not rely upon it quite so -much as the painter who starts with the idea of painting. - -[Illustration: 37. NATIVITY, GREAT MALVERN.] - -The later Gothic artists gradually got into the way of thinking more and -more of the painting upon their glass. In the end, they thought of it -first, and there resulted from their doing so quite a different kind of -design, apart from change due to modifications of architectural style; -but so long as the Gothic tradition lasted--and it survived until well -into the sixteenth century, in work even which bears the brand of -typical Renaissance ornament--so long the glazing of a window was in no -degree an after-thought, something not arranged for, which had to be -done as best it might. It is apparent always to the eye at all trained -in glass design that the composition even of the most pictorial subjects -was very much modified, where it was not actually suggested, by -considerations of glazing. As more and more white glass came to be used, -it was more and more a tax upon the ingenuity of the designer so to -compose his figures that his white should be conveniently broken up, and -the patches of colour he wanted should be held in place by leads which -in no way interfered with his white glass; for it is clear that, in -proportion as the white was delicately painted, there would be brutality -in crossing it haphazard by strong lines of lead not forming part of the -design; and to the last one of the most interesting things in mediæval -design is to observe the foresight with which the glass-worker plans his -colour for the convenience of glazing. - -There is very skilful engineering in the subject from Ross on page 339. -It is not by accident that the hands of the hooded figure rest upon the -shoulders of S. Edward, or that, together with his gold-brocaded surcoat -and its ermine trimming, his hands, and the gilt-edged book he holds in -them, they fall into a shape so easy to cut in one piece. Scarcely less -artful is the arrangement of the head of the bishop with his crosier and -the collar of his robe all in one. The glass painter has only to glance -at such subjects as the Nativity from Great Malvern (page 54), or the -Day of Creation from the same rich abbey church (page 252), or at the -figure of S. Gregory from All Souls', Oxford (page 51), to see how the -colour is planned from the beginning, and planned with a view to the -disposition of the lead lines. In the Nativity, which is reproduced from -a faithful tracing of the glass, and is in the nature of a diagram, the -actual map of the glazing is very clear, in spite of its disfigurement -by leads which merely represent mending, and form no part of the design. -There, too, may clearly be seen how the yellow radiance from the Infant -Saviour is on the same piece of whitish glass on which the figure is -painted. In the Creation and S. Gregory, which are taken from careful -water-drawings, the effect of the glass is given, and it is perceived -how little the leads obtrude themselves upon the observation in the -actual windows.[A] - - Footnote A: These, together with illustrations 35, 44, 54, 142, 156, - 174, 191, 207, 234, are from the admirable collection of studies - from old glass very kindly placed at my disposal by Mr. John R. - Clayton, himself a master of design in glass. - -The Preaching of S. Bernard from S. Mary's, Shrewsbury, opposite, is -again disfigured by accidental leads, where the glass has been -repaired; but it will serve to show how, even when lead lines are as -much as possible avoided, they are always allowed for, and even -skilfully schemed. Many of the heads, it will be noticed, are painted -upon the same pieces of white which does duty also for architectural -background; or white draperies are glazed in one piece with the -white-and-yellow flooring; yet the lead lines, as originally designed, -seem to fall quite naturally into the outlines of the figures. - -[Illustration: 38. S. BERNARD PREACHING, S. MARY'S, SHREWSBURY.] - -A very characteristic piece of glazing occurs in the foreground figure, -forming a note of strong colour in the centre of the composition. The -way the man's face is included in the same piece of glass with the -yellow groining of the arch, while his coloured cap connects it with his -body, bespeaks a designer most expert in glazing, and intent upon it -always. The danger in connection with a device of this kind, very common -in work of about the beginning of the sixteenth century--as, for -example, in the very fine Flemish glass at Lichfield--is that, being -merely painted upon a white background, and insufficiently supported by -leads, the head may seem not to belong to the strongly defined, richly -draped figure. It is, of course, very much a question of making the -outline strong enough to keep the leads in countenance. The artist of -the Shrewsbury glass adopts another expedient at once to support the -lead lines, to connect his white and colour, and to get the emphasis of -dark touches just where he feels the want of them. He makes occasional -use of solid black by way of local colour, as may be seen in the hood of -the abbess and the shoes of the men to the right. - -[Illustration: 39. S. MARY'S, SHREWSBURY.] - -In another subject from Shrewsbury (here given), in the bodice of the -harpist, and the head gear of the figures on page 104, effective use is -made of these points of black. So long as they remain mere points, the -end justifies the means, and there is nothing to be said against their -introduction; they are entirely to the good; but such use of solid -pigment is valuable mainly in subjects of quite small size, such as -these are. It would be obviously objectionable if any considerable area -of white glass were thus obscured. - -The glass referred to at Shrewsbury, Malvern, and Oxford is of later -date than much work in which painting was carried further; but there is -here no question of style or period; that is reserved for future -consideration (Book II.). The fact it is here desired to emphasise is, -that there was a time when glazier and painter took something like equal -part in a window, or, to speak more precisely, there were for a while -windows in which the two took such equal part that each seemed to rely -upon the other; when, if the artist was a painter he was a glazier too. -Very likely they were two men. If so, they must have worked together on -equal terms, and without rivalry, neither attempting to push his -cleverness to the front, each regardful of the other, both working to -one end--which was not a mosaic, nor a painting, nor a picture, but a -window. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -GLASS PAINTING (MEDIÆVAL). - - -The end of the fifteenth century brings us to the point at which -painting and glazing are most evenly matched, and, in so far, to the -perfection of stained-and-painted glass, but not yet to the perfection -of glass painting. That was reserved for the sixteenth century, when art -was under the influence of the Renaissance. Glass painting followed -always the current of more modern thought, and drifted picturewards. -Even in the fourteenth century it was seen that there was a fashion of -naturalism in design, in the fifteenth there was an ever-increasing -endeavour to realise natural form, and not natural form alone; for, in -order to make the figure stand out in its niche, it became necessary to -show the vault in perspective. It was obviously easier to get something -like pictorial relief by means of painting than in mosaic, which -accordingly fell by degrees into subordination, and the reign of the -glass painter began. It must be admitted that at the beginning of the -sixteenth century there was still room for improvement in painting, and -that to the realisation of the then pictorial ideal stronger painting -was actually necessary. - -Perhaps the ideal was to blame; but even in Gothic glass, still severely -architecturesque in design, more painting became, as before said, -necessary, as greater use was made of white, and that painting stronger, -in proportion as the material used became thinner and clearer. But -though the aim of the glass painter was pictorial, the pictorial ideal -was not so easily to be attained in glass; and so, though the painter -reigned supreme, his dominion was not absolute. The glazier was in the -background, it is true, but he was always there, and his influence is -very strongly felt. The pictures of the glass painter are, consequently, -still pictures in glass, for the painter was still dependent upon -pot-metal for the greater part of his colour; and he knew it, and was -wise enough to accept the situation, and, if he did not actually paint -his own glass, to design only what could, at all events, be translated -into glass. He not only continued to use pot-metal for his colour, but -he made every possible use of it to his end, finding in it resources -which his predecessors had not developed. His range of colours was -extended almost indefinitely, and he used his glass with more -discretion. He took every advantage of the accidental variety in the -glass itself. No sheet of pot-metal was equal in tint from end to end; -it deepened towards the selvedge, and was often much darker at one end -than the other. It ranged perhaps from ruby to pale pink, from sea-green -to smoky-black. - -This gradation of tint wisely used was of great service in giving -something like shadow without the aid of paint, and it was used with -great effect--in the dragons, for example, which the mediæval artist -delighted to depict--as a means of rendering the lighter tones of the -creature's belly. Supposing the beast were red, the glass painter would -perhaps assist the natural inequality of the glass by abrading the ruby, -by which means he could almost model the form in red. If it were a blue -dragon he might adopt the same plan; or, if it were green, by staining -his blue glass at the same time yellow, he could get every variety of -shade from yellow to blue-green. - -Every casual variety of colour would be employed to equal purpose. Even -the glass-blower's flukes came in most usefully, not merely, as before, -to break the colour of a background accidentally, but as local colour. -Sheets of glass, for example, which came out, instead of blue or ruby, -of some indescribable tint, streaked and flecked with brighter and -darker colour, until they were like nothing so much as marble, were -introduced with magnificent effect into the pillars of the architecture -which now formed so prominent a feature in window design. The beauty and -fitness of this marble colour is eventually such as to suggest that the -glass-blower must in the end deliberately have fired at this kind of -fluke. - -Beautiful as were the effects of white and stain produced in the middle -of the fourteenth century, it was put now to fuller and more gorgeous -use. Draperies were diapered in the most elaborate fashion; a bishop's -cope would be as rich as the gold brocade it imitated; patterns were -designed in two or even three shades of stain, which, in combination -with white and judicious touches of opaque-brown, were really -magnificent. Occasionally, as at Montmorency--but this is rarer--the -painter did not merely introduce his varied stain in two or three -separate shades, nor yet float it on so as to get accidental variety, -but he actually painted in it, modelling his armour in it, until it had -very much the effect of embossed gold. - -In some ornamental arabesque, which does duty for canopy work at -Conches, in Normandy, this painting in stain is carried still further, -the high lights being scraped out so as to give glittering points of -white among the yellow. The result of this is not always very -successful; but where it is skilfully and delicately done nothing could -be more brilliantly golden in effect. It is curious that this silver -came to be used in glass just as goldleaf was used in other decorative -painting; in fact, its appearance is more accurately described as golden -than as yellow, just as the white glass of the sixteenth century has a -quality which inevitably suggests silver. - -It was stated just now that blue glass could be stained green. It is not -every kind of glass which takes kindly to the yellow stain. A glass with -much soda in its composition, for example, seems to resist the action of -the silver; but such resistance is entirely a question of its chemical -ingredients, and has only to do with its colour in so far as that may -depend upon them. - -Apart from glass of such antipathetic constitution, it is quite as easy -to stain upon coloured glass as upon white; and, if the coloured glass -be not too dark in colour to be affected by it, precisely the same -effect is produced as by a glaze or wash of yellow in oil or -water-colour. - -Thus we get blue draperies diapered with green, blue-green diapered with -yellow-green, and purple with olive, in addition to quite a new -development of landscape treatment. A subject was no longer represented -on a background of ruby or dense blue, but against a pale grey-blue -glass, which stood for sky, and upon it was often a delicately painted -landscape, the trees and distant hills stained to green. Stain was no -less useful in the foreground. By the use of blue glass stained, instead -of pot-metal green, it was easy to sprinkle the green grass with blue -flowers, all without lead. - -It was by the combination of stain with abrasion that the most -elaborately varied effects were produced. The painter could now not only -stain his blue glass green (and just so much of it as he wanted green), -but he could abrade the blue, so as to get both yellow, where the glass -was stained, and white where it was not. Thus on the same piece of glass -he could depict among the grass white daisies and yellow buttercups and -bluebells blue as nature, he could give even the yellow eye of the daisy -and its green calyx; and, by judicious modification of his stain, he -could make the leaves of the flowers a different shade of green from the -grass about them. The drawing of the flowers and leaves and blades of -grass, it need hardly be said, he would get in the usual way, tracing -the outline with brown, slightly shading with half tint, and painting -out only just enough of the ground to give value to his detail. - -In spite of the tediousness of the process, abrasion was now largely -used--not only for the purpose of getting here and there a spot of -white, as in the eyes of some fiery devil in the representation of the -Last Judgment, but extensively in the form of diaper work, oftenest in -the forms of dots and spots (the spotted petticoat of the woman taken in -adultery in one of the windows at Arezzo seems happily chosen to show -that she is a woman of the people), but also very frequently in the form -of scroll or arabesque, stained to look like a gold tissue, or even to -represent a garment stiff with embroidery and pearls. Often the pattern -is in gold-and-white upon ruby or deep golden-brown, or in -white-and-gold and green upon blue, and so on. In heraldry it is no -uncommon thing to see the ground abraded and the charge left in ruby -upon white. Sometimes a small head would be painted upon ruby glass, all -of the colour being abraded except just one jewel in a man's cap. - -Stain and abrasion, by means of which either of the three primaries can -be got upon white, afford, it will be seen, a workmanlike way of -avoiding leadwork. But there are other ways. There is a window at -Montmorency in which the stigmata in the hands and foot of S. Francis -are represented by spots of ruby glass inlaid or let into the white -flesh, with only a ring of lead to hold them in place. It would never -have occurred to a fourteenth century glazier to do that. He would have -felt bound to connect that ring of lead with the nearest glazing lines, -at whatever risk of marring his flesh painting; but then, his painting -would not have been so delicate, and would not in any case have suffered -so much. - -Indeed, the more delicate painting implies a certain avoidance of lead -lines crossing it, and hence some very difficult feats of glazing. This -kind of inlaying was never very largely used, but on occasion not only a -spot but even a ring of glass round it would be let in in this way. -There is a window at Bourges in which the glories of the saints are -inlaid with jewels of red, blue, green, and violet, which have more the -effect of jewellery than if they had been glazed in the usual way. -Whether it was worth the pains is another question. - -A more usual, and less excusable, way of getting jewels of colour upon -white glass was actually to anneal them to it. By abrading the ground it -was possible to represent rubies or sapphires, surrounded by pearls, in -a setting of gold, but not both rubies and sapphires. In order to get -this combination they would cut out little jewels of red and blue, fix -them temporarily in their place, and fire the glass until these smaller -(and thinner) pieces melted on to and almost into it; the fusion, -however, was seldom complete. At this date some of the jewels--as, for -example, at S. Michael's, Spurrier Gate, York--are usually missing--but -for which accident one would have been puzzled to know for certain how -this effect was produced. The insecurity of this process of annealing is -inevitable. Glass is in a perpetual state of contraction and expansion, -according to the variation of our changeable climate. The white glass -and the coloured cannot be relied upon to contract and expand in equal -degree; they are seldom, in fact, truly married. The wedding ring of -lead was safer. Sooner or later incompatibility of temper asserts -itself, and in the course of time they fidget themselves asunder. - -All these contrivances to get rid of leads are evidence that the painter -is coming more and more to the front in glass, and that the glazier is -retiring more and more into the background. The avoidance of glazing -follows, as was said, upon ultra-delicacy of painting, and dependence -upon paint follows from the doing away with leads. We have thus not two -new systems of work, but two manifestations of one idea--pictorial -glass. The pictorial ideal inspired some of the finest glass -painting--the windows of William of Marseilles, at Arezzo, to mention -only one instance among many. With the early Renaissance glass we arrive -at masterly drawing, perfection of painting, and pictorial design, which -is yet not incompatible with glass. One may prefer to it, personally, a -more downright kind of work; but to deny such work its place, and a very -high place, in art is to write oneself down a bigot at the least, if not -an ass. - -It is not until the painter took to depending upon paint for strength as -well as delicacy of effect, trusting to it for the relief of his design, -that it is quite safe to say he was on the wrong tack. - -Towards the sixteenth century much more pronounced effects of modelling -are aimed at, and reached, by the painter. Even in distinctly Gothic -work the flesh is strongly painted, but not heavily. In flesh painting, -at all events, the necessity of keeping the tone of the glass -comparatively light was a safeguard, as yet, against overpainting. - -The actual method of workmanship became less and less like ordinary oil -or water-colour painting. It developed into a process of rubbing out -rather than of laying on pigment. It was told how the glass painter in -place of smear shadow began to use a stippled tint. The later glass -painters made most characteristic use of "matt," as it was called. -Having traced the outlines of a face, and fixed it in the fire, they -would cover the glass with a uniform matt tint; and, when it was dry, -with a stiff hoghair brush scrub out the lights. The high lights they -would entirely wipe out, the half tints they would brush partly away, -and so get their modelling, always by a process of eliminating shadow. -The conscientious painter who meant to make sure his delicate tints -would stand would submit this to a rather fierce fire, out of which -would come, perhaps, only the ghost of the face. This he would -strengthen by another matt brushed out in the same way as before, and -fire it again. Possibly it would require a third painting and a third -fire; that would depend upon the combined strength and delicacy at which -he was aiming, and upon the method of the man. For, though one may -indicate the technique in vogue at a given time, no one will suppose -that painters at any time worked all in the same way. Some men no doubt -could get more out of a single painting than others out of two; some -were daring in their method, some timid; some made more use than others -of the stick for scraping out lines of light; some depended more upon -crisp touches with the sable "tracer," necessary, in any case, for the -more delicate pencilling of the features; some would venture upon the -ticklish operation of passing a thin wash of colour over matt or -stippling before it was fired, at the risk of undoing all they had -done--and so on, each man according to his skill and according to his -temperament. But with whatever aid of scratching out lights, or touching -in darks, or floating on tints, the practice in the sixteenth century -was mainly, by a process of scrubbing lights out of matted or washed -tints of brown, to get very considerable modelling, especially in flesh -painting and in white draperies. - -It is impossible in illustrations of the size here given to exemplify in -any adequate manner the technique of the Early Renaissance glass -painters, but it is clear that the man who painted the small subject -from the life of S. Bonnet, in the church dedicated to that saint at -Bourges, (page 210) was a painter of marked power. A still finer example -of painting is to be found in the head of William de Montmorency -(opposite) from the church of S. Martin at Montmorency near Paris, -really a masterpiece of portraiture, full of character, and strikingly -distinguished in treatment. There is at the Louvre a painting of the -same head which might well be the original of the glass. If the glass -painter painted the picture he was worthy to rank with the best painters -of his day. If the glass painter only copied it, he was not far short of -that, for his skill is quite remarkable; and the simple means by which -he has rendered such details as the chain armour and the collar, and the -Order of S. Michael, supplementing the most delicate painting with -touches of opaque colour, which in less skilful hands would have been -brutal, show the master artist in glass painting. - -Here, towards the end of the first quarter of the sixteenth century, we -have glass painting carried about as far as it can go, and yet not -straying beyond the limits of what can best be done in glass. The -apologists for the Renaissance would attribute all such work as this to -the new revival. That would be as far wide of the mark as to claim for -it that it was Gothic. The truth is, there is no marked dividing line -between Gothic and Renaissance. It is only by the character of some -perhaps quite slight monumental or architectural detail that we can -safely classify a window of the early sixteenth century as belonging to -one or the other style. It belongs, in fact, to neither. It is work of -the transition period between the two. Gothic traditions lingered in the -glass painter's shop almost as long as good work continued to be done -there; so much so, that we may almost say that with those Gothic -traditions died the art itself. For all that, it is not to be disputed -that the most brilliant achievements in glass painting were certainly in -the new style and inspired by the new enthusiasm for art. - -[Illustration: 40. GUILLAUME DE MONTMORENCY, MONTMORENCY.] - - - - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -GLASS PAINTING (RENAISSANCE). - - -The quality _par excellence_ of Renaissance glass was its painting; its -dependence upon paint was its defect. Until about the middle of the -sixteenth century the painter goes on perfecting himself in his special -direction, neglecting, to some extent, considerations of construction on -the one hand, and of colour upon the other, which cannot with impunity -be ignored in glass, but achieving pictorially such conspicuous success -that there may be question, among all but ardent admirers of glass that -is essentially glass-like, as to whether the loss, alike in depth and in -translucency of colour, as well as of constructional fitness, may not be -fully compensated for by the gain in fulness of pictorial expression. -According as we value most the qualities of glass in glass, or the -qualities of a picture in no matter what material, will our verdict be. -But there comes a point when the painter so far oversteps the limit of -consistency, so clearly attempts to do in glass what cannot be done in -it, so plainly sacrifices to qualities which he cannot get the qualities -which stained glass offers him, that he ceases to be any longer working -in glass, and is only attempting upon glass what had very much better -have been done in some other and more congenial medium. - -The event goes to prove the seductiveness of the pictorial idea, and -illustrates once more the danger of calling to your assistance a rival -craft, which, by-and-by, may oust you from your own workshop. The -consideration of the possibilities in the way of pictorial glass is -reserved for a chapter by itself. It concerns us for the moment only in -so far as the pictorial intention affected, as it very seriously did, -the technique of glass painting. - -In pursuit of the pictorial the painter strayed from his allegiance to -glass. He learnt to depend upon his manipulation instead of upon his -material; and that facility of his in painting led him astray. He not -only began to use paint where before he would, as a matter of course, -have glazed-in coloured glass, but to lay it on so heavily as seriously -to detract from that translucency which is the glory of glass. - -It is rash to say, at a glance, whether glass has been too heavily -painted or not. I once made a careful note, in writing, that certain -windows in the church of S. Alpin, at Châlons, were over-painted. After -a lapse of two or three years I made another equally careful note to the -effect that they were thin, and wanted stronger painting. It was not -until, determined to solve the mystery of these contradictory memoranda, -I went a third time to Châlons, that I discovered, that with the light -shining full upon them the windows were thin, that by a dull light they -were heavy, and that by a certain just sufficiently subdued light they -were all that could be desired. There is indiscretion, at least, in -painting in such a key that only one particular light does justice to -your work; but the artist in glass is always very much at the mercy of -chance in this respect. He cannot choose the light in which his work -shall be seen, and the painter of Châlons may have been more unfortunate -than in any way to blame. There comes, however, a degree of heaviness in -painted glass about which there can be no discussion. When the paint is -laid on so thick that under ordinary conditions of light the glass is -obscure, or when it is so heavy that the light necessary to illuminate -it is more than is good for the rest of the window, the bounds of -moderation have surely been passed. And in the latter half of the -sixteenth century it was less and less the custom to take heed of -considerations other than pictorial; so that by degrees the translucency -of glass was sacrificed habitually to strength of effect depending not -so much upon colour, which is the strength of glass, as upon the relief -obtained by shadow--just the one quality not to be obtained in glass -painting. For the quality of shadow depends upon its transparency; and -shadow painted upon glass, through which the light is to come, must -needs be obscure, must lack, in proportion as it is dark, the mysterious -quality of light in darkness, which is the charm of shadow. The misuse -of shading which eventually prevailed may best be explained by reference -to its beginnings, already in the first half of the century, when most -consummate work was yet being done. For example, in the masterpieces of -Bernard van Orley, at S. Gudule, Brussels--one of which is illustrated -overleaf; it is a mere diagram, giving no idea of the splendour of the -glass, but it is enough to serve our purpose. - -The execution of the window is, in its kind, equal to the breadth and -dignity of the design. The painter has done, if not quite all that he -proposed to do, all that was possible in paint upon glass. Any fault to -find in him, then, must be with what he meant to do, not what he did. To -speak justly, there is no fault to find with any one, but only with the -condition of things. We have here, associated with the glass painter, a -more famous artist, the greatest of his time in Flanders, pupil of -Michael Angelo, court painter, and otherwise distinguished. It was not -to be expected that he should be learned in all the wisdom of the glass -painter, nor yet, human nature being what it is, that he should submit -himself, lowly and reverently, to the man better acquainted with the -capacities of glass. All that the glass painter could do was to -translate the design of the master into glass as best he might, not -perhaps as best he could have done had there been no great master to -consult in the matter. - -This was not the first time, by any means, that the designer and painter -of a window were two men. There is no saying how soon that much -subdivision of labour entered the glass worker's shop; but so long as -they were both practical men, versed each in his art, and, to some -extent, each in the technique of the other, it did not so much matter. -When the painter from outside was called in to design, it mattered -everything. What could he be expected to care for technique other than -his own? What did he know about it? He was only an amateur so far as -glass was concerned; and his influence made against workmanlikeness. He -may have done marvels; he did marvels; but his very mastery made things -worse. He bore himself so superbly that it was not seen what dangerous -ground he trod on. Lesser men must needs all stumble along in his -footsteps, until they fell; and in their fall they dragged their art -with them. - -[Illustration: 41. MOSAIC GLASS, AREZZO.] - -The fault inherent in such work as the Brussels windows is neither Van -Orley's nor the glass painter's; it is in the mistaken aim of the -designer striving less for colour in his windows than for relief. He -succeeds in getting quite extraordinary relief, but at the expense of -colour, which in glass is the most important thing. The figures in the -window illustrated are so strongly painted that even the white portions -of their drapery stand out in dark relief against the pale grey sky. -That is not done, you may be sure, without considerable sacrifice of the -light-giving quality of the glass. It is at a similar cost that the -white-and-gold architecture stands out in almost the solidity of actual -stone against the plain white diamond panes above, giving very much the -false impression that it is placed in the window, and that you see -through its arches and behind it into space. Another very striking thing -in the composition is the telling mass of shadow on the soffit of the -central arch. It produces its effect, and a very strong one. The -festoons of yellow arabesque hanging in front of it tell out against it -like beaten gold, and the rather poorish grey-blue background to the -figures beneath it has by comparison an almost atmospheric quality. It -is all very skilfully planned as light and dark; but there is absolutely -no reason why that shadow should have been produced by heavy paint. -Under certain conditions of light there are, it is true, gleams of light -amidst this shadow. You can make out that the roof is coffered, and can -perceive just a glow of warm colour; but most days and most of the day -it is dead, dull, lifeless, colourless. The points to note are: (1) that -this painted shadow must of necessity be dull; and (2) that on work of -this scale at all events (the figures here are very much over lifesize), -this abandonment of the mosaic method was not in the slightest degree -called for. On the contrary, the simpler, easier, and more workmanlike -thing to do would have been to glaze-in the shadow with deep rich -pot-metal glass. That was done in earlier glass, and in glass of about -the same period as this. - -[Illustration: 42. RENAISSANCE WINDOW, S. GUDULE, BRUSSELS.] - -For example, at Liège, where there are beautiful windows of about the -same period, very similar in design, the glass is altogether lighter and -more brilliant, partly owing to the use of paint with a much lighter -hand, but yet more to greater reliance upon pot-metal. In the Church of -S. Jacques, as at S. Gudule, there are arched canopies with festoons in -bright relief against a background of shadowed soffit; but there the -shadow is obtained by glazing-in pot-metal, which has all the necessary -depth, and is yet luminous and full of colour. - -So also the deeply shadowed architectural background to the -representation of the Daughter of Herodias dancing before Herod, in the -Church of S. Vincent, at Rouen (overleaf), is leaded up in deep purple -glass, through which you get peeps of distant atmospheric blue beyond. -And this was quite a common practice among French glass painters of the -early half of the sixteenth century--as at Auch, at Ecouen, at Beauvais, -at Conches, where the architecture in shadow is leaded in shades of -purple or purplish glass, which leave little for the painter to do upon -the pot-metal. At Freiburg, in Germany, there is a window designed on -lines very similar indeed to Van Orley's work, in which the shadowed -parts are glazed in shades of deep blue and purple. In Italy it was the -custom, already in the fifteenth century, to lead-in deep shadows in -pot-metal; and they did not readily depart from it. Surely that is the -way to get strong effects, and not by paint. You may take it as a test -of workmanlike treatment, that the darks have been glazed-in, where it -was possible, and not merely painted upon the glass. - -There is some misconception about what is called Renaissance glass. -Glass painting was not native to Italy, and was never thoroughly -acclimatised there, any more than Gothic architecture, to which it -was--the handmaid I was going to say, but better say the -standard-bearer. Much glass was accordingly executed in Italy in -defiance, not only of all tradition, but of all consistency and -self-restraint. But even in Italy you will find sixteenth century glass -as workmanlike as can be. The details from Arezzo and Bologna, above, -overleaf, and on page 266, are pronouncedly Renaissance in type, but the -method employed by the glass painter is as thoroughly mosaic as though -he had worked in the thirteenth century. Not less glazier-like in -treatment are the French Renaissance details from Rouen, on pages 75 and -347, from which it may be seen that a workmanlike treatment of glass -was not confined to Gothic glaziers. It was less a question of style, in -the historic sense, than of the men's acquaintance with the traditions -of good work, and their readiness to accept the situation. - -[Illustration: 43. MOSAIC GLASS, AREZZO.] - -Possibly the Netherlandish love of light and shade--and especially of -shade--may account for the character of the Brussels glass. Against that -it should be said that, elsewhere in Flanders, splendid glass was being -done about the same time, less open to the charge of being too heavily -painted--at Liège, for example. But everywhere, and perhaps more than -anywhere in the Netherlands, which became presently a great centre of -glass painting, the tendency, towards the latter part of the century, -was in the direction of undue reliance upon paint; of which came -inevitably one of two things--either the shaded parts were heavy, dirty, -and opaque, or they were weak and washy in effect. If, by means of -painting, an artist can get (as he can) something worth getting not -otherwise to be got, though we may differ as to the relative value of -what he gains and what he sacrifices, it would be hard to deny him his -preference, and his right to follow it; but if by painting on glass he -attempts to get what could better be expressed by working in it, then -clearly he has strayed (as Van Orley did) from the straight path, as -glass-workers read the map. - -[Illustration: 44. SALOME, S. VINCENT, ROUEN.] - -It is rather a curious thing that the avoidance of leading, the -dependence upon glazing and paint, should manifest itself especially in -windows designed on such a scale that it would have been quite easy to -get all that was got in paint, and more, by the introduction of coloured -glass; in windows, for example, on the scale of those at King's College, -Cambridge, with figures much over lifesize, where the artist, you can -see, has been afraid of leading, and has shirked it. Evidently he did -not realise for how little the leads would count in the glass. He -does not in that case fall into the error of painting with too heavy a -hand, but he trusts too much to paint--a trust so little founded that -the paint has oftentimes perished, much to the disfigurement of his -picture. - -[Illustration: 45. RENAISSANCE MOSAIC GLASS.] - -The French glass painters of about the same period, though working upon -a smaller scale, did not depart in the same way from the use of glazing; -and where they did resort to painting, it was often with a view to a -refinement of detail not otherwise to be obtained, as in the case of the -delicate landscape backgrounds painted upon pale blue, which have a -beauty all their own. - -There is here no intention whatever of disparaging such work as that at -S. Gudule. Any one capable of appreciating what is strongest and most -delicate in glass must have had such keen delight in them that there is -something almost like ingratitude in saying anything of them but what is -in their praise. But the truth remains. Here is a branching off from old -use; here the painter begins to wander from the path, and to lead after -him generations of glass painters to come. It takes, perhaps, genius to -lead men hopelessly astray! - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -ENAMEL PAINTING. - - -The excessive use of opaque paint was not so much a new departure as the -exaggeration of a tendency which had grown with the growth of glass -painting itself. The really new thing in glass painting about this time -was the introduction of enamel. - -When glass painters were resorting, not only to opaque painting, but to -abrasion, annealing, or whatever would relieve them from the difficulty -of getting in mosaic glass the pictorial effect which was more and more -their ruling thought, when glazing had become to them a difficulty (to -the early glass-workers it was a resource), it was inevitable that they -should think about painting on glass in colour. Accordingly towards the -middle of the sixteenth century they began to use enamel. This was the -decisive turning-point of the art. - -In theory the process of painting in enamel is simple enough. You have -only to grind coloured glass to impalpable dust, mix it with "fat oil," -or gum-and-water, and paint with it upon white or tinted glass; in the -furnace the medium will be fired away, and the particles of coloured -glass will melt and adhere, more or less firmly, to the heated sheet of -glass to which they have been applied. This theory glass painters began -to put into practice. In the beginning they used enamel only -tentatively, first of all in the flesh tints. It had been the custom -since the fourteenth century to paint flesh always upon white or whitish -glass in the ordinary brown pigment; and something of the simple dignity -and monumental character of old glass is due, no doubt, to that and -similar removedness from nature. Gradually the fashion was introduced of -painting the flesh in red instead of brown. In one sense this was no -such very new thing to do. The ordinary brown pigment spoken of all -along is itself enamel, although it has been thought better not to speak -of it by that name for fear of confusion. Inasmuch, however, as this -was the use of a pigment to get not merely flesh painting but flesh -tint--that is to say, colour--it was a step in quite a new direction. -Pictorially it offered considerable advantages to the painter. He could -not only get, without lead, contrast of colour between a head and the -white ground upon which it was painted, or the white drapery about it, -but he could very readily give the effect of white hair or beard in -contrast to ruddy flesh, and so on. There is a fragment at the _Musée -des Arts Décoratifs_ at Paris, attributed to Jean Cousin, 1531, in which -a turbaned head appears to have been cut out of a piece of purplish-blue -glass, the flesh abraded, and then painted in red, the lips still -redder, whilst the beard is painted on the blue, which shades off into -the cheeks in the most realistic manner. Very clever things were done in -this way, always in the realistic direction; but down to the middle of -the century, and even later, there were always some painters who -remained faithful to the traditional cool brown colour. A rather happy -mean between warm and cold flesh is found at Auch (1513), where warmish -enamel upon grey-blue or greenish glass gives modelling and variety of -colour in the flesh, which is yet never hot. Well-chosen pieces of glass -are made use of, in which the darker half comes in happily for the -bearded part of a man's face. So, also, the head of the Virgin at the -foot of the cross is painted upon grey, which tells as such in her coif, -shaded with a cooler brown, but only deepens and saddens her face, and -intensifies the contrast with the Magdalen. Occasionally one of these -heads comes out too blue, but at the worst it is better than the hot, -foxy flesh painting which became the rule. - -Painting in colour upon glass could naturally not stop at flesh red. It -was used for pale blue skies, at first only to get a more delicate -gradation from pale pot-metal colour to white, but eventually for the -sky throughout the picture. In connection with yellow stain it gave a -green for distant landscape. - -Enamel was used in ornament to give the colour of fruits and flowers in -garlands and the like, and generally for elaboration of detail, which, -if not trivial, was of small account in serious decoration. For a while -there were glass painters who remained proof against its seduction. It -was not till the latter half of the sixteenth century that glass -painters generally began seriously to substitute enamel for pot-metal, -and to rely upon paint, translucent as well as opaque. Even then they -could not do without pot-metal, avoid it as they might. The really -strong men, such as the Crabeth Brothers, at Gouda, by no means -abandoned the old method, but they relied so much upon paint as to -greatly obscure the glory of their glass. The Gouda windows, which bring -us to the seventeenth century, contain among them the most daring things -in glass extant. They prove that a subject can be rendered more -pictorially than one would have conceived to be possible in glass, but -they show also what cannot be done in it; in fact, they may be said to -indicate, as nearly as can be, the limits of the practicable. What -artists of this calibre could not do we may safely pronounce to be -beyond the scope of glass painting, even with the aid of enamel. - -[Illustration: 46. THE BAPTISM, GOUDA.] - -No skill of painting could make otherwise than dull the masses of -heavily painted white glass employed to represent the deep shade of the -receding architecture in the upper part of the window on page 242; so, -the mass of masonry which serves in the lower half of the window on this -page as a background to the Donor and his patron saint and some shields -of arms, represented as it is by a thick scum of brown paint, could not -but lack lustre. Think of the extent of all that uninteresting paint; -what a sacrifice it means of colour and translucency! - -Enamel painting did not lead to much. The colours obtained by that means -had neither the purity nor the richness and volume of pot-metal. They -had to be strengthened with brown, which still further dulled them; and, -the taste for light and shade predominating as it did in the seventeenth -century, the glass painter was eventually lured to the destruction of -all glass-like quality in his glass. - -There are some windows in the cathedral at Brussels, in the chapel -opposite that of the Holy Sacrament, where are Van Orley's windows, -which bear witness to the terrible decline that had taken place during -something like a century--not that they are badly executed in their way. -The texture of silk, for example, is given by the glass painter -perfectly; but, in the struggle for picturesque effects of light and -shade, all consistency of treatment is abandoned. The painter is here -let loose; and he can no more withstand the attractions of paint than a -boy can resist the temptation of fresh fallen snow. The one must throw -snowballs at somebody, the other must lay about him with pigment. Here -he lays about him with it recklessly. He is reckless, that is, of the -obscurity of the glass he covers with it. At moments, when the sun -shines fiercely upon it, you dimly see what he was aiming at; -nine-tenths of the time all is blackness. Slabs of white glass are -coated literally by the yard with dense brown pigment through which the -light rarely shines. - -It had become the practice now to glaze a window mainly in rectangular -panes of considerable size. Where pot-metal colour was used at all, it -had of necessity to be surrounded with a leaden line; but within the -area of the coloured mass the leading was usually in these upright and -horizontal lines, and not at all according to the folds of the drapery -or what not. If the glazier went out of his way to take a lead line -round a face, instead of across it, that was as much as he would do; if -it was merely the face of a cherub, however delicately painted, he -would, perhaps, as at S. Jacques, Antwerp, cut brutally across it; and -even where structural lead lines compelled him to use separate pieces of -material, he by no means always took advantage of the opportunity of -getting colour in his glass, but, as at Antwerp, contentedly accepted -his rectangular panes of white, as something to paint on--to the -exclusion of no matter how much light. It simplified matters, no doubt, -for the painter thus to throw away opportunities, and just depend upon -his brush; but it resulted at the best only in an imitation of oil -painting, lacking the qualities of oil paint. - -[Illustration: 47. S. MARTIN ÈS VIGNES, TROYES.] - -The French glass painters were less reckless. At Troyes, indeed, there -is plenty of seventeenth century glass in which a workman can still find -considerable interest. That of Linard Gontier, in particular, has -deservedly a great reputation. He was a painter who could get with a -wash of colour, and seemingly with ease, effects which most glass -painters could only get at by stippling, hatching, and picking out; and -he managed his enamel very cleverly, floating it on with great -dexterity. But it is rarely that he gets what artists would call colour -out of it. Even in the hands of a man of his prodigious skill the method -proclaims its inherent weakness. The work is thinner, duller, altogether -poorer, than the earlier glass of much less consummate workmen, who -worked upon sounder and severer principles. The strength and the -weakness of the painter are exemplified in the group of Donors above. -The painting is admirable, not only in the heads, but in the texture of -the men's cloaks; those cloaks, however, are painted in black paint. -When the light is quite favourable they look like velvet; they never -look like glass. - -There is here the excuse, for what it may be worth, of texture and -perhaps other pictorial qualities. Even that is often wanting in -seventeenth century work, as when, at S. Jacques, Antwerp, the -background to a design in white and stain is glazed in panes of white -glass solidly coated with brown paint. This is obscuration out of pure -wilfulness. - -It was not only when the artist sought to get strong effects in enamel -painting that the method fell short of success. The delicacy that might -be got by means of it was neutralised by the necessity of some sort of -glazing, and matters were not mended by glazing the windows in panes. It -is impossible to take much satisfaction in the most delicately painted -glass picture when it is so scored over with coarse black lines of lead -or iron that it is as if you were looking at it through a grill. That is -very much the effect seen in Sir Joshua Reynolds' famous window in the -ante-chapel at New College, Oxford (two lights of which are shown -opposite), where the Virtues are seen imprisoned, you may say, within -iron bars. They look very much better there than in the glass, which, -for all the graceful draughtsmanship of the artist and the delicate -workmanship of the painter, is ineffective to the last degree. It has no -more brilliancy or sparkle than a huge engraving seen against the light; -square feet of white glass are muddied over with paint. - -It was not Sir Joshua's fault, of course, that the traditions of the -glazier's craft were in his day well-nigh extinct; but Sir Horace -Walpole was quite right when he described these vaunted Virtues as -"washy." To say that they are infinitely more pleasing in the artist's -designs is the strongest condemnation of the glass. - -[Illustration: 48. VIRTUES, BY SIR J. REYNOLDS, NEW COLL., OXFORD.] - -There was one use made of enamel which promised to be of real help to -the glazier--that of painting the necessary shadows on pot-metal in -shades of the same colour as the glass. Since enamel of some kind had to -be used, why not employ a colour more akin to the glass itself than mere -brown? It would seem as if by so doing one might get depth of colour -with less danger of heaviness than by the use of brown; but the glass -painted in that way (by the Van Lingen, for example, a family of -Flemings established in England, whose work may be seen at Wadham and -Balliol Colleges, Oxford) was by no means free from heaviness. Enamel -then, it will be seen, was never really of any great use in glass -painting, and it led to the degradation of the art to something very -much like the painting of transparencies, as they are called, on linen -blinds. - -Let us note categorically the objections to it. A glazier objects to it, -that it is an evasion of the difficulty of working in glass, and not a -frank solution of it. That may be sentimental more or less. A colourist -objects to it, because it is impossible to get in it the depth and -richness of strong pot-metal, or the brilliancy of the more delicate -shades of self-coloured material. That, it may be urged, remains to be -proved, but the enamel painter practically undertook to prove the -contrary, and failed. Admirers of consistency object to it, that it -succeeds so ill in reconciling the delicacy of painting aimed at with -the brutality of the glazing employed. That, again, is a question of -artistic appreciation, not so easily proved to those who do not feel the -discord. Lovers of good work, of work that will stand, object to it that -it is not lasting. This is a point that can be easily proved. - -The process of enamel painting has been explained above (page 77). The -one thing necessary to the safe performance of the operation is that the -various glass pigments shall be of such consistency as to melt at a -lower temperature than the glass on which they are painted. That, of -course, must keep its shape in the kiln, or all would be spoilt. The -melting of the pigment is, as a matter of fact, made easier by the -admixture of some substance less unyielding than glass itself--such as -borax--to make it flow. This "flux," as it is called, makes the glass -with which it is mixed appreciably softer than the glass to which it is -apparently quite safely fixed by the fire. It is thus more susceptible -to the action of the atmosphere; it does not contract and expand equally -with that; and in the course of time, perhaps no very long time, it -scales off. Excepting in Swiss work (to which reference is made in -Chapter IX.) this is so commonly so, that you may usually detect the use -of enamel by the specks of white among the colour, where the pigment has -worked itself free, altogether to the destruction of pictorial illusion. -And it is not only with transparent enamel that this happens, but also -with the brown used by the later painters for shading. - -The brown tracing and painting colour was originally a hard metallic -colour which required intense heat to make it flow. The glass had to be -made almost red-hot, at which great heat there was always a possibility -that the pigment might be fired away altogether, and the painter's -labour lost. In the case of the thirteenth century painter's work the -danger was not very serious. Thanks to the downright and sometimes even -brutal way in which he was accustomed to lay on the paint, solidly and -without subtlety of shade, his work was pretty well able to take care of -itself in the kiln. It was the more delicate painting which was most in -danger of being burnt away; and in proportion as men learnt to carry -their painting further, and to get delicate modelling, they became -increasingly anxious to avoid all possibility of any such catastrophe. -The easiest way of doing this was (as in the case of transparent enamel) -to soften this colour with flux. That enabled them to fire their glass -at a much lower heat, at which there was no risk of losing the painting, -and they were able so to make sure of getting the soft gradations of -shade they wanted; and the more the painter strove to get pictorial -effects the more he was tempted to soften his pigment; but, according as -the flux made the colour easier to manage in the fire, it made it less -to be depended upon afterwards; and the later the work, and the more -pictorial its character, the more surely the painting proves at this -date to have lost its hold upon the glass. In many a seventeenth century -window the Donors were depicted in their Sunday suits of black velvet -and fur, the texture quite wonderfully given; now their garments are -very much the worse for wear, more than threadbare. The black or brown -is rich no longer, it is pitted with specks of raw white light; -sometimes the colour has peeled off _en masse_. Time has dealt -comparatively kindly with the gentlemen on page 81, but in the glass -there is an air of decay about their sable cloaks which takes -considerably away from their dignity. It is one characteristic of -enamelled windows that they do not mellow with age, like mosaic glass, -but only get shabby. - -Any one altogether unacquainted with the characteristics of style is apt -to be very much at fault as to the date of a window. The later windows -are in so much more dilapidated a condition than the earlier that they -are quite commonly mistaken for the older. - -It has to be borne in mind that most of the devices adopted by the glass -painters--the use, namely, of large sheets of fragile glass, and the -avoidance of strengthening leads, no less than the resort to soft -enamel, whether for colour or for shading--all go to make it more -perishable. - -It may be said that the decay of the later painting is due not so much -to the use of enamel as to the employment of soft flux. That is true. -But when it comes to the painting of texture and the like, the -temptation to use soft colour has generally proved to be irresistible. -One is forced to the conclusion that the aim of the later glass painter -was entirely wrong; that for the sake of pictorial advantages--which -went for very little in a scheme of effective church decoration, even if -they did not always detract from the breadth of the work--he gave up the -qualities which go at once to make glass glorious, and to give it -permanence. Whatever the merits of seventeenth century glass painting -they are not the merits of glass; there is little about it that counts -for glass, little that is suggestive of glass--except the breakages it -has suffered. - -What is said of seventeenth century glass applies also to that of the -eighteenth century, only with more force. Sir Joshua and Benjamin West -were quite helpless to raise the art out of the slough into which it had -fallen, for they were themselves ignorant of its technique, and did not -know what could be done in glass. It was not until the Gothic revival in -our own century, and a return to mosaic principles, that stained glass -awoke to new life. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -THE NEEDLE POINT IN GLASS PAINTING. - - -Allusion has been made to the glass painter's use of the point for -scraping out lights, and especially diapers upon glass coated with -pigment. These are often quite lace-like in their delicacy. That would -be a poor compliment if it meant that the glass painter had had no more -wit than to imitate the effects produced in a material absolutely unlike -glass. But it is not merely for want of a better word that the term -lace-like is used. It is strictly appropriate, and for a very good -reason. It was explained how from the first the glass painter would use -the stick end of his brush to scrape out sharp lights in his painting, -or even diaper patterns out of a tint. The latest glass painters made -more and more use of the point, and of a finer point than the brush end, -until, in Swiss work, they adopted the pen and the needle itself. It is -not surprising, then, that point-work should resemble point-work, though -the one be in thread and the other on glass. The strange thing would -have been if it were not so. Thus it comes about that much of the Swiss -diaper work is most aptly described as lace-like in effect. - -The field of a small shield is frequently diapered with a pattern so -fine that it could only have been produced with a fine point. Some of -the diapers opposite may be identified as portions of heraldic shields. -On a shield it may be taken to represent the engraving of the metal -surface of the thing itself; and, indeed, here again is a significant -resemblance between two technical processes. - -To scratch with a needle or with a graver is much the same thing; and -thus many a Swiss diaper suggests damascening, and might just as well -have been executed in bright lines of gold or silver filigree, beaten -into lines graven in steel or iron, as scraped out of a tint on glass. - -[Illustration: 49. EXAMPLES OF SCRATCHING OUT.] - -But the use of the point was by no means reserved for ornamental detail. -It became the main resource of the painter, and so much so, that this -technique, or this development of technique, is the most striking -characteristic of Swiss glass painting--if that should be called -painting which has really more affinity with etching. - -For the laying on of the paint in the form of solid colour, or of matted -tint, or of skilfully floated wash, is only the groundwork of the Swiss -glass painter's method. It scarcely needs to be explained how admirably -the point adapted itself to the representation of hair, fur, feathers, -and the like. The familiar bears, for example, the device of the city of -Berne, which occur very frequently in Swiss heraldic work, are rendered -at Lucerne in the most marvellously skilful manner. First a juicy wash -of colour is floated all over the body of the beast, more or less -translucent, but judiciously varied so as to give _à peu près_ the -modelling of the creature. Then with a fine point the lines of the fur -are scraped out, always with an eye to the further development of the -modelling. Finally, the sharp lights are softened, where necessary, with -delicate tint, and a few fine hair-lines are put in with a brush in dark -brown. - -By no conceivable method of execution could certain textures be better -rendered than this. A similar process is adopted in rendering the -damascened surface of slightly rounded shields; but in that case the -modelling of the ground is first obtained by means of matt, not wash. - -Black as a local colour, whether by way of heraldic tincture or to -represent velvet in costume, was very generally used; but in such small -quantities always as entirely to justify its use. The practice, that is -to say, referred to on page 57, with reference to the German work at -Shrewsbury, was carried further. This was quite a different thing from -what occurs, for example, in a late window at Montmorency, where four -brown Benedictine monks are frocked in muddy paint: that is a fault of -judgment no skill in execution could make good. In the case of black -used by way of local colour the drawing lines were of course scraped out -in clear glass, and toned, if need were, with tint. The hair, cap, and -feathers of the figure opposite illustrate the processes of execution -above described; the chain armour about the man's neck is also very -deftly suggested. - -[Illustration: 50. NEEDLE POINT WORK, SWISS.] - -The use of the point went further than rendering the texture of hair, -and so on. It was used for the rendering of all texture and the -completion of modelling everywhere. The Swiss glass painter did very -much what is done in large when one draws on brown or grey paper in -white and black; only instead of black chalk he used brown paint, and -instead of putting on white chalk he scraped away a half tint with which -he had begun by coating the glass; and of course he worked in small. - -One knows by experience how much more telling the white crayon is than -the black, how much more modelling you seem to get with very little -drawing; and so it is in glass; and so it was that the glass painter -depended so much more upon taking out lights than upon putting in darks. -The difference between the Swiss manner and the process already -described in reference to Renaissance church glass was mainly that, -working upon so much smaller a scale, the artist depended so much more -upon the point. His work is, in fact, a kind of etching. It is the exact -reverse of drawing in pen and ink, where the draughtsman works line by -line up to his darkest shadow. Here he works line by line to clearest -light, precisely as the etcher draws his negative upon copper, only on -glass it is the positive picture which is produced. So far as -manipulation is concerned the two processes are identical. It is indeed -quite within the bounds of possibility that the method of the glass -painter (and not that of the damascener, as generally supposed) may -first have put the etcher upon the track of his technique. - -The method of workmanship employed by the painter is shown pretty -clearly on page 90. In spite of a certain granular surface given by the -stone employed by the lithographer in reproducing the design, it is -quite clearly seen how the man's armour and the texture of the silk in -his sleeves is all obtained by the point. The trace of the needle is not -clearly shown in the flesh, except in the hand upon his hip; but on page -93 it is everywhere apparent--in the shading of the architecture, at the -top of the page, in the damascening of the tops of shields below, in the -drawing of the pastoral staff, in the modelling of the mitre and the -representation of the jewels upon it, no less than in the rendering of -the texture of the silk. - -This ultra-delicacy of workmanship was naturally carried to its furthest -extent upon white glass or upon white and stain, but the same method was -employed with pot-metal colour; and, during the early part of the -sixteenth century at least, pot-metal colour was used when it -conveniently could be, and the leading was sometimes cleverly schemed, -though the glass employed was often crude in colour. Eventually, in -Switzerland as everywhere, enamel colour succeeded pot-metal, by which, -of course, it would have been impossible correctly to render the -tinctures of elaborately quartered shields on the minute scale to which -they were customarily drawn. At Lucerne, for example, there are some -small circular medallions with coats of arms not much bigger than occur -on the back of an old-fashioned watchcase. Needless to say that there -the drawing is done entirely with a point. This kind of thing is, of -course, glass painting in miniature; it is not meant to say that it is -effective; but it is none the less marvellously done. It was at its -best, roughly speaking, from 1530 to a little later than 1600. Some of -the very best that was ever done, now at the Rath-haus at Lucerne, bears -date from 1606-1609; there is some also at the Hof-kirche there; but -that is out of the reach of ordinary sight, and this is placed where it -can conveniently be studied. The point-work, it should be understood, is -still always scraped out of brown, or it may be black. The enamel that -may be used with it is floated on independently of this; and as time -went on enamel was of course very largely used, especially in the -seventeenth century. To the credit of the Swiss it should be said that, -alone among later glass painters, they were at once conscientious and -expert in the chemistry of their art, and used enamel which has been -proof against time. They knew their trade, and practised it devotedly. -Possibly it was the small scale upon which they worked which enabled -them to fuse the enamel thoroughly with the glass. It is due to them -also to say that, though their style may have been finikin, there was -nothing feeble about their workmanship; that was masterly. And they -remain the masters of delicate manipulation and finish in glass -painting. - -Although the needle point was used to most effective purpose in Swiss -glass it did not of course entirely supersede other methods. At the -Germanic Museum at Nuremberg (where there is a fair amount of good work, -1502-1672) there is some matted tint which is shaded and then lined in -brown, much after the manner of one of Dürer's woodcuts. It has very -much the appearance of a pen drawing shaded, as many of the old masters' -drawings were, in brown wash. - -[Illustration: 51. NEEDLE-POINT WORK, SWISS.] - -A fair amount of simple figure work in white and stain continued to be -done, in which outline went for a good deal, and matted shadow was only -here and there helped out with the point. In landscape backgrounds shade -tint was sometimes broadly and directly floated on. But as often as not -shading was executed to a great extent with the needle, whilst local -colour was painted with enamel. Even in association with admirable -heraldry and figure work, one finds distant figure groups and landscapes -painted in this way. They look more like coloured magic-lantern slides -than painted window glass. - -Sometimes subtlety of workmanship was carried rather beyond the bounds -of discretion, as when at Nuremberg (1530) faces were painted in tint -against clear glass, without outline, the mere shading, delicate as it -is, being depended upon to relieve them from the ground. It must be -confessed that, near to the eye, it does that; but the practice does not -recommend itself. - -It is remarkable how very faint a matt of colour on the surface of -transparent glass gives a sort of opacity to it which distinguishes it -from the clear ground. Sometimes white enamel is used, sometimes perhaps -a mere coat of flux: it is difficult to say what it is, but there is -often on the lightest portions of the painted glass no more than the -veriest film, to show that it has been painted. - -It is obvious that glass of the most delicate character described must -be the work of the designer; and it seems clear, from numerous drawings -extant, which are evidently the cartoons for Swiss window panes, that -the draughtsman contemplated carrying out his design himself. At all -events, he frequently left so much out of these drawings, that, if he -trusted to the painting of another, no little of the credit of the -draughtsmanship was due to that other, and he was at least part designer -of the window. In glass where painting is carried to a high state of -perfection it goes without saying that the painter must be an artist -second only to the designer. Invention and technical power do not always -go together. But if the designer can paint his own glass, and will, so -much the better. It is more than probable that the best glass is the -autograph work of the designer. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -THE RESOURCES OF THE GLASS PAINTER--A RECAPITULATION. - - -Having followed the course of technique thus far, it may be as well to -survey the situation and see where we now stand. Suppose an artist -altogether without experience in glass had occasion to design a window. -The first thing he would want to know would be the means at his command -at this present moment, and what dependence he could place upon them. -That is what it is intended briefly to set forth in this chapter, quite -without reference to date or style or anything but the capacities of the -material. The question is, what can be done with it? Not until a man -knows that is he in a position to make up his mind as to what he will -do. - -If he ask, as artists will, why cannot he do just what he likes, and as -he likes, the answer is: because glass was not made for him, and will -only do what he wants on condition of his demands upon it being -reasonable. He might find it pleasanter if the world revolved round him; -but it does not. If he would make a window he must go the way of glass; -and the way of glass is this:-- - -In the first place, it is mosaic. It may be a mosaic of white glass or -of the pearly tints which go to make what is termed grisaille, in which -case the leads which bind the glass together form the pattern, or, at -all events, a feature in it. Or it may be of coloured glass, or of white -and colour, in which case the glass forms the pattern, and the lead -joints are more or less lost in the outline of the design. - -If the pattern is in white upon a deep-coloured ground the lead joints -crossing the pattern and not forming part of it are, as it were, eaten -up by the spreading rays of white light, and, supposing them to be -judiciously contrived, do not count for much. On the other hand, the -lead joints crossing the coloured ground are lost in its depth. -Advantage is taken of this to break up the ground more than would be -necessary for convenience of glazing, or of strength when glazed, and so -to get that variety of pot-metal upon which so much of the beauty of -glass colour depends. - -[Illustration: 52. PLAIN GLAZING, EARLY FRENCH.] - -To give satisfactory colour the best of pot-metal glass is essential. -Structural conditions which a man is bound to take into account in his -design are--that the shapes he draws must be such as can readily be cut -by the glazier; that his lead joints must be so schemed as, where not -lost in the glass, to form part of the design, strengthening, for -example, the outlines; that his plan must at intervals include provision -for substantial iron bars which shall not interfere with the drawing. - -He must understand that each separate colour in his composition is -represented by a separate piece of glass, cut out of a sheet of the -required colour. There may, and should, however, be variety in it. A -sheet of glass varies in depth of tone according to its thickness, which -in the best glass is never even; moreover, it may be streaked or -otherwise accidentally varied; and so considerable play of tint may be -got in a well-selected piece of pot-metal. Should a tint be required -which the palette of the glazier does not supply it may sometimes be -obtained by leading up two thicknesses of glass together. This expedient -is called "plating." - -[Illustration: 53. MOSAIC GLASS, ASSISI.] - -There are two very workmanlike ways in which white and colour may be -obtained in one piece of glass. If the glass is not coloured throughout -its thickness, but only a part of the way through, the coloured part may -be eaten away in places by acid (it used formerly to be tediously -abraded); and so a pattern of white may be traced upon a ground of blue, -for example, or, as is more common, ruby. - -A piece of white or pale coloured glass may further be _stained_, but -only, so far, of one colour, yellow. The window opposite is all in white -and golden-yellow. This result is produced by the action of silver upon -it, which, at a sufficient temperature, develops a tint varying from -lemon to orange of beautiful quality, and as imperishable as the glass; -but one cannot be quite certain always as to the precise shade it will -take in the fire. On blue it gives green, and so on. - -By the combination of these two processes three tints may be obtained, -or even four upon the same piece of glass--say white, green, and yellow -all upon a blue ground. - -There is a third method of avoiding lead glazing. If little jewels of -coloured glass be cut out of various sheets and placed upon white glass -they become fused at a sufficient heat in the kiln, and adhere more or -less firmly to the glass on which they are laid; but this process of -"annealing" is not very safe. Still less to be depended upon is the -fourth process of "enamelling." In that case the coloured glass is -applied in the form of a paint upon a sheet of white. Fusing at a -comparatively low temperature, it rarely gets quite firmly fixed. Nor -has it the depth of pot-metal colour. The three processes of staining, -annealing, and enamelling, entail, it will be seen, the burning of the -glass. Literally this is the limit of what can be done in stained glass. - -[Illustration: 54. WINDOW IN WHITE AND STAIN, WARWICK CASTLE.] - -The term stained glass, however, is generally used to include painting, -which from the first has been associated with it. This painting (not to -be confounded with the above mentioned enamelling) is a second process, -which the glass undergoes after it is cut and before it is fired. It is -not in the least what a painter understands by painting. It is, in the -first place, a means of giving in solid brown pigment, which effectually -stops out the light, detail smaller than mere glazing would permit, such -as the features of a face or the veining of a leaf: it gives the foils -of the foliage, and marks the individual berries in the border overleaf. -In the next it is used partially to obscure the glass, so as to give -shading. The pigment is not used as colour, but for drawing and shading -only. Local colour is represented by the pieces of pot-metal glass -employed; the painting fulfils precisely the part of the engraving in a -print coloured by hand. The various methods of painting are explained -on pages 45, 64, 89. In some respects they have more affinity with line -drawing, mezzotint, and etching than with oil or water-colour painting. - -[Illustration: 55. AUXERRE.] - -It is extremely difficult to get delicacy of modelling or high finish at -one painting--to all but a consummate glass painter impossible. Many a -time the work has to be painted several times over, each painting being -separately burnt in, always at some risk. Painting that is not -sufficiently fired peels off in time. If it is fired too much it may be -burnt quite away. - -The effect of paint in the form of shading is naturally to obscure the -glass. Up to a certain point there is not much harm in that; it counts -for nothing as compared with the facilities of expression it affords. -But that point is soon reached. Then it becomes a question of the -relative value of, on the one hand, purity and translucency of glass -colour, and, on the other, of pictorial qualities. The problem is to get -the utmost of modelling or expression with the minimum of obscuration. -Much depends upon the method of painting adopted. So long as the light -is allowed to get through it, one may indulge in a fair amount of -shading, but a deep even tint, leaving none of the glass clear, is -inevitably heavy. The more one can represent shadows by deeper tinted -glass the more brilliant the result will be. - -This painting, although, strictly speaking, in brown enamel, is not, as -was said, what is usually meant by enamel painting: that is described on -page 77. A window may be painted altogether in enamel; and, when the -mosaic method went out, designs were painted in enamel upon panes of -plain white glass; but, for the most part, since the pieces had to be -connected by lead, it was found convenient to use pot-metal for some of -the stronger colours. In recent times, however, owing to the -introduction of large sheets of thicker glass, to improved glass kilns, -and also to more accurate knowledge of the chemistry of enamel colours, -it is possible to paint a picture-window on one sheet of glass. That has -been done with extraordinary skill at Sèvres. You may see really -marvellous results in this kind in the Chapel of the Bourbons at Dreux. -If you want neither more nor less than a picture upon glass, and are -content with a picture in which the shadows are opaque and the lights -transparent, that is the way to get it. You will not get the qualities -of glass. Within the last two or three years there seems to have been -very considerable improvement in the purity, translucency, and depth of -enamel colours. How far they are lasting remains to be proved. Anyway, -brilliant as they are, they have not by any means the intensity of -pot-metal glass, and it does not seem, humanly speaking, possible that a -film of coloured glass upon a sheet of white can ever compete in -strength and volume with colour in the body of the glass itself. - -If, therefore, we want the qualities of deep, rich, luminous and -translucent colour, which glass better than any other medium can give, -we must resort to the use of pot-metal--that is to say, to -glazing--assisted more or less by brown paint, used, not to get colour, -but to stop it out, or to tone it down. - -According to the more or less of your dependence upon paint your method -may be described as mosaic or pictorial. - -Starting upon the mosaic system, you rough out your design in coloured -glass (or what stands for it upon paper), and then consider how, by use -of paint, as above mentioned, you may get further detail, shading, -harmony of tone. - -Starting upon the pictorial system you sketch in your design, shade it, -and colour it, and then bethink you how you can get the glass to take -those lines. - -In either case you have, of course, from the first, a very distinct idea -as to the assistance you will get from the supplementary process; but it -makes all the difference whether you think first of the glass or of the -painting. Upon that will depend the character of your window. If you -want all that glass can give in the way of colour, begin with the -mosaic. If you want pictorial effect, think first of your painting. If -you want to get both, balance the two considerations equally in your -mind from the first. Only, to do that, you must be a master of your -trade. - -A first consideration in the design of a window are the bars which are -to support it. The skilled designer begins by setting these out upon his -paper, nearer or closer together, according to the width of the opening, -from nine to eighteen inches asunder. In a wide window it may be as well -to make every second or third bar extra strong. Upright stanchions may -also be introduced. Exigencies of design may make it necessary to alter -the arrangement of bars with which you set out. You may have -occasionally to bend one of them to escape a face, or other important -feature; but, if you begin with them, this will not often be necessary. -Bars may be shaped to follow the lines of the design. There is nothing -against that, except that it is rather costly to do; and, on the whole, -it is hardly worth doing. In big windows, such as those at King's -College, Cambridge, raised some feet above the level of the eye, stout -bars have, in effect, only about the value of strong lead lines, whilst -lead lines disappear. - -The points to be observed with regard to glazing are these: Since leads -must form lines, it is as well to throw them as much as possible into -outlines. In a cleverly glazed window the design will tell even when the -paint has perished. To glaze a picture in squares, regardless of the -drawing, is mere brutality. Because by aid of the diamond glass may -actually be cut to almost any shape, it is not advisable, therefore, to -design shapes awkward to cut, but rather to design the lead lines of a -window with a view to simplicity of cutting and strength of glazing. -Pieces of glass difficult to cut are the first to break. It is the -business of the designer to anticipate breakage by introducing a lead -just where it would occur. _Tours de force_ in glazing are not worth -doing. It is a mistake to be afraid of leads. Skilfully introduced, they -help the effect; and, except in work which comes very near the eye, they -are lost in the glass. - -The quality of pot-metal glass is all important. It should never be -mechanically =flat= and even. The mechanically imperfect material made in -the Middle Ages is so infinitely superior to the perfect manufacture of -our day, that we have had deliberately to aim at the accidents of colour -and surface which followed naturally from the ruder appliances and less -accurate science of those days. There are legends about lost secrets of -glass making, to which much modern produce gives an appearance of truth. -But, as a matter of fact, though old glass undoubtedly owes something of -its charm to weathering, better and more beautiful glass was never made -than is now produced; but it is not of the cheapest, and it wants -choosing. - -The choice of glass is a very serious matter. What are called "spoilt" -sheets are invaluable. It takes an artist to pick the pieces. But -without experience in glass the judgment even of a colourist will often -be at fault. Some colours spread unduly, so that the effect of the -juxtaposition of any two is not by any means the same as it would be in -painting. It is only by practical experiment that a man learns, for -example, how much red will, in conjunction with blue, run into purple, -and which shade of either colour best holds its own. Effects of this -kind have been more or less scientifically explained--by M. Viollet le -Duc for one--but, in order to profit by any such explanation, a man must -have experience also. - -Referring to "flashed" glass, all kinds of double-glass are now made: -red and blue = purple, yellow and blue = green, and so on; but there is -not, except, perhaps, in work on quite a small scale, much to be gained -by this. In fact, it is not well in work on a fairly large scale to -depend too much upon etching pattern out of coated glass. In a window -breadth of effect is of more account than minuteness of detail. Damask -or other patterns in draperies might, more often than they are, be -leaded up in pot-metal. It would compel simplicity on the part of the -designer, and the effect of the glass would be richer. - -With the increasing variety of coloured glass now made, plating becomes -less necessary than once it was. The drawback to the practice is that -dust and dirt may insinuate themselves between the two pieces of glass, -and deaden the colour. The safe plan is to fuse the two pieces of glass -together. - -Good glass is more than half the battle. Raw glass may be toned down by -paint, but poor glass cannot be made rich by it. The Italian glass -painters often used crude greens and purples, and softened them with -brown. They might do that with comparative safety under an Italian sky; -but the deeper tones produced that way have not the purity and -lusciousness of juicy pot-metal, and the paint is liable to peel off and -betray the poverty of the cheap material. It is the fundamental mistake -of the painter, because by means of paint he can do so much, to depend -upon it for more than it can do. The toning of local colour with brown -paint is only a makeshift for more thoroughly mosaic work; but it is an -ever-present temptation to the painter, and one against which he should -be on his guard. - -The actual technique of glass painting, it has been explained already, -is quite different from painting as the painter understands it; often it -is not so much painting as scraping out paint. The artist may, nay must, -choose his own technique. He will get his effect in the way most -sympathetic to him. What he has to remember is, that, except where he -wants actually to stop out light, he must get light into his -shadows--whether by stippling the wet colour, or by scrubbing it when -dry with a hog tool, or by scraping with a point, is his affair. For -example, if he wants to lower the tint of a piece of glass, the worst -thing he could do would be to coat it with an even film of paint. It -would be better to stipple it so that in parts more light came through. -But the best way of preserving the brilliancy of the glass would be -either to paint the glass with cross-hatched lines, or to scrape bright -lines out of a coat of paint. - -In draperies, backgrounds, and so on, this is most effectively done in -the form of a diaper, often as minute as damascening, which scarcely -counts much as pattern. Bold or delicate, a diaper is quite the most -effective means of lowering colour; even hard lines seldom appear hard -in glass, owing to the spreading of the light as it comes through; but -the inevitable hardness of lines scraped out may be mitigated by dabbing -the wet paint so as to make it uneven, or by rubbing off part of the -paint after the lines have been scraped out. Another and yet another -delicate film of paint may be passed over the painted diaper by a -skilful hand, but out of each film lights should be scraped if the full -value of the glass is to be preserved. - -[Illustration: 56. SCRATCHED DIAPER.] - -Solid pigment as local colour is a thing to indulge in only with extreme -moderation. The strong black lead lines often want lines or touches of -black strong enough to keep them in countenance (that is not -sufficiently remembered, and it is when it is forgotten that the leads -assert their harshness in white glass), and here and there, in work on a -small scale, a point of black (a velvet cap, a bag, a shoe, as shown -overleaf,) is very valuable as local colour; but, when the scale allows, -it is better always to get this mass in dark-toned glass, which gives -the necessary depth of colour most easily, most safely, and with most -luminous effect. - -The thing not to do, is to paint the robes of black-draped figures in -black, a common practice in the seventeenth century. On the other hand, -a robe of black richly embroidered with gold and pearls may quite well -be rendered, as it was in late Gothic work, by solid paint, because the -pearls being only delicately painted, and the gold being in great part -perfectly clear yellow stain, plenty of light shines through. - -As to the means of getting delicate painting in glass, the utmost -delicacy can be got, but it costs patient labour, and there is risk of -its going for nothing. - -The only quite safe way of getting very delicate effects of painting is -to paint much stronger than it is meant to appear. A very fierce fire -will then reduce that to a mere ghost of what it was; possibly it will -burn it away altogether. Upon this ghost of your first painting you may -paint once again, strengthening it (and indeed exaggerating it) in all -but quite the most delicate parts. A strong fire will, as before, reduce -this without affecting the first painting. Possibly a third or even a -fourth painting may be necessary to an effect of high finish. When you -have it, it is as lasting as the glass itself. - -[Illustration: 57. S. MARY'S, SHREWSBURY.] - -This painstaking process, however, is found to be tedious. A much easier -plan is to add to the pigment a quantity of borax, or other substance -which will make it flow easily in the kiln. That necessitates only a -gentle fire, in which there is no risk of burning away the work done, -and enables you to do in one or two operations what would have taken -three or four. But the gentle fire required to fix soft flux only fixes -it gently. Securely to fix the pigment, the glass should have been -raised to almost red heat, to the point, in fact, at which it just -begins to melt, and the colour actually sinks into it, and becomes one -with it. A heat anything like that would have wiped out soft colour -altogether. Moreover, the borax flux itself is very readily decomposed -by the moisture of a climate like ours. Accordingly the more easily -executed work cannot possibly be fast. It fades, they say. That is not -the case. It simply crumbles off, sooner or later; but eventually the -atmosphere has its way with it. That is how we see in modern windows -faces in which the features grow dim and disappear. - -We have got to reckon with this certainty, that if we want our painting -to last we must fire it very severely. What will not stand a fierce oven -will not stand the weather. - -In view of the labour and risk involved in very delicate painting it -becomes a question how far it is worth while. That will depend upon the -artist's purpose. But the moral seems to be that, for purposes of -decoration generally, it would be better not to aim at too great -delicacy of effect, which is after all not the quality most valuable, -any more than it is most readily attainable, in glass. - -Only those who have had actual experience in glass appreciate the value -of silver stain. It gives the purest and most beautiful quality of -yellow, from lemon to orange, brilliant as gold. There is some risk with -it. One kind of glass will take it kindly, another will reject it; you -have to choose your glass with reference to it. The fire may bring it to -a deeper colour than is wanted. It may even come out so heavy and -obscure that it has to be removed with acid, and renewed. Some all but -inevitable uncertainty as to its tint, renders this peculiar yellow more -suitable for use where absolute certainty of tint is not essential. -Nevertheless, the skilled glass painter makes no difficulty of doubling -the process, and staining a dark yellow upon a lighter, with very -beautiful results. Occasionally a master of his craft has gone so far as -literally to paint in stain, scraping out his high lights in white, and -giving, for example, the very picture of embossed goldsmith's work. - -In the diapering of draperies and the like stain is of great service, -and again in landscape upon blue. But it has not been used for all it is -worth as a means of qualifying colour which is not precisely right, -apart altogether from pattern. Many a time where a scum of paint has -been employed to reduce a tint, a judicious blur of stain, not -appreciable as such, would have done it more satisfactorily, without in -the least obscuring the glass. - -Nowhere is silver stain more invaluable than in windows of white glass -or _grisaille_, the quality of which is not sufficiently appreciated. -The mother-of-pearl-like tints of what is called white glass lend -themselves, in experienced hands, to effects of opalescent colour as -beautiful in their way as the deeper pot-metal tones. - -There is no great difficulty in combining _grisaille_ and colour, -provided the white be not too thin nor the colour too deep; but the -happiest combinations are where one or the other is distinctly -predominant. With very deep rich glass, such as that used in the -thirteenth century, it is most difficult to use white in anything like a -patch (for the flesh, for example, in figure work). Unless very heavily -painted it asserts itself too much, and heavy paint destroys its -quality. Practically the only thing to do is to use glass of really -rather strong tint, which in its place has very much the value of white. -The "whites" in Early windows are a long way from purity. They are -greenish, bone colour, horny; but they have much more the effect of -white than has, for example, pure white glass reduced by paint to a -granular tint of umber. - -Flesh tints present a difficulty always, unless you are content to -accept a quite conventional rendering of it. In connection with strong -colour you may use flesh-tinted glass; but that is just the one tint -which it is most difficult to get in glass. It is usually too pink. -Painting on white glass in brown produces the most invariably happy -results, and in windows into which white largely enters that is quite -the best expedient to adopt. In practice it proves ordinarily a mistake -to adopt a warmer brown for flesh tint, or to paint it in brown and red, -as was done in the sixteenth century and after that. It looks always -unpleasantly hot. When flesh wants relieving against white it is better -to use a colder white glass for the background. The only condition under -which warm-tinted flesh is quite acceptable is when it is in the midst -of strong red and yellow. The use of red enamel for flesh seems to be a -weak, unnecessary, and unavailing concession to the pictorial. It does -not give the effect of actual flesh, and it does not help the effect of -the window. Since you cannot get actual flesh tones it is as well to -accept the convention of white flesh, which gives breadth and dignity -to the glass. There is a sort of frivolity about enamelled flesh-pink. -It is, in a way, pretty, but out of key with the monumental character of -a window. Glass lends itself best to strong, large work. The quality of -pot-metal gives the colour chord. The leads give the key to the scale of -design--the pitch, as it were, of the artist's voice. That these are -strong (it is seldom worth while resorting to extra thin leads) does not -argue that design must be coarse. You have to balance them with strong -work, with patches, perhaps, as well as strong lines, of dark paint, to -carry off any appearance of brutality in them. This done, much delicate -detail may be introduced. A strong design need not shout any more than a -speaker need, who knows how to manage his voice. That is the condition: -you must know your instrument, and have it under control. - -Experience seems to show that a certain formality of design befits -stained glass. Formality of colour arrangement soon becomes tedious; but -it is seldom, if ever, that the design of glass strikes one as unduly -formal. - -Mosaic glass is designed, it was said above, with a view to glazing. The -skilled artist designs, so to speak, in leads; but they are not the -design; in fact, they count only as contours, and, except in mere -glazing, they should not be expected to give lines. It is a common fault -to make leads take a part in the design which they will not play in the -glass. - -In drawing, strong, firm, even angular lines are valuable, if not -imperative. The radiating light softens them. Drawing which is already -suave is likely to be too soft in the glass, to want accent. Only -experience will tell you how much you must attenuate fingers and the -like in your drawing in order that the light shall fill them out, and -give them just their normal plumpness. The beginner never allows enough -for the spreading of light. - -Glass painters who know what they are about use plenty of solid painting -out; but it takes experience to do it cunningly. An artist whose -_métier_ is really glass is not careful of the appearance of his -drawings. Cartoons are nothing but plans of glass, not intrinsically of -any account. Really good glass is better than the drawings for -it--necessary as good sketches may be to please the ignorant patron. - -New departures in technique will suggest themselves to every inventive -mind. They may even be forced upon a man--as, by his own confession, -they were forced upon Mr. Lafarge--by the inadequacy of the materials -within his reach, or the incompetence of the workmen on whom he has to -depend. Mr. Lafarge's glass is sometimes very beautiful in colour, and -is strikingly unlike modern European manufacture; but it is not so -absolutely original in method as Americans appear to think. He seems to -have discovered for himself some practices which he might have learnt -from old or even modern work, and to have carried others a step further -than was done before. The basis of his first idea, he explains, was in a -large way to recall the inlay of precious stones that are set in jade by -Eastern artists. That was practically the notion of the earliest -Byzantine workers in glass. His use of other materials than glass in -windows he might have learnt from China, Java, or Japan, where they use -oyster, tortoise, and crocodile shell; or from ancient Rome, where mica, -shells, and alabaster were employed. There is nothing very new in -blended, streaked, or even wrinkled glass, except that moderns do by -deliberate intention what the mediæval glass-maker could not help but -do, and carry it farther than they. In chipping flakes or chunks out of -a solid lump of glass, Mr. Lafarge certainly struck out an idea which -had probably occurred to no one since, in prehistoric ages, man shaped -his arrow heads and so on out of flint. He has produced very beautiful -and jewel-like effects by means of this chipping, though the material -lends itself best to a more barbaric style of design than the artist has -usually been content to adopt. He has appreciated, no one better, the -quality of glass, but not the fact that so characteristic a material as -he adopts must rule the design. The attempt to get pictorial, -atmospheric, or other naturalistic effects by means of it, soon brings -you to its limitations. At the rendering of flesh it comes to a full -stop. - -The experiment has been tried by Mr. Lafarge of a minute mosaic of -little pieces of glass between two sheets of white, all fused into one; -but it appears to be too costly, if not too uncertain an expedient, to -be really practical as a means of rendering the human face, more -especially if you want to get expression, which is there of more -importance than natural colour. Another new departure, the device of -blowing glass into shapes, so as to get modelling in them, results so -far in rather dumb and indeterminate form. - -It is quite possible to melt together a mosaic of glass without the use -of lead. That practice may yet come into use in window panes, but they -will be as costly as they are fragile. In larger work there is no real -artistic reason why lead or its equivalent should be avoided. How much -old glass would have remained to us if it had been executed in huge -sheets? Here and there perhaps a broken scrap in a museum. - -It is not meant to suggest that we should do in the nineteenth century -only what was done in times gone by. Our means are ampler now, our wants -are more. We can follow tradition only so far as it suits our wants; -and, in carrying it further, we are sure to arrive at something so -different that it may be called a new thing. If old methods do not meet -new conditions we must invent others. The problem of our day is how to -reconcile manufacture with anything like art; or failing that, whether -there is a livelihood for the independent artist-craftsman? - -Whoever it may be that is to make our stained glass windows in the -future, he will have to make them fit the times. He may discover new -materials. Meanwhile it is of no use quarrelling with those he has. He -must know them and humour them. Bars have to be accepted as needful -supports, leads to be acknowledged as convenient joints; glass must be -allowed its translucency, and painting kept to what it can best do. A -window should own itself a window. - -And what is the aim and use of a stained glass window? To "exclude the -light," said the poet, sarcastically. Yes, to subdue its garishness, -soften its glare, tinge it with colour, animate it with form perhaps. - -The man who means to do good work in windows will devote as serious -study to old glass as a painter to the old masters. He will not rest -satisfied without knowing what has been done, how it was done, and why -it was done so; but he will not blind himself to new possibilities -because they have never yet been tried. The pity is that often the -antiquary is so bigoted, the glass painter so mechanical, the artist so -ignorant of glass. The three men want fusing into one. The ideal -craftsman is a man familiar with good work, old and new, a master of his -trade, and an artist all the while; a man too appreciative of the best -to be easily satisfied with his own work, too confident in himself to -accept what has been done as final; a man experimenting always, but -basing his experiments upon experience, and proving his reverence for -the great men who light the way for him by daring, as a man has always -dared, to be himself. - - - - -BOOK II. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -THE DESIGN OF EARLY GLASS. - - -Design in glass developed itself on lines almost parallel to the -progress of technique. Each, of course, affected the other--how and why -it is now proposed to show. - -It is not intended at present to say more than is absolutely necessary -about "Style," in the historic sense--that is reserved for a chapter by -itself--but, as it is convenient to refer to a period of design by its -name, it will be as well at this stage briefly to enumerate the historic -"Periods." - -Glass follows, inevitably, the style of architecture of the period. -Accordingly it is divided broadly into Gothic and Renaissance. Gothic, -in its turn, is divided by Rickman (who first attempted to discriminate -between the styles of architecture in England) into three periods. -Winston, who did for English glass what Rickman did for English -architecture, adopts his classification as follows:--Early Gothic--to -about 1280. Decorated Gothic--to about 1380. Perpendicular Gothic--to -about 1530. - -Renaissance art has been classified in Italy according to the century, -and in France has been named after the reigning sovereign--François -Premier, Henri Deux, and so on. In England also we make use of the terms -Tudor, Elizabethan, Jacobean, and the like. No one, however, has -attempted to draw subtle distinctions between the periods of Renaissance -glass, for the obvious reason that the best of it was done within a -comparatively short period, and the rest is not of much account. It is -enough, therefore, to mark off two divisions of Renaissance glass. The -first (which overlaps the latest Gothic) may be called Sixteenth -Century, or by the Italian name Cinque-Cento, or simply Renaissance; -whilst the second, which includes seventeenth century and later work, is -sufficiently described as Late glass. - -The development of style in other countries was not quite parallel with -its march on this side of the water. The French were always in advance -of us, whether in Gothic or Renaissance; the Germans lagged behind, at -all events in Gothic; but the pace is equal enough for us to group -windows generally into three Gothic and two Renaissance periods--Early, -Middle, and Late Gothic; Early and Late Renaissance. If we do that it -will concern us less, that Early German work is more Romanesque than -Gothic, that Late French work is not Perpendicular but Flamboyant, and -so on. - -The accepted classification is determined mainly by the character of the -architectural or ornamental detail of the design. Such architectural or -other detail--that of costume, for example--is of the very greatest use -as a clue to the date of glass. That is a question of archæology; but it -is not so much the dates that artists or workmen have to do with as with -the course of craftsmanship, the development of art. It is convenient -for us to mark here and there a point where art or workmanship has -clearly reached a new stage; it gives us breathing time, a -starting-point on some fresh voyage of discovery; but such points need -be few. The less we bother ourselves by arbitrary subdivisions of style -the better; and Winston himself allows that his divisions are arbitrary. - -The student need not very seriously concern himself about dates or -names. People are much too anxious to get a term for everything, and -when they can use the term glibly they fancy they know all about the -thing. It is no doubt easier to commit to memory a few names and a few -dates than to know anything about a craft; but the one accomplishment -will not do in place of the other. A very little real knowledge of art -or practical workmanship will lead you to suspect, what is the truth, -that there is a good deal of fee-fi-fo-fum about the jargon of styles. -It is handy to talk of old work as belonging to this or that broadly -marked historic period; and it is well worth the while of any one -interested in the course of art to master the characteristics of style. -The student should master them as a matter of course; but he must not -take the consideration of period for more than it is worth. Really we -give far too much attention to these fashions of bygone days--fashions, -it must be allowed, on a more or less colossal scale, compared to ours, -but still only fashions. - -It is proposed then to allude here only so far to the styles as may be -necessary to explain the progress of design, and especially the design -of stained glass windows. - -In dividing Gothic into Early, Middle, and Late Gothic, corresponding -roughly with the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries, it is -not forgotten that there is an earlier Gothic of the twelfth and perhaps -eleventh centuries, more or less reminiscent of the Romanesque period -preceding it; but English glass begins, to all intents and purposes, -with the thirteenth century, and even in France there is not a very -great quantity of characteristically earlier glass. What there is -differs from thirteenth century work mainly in the Romanesque character -of the figure drawing and ornamental detail, in its deliberately simple -composition, and in the spontaneity of its design. The glazier was still -feeling his way. Any composition to be found in a Byzantine -ivory-carving, enamel, illuminated manuscript, or what not, might just -as well occur in glass. The more familiar types of early Gothic window -design had not yet settled down into orthodoxy. The lines on which the -oldest windows extant were set out are in the main those of the -thirteenth century also. They were more or less suggested by the shape -of the window opening, which, it will be seen, had always had a good -deal to say as to the direction glass design should take. - -[Illustration: 58. POITIERS.] - -The window openings in Romanesque or Norman-French churches were single -lights, round or pointed arched, rather broad in proportion to their -width. Stained glass, it has been explained, has to be held in its place -by copper wires, soldered to the leadwork, and attached to iron bars let -into the masonry for that purpose. In the case of a very narrow lancet, -such bars would naturally be placed at convenient intervals across the -opening. But for the most part windows were the reverse of narrow, and -the horizontal bars had to be supplemented by vertical stanchions, so -that the window space was divided into rectangular divisions. As a -matter of construction the glass was made in panels, corresponding to -these, and attached to them. It is not surprising, therefore, that these -divisions should often have been accepted as part of the design, or that -the design of the glass should to some extent have followed them. On -page 113 is the skeleton of the upper part of a twelfth century window. -The strong black lines in the diagram show the bars, the finer ones -indicate the main divisions of the design of the glass. It will be seen -that the four strips into which the upright bars divide the window are -not equal, but that the outer divisions are narrower than the inner, so -as to accommodate themselves to the width of the border. Naturally that -was determined always by the proportion of the window; such borders -measured often one-sixth part, or more, of the entire width. The way in -which the central circular shape in the glass breaks across in front of -the border is an instance of the spontaneity and unexpectedness of -design characteristic of the earliest existing work; later one series of -forms would repeat themselves without interruption throughout the length -of the window. When, as above, the centre of a window is occupied by a -great crucifix, or, as below, other such irregularity occurs, it is safe -to conclude that the glass, if not prior to the thirteenth century, -belongs to its first years. It is characteristic of the very early date -of the glass that the bars in the diagrams given do not go out of their -way to follow the outline of the circles, vesicas, quatrefoils, and -other shapes, but on occasion cut relentlessly across them. - -[Illustration: 59. POITIERS EAST WINDOW. (Compare with 24.)] - -[Illustration: 60. POITIERS, NORTH TRANSEPT.] - -The filling out of such a skeleton as those given would in many respects -be much the same in the eleventh, twelfth, or thirteenth century; and -in each case it would be in direct pursuance of the traditions of Early -Christian design. You may see in Byzantine ivories and enamels precisely -the kind of thing that was done in glass; and in the Romanesque -Michaelis Kirche at Hildesheim, is a painted roof, the design of which -might have been carried out, just as it is, in a giant window. - -[Illustration: 61. BORDER, ANGERS.] - -[Illustration: 62. BORDER, ANGERS.] - -The main divisions of the centre part of such a window would each -contain its little "subject" or glass picture; the border and the -interstices between the pictures would be occupied with foliated -ornament; only, the earlier the work, the more pronounced would be the -Romanesque character, alike of the ornament and the figure work. The -broad borders from Angers, above, and the narrower one from Le Mans -(page 327) differ materially from the accepted thirteenth century type -(page 117). Witness how in the Angers glass the stalks of the foliage -frame little panels in the border, and how in the Le Mans work the -stalks take the form of straps, patterned with painted ornament. This -elaboration of the stalks with painted zig-zag, pearlwork, and so on, is -precisely the kind of thing one sees in Byzantine carving and inlay. -The very early spandril from Angers, below, if not markedly Romanesque -in character is yet not of the distinctively Early Gothic type. - -[Illustration: 63. ANGERS.] - -The shape of each medallion would be emphasised by a series of coloured -lines or fillets framing it. In quite early work the broader of these -would be broken up into blocks of alternating colour; they would be -patterned probably (which in the thirteenth century they would probably -not be), and altogether the effect of the ornament would be more -jewelled. One of these broken and patterned margins is shown in the -vesica-shaped framing to the figure on page 37--belonging, by the way, -to the window given in skeleton on page 114. - -The difference between twelfth and thirteenth century pictures is in the -lingering of Byzantine traditions of design in the earlier work, and in -the strictly simple disposition of the figures _en silhouette_ against -the background, as well as in the way the drapery is wrapped closely -round them, so that the figure always explains itself. There is an -expression and a "go" about some of the earliest figures for which we -look in vain later in the thirteenth century. The figures of the -Apostles from the Ascension at Le Mans on page 33 are altogether more -alive than the thirteenth century bishops, for example, on page 276, who -seem by comparison tame and altogether respectable. A certain -exaggeration there is, no doubt, about the action of these earliest -figures, a certain brutality of rendering, as there is also a certain -barbaric quality in the ornament, and, indeed, in the whole effect; but -of its superlative richness there is no manner of doubt. One is even led -to speculate, when one compares it with later work, whether a certain -barbaric character of design does not go to that unrivalled brilliancy. -In the absolute glory of rich colour the very earliest glass has never -been equalled. The advance of glass painting was at the cost of this, -perhaps barbaric, quality. - -[Illustration: 64. EARLY ORNAMENT, SALISBURY.] - -In the earliest windows the subjects were not invariably enclosed in -medallions; sometimes the square lines of the bars would be accepted -as division enough; these would be framed with lines of colour, and the -design of the portion of the window within the border would consist (as -occasionally at Chartres) of a series of square subjects, each with its -marginal lines, ranged one above the other. For the most part, however, -the design of the earliest richly coloured windows extant took the shape -of little pictures in panels or medallions. Another favourite scheme was -to delineate the Tree of Jesse. The upper portion of such a window is -given on page 117; but further consideration of Jesse windows is -reserved for a separate chapter. - -[Illustration: 65. S. REMI, REIMS.] - -From the earliest period, no doubt, clerestory or other lights were -often occupied each with a separate figure standing upright; but such of -these as may remain in their places are not readily distinguishable from -thirteenth century work; and the undoubtedly earlier figures--such, for -example, as those in S. Remi at Reims--have been re-set in framework -more or less old, but so as not to tell us anything very authentic about -the setting out of the original windows. Again at Augsburg, where the -figures in the clerestory are said to be the oldest in Germany (to -belong, in fact, to about the year 1000), the windows are bordered with -modern glazing in white. At Reims we have very rudely drawn figures in -rich colour against a deep background, standing with splayed feet upon -little rounds or half rings of colour, representing the earth, their -names inscribed in bold lettering, which forms a band of yellow behind -their heads. At Augsburg the figures, equally rude in drawing, equally -splay-footed, are in white and colour upon a white ground. They stand -upon little hemispheres of Byzantine ornament, and their names are writ -large in black letters upon the white glass around their heads. -Presumably they were framed in a border of pattern work similar to that -surrounding the medallion windows. The ornamental work in the windows at -S. Remi may not always have formed part of the same window with the -figure work--it does not go very happily with it now--but it is probably -of about the same date; and it illustrates, together with some similar -work at S. Denis, near Paris (so "thoroughly restored" as to have lost -its historic value), a kind of pattern work peculiar to the earliest -glass. - -As a rule, early glass divides itself naturally into two classes: work -in rich colour, which is what we have hitherto been discussing, and work -in "grisaille," as it is called; that is to say, in which the glass is -chiefly white, or whitish, relieved only here and there by a line or a -jewel of colour. - -Occasionally, as at Auxerre, Reims, and Poitiers, rich figure work is -found set in grisaille or framed by it; and in some fragments from -Châlons, now at the _Musée des Arts Décoratifs_ at Paris, coloured -figures are found on a white ground. - -You find also in France rich colour-work surrounded by white glass--the -work of a period when the powers that were became possessed of the idea -that they must lighten the interior of their churches, and accordingly -removed so much of the coloured glass as seemed good to their ignorance, -and replaced it with plain glazing. But, as a rule, and apart from the -tinkering of the latter-day ecclesiastic, rich colour and grisaille were -kept apart in early mediæval churches; that is to say, a coloured window -has not enough white in it perceptibly to affect the depth and richness -of its colour, nor a grisaille window enough colour to disturb the -general impression of white light. At Reims and S. Denis, however, you -find ornament in which white and colour are so evenly balanced that they -belong to neither category. The amount of colour introduced into -grisaille was never at any time a fixed quantity; one has to allow -something for the predilection of the artist; but here the amount of -colour makes itself so distinctly felt that the term grisaille no longer -serves to express it. - -The design of these patterns was of a rather mechanical type (pages 35, -118, 120) and not in any case very interesting; but it would have been -difficult under any circumstances to produce a very satisfactory effect -by so equally balancing white and colour. The designer falls between two -stools. The well-known gryphon medallions at S. Denis seem at first to -promise something rather amusing in design, but there is no variety in -them:--and no wonder! the greater number of them prove to be new, and -they have all been rearranged by Viollet le Duc. That is as much as to -say, some of the gryphons are of Abbot Suger's time, but the design of -the window is Viollet le Duc's. White and colour are again too evenly -mixed in the heavy-looking English glass at Lincoln shown on page 121, -but that is of the thirteenth century. - -It need hardly be said that the earlier the work, the simpler was the -character of the painting, the more deliberately was pigment reserved -for painting out the light, the more strictly was the shading in lines. -But the painted detail was often small; glass was used in small pieces; -subjects themselves were ordinarily small in scale. The largeness of -effect was due first to the actual simplicity of the main lines of the -design, and then to breadth of colour, a breadth of colour all the more -remarkable seeing the small pieces of glass of which the broad surfaces -were of necessity made up. - -Of course, too, the earlier the work the more the design was influenced -by the technique of glazing, the more clearly it can be seen how the -glazier designed (as was explained on page 44) in lead lines, and only -made use of paint to fill them out. - -[Illustration: 66. S. REMI, REIMS.] - -In twelfth century glass the white was greenish and rather horny in -texture; ruby was sometimes streaky, and often tawny or inclined to -orange; blue varied from deep indigo to pale grey, occasionally it was -of the colour of turquoise; yellow, dark or pale, was usually brassy; -green ranged from bluish to pale apple, and from dull to emerald. These -colours, with a rich brownish-purple, the lighter shades of which served -always as flesh tint, made up the glazier's palette. Happily there was -considerable inequality of colour in the material. It deepened, for -example, towards the selvage of the sheet where it was thickest; it had -streaks and bubbles in it; no two batches ever came out of the pot quite -alike; and altogether the rudely made pot-metal was chemically most -imperfect and artistically all that glass should be. - -[Illustration: 67. LINCOLN.] - -It would be rash in the extreme to formulate any theory as to early -schemes of colour; probably the glazier's main thought was to get -somehow a deep, rich, solemn effect of colour. He secured this very -often by not confusing his tints, and by allowing a single colour so to -predominate that the window impressed you at once as bluish or greenish -or reddish in tone. He was on the whole happiest when he kept his colour -cool; but he produced also red windows which are never to be forgotten. - -In the cathedral at Poitiers, where many of the beautiful medallion -windows belong to the very early part of the thirteenth century, the -scheme is usually to adopt a blue background, alike for the medallions -and for the spaces between, relying upon a broad band of ruby, edged -with white pearling, to mark the medallion shapes, which it effectively -does; but these are not the most beautiful windows in the church. One -recognises their date rather by the individuality and spontaneity of the -design than by any distinctly Romanesque character in the detail. It -should be mentioned, also, that at Poitiers, even in windows which seem -not so emphatically to belong to the very beginning of the century, the -early practice of using only straight upright and cross bars is adhered -to. There may be something of local conservatism in that. - -[Illustration: 68. BARS IN EARLY MEDALLION WINDOWS.] - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -MEDALLION WINDOWS. - - -In the thirteenth century the practice of the earlier glaziers stiffened -into something like a tradition, and design took almost inevitably the -form of (1) the Medallion window, (2) the Single Figure window, (3) -Ornamental Grisaille. - -The full-blown thirteenth century Medallion window differed from what -had gone before in that it was more orthodox. The designer begins as -before by marking off a broad border to his glass, defined on the inner -side by an iron bar, and proceeds to fill the space within the border -with medallion shapes. But he now adapts the medallions more regularly -to the spaces between the bars. At most two alternating shapes occur -throughout the length of the light, without break or interruption, such -as occurs in earlier work, and as a rule they keep strictly within the -lines of the border. In all the nine examples here given, taken at -random from Chartres, Bourges, Canterbury, and elsewhere, only in one -case does a medallion cut boldly across the border in the head of the -light. The slight overlapping of the quatrefoils in one case is not -really an overlapping of the border but only of the marginal lines to -it, not shown in the diagram above, but clearly enough explained on page -132, which shows the completion of a corner of the window, less its side -border. In the window with large circular medallions divided into four, -there is no upright bar to define the border, faintly indicated by a -dotted line. - -[Illustration: 69. BARS IN EARLY MEDALLION WINDOWS.] - -It will be seen from these diagrams, which illustrate at once the main -divisions of the glass and the position of the ironwork, what a change -came over the construction of windows in the thirteenth century. The -window is no longer ruled off by upright and horizontal bars into panels -into which the design is fitted; it is the bars which are made to follow -the main lines of the design, and to emphasise the forms of the -medallions. The rare exceptions to this rule (as at Bourges, overleaf) -may generally be taken to betray either the beginning or the end of the -period; but at Poitiers they seem to have passed through the early -period without ever arriving at shaped bars. The early glazier, it was -said, first blocked out his design according to his leading; here he -begins with the bars. The iron framework forms, itself, in many of these -windows, a quite satisfactory pattern, and one which proudly asserts -itself in the finished window. The designs of the period are not of -course all equally ingenious. Sometimes, in order to strengthen a circle -or quatrefoil of great size, the glazier, instead of breaking up the -shape ornamentally as was the rule, merely supports it by cross bars; -not only that, but he accepts the awkward shapes given by them as -separate picture spaces. Of this comes one of two evils: either he -frames his little pictures with sufficient border lines to keep them -distinct, and so draws attention to the shapes, an attention they do not -deserve; or he has to accept the bars, with perhaps a fillet of colour, -as sufficient frame, which they are not, and his pictures run together, -to the bewilderment of whoever would decipher them. - -[Illustration: 70. SPANDRILS OF MEDALLION WINDOW, BOURGES.] - -It is matter for regret that the French did not accept the full shape of -even the largest medallion, and fill it with one bold subject; over and -over again one feels that the subjects in medallion windows are not only -too small to be readable, but so small that the figures are out of scale -with the ornamental detail. The scale of the church has, of course, to -be taken into account; but the French churches are big enough to warrant -figures thrice the size of those which ordinarily occur in medallions. -In our narrower "Early English" lancet windows the medallions naturally -came small. - -To divide a window into eccentric divisions (halves or quarters of -circles, quatrefoils, and the like) and then to take these awkward -shapes as separate picture frames, is an archaic method of design much -in need of excuse. The more reasonable thing to do would have been to -make use of such incomplete forms only in some secondary position, and -as framework for ornament, or at least quite subsidiary figures. - -Apart from shapes which are really only segments of medallions, the only -awkward medallion shapes occurring in Early glass are those which are -broader than they are high, such as occur, for example, at Soissons. -These have always the uncomfortable appearance of having been crushed. - -How the iron skeleton of a medallion window is filled out with leaded -glass; how the border and the medallion shapes are strengthened by bands -of colour; how the medallions themselves are occupied with little figure -subjects, and how the interspaces are filled in with ornament, is -indicated opposite and on pages 132, 325. - -By way of variation upon the monotony of design, the designer will -sometimes reverse the order of things. At Bourges, for example, you will -find the centre of a light devoted to insignificant and uninteresting -ornament, whilst the figure subjects are edged out into half quatrefoils -at the sides of the window; and, again, at Chartres and Le Mans you may -occasionally see the pictures similarly ousted from their natural -position by rather mechanical ornament. One can sympathise with an -artist's impatience with the too, too regular distribution of the -stereotyped medallion window. There is undoubtedly a monotony about it -which the designer is tempted to get rid of at any price; but -consistency is a heavy price to pay for the slight relief afforded by -the treatment just described. - -This striving after strangeness results not only in very ugly picture -shapes--no one would deliberately design such a shape as that which -frames the picture of the Dream of Charlemagne (overleaf)--but it -produces a very uncomfortable impression of perversity. It is quite -conceivable that ornament may be better worth looking at than some -pictures; but a picture refuses to occupy the subordinate position; it -will not do as a frame to ornament. There is no occasion to illustrate -very fully the design of Early figure medallions; they are often of very -great interest, historical, legendary and human, but there is little -variation in the system of design. The picture is of the simplest, -perhaps the baldest, kind. The figures, as before stated, are clearly -defined against a strong background, usually blue or ruby; a strip or -two of coloured glass represents the earth upon which they stand; a -turret or a gable tells you that the scene is in a city; a foliated -sprig or two indicate that it is out of doors, a forest, perhaps; a -waving band of grey ornament upon the blue tells you that the blue -background stands for sky, for this is a cloud upon it. The extremely -ornamental form which conventional trees may assume is shown in Mr. T. -M. Rooke's sketch from a medallion at Bourges, opposite. In the -medallions from Chartres (page 325) are instances of simpler and less -interesting tree forms, and in the upper part of the larger of the two, -a bank of conventional cloudwork. Explanatory inscriptions are sometimes -introduced into the background, as in the dream of Charlemagne (above), -or in the margin of the medallions, as in the Canterbury window on page -132, fulfilling in either case an ornamental as well as an elucidatory -function. - -[Illustration: 71. THE DREAM OF CHARLEMAGNE, CHARTRES.] - -In the Canterbury glass it will be seen the figures are more crowded -than in the French work illustrated. This is not a peculiarity of -English glass, but a mark of period; as a rule the clump or compact -group of personages proclaims a later date than figures isolated against -the background. There is no surer sign of very early work than the -obvious display of the figures against the background, light against -dark or dark against light. Another indication of the date of the -Canterbury figures is that their draperies do not cling quite so -closely about them as in figures (page 33) in which the Byzantine -tradition is more plainly to be traced. - -There is no mistaking a medallion window, the type is fixed: within a -border of foliated ornament a series of circles, quatrefoils, or other -medallion shapes, for the most part occupied by figure subjects on a -rather minute scale, and between these ornament again. - -The border might be wider or narrower, according to the proportion of -the window, though a wide border was rather characteristic of quite -early glass. A twelfth century border (Angers) will sometimes measure -more than a quarter of the entire width of the window. The borders from -Canterbury, Beverley, Auxerre, and Chartres (overleaf) are of the -thirteenth. A border of sufficient dimensions will sometimes include -medallion shapes as on pages 115, 325, and even occasionally little -subject medallions at intervals, or it may be half-circles, each -containing a little figure; but such interruption of the running border -is rare. In so far as it counts against monotony it is to the good. - -[Illustration: 72. DETAIL FROM AN EARLY MEDALLION.] - -In narrower windows, such as more frequently occur in this country, -where, as the Gothic style of architecture supplanted the Norman, lancet -lights took a characteristically tall and slender shape, the border was -reduced to less imposing proportions, as for example at Beverley;--there -was no room for a wide frame to the medallions, nor any fear, it may be -added, that these should be so large as to require breaking up into -segments, as in much French glass, or at Canterbury: there the window -openings, as was to be expected of a French architect, are more -characteristically Norman than English in proportion. In a very narrow -light in the one-time cathedral at Carcassonne the medallions break in -front of a not very wide border; but then this, though a medallion -window, belongs probably by date to the Second Gothic period. - -[Illustration: 73. CANTERBURY.] - -Medallions themselves may be simple or fantastic in shape. They may be -devoted each to a single picture, or subdivided into a series of four or -five; they may be closely packed, and supported by segments of other -medallions, also devoted to figure work, or they may be separated by -considerable intervals of ornament. The character of that ornament takes -two distinct forms. - -[Illustration: 74. BEVERLEY MINSTER.] - -In the examples given (pages 132, 325) it takes the form of foliated -scrollwork, very much of a piece with the ornament in the borders, -except that there is more scope for its growth. In actual detail it -varies, according to its date and whereabouts, from something very much -like Romanesque strapwork to the more or less trefoiled foliage typical -of Early Gothic ornament, whether French or English. Further examples of -the last are shown in the borders from Auxerre and Chartres (page 328). -The one from Chartres illustrates the transition from the Romanesque; it -is intermediate between the two. The borders from S. Kunibert's, -Cologne, are quite Romanesque in character, though they are of the -thirteenth century; but then it has to be remembered that the Romanesque -style of architecture was flourishing on the Rhine long after the Gothic -style had developed itself in France and England. Many of the details -from Canterbury--which, by-the-bye, are almost identical with -contemporary French ornament--show a lingering influence of the -pre-Gothic period, but the scroll occupying the spandril on page 132 is -pronouncedly of Early Gothic type. Of much the same character is the -detail from Salisbury on page 117, which forms no part of a medallion -window, but more likely of a tree of Jesse. - -[Illustration: 75. AUXERRE.] - -[Illustration: 76. CHARTRES.] - -It was in this ornamental kind of design that the thirteenth century -glaziers were most conspicuously successful. One no longer feels here, -as one does with regard to their figure work, that they mean much better -than their powers enable them to do. And it is with scrollery of this -kind, either growing free or springing from the margin of the medallion, -that the Early English designers occupied the intervals between the -medallions in their windows. In France it became the commoner practice -to substitute for it a diaper of geometric pattern. Other expedients -were occasionally adopted. There is a window at S. Denis in which there -is foliated scrollwork on a background of geometric diaper, although -this last is so much "restored" that, for all one can tell, Viollet le -Duc may be entirely responsible for it. - -[Illustration: 77. S. KUNIBERT, COLOGNE.] - -[Illustration: 78. FRENCH MOSAIC DIAPERS.] - -At Soissons is a window in which the interspaces between the medallions -are filled with deep blue, broken only here and there by a spot of ruby; -at Poitiers also the ornament in spandrils is often just a quatrefoil or -so, barely foliated, if at all; at Bourges there is an instance of -spandrils (page 125) occupied by bare curling stalks and rosette-like -flowers; at Poitiers the bands which frame the medallions have a way of -interlacing, not in the simple fashion shown in the example from -Canterbury below, but so as to form a kind of pattern in the spandrils -in front of the geometric filling; and there are other variations on the -accustomed medallion tunes; but as a rule the ornament consists either -of the usual Early Gothic foliation, closely akin to that in the -borders, such as is shown on pages 129, 130, 328, 330, or of geometric -pattern, such as is here given. The rarity of the mosaic diaper in this -country may be gathered from the fact that in the whole series of Early -medallion windows at Canterbury it is found only once, its frequency in -France from the fact that in the choir alone of Bourges Cathedral it -occurs in no less than twenty-two instances; again at Chartres, out of -twenty-seven great windows, not more than four have scrollwork; at -Poitiers, on the other hand, there is little geometric diaper, but the -ornament is of the simplest, and barely foliated. This device of -geometric diaper-filling was possibly inspired by the idea of utilising -the small chips of precious glass, which, with the then method of -working, must have accumulated in great quantity. In any case, it -must have been encouraged by that consideration, if not actually -suggested by it. Apart from economy, which is a condition of -craftsmanlike work, there does seem a sort of artistic logic in the use -of merely geometric design for quite subordinate filling, to act as a -foil to figure work; but there was no occasion to put the mosaic of -fragments quite so regularly, not to say mechanically, together, as was -the custom to do. - -[Illustration: 79. CANTERBURY.] - -[Illustration: 80. FRENCH MOSAIC DIAPERS.] - -[Illustration: 81. DETAIL OF MEDALLION WINDOW, CANTERBURY.] - -[Illustration: 82. FRENCH MOSAIC DIAPER.] - -That is shown in a rather unusual instance in a window of the Lower -Church at Assisi; there occurs there a diaper of circles with blue -interstices, where the circles, though all alike painted with a star -pattern, vary in colour in a seemingly accidental way, and are red, -yellow, green, brown, just as it took the fancy of the glazier. - -It follows inevitably from the small scale on which these patterns are -set out, and from the radiation of the coloured light, that unless very -great discretion is exercised the rays get mixed, with a result which is -often the reverse of pleasing. And the worst of it was that the French -glaziers particularly affectioned a combination of red and blue most -difficult to manage. A very favourite pattern consisted of cross bands -of ruby (as above), enclosing squares or diamonds of blue, with dots of -white at the intersection of the ruby bands, which persists always in -running to purple. - -Instances of this unpleasant cast of colour are of continual occurrence, -but they are never otherwise than crude and plummy in effect. The rather -unusual combination of red and green mosaic diaper occurs, however, -pretty frequently at Carcassonne. The diapers illustrated indicate the -variety of geometric pattern to be found at Bourges, Chartres, Le Mans, -and Notre Dame at Paris, and elsewhere. In proportion as there is in -them a preponderance of blue and ruby the effect is that of an -aggressive purple. The safest plan seems to be in associating with the -blue plenty of green, or with the ruby plenty of yellow glass; or a -similar result may be obtained by the choice of a deep neutral blue and -of an orange shade of red, taking care always that the two contrasting -colours shall not be of anything like equal strength. - -At the best these diapers compare very unfavourably with scrollwork. -They are, in the nature of things, more monotonous and less interesting -than a growth of foliage; they are apt also to run to gaudy colour, -which by its mass overpowers the pictures set in it. Compare, in any -French church, the windows in which there is geometric mosaic and those -in which there is scrollwork; and, though they may be all of the same -period, and presumably the work of the same men, you will almost -certainly have to marvel how artists who at one moment hold you -spellbound by the magic of their colour can in the next disturb your -eyesight with a glare of purple produced by the parody of a Scotch -plaid. Many of these diapers are very minute in scale; the smaller the -scale on which they are designed the greater the certainty of the -colours running together. - -[Illustration: 83. S. PETER DELIVERED FROM PRISON, LYONS.] - -It is to the very small scale of the figures, also, that the confusion -of effect in medallion subjects, in spite of their comparatively flat -treatment, is to be attributed. At Bourges, at Canterbury, everywhere, -the medallion subjects are on far too minute a scale to be made out by -mortals of ordinary patience, or, to speak accurately, impatience. -Often, even in windows which come close enough to the eye for study, it -is only the more conventionally familiar pictures which explain -themselves readily; and those you recognise almost by anticipation. You -have no difficulty in deciphering the Nativity, the Crucifixion, the -Ascension, and so on, because you expect to find them. A certain muddle -of effect must be accepted as characteristic of medallion windows. - -It is not to be wondered at, that, considering the difficulty of making -out the ordinary medallion subjects in the lower windows, where they are -usually found, some other scheme of composition should have been adopted -for clerestory windows where those would have been more than ever -unintelligible. Accordingly, in that position, the single figure -treatment was adopted, and carried further than in the preceding -century. The figure was now, not for the first time, but more -invariably, enclosed in something like an architectural niche--a -practice borrowed from the sculptor, who habitually protected the -carved figures enriching the portals of great churches by a projecting -canopy, giving them at the same time a pedestal or base of some kind to -stand upon. - -In glass there was clearly no occasion for such architectural shelter or -support; but the pretended niche and base offered a means of occupying -the whole length of the space within the border, which, without some -additional ornament, would often have been too long in proportion to the -figure, the mere band of inscription under its feet not being enough to -fill out the length. These very rudimentary canopies, specimens of which -are given here, are usually very insignificant. It takes sometimes an -expert to realise that the broken colour about the head of the saint -(page 46) stands for architecture. The forms, when you come to look at -them closely, may be ugly as well as childish, but they go for so little -that it seems hardly worth while to take exception to them. It is only -as indication of a practice (later to be carried to absurd excess) of -making shift with sham architecture for the ornamental setting necessary -to bring the figure into relation and into proportion with the window it -is to occupy, that the device of thus enshrining a figure as yet -deserves attention. As the beginning of canopy work in glass it marks a -very eventful departure in design. All that need here be said about the -Early Gothic canopy is that it would have been easy to have devised -decorative forms at once more frankly ornamental, more interesting in -themselves, and more beautiful, not to say less suggestive of a child's -building with a box of bricks. - -[Illustration: 84. LYONS.] - -Sometimes, as at Chartres and elsewhere, the base of the canopy would -itself take the form of a little subordinate niche enclosing a figure -in small of the Donor, or perhaps only of his shield of arms. Sometimes -it would take the form of a panel of inscription, boldly leaded in -yellow letters upon blue or ruby. - -An alternative idea was to represent the Saints, or other holy -personages, sitting. The figure on page 135 belongs actually to the -beginning of the fourteenth century; but, except for a slightly more -naturalistic character in the drawing of the drapery, it might almost -have belonged to the same period as the standing figure on page 46. In -longer lights two saints are often figured, sitting one above the other. -This may be seen in the clerestory at Canterbury; but the effect is -usually less satisfactory than that of the single figure on a larger -scale. The standing position is also much better suited to the -foreshortened view which one necessarily gets of clerestory windows. A -curious variation upon the ordinary theme occurs in four of the huge -lancets in the south transept at Chartres, where the Major Prophets are -represented each bearing on his shoulders an Evangelist. The same idea -recurs at Notre Dame, Paris, under the south rose. That is all very well -in idea--iconographically it is only right that the Old Testament should -uphold the New--but reduced to picture it is absurd, especially as the -Evangelists are drawn to a smaller scale than the Prophets, and -irresistibly suggest boys having a ride upon their fathers' shoulders. -Dignity of effect there can be none. Not now for the first time, -seemingly, is art sacrificed to what we call the literary idea. - -It shakes one's faith somewhat in the sincerity of the early mediæval -artist to find that in the serried ranks of Kings, Prophets, Bishops, -and other holy men, keeping guard over the church in the clerestory -lights, one figure often does duty for a variety of personages, the -colour only, and perhaps the face, being changed. At Reims there are as -many as six in a row, all precisely of the same pattern, though the -fraud may not be detected until one examines them from the triforium -gallery. At Lyons, again, it looks as if the same thing occurred; but -one cannot get near enough to them to be quite certain. None the less -they are fine in colour. Thirteenth century glass was capable of great -things in the way of colour; and the rows of Kings and Prophets looking -down upon you from the clerestory of a great church like Bourges, -archaic though the drawing be, are truly solemn and imposing. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -EARLY GRISAILLE. - - -With grisaille glass begins a new chapter in the history of glass -painting, and a most important one--not only because of the beautiful -work which was done from the first in white, but also because coloured -glass grew, so to speak, always towards the light. - -[Illustration: 85. S. SERGE, ANGERS.] - -The first coloured windows were intense in colour, rich, and even heavy. -The note they struck was deep, solemn, suited to the church and to the -times. Neither priest nor parishioner was afraid to sacrifice a certain -amount of light. It was the business of a window to shut in those that -worshipped from the outer world, and wrap them in mysterious and -beautiful gloom. With other days, however, came other ideals. As time -went on, and men emerged from the dark ages, the problem of the glazier -was how more and more to lighten his glass; until at last white glass -predominated, and the question was how to introduce colour into it. -Meanwhile the thirteenth century glaziers resorted, where they wanted -light, to the use of windows in grisaille, in absolute contrast to the -rich picture-glass in the same church. - -The model for grisaille design was readily found in the earlier pattern -work in plain glazing. - -[Illustration: 86. S. SERGE, ANGERS.] - -[Illustration: 87. S. JEAN-AUX-BOIS.] - -This last never quite went out of use. But already in the thirteenth -century, and probably in the twelfth, it began to be supplemented, for -the most part, by painting. The exceptionally graceful work at S. Serge, -Angers, for example, on this page and the last, is probably not very -much later than the year 1200. You can see at a glance how this is only -a carrying further of the unpainted work in the same church (page 27) -attributed to the thirteenth century. There may be found indeed amidst -the plain glazing scraps of painted work; but they never happen to fit, -and have pretty certainly found their way into the window in course of -repairs. The unpainted window seems to be of greener and more silvery -glass than the painted, to which perhaps the cross-hatching gives a -rather horny look. - -The one way of painting grisaille in the thirteenth century was to trace -the design (which of course followed the traditional lines) boldly upon -the white glass, and then to cross-hatch the ground, more or less -delicately according to the scale of the work and its distance from the -eye, as here shown. By this means the pattern was made to stand out -clear and light against the background, which had now the value of a -tint, only a much more brilliant one than could have been got by a film -or wash of colour. Very occasionally a feature, such as the group of -four crowns which form the centre of the circle, above, might be -emphasised by filling in the ground about them in solid pigment; but -that was never done to any large extent. The rule was always to -cross-hatch the ground. - -[Illustration: 88. S. JEAN-AUX-BOIS.] - -[Illustration: 89. SOISSONS.] - -With the introduction of colour into grisaille comes always the question -as to how much or how little of it there shall be. There is a good deal -of Early French work, which, on the face of it, was designed first as a -sort of strapwork of interlacing bands in plain glazing, and then -further enriched with painted work, not growing from it, except by way -of exception. This is seen in the example here given. The painter -indulged in slight modifications of detail as he went on. He had a model -which he copied more or less throughout the window; but he allowed -himself the liberty of playing variations, and he even departed from it -at times. By this means he adapted himself to the glass, which did not -always take just the same lines, and at the same time he amused himself, -and us, more than if he had multiplied one pattern with monotonous -precision. His painting was strong enough to keep the leads in -countenance; that is to say, his main outlines would be as thick (see -opposite) as lead lines. - -[Illustration: 90. EARLY DETAIL.] - -Patterns such as those on pages 138, 139, and below, from Soissons, -Reims, S. Jean-aux-Bois, would make good glazed windows apart from the -painting on them. Indeed, the painting is there comparatively -insignificant in design. In the Soissons work, in particular, it -consists of little more than cross-hatching upon the background, to -throw up the interlacing of the glazed bands; for, with the exception of -just a touch of colour in the one opposite, these designs are executed -entirely in white glass. The geometric glazing shapes so completely -convey the design, that the painted detail might almost be an -after-thought. - -[Illustration: 91. SOISSONS.] - -[Illustration: 92. REIMS.] - -[Illustration: 93. LINCOLN.] - -[Illustration: 94. WATER PERRY, OXON.] - -In much of the earliest grisaille there is absolutely no colour but the -greenish hue belonging to what we are agreed to call white glass, and -the effect of it is invariably so satisfactory as to show that colour is -by no means indispensable. And, at all events in France, the colour was -at first very sparingly used, except in those twelfth century patterns -(pages 35, 118, 120) which cannot fairly be called grisaille. In the -window on page 137 the colour is, practically speaking, enclosed in -small spaces ingeniously contrived between the interlacing bands of -white; in that on page 138 it is introduced in half rings, which form -part of the marginal line, and in spots or jewels; but in either case -there is little of it, and it is most judiciously introduced. The -interlacing of bands of plain white upon a ground of cross-hatching, -itself enriched with scrollwork clear upon it, is characteristically -French. Similar bands of white occur, though not interlacing, in the -comparatively clumsy panel from Lincoln (above), but the more usual -English way was to make the bands of white broader, and to paint a -pattern upon them, as in the lancet from Water Perry, Oxfordshire -(opposite), or in the much more satisfactory light from Lincoln -(overleaf), leaving only a margin of clear glass next the cross-hatched -background. A similar kind of thing occurs in the church of S. Pierre at -Chartres (below). A yet more usual plan with us was to make the -strapwork in colour, as at Salisbury. In the patterns on this page the -straps do not interlace. In that on page 143 they not only interlace one -with the other, but the painted ornament, which now takes the form of -more elaborate scrollwork than heretofore, is intertwined with them. -This is an extremely good example of Early English grisaille. Altogether -Salisbury Cathedral is rich in white glass windows of this period (pages -143, 148, 329, 332). - -[Illustration: 95. LINCOLN.] - -[Illustration: 96. S. PIERRE, CHARTRES.] - -The grisaille in the clerestory at Bourges is similar to the Salisbury -work, but it is not possible to get near enough to it to make careful -comparison. The scrollwork on page 143 may be profitably compared with -the very unusual white window at S. Jean-aux-Bois (overleaf). There the -design consists altogether of scrolls in white upon a cross-hatched -ground. It is as if the designer had set out to glaze up a pattern in -white upon a white ground, cross-hatched. But it is obvious that, as -there is no change of colour, it was no longer necessary always to -cut the ornament out of a separate piece of glass from the ground. We -find consequently that, wherever it is convenient, a painted line is -used to save leading. That, it has been already explained (page 24), was -a practice from the first; and it was resorted to more and more. It came -in very conveniently in the French windows, in which the design -consisted largely of white strapwork. It was adopted in the example from -Châlons here given, though it does not appear in the sketch, any more -than it does in the glass until you examine it very carefully. However, -in the sketches from the great clerestory window from Reims Cathedral -(overleaf), and in the smaller one from S. Jean-aux-Bois (facing it), -the economy of glazing is easy to perceive; whilst in that from -Coutances (page 147) the glazier is already so sparing of his leads that -they no longer always follow or define the main lines of the pattern. - -[Illustration: 97. GRISAILLE, SALISBURY CATHEDRAL.] - -[Illustration: 98. CHÂLONS.] - -In a remarkable window in the choir of Chartres Cathedral (page 150) the -design includes interlacing bands both of white and colour, the coloured -ones flanked with strips of white; but the white bands are not glazed -separately. They are throughout included in the same piece of glass as -the cross-hatching, which defines them. This ingenious and very graceful -pattern window is still of the thirteenth century, though clearly of -much later date than, for example, the windows of S. Jean-aux-Bois, -which might indeed almost belong to the twelfth. - -[Illustration: 99. CLERESTORY, REIMS.] - -In several of the Salisbury windows (pages 148, 386) thin straps of -colour are bounded on the outer side by broader bands of white painted -with pattern. And here it should be noticed the bands no longer -interlace at all; on the contrary, the ornamental forms are superposed -one upon the other. This is very markedly the case on page 148. In the -centre of the light is a series of circular discs, and at the sides of -these a row of zig-zags, which, as it were, disappear behind them, -whilst at the edges of the window, again, is an array of segments of -smaller circles losing themselves behind these. In such cases, it will -be seen, the broad white bands fulfil the very useful purpose of keeping -the coloured lines apart, and separating one series of shapes from the -other. In this window, as in the narrow light on page 386, where the -vesica shape is occupied once more with flowing scrollwork, and as in -all but one of the windows on that page, the background of -cross-hatching is for the first time omitted, and the pencilled pattern -is by so much the less effective. As a rule, patterns traced in mere -outline like this belong to a later date; but these windows are -certainly of the thirteenth century. It is seldom safe to say that this -or that practice belonged exclusively to any one period. The white glass -on page 335, almost entirely without paint, might have been executed in -the twelfth century, but its border indicates more likely the latter -part of the thirteenth. Quite the simplest form of glazing was to lead -the glass together in squares or diamonds. These "quarries," as they are -called (from the French _carré_) are associated sometimes with rosettes -and bands of other pattern work, as at Lincoln (pages 284, 287); but -more ordinarily the ornamental part of the window is made up entirely of -them. "Quarry" is a term to be remembered. It plays in the next century -an important part in the design of windows. - -[Illustration: 100. S. JEAN-AUX-BOIS.] - -The best-known grisaille windows in England are the famous group of long -lancets, ending the north transept of York Minster, which are known by -the name of the Five Sisters. You remember the legend about them. The -"inimitable Boz" relates it at length in "Nicholas Nickleby"; but it is -nonsense, all the same. The story tells how in the reign of Henry the -Fourth five maiden ladies worked the designs in embroidery, and sent -them abroad to be carried out in glass. But, as it happens, they belong -to the latter part of the thirteenth century; they are unmistakably -English work; and, what is more, no woman, maiden, wife, or widow, ever -had, or could have had, a hand in their design. Their authorship is -written on the face of them. Every line in their composition shows them -to be the work of a strong man, and a practical glazier, who worked -according to the traditions that had come down to him. A designer -recognises in it a man who knew his trade, and knew it thoroughly. The -notion that any glazier ever worked from an embroidered design is too -absurd. As well might the needlewoman go to the glazier to design her -stitchery. But such is the popular ignorance of workmanship, and of its -intimate connection with design, that no doubt the vergers will go on -repeating their apocryphal tale as long as vergers continue to fill the -office of personal conductors. - -[Illustration: 101. COUTANCES.] - -The Five Sisters are rather looser and freer in design than the -Salisbury glass, and have broad borders of white. In detail they are -certainly not superior to that, nor in general design, so far as one can -make it out at all; but, from their very size and position, they produce -a much more imposing effect. Whoever is not impressed by the Five -Sisters is not likely ever to be moved by grisaille. They form one huge -fivefold screen of silvery glass. The patterns are only with great -difficulty to be deciphered. It is with these as with many others of the -most fascinating windows in grisaille; the glass is corroded on the -surface, black with the dirt and lichen of ages, cracked and crossed -with leads introduced by the repairing glazier, until the design is -about as intelligible as would be a conglomeration of huge spiders' -webs. But, for all that, nay, partly because of it, it is a thing of -absolute beauty, as beautiful as a spider's web, beaded with -dewdrops, glistening in the sun on a frosty winter's morning. It is a -dream of silvery light: who cares for details of design? But it is all -this, because it was designed, because it was planned by a glazier for -glazing, and has all that gives glass its charm. - -[Illustration: 102. GRISAILLE, SALISBURY CATHEDRAL.] - -[Illustration: 103. CHARTRES CATHEDRAL.] - -Stained glass, like the men who design it, has always the defects of its -qualities. It is the first business of those who work in it to see that -it has at least the qualities of its defects. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -WINDOWS OF MANY LIGHTS. - - -The merry life of the medallion window was a short one. It reigned -during the Early Gothic period supreme; but after the end of the -thirteenth century it soon went quite out of fashion, and with it the -practice of shaping the bars to suit the pattern of the window--a -practice, it will have been noticed, not followed in grisaille windows, -though it might very well have been. - -With the change which came over the spirit of later thirteenth century -architecture some new departure in the design of glass became -inevitable. The windows spoken of till now were all single lights, -broader or narrower, as the case might be, but each so far off from the -other that it had to be complete in itself, and might just as well be -designed with no more than general reference to its neighbours. But in -time it began to be felt in France that the broad Norman window was too -broad, and so they divided it into two by a central shaft, or mullion as -it is called, of stone. In England equally it began to be felt that the -long narrow lancet lights were too much in the nature of isolated -piercings in the bare wall, and so the builder brought them closer and -closer together, until they also were divided by narrow mullions. - -In this way, and in answer especially to the growing demand for more -light in churches, and consequently for more windows, it became the -custom to group them. Eventually the window group resolved itself into a -single window of several, sometimes of many, lights, divided only by -narrow stone mullions. Or, to account for it in another way, windows of -considerable size coming into vogue, it became necessary, for -constructional no less than for artistic reasons, to subdivide them by -mullions into two or more lights. The arched window head was broken up -into smaller fancifully shaped "tracery" lights, as they are called; and -so we arrive at the typical "Decorated" Gothic window. - -The height of these windows being naturally in proportion to their -width, the separate lights into which they were divided were apt to be -exceedingly long. To have treated them after the Early medallion manner, -each with its broad border, would have been to draw attention to this, -and even to exaggerate their length. The problem now to be solved in -glass was, how best to counteract the effect of insecurity likely to -result from the thinness of the upright lines of the stone and the -narrowness of the openings between them. It is not meant to say that the -medallion window expired without a spasm. For a while Decorated windows -were treated very much after the fashion of the earlier medallion -windows. The medallions were necessarily smaller, and usually long in -proportion to their width, although they extended now to the edge of the -stonework, the narrowish border to the lights passing, as it were, -behind them. This is very amply illustrated in the windows in the choir -clerestory at Tours. Occasionally there is no border but a line of white -and colour, and the whole interval between the elongated hexagonal or -octagonal panels is given up to mosaic diaper. The medallions naturally -range themselves in horizontal order throughout the three or four lights -of the window, giving just the indication of a horizontal line across -them. By way of exception, the subject of the Last Supper extends -through all three lights of the East window, the tablecloth forming a -conspicuous band of light across it. This glass at Tours is deep and -rich throughout, as intense sometimes as in earlier work, though warmer -in colour, owing to the greater amount of yellow glass employed. That -was not to last long. - -[Illustration: 104. DECORATED MEDALLION WINDOW, GERMAN.] - -It lingered longest in Germany. There is a curious two-light window in -Cologne Cathedral, with queer rectangular medallions, of considerable -interest, which is probably not very early in date. A not very common -type of Decorated medallion window is illustrated above. The cutting -across the border by medallion or other subjects, is a common thing in -fourteenth century glass (below and opposite), just because such -encroachment is obviously a most useful device in dealing with narrow -spaces. It occurs in some medallion windows (also of the fourteenth -century) at the church of Santa Croce, at Florence. - -But this was not enough. The Germans went a step further, and carried -the medallions boldly across two lights, treating them as a single -medallion window with a stone mullion instead of an iron bar up the -centre. There is an instance of this at S. Sebald's Church, Nuremberg, -and another, more curious than beautiful to see, at Strassburg. They -went further still, and carried the medallions across a three-light -window. There is one such at Augsburg, where the medallions almost fill -the window, extending to the extreme edge of the outer lights. Indeed, a -broad outer border of angels surrounding the great circles is cut short -by the side walls. This is at least a means of getting rid of the -littleness resulting sometimes from the small medallion treatment, and -it is in fact most effective. The broad, sweeping, circular lines also -have the appearance of holding the lights together and strengthening -them. - -[Illustration: 105. FREIBURG.] - -This was a thing most needful to be done in Decorated glass. It was -needed sometimes already in Early work. At Clermont-Ferrand the narrow -lancets at the end of the South transept are filled, except for a thin -white beaded border, with diaper work in rich colour, interrupted at -intervals by big rosettes of white, which form two bands of light across -the series, and make them seem one group. - -[Illustration: 106. DETAILS OF DEC. GERMAN GLASS.] - -The deliberate use of horizontal lines (or features giving such lines) -in glass, was clearly the most effective way of counteracting the too -upright tendency of the masonry, or rather of preventing it from -appearing unduly drawn out; and it became the custom. Even in a -comparatively small Decorated window, for example, the figures would -usually form a band across it, distinguished from the ornamental -shrinework above and below it by a marked difference in colour. In a -taller window there would be two, or possibly three, such bands of -figures, in marked contrast to their framing. In Germany very often one -big frame would cross the window, or the figure subjects would be -separated--as at Strassburg, for example--by bands of arcading, out of -which peeped little saints each with a descriptive label in his hand. - -A typical English canopy of the period is given on this page. It was -commonly enclosed, as here shown, within a border, wide enough to be -some sort of acknowledgment of the subdivision of the window, but not -wide enough to prevent the colour of the canopy from forming a distinct -band across the window. The predominance of a powerful, rather brassy, -yellow in the canopy work, and a contrast in colour between its -background and that of the figures, carried the eye without fail across -the window. A notable exception to the usual brassiness of the Decorated -canopy occurs at Toulouse, where a number of high-pitched gables of the -ordinary design, stronger in colour than usual, have crockets and -finials of a fresh bright green. - -[Illustration: 107. TYPICAL DECORATED CANOPY.] - -The Decorated canopy, with its high-pitched gable and tall flying -buttresses, its hard lines, and its brassy colour was a characteristic, -but never a very beautiful feature in design; and it grew to quite -absurd proportions. It was in Germany that it was carried to greatest -excess, extending to a height three or four times that of the figure and -more; but with us also it was commonly tall enough altogether to dwarf -the poor little figure it pretended to protect. Even when it was not -preposterously tall, its detail was usually out of all proportion to the -figure. Your fourteenth century draughtsman would have no hesitation in -making the finial of his canopy bigger than the head (nimbus and all) of -the saint under it. Clumsiness of this kind is so much the rule, and -disproportion is so characteristic of the middle of the fourteenth -century, that, but for some distinctly good ornamental glass of the -period, one might dismiss it as merely transitional, and not worthy of a -chapter to itself in the history of glass design. - -[Illustration: 108. S. URBAIN, TROYES.] - -[Illustration: 109. NEW COLLEGE, OXFORD.] - -Our distinctions of style, as was said, are at the best arbitrary. We -may devise a classification which shall serve to distinguish one marked -type from another, but it is quite impossible to draw any hard-and-fast -line between the later examples of one kind and the earlier of another -one. We may choose to divide Gothic art into three classes, as we may -subdivide the spectrum into so many positive colours, but the -indeterminate shades by which they gradate each into the other defy -classification or description. - -Certainly the best figure work of the middle period is that which might -quite fairly be claimed as belonging, on the one hand, to the end of the -Early, or on the other to the beginning of the Late, Gothic period. In -the figures from Troyes, for example (page 47 and opposite), the Early -tradition lingers; in those from New College (also opposite) the -characteristics of Late work begin to appear. In the figure of the -headsman on this page there is certainly no sense of proportion. In all -the wealth of Decorated figure-and-canopy work at York Minster there is -nothing to rank for a moment with the best Early or Perpendicular glass. -Nor in France, though there is Decorated work in most of the great -churches, is there anything conspicuously fine. Even at S. Ouen, at -Rouen, there is nothing particularly worthy of note. It is true that the -period of the English occupation and the troubles which followed it was -not the time when we should expect the arts to flourish there. - -[Illustration: 110. EXECUTIONER OF S. JOHN THE BAPTIST, 14TH CENTURY.] - -A most characteristic thing in glass of this intermediate period was the -way in which colour and grisaille were associated. It has been already -told how, before then, white and colour had been used together in the -same light--at Auxerre, for example, where, within a broad border of -colour, you find an inner frame of grisaille, enclosing a central figure -panel of colour. Quite at the beginning of the fourteenth century, if -not already at the end of the thirteenth, you find, as at S. Radegonde, -Poitiers, upon a ground of grisaille, coloured medallion subjects, or -more happily still, little figures, as it were, inlaid, breaking the -white surface very pleasantly with patches of unevenly but judiciously -dispersed colour--the whole enclosed in a coloured border. But in the -fourteenth century the more even combination of white and colour was -quite a common thing. Naturally it was introduced in the form of the -horizontal bands already mentioned. And indeed it is in windows into -which grisaille enters that this band-wise distribution of design is -most apparent, and most typical. The designer very commonly conceived -his window as in grisaille, crossed by a band or bands of colour, -binding the lights together. That may be seen in the chapter-house at -York, where you have several series of little subjects, more or less in -the shape of medallions, forming so many belts of colour across the -five-light grisaille windows, which belts the eye insensibly follows -right round the building. - -[Illustration: 111. DECORATED BORDERS.] - -That is the theory of design. Its practical construction may be better -described otherwise. The iron horizontal bars, to the use of which the -glaziers had by this time come back, divide the lights each into a -series of panels, which panels are filled at York alternately with -coloured subjects and ornamental grisaille. Elsewhere perhaps two panels -are filled with colour to one of grisaille, or three to one, or _vice -versâ_. In any case these alternate panels of white and colour, -occurring always on the same level throughout the lights composing the -window (and often through all the windows along the aisle of a church), -range themselves in pronounced horizontal strips or bands. - -[Illustration: 112. GRISAILLE AND FIGURE.] - -This acceptance of the bars as a starting-point in design, and this -deliberate counterchange of light and dark, may appear to indicate a -very rough-and-ready scheme of design. But any brutality there might be -in it is done away with by the introduction of a sufficient amount of -white into the coloured bands and of a certain modicum of colour in the -bands of white. And that was habitually the plan adopted. Into the -subjects it was easy to introduce just as much white as seemed -necessary. A little white might be there already in the flesh, which was -no longer always represented in flesh-coloured glass but more and more -commonly in white. The usual border at the sides of the grisaille--now -reduced to quite modest proportions--perhaps a simple leaf border, as on -pages 44, 158, perhaps a still simpler "block" border, as above, served -to frame the white, at the same time that it was an acknowledgment once -more of the fact that each light forms a separate division of the -window. In most cases the introduction of a little colour into the -grisaille panel, very often in the form of a rosette, went further to -prevent any possible appearance of disconnection between the figures and -their ornamental setting. As a matter of fact, so little obvious is the -plan of such windows in the actual glass that it often takes one some -time to perceive it. - -[Illustration: 113. EVREUX.] - -In the nave at York Minster the grisaille is crossed by two bands of -coloured figure work. Elsewhere it is crossed by one; but where the -figures have canopies, as they often have, that makes again a -horizontal subdivision in the coloured portion of the glass. Sometimes -the topmost pinnacles of the coloured canopies will extend into the -grisaille above, breaking the harshness of the dividing line; but it is -seldom that it appears harsh in the glass. The fact seems to be that the -upward tendency of the long lights is so marked, and the mullions make -such a break in any cross line, that there is no fear of horizontal -forms pronouncing themselves too strongly; the difficulty is rather to -make them marked enough. Architects came eventually to feel the want of -some more sternly horizontal feature than the glazier could contrive, -when they introduced the stone transom, which was a feature of the later -Gothic period. - -When it was a question of glazing a broad single light of earlier -construction, the fourteenth century artist designed his glass -accordingly. Not that he then adopted the thirteenth century manner--it -never entered his mind to work in any other style than that which was -current in his day; the affectation of bygone styles is a comparatively -modern heresy--but he adapted his design equally to help, if not to -correct, the shape of the window opening. Accustomed as he was to -narrower lights, the broad window of an earlier age appeared to him -unduly broad, and his first thought was to make it look narrower. This -he did by dividing it into vertical (instead of horizontal) strips of -white and colour. That is shown in the window from Troyes (page 159), in -which the centre strip of the window, occupied by figures and canopies -in colour, is flanked by broad strips of grisaille, and that again by a -coloured border. There, as usual, you find some white in the figure work -and some colour in the grisaille, always the surest way of making the -window look one. - -The judicious treatment of a belated lancet window like this goes to -show that it was of set purpose that the tall lights of a Decorated -window were bound together by ties of coloured glass. So long as windows -were built in many lights, that plan of holding them together was never -abandoned. There is a very notable instance of this at Berne, where the -four long lights of a Late Gothic window are crossed by lines of canopy -work, taking not horizontal but arched lines (a device common enough in -German glass), effectually counteracting the lean and lanky look of the -window. Still markedly horizontal lines of subdivision in glass design -are more characteristic of the second Gothic period than of any other. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -MIDDLE GOTHIC GLASS. - - -Towards the fourteenth century, it seems, a wave of realism swept over -Gothic art. So much is this so that a relatively speaking naturalistic -form of ornamental detail is the most marked feature of the Decorated -period, giving it its name, and, indeed, its claim to be a style. - -[Illustration: 114. NORBURY, DERBYSHIRE.] - -No great stress has been laid in the foregoing chapters upon this new -departure in naturalism, because it did not so very vitally affect -design. When it is said that glass followed always the fashion of -architecture, that is as much as to say that, as the sculptors took to -natural instead of conventional foliage, so did the glass painters; and -there is not much more to tell. To trace the development of naturalistic -design would lead us far astray. Enough to say that, by the naturalistic -turn of its ornamental foliage you may recognise the period called -"Decorated." How far that naturalism of Decorated detail may be to the -good is a question there is no need here to dispute. It was a new -departure. The new work lacked something of the simple dignity and -self-restraint which marked the earlier, and it had not yet the style -and character which came in the next century of more consistently -workmanlike treatment. In so far it was a kind of prelude to -Perpendicular work. This is not to deny that excellent work was done in -the Decorated period, especially perhaps in glass, where naturalism, at -its crudest, is less offensive than in wood or stone. But there is no -getting over the fact that the period was intermediate; and Decorated -glass is in a state of transition (1) between the archaism of the early -and the accomplishment of the later Gothic; (2) between the conventional -ornament which merely suggests nature and natural foliage conventionally -treated; (3) between strong rich colour and delicate silvery glass. The -transition of style is nowhere more plainly to be traced than in the -grisaille of the period. At first the character of fourteenth century -grisaille did not greatly differ from earlier work, except in the form -of the painted detail. That from S. Urbain, Troyes, on page 333, is a -typical instance of Early French Transition foliage, in which the scroll -is only less strong and vigorous than before. Precisely the same kind of -detail is shown again in the lower of the two instances, likewise from -Troyes, opposite; but already natural leaves begin to mingle with it; -whilst in the illustration above it, though the mosaic border is -characteristically early, the foliage in grisaille is deliberately -naturalistic. The grisaille at Troyes, by the way, often reminds one of -that at York Minster. It is mainly by the naturalistic character of the -ivy scroll, or perhaps it would be nearer the mark to say of the leaves -upon it, that the design from Norbury, Derbyshire (page 162), betrays -its later date, by that and the absence of cross-hatching on the -background. The glazing of the window is still thoroughly mosaic. - -[Illustration: 115. S. PIERRE, CHARTRES.] - -[Illustration: 116. DEC. GRISAILLE, S. URBAIN, TROYES.] - -[Illustration: 117. CHARTRES.] - -[Illustration: 118. EVREUX.] - -[Illustration: 119. ROUEN CATHEDRAL.] - -There is a different indication of transition in the little panel from -S. Pierre at Chartres, almost entirely in white glass, on page 163. The -foliated ornament is here still early in character; but, it will be -seen, there is no longer any pretence of leading up the bands of clear -glass in separate strips. They are only bounded on one side by a lead -line. That is so again in the three designs from Chartres Cathedral -above, where, further, the background is clear of paint; and in those -from Evreux, on pages 165, 284. There the background is cross-hatched; -but in one case the foliage is naturalistic. - -The coloured strapwork in the grisaille from the Lady Chapel of Rouen -Cathedral on page 165 is frankly mosaic; but the foliated ends of the -straps, gathered together into a central quatrefoil in a quite unusual -fashion, indicates the new spirit. The white glass is there painted with -trailing foliage in outline upon a clear ground, not shown in the -sketch, which is merely a diagram of the glazing. The grisaille from -Stanton S. John, Oxford, here given, still hesitates rather between two -opinions. The foliage is naturalistic, but the background is -cross-hatched; the broad diagonal bands, patterned with paint, are -glazed in colour; the rings of white are not separately leaded. That -sort of thing has occurred, as already pointed out, before; but it was -not till the fourteenth century, or thereabouts, that the strapwork of -white lines, forming so characteristic a feature in Decorated grisaille, -are systematically indicated by painted outlines and not glazed in if it -could be helped. - -[Illustration: 120. STANTON S. JOHN, OXFORD.] - -You have only to examine the crossing of the white lines in any of these -last-mentioned patterns to see that, now that they are not separately -glazed, they do not really interlace as before. It is out of the -question that they should. - -It is easy enough to glaze up bands so that they shall interlace; but, -when some of the drawing lines are lead and some paint, it occurs -continually that you want a leaded line to pass behind a line of clear -glass--which, of course, is a physical impossibility. It follows that -the pretended interlacing comes to grief. The pattern is confused (it is -worse when there is no hatched background) by the occurrence of leads, -stronger than the painted lines, which, so far from playing any part in -the design, occur just at the points where they most interfere with it. - -[Illustration: 121. CHÂLONS.] - -That this did not deter them, that they made a shift with interlacing -which does not truly interlace, marks a falling off in what may be -called the conscientiousness of the Gothic designers. French and English -Decorated grisaille, effective as it often is in the window, is -distinctly less satisfactory in design than the common run of earlier -work. Its charm is never in its detail. - -The patterns may be ingenious and not without grace, but they are never -altogether admirable, any more than are the figures. - -[Illustration: 122. CHÂLONS.] - -What you most enjoy in it is the distribution of white and colour; and -you enjoy it most when you do not too curiously examine into the detail -of the design, when you are satisfied to enjoy the colour, and do not -look for form, which after all is of less account in glass. - -[Illustration: 123. REGENSBURG.] - -[Illustration: 124. MUNICH MUSEUM.] - -So far as effect only is concerned, quarry work, the mere glazing in -squares, answers in many places (such, for example, as the clerestories -of narrow churches, where you could not possibly enjoy any detail of -design that might be there) all the purpose of grisaille; and it was -commonly resorted to. But the painting upon such quarries counts for -very little; it is far too small and fine in detail to have any effect -further than to tone the glass a little, which would have been -unnecessary if the glass employed had been less clear. In fact, delicate -paint on distant clerestory glass is much ado about very little; and one -cannot help thinking that plain glazing would there have answered all -the purpose of the most delicately painted pattern work. The fourteenth -century glaziers seldom complicated their quarry work by the -introduction of bands or straps of colour between the quarries, or by -the introduction of colour other than such as might occur in rosettes or -shields and so on, planted upon them, rather than worked into the -design. Occasionally, however, as at Châlons-sur-Marne, you come upon an -ornamental window (page 167) in which quarries are separated by bands of -clear white, a certain amount of colour being introduced in the form of -yellow quarries substituted at regular intervals for the white. On the -same page is another coloured diaper window designed on quarry lines, -also at Châlons. In that quarries of white and yellow are separated by a -trellis of blue. Something of the sort is to be seen also at S. -Radegonde, Poitiers. - -In these cases the painting, as will be seen, is strong enough to hold -its own at a considerable distance from the eye, but the effect is not -very happy. When, by the way, it was said that delicate painting on -distant quarries was lost, it was not meant to imply that strong -painting on quarries would be a happy solution of the difficulty. As a -matter of experience, it is seldom satisfactory. On the other hand, the -common expedient of leading up the coloured backgrounds to figure work -in small squares of ruby, green, and so on, was generally the means of -securing good broken colour. - -It can hardly be said that geometric pattern windows in strong colour -are ever very successful. The Germans, who, it should be remembered, -call their second Gothic period the "Geometric," often attempted it, but -without conspicuous success. - -[Illustration: 125. 14TH CENTURY GERMAN.] - -In Germany it was customary to use geometric diaper work long after it -had gone out of use in France. In fact, it is there more likely a sign -of the second period. The crosslines in the diaper from Regensburg -(opposite) would have been in lead, not paint, if the work had been -executed in the thirteenth century; again, the diaper below it would not -at that period have been painted in the likeness of oak-leaves. Diaper -of this kind was not used merely to fill up between medallions, but as -background, for example, to canopy work. Frequently it was very small in -scale, as well as elaborate in pattern. It can hardly be said that it -was always worth the pains spent upon it--often it was not; but the -Germans avoided, as a rule, the dangerous red and blue combination, and -preferred, as did also the Italians, less stereotyped arrangements of -green and yellow, or of red and green, or of red and green and yellow; -if they ventured upon red and blue, it was with a difference very much -to their credit. For example, they would enclose diamonds of ruby in -bands of purple-brown, with just a point of blue at the interstices; -again, they would make a diaper of purple, purple-brown, and grey; and -in many another way show that they deliberately aimed at colour in such -work--whereas many of the Early diapers suggest that the glazier was -thinking more of pattern. An instance of heraldic diaper is given on -page 169. - -[Illustration: 126. FREIBURG.] - -In Italy also you find sometimes, as at Florence and Assisi, medallion -windows with mosaic diaper between, or mosaic diaper used as background -to figures which certainly cannot be described as Early. - -[Illustration: 127. FREIBURG.] - -The Germans differed from the rest of us in their frank use of geometric -pattern. We habitually disguised it more or less, clothing it most -likely with foliation; they used it quite nakedly, and were not ashamed. -Instances of this innocent use of geometric form are here given. At -Freiburg are quite a number of windows entirely of geometric pattern -work. There is a good deal of white glass in them, but they count rather -for colour than for grisaille. It would not be quite unfair to say they -fall between the two stools. These designs are much more pleasing in the -glass than in black and white (where they have rather too much the -appearance of floor-cloth), but they are by no means the happiest work -of the Germans of that day. Where they were really most successful, more -successful than their contemporaries, was in foliated or floral pattern -windows, and those of a kind also standing dangerously near midway -between colour and grisaille. The method of execution employed in them -was to a large extent strictly mosaic; but there is quite a refreshing -variety and novelty, as well as very considerable ingenuity, in their -design. - -[Illustration: 128. FROM REGENSBURG, MUNICH MUSEUM.] - -[Illustration: 129. IVY, MUNICH MUSEUM.] - -The window from Regensburg on page 389 sets out very much as if it were -going to be a grisaille window; but it has, in the first place, more -colour than is usual in grisaille, and, in the second, it will be seen -that the little triangular ground spaces next the border are filled with -pot-metal. The contrast of the set pattern and the four coloured leaves -crossing each circle with the flowing undergrowth of grisaille is -unusual, and so is the cunning alternation of cross-hatching and plain -white ground. The designs from Munich Museum on pages 171 to 174 have -nothing in common with grisaille. The design consists of natural foliage -chiefly in white, growing tree-like upon a coloured ground up the centre -of the light. In the one the stem is waved, in the other it takes a -spiral form, in the third it is more naturalistic. But nature is not -very consistently followed. What appears like a vine on page 171 has -husks or flowers which it is not easy to recognise; and the ivy here is -endowed with tendrils. The border of convolvulus leaves and the hop -scroll, opposite, are unmistakable, though there is some inconsistency -between the naturalness of the leaves and the stiffness of their growth. -The ivy pattern differs from the others inasmuch as the leaves show -light against the yellow ground, whilst the green stem and stalks tell -dark upon it, and there is a band of red within the outer border which -holds the rather spiky leaves together. The most interesting window of -this kind illustrated is that on page 174, in which the stem is -ingeniously twisted into quatrefoil medallion shapes, so as to allow a -change in the colour of the ground, and the leaves are designed to go -beyond the filling and form a pattern upon the border. The rose is a -hackneyed theme enough, but this at least is a new way of working it -out. Fourteenth century German windows are altogether more varied in -design than contemporary French or English work. The glass is not so -much all of one pattern. There are more surprises in it. The Germans -treated grisaille in a way very much their own. At the risk of a certain -coarseness of execution, they would paint out the background to their -natural foliage in solid pigment, or in brown just hatched with lines -scratched through to the clear glass. That is very effectively done, for -example, at the Church of S. Thomas at Strassburg. It is not contended -that this is at all a better plan than that practised in France or -England: it is on the whole less happy; but there are positions in which -it is more to the purpose; and it has at least the merit of being -different; it suggests something better than it accomplishes, and it is -a timely reminder that the best methods we know of cannot be accepted as -final. - -[Illustration: 130. GERMAN ORNAMENTAL GLASS.] - -Again at Regensburg there is some distant ornamental work, so simple in -execution that it is little more than glazing in colours; in fact just -what distant work should be--effective in its place without any waste of -labour. - -[Illustration: 131. 14TH CENTURY GLASS.] - -A word or two remains to be said about borders. The narrower decorated -light implied, as was said, a narrower border. It was, as a rule, only -when a wide Early window had to be glazed that there was room for a -broad one. In that case it showed of course the new naturalism, with -perhaps the added interest of animal life, as here illustrated; but -there lingers in German borders such as this and the one on page 338, -something of early tradition. It looks as if it would not be difficult -to accept glazing lines like these and fill them in with painted detail -_à la Romanesque_. In one of the windows in York Minster there is a -border of alternate leaves and monkeys, both much of a size, which -broadens out at the base, affording space for the representation of a -hunt, men, dogs, grass and all complete. - -[Illustration: 132. 14TH CENTURY GERMAN.] - -[Illustration: 133. 14TH CENTURY GERMAN.] - -There was another reason for the adoption of a narrower border. Not only -were windows narrower now, but their arched heads were cusped, which -made it exceedingly difficult to carry any but the narrowest possible -border round them satisfactorily. It will be seen how awkwardly the -border fits (or does not fit) the window head on page 155. Even the -simplest border had to be very much distorted in order to make it follow -the line of the masonry; and, in any case, it gave a very ugly shape -within the border, and one again difficult to fill. Already, at the -beginning of the fourteenth century, the designer found it convenient to -run his border straight up into the cusped head of the light and let the -stonework cut it abruptly short; that occurs at Carcassonne. Sometimes, -as at Tewkesbury, the inconvenient border is allowed to end just above -the springing line of the arch, against a pinnacle of the canopy, beyond -which point there is only a line or two of white or colour, by way of -frame or finish to the background. An unusual but quite satisfactory way -of getting over the difficulty of carrying the border round the window -head is, to accept the springing line of the arch as the end of the -central design, and to make the foliated border spread and fill the -entire window head above. Some quarry lights in the triforium at Evreux -are effectively treated in that manner. - -[Illustration: 134. STRASSBURG.] - -Types of ordinary Decorated borders, English, French, and German, are -shown in this and the preceding chapter. The leafage springs from one -side or the other or from a central stem, or from either side of a -waving stem, or from two stems intertwined (page 158). Sometimes the -ground on one side is of a different colour from that on the other; in -any case the glazing is usually simple. One of the leaf borders at Rouen -Cathedral includes a series of little green birds; another, an oak -pattern, is inhabited at intervals by squirrels and wild men of the -woods. Rather interesting variations upon the ordinary type of border -are given on this and the preceding pages. The broader one above is of -distinctly unusual character, inasmuch as it has no background except -the painting out, and the colour of the leafage varies -quasi-accidentally. - -[Illustration: 135. 14TH CENTURY GERMAN.] - -The use of the rosette borders on pages 171, 172 is sufficiently -accounted for by the desire to get contrast to the foliated filling, but -it occurs at all periods more or less. So does the "block border"; but -for all that it is almost as characteristic of Decorated work as the -leaf border. It is seen in its simplest form on page 144. On page 389 it -is associated with foliage and rosettes. A typical form of it is where -the blocks are charged with heraldic devices, which may serve to -indicate the date, or to confuse one. In the design from Evreux on page -160 there occur, for example, the Fleurs-de-Lys of France alternating -with the Castle of Castille. These particular charges occur frequently -in the windows of the S. Chapelle at Paris, and in the lights from that -source now in the South Kensington Museum; and they go perhaps to show -that Blanche of Castille (who married Louis VIII.) gave them to the -chapel, or that they were in her memory. She died in 1252. It is most -improbable that the Evreux glass should belong to so early a date as -that. Were it so, the occurrence of this kind of thing in such early -work would only go to show that heraldic devices are as old as heraldry, -and that when the glazier had a narrow light to fill he treated it as a -narrow light, with a border in proportion to its width: he certainly did -that at the S. Chapelle. The fact remains that this particular form of -"block" border marks, as a rule, the approach of the fourteenth century. - -It may be as well to remind the reader that dates and periods are only -mentioned in order to save circumlocution. When the thirteenth century -is mentioned, it is not meant to convey the year 1201, nor yet 1299, but -the century in its prime. And, what is more, it is not meant to say that -the work ascribed to that period was quite certainly and indisputably -done after the year 1200 or before the year 1300, but only that it bears -the mark of the century--which, from the present point of view, is the -important thing. The precise and certain year in which this or that -device was by exception for the first time employed, or until which by -chance a practically obsolete practice survived, is interesting (if it -can be ascertained) only as a question of archæology. Anyway, a workman -would rather believe the evidence of his eyes, which he can trust, than -of documents, which, even if authentic, may not be trustworthy, and -which are perhaps open to misinterpretation. - -Typically Decorated glass, apart from the ornamental windows just -referred to, is the least interesting of Gothic. There is in it a -straying from Early tradition without reaching the later freedom and -attainment. In colour it has neither the strength of the Early work nor -the delicacy of the Late. It marks some progress in technique, but -little in design, and none in taste. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -LATE GOTHIC WINDOWS. - - -The subdivision of art into periods is in reality the veriest makeshift. -To be on quite safe ground we should have, as a matter of fact, to -reduce our periods to not more than half their supposed duration, and to -class all the rest of the time as belonging to intervals of transition. - -The truth is, it is always a period of transition. The stream moves -perpetually on; there are only moments in its course when it seems to -move more slowly, and we have time to fix its characteristics. It -follows that, if we divide our periods according to time, we have to -include within them work of very various character; and if we divide -them according to style, our dates get hopelessly confused. - -Some sort of classification is necessary in order to emphasise changes -which actually took place only by degrees, and are perceptible only to -the expert. But no sooner do we begin to classify, than we find so many -exceptions, that we are inclined almost to wonder if they do not form -the rule. All that has been said, therefore, and may yet be said, about -the periods of design, must be taken with more than a grain of -suspicion. For example, what shall be said about the great East window -at Gloucester Cathedral, which Winston instances as a typical example of -Decorated glass? Doubtless the technique is that of soon after the -middle of the fourteenth century, and the detail of the canopies, when -you come to examine them, is more nearly Decorated than anything else; -but the first impression of the glass is quite that of Perpendicular -work. This may come partly of the circumstances that the masonry of the -window follows already distinctly Perpendicular lines; but it comes much -more from the colour of the glass and its distribution. It is not merely -that blue and ruby backgrounds are carried straight up through the long -lengths of each alternate light, or that the blue is lighter and greyer -than in Decorated glass, but that the figures, and especially the -canopies, are for the first time, practically speaking, altogether in -white, only very slightly relieved with yellow stain. The student who -accepted this as typical Decorated work, would be quite at sea when he -came to Perpendicular glass, in which this paler colour, this -preponderance of white, and especially this framing of the figures in -white canopy work, is a most distinctive, if not the most distinctive, -feature. After all, the window is Perpendicular; and, though the glass -in it may have many characteristics of Decorated work, it cannot well be -said that the glass is Decorated, true though it be that glass did, as a -rule, follow rather in the wake of architectural progress. - -Many windows are almost equally difficult to classify. In the Decorated -glass at Wells there are both earlier and later features. The heads -glazed in pinkish glass, with eyes and beards leaded up in white, strike -an Early note, whilst the broadly treated bases or pedestals of certain -canopies in the Lady Chapel, one of which is here shown (the canopies -themselves are strictly Decorated), prelude the coming style. - -[Illustration: 136. PEDESTAL, WELLS.] - -These bases remind one of those in the ante-chapel at New College, -Oxford, dating from the last quarter of the fourteenth century, which, -though it is not difficult to trace in them the lingering influence of -Decorated tradition, must undoubtedly be put down as early examples of -the later style. In these fine windows (upon which the tourist turns his -back whilst he admires the poor attempt of Sir Joshua Reynolds in the -West window) there is not yet the accomplishment of full-fledged -Perpendicular work. The figures, though full of fine feeling, are not -well drawn, and the painting is not delicate; but the design of the -glass, its setting out, the balance and arrangement of colour, the tone -of the windows, and the breadth of effect, are admirable; and it is -precisely in these respects that it proclaims itself of the later school -of Gothic. Indeed, we may assume that it was in order to include such -work as this that the line was drawn at the year 1380. To class it with -Decorated glass would have been too absurd. Compare the New College -canopy on page 180 with the Decorated canopy on page 155 and the more -orthodox Perpendicular canopies below and on pages 185, 340, and there -is no possible hesitation as to which it most resembles. The only thing -in which it shows any leaning towards Decorated work is in the very -occasional introduction of pot-metal colour; and the main thing in which -it differs from later Perpendicular design is that its shafts are round -instead of square, and that it is more solidly built up, larger, more -nobly conceived. - -[Illustration: 137. CANOPY, NEW COLLEGE, OXFORD.] - -A parallel French instance is at the S. Chapelle at Riom, in which -canopies, having at first sight all the appearance of typically Late -Gothic work, prove to have details which one would rather describe as -Decorated. The German canopy work at Shrewsbury (pages 183, 186) is not -very far removed from Decorated. The later Perpendicular canopies run to -finikin pinnacles. - -[Illustration: 138. TYPICAL PERPENDICULAR CANOPY.] - -The New College canopies have none of the brassy yellow colour -characteristic of Decorated work, but are absolutely silvery in effect. -The gradual dilution, as one may say, of the deep, rich, Early colour is -noticeable throughout the fourteenth century. Towards its close the -glass painter halts no longer between two opinions, between light and -colour. He has quite made up his mind in favour of white glass. He has -come pretty generally to conceive his window as a field of white, into -which to introduce a certain amount of rich colour, not often a very -large amount. As a rule, perhaps not more than one-fourth of the area of -a fifteenth century window was colour; for, in addition to the white of -the canopy, there was commonly a fair amount of white in the draperies, -and the flesh was now always represented by white. The typical -Perpendicular window, then, is filled with shrinework in white, -enclosing figures, or figure subjects, into which white enters largely -(the flesh and some of the drapery, often a good deal, is sure to be -white), upon a background of colour. Not much of this coloured -background, most often in blue or ruby, and sometimes deep in colour, -was ordinarily shown, so fully was the space occupied by figure work. -Sometimes there would be represented, behind the figure, a screen of -white, so that only the head and shoulders would stand revealed against -dark colour. Sometimes this screen would be in colour, contrasting with -the background, richly diapered in imitation of damask (page 342). -Sometimes the background would be white, leaded perhaps in quarries; but -in any case the prevalent scheme of design was to frame up pictures, -more or less in colour, in architectural canopy work of white and stain. -Yellow stain, it should be said, was freely used in connection with all -this white; and its invariable association therewith is one of the -marked characteristics of Later Gothic glass; but as a rule the yellow -was not only delicate in tint but delicately introduced, so that it did -not much disturb the effect of white. There were significant passages of -yellow in it, but the effect of the mass was cool and silvery. - -In canopies yellow stain was used as gold might be in stonework, which -the canopies imitated; crockets and pinnacles would be tipped with -yellow, as with gilding (see opposite), and the reveal of the arch, -shown in false perspective above the figure, would be similarly stained, -so as to soften the transition from the dark colour of the background to -the white of the canopy mass. - -One comes upon windows, probably of about the beginning of the end of -the fourteenth century, in which the colour scheme is practically -limited to red, white, and blue, the yellow being, comparatively -speaking, lost in the white. Again, one finds windows in which the -colours are much lighter than in earlier glass. But as a rule the -lighter colours now introduced (the glazier's palette was by this time -quite extensive) were used to support, and not to the exclusion of, the -richer and deeper colour, which is the glory of glass, seldom to be -dispensed with even in grisaille. You may do without colour altogether, -but pale colours always have a poor effect. - -[Illustration: 139. FIGURE AND CANOPY, S. MARY'S, SHREWSBURY.] - -The typical Perpendicular canopies illustrated and already referred to -are quite favourable specimens of the kind of thing in vogue throughout -the fifteenth century. In France much the same forms were adopted (page -342). Some exceptionally delicate figure-and-canopy windows (or parts of -them) are to be found in the cathedral at Toulouse--the figure in -colour, or in white and colour, against a background of white, richly -diapered with damask pattern, which quite sufficiently distinguishes it -from the architecture only just touched with yellow. An instance of -later German work is given below. The German designer indulged -temperamentally in the interpenetration of shafting and other vagaries -of the kind, which we find in German stone carving. Sometimes in German -work, and occasionally also in French, Late Gothic canopies were all in -yellow, framing the picture, as it were, in gold. As a rule, however, -they were, as with us, silvery in tone, and framed the coloured glass in -a way most absolutely satisfactory, so far as effect is concerned. - -[Illustration: 140. GERMAN LATE GOTHIC CANOPY.] - -In itself, however, this canopy work is rarely of any great interest; -occasionally, as already in the preceding century, the designer has -enniched in the shafts little figures of saints or angels (there is just -the indication of such introduction of little statuettes in the very -simple and restrained example of canopy work from Cologne, on page 191), -redeeming it from dulness; but as a rule it is trite and commonplace to -a degree. The white, as frame, is perfect. It is none the more so that -it simulates misplaced stonework. What a strange thing it is in the -history of ornament that the natural bias of the designer seems to be so -irresistibly towards imitation! The man's first thought seems to be to -make the thing he is doing look like something it is not. Why, having -designed openings in the wall of his building, he should proceed -forthwith to fill them up with something in poor imitation of masonry, -is a mystery. Economy had then, perhaps, as now, more to do with it than -art, for it is a very cheap expedient. - -[Illustration: 141. ALL SOULS' COLLEGE, OXFORD.] - -Not only in the matter of colour, but in that of proportion, the later -Gothic canopies were a great improvement upon what had gone before. They -were distributed still very much upon the horizontal principle so -noticeable in Decorated work; but by this time the architect had come to -the tardy conclusion that the long lights of his window wanted holding -together, and he tied them together, if they were of any length, by -means of transoms, in which case the glass-worker had to deal with -lights of manageable length. The light from All Souls' College, here -given, is an example of a very usual Perpendicular arrangement. About -one half its entire length is occupied by a figure enshrined, as it -were, in an architectural niche. The base of the canopy is about equal -in height to the width of the light. The shafts are broad enough to -emphasise the independence of the light. The pinnacles of the canopy -extend into the window head. A point or two of background colour, as -though one could see through, are ingeniously introduced into the canopy -and its base. It would be difficult to better such an arrangement of -white and colour, except that one feels the urgent want of a margin of -white, to separate the coloured background from the masonry round the -window head. - -[Illustration: 142. TWO WINDOWS, S. MARY'S, SHREWSBURY.] - -The idea is, no doubt, that the shrinework should appear to stand in the -opening, and the figure be sheltered under that. The illusion aimed at, -it is scarcely necessary to say, is not produced, and in any case would -not have been worth producing. On the contrary, the desirable thing to -be done was, to acknowledge the window opening, which, except for this -pretence, the colour of the design effectually does. - -[Illustration: 143. FAIRFORD.] - -A frequent and equally typical arrangement was, where the light was long -enough, to make the base itself take the form of a low canopy over a -more or less square-proportioned subject, possibly a scene in the life -of the Saint pourtrayed above. This gave opportunity of introducing -figures on two different scales, without in any way endangering the -significance of the more important figure, which, by its size and -breadth of colour, asserted itself at a distance from which the smaller -subject appeared only a mass of broken colour. The proportions and -outline of such a subject are indicated by the Nativity on page 54, the -jagged line at the top of the picture marking the inner line of the -canopy work. In German work very commonly the base canopy encloses, as, -for example, at Cologne Cathedral, a panel of heraldic blazonry. - -The height of the canopy was, with us, more or less in accordance with -the length of the window; but sometimes more space was allowed for the -figure than at All Souls', and the vacant space about the head of the -saint was occupied with a label in white and stain bearing an -inscription. There are some admirable figure-and-canopy windows of this -description on the north side of the choir of York Minster, which seem -to have inspired a great deal of our modern mock-Perpendicular -figure-and-canopy glass. The label occurs, on a background of white -architecture, behind the Prophets from Fairford on pages 187, 391. A -more important example of it occurs round the figure of Edward the -Confessor, from S. Mary's, Ross (opposite), and again in the group from -the same source on page 339. Extremely clever ornamental use is made of -the label--a typically Perpendicular form of enrichment--in the German -glass on page 186. The extraordinary breadth of the phylacteries held by -the Prophets in the early fifteenth century windows in the S. Chapelle -at Riom, gives them quite a character of their own, and an admirable -one. - -[Illustration: 144. THE QUEEN OF SHEBA BEFORE SOLOMON, FAIRFORD.] - -At Great Malvern we find the lights above the transom of a window -occupied each by a figure and its canopy, whilst the lower lights -contain each three tiers of small subjects, separated only by bands of -inscription. In the four-light window at Malvern illustrating the Days -of Creation, each light contains three little subjects, one of which is -given on page 252. Sometimes, as in the windows from Fairford on pages -188, 372, subjects under a canopy are drawn to a scale as large as the -size of the window will allow. - -[Illustration: 145. KING EDWARD, S. MARY'S, ROSS.] - -In some shape or another the canopy almost invariably appears in -connection with figure work; it is the rarest thing to find, in place of -the familiar shafting, a border, such as that opposite. - -[Illustration: 146. YORK MINSTER.] - -Of the gradual improvement in drawing in the fifteenth century work it -is not necessary to say much. It belongs to the period rather than to -glass painting, and it is shown in the examples illustrated. It is of no -particular country, though our English work was possibly more -constrained than contemporary continental work. Particularly -characteristic of English work was the delicate tracing of the faces, -which were pencilled, in fine lines, the treatment altogether rather -flat, and this at a period when foreign glass was much more solidly -modelled. It is not possible, on the scale of illustration determined by -a book of this size, to illustrate this English peculiarity as clearly -as one would wish, but it will be apparent to the seeing eye even here. -It is within the bounds of possibility that the Fairford glass may have -been executed in England; if so, Flemish or German painters certainly -had a hand in it. To compare it with the neighbouring Perpendicular -glass at Cirencester, with its delicate tracing and fine stain (in which -matter the Fairford glass does not by any means excel), is to see how -very different it is from typical English work. Whether we look at the -detail of the canopies, or the drawing of the drapery, or the painting -of the glass, we see little to connect this with English work, though it -falls at once into its place as excellent Late Gothic glass. In the -windows of the nave of Cologne Cathedral, a figure from one of which is -here given, German Gothic glass reaches its limit. There is already a -trace, if only in the broad shaft of the canopy, of Renaissance -influence in the design. In others of these windows there are no single -figures. Entire lights are filled with biblical or legendary scenes, one -above the other, under dwarf canopies, which do not very clearly define -the horizontal divisions of the window; for all that, the horizontal -divisions are for the most part there. Except where the canopies are so -insignificant as not to count, a Perpendicular window presents, as a -rule, a screen of silvery-white, on which the pictures form so many -panels of more or less jewelled colour. - -[Illustration: 147. COLOGNE CATHEDRAL.] - -The enormous East window at York Minster, which belongs to the very -early years of the fifteenth century, contains, apart from its tracery, -no less than a hundred and seventeen subjects in its twenty-seven -lights; but the canopies dividing them are so narrow that they scarcely -answer the purpose of frames to the separate subjects. The design is -inextricably confused, and the subjects are very difficult to read; but -the effect is still as of a mass of jewels caught in a network of white. -In fact, the progress towards light is such that, whereas in the last -century the problem was how to get more and more white glass into a -coloured window, it seems now more often to be how to get colour into a -white one. - -White and stain enter so largely into Late Gothic glass that there -remains little to be said about grisaille. The glass of the period is, -for the most part, in grisaille and colour, the difference between it -and earlier grisaille being, that it consists so largely of -figure-and-canopy work. Windows, however, do occur all in white or all -in white and stain. Figures, for example, in white and stain, occur, as -in the South transept at York, on a ground of delicately painted -quarries. Again, a common arrangement is that of figures in white and -colour against a background of quarry work, a band of inscription -separating the pavement upon which they stand from quarries below them. -Such figures form a belt across many moderate-sized windows in parish -churches. Mere quarry lights also occur, with a border in which perhaps -some colour occurs. But the subject of quarries and quarry windows is -reserved for consideration in a chapter by itself. - -It must not be supposed that the drift of Later Gothic in the direction -of white glass was uninterrupted. That was by no means so. At certain -places, and at certain periods, and especially by certain artists, there -seems to have been a reaction against this tendency, if ever there was -any yielding to it. For example, notwithstanding all that has been said -about the lighter tone of Decorated glass, some of the very finest -fourteenth century German work, at S. Sebald's Church, Nuremberg, is as -intensely and beautifully rich as anything in Early work. There rows of -small subjects are framed in little canopies as deep in colour as the -pictures, and white glass is conspicuous by its absence. The nearest -approach to it is an opaque-looking horn colour, and that is used only -very sparingly. Possibly, however, it is not quite fair to call these -windows rich, for the upper part of them is light. So light is it, and -so little has it to do with the stained glass, that one scarcely accepts -it as part of the window, and therefore speaks of it as if it ended with -the colour. - -The unfortunate plan has been adopted here, as in the cathedral at -Munich and elsewhere in Germany, of filling only about half the window, -from the sill upwards, with strong stained glass. This ends abruptly at -an arbitrary and very unsatisfactory canopy arch, which, in a way, -frames it; and above it the window is filled with plain white rounds. At -Freiburg there is yet a further band of plain rounds next the sill of -the windows. The object of this is, doubtless, to get light into the -church; but the effect is as if the builders had run short of coloured -glass, and had only finished off the window temporarily. As a means of -combining white and colour this German shift is not, of course, to be -compared to the plan current elsewhere of distributing them in -alternating bands. It does not attempt to combine them, but cuts the -window deliberately in two. Not until you have shaded off from your eyes -the distracting rays of white light, can you properly appreciate or -enjoy the coloured glass. - -But, if these windows must be considered, as in a sense they must be, as -conforming to the demand for more light, there are others in which -strong colour is carried consistently through, not only in the -fourteenth but in the fifteenth century. (It is irritating and annoying -to have to hark back in this way to periods supposed to have been long -since left behind, but any arbitrary line of division between the styles -must, as it were, cut off points which project from one into the other, -sometimes very far indeed across the boundary line; and hence the -absolute necessity, at times, of seeming to retrace our steps, if we -would really trace the progress of design.) There are shown opposite -four lights out of a large window in the clerestory of the cathedral at -Troyes, in which the history of the Prodigal Son is pictured in little -upright subjects, framed in canopies of quite modest proportions and of -colour which in no wise keeps them separate from the richly coloured -figures underneath. One of them, for example, is of green, very much -the colour of an emerald, on an inky-purple ground. The result is a very -rich window, full of quaintly dramatic interest when you come to examine -it; but there are no broadly marked divisions of colour in the glass to -affect the architecture of the building one way or the other, nor does -it tell its tale very plainly. It is more easily read on page 194 than -from the floor of the church. - -[Illustration: 148. THE PRODIGAL SON, TROYES.] - -In the windows so far discussed the figure subjects, however small and -however close together, have always been marked off one from the other, -slightly as it might be, at first by the marginal lines round the early -subject medallions, and then by canopies. It is shown in another -fifteenth century window from Troyes (opposite) how even that amount of -framework was now sometimes abandoned. - -Progress in glass design, it was said, was in the direction of light and -of picture. Moved by the double impulse, the designer of the Later -Gothic period framed his coloured pictures in white. But where he -happened not to care so much about light, or had not to consider it, he -omitted even the narrow shaft of white or colour (which, so long as he -used a canopy, usually divided the picture from the stonework) and left -it to the mullions to separate them vertically. Horizontally he divided -them slightly by a band of ornament, as at Troyes, of about the width of -the mullions, or more frequently, and more plainly, by lines of -inscription on white or yellow bands. If the subjects were arranged -across the window in tiers alternately on ruby and blue grounds, that, -of course, separated each somewhat from the one next above and below it, -but it banded those on the same level together. This helped the -architectural effect, but confused the story-telling. - -If the pictures were arranged, throughout the width as well as the -length of the window, alternately in panels on red and blue grounds, -that kept the pictures rather more apart, but made the distribution of -the colour all-overish. That mere change of ground could not keep -pictures effectively separate will be clear when it is seen (opposite) -how little of the background extends to the mullion. The greater part of -the figures come quite up to the stonework, and the subjects -consequently run together. It is difficult to realise, except by -experience, how little the stonework can be depended upon to frame -stained glass. It seems when you see it all upon paper that the -mullions, with their strongly marked mouldings, must effectually frame -the glass between them. They do nothing of the kind. They go for so much -shadow: what you see is the glass. This the glass painters realised at -length, and took to carrying their pictures across them. And it has to -be confessed that so long as they schemed them cleverly the interference -of the mullion was not much felt. - -[Illustration: 149. THE STORY OF TOBIT, TROYES.] - -The distinction drawn so far between "single figures" and "subjects" has -answered its obvious purpose; but that also is, in a manner, arbitrary. -Figures standing separately, each in a light by itself, form very often -a series--such as the four Evangelists, the twelve Apostles, the -Prophets, the Doctors of the Church, or a succession of kings, bishops, -or other ecclesiastics. More than that, they form perhaps a group. When -we discover that facing the figure of the Virgin Mary is that of the -Angel Gabriel, we see at once that, though each figure occupies a -separate light of the window, and each stands in its own separate niche, -we have in reality here a subject extending through two lights--the -Annunciation. So in a four-light window--if in one light stands the -Virgin with the Infant Christ, and in the others a series of richly -garbed figures with crowns and gifts in their hands, it is clear that -this represents the Adoration of the Magi--a subject in four lights; and -the canopies over them may be taken to be one canopy with four niches. A -yet more familiar instance of continuity between the single figures in -the lights of a window occurs where the central light contains the -Christ upon the cross, and in the sidelights stand the Virgin and S. -John. We have in such cases the beginning of the subject extending -through several lights. It is only a short step from the Annunciation, -or the Adoration, or the Crucifixion described, to the same subject, -under one canopy, extending boldly across the window, with shafts only -to frame the picture at its sides. That is what was done--especially in -Germany. It occurs already in Early Decorated glass, where the upper -part of a big geometric window is sometimes occupied by brassy pinnacle -work, which asserts itself, perhaps, upon a ground of mosaic diaper, in -the most unpleasant way. In the white glass of a later period the effect -was happier. - -At first the designer did not, as a rule, aspire to carry his subjects -right across a big window. Accepting the transom as a natural division, -he would perhaps divide a four-light window vertically into two, so as -to get four subjects, each under a canopy extending across two lights; -or, in a five-light window, he would probably separate these by other -narrow subjects in the central lights. Divisions of this kind often -occur already in the stonework of the window, the lights being -architecturally divided by stronger mullions into groups. In that case -all the glass painter does is to emphasise the grouping of the lights -schemed by the architect. Where the architect has not provided for such -grouping he does it, perhaps, for himself. It enables him to design his -figures on a larger scale, and to get a much broader effect in his glass -than he could do so long as he kept each picture rigorously within the -limits of a single light. Consideration for his picture had probably -more to do with his reticence than respect for its architectural -framework; and so soon as ever he realised how little even a strong -mullion would really interfere with his work, he made no scruple to take -all the space he wanted for his purpose. Infinite variety of composition -is the result. The upper half of the window is perhaps devoted to a -single subject, or to two important pictures, whilst below the transom -the lights are broken up into quite little pictures; or in place of -these smaller pictures may be found little panels of heraldry, as occurs -often in Flemish work. These or the smaller pictures may be continued in -the sidelights of a broad window, flanking, and in a way framing, a -large central picture. Sometimes, as in the nave of Cologne Cathedral, -the upper half of the window may contain one imposing composition; below -that may be a series of important single figures, each provided with its -separate canopy; and below that again, at the base of the window, may be -a series, or several series, of small heraldic panels. - -The canopy extending across a broad window (page 200) may be so schemed -that there is obvious recognition of the lights into which it is -divided, or it may sprawl across the window space with as little regard -to intervening mullions as possible. There is now, in short, full scope -for the fancy of the artist, were he never so fanciful; and it would be -a hopeless task to try and catalogue the lines on which the design of a -large window might now be set out. - -We do not in the fifteenth century arrive yet at the most remarkable -achievements in glass painting. But you have only to compare such -pictures as those on pages 194, 196, with that on page 127 to see what a -complete revolution has come over the spirit of design. It is not only -that the draughtsman has learnt to draw, and the painter to paint; they -work on quite a different system. It was explained (page 44) how in -early days the glazier conceived his design as mosaic, how he first -thought it out in lead lines, and only relied on paint to help him out -in details which glazing could not give him. Now, it is easy to see that -the painter begins at the other end. He thinks out his picture as a -painting, and relies upon glazing only for the colour which he cannot -get without it. - -In the beginning, it was said, the glazier might often have fixed his -lead lines, and trusted to his ingenuity to fill them in with painted -detail. Now, it would seem, the painter might almost have sketched his -picture, and then bethought him how to glaze it. But that is not yet -really so. He did not even conceive his design as a picture and then -translate it into glass. His work runs so smoothly it cannot be -translation. The ingenuity with which he leads up little bits of colour -in the midst of white, is no mere feat of engineering; it is -spontaneous. It is clear that he had the thought of glazing in his mind -all along--that he designed for it, in fact. The difference between the -thirteenth century and the fifteenth century designer is, that one -thinks first of glazing, is primarily a glazier, the other thinks first -of painting, is primarily a painter. - -[Illustration: 150. FAIRFORD.] - -[Illustration: 151. RENAISSANCE WINDOW, TROYES CATHEDRAL.] - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -SIXTEENTH CENTURY WINDOWS. - - -The customary line between Gothic and Renaissance glass is drawn at -about A.D. 1530. That is to say, that there are to be found examples, -presumably of that date, which are still undoubtedly Gothic in -character. But he would be a bold man, even for an archæologist, who -dared to say precisely when the Gothic era came to an end. - -Quite early in the sixteenth century the new Italian movement began to -make itself felt in France, Germany, Flanders; in due course it spread -to this country. Eventually it supplanted the older style; but it was -only by degrees that it insinuated itself into the affections of -cis-alpine craftsmen. And in stained glass, even more plainly than in -wood or stone carving, is seen how gradually the new style was -assimilated by the mediæval craftsmen--more quickly, of course, by the -younger generation than the older--so that, concurrently with design in -the quasi-Italian manner, Gothic work was still being done. Much of the -earlier Renaissance work shows lingering Gothic influence. In the first -quarter of the sixteenth century a great deal of glass was designed and -executed by men hesitating between the old love and the new, only -partially emancipated from mediæval tradition, or only imperfectly -versed in the foreign style. - -There is a window at S. Nizier, at Troyes, for example, in which the -details are Renaissance, but the feeling is quite Gothic. The subjects -are even explained by elaborate yellow scrolls or labels inscribed in -black, very much after the manner of those which form such a feature in -the German Gothic work at Shrewsbury (page 186). Renaissance forms are -traced with a hand which betrays long training in the more rigid -mediæval school; and Gothic and Italian details are put together in the -same composition with a _naïveté_ which is sometimes quite charming. - -You can see that the designer of the window on page 203 was not -untouched by Renaissance influence. Possibly he thought the hybrid -ornament in his canopy was quite up to date. - -In the glass in the nave of Cologne Cathedral the suspicion aroused by -the side columns of the otherwise quite Gothic canopy on page 191 is -confirmed by definitely Renaissance forms in the ornament in the window -head. Again, at the Church of S. Peter, at Cologne, is a sort of pointed -canopy with ornament which looks at first like Gothic crockets, but on -nearer view it is just Italian arabesque in white and stain. Apart from -architectural accessories and detail of costume or ornament, to justify -the attribution of the work to this or that period, it is very often -difficult to give a name to early Renaissance work; the only safe refuge -is in the convenient word transitional. - -But for the nimbus in perspective, and the shield of arms and its little -amorino supporter, it would have seemed safe to describe the "Charge to -S. Peter" from S. Vincent at Rouen on page 207 as "Gothic." - -In French glass a lingering Gothic element is noticeable at a period -when Italian forms had firmly established themselves in contemporary -plastic art; but, then, glass painting was not an Italian art; and, -whilst wood carvers and sculptors were imported from Italy, and directly -influenced the Frenchmen working with them, glass painting remained in -the hands of native artists. - -Before very long the Renaissance did, of course, assert itself, in glass -painting as in all art, and we arrive at windows absolutely different -from anything that was done in the Middle Ages. The change was in some -places much more rapid than in others. Wherever there was a strong man -his influence would make for or against it. But meanwhile much -intermediate work was done, belonging more or less to the new school, -whilst retaining very much of the character of Gothic glass. - -That Gothic character was something well worth keeping; for it is the -character which belongs inherently to the material. - -The Gothic glass painters did, in fact, so thoroughly develop the -resources of the material, that a Renaissance window treated really like -glass inevitably suggests the lingering of Gothic tradition. This is no -slight praise of Gothic work; and, by implication, it tells against the -later Renaissance glass painters, whose triumphs were in a direction -somewhat apart from their craft. The great windows at Brussels, for -example (page 71), illustrate a new departure. They seem to have nothing -in common with mediæval art. On the other hand, one traces the descent -of such masterpieces of translucent glass painting as are to be found at -Arezzo (page 397), through those same intermediate efforts, directly to -Gothic sources. - -[Illustration: 152. ST. MARY'S, SHREWSBURY.] - -To trace the steps by which the new encroached upon the old, as one may -do, for example, at Rouen, is almost to come to the conclusion that the -short but brilliant period of Renaissance glass painting is really the -after-fruit of Gothic tradition, fertilised only by the great flood of -Renaissance feeling which swept over sixteenth century art. Nowhere is -this more clearly argued than in the windows at Auch, completed, -according to all accounts, as early as 1513. A strain of Gothic is -betrayed by the cusping which here and there fringes a semicircular -canopy arch; but no less mistakably mediæval is the technique -throughout, and equally so the setting out of the windows. For the -somewhat imposing canopies are not, for once, devised as frames to -correspondingly important pictures; but are simply shrines adorned with -figures each confined to its separate light: it is only the small -subsidiary predella or other such pictures which extend beyond the -mullions. No doubt there is doctrinal intention in the juxtaposition of -Prophets, Sibyls, and the rest--one of whom may even be supposed to be -addressing the other--but to all intents and purposes decorative, they -are just a row of standing figures, as distinct one from the other as -the usual series of figures under quite separate canopies. It is only -the canopy which connects them. This kind of composition (which is seen -again at Troyes, page 200) would never have occurred to a man altogether -cut off from Gothic tradition. - -[Illustration: 153. CHAPEL OF THE BOURBONS, LYONS.] - -[Illustration: 154. S. GODARD, ROUEN.] - -It is worth remarking that, even when Gothic and Renaissance canopies -alternate at Auch in a single window, or where Gothic niches are built, -as it were, into or on to larger Renaissance structures, there is no -appearance of incongruity. Truth to tell, the Gothic is not so purely -Gothic, nor the Renaissance so purely Renaissance, as that they should -clash one with the other. Both are seen through the temperament of the -artist. He mixed them in his mind; and the result is quite one, _his_ -style in short. - -Early Renaissance glass submitted itself, one can hardly say duly, but -almost as readily as late Gothic design, to the restraint of Gothic -mullions. The windows in which, as it happens, some of the best Early -French Renaissance work is found (and it is in France that the best is -to be found) are often smaller than the great Perpendicular windows -referred to, and do not lend themselves to such elaborate subdivision. -But the lines on which they are subdivided are very much as heretofore. -The canopy still extends through several lights, and covers a single -subject. Only now it is Renaissance in design. That does not mean to say -merely that round arched architecture takes the place of pointed. The -round arch occurs indeed, as in the windows in the Chapel of the -Bourbons, in Lyons Cathedral (on pages 204 and 349), supplemented by -amorini and festoons of fruit. But more often the canopy takes the form -of a frieze of Renaissance ornament, painted in white and stain, as at -S. Godard, Rouen (opposite), or glazed in white on colour, as in the -cathedral of the same city (pages 75, 350), supported at each end by a -pilaster. Not seldom it resolves itself into arabesque only very -remotely connected with architecture at all. Indeed, if it simulate -anything, it is goldsmith's work rather than masonry. Executed, as at -Rouen (pages 75, 206), in brilliant yellow on a dark coloured ground, it -has very much the appearance and value of beaten gold. That, rather than -sculpture, must have been in the mind of the designer. One form of -imitation is not much better than another; but here, at all events, -there is nothing which in the least competes with the surrounding -architecture; and it will scarcely be denied by any one who takes the -least interest in ornament, that design of this kind is vastly more -amusing than the dull array of misplaced pinnacles which often did duty -for ornamental detail in Gothic shrinework. A German version of a canopy -which ceases almost to be a canopy and becomes more like arabesque, is -given on page 350. That is supported by columns (the caps are shown in -the illustration) rather out of keeping with the ornament they support, -which makes very little pretence of being architectural. The canopies on -pages 204, 350, are supported only on little brackets at each side, and -have no shafts at all. This marks a new departure. The picture has now -no frame at its sides, only the stone mullion. - -[Illustration: 155. S. PATRICE, ROUEN.] - -[Illustration: 156. SUBJECT, S. VINCENT, ROUEN, 1525.] - -It was explained, in reference to glazing, what confusion of detail -resulted from the use of leads of which some were intended to form part -of the design and some not. Similar confusion is inevitable when certain -of the mullions are meant to be accepted as frame to the picture and -others to be ignored. The perhaps not very conspicuous canopy is often -the only hint as to which of the stone divisions you are to accept as -such, and which not. Even that was not always there to serve as a guide. -Already, as early as 1525, the date given to the window illustrating -the life of S. Peter (page 207), the canopy was sometimes annulled, and -the window given over entirely to picture, either one complete subject -or a series of smaller ones. The window dedicated to S. Peter contains -in its four lights eight equal subjects, a plan adopted in several -others of the windows at S. Vincent, Rouen. In a series of unframed -subjects, such as these, there is much less danger of confusion should -some one prominent figure recur throughout always in the same costume. -That is the case here, and again at Châlons, where the figure of Our -Lord, robed in purple, is conspicuous throughout: the mind grasps at a -glance that this is not one picture but a series. - -A change of period is indicated by the departure from the disc-shaped -nimbus. On pages 207, 210, 234, 397, the nimbus is shown in perspective; -an attempt is even made to make it hover above the head, an effect not -possible to produce in leaded glass; even at Arezzo it is not achieved. -Neither is the use of a mere ring of light, whether in flat or in -perspective, a happy substitution for the Gothic colour disc, as may be -seen, for example, at Cologne. The idea of the nimbus only keeps within -the border line which separates the sublime from the ridiculous, so long -as the thing is frankly accepted as a symbol, not as an effect. But, -were it otherwise, the use of the strongly marked disc of colour about -the head of prominent personages has an enormous value as a means of -distinguishing them from the background or from surrounding figures. Its -decorative importance is no less than its symbolic. Very especially is -this so in glass; and the glass painter who wantonly departs from its -use, reduces it to a mere ring (which does not separate it at all from -the background) or poises it in the air, is beginning to wander from the -way, narrow if you please, which leads to success in glass. This is said -with some reluctance in face of the all but perfect little panel from S. -Bonnet, at Bourges, on page 210. It is true that there the nimbus of the -boy saint, though in perspective, does by its dark tone separate the -head from the light ground, as the face is separated from the darker -drapery of his teacher; and, in so far, little of definition is -sacrificed; but, after all, admirably as the design is schemed, the oval -nimbus is not a whit less conventional than the round disc of mediæval -times, and it does lack something of distinction and dignity which that -conveyed. The date inscribed (1544) serves to remind us that we are -nearing the middle of the century, at which period glass painting may -safely be said to have reached its zenith and to be nearing the verge of -decline. - -It will have been seen in the examples lately instanced how story is -gradually more and more naturally set forth in glass. There is now no -vestige of flat treatment left. Even the standing figure (page 191) -stands forth from his niche, and though he may be backed by a curtain of -damask, there is shown above that a background of receding architecture. -So in the S. Bernard windows at Shrewsbury (pages 56, 203) there is -architectural distance shown in perspective, and again in the subjects -from Fairford, whether it be the portcullised gate of Jerusalem that is -represented (page 251), or the very inadequate palace of King Solomon -(page 188), or the Garden of Eden, in which the scene of the Temptation -is primitively pourtrayed (page 372), there is some attempt to render -the scene. Even in the fifteenth century work at Troyes (page 194) the -Prodigal is not merely shown among the swine, joining them in a dinner -of gigantic acorns, but he leans against an oak tree, and in the -distance is a little forest of trees. In Renaissance glass the scene is -much more naturally rendered, and forms almost invariably an important -part of the composition. Witness the palace of Herod (page 74) when -Salome dances before him, which is a great advance upon the Gothic -throne-room of King Solomon (page 188). - -[Illustration: 157. SUBJECT, S. BONNET, BOURGES.] - -The scene takes one of three forms: either it is architectural, or it is -landscape, or it is of architecture and landscape combined. A very -favourite plan of the French was to show distant architecture (glazed in -deep purple) through which were seen glimpses of grey sky, and perhaps a -peep of landscape; and it resulted invariably in a beautiful effect of -colour. In fact, a scheme of colour which recurs again and again at -Rouen, and in other French glass of the first part of the sixteenth -century, consists in the introduction of figures in rich colour and -white upon a background where white, green, purple, and pale blue -predominate to such an extent as to give quite a distinctive character -to the glass. The more distant landscape was painted very delicately -upon the pale grey-blue glass which served for sky, as shown on page -255, and in the same way architecture was also painted upon it. In the -view through the arches above the screen in a window at Montmorency -(page 213), both trees and buildings are represented in that way upon -pale grey glass, the green of the trees and hills stained upon it. -Sometimes the distance is painted upon white, as at King's College, -Cambridge; but in France the pale grey-blue background is so usual as to -be quite characteristic of the period. All this is a long way from the -mere diaper of clouds which in the early fifteenth century sometimes -took the place of damask pattern upon the blue which formed a background -to the Crucifixion, or other scene out of doors. It is now no longer a -case of symbolising, but of representing, the sky, and it is wonderful -what atmospheric quality is obtained by the judicious use of pale blue -painted with the requisite delicacy. The beauty of this kind of work, -especially on a small scale, is beyond dispute. Together with the -rendering of the flesh, it implies consummate skill in painting. The -painter comes quite to the front; but he justifies himself inasmuch as -he is able to hold the place. He does what his Gothic predecessors could -not have done, and does it perfectly. Could the Gothic artist have -painted like this, he also might have been tempted so far in the -pictorial direction as to have sacrificed some of the sterner qualities -of his design. - -The architectural environment of the figures on page 213 fulfils -somewhat the function of the Perpendicular canopy; it forms a kind of -setting of white for the colour; but, in the first place, it does not -pretend to frame them at the side, and, in the second, the attempt at -actual perspective necessitates an amount of shading upon the white -glass which detracts at once from its purity and from its value as -setting to the colour. The idea is there that you see through the window -into space; and, though that effect is never obtained, it is wonderful -how far some of the glass painters later in the century went towards -illusion. A certain false air of truth was sometimes given to the -would-be deception by an acknowledgment of the window-shape--that is, by -making the foremost arch or arches follow the shape of the window head, -and form, as it were, a canopy losing itself in perspective. -Architecture proper to the subject, or not too inappropriate to it, is -sometimes schemed so far to accommodate itself to the window-shape as to -form, with the white pavement, a more or less canopy-like setting for -the figures. It may be a sort of proscenium, the sides of which recede -into the picture, and form what may be called the scenery. At King's -College, Cambridge, Esau is seen bargaining away his birthright at a -table where stands the coveted pottage, in the midst of spacious halls -going back into distant vistas, seen through a sort of canopy next the -actual stonework. That concession to the framework of the window does -mend matters somewhat. The base of the picture opposite, for example, is -much more satisfactory than it would have been had it not acknowledged -the window-sill; but the architecture in the top part of the lights is -not a frame to the picture at all, nor yet a finish to the glass: it is -part of the picture, which thus, you may say, occupies the window as a -picture its canvas. In reality that is not quite so. There is some -acknowledgment, though inadequate, of the spring of the arch by a -horizontal cornice parallel with the bar; and the arcading, though -interrupted by the mullion and by the marble columns, steadies the -design; and altogether the architecture is planned with ingenuity, -though without frank enough acceptance of the window-shape. One would be -more tolerant to such misguided freedom of design were it not for the -kind of thing it led to. It must be admitted that both French and -Flemings, until they began to force their perspective, and to paint -shadow heavily, did very beautiful and effective work in this way. - -A multitude of figures, as, for example, in the Judgment of Solomon at -S. Gervais, Paris, more or less in rich colour, could be held together -by distant architecture and foreground pavement largely consisting of -white glass, in a way which left little to be desired, except fuller -acknowledgment of the stonework. But it took a master of design to do -it, and one with a fine sense of breadth and architectural fitness. - -When such architecture was kept so light as to have the full value of -white, and when the figures against it were also to a large extent in -white, and the colour was introduced only in little patches and jewels -skilfully designed to form, here the sleeves of a white-robed figure, -there a headdress, there again the glimpse of an underskirt, and so -on--all ingeniously designed for the express purpose of introducing rich -colour, the whole shot through with golden stain--the effect is -sometimes very beautiful. - -[Illustration: 158. SAINTS, CH. OF S. MARTIN, MONTMORENCY.] - -Admirable Flemish work, Renaissance in detail, but carrying on the -traditions of Gothic art, is to be found in plenty at Liège, both in -the cathedral (1530 to 1557) and at S. Martin. This is excellent in -drawing and composition, most highly finished in painting, fine in -colour, and silvery as to its white glass, which last is splendidly -stained. In the same city there is beautiful work also at S. Jacques, -with admirable treatment of the canopy on a large scale. It differs from -French work inasmuch as it is Flemish, just as the glass at the church -of Brou differs in that there is a characteristic Burgundian flavour -about it; but those are details of locality, which do not especially -affect the course of glass painting, and which it would be out of place -here to discuss. - -In England we are not rich in Renaissance glass. The best we have is -Flemish, from Herkenrode, now in the cathedral at Lichfield. The greater -part of this is collected in seven windows of the Lady Chapel--no need -to explain which; the miserable shields of arms in the remaining two -convict themselves of modernity. In the tracery, too, there is some old -glass, but it is lost in the glare of new glazing adjacent. Otherwise -this glass is not much hurt by restoration. Four of the windows are -treated much alike; that is, they have each three subjects, extending -each across the three lights of which they are composed, some with -enclosing canopy, and some without. A fifth three-light window is broken -up into six tiers of subjects, each of which appears at first sight as -if it were confined to the limits of a single light, but there is in -fact connection between the figures; for example, of three figures the -central one proves to be the Patron Saint of the Donor, himself -occupying one of the sidelights, and his wife the other. If the Saint is -seated the Donors stand. If he is represented standing they kneel before -him. The two larger six-light windows at Lichfield are divided each into -four; that is to say, the four quarters of the window have each a -separate subject which extends laterally through three lights, and in -depth occupies with its canopy about half the entire height of the -window. - -The Lichfield glass has very much the character of that at Liège. So has -the Flemish glass now at the east end of S. George's, Hanover Square, a -church famous for its fashionable weddings. This is some of the best -glass in London, well worthy the attention of the guests pending the -arrival of the bride. The design, however, is calculated to mystify the -student, until he becomes aware that the lights form part of a "Tree of -Jesse," adapted, not very intelligently, to their present position, and -marred by hideous restoration, such as the patch of excruciating blue in -the robe of the Virgin. The vine, executed in stain upon white, with -grapes in pot-metal purples, is not nearly strong enough to support the -figures; this may be in part due to the decay of the paint, which has -proceeded apace. - -Again, at Chantilly (page 218) may be seen how lead lines quarrel with -delicate painting. The more delicate the painting, the greater the -danger of that--a danger seldom altogether overcome. - -[Illustration: 159. S. GEORGE'S, HANOVER SQUARE, LONDON.] - -The most important series of Renaissance windows in this country is in -King's College Chapel, Cambridge. "Indentures" still remain to tell us -that these were contracted for in 1516 and 1526. Apart from some -strikingly English-looking figures in white and stain upon quarry -backgrounds in a side chapel, and other remains of similar character, -and from a very beautiful window almost opposite the door by which one -enters--differing in type, in scale, in colour, altogether from the -other windows--the glass throughout the huge chapel was obviously -planned at the time of the first contract, and there is a certain -symmetry of arrangement throughout which bespeaks the period of -transition. The windows consist each of two tiers of five lights. A -five-light window offers some difficulty to the designer if he desire -(as in the sixteenth century he naturally did) to introduce subjects -extending across more than one light. A subject in two lights does not -symmetrically balance with a subject in three. He might carry his -subject right across the window, but that might give him very likely a -larger space to fill than he wanted; and besides, the time was hardly -come for him to think of that. He might carry it across the central -group of three; but that would leave him a single light on each side to -dispose of. Remains the idea of a subject in two lights at each side of -the window, and a central composition occupying only one light. That was -not a very usual plan, although it was adopted, at Fairford for example, -where the side subjects in two lights under a canopy are effectually -separated by a central subject which has none. At King's the sidelights -have no canopies further than such as may be accepted as part of the -architecture proper to the subject, schemed more or less to frame the -picture (as in the case of the window at Montmorency, page 213); it is -only in the centre lights that the figures (two in each light, one above -the other) are enclosed in canopy work. These figures (described as -"messengers"), with elaborately flowing scrolls about them inscribed -with texts of Scripture, are many of them quite Gothic in character, -even though they have Renaissance canopies over them. The designs of -these mostly do duty many times over, as if this merely decorative or -descriptive work were not of much account; and the same figure occurs, -here well painted, there ill done, or painted perhaps in a late, loose -way, quite out of keeping with the drawing: there is no sort of sequence -in them. The notion of these intermediate figures, at once -distinguishing the subjects one from the other, and throwing light upon -their meaning, is good. But in effect it fails of its object, thanks to -the independent spirit of the later painters, who thought more of their -pictures than of architectural restraint. - -The subjects on each side of the window are very large in scale, very -pictorially and very freely treated, very finely designed at times, and -very splendid in effect; but they are most unequal, and they are all -more or less of a tangle. Their confusion is the greater inasmuch as -there is no attempt to balance one picture with another. A landscape -background on one side of the window answers to an architectural -background on the other. On one side the interest of the subject is -towards the top of the lights, on the other to the bottom, and so on. -Either subject or both may be so merged with the "messengers" that a -casual observer would hardly be aware of the existence of such -personages. - -[Illustration: 160. THE STORY OF PSYCHE, CHANTILLY.] - -All this makes it difficult to trace the subject; and yet the windows -are in a certain pictorial way the more effective. In fact the unity of -the _window_ has been preserved: the white landscape on one side, and -the white architecture on the other, make equally a setting for the -colour, and form, with the "messengers" and their little canopies, _one_ -framing, not several frames. Right or wrong, the artist has done what he -meant to do, and done it oftentimes very cleverly, though not with -uniform success. The inequality spoken of is not only in workmanship but -in design. Some of these pictures have characteristics, such as the -needless evasion of leading, which one associates rather with quite -the end of the century than with anything like the date of the second -contract: possibly the execution of the work extended over a longer -period of time than is generally supposed. However that may be, the -windows generally, remarkable as they are, are not markedly enough of a -period to serve as an object lesson in glass design. They are neither -quite late enough to illustrate the decline of art, nor workmanlike -enough to show the culmination of sixteenth century design--painter-like -and pictorial, but in which the designer knew how to make the most of -the glass in which it was to be wrought. - -That is best seen in some of the French and Flemish work above referred -to, in the work, for example, at Ecouen and Montmorency, so fully -illustrated in Monsieur Magne's most admirable monograph. The figure, -for example, of William of Montmorency (page 66), the father of the -great Anne, might serve for a votive picture of the period; but it is -designed, nevertheless, as only a man careful of the conditions under -which glass painting was done could design. Careful of conditions! That -is just what the designers of the King's College glass were not, or not -enough. And so begins the end. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -LATER RENAISSANCE WINDOWS. - - -The magnificent windows of Van Orley at S. Gudule, Brussels, mark in a -sense the summit of design, as well as of painting, in stained glass. -But it is design of a kind not strictly proper to the material, for -which reason the discussion of his work, though it was done well within -the first half of the sixteenth century, has been reserved by way of -introduction to the period which it inaugurated, the period when the -glass painter not merely put painting first of all, but sacrificed to it -qualities peculiar to glass. - -The heavy painting of this work and much that followed it has already -been discussed. But something of that was perhaps implied in the very -ideal of the painter; the execution only follows out the scheme of the -design. The scope as well as the power of the designer is better -illustrated in the two great transept windows, than in those of the -chapel of the Holy Sacrament. Even in the very inadequate rendering of -the one of them on page 71 may be seen how large and dignified the man's -conception was. The effect is gorgeous; but it is produced as simply, -for all the unsurpassed elaboration of ornamental detail, as a Goth -could wish. An unsophisticated designer of the thirteenth century could -scarcely have gone more directly to work. He would not have grouped his -figures with such art, but he would have separated each from the other -and from the ground in much such a straightforward way. Yet the _motif_ -of the design, the idea of making figures and architecture stand as it -were in strong and round relief against the light, went far to bring -about excessive use of paint; and the design is therefore in a measure -at fault, as was the later Netherlandish work, founded upon it, of which -it may be taken as the nobler type. - -It is a far cry from the slender Perpendicular canopy to this triumphal -arch. The architecture is here no frame to the picture, but the backbone -of the picture itself, and it is disposed in the most masterly way. It -takes the place of a magnificent high altar. Sometimes in compositions -of this kind the altar-like canopy enshrines a rich picture, just as -veritable stonework might frame a painted altar-piece, whilst in the -foreground kneel the Donors. In this case Charles the Fifth and his wife -Isabella and their attendant saints are the picture, the object of their -adoration, the Almighty, being relegated to one of the side arches. -Similarly in a three-light window (of much more glassy character, -however) at Montmorency, Guy de Laval has the central position, and the -crucifix before which he kneels is put on one side. This is rather -characteristic of the period. In the sixteenth century windows were -erected, not so much to the glory of God, as to the glorification of the -Donor, who claimed a foremost, if not the very central, place for -himself. - -The donor was no doubt always, as to this day, an important person in -connection with the putting up of a stained glass window. But in early -days he was content to efface himself, or if he appeared upon the scene -at all it was in miniature, modestly presenting the little image of his -gift in a lower corner of the window. In the fourteenth century he is -still content with the space of a small panel, bearing his effigy or his -arms, at the base of the window. Even in the fifteenth he is content at -times to be represented by his patron saint, as in the beautiful window -in the chapel of Jacques Coeur, at Bourges. In the sixteenth he is -very much in evidence. No scruple of modesty, or suspicion of -unworthiness, restrains him from putting in an appearance in the midst -of the most serious and sacred scenes, very much sometimes to the -confusion of the story. Eventually the donor, his wife, and perhaps his -family, with their patron saints, who literally back them up in their -obtrusiveness, claim, if they do not absorb, all our attention, and the -sacred subject takes quite a back place. In the foreground of the scene -of the Last Judgment which occupies the great west window at S. Gudule, -Brussels, kneels the donor, with attendant angels, on a scale much -larger than the rest of the world, competing in fact in importance with -the figure of Our Lord in Majesty above. - -However, the vain-glory of princes and seigneurs resulted in the -production of works of such consummate art that, as artists, we can but -be grateful to them. In the presence of the splendid achievement of Van -Orley, who shall say that the artist does not justify himself? Nothing -equal to it _in its way_ was ever done. - -[Illustration: 161. THE PARABLE OF THE PHARISEE AND THE PUBLICAN, -GOUDA.] - -It may not be according to the strict rules of the game: it is not; but -that it is magnificent, no fair-minded artist can deny. Our just cause -of quarrel is, not with that, but with what that led to, what that -became in less competent hands. It is the price we pay for strong men -that they induce weak ones to follow them in a direction where they are -bound to fail. Van Orley's triumphant answer to any carping of ours -would be, to point to the great west window of the cathedral, designed -on earlier and more orthodox lines, and say: "Compare!" We have no right -to limit art to what small folk can do. - -The further development of the Netherlandish canopy is shown in the -Gouda glass above. Here is still considerable skill in the way in which -the window is set out, and the patches of colour are introduced (for -example, in the two figures leaning on the balcony and the wreath of -leaves and fruit above them) amidst the predominant white,--if only the -white glass had been whiter in effect. But there is altogether too much -of this architectural work, even though it is used, in the pictured -parable at least, to dramatic purpose. The notion of the Pharisee -gesticulating away in the far distance, whilst the Publican modestly -fills the foreground, is cleverly conceived and skilfully carried out; -but the picture is overpowered by its ponderous frame. - -[Illustration: 162. GOUDA, 1596.] - -It is in the wonderful series of late sixteenth century windows at -Gouda, in Holland, that the fullest and furthest development of -pictorial design is shown. The period of their execution extends from -1555 to 1603; and, as they are admittedly the finest works of their day, -they may be taken to represent the best work of the latter half of the -sixteenth century. They are, in fact, typical of the period, only at its -best; it is not often that work of that date was designed with such -power or painted with such skill. The diagrams given here and on pages -79, 244, 258, do no manner of justice to the glass; but they will help -the reader better to understand what is said concerning it. They -indicate at least the lines on which these daring designers planned -their huge windows, the main lines which pictorial design on a large -scale is destined henceforth to take. - -In the clerestory of S. Eustache, Paris, are some large two-light -windows which somewhat recall the Gouda work; but the design is rather -original. One vast architectural composition in white, not very heavily -painted, fills the window, against which stand a series of giant -Apostles in colour, one in each light, occupying about one-third of the -height of the window. This much recognition of the separate openings is -something to be thankful for towards the middle of the seventeenth -century. - -[Illustration: 163. S. SEBALD'S, NUREMBERG.] - -A striking feature, we have seen, about the later Renaissance canopy as -shown at Gouda, and already at Brussels, is its vast dimensions. It no -longer frames the picture: it is a prominent, sometimes the most -prominent, feature in its design. - -Even earlier than that the canopy was already sometimes of very -considerable extent. At S. Sebald's, Nuremberg, there is a great -altar-like canopy ending in a pediment about two-thirds of the way up -the window, with plain white glass above, in which the shafting at the -side takes up practically the entire width of the two outer lights, as -here shown in the diagram of a portion of the glass. Yet this window is -as early as the year 1515, and before the period when masses of deep -shadow were represented by paint. Accordingly the canopy in this -instance is glazed in pot-metal of steely grey-blue, which, with the -little figures, mainly in steely grey armour against a white ground, and -the heraldic shields at the side, mainly in red and white, all very -slightly shaded, has a singularly fresh, bright, and delicate effect. - -Another instance of preponderating architectural work occurs also at -Nuremberg in the choir of the church of S. Lorenz, and though it belongs -to the beginning of the seventeenth century, that too is leaded up much -as it might have been in the fifteenth. But the great clumsy column, -opposite, with its clumsier figure of Fame, against a ruby background -extending right up to the stonework of the window, is not a satisfactory -filling to the outer light of a big window. - -The last thing to expect of late Renaissance work is modesty in the use -of architectural accessories, whether in the form of frame or -background. Frame and background they are not; they claim to be all or -nothing. Just as ornamental design was gradually pushed out of use by -figure work, so the picture was in time overpowered by its frame. And -the frame was in the end such that, when it came to be discarded, it was -not much loss. - -[Illustration: 164. S. LORENZ, NUREMBERG.] - -In the latter half of the sixteenth century and thenceforward design -continued to travel in the direction of what was meant for a sort of -realism. If the more or less altar-like canopy was retained, it was -meant to appear as if it stood bodily under the arch of the window; if -it was abandoned, you were supposed to see more or less _through_ the -window, perhaps into distant country, perhaps into receding aisles of -the church. - -It formed part of the canopy scheme, that the structure should end -before it reached the top of the window, so that you could see beyond it -into space. The designers would have been only too happy if they could -have done away with the glass above that. If they had had big sheets of -plate glass, they would certainly have used them to produce the effect -of out of doors--there was already a _plein air_ school in the -eighteenth century--as they had not, they were obliged to accept the -inevitable, and lead up their white glass; but they went as far as they -could to doing away with its effect, using thin, transparent material, -which was not meant to appear as though it formed part of the -composition. Occasionally they would use pale blue glass, or tint it in -a blue enamel, further to suggest the sky beyond. This (page 222) would -commonly be glazed in squares. The pure white glass also was often -glazed in square or, as at Brussels, diamond quarries (page 71). - -Subjects themselves, it has been explained, came to be glazed as much as -possible in rectangular panes; but it marks, it may here be mentioned, a -decline of design, as well as of technique, when these came to interfere -in any way, as they did, with the drawing. Having made up his mind that -his design is to be glazed in rigid square lines, the artist should -logically have designed accordingly. He had only to mark off the -glazing lines on his cartoon, and scheme his composition so that it was -not hurt by them. Towards the seventeenth century the plain glass, the -extra part beyond the canopy or beyond the picture, would often be -glazed in some simple pattern. That, you might imagine, stood for the -window _behind_ the picture or the monument. At the church of S. -Jacques, Antwerp, above a picture of the Circumcision, is a canopy -leaded in squares and painted to look like falsehood, beyond which clear -glass is glazed in a pattern. - -Occasionally an attempt is made to merge the picture into the plain -glazing above, as at S. Paul's, Antwerp, where the yellow sky, against -which is shown the distant city, and so on, is glazed in squares, which -further off become gradually white, and then at their interstices have -smaller diamond-shaped pieces of glass let in. - -Where a subject glazed in quarries is represented against a background -of plain glazing of more elaborate design, there is difficulty in -joining the two, except by means of a strong lead outline to the -figures, or whatever may come next to the plain glass, which outline the -seventeenth century designer was anxious before all things to avoid. -Accordingly, as the plain pattern work approached the margin of the -painted work, he replaced the leads by paint, which sham leads, of -course, could be made to disappear as seemed good to him. But these -little games of his, to judge by results, were hardly worth the candle. - -It will be seen how, in the French glass on page 200, the canopy came to -be backed and surrounded by unpainted glass, quarries in that case. -There the canopy sufficiently occupies the window space not to strike -one unpleasantly; but that is sixteenth century work; later, and -especially in Flanders, canopies are represented, as in the cathedral at -Antwerp (1615), adrift, as it were, in a sea of plain glazing. Even when -the glass has some quality of glass the effect of that is not happy. -When the glass is thin and transparent it is disastrous. - -At S. Jacques, Antwerp, again, coats of arms hover unsupported in -mid-air, the mere lines of the glazing being quite inadequate to their -apparent support. It is different, of course, where the heraldic device, -as opposite, is itself little more than plain glazing. That is a very -mild form of art; but, in its way, it is satisfactory enough. - -Perhaps least fortunate of all in effect are the landscapes at S. -Jacques, which float, without even a canopy to frame them, in an -atmosphere of leaded glass. Antwerp is rich in glass, much of it very -cleverly executed, which would serve very well to illustrate how _not_ -to design a window. - -[Illustration: 165. GOUDA, 1688.] - -The place of the canopy was supplied sometimes, especially in later -Netherlandish work, by the cartouche so dear to the Dutch. It fulfilled -very much the office of the canopy, framing the design; and, had it -been kept white, it would have framed it well, affording circular and -other shapes which form a welcome variation upon the usual arched -opening. But it was not white at all; very much the reverse. Indeed the -idea of the Dutch cartouche, with its interpenetration of parts, and -curling and projecting straps and bolts, tempts the painter to a heavy -method of painting, destructive of the very quality of white. The device -depends for its effect far too much upon force of shadow to be of any -great use in white glass. The comparatively early cartouche in the lower -half of the window at Gouda, given on page 223, is of the simplest kind, -and has none of that too-seductive bolt work; but it is dull and heavy -in effect, being painted in heavy brown, with the idea of giving -atmospheric effect to the picture supposed to be seen through it. - -[Illustration: 166. PLAIN GLAZING, S. GERVAIS, PARIS.] - -A great cartouche is often used as a kind of base to a canopy extending -across the whole width of a wide window, or the base of the canopy may -include a very important cartouche, occupied in either case by a long -inscription. Here again the oblong patch of white or yellow may have -value, in proportion as it is allowed to preserve the quality of glass. -There is, however, something poor and mean about large areas of small -lettering, and it is a pity to see the opportunity which bold -inscriptions give quite thrown away. Moreover, the inscriptions are -invariably too long. The framers of inscriptions do not realise the -multitude of readers they scare away by the volume of their wording. The -design of a window at S. Jacques, Antwerp, consists merely of an -inscription label, with a helmet above and mantling in black and white -(the black, of course, paint) set in plain glazing. - -Up to the very last whole windows were glazed very often in plain -patterns, usually all in clear white glass. A couple of designs, into -which a little colour is introduced, are given below and opposite. In -spite of the increased facility for cutting glass, afforded from the -beginning of the century by the use of the diamond, patterns were seldom -very elaborate; but, by way of illustrating what can be done by means of -the diamond, there is shown overleaf quite a conjuring feat of glazing. -The thick black lines in the drawing represent the leads; the white -spaces enclosed are plain white glass, rather poor in quality; the -thinner lines stand for cracks, possibly not, or not all of them, of the -glazier's doing, for it would be almost impossible to handle such work -without breaking it. It is well-nigh incredible that each of these -_fleurs-de-lys_ should have been cut out of a single piece of glass, the -marginal band to it out of a second, and so with the background spaces. -Glaziers may be inclined to question the possibility of such a _tour de -force_, even in poor thin glass. Certainly one would not have thought it -possible; but there it is, in the museum at Angers, close to the eye, -where you can see and examine it. This is glazing with a vengeance. It -is not the sort of thing that any one would undertake, except as a trial -piece, to show his skill; but if ever a glazier deserved his diploma of -mastership here is the man. - -[Illustration: 167. PLAIN GLAZING, LISIEUX.] - -[Illustration: 168. A TOUR DE FORCE IN GLAZING, ANGERS MUSEUM.] - -The composition of some of the windows belonging to the first half of -the seventeenth century at Troyes does not follow the general tendency -of the period. The better part of this, if not the greater, is -attributed to Linard Gontier (1606-1648). But the design of these -windows, and the style of them, is so varied, and sometimes so little of -the period, that one is disposed to think, either that he was a painter -only and did not design them at all, or that he borrowed his designs -freely from Italian and other sources. The panel on page 400, the Virgin -girt with clouds and cherubs, distinctly recalls the work of the Della -Robbia School; and again the figures opposite remind one of late -sixteenth century paintings. An unusual thing, however, about some of -these windows is the way they are set out. The disposition of the design -of the three-light window from S. Martin ès Vignes is as simple and -severe as though it had been Gothic. The glazing, too, is not in -squares, but follows the design. Except for the rather robustious -drawing of the figures, and the futile kind of detail which does duty -for canopy work, the glass might belong to the first half of the -sixteenth century. - -[Illustration: 169. THREE LIGHTS, S. MARTIN-ÈS-VIGNES, TROYES.] - -Again, in the subject of the marriage of SS. Joachim and Anna on page -234, it is rather by the types of feature and the cast of draperies, -than by the composition, that the date of the work proclaims itself. It -is proclaimed, of course, unmistakably by the use of enamel, not only in -the warm-coloured flesh, but throughout, to support, and sometimes to -supply the place of, pot-metal glass. Nevertheless, the effect of much -of this glass is brilliant to a degree almost unprecedented in the first -half of the seventeenth century. The painter had skill enough to get the -maximum of modelling with the minimum of paint. He could afford, -therefore, to use paint sparingly, leaving plenty of glass clear, and -seldom sacrificing its translucency, as was done in the group of donors -on page 81, whose black mantles are rendered in solid paint. Those -heavily painted figures recall a couple of Donors in a window at Antwerp -(1626), equally black robed, against a nearly black screen, all in -paint: they would have made a capital votive picture; but they are about -as unlike glass as anything one can conceive. - -Exceptionally good seventeenth century work is to be found also at Auch. -It seems that it was proposed (towards 1650) to complete the windows in -a way worthy of the splendid beginning in the choir; but the art was not -forthcoming; and the Chapter of that day was wise enough to fall back -upon comparatively unimportant quarry windows, with borders and tracery -in white and stain and blue enamel, which is at least brilliant in -colour, and pleasing in effect. That may be said also of the Western -Rose. In the Roses of the transepts, the artist goes further, and -produces, by means of arabesque in white and stain, upon a ground mainly -of blue and ruby, occasionally varied by green, each light defined by a -simple border of white and stain, a couple of flamboyant Rose windows -with glass which would do credit to the period of the stonework. They -might well (at the distance they are placed from the eye) be taken at -first sight for Early Renaissance work. In fact they are really mosaic -glass--so rare a thing by this time that the windows are probably of -their kind unique. - -Even at its best enamelled glass is less effective than the earlier -work. In proportion as the place of pot-metal is supplied by enamel, the -colour is inevitably diluted, and at times it is quite thin. Indeed, it -is pretty well proved, by the work of men who are masters in their way, -that, in painted as distinguished from mosaic glass, the choice lies -between weak colour and opacity. At Auch and at Troyes we have weak but -still often pure and brilliant colour. - -The opposite defect of opacity reaches probably its greatest depth in -the four great Rubens-like windows at S. Gudule in the chapel of Our -Lady immediately opposite that of the Holy Sacrament, where Van Orley's -windows are. The design is there absolutely regardless of any -consideration of glass or architecture. Each window is treated as a vast -oil picture, without so much as a frame. Here is no vista of distant -architecture, nor any such relief of lighter colour as you find at -Gouda. Force of colour is sought by masses of deep shadow, into which -the figures merge. This shadow being obtained by paint, and the glazing -being in the now usual squares, there are literally yards of painted -quarries, which, except when the sun is at its fiercest, are all but -black. And withal the effect is not rich as compared with even the -common Gothic glass, though it is not without a certain picturesqueness -when perchance the sun struggles through. A painter might find it an -admirable background to his picture; no architect would choose it for -his building. Three of these windows were designed, it seems, by a pupil -of Rubens, Van Thulden, who worked under him at the Luxembourg, and they -have all the character of his work--except that the colour is dull. - -At New College, Oxford, are some smaller windows with figures, also -recalling the manner of the master, and said to be by pupils of his. -They, too, are dull and heavy in effect. The canopies over the figures -are terrible caricatures of the Gothic shrines in the ante-chapel. -Better seventeenth century glass is to be found at Oxford in the work of -the Van Lingen, a family of Dutchmen settled in England, who executed -windows in Wadham and Balliol Colleges and elsewhere. Some of these are -rich in colour. Apart from the rather interesting use of enamel made in -them, they are not of great value; but they show as well as more -important examples the kind of thing which did duty for design. - -The windows in Lincoln's Inn Chapel, London, illustrate not unfairly the -dreary level of dulness as to colour and design to which seventeenth -century glass declined. That it could fall still lower was shown, for -example, by Peckitt, of York, who is responsible for the glass on the -north side of New College Chapel, Oxford, facing the work of the -Dutchmen. These date from 1765 to 1774. - -[Illustration: 170. ST. MARTIN ÈS VIGNES, TROYES.] - -The history of eighteenth century windows may, if one may plagiarise a -famous bull, be put into the fewest possible words: there were -none--worth looking at. To find pleasure even in Sir Joshua's design at -New College, you must consider it as anything but glass. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - -PICTURE-WINDOWS. - - -The course of glass design was picture-ward. Picture design, however, -did not stand still, and hence arises some confusion in the use of the -word "pictorial." It is time to try and clear that up. Stained glass, it -may be truly said, has been from the very first pictorial. The earliest -glass, therefore, and the latest, the best and the worst, may alike be -termed pictorial. The difference is in the conception as to what -constituted a picture, say, in the thirteenth century and the -seventeenth. It all depends upon the kind of picture attempted. - -Archaic art aims already at nature. We probably do not give the early -painter credit enough for his intention of rendering natural things -naturally. In part at least the stiffness of his design comes from lack -of skill, and often where we find him quaint he meant no doubt to be -perfectly serious and matter-of-fact. But it was not alone incompetence -that held his hand. He was restrained always by a decorative purpose in -his work. Here again he was not conscious of sacrificing to any higher -rule of art; he bothered himself as little about that as a bee about the -way it shall fashion its cell; he worked in the way to which he was -born; but the idea had not yet developed itself that a picture could be -painted quite apart from the decoration of something, and it never -entered his mind to do anything but adapt himself to the decorative -situation. - -A picture, then, in mediæval times was a work of decorative art, -designed to fit a place, to fulfil part of a scheme of decoration, in -which it might more often than not take the first place, but no more; it -had no claim to independence. - -In glass the picture obeyed two conditions which more or less pulled -together: as art it subserved to decorative and architectural effect; as -craftsmanship it acknowledged and accepted the limitations of glass -painting. In the course of years the ideal of architectural fitness -underwent successive changes, and the limitations of the glass painter -grew less; his scope, that is to say, was widened, and his art took -what we call more pictorial shape. Still, so long as the pictorial ideal -itself was restrained within the limits of mediæval ambition, glass -painting might safely approach the pictorial. It was not until painting -broke loose from traditional decorative trammels and set up, so to -speak, on its own account, until pictorial came to mean something widely -different from decorative, that the term became in any way distinctive -of one kind of art or another. It is in that later sense that the word -pictorial is here used. - -Artists still differ, and will continue to differ, as to the precise use -of the term. There are artists still who contend that, since in old time -art was decorative, and since in their opinion all art should be -decorative, therefore the picture which is not decorative is not art. -Arguing thus in a circle, they would say (the pictorial including in -their estimation the perfection of decorative fitness, and all art which -overshot the mark ceasing to count with them) that art was always at its -best when it was most pictorial. But that is a species of quibbling -about words which not only leads us no further, but hinders mutual -understanding. It is wiser to accept words in the sense in which they -are generally understood, and to try and see where the real difference -of opinion is. - -Difficult it may be, impossible even, to draw the line between a picture -which is decorative and decoration which is pictorial; but there is no -difficulty in drawing a band on one side of which is decoration and on -the other picture. You have only to draw it wide enough. If we can -succeed in defining a picture as distinguished from a work of decorative -art, and can then show how a stained glass window, in attempting to -conform to conditions which we have agreed to call pictorial, fails of -its decorative function, it will then not be so difficult to see how, in -proportion as glass aims at the pictorial, it falls short of making good -windows. Granted, then, that a picture may fulfil all decorative -conditions, and that a decoration may sometimes rightly be pictorial, -that the two go, as historically they did, a long way hand in hand, it -is contended that there is a point at which decoration and picture part -company and take distinctly different ways; thenceforth, if either is -led away by the other, it is at the cost of possible success in the -direction more peculiarly its own. - -Now, the first point at which picture definitely parts company with -decoration is where the painter begins to consider his work apart from -its surroundings. The problems the artist may set himself to solve are -two. "How shall I adorn this church, this clerestory, this chancel, this -window, with stained glass?"--that is distinctly a problem of the -decorator; "How shall I realise, on canvas or what not, this thought of -mine, this fact in nature, this effect seen or imagined?"--that is -distinctly a problem of the painter. Each, it is granted, may be swayed -more or less by the other consideration also, but according as a man -starts with the one problem or the other, and seeks primarily to solve -that, he is painter or decorator. Suppose him seriously to endeavour to -combine pictorial and decorative qualities in his work, there will come -times when he has perforce to choose between the two. Upon the choice he -makes will hang the final character of his work, decorative or -pictorial. - -We are too much in the habit of laying down laws as to what a man may or -may not do in art. He may do what he can. He may introduce as much -decorative intention into his picture, as much pictorial effect into his -decoration, as it will stand; it is not till he overweights one with the -other, attempts more than his means or his power allow him, and fails to -do the thing that was to be done, that we can say he has gone wrong. - -When the two ideals of decoration and painting were more nearly one, and -in proportion as that was so, success in the two directions was -possible; when painting aimed at effects, of painting--in proportion, -that is, as it became pictorial--it was impossible. It is safe to say, -since masters attempted it and failed--since, for example, the finest -work in glass which aims at the pictorial and depends upon painting ends -always in being either thin or opaque in effect--that the happy medium -was not found. The fact is, the time came when a painter, in order to -design successfully for glass, was called upon to relinquish some of the -effects he had come greatly to value in painting: effects of light and -shade, atmosphere, reflected light, relief, perspective, violent -foreshortening. To seek these at the expense of qualities proper to -decoration and to glass, was to attempt picture; to sacrifice such -pictorial qualities to considerations of architectural fitness, to the -quality of the glass, its translucency, its colour, its consistent -treatment, was to attempt decoration; and in proportion as the sacrifice -is not made, the work of the glass painter may be characterised as -"pictorial." There should now be no possible misunderstanding as to what -is meant by the word. It implies something of reproach, but only as -applied to glass. Let the pictorial flourish, in its place--that is, in -picture. All it is here meant to assert is that, pictures being what -they are, what they were already by the end of the sixteenth century, -the pictorial element in stained glass is bound to spoil the window. - -There are two respects in which a stained glass window differs from a -picture: first, in that it is a window; second, in that it is glass. -Suppose we take these two points separately. It scarcely needs showing -that the designing of a window is a very different thing from the -painting of a picture. In the first place, the architectural frame of -the window is there, arbitrarily fixed, whereas the painter chooses his -frame to suit his picture. The designer of a window has not only to -accept the window-shape, but to respect both it and the architecture of -the building. The scale of his work, the main lines of its composition, -if not more, are practically determined for him by architectural -considerations, just as the depth of colour in his scheme is determined -by the position of his window and the amount of light he desires "or is -allowed" to shut out. Moreover, he has to accept the window plane, to -acknowledge it as part of the building, to let you feel, whatever he -does, that it is a window you see, and not something through the window -or standing in it. That was tried, as we have seen, at Gouda and S. -Gudule; but, even if the illusion had been achieved, it would have been -destructive of architectural effect. The idea of a picture seen through -the mullions of a window is one of the will-o'-the-wisps which led glass -painters astray. They did not succeed; and, had they done so, they would -have given a very false, and to some of us a very uncomfortable, -impression of not being protected from the outer air. - -Mullions are in any case a very serious consideration. It has been shown -already (page 197) how the artist sought continuity of subject through -the lights of his window, and gradually extended his picture across -them. And if he is at liberty to occupy a four-light window with the -Virgin and Child and the Three Kings, and if it is lawful to introduce -more than one figure into a light, why may not each king be accompanied -by an attendant, holding his horse or bearing gifts; why should not the -Kings kneel in adoration; why should not Joseph be there, the manger, -and the cattle; why should there not be one landscape stretching behind -the Magi, binding the whole into one picture? So with the Crucifixion. -If the Virgin and S. John may occupy sidelights, why not introduce as -well in a larger window the two thieves, the Magdalene at the foot of -the cross, the good centurion, the soldiers, the crowd? Obviously there -is no reason why the subject should not be carried across a window; and -from the time that windows were divided into lights it was done, at all -events in the case of certain subjects, such as the Tree of Jesse, which -spread throughout the window, or the Last Judgment, for which the -available space was yet never enough. - -But there is a wide difference between designing a subject which extends -through the whole width of a window and designing it so that it appears -to be seen through the window. In the one case the mullions are -seriously taken into account; in the other they are ignored. If you were -looking at a scene through a window, of course the mullions would -interfere. Why, therefore, consider them if you wish to produce the -effect of something seen through? Naturally you would not allow the -stonework to cut across the face of a principal personage, or anything -of that kind; but, apart from that, its intervention would only add to -the air of reality. The problem of dealing with the mullions is thus -rather shirked than solved. Its solution is not really so difficult as -would seem. Mullions count for much less in the window than one would -suppose. The eye, for example, follows naturally the branches of a Tree -of Jesse from one light into another, and it is not felt that the -stonework interferes with it at all seriously, whilst the scheming of -the figures, each within a single light, is a very distinct -acknowledgment of its individuality. So in the case of a subject. If the -design is so planned that the important figures are grouped in separate -lights, the landscape or other continuous background helps to hold the -picture together, and is not hurt by the mullions. - -The important thing is that mullions should be considered; only on that -condition do they cease to interfere with the design. There is no -reason always to put a border round each light, or even to keep every -figure within the bounds of a single light. A reclining figure, such as -that of Jesse at the base of the window (below), Jacob asleep and -dreaming, or the widow's son upon the bier, may safely cross two or -three lights, if it be designed with reference to the intervening -stonework. - -Further, it seems desirable that the shape of each separate window -opening should be acknowledged by at least a narrow fillet of white or -pale colour next the masonry, broken, it may be, here and there by some -feature designed to hold the lights together, but practically clearing -the colour from the stonework, and giving to the division of the window -the slight emphasis it deserves. It is not worth while dividing a window -into lights and then effacing the divisions in the glass. Given a window -of four or five lights, the decorator has no choice but to design a four -or five-light window. He must render his subject so that the -constructional divisions of the window keep their proper architectural -place; if his subject will not allow that, he must abandon his subject, -or give very good reason why not. The reason of mere pictorial ambition -will not hold good. The test of a good picture-window is, how the -mullions affect the design. If to take them away would make it look -foolish, then it has probably been designed as a window, decoratively; -if to take them away would improve it, then it has been designed -pictorially; and, however good a picture it might have been, it is a bad -window design. - -[Illustration: 171. S. MARY'S, SHREWSBURY.] - -It is quite possible, nay, probable, that in connection with any given -window, or series of windows, there will be architectural features -which deserve to be emphasised. It may be the springing of the arch -which calls for accentuation; it may be a string-course in the walls -that asks for recognition; it may be that the proportion of the window -wants correction. Whatever it be, it is the part of the decorator to -feel the want and to meet it, to grasp the situation and to accept it. -In not doing so, he shows perhaps pictorial, certainly not decorative, -instinct. So with regard to the plane of a glass picture. It is not -necessary to restrict one's design to silhouette, to make one's picture -as flat as the first glass painters or the Greek vase painters made -theirs. How much of distance and relief a man may indulge in is partly -his own affair. It depends upon what he can manage to do without -destroying the surface of his window. So long as he preserve that, he -may do as he pleases, and yet not lay himself open to the charge of -being unduly pictorial; only it is as well to remember that on the -simplest and severest lines grand work has been done, and may still be -done, without falling into archaism; whilst the Crabeths, and the rest -of the astoundingly clever glass painters of Gouda fail to reconcile us -to the attempt to render the sky beyond (page 258) or distant -architectural vistas in glass. - -It has sometimes been contended that all lines of perspective (which in -the sixteenth century begin to take a very important place in design) -are amiss in glass, inasmuch as they destroy its flatness. That is -surely to go too far. So long as no effect of relief is sought, no -effect of distance attempted, no illusion aimed at, one can hardly find -fault with lines indicating the perspective necessary perhaps to the -expression of the design--assuming, of course, that the lines of -perspective take their place in the decorative scheme, and help the -composition of the window. They do that very cleverly in Crabeth's -picture of "Christ Purifying the Temple" (page 244). Our complaint is -rather with the strong relief attempted, the abuse of shadow, and -especially of painted shadow. The case is far worse where, as at S. -Eustache, Paris, the architectural background is shown obliquely. In -that case, no uncommon one in the seventeenth century, when the painter -would just as likely as not choose his point of view as best suited his -picture, without any reference whatever to its architectural setting, -the painter shows himself, as glass painter, at his most pictorial and -worst. - -So much for the window as an architectural feature, now let us look at -it as glass. - -It becomes here very much a question of craftsmanship. To a workman it -seems so natural, and so obvious, that the material he is working in, -and the tools he is using, must from beginning to end affect the -treatment of his design, that it appears almost unnecessary to insist -upon such a truism. Experience, however, goes to show that only the -workman and here and there a man who ought, perhaps, to have been one, -have any appreciation of what artists call treatment. The rest of the -world have heard tell that there is such a thing as technique, to which -they think far too much importance is attached. That is so, indeed, when -artists think technique is enough; but not when they look upon it as -indispensable, the beginning of all performance, not when they insist -that a man shall know the grammar of his art before he breaks out into -poetry. - -Now the A, B, C, of workmanship is to treat each material after its -kind. It is a truism, therefore, to say that glass should be treated as -glass. Yet we find that a man may be enthusiastic to a degree about an -art, learned above most men in its history, and yet end in entirely -misconceiving its scope. "What is to be condemned on canvas," said -Winston, "ought not to be admitted on glass." As well might he have -said, that what would be condemned on glass should not be allowed on -canvas, or that language and behaviour which would be unbecoming in -church should not be tolerated on the platform, or at the dinner-table. - -The fallacy that one rule applies to all forms of art is responsible -alike for the muddiness of seventeenth and eighteenth century windows -and for the thin transparent tinting of nineteenth century Munich glass. - -That "art is one" is a fine saying, rightly understood. So is humanity -one, and it is well to remind ourselves of the fact; but race, climate, -country, count for something; and to speak with effect we must speak the -language of the land. Each separate craft included in the all-embracing -title of art, and making for its good and its glory, works under -conditions as definite as those of climate, has characteristics as -marked as those of nationality, and speaks also a language of its own. -And, to express itself to full purpose, it must speak in its own tongue. -The only pictures, then, which prove satisfactory in glass are the -pictures of the glass painter; and by glass painter is not meant any one -who may choose to try his hand at glass painting, but the man who has -learnt his trade and knows it from end to end, to whom use has become -second nature, who thinks in glass, as we say. Now and again, perhaps, -where a draughtsman and a glass painter are in unusual sympathy, it may -be possible for the one to translate the design of the other into the -language of his craft; but good translators are rare, and translation is -at best second-hand. Success in glass is achieved mainly by the man to -whom ideas come in the form of glass, who sees them first in his mind's -eye as windows. Even such a man may lack taste, insight, discretion; he -may be led away by a misplaced ambition--it is not merely on the stage -that the low comedian aspires to play Hamlet--but only the man who knows -so well the dangers ahead that he insensibly avoids them, who knows so -surely what can be got out of his material that he makes straight for -that, who does, in short, the best that can be done in glass, can dare -to be "pictorial" without danger of being false to his trade. - -A painter without experience of glass might, of course, be coached in -the technique of the material; but he would never get the most out of -it. Conditions which to the glass painter would be as easy as an old -coat, would be a restraint to him, and the greater his position the more -impatient he would be of such restraint, the more surely his will would -override the better judgment of the subordinate who happened to know. - -[Illustration: 172. CHRIST PURGING THE TEMPLE, GOUDA.] - -It was unfortunate that at a critical period in the history of glass, -just when great painters from the outside began to be called in to -design for it, knowledge was in rather an uncertain state. The use of -enamel had been discovered; it offered undoubted facilities to the -painter; it was believed in; it was the fashion. Any one who had -protested the superiority of the old method would possibly have been set -down as an old fogey, even by glass painters. At that moment, very -likely, a glass painter, anxious of course to conciliate the great man, -but flushed also with faith in his new-found method, would have said to -Van Orley, in reply to any question about technique:--"Never you mind -about glazing and all that; give us a design, and we will execute it in -glass." And he did execute it in a masterly and quite wonderful way. -Still the success of it is less than it would have been had the designer -known all about glass: in that case his artistic instinct would have led -him surely to trust more to qualities inherent in glass, and less to -painting upon it. Van Orley's picture scheme depended too much upon -relief to be really well adapted to glass, but it was splendidly -monumental in design, and to that extent admirably decorative. Something -of decorative restraint we find almost to the end in sixteenth century -work; the picture had not yet emancipated itself entirely, and the -pictorial ideal did not therefore necessarily go beyond what glass could -do; in any case, it did not take quite a different direction. - -It may be as well to define more precisely the ideal glass picture. The -ideal glass picture is, the picture which gives full scope for the -qualities of glass, and does not depend in any way upon effects which -cannot be obtained in glass, or which are to be attained only at the -sacrifice of qualities peculiar to it. - -And what are those qualities? The qualities of glass are light and -colour, a quality of light and a quality of colour to be obtained no -other way than by the transmission of light through pot-metal glass. - -Compare these qualities with those of oil painting, and see how far they -are compatible. Something depends upon the conception of oil painting. -The qualities of glass are compatible enough with the pictorial ideal of -the oil (or more likely tempera) painters whom we designate by the name -of "primitives"; and, indeed, fifteenth century Italian windows often -take the form of circular pictures which one of the masters might have -designed. A painting by Botticelli, Filippo Lippi, Mantegna, or -Crivelli, might almost be put into the hands of a glass painter to -translate. It is quite possible that some of the Florentine windows -were executed in Germany from paintings by Italian masters; the odd -thing is that they are attributed sometimes to sculptors. Ghiberti and -Donatello may, for all one knows, have been great colourists; but it is -so universal a foible to ascribe works of decorative art to famous -painters or sculptors who could never by any possibility have had a hand -in them, that one never has much faith in such reputed authorship. - -The severity of the "primitive" painters' design, the firm outline, the -comparatively flat treatment, the brilliant, not yet degraded, -colour--all these were qualities which the glass painter could turn to -account. Without firm and definite outline, of course, a design does not -lend itself to mosaic. But it is especially the early painter's ideal of -colour which was so sympathetic to the glass painter. A designer for -glass must be a colourist; but the colour he seeks is _sui generis_. Not -every colourist would make a glass designer. Van Thulden may not have -been a colourist of his master's stamp, but Peter Paul Rubens himself -could not have made a complete success of those windows in the Chapel of -Our Lady in S. Gudule. Reynolds was a colourist, but he came -conspicuously to grief in glass. Velasquez was a colourist, but one -fails to see how by any possibility the quality of his work could be -expressed in glass. - -On the other hand, colour in which the simple artist delighted, as in -light and sunshine, in the sparkle of the sea, in the purity of the sky, -in the brilliancy of flowers, in the flash of jewels, in the deep -verdure of moss, in the lusciousness of fruit or wine, colour as the -early Florentine painters saw it and sought it--this is what glass can -give, and gives better than oil, tempera, or fresco, on an opaque -surface. How far these early painters deliberately sacrificed to pure -bright colour qualities of light and shade, aerial perspective, and so -on, may be open to question. The certain thing is that, if we want the -quality of glass in all its purity and translucency, we have to -sacrifice to it something of the light and shade, the relief, the -atmospheric effect, the subtlety of realistic colour, which we are -accustomed nowadays to look for in a picture. Happy the men who could -contentedly pursue their work undisturbed by the thought that there were -effects to be obtained in art beyond what it was possible for them to -get. - -Even the Italian painters soon travelled beyond the limits of what could -possibly be done in glass. Flesh-painting, as Titian understood it, or -Correggio, or Bonifacio, is hopelessly beyond its range. But it was the -Dutch who formed for themselves the idea most widely and hopelessly -beyond realisation in glass. The Crabeths, like good glass painters, -struggled more or less against it; but they could not keep out of the -current altogether; and in proportion as their work aims at anything -like chiaroscuro it loses its quality of glass. Rembrandt, to have -realised his ideal in glass, would have had to paint out of it every -quality which distinguishes it and gives it value. In proportion, as the -painter's aim was light and shade rather than colour, and especially as -it was shade rather than light (or perhaps it would be fairer to say, as -it was light intensified by obscuring light around it) it was -diametrically opposed to that of the glass painter. His pursuit of it -was a sort of artistic suicide. It led by quick and sure degrees to what -was to all intents and purposes the collapse of glass painting. Realism -of a kind was inevitable when once the painter gained the strength to -realise what he saw, but when the glass painter, seeking the strength of -actual light and shade, began to rely upon painted shadow for his -effects, the case was hopeless. Glass asks to be translucent. - -The point of perfection in glass design is not easily to be fixed. Glass -painting, it must be confessed, as it approaches perfection of -technique, is always dangerously near the border line; the painter is so -often tempted to carry his handiwork a little further than is consistent -with the translucency of glass. It happens, therefore, that one expects -almost to find consummate drawing and painting marred by some -obscuration of the glass. If on the other hand we travel back to the -time when the evil does not exist, we find ourselves at a period when -neither drawing nor painting were at their best. It is by no means -surprising that this should be the outcome of the association of glazier -and painter. According as one cares more for glass or for painting one -will be disposed to shift, backwards or forwards, the date at which -glass painting began to decline. It may safely be said, however, that -pictorial glass painting was at its best during the first half of the -sixteenth century. That is the period during which you may expect to -find masterly drawing, consummate painting, and yet sufficient -recognition of the character of glass to satisfy all but the staunch -partisan of pure mosaic glass--who, by the way, stands upon very firm -ground. - -In Flanders, as has been said, and in France, are to be found exquisite -pictures in glass, admirably decorative in design, glowing with -jewel-like brilliancy of colour, not seriously obscured by paint, the -figures modelled with a delicacy reminding one rather of sculpture in -very low relief than of more realistic painting and carving, the colour -delicate and yet not thin, the effect strong without brutality. - -But it is in Italy that are to be seen probably the finest glass -pictures that have ever been painted; the work, nevertheless, of a -Frenchman--William of Marseilles--who established himself at Arezzo, and -painted, amongst other glass, five windows for the cathedral there, -which go about as far as glass can go in the direction of picture. The -man was a realist in his way--realist, that is, so far as suited his -artistic purpose. Not merely are his figures studied obviously from the -life, but they are conceived in the realistic spirit, as when, in the -scene of the Baptism, he draws a man getting into his clothes with the -difficulty we have all experienced after bathing, or when, in the -Raising of Lazarus (page 397), he makes more than one onlooker hold his -nose as the grave-clothes are unwrapped from the body. In design the -artist is quite up to the high level of his day (1525 or thereabouts); -but you see all through his work that it was colour, always colour, that -made his heart beat (we have here nothing to do with the religious -sentiment which may or may not be embodied in his work), colour that -prompted his design, as in the case of so many a great Italian master. - -This man possibly did in glass much what _he_ would have done on canvas; -but he could never have got such pure, intense, and at the same time -luminous, effects of colour in anything but glass, and he knew it, never -lost sight of it, and tried to get the most out of what it could best -give him--that is to say, purity of colour, and translucency and -brilliancy of glass. Whatever amount of pigment he employed (probably -more than it seems, the light is so strong in Italy) it seldom appears -to do more than just give the needful modelling. Now and again, in the -architectural parts of his composition, the white is lowered by means of -a matt of paint, where a tint of deeper-coloured glass had better have -been employed; but even there the effect is neither dirty nor in the -least heavy. And in the main, for all his pictorial bias, the system of -the artist is distinctly mosaic; his colour is pot-metal always or -purest stain. The sky and the landscape, for example, in which the scene -of the Baptism is laid, are leaded up in tints of blue and green. In the -scene where Christ purges the Temple the pavement is of clear -aquamarine-tinted glass, against which the scales, moneybags, overturned -bench, and so on, stand out in quite full enough relief of red and -yellow, without any aid of heavy shading, or cast shadow, such as a -Netherlander would have used. - -And, for all that, the difficulty even of foreshortening is boldly -faced. Not even in the most violently shaded Flemish glass would it be -easy to find a figure more successfully foreshortened than the kneeling -money-changer, scooping up his money into a bag. That a designer could -do this without strong shading, means that he was careful to choose the -pose or point of view which allowed itself to be expressed in lightly -painted glass. There is no riotous indulgence in perspective, but -distance is sufficiently indicated; and the personages in the -background, drawn to a smaller scale than the chief actors in the scene, -keep their place in the picture. Everywhere it is apparent that the -figures have been composed with a cunning eye to glazing. - -These are not pictures which have been done into glass; they are no -translations, but the creations of a glass painter--one who knew all -about glass, and instinctively designed only what could be done in it, -and best done. This man makes full use of all the resources of his art. -His window is constructed as only a glazier could do it. He does not -shirk his leads. He uses abrasion freely, not so much to save glazing, -as to get effects not otherwise possible. Thus the deep red skirt or -petticoat of the woman taken in adultery is dotted with white in a way -that bespeaks at a glance the woman of the people, whilst more sumptuous -draperies of red and green are, as it were, embroidered with gold, or -sewn with pearls. These are the effects he aims at, not the mere texture -of silk or velvet. He delights in delicate stain on white, and revels in -most gorgeous stain upon stain. In short, these are pictures indeed, but -the pictures of a glass painter. - -Work like this disarms criticism. One may have a strong personal bias -towards strictly mosaic glass, and yet acknowledge that success -justifies departure from what one thought the likelier way. Things of -beauty decline to be put away always in the nice little pigeon-holes we -have carefully provided for them. Shall we be such pedants as to reject -them because they do not fit in with our preconceived ideas of fitness? - -Alas!--or happily?--alas for what might have been, happily for our -wavering allegiance to sterner principles of design, it is seldom that -the glass painter so perfectly tunes his work to the key of glass. In -particular, he finds it difficult to harmonise his painting with the -glazing which goes with it. He is incapable in the early sixteenth -century of the brutalities of his successors, who carry harsh lines of -lead across flesh painting recklessly; but the very association of -ultra-delicate painting with lead lines at all demands infinite tact. An -idea of the point to which painting is eventually carried may be -gathered from the representation of little nude boys blowing bubbles in -which are reflected the windows of the room where they are supposed to -be playing. That is an extreme instance, and a late one. Short, however, -of such frivolity, and in work of the good period, painting is often so -delicate that bars and leads unquestionably hurt it. It is so even in -the very fine Jesse window at Beauvais (page 368). - -Occur where it may it is a false note which stops our admiration short; -and, after all our enthusiasm, we come back heart-whole to our delight -in the earlier, bolder, more monumental, and more workmanlike mosaic -glass. The beautiful sixteenth century work at Montmorency or at Conches -does not shake the conviction of the glass-lover, that the painter is -there a little too much in evidence, that something of simple, dignified -decoration is sacrificed to the display of his skill. The balance -between glass decoration and picture is perhaps never more nearly -adjusted than in some of the rather earlier Italian windows. - - - - -CHAPTER XX. - -LANDSCAPE IN GLASS. - - -At once a distinguishing feature of picture-glass, and a characteristic -of later work generally, is the _mise-en-scène_ of the subject. - -[Illustration: 173. FROM THE ENTRY INTO JERUSALEM, FAIRFORD.] - -In quite the earliest glass the figures, it was shown, were cut out -against a ground of plain colour (pages 33, 127), or diapered perhaps -with a painted pattern, or leaded up in squares, or broken by spots of -pot-metal (page 37), which, by the way, being usually of too strongly -contrasting colour, assert themselves instead of qualifying its tone. -Sometimes the ground was leaded up in the form of a more or less -elaborate geometric diaper (page 336). Occasionally it was broken by the -simplest possible conventional foliage. The figure stood on a cloud, an -inscribed label, a disc or band of earth. In the fourteenth century -spots breaking the ground took very often the form of badges, -_fleurs-de-lys_, heraldic animals, cyphers, and so on (page 156), and -even in the fifteenth it was quite common to find figures against a flat -ground, broken only by inscription, either on white or yellow labels -(pages 186, 339), or leaded in bold letters of white or yellow into the -background itself (page 196). But simultaneously with this the figure -was frequently represented against a screen of damask (page 191), above -which showed the further background, usually more or less architectural -in character. In the Fairford windows (page 187) is shown this -treatment together with the label which helps to break the formality of -the horizontal line. Sometimes the line is curved, as though the figure -stood in a semicircular niche, or broken, as though the recess were -three-sided. Sometimes the figure stood upon a pedestal (page 391), but -more usually, as time went on, upon a pavement. Certain subjects were -bound to include accessory architecture, but at first it was as simple -as the scenery in the immortal play of _Pyramus and Thisbe_. But even in -the fifteenth century it was rendered, one may judge how naïvely, from -the little Nativity on page 54, a subject hardly to be rendered without -the stable. Again, the quite conventional vinework, also from Malvern, -shown in the upper part of page 345 (a jumble of odds and ends), forms -really part of the scene depicting Noah in his vineyard--see the hand -holding the spade handle. The Fairford scenery (pages 251, 372), quaint -as it is, goes much nearer to realism than that; and towards the -sixteenth century, and during its first years, there was a good deal of -landscape in which trees were leaded in vivid green against blue, with -gleaming white stems suggestive of birch-bark, always effective, and -refreshingly cool in colour. There is something of that kind in the -window facing the entrance to King's College, Cambridge; but the more -usual English practice in the fifteenth century was to execute the -landscape in white and stain against a coloured ground. That is the -system adopted in the scene of the Creation at Malvern (page 252), where -trees, water, birds, fishes, are all very delicately painted and -stained. In the left-hand corner it will be seen that solid or nearly -solid brown is used for foliage in order to throw up the white and -yellow leafage in front of it. There is some considerably later work -very much in this manner at S. Nizier, Troyes. But that kind of thing -was not usual in French glass. - -[Illustration: 174. FROM THE CREATION, MALVERN ABBEY.] - -The sky had of course from the first been indicated by a blue -background; but, the blue ground being used, in alternation with ruby, -for all backgrounds, except a few in white, it was not distinctive -enough to suggest the heavens, without some indication of clouds, which -accordingly were leaded up upon it, sometimes in mere streaks of colour, -sometimes in fantastically ornamental shapes. It was a later thought, -which came with the use of paler glass, to paint the blue with clouds, -indicating them, that is to say, more or less in the form of diaper. As -with the sky so with the sea. It was at first glazed in wave pattern; -eventually the wave lines were painted on the blue. - -The blue background, which had gradually become paler and paler, became -soon in the sixteenth century pale enough to stand approximately for a -grey-blue sky, on which was painted, with marvellous delicacy, distant -landscape, architecture, or what not, always in the brown tint used -generally for shading, although a tint of green was given to grass and -trees by the use of yellow stain. This distant view painted upon blue -was a beautiful and most characteristic feature of sixteenth century -glass. The French painters adopted it, and made it peculiarly their own, -though it occurs also in German and Flemish glass. Backgrounds of this -kind, which in themselves suffice to mark the departure from Gothic use, -are shown on pages 207, 213, and on a larger scale opposite. The wintry -landscape there with the bare tree trunks against the cold grey sky, -forms the upper portion of the subject shown on page 207, in which Our -Lord gives His charge to Peter; the paler grey behind the heads of the -group stands for the sea. The wintry effect of the scene is not -suggestive of the Holy Land, but it brings the subject innocently home -to us. The leads, it will be seen, take the lines of the larger limbs of -the trees, whilst the lesser branches and small twigs are painted on the -glass. There is ingenuity in the glazing as well as delicacy in the -painting. This is a very different thing from the landscape painted in -enamel colours. The propriety, the beauty, the decorative quality of -such work as this, comes of the acceptance of the necessary convention -of treating the painted background, of rendering it, that is, always -more or less in monochrome, and not attempting anything like realism in -colour. - -The painted landscapes illustrated are of the simplest. The French -painters went much further than that, associating with their painting -broad masses of pot-metal colour, but still keeping distinctly within -the convention of deliberately simple colour. By the use of -silvery-white and shades of pot-metal blue and purple and green, they -produced the most pleasing and harmonious effects. There was no great -variety in the tune they played, but the variations upon it were -infinite. Let us picture here a few of them. - -1. _Ecouen._--A distant city, in white, and beyond that more distant -architecture, painted on the pale blue of the sky. - -2. _Conches._--Against a pale blue sky, broken by cumulous white clouds, -a grey-blue tower. - -3. _Conches._--A grey-blue sea and deeper sky beyond: from the waves -rises a castle, in white, breaking the sky-line, the pointed roofs of -its turrets painted in black upon the background. - -[Illustration: 175. BACKGROUND TO THE CHARGE OF S. PETER, S. VINCENT, -ROUEN. (COMP. 156.)] - -4. _Freiburg, 1528._--A smoke-grey sea, fading away towards the horizon -into pale silver, the sky beyond dark blue, its outline broken by a -range of deeper blue mountains. - -5. _Conches._--Beyond the foreground landscape in rich green, a pale -blue sea, with slightly deeper grey-blue sky beyond, a tower in darker -blue against it; a strip of deep blue shore divides the sky and sea, and -gives support to the dark tower; against that a smaller tower catches -the light, and stands out in glittering white. - -6. _Montmorency._--A canopied figure subject in gorgeous colour; the -foreground a landscape with rich green herbage, separated by a belt of -white cliffs from buildings of pale grey, amidst trees stained greenish, -backed by purple hills; further a pale blue sky; against the sky, -overshadowed beneath the canopy arch by a mass of purple cloud, the -stained and painted foliage of a tree, growing from this side the hill. - -7. _Montmorency._--S. Christopher crossing the stream; blue water -painted with waves and water plants, the foliage stained. - -8. _S. Nizier, Troyes._--A vineyard, very prettily managed; the vines -painted on the blue, their leaves stained to green, the grapes -grey-blue, whilst grey stakes are leaded in pot-metal. - -Sometimes, as at Ecouen, far-off architecture would be painted not upon -blue but upon a pale purple hill. At Laigle figures and animals are -painted upon green, but they do not hold their own. On the other hand, -at Alençon, some distant figures appearing in very pale grey against a -delicate greenish landscape (stained upon the grey), are charming in -effect. - -White backgrounds painted as delicately as the blue are not rare. At -Groslay, for example, steely-white architecture is separated from white -sky beyond by grey-blue hills, a church with blue steeple breaking the -sky. But white does not lend itself so readily to combination with -colour as blue; and, as a rule, such backgrounds are grisaille in -character, relieved, of course, with stain. - -The great sea-scape at Gouda (page 223), representing the taking of -Dalmatia in Egypt (a very Dutch Dalmatia), is nearly all in grisaille, -against quarries of clear white, with only a little stain in the flags -and costumes, and one single touch of poor ruby (about two inches -square), which looks as if it might be modern. The port in perspective, -the ships, the whole scene, in fact, is realistically rendered, and -comes as near to success as is possible in glass. - -Delightful peeps of landscape are sometimes seen through the columns and -arches of an architectural background. Whether the architecture be in -purple of divers shades, or in white with only shadows in purple, or -whether the nearer architecture be in white and the more distant in -purple, in any case a distance beyond is commonly painted upon the -grey-blue sky seen through it. Possibly, as at Conches, further vistas -of architecture may be stained greenish upon it--any colour almost, for -a change. But whatever it may be, and wherever it may be, in the best -work it is colour; and it is always more effective than where the shadow -is represented by paint, even though the brown be not laid on with a -heavy hand, infinitely more effective than when blue or other coloured -enamels are relied upon, as in some instances at Montmorency. Enamel -may, for all one can tell, have been used in some of the landscapes here -commended--it is impossible to say without minute examination of the -glass, which is rarely feasible--but it never asserts its presence; and -in any case it has not been used in sufficient quantity to damage the -effect. - -It will be gathered from the descriptions of early sixteenth century -glazed and painted distances, that they were as carefully schemed with a -view to glazing (though in a very different way) as a Gothic picture. -Sometimes, as at Conches, they are rather elaborately leaded; and where -that is the case there is not so much danger of incongruity between the -delicacy of the painting and the strength of the leads--which assert -themselves less than where they occur singly. It stands to reason also -that the more mosaic the glass the less fragile it is. Painting alone -upon the blue is best employed for small peeps of distance. It adapts -itself to smaller windows; and it must be done (as for a while it was -done) so well, that it seems as if the designer must himself have -painted it. Were the artist always the glass painter, and the glass -painter always an artist, who knows what case pictorial glass might not -make out for itself? - -It is a coarser kind of distance than the French that we find at King's -College, Cambridge. There the landscape backgrounds are in white and -stain, grey-blue being reserved for the sky beyond, broken more or less -by white clouds, or, occasionally, by the white trunks of trees, the -foliage of which is sometimes glazed in green glass, sometimes painted -upon the blue and stained. Here and there a distant tree is painted -entirely upon the blue. This treatment is not ill adapted to subjects on -the large scale of the work at King's College, but one does not feel -that the painters made anything like the most of their opportunity. The -inexperience of the designers is shown in their fear of using leads, a -most unnecessary fear, seeing that, at the distance the work is from the -eye, the bars themselves have only about the value of ordinary lead -lines. - -[Illustration: 176. THE RELIEF OF LEYDEN, GOUDA.] - -Stronger and more workmanlike, but not quite satisfactory, is the much -later landscape (1557) of Dirk Crabeth at Gouda. There the sky is blue, -leaded in quarries, on which are trees, painted and stained, and some -rather florid clouds. In the later work generally the lead lines are no -longer either frankly acknowledged or skilfully disguised. The outline -of a green hill against the sky will be feebly softened with trivial -little twigs and scraps of painted leafage. The decline of landscape is -amply illustrated at Troyes. At Antwerp again there is a window bearing -date 1626, in which the landscape background of a quite incomprehensible -subject extends to a distant horizon, above which the sky is glazed in -white quarries, with clouds painted upon it. This is an attempt to -repeat the famous feat of glass painting which had been done some twenty -years before at Gouda. The Relief of Leyden, of which a diagram is here -given, is in its way a most remarkable glass picture. In the foreground -is a crowd of soldiers and citizens, upon the quay, about lifesize. They -form a band of rich colour at the base of the composition; but the -design is confused by the introduction of shields of arms and their -supporters immediately in front of the scene. Beyond are the walls and -towers of the city of Delft, and the adjacent towns and villages, and -the river dwindling into the far distance where Leyden lies--in the -glass a really marvellous bird's-eye view over characteristically flat -country. The horizon extends almost to the springing line of the window -arch, and above that rises a sky of plain blue quarries, broken only -towards the top by a few bolster-like and rather dirty white clouds. -Absolute realism is of course not reached, but it is approached near -enough to startle us into admiration. It is astonishing what has here -been done. But the painter has not done what he meant to do. That was -not possible, even with the aid of enamel. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI. - -ITALIAN GLASS. - - -In the course of the preceding chapters the reader has been rather -unceremoniously carried from country to country, in a way which may have -seemed to him erratic. But there was a reason in the zig-zag course -taken. The progress of the glass painter's art was not by any means a -straight line. Nor did it develop itself on parallel lines in the -various countries in which it throve. It advanced in one place whilst it -was almost at a standstill in another. - -That is easily understood. It was inevitable that glass painting, though -it arose in France, should languish there during the troublous times -when English troops overran it under Edward III. and throughout the -Hundred Years' War, that it should revive in all its glory under Francis -the First, and that during the disturbances of the Fronde it should -again decline. The extremity of France was England's opportunity; and -our greatest wealth of stained glass windows dates from the reign of the -later Plantagenets. The Wars of the Roses do not appear greatly to have -affected art; but after the Reformation we were more busy smashing glass -than painting it. - -In Germany the course of art ran smoother. Glass throve under the Holy -Roman Empire, and it was not until the Reformation that it suffered any -very severe check. Mediæval Swiss glass may be classed with German. - -In the Netherlands glass painting blossomed out suddenly under the -Imperial favour of Charles V. It continued to bear fruit under the Dutch -Republic, until it ran to seed at the end of the seventeenth century. - -So it happens that, in following the development of glass painting, it -has been necessary to seek the best and most characteristic -illustrations first in one country and then in another, to travel from -France to England, from England to Germany and back to France, thence to -Flanders, to France again, and finally once more to the Netherlands, to -say nothing of shorter excursions from one place to another, as occasion -might demand. In each separate locality there was naturally some sort of -progress, but we cannot take any one country as all-sufficient type of -the rest; and to have traversed each in turn would have been tedious. -There were everywhere differences of practice and design; in each -country, for that matter, there were local schools with marked -characteristics of their own. Some of the characteristic national -differences have been pointed out in passing. To describe them at length -would be to write a comparative history of glass, of which there is here -no thought. What concerns us is the broadly marked progress of glass -painting, not the minor local differences in style. - -Something more, however, remains to be said of Italian glass than was -possible in any general survey. The mere facts, that the Renaissance -arose in Italy so long before it reached this side the Alps, and that -glass painting was never really quite at home in Italy (any more than -the Gothic architecture which mothered it), sufficiently account for the -difficulty, nay, the impossibility, of classing it according to the -Gothic periods. Indeed, one is reminded in Italian glass less often of -other windows of the period, English, French, or German, than of -contemporary Italian painting. - -The comparative fitness of the works of the "Primitive" painters for -models of glass design has already been pointed out. It is so evident -that the Italian sense of colour could find more adequate expression -than ever in glass, that one is inclined to wonder, until it is -remembered that Italian churches were at the same time picture -galleries, that it did not more commonly find vent in that medium. Even -as it is, Italian painters did found a school of glass painting, -comparatively uninfluenced by the traditional Gothic types of design, -whilst observing the best traditions of glazier-like technique. Hence it -is that we find in Italy windows such as are nowhere else to be seen, -windows which at their best are of the very best. - -There are resemblances in Italian glass to German work; and some of it -is said to have been executed by Germans. It is none the less Italian. -Though it were executed in Germany, glazier and painter must have worked -under the direct influence of the Italian master, and in complete -accord with him, putting at his service all their experience in their -craft, and all their skill. So well did they work together, that it -seems more likely that the executant not only worked under the eye of -the master, but was at his elbow whilst he designed. That alone would -account satisfactorily for the absolutely harmonious co-operation of -designer and glass-worker. One thing is clear, that the artist, whatever -his experience in glass, great or little, had absolute sympathy with his -new material, felt what it could do, saw the opportunities it offered -him, and seized them. - -An Englishman, or a Frenchman, who found himself for the first time in -Italy, would be puzzled to give a date to the windows at Pisa or Milan, -or in either of the churches of S. Francis at Assisi. Even an expert in -the glass of other countries has to speak guardedly as to Italian work, -or he may have to retract his words. Italian Gothic is so Italian and so -little Gothic, it is of no use attempting to compare it with Northern -work. To those, moreover, who have been in the habit of associating the -Renaissance with the sixteenth century, the forms of Quattro-Cento -ornament will persist at first in suggesting the later date--just as the -first time one goes to Germany the survival of the old form of lettering -in inscriptions throws a suspicion of lingering Gothic influence over -even full-blown Renaissance design. It takes some time to get over the -perplexity arising from the unaccustomed association of an absolutely -mosaic treatment of glass (which with us would mean emphatically Gothic -work) with distinctly Renaissance detail, such as one finds at the -churches already mentioned, at the Certosa of Pavia, or at Florence. - -At Assisi the glass means, for the most part, to be Gothic. One is -reminded there sometimes of German work, both by the colour of the glass -and by the design of some of the medallion and other windows. The -ornament generally inclines to the naturalistic rather than to the -Quattro-Cento arabesque, or to the geometric kind shown on page 96; and -though it includes a fair amount of interlacing handwork of distinctly -Italian type, and is sometimes as deep in colour as quite Early glass, -it is approximately Decorated in character. That is so equally with the -brilliant remains in the tracery lights of Or San Michele at Florence. -But it is characteristic of Italian glass of the fourteenth and -fifteenth centuries that, both by the depth of its colour and the very -quality of the material, it should continually recall the thirteenth -century. Sometimes, as at Milan, for example, you find even sixteenth -century glass in which there is practically no white at all except what -is used for the flesh tint. - -In the cathedral at Pisa are some windows with little subjects, framed -in ornament, all in richest and most brilliant colour, which are at -first sight extremely perplexing. The leading is elaborately minute, and -there is no modelling in the figures, which yet have nothing of archaic -or very early character. It turns out that the paint upon the glass has -perished, and there is hardly a vestige of it left to show that this was -not intended for mere mosaic. The effect, nevertheless, is such as to -prove how much can be done in pot-metal glass, and how little it depends -upon the painting on it. - -[Illustration: 177. ASSISI.] - -Elsewhere, as at Arezzo (in work earlier than that of William of -Marseilles), the paint has often peeled off to a very considerable -extent, revealing sometimes patches of quite crude green and purple, -which go to show that the Italians habitually used glass of a raw -colour, where it suited their convenience, and just toned it down with -brown enamel. The result proves that it was a dangerous practice; but, -where the paint has held, the effect is not dull or dirty, as with us it -would be. The Italian sun accounts probably both for the use of this -scum of paint and for its not injuring the effect of colour. - -The same quality of deep rich pot-metal colour associated with -Renaissance design, is the first thing that strikes one in the windows -at Bologna, in the cathedral at Milan, and in Florence everywhere. At -Milan in particular there are compositions, in which blue and red -predominate, magnificently rich and deep, in spite of recent cleaning. -The cunning way in which green is occasionally used to prevent any -flowing together of red and blue into purple, is a lesson in colour. Two -schemes of design prevail in the nave windows (the old glass in the -choir is so mixed up with new that it does not count), both equally -simple. In the one the rectangular divisions formed by the mullions and -the stouter bars are accepted, without further framing, as separate -picture spaces; in the other the main form of the window is taken as -frame to a single picture, the mullions being only so far taken into -account that the prominent figures are designed within them. Some of -these windows are late enough in the century to show a falling off in -treatment. In the Apostle window (attributed to Michel Angelo?) the -white glass is all reduced to a granular tint of umber; and in the one -illustrating the Life of the Virgin there is a most aggressively -foreshortened figure, which may have been effective in the cartoon, but -is absurd in the glass. It is not, therefore, at Milan that typically -Italian glass is best to be studied, though there is enough of it to -startle the student of glass whose experience had not hitherto extended -so far as Italy. Neither is Italian glass at its best at Bologna, though -the city was noted for glass painting, which was practised there by no -less a person than the Blessed James of Ulm. But, truth to tell, the -best windows at Bologna (they are most of them fairly good) are not -those of the Saint but of Pellegrino Tibaldi and Lorenzo Costa. It is at -Florence that the distinctive quality of Italian glass is best -appreciated. There is a vast quantity of it, varying in date from the -early part of the fifteenth to the latter part of the sixteenth century, -but it is uniformly Italian, and, with few exceptions, it is extremely -good. - -Figures under canopies are of common occurrence in Florentine windows; -but the canopies differ in several respects, both from the ordinary -Gothic canopy and from the shrine-like structure of the later -Renaissance. In the first place, the canopy returns in Italy to its -primitive dimensions. It may or may not be architecturally interesting, -but there is in no case very much of it. The Italians never went -canopy-mad; and they kept the framework of their pictures within -moderate dimensions. The Italian canopy of the fifteenth and sixteenth -centuries, then, was just a niche, sometimes of Renaissance design, -sometimes affecting a more Gothic form with pointed or cusped arch and -so on, under which, or in front of which, the figures stood. It bore -definite relation to the figures, and it was neither impossible of -construction nor absurd in perspective. Occasionally, in later work, as -at the Certosa at Pavia, it was delicate in colour, but, as a rule, it -was strong and rich. It was not merely that the shadowed portions were -glazed in pot-metal, as when, at Santa Croce, the coffered soffits of -the arches are one mosaic of jewellery, but that the canopy throughout -was in colour. - -[Illustration: 178. S. MARIA NOVELLA, FLORENCE.] - -That is the most striking characteristic of Italian canopy work, and -indeed of other ornamental setting--that it is as rich as the picture, a -part of it, not a frame to it. Constructionally, of course, it is a -frame; but the colour does away with the effect of framework. It serves -rather to connect the patches of contrasting colour in the figures, than -to separate one picture from another. Occasionally this results in too -much all-overishness, more commonly it results in breadth, making you -feel that the window is one. It was explained what use was made of white -canopy work in Gothic glass, judiciously to break up the surface of the -window. In Italy the surface is judiciously left unbroken, and in that -case also the result is most admirable. - -With the exception of an occasional brassy yellow canopy, recalling -German colour, the same system of connecting canopy and subject together -by colour is adopted alike at S. Croce, at S. Maria Novella, and at the -Duomo at Florence. The composition of the windows is simple: within a -border of foliage or other ornament, two or three tiers of figures, -under modest canopies, separated perhaps by little medallions containing -busts or demi-figures. That occurs at S. Domenico, Perugia, as well as -at Florence. - -[Illustration: 179. FLORENCE.] - -A modification of the canopy occurs in the nave windows of the Duomo. -The space within a narrow border which frames the broad lancet, is -divided into two by a strong upright bar, and the divisions thus formed -are treated as separate trefoil-arched lancets, each with another border -of its own, the space above being treated much as though it were -tracery. (Something like this occurs, it will be remembered, already in -the thirteenth century, at Bourges.) In the tall spaces within the -borders are the usual tiers of figures under canopies. Again, in the -chapel of the Certosa in Val d'Ema, near Florence, there is a window -with double-niched canopies and pronounced central shaft dividing the -broad lancet into two narrow ones. - -[Illustration: 180. S. GIOVANNI IN MONTE, BOLOGNA.] - -The Italian canopy is not of so stereotyped a character as in Decorated -or Perpendicular design; and generally it may be said that there is, -both in the design and colour of Italian glass, more variety than one -finds out of Italy. The plan is less obvious, the scheme less cut and -dried; you know much less what to expect than in Northern Gothic, and -enjoy more often the pleasure of surprise. - -Elaborately pictorial schemes of design are less common in Italian glass -than might have been expected. There is a famous window in the church of -SS. Giovanni e Paolo, at Venice (1473), in which the four lights below -the bands of tracery which here takes the place of transom are given -over to subject. There green trees and pale blue water against a deep -blue sky and deeper blue hills, anticipate a favourite sixteenth century -colour scheme; but the glass is a mere wreck of what was once probably a -fine window. - -Figure groups on a considerable scale are chiefly to be found in the -great "bull's-eye" windows, which are a striking feature in Italian -Gothic churches, occupying a position where in France would have been a -rose--over the West door, for example. - -[Illustration: 181. AREZZO.] - -These great circular windows, which occur at Arezzo, at Bologna, at -Siena, and especially at Florence, are usually surrounded by an -arabesque border. Occasionally the border consists of a medley of -cherubic wings and faces; occasionally, as at Siena, it is in white, -more in the form of mouldings; in one case, at least, it disappears, as -it were, behind the figure group in the lower part of the window; but, -as a rule, it consists of Renaissance pattern, such as are shown here -and on page 70, large in scale, simple in design, and as mosaic in -execution as though it had been twelfth century work. The centre of -these circular lights may have, as at the Duomo at Florence, a single -upright figure, enthroned, occupying a sort of tall central panel, -supported by angels in the spandrils at the sides; or it may have a -subject running across it, as in the case of Perino del Vaga's "Last -Supper" (1549) at the West end of the cathedral at Siena. But very often -it enclosed one big figure subject, such as the "Descent from the Cross" -at Santa Croce, attributed to Ghiberti. An earlier manner of occupying a -bull's-eye is shown in the East window at Siena, dating probably from -about the beginning of the fourteenth century. This is subdivided by -four huge cross bars (two horizontal and two vertical) into nine -compartments, or a cross consisting of one central square, four squarish -arms, and four triangular spandrils. Each of these divisions is taken as -though it were a separate light, and has its own border, enclosing a -separate subject. The bars, it is true, are of great size, wide enough -almost to have been of stone; but the scheme rather suggests that the -designer was not quite aware, when he designed it, how much less -significant they would appear in the glass than they did in his drawing. - -Unquestionably the finest windows in Florence are the great lancets in -the apse and south apsidal transept of the Duomo, finer than the three -lights at the East end of S. Maria Novella, which are so much more often -spoken of, possibly because they are seen to so much more advantage in -the dark-walled Lady Chapel. It is difficult to trace in these Duomo -windows the hand of Ghiberti or Donatello (1434), their reputed -designers. They are planned on the simplest lines. In the upper series, -the space within a narrowish border is divided, by a band of ornament or -inscription, into two fairly equal parts, in each of which stand two -figures facing one another (opposite) under the simplest form of canopy, -if canopy it can be called. It is a mere frame, at the back of which is -a two-arched arcade, with shafts disappearing behind the figures. They -stand, that is to say, not under but in front of it. - -In the lower series the arrangement is the same, except that the upper -compartment contains a single figure, larger in scale, and seated, under -a canopy of rather more architectural pretensions. Some of the canopies -have cusped arches, and some of the borders are foliated in a more or -less Gothic way; but obviously the Gothicism throughout is only in -deference to prevailing fashion. In feeling and effect the work is -Renaissance. - -The design here given shows about one half of a window; but it gives, -unfortunately, no hint of the colour. The depth of it may be imagined -when it is told that the only approach to white in it is in the beaded -line round the nimbus of the figure to the right, and that is of the -horniest character. The flesh is of a rich brownish tint. - -The head on page 270 goes nearer to suggesting colour. There again the -face is brown, the hair and beard dark and bluish; against it the band -round the head, which is ruby, tells light. The orange-yellow nimbus, -rayed, is rather lighter still, the beaded fillet edging it bone-white. -The drapery is of brightest yellow diapered with occasional blue -trefoils, each of which has in its centre a touch of red. The background -is of very dark blue, the architecture nearest it bright green, beyond -that it is dark red. - -[Illustration: 182. FIGURES, DUOMO, FLORENCE.] - -This short explanation will serve to indicate the key in which the -colour is pitched. The glass itself, it has been said, is as rich as -French work of the twelfth century, as deep as German of the fourteenth, -but more vivid than either; there are no low-toned greens or inky blues. -The blue is sapphire, the green has the quality of an emerald. In -this palette of pure colour the artist revelled. Nowhere as in the Duomo -at Florence is one so impressed with the feeling that the designer was -dealing deliberately always with colour. Plainly that, and no other, was -his impulse, colour--broad, large, beautiful, impressive, solemn colour -masses. Elsewhere the story-teller speaks, or the draughtsman, here the -colourist confesses himself. The grand scale of his figures allows him -to treat his colour largely, and its breadth is no less notable than its -brilliancy. There is infinite variety in it; but the general impression -is of great masses of red, blue, yellow, green, purple, brown, and so -on, held together by the same colours distributed in smaller threads and -spots, as in diapers on drapery. The broad mass of any one colour is -itself made up of many various tints of glass. The accidental fusion of -colour, as of red and blue into purple, is guarded against by framing, -say, the blue with green, or the ruby with brownish-yellow. At other -times neutral tones are deliberately produced by the combination of, for -example, red and green lines. - -[Illustration: 183. FLORENCE.] - -The event proves that in this way, and by the choice of deep rather than -low tones, not only mellowness but sobriety of colour is to be obtained. -The artist would certainly have chosen rather to be crude than dull; but -it is very rarely that a false note occurs, and then most likely it is -due to the decay of the brown paint upon which he relied to bring it -into tone. - -At Arezzo one was disposed to think nothing could be finer than the -glass of William of Marseilles; at Florence one is quite certain that -nothing could be more beautiful than the glass in the Duomo. Each is, -after its kind, perfect. But at Florence, at all events (_les absents -ont toujours tort_), one finds that this is not only the more decorative -kind, but the more dignified. One is disposed to ask, whether it is not -better that in glass there should be no deceptive pictures, no -perspective to speak of, only simple and severely disposed figures, -which never in any way disturb the architectural effect, which give to -the least attractive interior--the Duomo is as bare as a barn and as -drab as a meeting-house--something of architectural dignity. - -[Illustration: 184. PRATO.] - - - - -CHAPTER XXII. - -TRACERY LIGHTS AND ROSE WINDOWS. - - -Glass in tracery lights and Rose windows cannot consistently be planned -on the lines suitable to lancets or other upright shapes; and it is -interesting to observe the modifications of design necessitated by its -adaptation to circumstances so different. This applies not only to -Gothic glass but to Renaissance, the best of which, as it happens, is in -Gothic windows. Happily it never occurred to sixteenth century artists -to hamper themselves by any affectation of archaism, and their work is -deliberately in the new manner. One can understand, too, a certain -"up-to-date" contempt on their part for the "old-fashioned" stonework; -but it is rather surprising that so few of them seem to have realised -how greatly their own work would have gained by a little more -consideration of (if not for) the stonework. - -Where, as at Gouda, by way of exception, Gothic windows were built to -receive later glass, tracery is to all intents and purposes abandoned: -the builders would have done away with mullions had they known how -otherwise to support such huge glass pictures. It has been explained -already, in reference to the influence of the window-shape, and -especially of the mullions, upon glass design, how much more formidable -these divisions appear upon paper than in the window. That is very -plainly seen in many a window where the designer has relied upon them to -frame his subjects. The pictures have a way of running together in the -most perplexing way, and one has to pick them out for oneself again. The -practical conclusion from that is, that the designer is under no -obligation to confine himself too strictly within the separate lights of -a large window. What he is bound to do is to take care that the mullions -never hurt his picture; if they do, it is his picture which is to blame. -He may urge with reason that the upright shafts of stone are there -merely for the support of the window, and that it is not his business -to emphasise them, enough if he acknowledge them. In tracery, however, -it is his bounden duty to take much more heed of the stonework. It was -designed, in intricate and often very beautiful lines, with deliberately -ornamental intent; it was meant to be seen, and it is his function to -show it off. The question he has to put to himself is now no longer: -does the stonework hurt my design? but: does my design hurt the -stonework? And he should not be satisfied unless it helps it. The artist -who, at Bourges, having _fleur-de-lys_-shaped tracery to deal with, -carried across it a design quite contrary to the lines of the stonework, -was guilty of a blank absurdity. - -The Early Rose windows, which were habitually filled with rich coloured -glass, consisted either of simple piercings, as at Lincoln, or they were -made up of piercings very definitely divided by massive stonework. In -proportion as mullions become narrow, and form in themselves a design, -it seems doubtful how far deep-coloured glass can do them justice. Only -strong tracery lines will stand strong colour. At Châlons-sur-Marne, for -example, the foils of certain cusped lights surrounding a central -circular picture are successfully ornamented with arabesque of deep -yellow upon paler yellow ground; and again at Or San Michele, Florence, -certain gorgeous wheels of ruby and yellow, or of blue, green, and -yellow, and so on, are unusually satisfactory. In such cases not only -breadth of effect but definition of the tracery forms is gained by -keeping them (more especially in their outer circumference) much of one -tone, whilst contrast of colour between one light and another helps -still further to assist definition. But this applies only to stonework -strong enough to take care of itself. There is a sort of perverse -brutality in putting into delicate and graceful tracery deep rich glass -which hides its lines. Such lines want sharply defining against the -light. - -Early windows had, of course, no tracery properly so called. The great -Rose windows, and the smaller Roses surmounting a pair of lancets, were -rather piercings than tracery; and it was not difficult to adapt the -design of a medallion window to suit them. A small piercing was ready -designed for a medallion subject; nothing was wanted but a border round -it, narrower, of course, than would have been used for a broad lancet -light, but of the same foliated character. The individual quatrefoils -or other principal openings, which went to make up a great Rose window, -were filled in the same way. If the opening were wedge-shaped, as it -often was, the obvious thing to do was to introduce into it a medallion -(probably circular) of the full width of the opening, at about its -widest, and to fill up the space about it with foliated ornament or -geometric mosaic, with which also the smaller and less important -piercings would naturally be filled. Sometimes the recurring figure -medallions were set alternately in foliated ornament and geometric -diaper; or the lights might be grouped in pairs, two with foliage and -two with diaper. Similar alternation of the two common kinds of Early -filling, naturally occurred in minor openings which contained no -medallion. Something of this kind occurs at Reims. - -When the shape of the great Rose permitted it--if, that is to say, the -circular outline was strongly pronounced--it was possibly further -acknowledged by a fairly broad border, following it and disappearing, as -it were, behind the stonework; otherwise, except in the case of smaller -medallion-shaped openings, it was not usual to mark them by even so much -as a border line. Small Roses had sometimes, as at Auxerre, a central -figure medallion round which were secondary foliage medallions set in -diaper. A certain waywardness of design, already remarked in medallion -windows, was sometimes shown by filling the central medallion with -ornament and grouping the pictures round it. - -As the lights of a Rose window radiated from the centre, features which -recurred throughout the series arranged themselves inevitably in rings; -and according to the disposition of the emphatic features of the design, -the rays or the rings pronounced themselves. This is partly the affair -of the architect who sets out the stonework, but it lies with the -glazier whether he choose to subdue or to emphasise either feature. It -is hard to say why one or other of these schemes of glass design, in -rays or in rings, should be preferred; but, as a matter of experience, -the sun and star patterns are not among the most happy. Perhaps the -stone spokes of a wheel window assert themselves quite enough any way, -and the eye wants leading, not vaguely away from the centre, but -definitely round the window. - -The circular belts of pattern formed by medallions or other features -answer to, and fulfil the part of, the horizontal bands in upright -windows (page 153), and bind the lights together. The band has it all -its own way in a mere "bull's-eye," such as you find in Italy, where -there are no radiating lines of masonry. It is strongly pronounced in -some circular medallion windows at Assisi, in which an extraordinarily -wide border (a quarter of their diameter in width) is divided into eight -equal panels, each enclosed in its own series of border lines, within -which is a medallion set in foliated ornament. This is fourteenth -century work; but, as in thirteenth century Roses, the bars follow and -accentuate the main divisions of the window. - -Even when it came to the glazing of a Rose window in a later Gothic -style, it is not uncommon to find a series or two of medallions running -round the window, as occurs at Angers. They hold the design together; -but in the nature of the case they are on too small a scale for the -pictures to count for more than broken colour. Indeed you may see here -the relative value in such a position of small figure subjects and bold -ornament. The scrollwork is as effective as the medallions are -insignificant. In fact, compared to them, the illegible medallion -subjects in the lancet lights below are readable by him who runs. It has -to be confessed that quite some of the most beautiful and impressive -Rose windows are perfectly unintelligible, even with a good field-glass. -This is so with the West Rose at Reims. In the centre it is ablaze with -red and orange, towards the rim it shades off into deliciously cool -greens and greenish-yellows. It may mean what it may; the colour is -enough. - -Room for figure work on an intelligible scale is only to be found by a -device which verges on the ridiculous. In the beautiful North Rose at S. -Ouen, Rouen, figures which should be upright are arranged in a circle -like herrings in a barrel. Similar figures on a smaller scale occur in -certain tracery lights at Lincoln, two of which are here given. Again in -the North Rose at Le Mans there are twenty-four radiating figures. In -fact, they were customarily so arranged, even down to the sixteenth -century, a period at which one does not credit the designer with -mediæval artlessness. - -It is obvious that out of a series of twenty or more figures, radiating -like the spokes of a wheel, only a very few can stand anything like -upright. The designer of the South Rose at S. Ouen has endeavoured to -get over the difficulty, as well as to accommodate his design to the -exceeding narrowness of the lights as they approach their axis, by -giving his personages no legs, and making them issue from a kind of -sheath or bouquet-holder. A number of the figures pretending to stand in -the radiating lights by a Rose or wheel window must be ridiculously -placed. And then there occurs the question as to whether they shall all -stand with their feet towards the hub. Where the figures have space to -float, it is different. The angels in the Late Gothic Rose window at -Angers, with swirling drapery which hides their feet, and makes them by -so much the less obviously human, if not more actually angelic, solve -the difficulty of full-length figures (on any appreciable scale) in the -only possible way. - -[Illustration: 185. TWO LIGHTS OF A ROSE WINDOW, LINCOLN.] - -A portion of a simple and rather striking wheel window of the Decorated -period, in which concentric bands of ornament form a conspicuous -feature, is shown overleaf. In the small Rose from Assisi (page 278) the -glazier has very successfully supplemented the design of the architect, -completing the four circles, and accentuating them further by glazing -the central spandrils in much darker colour than the rest of the glass, -which is mainly white. - -In the elaborate tracery of the Decorated or geometric period the -mullions, as was said, ask to be pronounced. This was usually done in -the Second Gothic period by framing each light with a border, separated -from the stonework always by a fillet of white glass. The exception to -this was in the case of trefoiled or other many-foiled openings, in -which a central medallion or boss, usually circular, extended to the -points of the cusps, and the border round the cuspings stopped short -against the border to that. Or again in triangular openings a central -boss would sometimes extend to its margin, and the borders would stop -against that, or pass seemingly behind it. - -A typical form of Decorated tracery occurs in the West window at York -Minster, by far the most beautiful part of it. There, every important -opening has within its white marginal line a broader band of ruby or -green, broken at intervals by yellow spots, within which border is -foliage of white and yellow on a green or ruby ground. Some of the -smaller openings show white and yellow foliage only, without any -coloured ground. A plan equally characteristic of the period is -illustrated at Tewkesbury. There again occurs similar white foliage, its -stem encircling a central spot of yellow. This also is on green and ruby -backgrounds, the former reserved for the more prominent openings; but -the border is in white, painted with a pattern. This broader white -border more effectively relieves the dark lines of the masonry than the -border of colour, which sometimes confuses the shapes of the smaller -tracery openings: it does so, for example, in the Late glass on page -200. - -[Illustration: 186. PART OF A ROSE WINDOW, GERMAN 14TH CENTURY.] - -For what was said of the difficulty of carrying a broad border round the -heads of Decorated lights applies more forcibly still to tracery. The -merest fillet of colour is often as much as can safely be carried round -the opening, if even that. On the other hand, a broad border of white -and stain, even though it contain a fair amount of black in it, may -safely be used--as at Châlons, where it frames small subjects in rich -colour. Some admirable Decorated tracery occurs at Wells, much on the -usual lines, and containing a good deal of pleasant green; but there the -white and yellow foliage in the centre part of the lights is sometimes -so closely designed that very little of the coloured ground shows -through it, and it looks at first as if what little ground there is had -all been painted-out. At S. Denis Walmgate, York, the background to the -foliage in white and yellow (which last predominates) is painted solid: -the only pot-metal colour (except in the central medallion head) is in a -rosette or two of colour leaded into it; the border is white. Another -expedient there employed is to introduce figures in white and stain upon -a ground of green or ruby, diapered. At Wells there occur little figures -of saints in pot-metal colour, planted upon the white foliated filling -of the tracery lights. Decorated circular medallions occupying the -centre of ornamental tracery lights are usually framed in coloured -lines; occasionally the inner margin of the medallion is cusped, in -imitation of stonework. - -[Illustration: 187. ASSISI.] - -An effective plan, adopted at Evreux, is to gather the lights into -groups, by means of the colour introduced into them, which grouping may -or may not be indicated by the stonework. In any case, it is a means of -obtaining at once variety and breadth of colour. - -Perpendicular tracery lights are themselves, in most cases, only copies -in miniature of the larger lights below, and the glass is designed on -the same plan. A good illustration of this is at Great Malvern, where -the design consists of the orthodox canopy work in white and stain, with -little figures also nearly all in white, colour occurring only in the -lower skirts of their drapery, in the background about their heads, and -behind the pinnacles above. The effect is beautifully silvery. Often -such figures under the canopies are angels, all in white and stain. -Sometimes seraphim, in stain upon a white ground, quarried perhaps, fill -the lights, without canopies. These are all typical ways of filling the -tracery of a Perpendicular window. - -It was quite a common thing to fill it with glass wholly of white and -stain. In the centre there might be a medallion head in grisaille, or an -inscribed label, the rest of the space being occupied by conventional -foliage having just a line of clear white next the stonework. Beautiful -examples of this treatment occur at Great Malvern; occasionally the -foliage is all in yellow with white flowers. Small openings are thus -often glazed in a single piece of glass, or in any case with the fewest -possible leads. At S. Serge, Angers, there is larger work of a similar -kind, a bold scroll in white and stain on a ground of solid pigment, out -of which is scratched a smaller pattern, not so bold as in the least to -interfere with the scroll, but enough to prevent anything like heaviness -in the painted ground. Similar treatment is adopted in the cathedral at -Beauvais. Once in a while one comes, in English work, upon figures in -white and stain on a solid black ground extending to the stonework, -without any line of white to show where the glass ends and the stonework -begins. It would be impossible more emphatically than that to show one's -contempt for the architecture. - -Some disregard, if not actually contempt, is shown for architecture in -the practice, common no less in Late Gothic than in Renaissance design, -of carrying a coloured ground right up to the stone, without so much as -a line of light to separate the two. Comparatively light though the -colour may be, it is usually dark enough, unless it be yellow, to -confuse the forms of any but the boldest tracery. Something of the kind -occurred by way of exception even in fourteenth century glass, as at S. -Radegonde, Poitiers, and at Toulouse, where the tracery of the windows -is one field of blue, irregularly sprinkled with white stars. The lines -of the tracery are lost, and one sees only spots of white. - -The Later Gothic plan was to keep tracery light, even though the window -below it were altogether in rich colour, and the effect was good; as at -Alençon, where a distinctly blue window has in the tracery only angels -in white and yellow on a white ground; or, again, at Conches, where -white-robed angels, on a ground of rich stain, contrast pleasantly with -the cool blue of the lights below. - -Unusual treatment of the tracery occurs at Auch (1513). In the main the -tracery lights contain figures in colour upon a ruby or paler-coloured -ground, which, as in so many a Renaissance window, runs out to the -stonework; but occasionally here and there a light is distinguished by a -border of white. Moreover, the ground is, as a rule, not of one colour -throughout, nor even throughout a single light, but varied; and that not -symmetrically or pattern-wise, but so as artfully to carry the colour -through. In fact, the artist has taken his tracery much more seriously -than usual, and has carefully studied how best he could balance by the -colour in it the not quite so easily-to-be-controlled colour of his -figure composition below. The result is that the windows are all of one -piece--each a complete and well-considered colour composition: the -tracery is not merely the top part of the frame to the coloured picture -below. - -[Illustration: 188. LYONS.] - -In Renaissance glass the tracery was more often in comparatively full -colour, even though the lights below were pale. A grisaille window at -Evreux, with practically blue tracery, has a very pleasant effect. - -It was not often that the Renaissance glass painters gave very serious -attention to the tracery which they had to fill. They were, for the most -part, content to conceive each separate opening as a blue field upon -which to place an angel (as above), a crown, a _fleur-de-lys_, or other -emblem, as best might fit. In very many sixteenth century windows the -design consists merely of angels, emblems, labels, or even clouds, -dotted about, as suited the convenience of the designer. Sometimes, as -at S. Alpin, at Troyes, there occurs in a tracery light a tablet bearing -a date,--presumably, but not always positively, that of the window. Such -devices were very often in white upon a ground of blue, purple, or ruby. -Angels of course adapted themselves to irregular shapes in the most -angelic way; and they are introduced in every conceivable -attitude--standing, kneeling, flying, swinging censers, singing, playing -on musical instruments, bearing scrolls or shields; angels all in white, -angels in white with coloured wings, angels in gorgeous array of colour: -and more accommodating, still, is the bodiless cherub, beloved of Luca -della Robbia. - -There is a quite charming effect of colour in a Jesse window at S. -Maclou, Rouen, where the tracery lights are inhabited by little cherubs, -in ruby on a grey-blue ground, in grey on deeper grey-blue, and in -emerald-like green upon the same. - -The scroll without the angel was a very convenient filling for smaller -openings. Some elaborately twisted scrolls, in white and stain on -purple, occur at Moulins. - -Larger and more prominent lights often contain a separate picture, or -one picture runs through several lights, or perhaps all through the -tracery. Worse than that is, where the picture runs through from the -lights below; as at Alençon, where the trees grow up into the blue of -the tracery, broken otherwise only by white clouds; or at Conches, where -the architecture from the subject below aspires so high. It is almost -worse still where, as at Alençon again, and at the chapel at Vincennes, -it is the canopy which so encroaches. In the exceptional case of a Jesse -window there seems less objection to accepting the whole window as a -field through which the tree may grow; yet the tracery is not the -happiest part of the Beauvais window (page 368). Sometimes the heads of -the lower lights are made to appear as though they were part of the -tracery. - -A happier form of Renaissance tracery design is where medallion heads in -white and stain are introduced upon a ground of plain colour--blue at -Châlons, purple-brown at Montmorency. These are sometimes most -beautifully painted, as are the Raffaellesque little cherubs amidst -white clouds, also at Montmorency; but they are much more delicately -done than they need have been, and less effective than they might. Very -delicate painting upon white does produce an effect even at a distance; -at least it gives quality; but there should be some relation between -effort and effect; and here the effect is weak as compared with the -expenditure of art. In the tracery on page 213, fairly effective though -monotonous, the birds are glazed in with such unnecessary avoidance of -lead, that the cutting of the ground must have been a work of great -difficulty. In glass of every period it has been the custom to put too -much into tracery; in Early work too much detail, in Later too much -finish. What is wanted is breadth. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII. - -QUARRY WINDOWS. - - -The very simplest form of window glazing, the easiest and the thriftiest -thing for the cutter to do, and the most straightforward for the -glazier, is to frame together parallel-sided pieces of glass in the form -of a lead lattice. - -Quarries, as all such little square or rhomboid shaped panes of glass -came to be called, were used from the first. Ordinarily they were set on -end, so as to form diamonds; which as time went on, were generally not -rectangular, but long in proportion to their breadth. - -For the most part they were painted with patterns traced in brown; and, -on the discovery of silver stain, they were in parts tinted yellow. From -the fourteenth century onwards, quarry lights, framed in borders, and -enlivened with colour, form a very important variety of grisaille. - -Many a grisaille pattern was not far removed from quarry glazing, as may -be seen opposite. It was natural that, for clerestory and triforium -windows in particular, the glazier should do all he could to simplify -his work. Clerestory windows are placed too high to be fairly seen in a -narrow church, and triforium lights are often half shut off from view by -projecting shafts of open arcading in front of them. It is only when, by -rare chance, they happen to front you squarely at the end of an aisle or -transept, that they are properly seen. There is no occasion, therefore, -to indulge in subtleties of design; the one thing needful is that the -effect of the windows as a whole, should be pleasant, since all study of -detail is out of the question, except from the triforium galleries -opposite, or by the aid of a field-glass; and light arrangements of -grisaille and colour are in most cases all that is wanted. The colour -may be more or less, according as it is desired to exclude light or to -admit it; but some very simple, unpretending, and perhaps even rude -treatment, is indicated by the conditions of the case, which to -contradict, is wasteful and unworkmanlike. The effect, for example, of -the band of figures across the grisaille in the triforium of the -transepts at Evreux is admirable; but the way in which seven saints out -of the eight are cut vertically in two by the pillars of the -architectural screen in front of them, is nothing less than -exasperating. These figures tell only as the patches of colour; and that -could so easily have been obtained by much simpler means. In such a -position, quarries may well take the place, not only of figures, but of -more interesting grisaille; and, even though they be not painted at all -(as is again the case at Evreux), but merely broken by occasional -sun-discs in white and stain crossing them, and framed in a simple block -border of white and colour, the effect may be entirely adequate. It is -not meant to deny that figures in rich colour embedded in carefully -designed grisaille are more attractive; but, for its purpose, quarry -work, with borders and bosses of colour, is in the majority of such -cases, enough. - -[Illustration: 189. LINCOLN.] - -[Illustration: 190. EVREUX.] - -Figures or figure subjects in formal bands across tall quarry lights are -always effective; so are figures planted more casually upon the -quarries--kneeling donors, flying angels, or whatever they may be. So -again, are figure panels alternating with bosses of ornament; but, if -the window occupy a position where the figures can be appreciated, a -surrounding of quarries seems hardly of interest enough, and if not, the -figures seem rather thrown away. One is tempted to make exception in -favour of figures in grisaille, which, if very delicately painted (as -for example at S. Martin-cum-Gregory, York), show to advantage on a -quarry ground, which has the modesty not to compete with them in -interest. The quarries keep their place perfectly as a background; and -the slight painting upon them is just enough to give the glass quality, -and to indicate that, however subordinate, it is yet part of the -picture. - -A quarry window, no less than any other, wants a border, if only to -prevent the strongly marked straight lines of lead from appearing to run -into the stonework. A simple line of colour with another of white next -the mullions is enough for that. Even this is occasionally omitted, more -especially in tracery lights, but in that case the glass seems to lack -finish. The most satisfactory border to quarry lights into which -otherwise no colour is introduced, is a broadish border of white, -painted with pattern and in part stained. A coloured border seems to -imply other colour breaking the field of quarries. By itself it is too -much or not enough. Its proportion is a thing to be determined in each -case on the spot; but even in narrow lights, if they contain bosses of -colour (as do those in the transepts at Le Mans) a broad border about -one fifth the width of the window, with a broad white line next the -stone, is very effective. - -The monotony of any great surface of quarry work, has led to the -introduction of medallions and the like, even where it is not desired to -introduce pot-metal colour. In the window from Evreux, illustrated -opposite, the effect of the delicately painted little angel medallions, -in white on a ground of stain, is all that could be wished. Any little -surprise of that kind is always welcome; but, should it occur too -frequently, it becomes itself monotonous. - -There is no end to the variety of forms in which colour may be -introduced into quarry work. It is best in the form of patches, and not -in the form of lines between the quarries as occurs occasionally, at -Poitiers, for example, at Rouen cathedral, and at Châlons (page 167). - -[Illustration: 191. QUARRY WINDOW, EVREUX.] - -Big rosettes, discs, wreaths, rings of colour, and the like, are more -effective than small spots. They need not be heavy, there may be any -amount of white in them. In narrow lights, they may sometimes with -advantage come in front of the border; that admits of the biggest -possible medallion, and it is best to have such features large and few. -Mean little rosettes are too suggestive of the contractor; in the church -of S. Ouen, at Rouen, one is uncomfortably reminded of him--it would be -so easy to estimate for glass of that kind at so much the foot! Heraldic -shields form often peculiarly effective colour-patches in quarry -windows, more especially because of the accidental arrangement of colour -they compel. There is a point at which symmetry of colour palls upon the -eye. - -[Illustration: 192. LINCOLN.] - -The even surface of quarry lights all in white and stain is broken -sometimes by an occasional band of inscription, which may either take -the line of the quarries, or cross them in the form of a label. At -Evreux some quarry lights are most pleasingly interrupted by square -patches of inscription in yellow, or, which is still more satisfactory, -in white. In the same cathedral there is a very interesting instance of -inscription, in letters some five or six inches high, leaded in blue -upon a quarry ground. - -[Illustration: 193. GERMAN QUARRY BORDER.] - -[Illustration: 194. EARLY ENGLISH QUARRY.] - -The patterns with which quarries are painted naturally followed the -ordinary course of grisaille. In the thirteenth century the designs were -strongly outlined, and showed clear against a cross-hatched ground; -which, however, did not, as a rule, extend to the lead, but a margin of -clear glass was left next to it, in acknowledgment of the quarry shape. -The combination of quarries and strap ornament in the example at Lincoln -(page 287) is unusual, but the quarries themselves are, but for the -absence of a clear line next the leads, characteristically of the -thirteenth century. The quarry border from Nuremberg (above) is rather -later in character. In that case also, as it happens, there is no -marginal line of clear glass. The typical treatment is shown below. -Later, as in other grisaille, the cross-hatched ground was omitted; and -the foliage took, of course, more natural form. It was presently more -delicately traced (page 290), and more often than not tinted in yellow -stain. Consistently with the more natural form of leafage the design in -fourteenth century work was often one continuous growth trailing through -the window, and passing behind the marginal band of stain which now -usually emphasised the top sides of the quarries. Often a futile attempt -was made (page 286) to give the appearance of interlacing to these -bands, but that was nullified by the stronger lead lines. True, -interlacing was only possible where, as in some earlier work, the bands -were continued on all four sides of the quarry, so that the lead fell -into its place as interspace between two interlacing bands. It was -better when there was no pretence of interlacing (below). Additional -importance was sometimes given to the marginal band by tracing a pattern -upon it, or, as on page 291, painting it in brown, and then picking out -geometric tracery upon it. There came a time when marginal lines were -omitted altogether. That was the usual, though not invariable, practice -in the fifteenth century, by which time the draughtsman had apparently -learnt to husband his inventive faculty. The continuous growth of the -pattern, as well as the marginal acknowledgment of the lead lines, died -out of fashion, and quarries were mostly painted sprig fashion. The -character of these sprigs will be best judged from the specimens on page -289, some of the most interesting given in "Shaw's Book of Quarries." -Quarry patterns do not, of course, occur in that profuse variety; it is -seldom that more than two patterns are found in a single window, often -there is only one. The range of design in quarries of this kind is -limited only by the invention of the artist. It includes both floral and -conventional ornament, animal and grotesque figures, emblems and -heraldic badges, cyphers, monograms, mottoes, and so on. There is scope -not only for meaning in design, but for the artist's humour; but, when -all is said, the Late Gothic pattern windows, now given over entirely to -quarry work, are of no great account as concerns their detail. The later -quarry patterns are often pretty enough, sometimes amusing, but they go -for very little in the decoration of a church. Plentiful as quarry work -is everywhere, and characteristic as it is of Perpendicular glass, there -is not much that shows an attempt to do anything serious with the quarry -window. All that was done was to paint more or less delicate and dainty -patterns upon the little lozenge panes. However, they were traced with a -light hand and a sure one, and with a kind of spontaneity which gives -them really what artistic charm they have. - -[Illustration: 195. QUARRY PATTERNS (SHAW).] - -[Illustration: 196. 14TH CENTURY QUARRY.] - -[Illustration: 197. 14TH CENTURY QUARRIES.] - -The occasional endeavours to get stronger and bolder effects in quarry -work were not very successful. At Evreux and at Rouen there are some -late quarries painted more after the fashion of bold mosaic diaper; but -the effect, though satisfactory enough, is not such as to convince one -that that is the better way. - -[Illustration: 198. 14TH CENTURY QUARRY.] - -To heraldry, and especially to shields of arms surrounded by mantling -(page 293), quarries form an excellent background, but only in the event -of there being enough of them left free to show that it is a quarry -window upon which the heraldry is imposed, or rather into which it is -inlaid. Odds and ends of quarries want to be accounted for, as forming -the continuation of the glass above and below. In the case of a window -not a quarry window, it is a mistake to break up the background, as was -sometimes done, into quarries, or rather into fragments of quarries. The -object of the square or diamond shape is to break up a plain surface. If -the ground is naturally broken up by figures, foliage, mantling, or what -not, why introduce further quarry lines? They are not in themselves -interesting. Their great value is in that they give scale to a window; -but that is only on condition that they are seen in their entirety. - -[Illustration: 199. ROUND GLASS, ROUNDELS, OR BULL'S-EYES.] - -[Illustration: 200. HERALDIC GLASS.] - -In Germany the place of quarries was supplied by roundels (page 292) -unpainted. What applies to quarries applies in many respects to them; -and they have a brilliancy which flat glass has not. They were -usually enclosed in painted borders of white and stain, and have a very -delicate and pearly effect; but where (as at S. Peter's, at Cologne) -they occur in great quantity as compared with coloured subjects, these -appear to be floating rather uncomfortably in their midst. The Italians, -who also used roundels in place of quarries, often let colour into the -interstices between them, and also little painted squares or pateræ of -white and stain. In the sham windows decorating the Sistine Chapel at -Rome, separating Botticelli's series of Popes, the pointed spaces -between the rounds are coloured diagonally in successive rows of red, -yellow, and green; but the result is most pleasing where, as at Verona -and elsewhere, the little triangular spaces are neither of one tint nor -yet symmetrically arranged, but distributed in a quasi-accidental and -unexpected way. Sometimes it was the little pateræ that was in colour -and the rest white. In any case, the effect is refined, as it is at -Arezzo also, where the monotony of roundels, in sundry clerestory -windows, is broken by figure medallions and other features in white and -colour. The adaptation of roundels to the circular shape is shown in the -portion of a round window from Santa Maria Novella. What more remains to -be said about roundels and quarry windows is reserved for the chapter on -"Domestic Glass." - -[Illustration: 201. QUARRY FROM CHETWODE CHURCH.] - -[Illustration: 202. WINDOW IN THE CERTOSA IN VAL D'EMA, FLORENCE.] - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV. - -DOMESTIC GLASS. - - -It is customary to draw a distinction between "Ecclesiastical" and -"Domestic" glass. - -In mediæval days the Church was the patron of art; and, when kings and -corporations commissioned stained glass windows, it was usually to -present them to Mother Church. It is in churches, then, that the greater -part of the old glass remains to us, iconoclastic mania notwithstanding; -and it is only there that the course of glass painting can be traced. -Once in a while, as at S. Mary's Hall, Coventry, one comes upon a great -window designed to decorate a civic building; but the whiles are few and -far between. When such windows do occur they prove not to differ widely -from more familiar church work. - -What, then, is the difference between the two kinds of glass? It is not -that the one is ecclesiastical the other secular, the one religious the -other profane art. "Sacred Art" is a term consecrated by use; but, -strictly speaking, it is a meaningless combination of words, signifying, -if it signify anything, that the speaker confounds the art of telling -with the thing told. Art has no more a religion than it has a country. -No doubt there clings always to the art of the devout believer some -fervour of faith, as there may hang about the sceptic's doing a chill of -doubt. The historian will enrich his glass with story, the preacher will -convey in it a dogma. Poet or proser, philosopher or fool, may each in -turn peep out of the window. Youth will everywhere betray its ardour, -manhood its vigour, age its experience. A live man cannot help but put -himself into his work. But none of that is art. His art is in the way he -expresses himself, not in what he says; and there is no more religion in -his glass painting than in his handwriting, though the graphologist may -read in it his character. - -The difference between church glass and domestic arises, speaking from -the point of view of art, solely from architectural conditions. In so -far as they are both glass, the same methods of glazing and painting -apply to both. It is only in so far as the position and purpose of the -two are different, that they call for different treatment in design. The -treatment suitable to a great hall does not materially differ from that -adapted to a church; the same breadth of design, the same largeness of -execution, are required; what suits a cloister would suit a passage. -When, however, it comes to the windows of dwelling-rooms, the scheme and -execution appropriate even to the smallest chapels of a church, would -most likely be out of place. The distinction is very much as that -between wall decoration in fresco and cabinet paintings in oil- or -water-colour. - -In the house there is less need than in the church for severity, and -more for liveliness, less occasion for breadth, and more for delicacy. -The scale of the dwelling-room itself justifies, perhaps demands, a -smaller treatment. Here, if anywhere, is opportunity for that -preciousness of execution which, in work of more monumental character, -it seems a pity to expend upon so frail a substance as glass--frailer -than ever when it was the thin white glass employed for window panes. -For, so far from the glazier of the sixteenth or seventeenth century -imagining, as we mostly do, that it was any part of the purpose of -domestic glass to shut out the view--less need in those days!--he -employed in most cases a material which was not merely translucent but -absolutely transparent. - -This use of transparent glass marks a distinction, and forms something -of a new departure. It was employed to some extent in Renaissance church -work; but there it was more as a background to the stained glass window -than as a part of it. Here the transparent glass is the window; and the -design, whether in pot-metal or in enamel, shows more or less against -the clear. - -The relationship of certain seventeenth century windows at Antwerp to -the Italian windows on pages 295, 299, 352, is obvious. They may be -quite possibly founded upon them. There is the same arrangement of -subjects in cartouches, set in geometric glazing of clear glass. But in -the Italian windows one kind of glass is used throughout (the little -pieces of thin pot-metal colour in the cartouches, and so on, scarcely -count); and the proportion of the painted work to clear glass is so -schemed that, although you may feel that the plain work wants just a -touch of enrichment to bring it all together, you are not asked -deliberately to imagine yourself to be looking through, beyond the -painting, into space. - -[Illustration: 203. ITALIAN GRISAILLE, FLORENCE.] - -The detail in these windows from the Certosa in Val d'Ema, near -Florence, is all outlined and painted in brown upon clear white glass, -the flesh warmer in tint than the rest; the high lights are brushed out -of a matt tint, and some pale stain is washed in. The artful thing about -the design is, the cunning way in which the borders are planned, so as -to avoid the absolute parallelism of marginal lines. For the rest the -design is rather characteristically Late Renaissance, though the -relation of border to cartouche, and of both together to clear glass, is -better than usual. It will be noted that these are not strictly domestic -windows; but they are designed to be seen about on a level with the eye, -and from a distance of not more than ten feet, which is as far as the -width of the cloister allows one to get away from them. - -[Illustration: 204. CERTOSA IN VAL D'EMA.] - -They fulfil, therefore, altogether very much the conditions which apply -generally to domestic glass, and may be taken, if not as types of -domestic work, at least as something on the way from the church to the -house. This, though the common type of Italian Renaissance grisaille, -was not invariable. At S. Frediano, Lucca, for example, there is a white -window, which, except for a little medallion in its centre, might at a -glance almost pass for thirteenth century work: the Cinque-Cento scroll -is so rendered, with cross-hatched ground and all, as to suggest the -early mediæval craftsman; it is centuries away from Da Udine in style. - -The domestic quarry window differed, in mediæval work, in no respect -from church work. In the sixteenth century it took rather a new form. It -consisted no longer of a more or less diaper-like all-over pattern, but -of a panel, designed to be glazed in quarries. Here, again, is an -approximation to the seventeenth century practice of leading up -pictures in rectangular panes, but only an approximation. There is this -important difference, that the quarry window starts from the lead lines, -and is religiously designed within them. - -Thus to accept, the simple square and obviously fit lines of quarry -glazing, and to expend his art in painting upon them, simplifies the -task of the glass painter; and he very frequently fell back upon that -plan, more readily perhaps when he happened to know more about painting -than about glazing. That was Da Udine's case, who is credited with the -design of the windows in the Laurentian library at Florence, as of those -at the Certosa in Val d'Ema. They bear a date some few years after his -death; but they are so like what he certainly would have done that, -directly or indirectly, the design is clearly due to him. The one -illustrated on page 298 is quite one of the best of these windows; in -the others the ornament is even less coherent. The characteristic -arabesque is painted in brown enamel, with redder enamel for the flesh -tints, some yellow stain, and a little blue enamel in the heraldic -lozenge, all upon clear white glass. The effect is delicate and silvery -and no appreciable amount of light is excluded (a point usually of some -importance in domestic work); but, though the main forms are designed -within the lead lines, one feels that these have not been considered -enough, that the leads compete with the painting, and that the bars, in -particular, which are far thicker than need be, and occur with -unnecessary frequency (in fact, at every horizontal quarry joint but -one), very seriously mar the effect of delicate painting. That is as -much as to say that the design, graceful and fanciful as it is, does not -fulfil the conditions of quarry glass. - -It is not enough for complete success in this form of window that the -quarry lines shall be the basis of the design; the painting also must be -strong enough to hold its own against leads and bars. That is hardly the -case with the exceptionally delicate ornament in the Dutch glass -opposite. But here, notwithstanding that the scroll is slighter than the -Italian work and more delicately painted, the central patch of enamel -colour in the shield and mantling does, to some extent, focus the -attention there, and so withdraw the eye from the lead lines. The window -is not merely cleverly designed; it is a frank, straightforward, manly -piece of work, marred only by the comparative heaviness of the leads. -The truth is that a glass painter becomes so used to lead lines, and -gets to take them so much for granted, that they do not offend him; and -he is apt to forget how obtrusive they may appear in the eyes of the -unaccustomed. Hence his sometimes seemingly brutal treatment of tenderly -painted ornament. - -[Illustration: 205. DUTCH QUARRY WINDOW, S. K. MUSEUM.] - -Other good examples of Dutch domestic glass, not quite so good as this, -but painted with admirable directness, are to be found at the _Musée des -Antiquités_ at Brussels. At the Louvre also the Dutch work is good. -There are two lights there in which cartouches enclosing small oval -subjects (fables) spread over the greater part of the quarry glazing, -leaving only the lowermost of them comparatively empty. On these are -painted butterflies, a dragon-fly, even a gad-fly, almost to the life. -These flies upon the window pane, like the little miniature figures in -the bottom corner quarries on page 301, are trivial enough in idea; but -the idea is cleverly and daintily expressed; and one does not expect -much else than triviality in seventeenth century design. Moreover, in -the privacy of domestic life it is permitted to be trivial. - -For dignity of treatment it would be difficult to match the specimen of -Flemish glass shown on page 304, now at Warwick Castle. Like the Dutch -and Italian work, it is painted on clear glass but without the -prettiness of flesh tint, and the background to the ornament (it shows -dull grey in the print) is brilliant yellow stain. This little light and -its companion on page 98 are as large in style as they are beautiful in -effect. - -There is a gayer touch in the less seriously decorative panel of French -work in the Louvre given on page 307. In that pot-metal is used for the -dark ruby of the outer dress, and for the little bits of blue rather -cunningly let into the spandrils of the arch. The fancifully designed -canopy, the arabesque, and a portion of the drapery are in stain, all -delicately painted upon clear glass, and glazed mainly on quarry -lines--from which, however, the designer saw fit to depart. What he -meant by the unfortunate circular lead line about the head is difficult -to imagine. It can hardly be, like other erratic leading, the result of -mending. No fracture could possibly have steered so carefully between -the figure and the ornament. It looks almost as if at the last he had -lost confidence in his technique, and, in trying vainly to avoid lead -lines, had ended in giving them extraordinary emphasis. - -In ultra-delicate domestic work the leads are more than ever the -difficulty. One is uncomfortably conscious of them in the wonderful -series of windows--formerly at Ecouen, and now in the Château de -Chantilly--in which is set forth in forty pictures the story of Cupid -and Psyche. A specimen of these is given on page 218, thanks to the -friendly permission of Monsieur Magne, who illustrates the whole of them -in his admirable monograph of the Montmorency glass. The legend to the -effect that Raffaelle designed and Palissy painted them, is past all -possible belief; but they are very remarkable specimens of sixteenth -century work, restored about the period of the First Empire, and mark -somewhere about the high-water mark of French domestic picture glass. - -A glance at these windows is enough to show that they were never schemed -with any definite view to glazing. Rather it would appear that the -pictures were first designed and then the leads introduced where best -they could be disguised. But the disguise is everywhere transparent. -Such gauzy painting is inadequate; it hides nothing. You see always the -thick black lines of lead, cruel enough, but clinging in a cowardly way -to the edges of weak forms, sneaking into shadows, and foolishly -pretending to pass themselves off as the continuation of painted -outlines not one-twentieth part so strong as they. The sparing use of -glazing lines makes them all the more conspicuous. They must originally -have asserted themselves even more than they do now; for the accidental -lead lines introduced in reparation, however much they damage the -pictures, do in a measure support the original glazing lines, and pull -the windows together. The Chantilly glass goes to prove the -impossibility of satisfactorily disposing of the leads in very small -figure subjects in grisaille. In work on a larger scale it wants only a -man who knows his trade to manage it. Witness what was done in church -work. - -[Illustration: 206. GRISAILLE, WARWICK CASTLE.] - -The propriety of executing figures in grisaille at all has been called -in question by Viollet le Duc. "Every bit of white glass," he said, -"should be diapered with pattern traced with a brush; and, since this -treatment is not possible in flesh painting, flesh ought not to be -painted." Moreover, he says that grisaille has always the appearance of -vibrating, and the vibration fatigues the eye; therefore, he argues, it -is labour lost to paint white figures. Far be it from an ornamentist to -deny that a great deal too much importance is attached to figure work in -decoration. But the amount of tracing necessary on white glass is -relative. In grisaille it is quite safe to leave some glass clear; and, -if it is not worth while to paint figures, is it worth while to paint -anything worth looking at, or worth painting? - -[Illustration: 207. LOUIS XIII. AND ANNE OF AUSTRIA.] - -The truth is, it wearies the sight to look at any glass for long at a -stretch, and for a mere _coup d'oeil_ the most brutal workmanship -would often do. But, if work is ever to be seen from near, the charm is -gone when once you know how coarse it is. One tires of crude work, and -delights more and more in what is delicate. Whoever has taken pleasure -in such work as the windows at S. Alpin at Troyes would find it hard to -renounce the figure in grisaille. - -To return to the leading of grisaille. Of the two extremes, the bold, -even the too bold, acknowledgment of the constructional lines of a -window, is far preferable to the timid attempt to conceal them. The -glaziers of the Renaissance eventually got over the difficulty by the -simple plan of inserting into quarry windows (usually unpainted) or into -pattern work of plain glass only, little panes of painted glass. In this -way there are introduced into some windows at the Château de Chaumont -some very beautiful little portrait medallions, outlined with a firmness -and modelled with a delicacy which remind one of the drawings of Clouet. -At the Germanic Museum at Nuremberg are some similar medallion heads, -quite Holbein-ish in character. A later portrait panel, lacking the -style and draughtsmanship of these, but very cleverly painted (by Linard -Gontier they say), is reproduced on page 305. It represents, as the -inscription and cypher go to show, Louis Treize and Anne of Austria, as -bride and bridegroom. Its date, therefore, speaks for itself. Another -little pane by Gontier, from the Hôtel des Arquebusiers at Troyes, now -in the library there, is given on page 310. The characteristic -ornamental work surrounding this, though not forming a consecutive frame -to the picture, is of about the same period with it (1621). Its design -consists of that modified form of Arab foliation (compare it with the -detail on page 352), which was very much used in damascening and niello -work; indeed, the French still call that kind of pattern "_nielle_." -Here it is traced in a fine brown outline, and filled in partly with -yellow stain and partly with blue enamel. The effect is pleasing. - -[Illustration: 208. DOMESTIC GLASS, THE LOUVRE.] - -It was in Switzerland that glass painting other than for churches was -most extensively practised. The Council Chambers of Swiss towns, and the -halls of trade and other guilds, were enriched with bands of armorial -glass across the windows; and throughout the sixteenth century it was -the custom to present to neighbouring towns or friendly Corporations a -painted window panel. Great part of these have been dispersed, and in -Switzerland they are now perhaps rarer than in the museums of other -countries. The Germanic Museum at Nuremberg and the Hôtel Clûny, at -Paris, are rich in Swiss glass; and we have some at South Kensington. -Superb examples, however, still remain in Switzerland--for example, in -the Rath-haus at Lucerne--though they belong to a period as late as the -first ten years of the seventeenth century. - -[Illustration: 209. PIERCED QUARRIES, WARWICK.] - -The usual form of design consisted of a sort of florid canopy frame of -moderate dimensions, enclosing a shield or shields of arms, supported by -fantastically dressed men-at-arms. There was often great spirit in the -swagger of these melodramatic swashbucklers, admirably expressive of the -idea which underlies all heraldry: "I am somebody," they seem to say, -"pray who are you?" It is a comparatively modest specimen of this class -that is presented on page 90. In the windows of a private house it was -frequently the master and mistress who supported the armorial shield, -all in their Sunday best, and very proud of themselves too. Little Bible -subjects were also painted, mainly in grisaille. It was for window panes -that Holbein drew the Stations of the Cross, now among the chief -treasures of the museum at Bâle. These also must be classed with -domestic work. They may in some cases have been destined for a church; -but they would much more appropriately decorate a private oratory. - -These heraldic or pictorial panes go even beyond the delicacy of cabinet -pictures, and are sometimes more on the scale of miniatures; but of such -miniature painting the Swiss were masters. They carried craftmanship to -its very furthest point, and among them traditions of good work lingered -long after they were quite dead in France. Of English work there was not -much; and of that the less said the better. - -Far into the eighteenth century the Swiss still had a care for their -window panes, and, when painting went out of fashion, engraved them with -armorial or other devices. Precisely that kind of engraving was employed -also upon polished mirrors, of which one finds examples in Italy. - -Unpainted quarry windows in English houses were sometimes relieved, at -the same time that ventilation was secured, by the occasional -introduction (in the place of glass) of little fretted panels of pierced -lead, as shown on page 308. Below is a diamond-shaped piercing of the -Jacobean period. - -[Illustration: 210. QUARRY OF FRETTED LEAD.] - -[Illustration: 211. DOMESTIC WINDOW PANE, TROYES.] - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXV. - -THE USE OF THE CANOPY. - - -No one can have paid much attention to stained glass without observing -the conspicuous part played in its design by the quasi-architectural -canopy. - -Inasmuch as it, in a sense, enshrines the figure, there exists some sort -of symbolic reason for its use. But that is not enough to account for -its all but universal employment. A more obvious excuse for it is, the -purpose it fulfils in the construction of design. It is a means of -accounting for the position of figures midway up the window, perhaps one -above the other, and not standing upon the sill. It is at once framework -and support to them, preventing them from seeming to float there in -space. - -Where the designer of the church designed also the glass for it, it was -almost inevitable that he should plan it more or less upon architectural -lines; and so we find that in windows known to have been designed by -architects the canopy is very often the most conspicuous part of the -design. But at all times the master-builder must have been a power, and -at all times also even glaziers and glass painters must have been so -intimately acquainted with forms of architecture, that it is not -surprising they should have introduced them into their work. - -The fact is, the designer happens upon something like a canopy almost -without intending it, and, having arrived so far, perfects the -resemblance to it. Suppose a window of four long lights, in each of -which it is desired to introduce three figures. That means dividing it -horizontally into three, which may be done by the use of bands of -inscription, as at _a_ in the diagram overleaf: there is no suggestion -of architecture there. Supposing you wish to frame the window at the -sides, so as to stop the picture, as at _b_, to the left of the diagram; -you have still no very distinct suggestion of architecture. But if, the -better to frame the picture, you add an extra band of colour, as shown -at _c_, you arrive at once at something so like perspective as to -indicate an architectural elevation. Indeed, that is precisely the form -the canopy takes sometimes in Italian glass. Even when the -cinque-centist framed his picture merely in lines he could hardly help -giving them the appearance of mouldings, painting upon (as at Arezzo) -egg-and-tongue or other familiar architectural enrichment in white and -stain. - -[Illustration: 212. DIAGRAM.] - -In the clerestory at Freiburg is a window in which the serried saints -appear at first sight to be simply framed by lines of pale purple; but -on examination these resolve themselves into a simple architectural -elevation, with even a hint of unsuspected shadow in it. The date of -that example is 1512; and canopies, not to go back to Græco-Roman -decoration, begin with the beginning of Gothic. It is adduced, -therefore, to show, not the origin of canopy work, but how inevitably -something of the sort occurred. Its immediate source is clearly -imitation. The thing is borrowed straight from architecture, and -indicates, it may justly be said, if not a certain lack of inventive -faculty on the part of the designer, at least some disinclination to -take the pains to invent. - -So in the thirteenth century we have funny little glass penthouses over -the figures of saints, architectural in form but not in colour; in the -fourteenth windows are crossed by rows of tall brassy disproportioned -tabernacles, as yet flat fronted; in the fifteenth, white ghosts of -masonry pretend to stand out over the figures; in the sixteenth, -altar-like, or other more or less monumental, structures, are pictured -with something like the solidity of stonework; and eventually the canopy -is merged in painted glass architecture, which joins itself on as best -it can to the actual masonry. - -The forms of canopy typical of each period of architecture have been -discussed in the several chapters on design, but something remains to be -said upon canopy work in general, and upon particular instances of it. - -The Early canopy goes for nothing as design. Its one merit is that it is -inconspicuous. One could wish that the Decorated were equally so. There -is, as a rule, no shutting your eyes to its mass of overpowering -shrinework. When, by way of exception, it chances to be modest it is -sometimes more interesting--as where it is scarcely more than a cusped -arch, or where, as at Strassburg, it takes the form of an arcaded band -across the window, in which are series of little demi-figures. At -Cologne Cathedral also sundry saints are pigeon-holed in this way. -_Apropos_ of this, it should be mentioned that it invariably adds to the -interest of a canopy, when; for example, the broad shaft of a Decorated -canopy enniches angels and other figures, or when they are introduced -among its pinnacles or in its base. The wide-spreading German canopy -affords scope for variety of design not possible so long as the -structure is confined within a single light. In some four-light windows -at Erfurt (1349-1372) the broad shafts of the canopies, with saints in -separate niches, occupy the whole width of the outer lights, leaving -only two lights for the central picture. In a five-light window at -Strassburg the canopy is five-arched, allowing separate arches in the -outer lights for figures of saints, whilst the three central ones cover -a single subject. - -In canopies which include niches with separate subsidiary subjects, -these are sometimes by way of prelude to the main story. In the -cathedral at Berne is something of the kind. There, among the pinnacles -of the canopy which crowns the subject of the Adoration, are seen the -Kings setting out on their pilgrimage, journeying by night, having -audience of Herod, and arriving finally at the city of Bethlehem. - -In the great altar-like canopies of the Renaissance there is sometimes a -gallery above, with angels or other figures, which give points of colour -amidst the white. In any case, the canopy is usually more interesting -when it is peopled. - -The Perpendicular canopy is in effect much more pleasing than what had -gone before, but it sins in its simulation of stonework. There also -little figures in white and stain are very effectively introduced into -the shafts and other parts of the construction, but more in the form of -architectural sculpture. There are some very interesting instances of -this at Fairford, though the canopies themselves are not otherwise -peculiarly interesting. - -The useful device of low, flat-topped canopies, adopted in the nave -windows at Cologne Cathedral, seldom occurs out of Germany. It is there -most successful. Indeed, these particular canopies are interesting -examples of the interpenetration of architectural tracery as well as of -its moderate and modest use. - -Late German canopies are often much more leafy than French or English; -they are less architectural--or rather, the architecture breaks out into -more free and flowing growth. The charm of Late Gothic canopy work, as -was said, lies in its colour, or in the absence of colour--in its -silvery effect, that is to say. And one may safely add that quite the -most satisfactory canopies, in whatever style, are those in which white -largely prevails, modified by stain, but preserving its greyish -character. In later Renaissance work white is still largely used; but it -is made less brilliant by painted shadow, and so has less to excuse its -architectural pretensions. At Milan there is a window in which what -should be white is in various granular tints of brown. - -The coloured canopy, to which the Italians adhered (as well as to the -border enclosing it), does not frame them as the white glass does. The -idea appears to be, on the contrary, that it should form part of the -picture. Elsewhere than in Italy coloured canopies, other than yellow, -are rare; but they occur. There are, for example, the hideous -flesh-coloured constructions peculiar to Germany. At Troyes are some not -unsatisfactory little canopies in green, and others in purple (1499). At -Châlons-sur-Marne is an effective canopy (1526-1537) of golden arabesque -on purple. At Freiburg (1525) is a steely-blue Renaissance canopy, from -which depend festoons of white and greenish-yellow, against the ruby -ground of the subject. And there are others satisfactory enough. But so -invariably effective is the framework of white and stain, that to depart -from it seems almost like giving up the very excuse for canopies. - -The Late Gothic canopy work does most effectually frame the pictures, -and gives light, of course, at the same time. It goes admirably with the -colour scheme, which includes always a fair quantity of white, even in -comparatively rich figure subjects. There is no denying, nor any desire -to deny, its altogether admirable effect. If the effect were not -otherwise to be obtained, the end would justify the means. But the -effect is due simply to the setting of the subjects in a framework of -white, not to the architectural character of the design. All that those -Perpendicular canopies do could be done equally without architectural -forms at all. Canopies make no more beautiful screens of silvery-white -than, say, the Five Sisters at York. Intrinsically they are less -interesting than pattern work. They give less scope for arranging -subjects variously, just as one will; and they allow less range for the -fancy of the artist. The most interesting canopies, and among the most -effective, are those Early Renaissance picture frames (French, German, -or Italian) which, whilst just sufficiently suggesting something near -enough to architecture to be called canopies, are really little more -than arabesque. One might almost say they are pleasing in proportion as -they depart from the quasi-architectural formula. - -The enormous value of the mass of white afforded by the canopy, as a -setting for colour, has reconciled us too readily to its use. Why not -this mass of white without pretended forms of masonry, without this -paraphernalia of pinnacles? The architect alone, perhaps, in his heart -likes canopy work, and would prefer it to any other kind of ornamental -device. When he plans a window, or directs its planning, forms of -architectural construction occur to him naturally. Supposing him to be -an artist (as we have perhaps a right to expect him to be) he produces a -fine thing; but were he to work upon more workmanlike lines, or, to -speak quite precisely, more upon the lines of the worker in glass, how -much better he would do--being an artist! In his reliance upon -inappropriate structural forms, he makes the obvious mistake of -depending upon the kind of thing with which he is most familiar, not the -thing especially called for. Each particular craft has a technique of -its own. - -One other class of person also loves canopy work--the tradesman; but his -affection for it is less disinterested, and more easily accounted for. -The stock canopy (as every one knows who has been, as it were, behind -the counter) is a famous device for cheapening production. The examples -chosen for illustration throughout these pages do, on the whole, much -more than justice to the periods which they were chosen to represent; -but, taken altogether, they do not, even so, form a very effective plea -for canopy work. - -Were the canopy more defensible than it is in glass, it would still have -monopolised far too large a place in the scheme of mediæval and -Renaissance design. We owe largely to it, in connection with the -gradually increasing claims of figure work, the all but extinction of -pattern glass. Figure work is practically implied by the canopy. -Occasionally, indeed, architecture has formed the whole _motif_ of a -window; but the case is so rare that it does not count. Once in a while -there may be excuse, and even occasion, for almost any device. - -There is no valid reason of art why figures and figure subjects should -not be framed in ornament, designed indeed with reference to the -architecture of the building, but not in the least in the likeness of -architecture. This ornament might perfectly well be in white and stain. -Ornamental setting in colour does occur in thirteenth century medallion -windows, and again (though only by exception) in certain Early -Renaissance glass; but by that time pictures, as a rule, absorbed all -the interest of design. The instinct which makes us want to give even -pictured personages some sort of roof above their heads is more natural -than logical. Anyway, to make windows to look like niches in the wall, -is an absurd ideal of design, and the nearer the glass painter gets to -it the further he has gone off the track. If anything in the nature of a -canopy be desirable, clearly it should be constructed on the lines, not -of masonry, but of glazing. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVI. - -A PLEA FOR ORNAMENT. - - -There is a direction in which glass has never been fully developed, that -of purely ornamental design. This is the more to be deplored because -that direction is the one in which was most scope for the peculiar depth -and brilliancy of colour characteristic of mosaic glass. Ornament was -used in the thirteenth century not only as a setting for figure -medallions, but as of sufficient interest to form of itself most -beautiful windows in grisaille. Presently the attractions of figure work -put an end to that; and, furthermore, the preference for picture -naturally led to the development of design in the direction of glass -painting, which lent itself so much more readily than mosaic to -pictorial expression. We owe to that, not only the perfection of glass -painting, and its ultimate degradation, but the neglect of latent -possibilities in more thoroughly mosaic glass, aye, in pure glazing. - -Even in figure work, much might be done for clerestory and other distant -work, at all events, in pure mosaic glass. Those who have not closely -observed old glass have no conception of the amount of leadwork there is -in the windows they admire, at the very moment that they deprecate -leading, so little do these interfere with the design, when disposed -with the cunning of a craftsman. One can imagine figures on a large -scale boldly blocked out, with broad shadows, in which not only the -shadows, but even the reflected lights in them, might be glazed in -pot-metal, and from the floor of a big church the leads would be -inappreciable. But, except in work upon an absolutely heroic scale, -there would always be the difficulty of the flesh; the features would -have to be painted; and glass pictures of this kind would needs be -designed with a severe simplicity not calculated to satisfy the modern -pictorial sense. - -The advocates of painting complain that due consideration of the -qualities of glass would limit the artist to the baldest kind of -pictorial effect. Something certainly must be sacrificed to fit -treatment of the material, or glass suffers, whatever picture may gain. -That is what has happened. But if so much sacrifice is necessary to -figure, why always adopt that form of design? Why not sometimes at least -abandon subject, and seek what can best be done in glass, even though -that be barbaric? It is not quite certain but that glass really lends -itself only to a rather barbaric kind of design, or what we are -barbarous enough to call barbaric. This is certain: the interest of -figure work has put an end to ornamental glass. It has become almost an -article of faith with us that, to the making of a window worth looking -at, figure design is indispensable. That should not be so. And, seeing -that picture does not afford full scope for the qualities which -glass-lovers most dearly love in glass, it seems rather cruel that -picture should so largely preponderate in its design as to suppress the -possibilities in the way of ornament. Why should it be so? - -There are two very important reasons for the introduction of figure into -glass, the one literary, the other artistic. In the first place, we love -a story, that is no more than human; we want to know what it is all -about, that is no more than rational; and figure subjects afford the -most obvious means of satisfying those cravings of ours. But artists -want these cravings satisfied by means of art. Some of them, perhaps, -think more of the means employed than of the end achieved, and would -have "art for art's sake." Theirs is a doctrine of very limited -application. Sanity insists upon subordination of the means to end; and -art is not an end in itself, nor is craftsmanship. It is not, therefore, -for one moment suggested that story, sentiment, meaning, in windows, -should be ruthlessly sacrificed to craftsmanship, even though expression -implied the use of figure, which it does not. What is claimed, is merely -this: that when you employ a material or a process some consideration is -due to it. - -Before undertaking to express an idea, it is always as well for the -artist to consider how far its expression is consistent with art. If it -can be expressed only at the cost of all that is best in art, it were -better to adopt some other means of expression. If a particular craft is -your one means of expression, and that particular thing cannot well be -said in it, then say what can be said; it will be to much more purpose -than saying even a better thing and saying it ill. The better the -thought, the greater the crime of saying it inadequately. - -After all, the sentiment, or what not, which people ask for in glass, -and which compels figure work, is not, in the majority of instances, by -any means so important, even in their eyes, but that they would -sacrifice it readily enough if they knew the price in art at which they -would have to pay for it. Let patrons of stained glass, if they care for -art, ponder this statement; it is not spoken in haste, but in -conviction. - -There is one reason of sentiment which would argue against great part of -the use that is made of figure work, at all events in church glass, the -doubt, namely, as to how far it is possible, in these days, to reconcile -the devout with the decorative treatment of sacred subjects. We are all -admiration when we gaze up at the splendid figure of Moses in the great -transept window at Chartres. But it is the artist in us that is -entranced, the lover of glass, and especially of colour; the artless -worshipper might feel that the dignity of the Lawgiver would perhaps -have been better expressed with less attention to decorative effect. We -are not shocked at the archaic effigy, because we realize that reverence -underlies its simplicity. In modern work it is otherwise. Artistic -intention, admirable or not from the æsthetic point of view, is -responsible for the introduction into our churches of delineations of -all that Christians hold sacred so ridiculous, it is a wonder devout -worshippers allow them to be there. The excuse for glass is its -decorative effect. Its value is in its colour. A Saint in stained glass -(to mention no higher Person) stands in a window for just so much -colour: is not that rather a degradation of the saint? - -In the second place, apart altogether from what has been called the -literary interest (which no one will dispute) there is in figure work a -charm, altogether artistic, in the very unexpectedness of the -colour-patches you get in it, not accidental quite, but in many -instances at least, inspired by accident. The besetting sin of ornament -is obviousness; it has a way of distributing itself too symmetrically -and evenly, of laying its secret bare to the most casual glance. We see -at once there is nothing to find out in it, and our interest drops to -zero. - -In figure design, on the contrary, there are breaks even in the very -best balanced scheme; there is always something unexpected, unforeseen, -something to kindle interest; in fact, the difficulty is, there, to -distribute the composition evenly enough. The question arises whether -this sameness, and consequent tameness, of ornament, the way the points -of intended interest recur with irritating frequency and regularity, -resolving themselves into mere spots--whether this defect is inherent in -ornament, and inseparable from it. - -Proof that it is not is afforded by heraldry, distinctly a branch of -ornamental design, in which, for precisely the same reasons as in figure -work, we get just that inevitable deviation from system, and more -especially from symmetry, which seems necessary to the salvation of -ornament. Where by happy chance an ornamental window has been patched -with glass not belonging to it, or where portions of it have been -misplaced, we get similar relief from monotony. Here the unexpectedness -of contrast, colour, and so on, is accidental; in heraldry it is, in the -nature of things, unforeseen of the artist, and unavoidable. May not -similar results be obtained of set purpose and design? Surely they may. -Were it otherwise, it would be worth falling back now and then upon -haphazard, and letting colour come as it might. - -Happily there is no occasion for that feeble sort of fatalism. Given a -colourist and a man with that sense of distribution (whether of line, -mass, or colour) which makes the artist, what is to hinder him from -deliberately planning so much of surprise as may be necessary to tickle -the appetite for the ornamental? The ogre in the path is what we call -economy. Because ornament can without doubt be more cheaply executed -than figure work, it is taken for granted that it must be reserved by -rights for cheap work. What else is there to recommend it? And, that -being so, ornament being but padding, by all means, it is argued, let it -be not only cheap but of the cheapest! - -Design, moreover, if it be worth having at all, is costly, and there is -clearly thrift in repeating the same pattern, and even one unit of it, -over and over again. The practice of saving design in this way has -become at last so much a matter of course, that no one thinks of -designing an ornamental window, as a whole, without repetition of -pattern--except the artist; and with him it is a fond desire which he -hopes perhaps some day to fulfil--at his own expense. - -Under circumstances such as these, what wonder ornament is monotonous? -It could not well be otherwise. But these conditions are not in the -nature of things. Ornamental design has subsided because no one asks -for, cares for, or encourages, ornament. It needs only to be in the -hands of an artist--not necessarily a Holbein, but just a Rhodian -potter, a Persian carpet weaver, a mediæval carver, or a nameless -glazier--to be worthy of its modest place in art. - -Considering the costliness of good figure work and the absolute -worthlessness of bad, considering the way in which glass lends itself -especially to ornament, considering how in ornament the qualities most -necessary to decorative effect and most characteristic of the material -can be obtained, surely the wiser policy would be to do what can so -readily be done. When glass lends itself so kindly to ornament it seems -a sin to neglect it. Is it quite past praying for, that there may still -be a future for windows merely ornamental, which shall yet satisfy the -sense of beauty? - - - - -BOOK III. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVII. - -THE CHARACTERISTICS OF STYLE. - - -What are the characteristics of the various styles in glass? How does -one tell the period of a window? These are not questions that can be -fully answered in the short space of a chapter, which is all that can -here be devoted to it; but it may help those to whom a window tells -nothing of its date, briefly to mention the characteristics according to -which we class it as belonging to this period or that. With a view to -conciseness and to convenience of reference it will be best to catalogue -these characteristics rather than to describe them. - -Any subdivision of glass into "styles" must be more or less arbitrary. -One style merges into the other, and the characteristics of each -overlap, so to speak. The most convenient lines of demarcation are the -centuries; for, as it happens, the changes in manner do take place more -or less towards the century end. The one broad distinction is between -Gothic and Renaissance. - -Gothic may best be divided into three periods--viz., Thirteenth century -and before, Fourteenth century, and Fifteenth century and after. - -_Thirteenth century glass_, commonly called "Early English," or, as the -case may be, "Early French," may as well be taken to include, for our -purpose, what little remains of twelfth century or Norman work. It -includes naturally Early German work, which is Romanesque and not Gothic -in character. - -_Fourteenth century glass_ belongs to the Middle or Transitional Gothic -period. We call it "Decorated," for the inadequate reason that its -detail is naturalistic. - -_Fifteenth century glass_, with us "Perpendicular," in France -"Flamboyant," in Germany "Interpenetrated," may, for convenience' sake, -be taken to include so much of Gothic as may be found lingering in the -sixteenth century. - -The _Sixteenth century_ is more properly the period of the Renaissance. -It is better not to apply to it the Italian term "cinque-cento," since -the greater part of it is not of the purely Italian character which that -would imply. - -_Seventeenth century glass_ is to be distinguished from that of the -sixteenth mainly inasmuch as it shows more markedly that decadence which -had already begun to set in before the year 1600. It may be conveniently -described as Late Renaissance. - -[Illustration: 213. ST. REMI, REIMS.] - -_Eighteenth century glass_ is not of sufficient account to be classed. - -It will be seen that the dates above given do not quite coincide with -those of Winston, who gives Early English to 1280, Decorated to 1380, -and Perpendicular to 1530. There is here no thought of impugning his -accuracy; but it seems more convenient not to distinguish a new style -until the work begins markedly to differ from what had gone before, -especially when the marked difference happens conveniently to coincide -with the beginning of a new century; and Winston himself says of -Perpendicular work (and implies as much of Decorated) that the style -"can hardly be said to have become thoroughly established" until the -beginning of the new century. - -We have thus a century of Middle Gothic, the fourteenth century. What -goes before is Early Gothic or Romanesque, as the case may be; what -comes after is Late Gothic, cooeval for a quarter of a century or more -with the Renaissance. - -[Illustration: 214. DETAIL FROM MEDALLION WINDOWS AT CANTERBURY.] - - -EARLY GLASS. - -The first thing which strikes one in Early Glass is either its deep -rich, jewelled colour (Canterbury, Chartres), or its sober, silvery, -greyness (Salisbury; Five Sisters, York). Exception to this alternative -occurs mainly in very early ornamental glass (_circa._ 1300--S. Denis; -S. Remi, Reims; Angers), in which white and colour are somewhat evenly -mixed. Early figure work occurs also occasionally in colour on a white -ground. The design of the richer class of windows consists largely of -figure work. The design of "grisaille" windows consists mainly of -ornamental pattern. - -_Composition._--Rich windows are of three kinds: medallion windows, rose -windows, figure and canopy windows. Jesse windows form an exception. -(Chapter XXIX.) - -1. _Medallion Windows_ are the most characteristic of the period -(Chapter XII.). These contain figure subjects, on a quite small scale, -within medallion shapes set in ornament (Canterbury, Chartres, etc.). - -[Illustration: 215. MOSAIC DIAPER.] - -In the very earliest medallion windows (Angers, Poitiers) the ordered -scheme of the medallioned window is sometimes interrupted by subjects -not strictly enclosed in medallions. Or else, perhaps (Chartres), the -subjects take the form of panels one above the other--they can scarcely -be called medallions--with little or no ornament between. - -After the first few years of the thirteenth century, however, the figure -medallions (circles, quatrefoils, etc.) occur, as a rule, one above the -other throughout the length of the light, with perhaps a boss of -ornament between; the interstices being filled, in English glass with -ornamental scrollwork, in French with geometric diaper (opposite). - -[Illustration: 216. DETAIL OF MEDALLION WINDOW, CHARTRES.] - -In the broad windows of Norman churches (pages 123, 124) the medallions -are proportionately large, and are subdivided into four or five -divisions, each of which is devoted to a separate picture. In our -narrower lancet lights there is no occasion for that. - -[Illustration: 217. BARS IN MEDALLION WINDOWS.] - -The figures in medallion subjects are few and far apart, standing -comparatively clear-cut against a plain background (page 325); compacter -groups indicate a later period. Landscape is symbolised rather than -represented by a conventional tree or so; a town by an arch or two, a -battlemented wall, or the like. - -Medallions are framed by lines of colour and beaded bands of white, but -they do not, as a rule, separate themselves very markedly from their -ornamental surroundings. The effect is one rather indeterminate glory of -intense colour. - -Except in quite the earliest medallion windows, the strong iron bars -supporting the glass are, as a rule, bent (above), to follow the outline -of the medallions. That was done in no other period. - -2. _Rose Windows_ occur mainly in French churches. They are a variation -upon the medallion window. A great Rose window (Chartres, Bourges, etc.) -may be regarded as a series of radiating medallion lights, with subjects -relatively fewer in number, and a greater proportion of pattern work. -Occasionally they consist of pattern work altogether. Smaller Roses (the -only form of tracery met with in quite Early work) contain very often a -central circular medallion subject, the cusps or foils round it being -occupied with ornament, all in rich colour, even though the lights below -it be in grisaille. - -3. _Figure and Canopy Windows_ (page 40) are more proper to the -clerestory and triforium of a church, but they are not entirely confined -to a far-off position. - -With regard to them it should be mentioned that figures under canopies, -sitting, or more often standing--one above the other in long, narrow -lights--occur throughout the Gothic periods, and even in Renaissance -glass. The characteristic thing about the Early ones is the stiffness -and comparative grotesqueness of the figures and the modesty of the -canopy. This last is of small dimensions. It may be merely a trefoiled -arch (page 40). Usually it is more architectural (page 46), gabled, with -a little roofing, and perhaps a small tower or two rising above, not -beautiful. It is in fairly strong colours. It is so little conspicuous -that it is not at first sight always distinguishable from the background -to the figure. Occasionally the figure has no canopy at all. The saint -stands front face, straight up in his niche, in a constrained and -cramped position, occupying its full width, which is obviously -insufficient. His feet rest in an impossible manner upon a label bearing -his name; or, if that be inscribed upon a label in his hand, or on the -background behind him, then he stands upon a little mound of green to -represent the earth (page 40). - -Figure and canopy alike are archaic in design, and rudely drawn. It is -seldom that a figure subject on a smaller scale is introduced below the -standing figure, as was frequently the case in later work. Groups of -figures are characteristically confined to medallion windows. - -_The Border_ is a feature in Early glass. It is broad. In medallion -windows it measures sometimes as much as one-fourth the width of the -light. It takes up, that is to say, perhaps half the area of the window. -It consists of foliated ornament similar in character to that between -the medallions. Very broad borders occasionally include smaller figure -medallions. In figure and canopy windows the borders are less, and -simpler. Sometimes they consist merely of broad bands of colour -interrupted by rosettes of other colours. Circumstances of proportion, -and so on, influence the width of the border; but a broad border is -characteristic of the Early period. - -[Illustration: 218. LE MANS.] - -In Rose windows the border is of less account, and is confined, as a -rule, to the outer ring of lights, or, it may be, to their outer edge. - -_Detail._--Ornamental detail is severely conventional. In very Early -work (page 327) it has rather the character of Romanesque ornament, with -straplike stalks interlacing, often enriched by a beaded, zig-zag, or -other pattern, which may be either painted upon it or picked out of -solid brown. - -Early in the thirteenth century foliage assumes the simpler Gothic form, -with cinquefoiled, or more often trefoiled, leafage (as here shown). - -[Illustration: 219. CHARTRES.] - -When it begins to be more naturalistic it is a sign of transition to the -Decorated period. In Germany something of Romanesque flavour lingered -far into the thirteenth century (page 330). There is properly no Early -Gothic period there. Heraldry is modestly introduced into Early glass. -The Donor is occasionally represented on quite a small scale in the -lower part of a window, his offering in his hand; or he is content to be -represented by a small shield of arms. - -_Colour._--The glass in Early windows is uneven in substance, and, -consequently, in colour. This is very plainly seen in the "white" glass, -which shades off, according to its thickness, from greenish or -yellowish-white to bottle colour. The colour lies also sometimes in -streaks of lighter and darker. This is especially so in red glass. The -shades of colour most usually employed for backgrounds are blue and -ruby. White occurs, but only occasionally. - -[Illustration: 220. AUXERRE.] - -[Illustration: 221. PATCHWORK OF GRISAILLE, SALISBURY.] - -The Early palette consists of:-- - -White, greenish, and rather clouded; red, rubylike, often streaky; blue, -deep sapphire to palest grey-blue, oftenest deep; turquoise-blue, of -quite different quality, inclining to green; yellow, fairly strong, but -never hot; green, pure and emerald-like, or deep and even low in tone, -but only occasionally inclining to olive; purple-brown, reddish or -brownish, not violet; flesh tint, actually lighter and more pinkish -shades of this same purple-brown. In very early work the flesh is -inclined to be browner. - -[Illustration: 222. S. KUNIBERT, COLOGNE.] - -It must be remembered that, though the palette of the first glaziers was -restricted, the proceeding of the glass-makers was so little scientific -that they had no very great control over their manufacture. No two pots -of glass, therefore, came out alike. Hence a great variety of shades of -glass, though produced from a few simple recipes. They might by accident -produce, once in a way, almost any colour. A pot of ruby sometimes -turned out greenish-black. Still, the colours above mentioned -predominate in Early work, and are clearly those aimed at. - -_Workmanship._--The glazing of an Early window is strictly a mosaic of -small pieces of glass. Each separate colour in it is represented by a -separate piece of glass, or several pieces. - -The great white eyes, for example, of big clerestory figures are -separate pieces of white glass, rimmed with lead, and held in place by -connecting strips of lead, which give them often very much the -appearance of spectacles (page 40). In work on a sufficiently large -scale the hair of the head and beard are also glazed in white, or -perhaps in some dark colour, distinct from the brownish-pink flesh tint -peculiar to the period (same page). No large pieces of glass occur. - -[Illustration: 223. S. KUNIBERT, COLOGNE.] - -Upon examination the window proves to be netted over with lines of lead -jointing, much of which is lost in the outlines of the design. - -In large clerestory figures and the like, masses of one colour occur, -but they are made up of innumerable little bits of glass, by no means -all of one shade of colour; whence the richness in tone. - -[Illustration: 224. S. JEAN-AUX-BOIS.] - -_Painting._--In Early glass painting plays a very subordinate part. Only -one pigment is used, and that not by way of colour, but to paint out the -light and define form. - -Details of figure and ornament are traced in firm strong brush lines. - -Lines mark the exaggerated expression of the face, the close folds of -the spare drapery wrapped tightly round the figure, the serration of -foliage, and so on (pages 33, 37, 324). Lines, in the form of sweeping -brush strokes or cross-hatching, are used also to emphasise such shading -(not very much) as may be indicated in thirteenth century work, or -perhaps it should rather be said that the lines of shading are -supplemented very often by a coat of thin brown paint, not always very -easily detected on the deep-coloured glass of the period. - -_White Windows, or "Grisaille."_--Grisaille assumes in France the -character of interlacing strapwork all in white. Sometimes this is quite -without paint (page 25). Plain work of the kind occurs also with us; but -it is dangerous to give a date to simple glazing. That at Salisbury -(page 26) is probably not of the very earliest. - -In France, as with us, such strapwork is associated with foliated -detail, traced in strong outline upon the white glass and defined by a -background of cross-hatched lines which go for a greyer tint (above). - -After the beginning of the thirteenth century, this strapwork is -sometimes in colour, or points of colour are introduced in the shape of -rosettes, etc., and in the border (pages 137, 138). - -In England there is from the first usually a certain amount of coloured -glass in grisaille windows (pages 141, 332). Sometimes there is a -considerable quantity of it (Five Sisters, York); but it never appears -to be much. The effect is always characteristically grey and silvery. - -[Illustration: 225. GRISAILLE, SALISBURY.] - -So long as the painted foliage keeps closely within the formal lines -of strapwork, etc., it is, at all events in English glass, a sign of -comparatively early thirteenth century work. - -Later in the century the scroll winds rather more freely about the -window (page 143). - -The omission of the cross-hatched background and the more natural -rendering of the foliation (page 386) announce the approach to the -Decorated period. - -Figure subjects in colour, planted, as it were, upon grisaille or quarry -lights (Poitiers, Amiens), and grisaille borders to windows with figures -in rich colour (Auxerre), are of exceptional occurrence. - -Winston gives the year 1280 as the limit of the Early period, but there -seems no absolute reason for drawing the line at that date. The use of -stain, which was the beginning of a new departure in glass, does not -pronounce itself before the fourteenth century. It seems, therefore, -more convenient to include the last twenty years of the century in the -first period, and to call it thirteenth century, accepting the more -naturalistic type of foliage, when it occurs, as sign of transition; -for, apart from that, the later thirteenth century work is not very -markedly different from what was done before 1280. - - -FOURTEENTH CENTURY. - -[Illustration: 226. S. URBAIN, TROYES.] - -_Decorated or Intermediate Gothic._--Decorated glass grows -characteristically livelier in colour than Early glass; at first it -becomes warmer, owing to the use of more yellow, then lighter, owing to -the use of white. It does not divide itself so obviously into coloured -and grisaille. - -The figure subjects include, as time goes on, more and more white glass. -The grisaille contains more colour. - -Figures and figure subjects are now very commonly used in combination -with grisaille ornament in the same window. That is a new and -characteristic departure (page 159). - -_Composition._--Figure windows occur, indeed, with little or no -ornament, in which case the subjects are piled one above the other, in -panels rather than medallions, or under canopies. When the canopies are -insignificant the result is one apparently compact mass of small figure -work, as deep and rich perhaps in colour (S. Sebald's, Nuremberg) as an -Early medallion window; but the colour is not so equally distributed; it -occurs more in patches. - -Decorated canopies, however, are usually, after the first few years, of -sufficient size to assert themselves as very conspicuous patches of -rather brassy yellow, which in a window of several lights (and windows -now almost invariably consist of two or more lights) form a band (or if -there are two or more tiers of canopies, a series of bands) across the -window. - -In the case of grisaille windows also, figures or figure subjects are -introduced either in the form of shaped panels or under little canopies, -and take the form of a band or bands of comparatively rich colour across -a comparatively light window. - -When these canopies are themselves pronounced, the window shows -alternate bands of figures (rich), canopies (yellowish), and ornamental -pattern (whitish). In any case these horizontal bands across the window -mark departure from the earlier style. - -_Canopies._--Canopies occur now over subjects as well as single figures. - -The canopy is designed in flat elevation. Any indication of perspective -betokens the end of the period. It has broadish shafts, usually for the -most part white, which terminate in pinnacles (page 155). It has seldom -any architectural base: the figures stand upon grass or pavement. It has -usually a three-cusped arch, and above that a pointed gable decorated -with crockets and ending in a finial. Crockets and finial are usually in -strong, brassy yellow. Above are pinnacles and shrinework in white and -colour, including as a rule a fair amount of yellow. - -It may rise to a great height, dwarfing the figure beneath it. This -occurs very especially in German work. - -Sometimes the most conspicuous thing in the window is this -disproportionate canopy. Its very disproportion is characteristic of the -period. - -In German work one great brassy canopy will frequently be found -stretching right across the several lights of the window, over-arching a -single subject. This triptich-like composition will occupy, perhaps, -two-thirds of the height of the window. The background behind the -pinnacles of this canopy may be either of one colour or of geometric -diaper in mosaic (elsewhere characteristic of the Early period), -finished off by a more or less arbitrary line--a cusped arch, for -instance--above which is white glass. This kind of canopy has, by way of -exception, an architectural base. - -[Illustration: 227. CHÂLONS.] - -Another German practice is to fill the window with huge circular subject -medallions, occupying the entire width of the window, and intersected by -the mullions. - -Single-light windows have sometimes a central elongated medallion or -panel subject (without canopy), above and below which is ornamental -grisaille. - -_Borders._--All windows have, as a rule, borders; but they are narrower -than in Early work. - -Tracery lights, which now form a conspicuous part of the window, are, as -a rule, also each separately bordered, often with a still narrower -border in colour, or it may be only a line of colour. - -Grisaille windows have usually coloured borders, foliaged or heraldic -(as above). The border does not necessarily frame the light at its base; -very often there is an inscription there. Between the coloured border -and the stonework is still invariably a marginal line of white glass. - -[Illustration: 228. EARLY DECORATED FIGURE, TROYES.] - -Sometimes, more especially in tracery, this white line is broad enough -to have a pattern painted upon it, in which case there is no coloured -border. Or this white border line may be enriched at intervals by -rosettes or blocks of colour upon it. Or, again, it may be in part -tinted with pale yellow stain. - -Some such border is usually carried round each separate tracery light, -with the result that Decorated tracery may usually be distinguished at a -glance from later work by a certain lack of breadth about it. - -There is no need to say more about Decorated tracery, seeing that the -idea of this epitome is to enable the amateur to form some opinion as to -the period of a window, and not to prompt the designer. The geometric -character of the stonework proclaims the period, and, unless there is -something in the design of the glass to indicate a later date, it may be -taken to belong to it. It cannot well be earlier if it fits. - -_Stain._--Yellow stain is proof positive that the glass is not much -earlier than the fourteenth century, for it is only about that time that -the process of staining white glass yellow was discovered. The -occurrence therefore of white and colour upon the same piece of -glass--_i.e._, not glazed up with it, but stained upon it, is indicative -of Middle or Late Gothic. - -Stained yellow is always purer and clearer than pot-metal; when pale it -inclines to lemon, when dark to orange. It is best described as golden. -In comparison with it pot-metal yellow is brownish or brassy. - -This yellow stain warms and brightens Decorated windows, especially -those in grisaille. It naturally does away with a certain amount of -glazing, for colour is now not entirely mosaic. Bands of yellow ornament -in white windows, if stained, have lead on one side of them at most. - -The hair of angels comes to be stained yellow upon white glass, which -towards the fifteenth century takes the place of the flesh tint. - -_Figures._--Figures are still rather rudely drawn. They do not always -fill out their niches, which, indeed, frequently overpower them. In -attitude they pose and would be graceful. There is some swing about -their posture, but it is often exaggerated. Drapery becomes more -voluminous, fuller and freer, as shown opposite. - -At the back of the figure hangs commonly a screen diapered -damask-fashion--the diaper often picked out of solid paint. - -_Grisaille._--The distinguishing characteristics of Decorated grisaille -are fully described in the chapter dealing with it. It has usually a -coloured border. The foliated pattern no longer follows the lines of the -white or coloured strapwork, but it does not interlace with the straps -(pages 163, 333). - -Coloured bosses adorn the centre of the grisaille panels. Frequently -these take the form of heraldic shields, planted, as it were, upon the -grisaille. - -[Illustration: 229. S. OUEN, ROUEN.] - -The practice of cross-hatching the background to grisaille foliage dies -out in France and England. In Germany it survives throughout the period; -or, it may be, the background is coated with solid paint, and the -cross-hatching is in white lines scratched out of that. - -_Naturalism._--The foliation of the ornament is now everywhere -naturalistic. That is the surest sign of the period, at first the only -sign of change. In grisaille patterns and in coloured borders you can -identify the rose, the vine, the oak, the ivy, the maple, and so on -(pages 162, 166, 168). - -In Germany, the design of ornamental windows consists often of -naturalistic foliage in white and colour upon a coloured ground, the -whole rich, but not so rich as Early glass (pages 171 _et seq._). There -also occur windows stronger in colour than ordinary grisaille, designed -on lines more geometric than those of French or English glass of the -period (page 170). - -[Illustration: 230. 14TH CENTURY GERMAN.] - -_Colour._--Glass gets less streaky, evener, and sometimes lighter in -tint, as time goes on. Flesh tint gets paler and pinker, and at last -white; "white" glass gets more nearly white. - -Much blue and ruby continue to be used; but more green is introduced, -and more yellow, often the two in combination. In fact, there is a -leaning towards combinations of green and yellow, rather than the red -and blue so characteristic of Early glass. Green is frequently used for -backgrounds. The pure bright emerald-like green gives way to greens -inclining more to olive. In some German windows, green, yellow, and -purple-brown predominate. Occasionally, in the latter part of the -century, pale blue is modified by yellow stain upon it, which gives a -greenish tint. - -_Painting._--Outline is still used; but it becomes more delicate. -Shading is still smeared on with a brush. But in the latter half of the -century it was the practice to stipple it, so as to soften the edges and -give it a granular texture. This is not quite the same thing as the -"stipple or matt shading" described on page 64, where the glass was -entirely coated with a stippled tint and the lights brushed out. - -[Illustration: 231. WELLS.] - -Decorated glass is plentiful in England and Germany, not so abundant in -France. - - -FIFTEENTH CENTURY. - -_Perpendicular Glass._--By the fifteenth century the glass painter had -quite made up his mind in favour of more light. He makes use of glass in -larger sheets, and of lighter and brighter colour. His white is -especially purer than before, and he uses it in much greater -quantities. - -[Illustration: 232. FIGURES, S. MARY'S, ROSS.] - -So decidedly is this so, that a typical fifteenth century window strikes -you as a screen of silvery-white glass in which are set pictures or -patches of more or less brilliant, rather than intensely deep, colour. - -_Design._--Design takes, for the most part, the form of figure and -canopy windows, schemed somewhat on the same lines as in the Decorated -period--the subjects, that is to say, cross the window in horizontal -bands. - -But there is so much white glass in the canopy work--it is practically -all in white (as stone) touched with stain (as gilding)--and it so -entirely surrounds the figure subjects, that you do not so much notice -the horizontal bands (into which the subjects really fall when you begin -to dissect the design) as the mass of white in which they are embedded. - -[Illustration: 233. PERPENDICULAR CANOPY.] - -_Canopies._--The larger Perpendicular windows are now crossed by stone -transoms, so that very long lights do not, as a rule, occur. - -Each light has a canopy, without any enclosing border (233). The canopy -stands, as it were, in the window opening, almost filling it, except -that, above, behind the topmost pinnacles, are glimpses of red or blue -background, not separated from the stonework by so much as a line of -white, heretofore of almost invariable occurrence. The hood and base of -canopy are shown in misunderstood perspective, indicating usually a -three-sided projection (page 342). - -Its shafts and base rest upon the ground, on which are painted grass and -foliage, all in white and stain. When standing figures occupy the place -of honour, the base may very likely include a small subject, -illustrative of a scene in the life of the personage depicted above. Or -the base may be a sort of pedestal (page 179). - -The figures usually stand upon a chequered mosaic pavement in black and -white, or white and stain, not very convincingly foreshortened (page -185). - -In the canopy may be little windows of pot-metal colour, and in the base -perhaps a spot or two of colour; but, whatever the amount of pot-metal -(never much) or of stain (often a good deal), the effect is always -silvery-white; and as time goes on the canopy becomes more solidly and -massively white. The groining at the back of the niche just above the -figures is a feature of the full-blown style. The vault is usually -stained, less often glazed in pot-metal. There is more scope for this -coloured groining in windows where the canopy runs through several -lights. That is more common in France and Germany than with us. In -English work each light has, as a rule, its own canopy. - -In France, and more especially in Germany, the canopies are not seldom -in yellow instead of white, golden in effect instead of silvery. -Sometimes white and yellow canopies alternate (Nuremberg, Munich). The -German canopy is often more florid, and less distinctly architectural -than the English. - -Perpendicular canopies are more in proportion to the figures under them -than Decorated. Usually they are important enough to be a feature in the -window, if not the feature. Sometimes, however, they are quite small and -insignificant (East window, York), in which event the subjects appear -more like a series of small panels, one above the other. In that case -there is likely to be a large amount of white glass in the subjects -themselves (pages 252, 339). Possibly the background is white. In any -case, there is usually a fair share of white glass in the drapery of -figures. The faces also are almost invariably white, often with stained -hair; and this white flesh is characteristic of the period. - -Until the turn of the century, landscape or architectural accessories -are, to a large extent, in white and stain, against a blue or ruby -ground. - -Variety of colour in the background (or a further amount of white) is -introduced by means of a screen of damask behind the figure, shoulder -high, above which alone appears the usual blue or ruby background, -diapered. The screen may be of any colour: purple-brown is not uncommon. -When scale permits, the damask pattern is often glazed in colours, or in -white and stain upon pot-metal yellow. - -[Illustration: 234. FIGURE AND CANOPY WINDOWS, BOURGES.] - -[Illustration: 235. FAIRFORD.] - -Heraldic shields are more conspicuous than ever in the design. Donors -and their patron saints are often important personages in the foreground -of the picture. - -_Tracery._--Tracery lights being now more of the same shape as the -lights below, the glass is designed on much the same plan. That is to -say, they also contain little figures under canopies. These are often -entirely, or almost entirely, in white and stain, only here and there a -point of colour showing in the background, more especially about their -heads. - -Trefoiled, quatrefoiled, three-sided, or other openings not adapted to -canopy work, have usually foliated ornament in white and stain, with -border line of white and stain, the background painted in solid brown. -Inscribed scrolls and emblematical devices in white and stain also occur -in the smaller tracery lights. - -_Grisaille._--Grisaille takes almost invariably the form of quarries. -The pattern of the quarries consists ordinarily of just a rosette or -some such spot in the centre of the glass, delicately outlined and -filled in with stain. A band of canopied figures sometimes crosses -quarry windows, the pinnacles of the canopies breaking into the quarries -above. Figures occur also often in white and stain, against a quarry -ground, without canopy, standing perhaps on a bracket, or on a mere -label or inscription band (York Minster). Occasionally we get subjects -altogether in white and stain, without quarry glazing. In Germany -unpainted roundels, or circular discs of white glass, take the place of -quarries (page 292). - -_Detail of Ornament._--The detail of Perpendicular foliage is no longer -very naturalistic; it has often the appearance of being embossed or -otherwise elaborated. It is most commonly in white with yellow stalks. - -_Borders._--The border is no longer the rule, except in quarry windows. -It is now very rarely used to frame canopies. Where it occurs it is -usually in the form of a "block" border, differing only from that of -the Decorated period by the character of the painted detail. Borders all -in white and stain also occur. - -The border does not follow the deeply cut foils of the window head. -These are occupied each by its separate round of glass painted with a -crown, star, lion's head, or other such device, in white and stain, -against which the coloured border stops. - -_Stain._--Abundant use of beautiful golden stain is typical of the -period. Stain is always varied, sometimes shading off by subtle degrees -from palest lemon to deep orange. The deliberate use of two distinct -tones of stain, as separate tints, say of a damask pattern, argues a -near approach to the sixteenth century. So does the use of stain upon -pot-metal yellow. - -Other signs of the mature style are:-- - -1. The very careful choice of varied and unevenly coloured glass to -suggest shading or local colour. - -2. The use of curious pieces of accidentally varied ruby to represent -marble, and the like. - -3. The abrasion of white spots or other pattern on flashed blue (the -abrasion of white from ruby begins with the second half of the century). - -4. The introduction of distant landscape in perspective, and especially -the representation of clouds in the sky, and other indications of -attempted atmospheric effect. - -5. The treatment of several lights as one picture space, without canopy. - -_Colour._--White glass is cooler and more silvery, more purely white. -Red glass is less crimson, often approaching more to a scarlet colour. -Blue glass becomes lighter, greyer; sometimes it is of steely quality, -sometimes it approaches to pale purple. More varieties of purple-brown -and purple are used. Purer pink occurs. - -_Drawing._--In the fifteenth century the archaic period of drawing is -outgrown. Figures are often admirably drawn, more especially towards the -end of the period, at which time the folds of drapery are made much of. - -_Painting._--Painting is much more delicate. The method adopted is that -of stippling (page 64). - -Figure and ornament alike are carefully shaded, quarry patterns and -narrow painted borders excepted. - -[Illustration: 236. SCRAPS OF LATE GOTHIC DETAIL.] - -For a long while painters hesitated to obscure the glass much; they -shaded very delicately, and used hatchings, and a sort of scribble of -lines, to deepen the shadows. As a result the shading appears sometimes -weak, but the glass is always brilliant. - -[Illustration: 237. FAIRFORD.] - -With the progress of the century stronger stipple shading was used; more -roundness and greater depth of shadow was thus achieved, at -proportionate cost of silvery whiteness and brilliancy in the glass. - -The characteristic of the later technique was that it depended less upon -mosaic, and more upon paint. - -Leads were not used unless they were constructionally unavoidable; and -it was sought to avoid them. The nimbus, for example, was glazed in one -piece with the head (page 189), stained perhaps, or with a pattern in -stain upon it, to distinguish it from the face; or it showed white -against the yellow hair. - -From the lead lines alone of an Early window, and of many a Decorated -one, you could read the design quite plainly. The later the period the -less that is so. By the end of the fifteenth century the lead lines -convey very often little or no idea of the picture, which they hold -together but no longer outline. Canopies, for example, are sometimes -leaded in square quarries, without regard to the drawing, except where -that must be (page 342). - -A pretty sure sign of period is afforded by the way the leads give, or -do not give, the design. Exceptions are mentioned on page 73. Where -leads seem to occur more or less as it happens, as though they might -have been an after-thought, that is most positive proof of Late work. - - -SIXTEENTH CENTURY. - -Renaissance glass does not, like Gothic, divide itself into periods. It -was at its best when it was still in touch with mediæval tradition. - -[Illustration: 238. FRENCH RENAISSANCE, MOSAIC.] - -The finest work in the new manner must be ascribed therefore to the -first half of the sixteenth century. After that its merits belong more -to picture than to glass. - -Apart from details of architecture, ornament (as above), costume and so -on, which at once proclaim the style, it is difficult to distinguish -between Gothic and Renaissance glass of the very early sixteenth -century. The distinction does not in fact exist; for Gothic traditions -survive even in work belonging, according to the evidence of its detail, -to the Renaissance. - -_Design._--Design takes now mainly the pictorial direction. It spreads -itself more invariably over the whole face of the window. The canopy, -for example, is seldom confined to a single light. - -_Canopies._--The canopy scheme is at first not widely removed from -Gothic precedent, although the detail may be pronouncedly Renaissance. -It frames the subject as before; but it is less positively white. It is -enriched with much more yellow stain; and the mass of white and stain is -broken by festoons and wreaths of foliage, fruit, and flowers, -medallions with coloured ground, ribbons, or other such features, in -pot-metal colour. A simple François Ier canopy is given on page 349. - -Sometimes these canopies consist rather of arabesque ornament than of -anything that can properly be called architectural, in white and yellow -(page 350), or perhaps all in yellow, upon a ground of pot-metal colour -(page 205); that is to say, the setting out of the window and the -technique employed are absolutely Gothic, and perhaps not even very late -Gothic, whilst the detail is altogether Renaissance in design. This -mosaic manner (as at Auch) bespeaks, of course, the early years of the -Renaissance. - -Another sure sign of lingering Gothic influence is where the round arch -is fringed with cusping. - -The more typically Renaissance form of design is where a huge monumental -structure fills the greater part of the window, not canopying a -subject, but having in front of it a figure group (Transept of S. -Gudule, page 71). The foreground figures stand out in dark relief -against the architecture and the sky beyond, seen through the central -arch. Into this grey-blue merges very often a distant landscape, painted -in great part upon the blue, and really seeming to recede into the -distance. The effect of distance is largely obtained by contrast with -the strong shadow of the soffits and sides of the arch seen in -perspective. - -We have here four characteristics of Renaissance glass:-- - -1. The monumental canopy with figures in front of it. - -2. Strong contrast of light and shade. - -3. Fairly accurate perspective in the architecture. - -4. Something like atmospheric effect in the landscape, which is painted -more or less upon the sky. - -When in a canopy the shadowed portions of the architecture are glazed in -deep-coloured glass (purple, as a rule), and not darkened by painting, -it indicates the early part of the century. The canopy, instead of being -arched, ends sometimes in a rich frieze and cornice (Church of Brou). -When it is in two stages, enclosing two subjects, the lower one has -naturally this horizontal entablature (Chapel of the Holy Sacrament, S. -Gudule). - -A less usual treatment is where the figures do not occupy the -foreground, but are seen through the arch. The subject occupies, in -fact, very much the position of a painted altar-piece in a carved stone -altar. - -Foreground figures prove often to be donors and their patron saints. The -head of the window above the great architectural canopy, as it is -convenient to call it, is usually of plain white glass, glazed in -rectangular or diamond quarries (page 71). - -A coloured ground above a Renaissance canopy indicates Gothic tradition, -and an Early period therefore (S. Jacques, Liège). - -More to the latter half of the century belong the pictorial compositions -in which architecture, more or less proper to the subject, fills great -part of the window, the foremost arches adapting themselves, sometimes, -to the stonework. In this case the architecture is in white glass, more -or less obscured by painted shadow; and pot-metal colour occurs only in -the figures, where it is perhaps quite rich, in occasional columns of -coloured marble, and in a peep of pale blue distance seen through some -window or other opening (page 213). - -[Illustration: 239. FRANÇOIS IER CANOPY, LYONS.] - -The grey-blue distance has often figures as well as landscape and -architecture painted upon it; to represent verdure it is stained green. -Blue is more usual than white as a ground; but that also occurs, -similarly painted. The not very usual landscape in white, with a blue -sky above, in the windows of King's College Chapel, Cambridge, belongs -to the early part of the century. - -_Tracery._--In small windows the subject, or its canopy, is often -carried up into the tracery lights (page 368), or the architecture ends -abruptly and horizontally at the springing of the arch, and the heads of -the lights are treated as part of the tracery. - -Tracery lights often contain figure subjects. Very commonly they are -occupied by figures of angels robed in white and stain, or in rich -colour, or with colour only in their wings, playing upon musical -instruments, bearing emblems, scrolls, and so on, all on a coloured -ground (page 280). There occur also, but less frequently, cherubic -heads, portrait medallions, badges, twisted labels, or other devices, -upon a ground of ruby, pale blue, purple, or purple-brown. A purple or -purplish background is of the period. - -Coloured grounds are used without borders. White grounds are usually -diapered with clouds. - -There is no very distinctive treatment of rose windows. They are filled -as pictorially as they well can be. They contain, perhaps, a central -subject and in the outer lights angels, cherubs, and the like, much as -in other tracery lights. - -_Ornament._--The detail of their ornament is a ready means of -distinguishing Renaissance windows. In place of Gothic leafage we have -scrollwork of the marked arabesque or grotesque character derived from -Italy. It needs no description. - -Screens and draperies have often patterns in white and stain on ruby and -other coloured grounds, produced by abrading the red and painting and -staining the white thus exposed. The process may be detected by the -absence of intervening lead between the white or yellow and the deep -ground. - -Other damask patterns are stained on the coloured glass without -abrasion, yellow on blue giving green, on purple olive, and so on. - -Ornamental windows scarcely go beyond quarry work, with a border of -white and stain. Except in quarry windows, borders are seldom used. - -Grisaille windows scarcely occur. The little subjects in white and stain -painted upon a single piece of glass, usually circular and framed in -quarries or in a cartouche set in plain glazing (page 352), belong to a -class by themselves. - -[Illustration: 240. CHURCH OF S. PETER, COLOGNE.] - -_Technique._--In many respects the technique of the Renaissance glass -painter is only a carrying further of the later Gothic means. He uses -more and more white glass, employing it also as a background; he uses -more shades of coloured glass, especially pale blues, greens, and -purples; he chooses his glass more carefully for specific purposes; he -uses more coated glass, and abrades it; he makes greater use of stain, -staining upon all manner of colours--ruby, blue, purple, green--and even -painting in stain, and picking out high lights upon it in white. He -paints delicate work more delicately. Flesh-painting he carries to a -very high point of perfection, more especially in the portraits of -Donors. In strengthening his shadows he eventually gets them muddy. At -first he used to hatch them to get additional strength; eventually he -was not careful always so much as to stipple them. He uses often a -warmer brown pigment for flesh painting, and by-and-by resorts to a -quite reddish tint by way of local colour; he uses large pieces of -glass when he can, and glazes his backgrounds and other large surfaces -in rectangular panes. Above canopies he comes to use pure white glass, -as if to suggest that the canopy is solid, and beyond only atmosphere. - -The one quite new departure in sixteenth century technique was the use -of enamel colour (see Chapter VIII.). That began to come into use -towards the middle of the century. When you detect the least touch of -enamel colour in a window, other than the pinkish flesh tint, you may -suspect that it belongs to the second half of the century; when it -seriously affects the design and colour of the window, you may be sure -it does. But it is not until quite the end of the century that mosaic -anywhere practically gives way to enamel painting. - -[Illustration: 241. S. JEAN, TROYES, 1678.] - -The sixteenth century, therefore, includes, broadly speaking, all that -is best in Renaissance glass and much that is already on the decline. -There is a tide in the affairs of art; and after the full flood of the -Renaissance, sweeping all before it, glazing and glass painting sank to -the very lowest ebb, out of sight in fact of craftsmanship. Only here -and there, by way of rare exception, was good or interesting work any -longer done,--as for example at Troyes, where good traditions, piously -preserved in a family of exceptionally skilful glass painters, were -followed long after they were elsewhere extinct. - - -SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. - -You may recognise seventeenth century work not so much by any new -departure in design (except that it aims more and more at the effect of -an oil picture, and that the portrait of the Donor and his family -constitutes the picture) as by its departure from the old methods, the -methods above described; by the introduction of pure white glass, glazed -in geometric pattern, in the upper half of the window or, it may be, as -a background; by the use of enamel paint instead of coloured glass; by -the abuse of heavy shading (in the vain attempt to get chiaroscuro), and -by a loss, consequently, of the old translucency and brilliancy; by the -aggressiveness of the lead lines (now that it is sought to do as much as -possible without them); by the adoption of thin-coloured glass, toned by -paint, instead of deep pot-metal; by the occurrence of whole panes of -glass coated with solid paint; by the decay of the enamel; and by the -general dilapidation of the window. - -[Illustration: 242. CERTOSA IN VAL D'EMA.] - -The unlearned must not be misled by the shabbiness of a window, by the -breakages, the disfiguring leads which represent repair, the peeling off -of the paint, and so on, into the supposition that these are signs of -antiquity. On the contrary, the very method of its making was the saving -of Early glass, and Late work owes its vicissitudes largely to the -mistaken process adopted in its execution,--by which you may know it. - -It would be beyond the scope of a book about glass to go more thoroughly -into the characteristics of style generally. Enough to indicate what -more especially concerns the subject in hand. - -Without some slight acquaintance with the course of art, it will perhaps -be difficult to trace the development of glass design. Historical or -antiquarian knowledge of any kind will make it more easy. Not merely the -character of ornament or architecture, but the details of lettering, -costume, heraldry, give evidence in abundance to those who can read it; -but it is with art and craftsmanship that we have here to do. - -The data given in this chapter and throughout are derived from the study -of old work. Winston and other authorities have been referred to only to -corroborate impressions gained by personal experience,--the experience -only of a designer, a workman, a lover of glass, professing to no more -learning than a student must in the course of study acquire. -Nevertheless these few notes on what is characteristic in design and -workmanship, may, it is hoped, be helpful to artists, craftsmen, -students, and lovers of art, and perhaps sufficient for their guidance. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVIII. - -STYLE IN MODERN GLASS (A POSTSCRIPT). - - -It is easy, and it is only too common a thing, for the designer to -depend for inspiration over much upon old work; but until he knows what -has been done he is not fully equipped for his trade. - -Moreover, a workman skilled only in his craft may be prolific in good -work: one, on the other hand, learned only in archæology, is, in the -nature of things, sterile. He may know as much about old glass as -Winston, and fail as utterly even to direct design a-right as he did at -Glasgow. The Munich windows there are glaring evidence as to what a -learned antiquary and devoted glass-lover can countenance. Too surely -the fire of archæological zeal warps a man's artistic judgment. - -What, then, about historic style? Are we to disregard it in our work? -That question may be answered by another: What about old work? Old work, -it is argued, should be our guide. Well, old work preaches no adherence -to past styles. It went its own way, in delightful unconsciousness that -the notion could ever occur to any one deliberately to go back to a -manner long since out of vogue; and when the idea of a Renaissance did -occur to the artist, he very soon made it something quite different from -the thing he set out to revive--if ever that was his deliberate -intention. - -It is too lightly assumed that "the styles" are there, ready made for -us, and that all we have to do is to make our choice between them, and -take the nearest to a fit we can find. So many of us only learn to copy, -whereas the whole use of copying is to learn. Artists study style for -information, not authority. - -The truth is, no style of old glass is fashioned to our use. Early -Gothic glass has most to teach us with regard to the mosaic treatment of -the material, and perhaps also about breadth and simplicity of design; -but when it comes to figure drawing and painting, here is surely no -model for a nineteenth century draughtsman. Renaissance work has most to -teach in the way of painting and pictorial treatment; but it is not an -exemplar of workmanlike and considerate handling of glass. - -Because Early work was badly drawn, because Decorated was -ill-proportioned, because Perpendicular was enshrined in -stone-suggesting canopy work, because Renaissance was apt to depend too -much upon finish, because seventeenth century work was overburdened with -paint; must a man, therefore, according to the style of the building for -which his work is destined, make it rude, misproportioned, stonelike, -ultra-finished, or over-painted? - -It happens that Early figure work in glass was mostly in deep rich -colour. Are we to have no figures, therefore, in grisaille? It happens -that later glass was, at its best, delicate and silvery in effect. Are -we, therefore, to have no rich windows any more? Thirteenth century -pictures were diminutive in scale. Are we to have no larger pictures -ever? Sixteenth century subjects spread themselves over the whole -window. Are we never to frame our glass pictures? And as to that frame, -are we to choose once and for all the ornamental details of this period -or that, or the formula of design adopted at a given time? - -Whether in the matter of technique or treatment, of colour or design, no -one style of old glass is enough for us. What does an historic style -mean? Partly it means that during such and such years such and such -forms were in fashion; partly it means that by that time technique had -reached such and such a point, and no further. Must we rest there? If at -a certain period in the history of design the scope of the glass painter -was limited, his art rude, shall we limit ourselves in a like manner? If -at another it was debased, ought we to degrade our design, just because -the building into which our work is to go is of that date, or pretends -to be? It was the merest accident that in the thirteenth century drawing -was stiff and design more downright than refined, that the appliances of -the glazier were simple, and the technique of the painter imperfect. It -was an accident that silver stain was not discovered until towards the -middle of the fourteenth century, that the idea of abrading -colour-coated glass did not occur to any one until nearly a century -later, that the use of the glass-cutter's diamond is a comparatively -modern invention, and so on. - -Out of the very scarcity of the craftsman's means good came; and there -is a very necessary lesson to us in that; but to throw away what newer -and more perfect means we have (all his knowledge is ours, if we will) -is sheer perversity. - -To affect a style is practically to adopt the faults and follies of the -period. If you are bent upon making your glass look like sixteenth -century work, you glaze it in squares, and introduce enamel. To treat it -mosaically would be not to make it characteristic enough of the period -for your pedant, notwithstanding that sixteenth century glass was, by -exception, treated in a glazier-like fashion. - -Should one, then, it may be asked, take the exception for model? The -answer to that is: take the best, and only the best. It is no concern of -the artist whether it be exceptional or of every-day occurrence; some -kinds of excellence can never be common. Is it good? That is the -question he has to ask himself. - -With regard to the use of the forms peculiar to a style--Gothic Tracery -or Renaissance Arabesque--that is very much a question of a man's -temperament. Has he any sympathy with them? Does that seem to him the -thing worth doing? If his personal bias be that way, who shall say him -nay? Assume even that the conditions of the case demand Decorated or -Italian detail, it does not follow that they demand precisely the -treatment of such detail found in the fourteenth or the sixteenth -century. - -The style of a building is not to be ignored. To put, nowadays, in a -thirteenth or fourteenth century church windows in the style of the -fifteenth or sixteenth would be absurd; to put in a fifteenth or -sixteenth century church windows in the style of the thirteenth or -fourteenth, more foolish still. But it does not follow that in a church -of any given century, the modern windows should be as nearly as possible -what would have been done in that century. - -No man in his senses, no artist at all events, ever denied that the -designer of a stained glass window must take into consideration the -architecture of the building of which his work is to form part. The only -possible question is as to what consideration may be due to it. - -The archæologist (and perhaps sometimes the architect) claims too much. -Certainly he claims too much when he pretends that the designer of a -window should confine himself to the imitation of what has already been -done in glass belonging to the period of the building, or of the period -which the building affects. Why should the modern designer submit to be -shackled by obsolete traditions? What is his sin against art, that he -should do this dreary penance, imposed by architectural or -ecclesiastical authority? And what good is to come of it? - -The unfortunate designer of modern glass is asked to conform both to the -technique and to the design of glass such as was executed at the period -to which belongs the building where his glass is to go, no matter how -inadequate the one or the other, or both, may be. So far as technique is -concerned, it can scarcely be questioned that the only rational thing to -do, is to do the best that can be done under the circumstances. - -That is equally the thing to aim at in design, simply one's level best. -It seems strange that there should be two opinions on the subject. A -building of some centuries past (or in that style) is to be filled with -nineteenth century glass. Choose your artist: a man whose work has -something in common with the sentiment of the period of the building, a -man with education enough to appreciate the architecture and what it -implies, with modesty enough to think of the decorative purpose of his -work and not only of his cleverness; let such a man express himself in -his own way, controlled only by the conditions of the case; and there -would be little likelihood that his work would, in the result, shock -either the feelings or the taste of any but a pedant--and if art is to -conform to the taste of the pedant, well, it is time the artist shut up -shop. Why will men of learning and research discount, nay, wipe out, the -debt art owes to them, by claiming what is not their due? - -Even though it were necessary or desirable that we should restrict -ourselves to what might have been done in the thirteenth century or in -the sixteenth, that would not argue that we must do only what was done. -Surely we may be allowed to do what the men of those days might -conceivably have done had they possessed our experience. Surely we need -not go for inspiration to the glass of a period when glass was -admittedly ill-understood, inadequate, poor, bad. It is quite certain -that the thirteenth century workmen did not realise all that might be -done in painted glass, quite certain that those of the seventeenth did -not appreciate what might be done in mosaic glass. It would be sheer -folly to paint no better than a thirteenth century glazier, because our -window was destined for Salisbury Cathedral, to make no more use of the -quality inherent in glass than was made by a painter of the seventeenth -century, because it was designed for St. Paul's. Those who are really -familiar with old work know that, even in periods of decline, work was -sometimes done which showed no falling away from good tradition. You may -find Renaissance glass almost as mosaic in treatment as thirteenth -century work. But because that was comparatively rare, because the -average work of the period was much less satisfactorily treated, modern -Renaissance must, it is absurdly assumed, be on the same unsatisfactory -lines. - -Suppose we want modern Italian Renaissance, and, further, that we wish -not only to retain the character of Renaissance detail but to get good -glass, suppose also that we do not want forgery,--the thing to do would -be, to inspire oneself at the very best sources of Italian -ornament--carving, inlay, goldsmith's work, embroidery, no matter what -(ornament is specifically mentioned because it is in ornament that the -tyranny of style is most severely exercised), and to translate the forms -thence borrowed into the best glass we can do. That, of course, is not -quite so easy as appropriation, wholesale; it implies research, -judgment, a thorough knowledge of glass; but it would certainly lead, in -capable hands, to nobler work, and work which might yet be in the -Italian spirit. The danger is that it would clash, not with Renaissance -feeling, but with preconceived ideas as to what should be. - -Our affectations of old style would be much more really like old work if -they pretended less to be like it. Had the old men lived nowadays they -would certainly have done differently from what they did. - -An artist in glass cannot safely neglect to study old work, more -especially in so far as it bears upon modern practice. It is for him to -realise, for example, what artistic good there was in early archaic -design, what qualities of colour and so on came of mosaic treatment, -what delicacy is due to the liberty of the later Gothic glass painter, -what fresh charm there was in the more pictorial manner of the -Cinque-Cento, and at what cost was this bought. Questions such as these -are much more to the point than considerations of the date at which some -new departure may have been made. - -The several systems on which a window design was set out, the various -methods of execution--mosaic and paint, pot-metal and enamel, -smear-shading and stipple, cross-hatching and needle point, matting and -diapering, staining and abrading--all these things he has to study, not -as indices of period, but that he may realise the intrinsic use and -value of each, that he may deduce from ancient practice and personal -experience a method of his own. - -Doubtful and curious points concern the antiquary not the artist. He had -best keep to the broad highway of craftsmanship, not wander off into the -byeways of archæology. Typical examples concern him more than rare -specimens--examples which mark a stage in the progress of art, and about -which there is no possibility of learned dispute. He wants to know what -has been done in order to judge what may be done, and especially he -wants to know the best that has been done. - -The problem is how to produce the best glass we can in harmony with the -architecture to which it belongs, but without especial regard to what -happens to have been done during the period to which the architecture of -the building belongs. We may even inspire ourselves at the sources of -sixteenth century Italian art, and yet in no wise follow in the -footsteps of the glass painters of the period, who were more or less off -the track; we may set ourselves to do, not what they did (glass was not -their strong point), but what they might have done. There, if you like, -is an ideal worthy of the best of us. - -If we pretend to be craftsmen we must do our work in the best way we -know. If we are men, let us at least be ourselves. Let us work in the -manner natural to us. If we undertake to decorate a building with a -style of its own, let us acknowledge our obligation to it; let us be -influenced by it so far as to make our work harmonious with -it--harmonious, that is to say, in the eyes of an artist, not -necessarily of a savant. Evidence of modernity is no sin, but a merit, -in modern work. To see how a man adapted his design to circumstances not -those of his own day, gives interest to work. We never wander so wide of -the old mediæval spirit as when we pretend to be mediæval or play at -Gothic. True style, as craftsmen know, consists in the character which -comes of accepting quite frankly the conditions inherent in our work. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIX. - -JESSE WINDOWS. - - -The subjects depicted in stained glass tell the story of the Church, or -preach its doctrine. Scenes from the Old Testament, from the Life of -Christ, from the legends of the Saints, and so on, recur from the -earliest Gothic times, and throughout the period of the Renaissance. -These pictures accommodate themselves to the current plans of design, or -the plan of design is chosen to suit them, as the case may be. - -There is one subject, however, occurring from the first in glass, which -does not fall into any of the usual schemes of design, and which, in -fact, differs so entirely from any of them, that it forms a class of -design apart. The subject, in fact, by way of exception to the rule, not -merely affects but determines the decorative form of the window. This -subject is the Descent of Christ--in short, the genealogical tree of the -Saviour; and the window devoted to its delineation is called a Jesse -window. Much freer and more varied scope for composition was offered by -this piece of church heraldry than the ordinary medallion or figure and -canopy window afforded, and the glazier turned it early to exceedingly -decorative use. The tree is shown issuing, as it were, from the loins of -Jesse. It bears his descendants, or rather a very arbitrary selection of -them (it is as well not to inquire too strictly as to their legitimate -right to be there), ending in the Virgin and the Saviour. - -The earliest arrangement of a Jesse window is as follows: at the base is -the recumbent figure of Jesse; the straight stem of the tree, proceeding -from him, is almost entirely hidden by a string of figures, one above -the other, occupying the centre part of the window, and represented, for -the most part, as Kings; above them is the Virgin, also crowned; and in -the arch of the window sits our Lord in Majesty, surrounded by seven -doves, to signify the gifts of the Spirit. It is not perhaps quite -clear upon what these figures sit. They hold on with both hands to -branches of highly conventional Romanesque foliage, springing from the -main stem, and occupying the space about the figures in very ornamental -fashion. A series of half medallions on each side of this central design -contain little figures of attendant prophets--in a sense, the spiritual -ancestors of the Saviour. All this is in the deepest and richest mosaic -colour, as in the beautiful bluish Jesse window at the West end of the -cathedral at Chartres, which belongs to about the middle of the twelfth -century. Very much the same kind of thing occurs at Le Mans and -elsewhere. - -Later the tree more often branched out into loops, forming oval or -vesical-shaped spaces, in which the figures sat, as may be seen on page -362. The ground of the window is in that case blue, the background of -the figure ruby. Had it been red the figures would probably have been -upon blue. This particular instance, by the way, is said to be of the -twelfth century, although the ornament has more the character of -thirteenth century work. You see also the doves referred to encircling -the figure sitting in Majesty, and the figures attendant upon the -Virgin. Sometimes these are prophets, sometimes angels; sometimes they -stand in little canopy niches, sometimes they are in the midst of the -foliage. The fragment from Salisbury on page 117 formed most probably -part of a Jesse window. The symbolic doves have often each a nimbus. A -single dove represents, of course, the Holy Ghost. - -A rather suggestive variation upon the orthodox Early scheme occurs in a -window at Carcassonne. Each of the three lights is bordered with a -rather geometric pattern. Within the border the central light is -designed much on the usual lines: Jesse recumbent below, and above the -figures of Kings, sitting each in his own little vesical-shaped space -formed by the growth of the tree. In the sidelights, however, the -Prophets are provided with the very simplest canopies, one above the -other. - -An interesting arrangement is to be found in the clerestory of the -cathedral at Tours, where the central light of a window has a Tree of -Jesse, with the usual oval compartments, corresponding with -hexagon-shaped medallions in the two sidelights, in which are depicted -scenes presumably appropriate to the subject; it is difficult to make -them out with any certainty. - -[Illustration: 243. PART OF EARLY JESSE WINDOW, MUSÉE DES ARTS -DÉCORATIFS, PARIS.] - -Occasionally what seems at first sight a medallion window resolves -itself, as at S. Kunibert, Cologne, into a kind of genealogical tree, -enclosing subjects illustrative of the descent of Christ. The rather -unusual combination of medallion and vine shown below, also German, is -of rather later date. - -[Illustration: 244. FREIBURG.] - -In the fourteenth century the tree naturally becomes a vine, usually in -colour upon a blue or ruby ground, extending beyond the limits of a -single light, and crossing not only the mullions, but the borders -(which, by the way, often confuse the effect of a Decorated Jesse -window). The vine extends also very often into the tracery, where sits -the Virgin with the Infant Christ. The figure of our Lord is always, of -course, the topmost feature of the tree--in the arms of the Virgin, in -the lap of the Father, or sitting in Majesty. A variation upon ordinary -practice occurs where the Father supports a crucifix. The figure of -Jesse naturally, as at Shrewsbury (page 241), extends across several -lights. - -Occasionally a figure and canopy window proves to be also a Jesse -window--a vine, that is to say, winds about the figures, and connects -them with the figure of Jesse; but this combination of canopy work with -tree work (as at Wells, some of the detail of which is given overleaf) -is confused and confusing. A much happier combination of figures under -canopies with tree work occurs in a sixteenth century window at S. -Godard, Rouen, which has at the base a series of five figures, above -whom spreads the tree, its roots appearing above the head of the central -one, who proves to be Jesse. - -By the fifteenth century the vine is rather more conventionally treated. -It is usually in white and stain upon a coloured ground, or, if the -leaves are green, the stems are white and stain. The figures also have -more white in their drapery. In the earlier part of the century the main -stem branches very often in an angular manner so as to form six-sided -bowers for the figures, framing them, perhaps, in a different colour -from the general groundwork of the window. Or the various lights of the -window may have alternately a blue and a ruby ground. It is rarely that -two figures are shown in the width of a single light, either in separate -compartments or grouped in one. - -[Illustration: 245. PART OF A JESSE WINDOW, WELLS.] - -Later the tree, oftenest in white and stain, branches more freely, not -twisting itself any longer into set shapes or obvious compartments. The -figures are, as it were, perched amongst its branches. In French and -German work the tree, towards the sixteenth century, is not so -necessarily a vine. It may take the form more of scrollwork, white or -yellow, and the personages in its midst may be only demi-figures, -issuing possibly from vase-like flowers or flower-like ornament. - -That is so in a remarkably fine window in the clerestory of the -cathedral at Troyes (three lights of which are shown on page 366), where -the figures no longer occupy the centre of the lights, but are scattered -about from side to side, balanced in a very satisfactory way by their -names writ large upon the background. This characteristic lettering -gives not only interesting masses of white or yellow on the ruby ground, -but horizontal lines of great value to the composition. In the lower -part of the window a separate screen of richest yellow marks off the -figure of Jesse, and at the same time distinguishes the Donors, together -with their family and their armorial bearings, from the merely -scriptural part of the design. In earlier windows, it should have been -stated, prominence is sometimes given to the really more important -personages by drawing them to a much larger scale, or by showing them -full-length when the others are only half-length, or by draping them all -in white and stain, whilst the rest are in colours not so strongly -relieved against the ground. - -There are two other rather unusual Jesse windows at Troyes, both of Late -Gothic period. The one is at S. Nizier: there the foliage is so rare as -to give the effect almost of a leafless scroll. The other is at S. -Nicholas: there the tree grows through into the tracery, where it -appears no longer, as in the lights below, upon a deep blue ground, but -upon yellow, the radiance, as it proves, from the group of the Trinity, -into which the tree eventually blossoms. - -[Illustration: 246. PART OF A JESSE WINDOW, CATHEDRAL, TROYES, 1499.] - -Quite one of the most beautiful Jesse trees that exist is in a Late -Gothic window at Alençon. It is unusual, probably unique in design. The -figures, with the exception of Jesse, are confined to the upper lights -and tracery, forming a double row towards the top of the window. This -leaves a large amount of space for the tree, a fine, fat, Gothic scroll, -foliated more after the manner of oak than acanthus leaves, all in rich -greens (yellowish, apple, emerald-like) on a greyish-blue ground. It -forms a splendid patch of cool colour, contrasting in the most beautiful -way with the figures, draped mostly in purple, red, and yellow. The -figures issue from great flower-like features as big as the width of the -light allows, mostly of red, or purple, or white, with a calyx in green. -The Virgin issues from a white flower suggestive of the lily. In the -window shown on page 368 the tree blossoms also into a topmost lily -supporting the Madonna. A characteristic feature about the Alençon -window is, the absence of symmetry in its scheme. Of the eight lights -which go to make up its width, only three are devoted, below the -springing of the great arch over it, to the Jesse tree. Three others -contain a representation of the death of the Virgin, under a separate -canopy, and in the two outermost lights are separate subjects on a -smaller scale. This kind of eccentricity of composition is by no means -unusual. A Jesse window very often occupies only one half or one quarter -of a large Late Gothic window. And the strange thing is that the effect -is invariably satisfactory, often delightful. You do not miss the -symmetry, but enjoy the accidental variety of colour. - -In sixteenth century work, and even before that, you meet with windows -in which figures are in colours upon a white ground. In that case the -tree is usually painted upon the white and stained. So it was in the -beautiful Flemish window, parts of which are now dispersed over the East -windows of S. George's, Hanover Square, calculated, there, rather to -mystify the student of design. In it the grapes, it will be seen (page -216), are glazed in purple pot-metal colour. In the present condition of -the window, now that the enamel-brown has partly peeled off, the grape -bunches scarcely seem to belong to the rather ghostly vine behind them. -That is a misfortune which not uncommonly happens where reliance has -been placed upon delicate painting; but for all that this is noble -glass, and the figures, as was also not uncommon at the period, are -designed with great dignity. - -[Illustration: 247. JESSE WINDOW, BEAUVAIS.] - -There is distinction, again, in the drawing of the figures in the Jesse -at S. Etienne, Beauvais, shown on page 368. That is a splendid specimen -of characteristically Renaissance work. Jesse is honoured by a rich -canopy of white and stain, which allows of a deep purple background -separating him from his descendants. These appear as demi-figures, very -richly robed, in strong relief against a pale purplish-blue ground of -the atmospheric quality peculiar to the period. The vase-shaped flowers -whence they issue are also in rich colour, dark against the ground, as -are the variegated fruits and green leaves of the tree, but its branches -are of silvery-white, suggesting of birch-bark. This tree-trunk is -altogether too realistically treated for the ornamental leafage and -still more arbitrary flowers growing from it; but it is a marvellously -fine window, masterly in drawing and perfectly painted. And it owes -positively nothing to age or accident. Indeed, the effect is somewhat -diluted by restoration. Even on the reduced scale of the illustration -given, you can detect in the head of the hatless figure to the right a -touch of modern French character; and the fine colour of it all is fine -in spite of the flatness of tint in the background, for which the -nineteenth century must be held responsible. - -Except for the confusion caused by the occasional introduction of -canopies and borders, a Jesse window may be usually recognised at a -glance. In the cathedral at Troyes, however, is what might be mistaken, -at first sight, for a Jesse tree. But the recumbent figure is not that -of Jesse, but of Christ. He lies, in fact, in the wine press, whence -grows a vine bearing half effigies of the Twelve Apostles, and the -patron saints of the Donor and his wife, who themselves had places in -the lower portion of the sidelights, but the figure of the wife is now -missing. The general design and effect of this window, and especially -the seriousness of the ornamental portion of it, are such as almost to -belie the period of its execution. It is an exceptionally fine window -for the year 1625. - -This same subject is anticipated in a sixteenth century window (1552) at -Conches. There the Saviour treads the blue grapes, and a stream of -blood-red wine issues from them. The frame of the press immediately -behind him is designed to suggest the cross. - -The Jesse window referred to in the north transept at Carcassonne is -balanced by a window on the south, which is of peculiarly interesting -design, not, to my knowledge, elsewhere to be found in glass, although -it occurs in Early Italian painting. It represents the Tree of Life, of -Knowledge of Good and Evil--which knowledge appears to be inscribed all -over it and the window. It might almost be described as a tree of -lettering, for it bears upon its branches (which are labels) and upon -its fruit (which are heart-shaped tablets) voluminous inscriptions, not, -in the present state of the glass, always easy to decipher, but most -effectively decorative. On either side the window, by way of border to -the outer lights, is a series of little figures, prophets, or whoever -they may be, bearing other inscribed scrolls, mingling with the boughs -of the tree, the leaves of which form, as it were, a kind of green and -yellow fringe to the inscribed white branches. At the foot of the tree -stand Adam and Eve, in the act of yielding to the temptation of the -woman-headed serpent coiled round its trunk, and beyond are shown the -Ark of Noah and the Ark of the Covenant. Amidst the upper branches is a -crucifix, the narrow red cross so inconspicuous that the Christ seems -almost to hang upon the tree, and at its summit is the emblem of the -pelican, _Qui sanguine pascit alumnos_. This is altogether not only a -striking, and, at the same time, most satisfactory window, but an -admirable instance of the use of lettering in ornament. Lettering is -very often introduced into Jesse windows, and forms sometimes a -conspicuous feature in them: how much more use might be made of it is -suggested by this Tree of Life. - - - - -CHAPTER XXX. - -STORY WINDOWS. - - -There is something very interesting in the simple heartedness with which -the mediæval artist would attack a subject quite impossible of artistic -realisation, apart from his modest powers of draughtsmanship, or the -limitations of glass. - -The daring of the man may be taken as evidence of his sincerity. If he -had not believed absolutely in the things he tried to pourtray, he could -not have set them forth so simply as he did, not only in the quite -archaic medallions of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, but even in -pictures conceived at the end of what we call the Middle Ages. It would -be impossible nowadays to picture Paradise, as in the scene of the -Temptation at Fairford (overleaf), with its bald architecture and little -Gothic fountain, to say nothing of the serpent. But down to the -sixteenth century no subject was impossible to the designer. Even the -Creation did not deter him; on the contrary, it was a favourite subject -in old glass, throughout the mediæval period (page 252): there is no -shirking the difficulty of rendering the division of light from the -darkness, or the separation of the waters from the dry land. Indeed, -problems such as these are sometimes solved with very remarkable -ingenuity, if not quite in a way to satisfy us: the Creator in the -likeness of a Pope, triple crown and all, as at Châlons-sur-Marne, was -pictured no doubt in all good faith and reverence. - -Perhaps one of the most daring notions ever put into stained glass -occurs in a window in All Saints' Church, North Street, York. The design -illustrates an old Northumbrian legend called "The Pryck of Conscience," -and boldly sets out to show--the fishes roaring, the sea a-fire, a -bloody dew, and, as a climax, the general conflagration of the world. -"Of heaven and hell I have no power to tell," wrote the "idle singer" -(as he most wilfully miscalled himself) of this perhaps "empty day." It -was left to the modern artist to discover that. - -The subject most frequently affected by the designer of the West window -of a Gothic church was "The Last Judgment," in which appeared our Lord -in Majesty, St. Michael weighing human souls, angels welcoming the -righteous into heaven, and fiends carrying off the doomed to hell. These -"Doom" windows, as they are also called, are not, to the modern mind, -impressive--not, that is to say, as the pictures of reward and -punishment hereafter they were meant to be. The scene strikes us -invariably as grotesque rather than terrible, actual as it may have been -to the simple artist, who meant to be a sober chronicler, and to the yet -simpler worshippers to whom he addressed himself. - -[Illustration: 248. THE TEMPTATION, FAIRFORD.] - -Apart from that, "Last Judgment" windows are among the most interesting -in the church. The portion of the window, in particular, which is -devoted to perdition is most attractive. Hell flames offered to the -artist a splendid opportunity for colour, upon which he seized with -delight. And the fiends he imagined! Doubtless those crude conceptions -of his were very real to him, convincing and terror-striking. The grim -humour which we see in them may be of our own imagining; but that the -draughtsman enjoyed his creations no artist will doubt. - -[Illustration: 249. PART OF LAST JUDGMENT, FAIRFORD.] - -That is easy to understand. His subject allowed him freedom of -imagination, gave him scope for fancy, humour, colour; and all his -faculties found outlet. No wonder his would-be fiends live beautiful in -our recollection! In the midst of ruby flames dance devils, purple, -black, and brown, gnashing carnivorous teeth or yellow fangs, their -beady, white eyes gleaming with cruelty. Devils there are apparently -red-hot; others green and grey, with a beautiful but unholy kind of -iridescence about them. As for the blue devils, they are beautiful -enough to scare away from the beholder blue devils less tangible, which -may have had possession of him. There is a great white devil in a window -at Strassburg, who has escaped, it seems, from the Doom window near by, -but not from the flames about him, a background of magnificent ruby. The -drawing of a part of the Last Judgment from Fairford (page 373) gives -only the grotesqueness of the scene, the quaintly conceived tortures of -the damned; but that division of the glass is in reality a glory of -gorgeous colour, to which one is irresistibly attracted. For that, as -ever, the designer has reserved his richest and most glowing colour. - -Some slight touch of human perversity perhaps inspires him also. At -Fairford, at all events, he has put some of his best work, and -especially some of his finest colour, into the figures of the -Persecutors of the Church. Unfortunately, they are high up in the -clerestory, and so do not get their share of attention; certainly they -do not get the praise they deserve. Why, one is inclined to ask, this -honour to the enemies of the Church on the part of the churchman? Was he -at heart a heathen giving secret vent in art to feelings he dared not -openly express? Not a bit of it! He was just a trifle tired of Angels, -and Saints, and subjects according to convention; he was delighted at -the chance of doing something not quite tame and same, and revelled in -the opportunity when it occurred. In the tracery openings above the -persecutors, where in the ordinary way would be angels, are lodged much -more appropriate little fiends. They haunt the memory long after you -have seen them, not as anything very terrific, but as bits of beautiful -colour. The Devil overleaf, hovering in wait for the soul of the -impenitent thief upon the cross, is not by any means a favourable -specimen of the Fairford fiends. - -Occasionally there is a grimness about the mediæval Devil which we feel -to this day. In a window at S. Etienne, Beauvais, there is a quite -unforgettable picture of a woman struggling in the clutches of the evil -one. She is draped in green, the Devil is of greenish-white, the -architecture is represented in a gloom of purple and dark blue; only a -peep of pale sky is seen through the window. On the one hand, this is a -delightful composition of decorative colour. On the other it is -intensely dramatic. It sets one wondering who this may be, and what will -be the outcome of it. The struggle is fearful, the fiend is quite -frantic in action. One is so taken with the scene that one does not -notice that his head is wanting, and has been replaced by one which does -not even fit his shoulders. That the effect, for all that, is -impressive, speaks volumes for the story-teller. - -[Illustration: 250. FAIRFORD.] - -Alas, alas, the Devil is dead! His modern counterfeit is a fraud. You -may see this at the church of S. Vincent, at Rouen, in one of the -subjects representing the life of that saint, where he puts the devils -to flight. The nearest of them is an evil-looking thing, ruby coloured, -uncannily spotted, like some bright poisonous-looking fungus. The -restorer has supplemented these retreating devils by a farther one -painted on the grey-blue sky. The imp is grotesque enough, and very -cleverly put in, but it plainly belongs no longer to the early sixteenth -century. It suggests a theatrical "property," not the hobgoblin of old -belief. That is just what the devilry in old glass never does. - -It must be owned that mediæval Angels charm us less. They are by -comparison tame. Their colour is delicate and silvery, belike, but not -seductive; their wings sit awkwardly upon them; they fulfil more or less -trivial functions, bearing scrolls or emblems, shields of arms even. -They are not in the least ethereal. They are too much on the model of -man or woman. What possible business, for example, have they with legs -and feet? Yet it is by the rarest chance that the body is, as it were, -lost in a swirl of drapery, which, by disguising the lower limbs, makes -the image by so much, if not the more angelic, at least the less -obviously of the earth. - -The glass hunter cannot but be amused every now and again by odd -anachronisms in mediæval and even later illustrations in glass. But -wonder at them ceases when we remember how simple-minded was the -craftsman of those days before archæology. If he wished to picture -scenes of the long past--and he did--there was nothing for it but to -show them as they occurred to his imagination--as happening, that is to -say, in his own day; and that is practically what he did. He had perhaps -a vague notion that a Roman soldier should wear a kilt; but in the main -he was content that the onlookers at the Crucifixion should be costumed -according to the period of William the Conqueror, or Maximilian, in -which he himself happened to live. The practice had, at least, one -advantage over our modern displays of probably very inaccurate -learnedness, in that it brought the scene close home to the unlearned -observer, and, as it were, linked the event with his own life. In short, -there is more vitality in that rude story-telling than in the more -elaborate histories, much less inaccurate in detail doubtless, to which -to-day and henceforth artists are pledged. - -There is no occasion to dwell upon the oddities of glass painting; they -are those of mediæval art all through. If we take a certain incongruity -for granted, the guilelessness of it only charms us. That same -guilelessness enables the artist to make absolutely ornamental use of -themes which to-day we might think it profane to make subservient to -decorative effect. We never question his sincerity, though in the scene -of the Creation, as at Erfurth, he made a pattern of the birds, pair and -pair, each on its own tree. He can safely show the staff of S. -Christopher, as at Freiburg, blossoming so freely as conveniently to -fill the head of the window and balance the Child upon his shoulder. -According as it occurs to him, or as it suits his purpose, kings and -bishops take part in the Crucifixion; S. Michael tramples upon a dragon -big enough to swallow him at a mouthful; Abraham goes out, gorgeously -arrayed in red and purple, to slaughter Isaac on a richly decorated -altar, and a white ram, prancing among the green, calls his attention to -itself as the more appropriate sacrifice; Adam and Eve are driven forth -from Eden by a scarlet angel, draped in white, with wings as well as -sword of flaming red. In this last case the peculiar colour has a -significance. Elsewhere it implies the poverty of the glazier's palette, -or indicates the sacrifice of natural to artistic effect. So it was -that, till quite the end of the thirteenth century, we meet with -positively blue beards, ruby cows, and trees of all the colours of the -rainbow; and even at a much later date than that, primary-coloured -cattle look over the manger at the Nativity, and Christ is shown -entering Jerusalem on a bright blue donkey. - -To the last the glass painter indulged in very interesting compound -subjects--the Nativity, for example, with in the distance the Magi on -their way; the Last Supper, and in the foreground, relieved against the -tablecloth, Christ washing Peter's feet, the apostles grouped round so -as to form part of each or either subject. Sometimes a series of events -form a single picture, as where you have the Temptation, the Expulsion, -Eve with her distaff, Adam with his spade, the childhood of Cain and -Abel, and the first fratricide, all grouped in one comprehensive -landscape. - -Consecutive pictures, by the way, generally follow in horizontal not -vertical series, beginning on your left as you face the window. There is -no invariable rule; but in most cases the order of the subjects is from -left to right, row after row, terminating at the top of the window. - -From the beginning difficult doctrinal subjects are attempted, as well -as histories and legends. In the sixteenth century the design is often -an allegory, full of meaning, though the meaning of it all may not be -very obvious. The Virtues, for example, no longer content to stand under -canopies, systematically spearing each its contrasting Vice, harness -themselves, as at S. Patrice, Rouen, to a processional car, in which are -the Virgin, Christ upon the Cross, and sundry vases, preceded by the -Patriarchs and other holy personages. Another interesting "morality," at -S. Vincent, Rouen, is pictured in a medley of little figures each with -descriptive label--"Richesse," for example, a lady in gorgeous golden -array; "Pitie," a matron of sober aspect; "Les Riches Ingrass," a group -of gay young men; "Le Riche" and "Le Poure," alike pursued by death. -Another decorative device of the sixteenth century is the Virgin, -lifesize, surrounded by her emblems and little white scrolls describing -them--"Fons ortorum," "Sivit as Dei," and so on, in oddly spelt Latin. -This occurs at Conches. - -In Later Gothic, and of course in Renaissance glass, the situation is, -if not realised, at all events dramatically treated. One scarcely knows -to which period to attribute the window at S. Patrice, Rouen, with -scenes from the life of S. Louis, an admirably sober and serious piece -of work. Conspicuous in it is the recurring mantle of the King, deep -indigo coloured, embroidered with golden _fleurs-de-lys_, on an -inky-blue ground. The whole effect is rich but strikingly low in tone. -An exceptionally fine scene is that in which the King, in a golden boat -with white sails, ermine diapered, a crown upon his head, kneels in -prayer before a little crucifix, whilst his one companion lifts up his -hands in terror: the man is clad in green; for the rest the colour is -sombre, only the pale blue armour of the Saint, his dark blue cloak, for -once undiapered--as if the artist felt that here the golden lilies would -be out of place--and the leaden sea around: that extends to the very top -of the picture, distant ships painted upon it to indicate that it is -water. An inscription explains how:-- - - "En revenant du pays de Syrie - En mer fut tourmente ... gde furie - Mais en priant Jesu Christ il en fut delivré." - -It must be allowed that the storm does not rage very terrifically; but -the effect is not merely beautiful as colour but really descriptive, and -something more. - -It is only occasionally that this much of dramatic effect is produced; -but touches of well-studied realism are common, as where, in the same -church, at the martyrdom of a saint, the executioners who feed the fire -shrink from the yellow flames and guard their eyes. - -Decorative treatment goes almost without saying in the early sixteenth -century. At S. Patrice, again, is a singularly fine instance of that. In -the centre of the window, against a background of forest, with the -distant hunt in full cry, S. Eustache stands entranced, his richly clad -figure a focus of bright colour; facing him, in the one light, the -legendary stag, enclosing between its antlers the vision of the -crucifix, balanced, in the other, by the white horse of the convert: the -note of white is repeated in the lithe hounds running through the three -lights, and, with the silvery trunks of the trees, holds the composition -together. This subject of the Conversion of S. Hubert was rather a -favourite one in glass, and was usually well treated. The stag is -invaluable. At Erfurth he stands against the green, a mass of yellow, -with purple antlers, which form a vesica-shaped frame for the fabled -vision. - -The use of white, by the way, as a means of holding the window together -is remarkable throughout Later glass, even apart from white canopy work. -In the cathedral at Perugia there is a window in which a stream of white -pavement flows, as it were, down through the groups of richly coloured -figures, emphasising them, and at the same time connecting them with the -canopy. - -There is no end to the interest of subject in glass; but the subject -would lead us too far astray from the purpose of this book. Enough has -been said to indicate the kind of interest which each of us best finds -for himself in glass hunting. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXI. - -HOW TO SEE WINDOWS. - - -The just appreciation of stained glass is more than difficult, and -judgment with regard to it more than ordinarily fallible. It is too much -to expect of a window that it should stand the test of a light for which -it was not designed. The most conscientious artist can do no more than -design it for the light by which he imagines it is most likely to be -seen. There must inevitably be times of day, when the sun is in a -position not favourable to it, and many days when the intensity of the -light, even though it come from the right quarter, is not what he relied -upon. It happens, of course, that glass is often seen under such -conditions that the brilliancy of the windows on one side of the church -is literally put out by a flood of light poured in upon them through the -windows (brilliantly illuminated by it) on the opposite side. The best -of critics could not appreciate the best of glass under circumstances -like that. - -Suppose the windows north and south of a church to be of equal merit, -one's appreciation of them, at first sight, would depend upon the time -of day; and the light which did most justice to the northern windows -would do least to the southern, and _vice versâ_. Experience teaches a -man to make allowances, but he can only judge what he has seen; and it -is only with the light shining through a window that he can see its -colour or judge of its effect. - -The wonderful difference which the strength of the light makes in the -appearance of a window, is nowhere quite so obvious as in the case of -windows, not of glass, but of translucent alabaster--as, for example, at -Orvieto, in the lower lights on either side of the nave, or, framed in -black marble mullions, at the West end of the cathedral. The more or -less square-shaped slabs of which they are formed are, in very many -cases, made up of a number of pieces cemented together in lines which -take very much the place of lead lines, and suggest, with the bars -holding them in place, the practice of the glazier; but the effect is -much less that of glass than of deepest amber in the unbroken panels, of -gorgeous tortoise-shell in those that are patched and pieced together. -These last are, if not the more beautiful, certainly the more -interesting. The brown and gold and horny-white grow murkier when the -light does not shine full upon the windows; but there is a mystery about -the colour still, which makes up for the loss of brilliancy. If your -mood is that way, you may find in the curious marbling of the stone -strange pictures of cloudland and fantastic landscape. It is partly the -shape, no doubt, of a circular slab high above the western door, which -calls to mind the image of the moon with its mysterious mountains. - -A more delicate, if not always so rich an effect, is to be seen in the -great monolithic slabs which fill the five square-headed windows in the -apse of the upper church at S. Miniato. Effect, did I say? Nay, rather -effects, for they change with every gradation in the light. You may see -at first little more than flat surfaces of pleasantly mottled white and -purple-grey, translucent, but comparatively dull and dead. Then, as the -sun creeps round the corner, a strange life comes into them. The white -and palest greys begin to glow, and turn by slow degrees to pearly-pink, -which kindles into gold, and deepens in the duskier parts to copper-red. -The stronger markings of the stone now show out in unsuspected strength, -and the lighter veins take on by contrast a greenish tint, so that the -warm colour is subtly shot with its cool counterpart. If, when you first -see the windows, the sun illumines them, the effect is less magical; you -get your strongest impression first; but in the course of an hour or so -a great change may take place--when, for example, towards noon the light -passes away; but for a long while the stone remains luminous. Your eyes -are open now, and in the delicate ashen-grey you see--or is it that you -feel it to be there?--a tint of rose. - -In proportion as it is less opaque than alabaster, glass is less -perceptibly affected by changes of light; but, whether we perceive it or -not, it owes all its effect to the light shining through it. The most -fair-minded of us misjudge windows because we cannot see them often -enough to be quite sure we have seen them at their best--that is to say, -on the right day, and at the right time of day. - -In comparing one window with another we are more than ever likely to do -injustice. Even if they happen to be both in the same church, the light -most favourable to the one may, as just said, be quite the least -favourable to the other. Each must in fairness be judged at its best; -and it is no easy matter to compare to-day's impression with -yesterday's, or it may be last week's--more especially when a newer -impression of the same thing, staring you in the face, will stamp itself -upon the vision. When years, instead of days, intervene, the justice of -even the most retentive memory is open to gravest doubt. - -Go to the church of S. Alpin, at Châlons, and in the morning you will -find the East windows brilliantly rich: in the early afternoon, even of -a bright day, they will be lacking in transparency, dull, ineffective. -So at S. Sebald's, Nuremberg, the splendid fourteenth century glass on -the north side of the choir proves absolutely obscure in the late -afternoon. Grisaille, which was delicate under a moderately subdued -light, will appear thin and flimsy with a strong sun behind it. It has -happened to me to describe the same glass on one occasion as too -heavily, on another as too thinly painted; and, again, to describe a -window as warm in tone which memory (and my notes) had painted cool. On -another occasion, well-remembered windows were not to be identified -again. It seemed that in the course of a few intervening years they must -have been restored out of all knowledge; a few hours later in the day -there was no mistaking them, though they had, indeed, lost something by -restoration. - -When the most careful and deliberate notes tell such different, and -indeed quite opposite, stories, notes made at times not far enough apart -to allow for anything like a complete change of opinion on the part of -the critic, it is clear that conditions of light go so far towards the -effect of glass, that it is quite impossible to appraise it fairly the -first time one sees it. The more momentary the impression on which one -has to found an opinion, the more essential it is that we should choose -the moment. The strongest light is by no means the most favourable to -glass. In a glare of sunlight it is quite probable that some unhappy -windows will have more light shining upon than comes through the glass. -Happiest are the windows seen by "the subdued light of a rainy day." -Occasionally a window, so deep that under ordinary conditions of light -it is obscure, may need the strongest possible illumination; but even -in the case of very deep-toned windows--such, for example, as those in -the transepts of the Duomo at Florence--the glass, as a whole, is best -seen by a sober light. You get the maximum of colour effect with the -minimum of hurt to any individual window, if there be any hurt at all. A -really garish window may be beautiful as the light wanes. The great -North Rose at Notre Dame (Paris) is impressive at dusk. - -Other conditions upon which the effect of glass largely depends are -quite beyond our control. As a matter of fact, we rarely see it at its -best. For one thing, we do not see it in sufficient quantity. We find it -in here and there a window only, white light shining unmitigated from -windows all round. Perhaps in the window itself there is a breakage, and -a stream of light pours through it, spoiling, if not its beauty, all -enjoyment of it. It is not generally understood how completely the -effect of glass depends upon the absence of light other than that which -comes through it. Every ray of light which penetrates into a building -excepting through the stained glass does injury to the coloured window; -more often than not, therefore, we see it under most adverse -circumstances. It is worse than hearing a symphony only in snatches; it -is rather as if a more powerful orchestra were all the while drowning -the sound. It takes an expert to appreciate glass when light is -reflected upon it from all sides. The effect of some of the finest glass -in Germany, as at Munich and Nuremberg, is seriously marred by a wicked -German practice of filling only the lower half of the window with -coloured glass and glazing the upper part in white rounds. That enables -folk to read their Bibles, no doubt; but the volume of crude white light -above goes far to kill the colour of the glass. In such case it is not -until you have shut off the offending light that it is possible to -enjoy, or even to appreciate, the windows. - -A comparatively dark church is essential to the perfect enjoyment of -rich glass. The deep red light-absorbing sandstone of which Strassburg -and Shrewsbury Cathedrals are built, adds immensely to the brilliancy of -their beautiful glass. - -White light is the most cruel, but not the only, offender. Old glass -sometimes quarrels with old glass. An Early window is made to look heavy -by a quantity of Late work about it, and a Late window pales in the -presence of deep rich Early glass. As for modern work, it is that which -suffers most by comparison with old; but it arouses often a feeling of -irritation in us which puts us out of the mood to enjoy. - -Worst offence of all is that done in the name of restoration, where, -inextricably mixed up with old work, is modern forgery; not clever -enough to pass for old, but sufficiently like it to cast a doubt upon -the genuine work, at the same time that it quite destroys its beauty. - -Something of our appreciation depends upon the frame of mind in which we -come to the windows. They may be one of the sights of the place; but the -sight-seeing mood is not the one in which to appreciate. How often can -the tourist sit down in a church with the feeling that he has all the -day before him, and can give himself up to the enjoyment of the glass, -wait till it has something to say to him? A man has not seen glass when -he has walked round the church, with one eye upon it and the other on -his watch, not even though he may have made a note or two concerning it. -You must give yourself up to it, or it will never give up to you the -secret of its charm. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXII. - -WINDOWS WORTH SEEING. - - -The course of the glass hunter seems never yet to have been clearly -mapped out for him. Nor can he depend upon those who pretend to direct -his steps. The enthusiastic description of the monograph proves in the -event to have very likely no warrant of art; the paragraph in the -guide-book is so cold as to excite no spark of curiosity about what may -be worth every effort to see. Between the two a beginner stands -uncertain which way to turn, and as often as not goes astray. - -The question which perplexes him on the very outskirts of the subject -is: Which are the windows to see? That depends. Some there are which -every one who cares at all about glass should certainly see, some which -the student who really wants to know should study, some which the artist -should see, if merely for the satisfaction of his colour sense. To -enumerate only a single class of these would be to write a catalogue; -but catalogues are hard reading; the more interesting and more helpful -course will be, to tell shortly of some of the windows best worth -seeing, and why they should be seen. And if choice be made of instances -typical enough to illustrate the history of glass, the list may serve as -an itinerary to such as may think it worth while to study it, as it -should be studied, not in books, but in churches. - -[Illustration: 251. GRISAILLE PATTERNS, SALISBURY.] - -Churches favourable to the study of Early glass in England are not very -many. A series of thirteenth century windows is rare; and good examples, -such as the fragments from the S. Chapelle, at South Kensington, are few -and far between. The one fine series of medallion windows is at -Canterbury Cathedral, in the round-headed lights of the choir. In the -clerestory also is some figure work, on a larger scale, but less -admirable of its kind. For good thirteenth century grisaille in any -considerable quantity one must go to Salisbury, where, fortunately, the -aisle windows are near enough to the eye to show the very characteristic -patterns of the glass. To sit there in the nave and wait until -service is over, is no hardship even to the most ardent glass hunter. -The silvery light from the windows facing him at the East end of the -aisles is solace and delight enough. Yet more enchanting is the pale -beauty of the Five slim Sisters, in the North transept of York Minster; -that, however, is gained, to some extent, by the confusion of the -pattern, which is not quite typically Early, but begins to show symptoms -of a transition stage in design. - -To appreciate at its full value the stronger colour of the Early mosaic -glass one must cross the Channel. We have nothing in this country to -compare in quantity, and therefore for effect, with the gorgeous glass -illuminating the great French churches. Reims, for example, Bourges, Le -Mans, are perfect treasure houses of jewelled light. But richer than all -is Chartres. The windows there are less conveniently placed for study -than at Le Mans, but they are grander, and more in number. At Reims the -art is coarser, though the magnificence of certain red windows there -lives in the memory. Emphatically Chartres is the place to know and -appreciate thirteenth century glass. No other great church of the period -retains so much of its original glazing; and since it is one of the -largest, and the glass is very much of one period, it follows that no -church contains so much Early glass. The impression it produces is the -more pronounced that there is little else. Except for a modern window or -two, one Late Gothic window, and some four or five lights of grisaille, -which belong to the second period, the glass throughout this vast -building is typically Early. It is well worth a pilgrimage to Chartres -only to see it. You may wander about the church for hours at a time, -unravelling the patterns of the windows, and puzzling out the subjects -of the medallion pictures. To sit there in more restful mood upon some -summer afternoon, when the light is softened by a gentle fall of rain, -is to be thrilled by the beauty of it all. It is as though, in a dream, -you found yourself in some huge cavern, lit only by the light of jewels, -myriads of them gleaming darkly through the gloom. It is difficult to -imagine anything more mysterious, solemn, or impressive. Yes, Chartres -is the place in which to be penetrated by the spirit of Early mediæval -glass. There is a story told of a child sitting for the first time in -his life in some French church, awed by the great Rose window facing -him, when all at once the organ burst into music; and it seemed to him, -he said, as if the window spoke. Words could not better express than -that the powerful impression of Early mosaic glass, the solemnity of its -beauty, the way it belongs to the grandeur of the great church, the -something deep in us vibrating in answer to it. - -Exceptionally interesting Early glass is to be found in the cathedral of -Poitiers; but it is hurt by the white light from other windows. In the -case of Early coloured windows it is more than ever true that their -intensity can only be appreciated when all the light in the building -comes through them. That intensity, as was said, is deepened where, as -at Strassburg, the colour of the walls absorbs instead of reflecting -light. There the red sandstone of which the church is built gives back -so little light that, as you enter the door, you step from sunshine into -twilight, in which the glass shines doubly glorious. Some of these -(certain of the Kings, for example, on the north side of the nave, each -with its huge nimbus eddying, as it were, ring by ring of colour, out to -the margin of the niche) are of the thirteenth if not of the twelfth -century; but they are typical of no period. The borders framing them are -perhaps a century later than the figures. Indeed, the period of this -glass is most perplexing to the student of style, until he realises -that, after the great fire at the very end of the thirteenth century, -remains of earlier glass, spared from the wreck, were incorporated with -the newer work. And, not only this, but, what was rare in mediæval days, -the fourteenth century designer, in his endeavour to harmonise, as he -most successfully did, the old work with the new, gave to his own work a -character which was not of his period,--much to the mystification of the -student, who too readily imagines that he cannot go far wrong in -attributing to the glass in a church a date posterior to its -construction. - -The cathedral at Strassburg is rich also in distinctly Decorated glass, -to all of which the tourist pays no heed. He goes there to see the -clock. If he should have a quarter of an hour to spare before noon--at -which hour the cock crows and the church is shut--he allows himself to -be driven by the verger, with the rest of the crowd, into the transept, -and penned up there until the silly performance begins. To hear folk -talk of the thing afterwards at the _table d'hôte_ you might fancy that -Erwin Von Steinbach had built his masterpiece just to house this rickety -piece of mock old mechanism. - -Some of the most interesting glass of the Middle Gothic period is to be -found in Germany, for tradition died hard there; and, whilst thirteenth -century glass was more often Romanesque than Gothic in character, that -of the fourteenth often followed closely the traditions of earlier -Gothic workmanship. The Germans excelled especially in foliage design, -which they treated in a manner of their own. It was neither very deep in -colour nor grisaille, but midway between the two. The glass at -Regensburg is an exceedingly good instance of this treatment; but -instances of it are to be found also in the Museum at Munich, very -conveniently placed for the purposes of study. The windows at Freiburg -in the Black Forest should also be seen. But some of the very richest -figure work of the period is to be found in the choir windows of S. -Sebald's Church, at Nuremberg. Except for the simplicity of their lines -these are not striking in design; but the colour is perhaps deeper in -tone than in the very richest of thirteenth century glass. The first -impression is that the composition is entirely devoid of white glass; -but there proves to be a very small amount of horny-tinted material -which may be supposed to answer to that description. As the light fades -towards evening these windows become dull and heavy; but on a bright day -the intensity of their richness is unsurpassed. They have a quality -which one associates rather with velvet than with glass. - -[Illustration: 252. 14TH CENTURY GERMAN GLASS.] - -Excellent Decorated glass, and a great quantity of it, is to be found at -Evreux, and again at Troyes. The clerestory of the choir at Tours is -most completely furnished with rich Early Decorated glass of -transitional character--interesting on that account, and, at the same -time, most beautiful to see. There is other Decorated work there with -which it is convenient to compare it, together with earlier and later -work more or less worth seeing. Again most interesting work, but not -much of it, and that rather fragmentary, is to be found at the church of -S. Radegonde, at Poitiers; but there was in France at about that time -rather a lull in glass painting. In England, on the contrary, there is -an abundance of it. There is good work in the choir of Wells Cathedral. -Part of it is in a rather fragmentary condition, but it is all very much -of a period; and there is enough of it to give a fair idea of what -English Decorated glass is like. York Minster is rich in it. It is quite -an object lesson in style to go straight from the contemplation of the -Five Sisters, which belong to the latter part of the Early period of -glass painting, into the neighbouring vestibule of the Chapter House, -where the windows are of the early years of the Second Period, and -thence to the Chapter House itself, where they are typically Decorated. -The study of Decorated glass can be continued in the nave again, which -is filled with it. Entering, then, the choir, you find mainly -Perpendicular glass, much of it typical of English work of the Late -Gothic period. - -Other very beautiful Late Gothic work is to be found in some of the -smaller churches of York, such as All Saints'. There is a window there -made up of fragments of old glass, among which are some very delicately -painted and really beautiful heads. This work is all characteristically -English. English also is the glass in the Priory Church at Great -Malvern. There is a vast quantity of it, too, which adds to its effect; -but unfortunately, a great part of it now fills windows for which it was -obviously not designed. This is the more unfortunate because, where it -has not been disturbed, it shows unmistakable evidence of having been -very carefully designed for its place. The tracery of the great East -window is, for example, an admirable instance of the just balance -between white and colour so characteristic of later Gothic glass. Again, -the Creation window, amongst others, is a lesson in delicate glass -painting. - -[Illustration: 253. FAIRFORD.] - -Distinctly English in the delicacy of their painting are, again, the -windows in the church of S. Mary, Ross. The far-famed windows of -Fairford are, of course, not English. They were captured, the story -goes, at sea, and brought to Gloucestershire, where a Perpendicular -church was built to accommodate them. English antiquaries make claim -that they are English, but internal evidence shows them to be Flemish or -German. Considerable notoriety attaches to the Fairford windows owing to -a theory which was at one time propounded to the effect that they were -designed by Albert Dürer. The theory is now as dead as a back number, -but the notoriety remains--and not undeservedly; for although this glass -stands by no means alone, and is distinctly second to some contemporary -work (such, for example, as that on the north side of the nave of -Cologne Cathedral, which Dürer might conceivably have designed), it is -remarkably fine; and it enjoys the comparatively rare distinction of -practically filling the windows of the church. You not only, therefore, -see the colour (which, rather than the painting, is its charm) at its -best, but you have a complete scheme of decoration--Type answering to -Anti-type, the Twelve Apostles corresponding to the Prophets, the -Evangelists to the Four Fathers, and again the Saints opposed to the -Persecutors of the Church. Most old glass owes something to the -disintegration of its surface, and the consequent refraction of the -light transmitted through it. In the Fairford glass the colours are more -than usually mellow. The white, in particular, is stained to every -variety of green and grey--the colour, as it proves, of the minute -growth of lichen with which it is overgrown. It is said that, when the -fury of iconoclasm was abroad, this glass was buried out of harm's way; -which may possibly have hastened the decay of the glass, and so have -given root-hold for the growth which now glorifies it. - -It would not be easy to find finer instances of Late Gothic German work -than the five great windows on the North side of Cologne Cathedral. -There, too, one has only to turn right-about-face to compare early -sixteenth century with nineteenth century German practice, and on -precisely the same scale, too. Any one who could hesitate for an instant -to choose between them, has everything yet to learn in regard both to -glass and to colour. The garish modern transparencies show, by their -obvious shortcomings, the consummate accomplishment of the later Gothic -glass painters. - -There is a very remarkable late Gothic Jesse window in the Lorenz Kirche -at Nuremberg, and another almost equal to it in the cathedral at Ulm. -The Tree of Jesse is very differently, but certainly not less -beautifully, rendered in the fine West window at Alençon. - -In most of the great French churches, and in many of the smaller ones, -you find good fifteenth century work. At Bourges you have seven -four-light windows and one larger one, all fairly typical. The best of -them is in the chapel of Jacques Coeur, the Jack that built at Bourges -quite one of the most remarkable of mediæval houses extant. But there is -no one church which recurs before all others to the memory when one -thinks of Late Gothic glass in France. One remembers more readily -certain superlative instances, such as the flamboyant Rose window at the -West end of S. Maclou, at Rouen, a wonder of rich colour, or the Western -Rose in the cathedral there. The fact is, that the spirit of the -Renaissance begins early in the sixteenth century to creep into French -work; and, as glass painting arrives at its perfection, it betrays very -often signs of going over to the new manner. This is peculiarly the case -in that part of France which lies just this side of the Alps; so much -so, that a markedly mixed style is commonly accepted as "Burgundian." -This is most apparent in the beautiful church of Brou, a marvel of -fanciful Gothic, florid, of course, after the manner of the Early -sixteenth century, extreme in its ornamentation, but, for all but the -purist, extremely beautiful. The church itself is as rich as a jewel by -Cellini, and infinitely more interesting; and the glass is worthy of its -unique setting. - -There is a very remarkable series of windows to see in the cathedral at -Auch, all of a period, all by one man, filling all the eighteen windows -of the choir ambulatory. Transition is everywhere apparent in them, -though perhaps one would not have placed them quite so early as 1513, -the date ascribed to them. A notable thing about the work is its scale, -which is much larger than is usual in French glass of that period. -Nowhere will you find windows more simply and largely designed or more -broadly treated. Nowhere will you find big Renaissance canopies richer -in colour or more interesting in design. The fifty or more rather -fantastically associated Prophets, Patriarchs, Sibyls, and Apostles -depicted, form, with the architecture about them and the tracery above, -quite remarkable compositions of colour. And it is very evident that the -colour of each window has been thought out as a whole. There is not one -of these windows which is not worth seeing. They form collectively a -most important link in the chain of style, without, however, belonging -to any marked period. Indeed, they stand rather by themselves as -examples of very Early Renaissance work, aiming at broad effects of -strong colour (quite opposite from what one rather expects of sixteenth -century French work), and reaching it. And though the artist works -almost entirely in mosaic--using coloured glass, that is to say, instead -of pigment--and depends less than usual upon painting, he yet lays his -colour about the window in a remarkably painter-like way. - -There are noteworthy windows at Châlons-sur-Marne, in the churches of -SS. Madelaine and Joseph, which can be claimed neither as Gothic nor -Renaissance, details of each period occurring side by side in the same -window. At the church of S. Alpin at Châlons is a series of picture -windows in grisaille, not often met with, and very well worth seeing. - -Early sixteenth century glass is so abundant that it is hopeless to -specify churches. Nowhere is the transition period better represented -than at Rouen, and, for that matter, the Early Renaissance too. The -church of S. Vincent contains no less than thirteen windows, with -subjects biblical or allegorical, but always strikingly rich in colour. -The choir is, you may say, an architectural frame to a series of glass -pictures second to few of their period, and so nearly all of a period as -to give one an excellent impression of it: the brilliancy of the colour, -the silveriness of the white glass, and the delicacy of the landscape -backgrounds is typical. Scarcely less interesting is the abundant glass -in the church of S. Patrice, which carries us well into the middle of -the sixteenth century and beyond; so that Rouen is an excellent place in -which to study all but Early glass: there is not much of that to speak -of there. Two exceptionally fine Renaissance windows are to be found in -the church of S. Godard; and there are others well worth seeing whilst -you are in Rouen, if not in every case worth going there to see, in the -churches of S. Romain, S. Nicaise, S. Vivien, in addition to S. Ouen, S. -Maclou, and the cathedral. - -Yet finer Renaissance work is to be found at Beauvais--finer, that is to -say, in design. One is reminded there sometimes of Raffaelle, who -furnished designs for the tapestries for which the town was famous; -these may very well have inspired the glass painters; but there is not -at Beauvais the quantity of work which one finds at Rouen. The very -perfection of workmanship is to be seen also in the windows at -Montmorency and Ecouen (both within a very short distance of Paris); -but, on the whole, this most interesting glass hardly comes up to what -one might imagine it to be from the reproductions in M. Magne's most -sumptuous monograph. - -In a certain sense also the windows at Conches, in Normandy, are a -disappointment. In a series of windows designed by Aldegrever one -expects to find abundant ornament; and there is practically none. What -little there is, is like enough to his work to be possibly by him; but -one feels that Heinrich Aldegrever, if he had had his way, would have -lavished upon them a wealth of ornamental detail, which would have made -them much more certainly his than, as it is, internal evidence proves -them to be. It would hardly have occurred to any one, apart from the -name in one of the windows, to attribute them to this greatest -ornamentist among the Little Masters. It is only the ornamentist who is -disappointed, however, not the glass hunter. It is an experience to have -visited a church like Conches, simple, well proportioned, dignified; -where, as you enter from the West (and the few modern windows are -hidden), you see one expanse of good glass, of a good period, not much -hurt by restoration. The effect is singularly one. You come away not -remembering so much the glass, or any particular window, as the -satisfactory impression of it all--an impression which inclines you to -put down the date of a pilgrimage to Conches as a red-letter day in your -glass-hunting experiences. - -There is magnificent Renaissance glass in Flanders, and especially at -Liège, in which, for the most part, Gothic tradition lingers. Most -beautiful is the great window in the South transept of the cathedral. -The radiance of the scene in which the Coronation of the Virgin is laid, -reminds one of nothing less than a gorgeous golden sunset, which grows -more mellow towards evening when the light is low. In the choir of S. -Jacques there are no less than five tall three-light windows, by no -means so impressive as the glass at the cathedral, but probably only -less worthy of study because they have suffered more restoration. The -seven long two-light windows at S. Martin, though less well-known, are -at least as good as these. In most of them may be seen the decorative -use of heraldry as a framework to figure subjects, characteristic of -German and Flemish work. Very much of this character is the glass from -Herkenrode, which now occupies the seven easternmost windows of the Lady -Chapel in Lichfield Cathedral. They are pictorial, but the pictures are -glass pictures, depending upon colour for their effect; and they are -really admirable specimens of the more glass-like manner of the Early -Flemish Renaissance. There is in the three windows at the East end of -Hanover Square Church, London, some equally admirable glass, which must -once have belonged to a fine Jesse window; but it has suffered too much -in its adaptation to its present position to be of great interest to any -but those who know something about glass. - -All this work is in marked contrast to the not much later Flemish glass -at Brussels--the two great transept windows, and those in the Chapel of -the Holy Sacrament at S. Gudule, to which reference is made at length in -Chapter VII. They are windows which must be seen. They are at once the -types, and the best examples, of the glass painter's new departure in -the direction of light and shade. On the other hand, the large East -window at S. Margaret's, Westminster (Dutch, it is said, of about the -same date), has not the charm of the period, and must not be taken to -represent it fairly. - -The brilliant achievements of William of Marseilles at Arezzo, and the -extraordinarily rich windows in the Duomo at Florence, have been -discussed at some length (pages 248, 268). They should be seen by any -one pretending to some acquaintance with what has been done in glass. -Other Florentine windows worthy of mention are, the Western Rose at S. -Maria Novella, and the great round window over the West door at S. -Croce, ascribed to Ghiberti. The transept window in SS. Giovanni e Paolo -at Venice does not come up to its reputation. It is in a miserable -condition, and as to its authorship (whence its reputation), you have -only to compare it with the S. Augustine picture, which hangs close by, -to see that it is not by the same hand. One of the multitudinous -Vivarini may very likely have had a hand in it, but certainly not -Bartolomeo. His manner, even in his pictures, was more restrained than -that. There are a number of fine windows in the nave of Milan Cathedral, -two at least in which the composition of red and blue is a joy to see. -Earlier Italian glass is of less importance; the windows at Assisi, for -example, are interesting rather than remarkable. They show a distinctly -Italian rendering of Gothic, which is of course not quite Gothic; but to -the designer they indicate trials in design, which might possibly with -advantage be carried farther. - -[Illustration: 254. RAISING OF LAZARUS, AREZZO.] - -By far the most comprehensive series of Renaissance windows in this -country is in King's College Chapel, Cambridge. In the matter of dignity -and depth of colour, the small amount of rather earlier glass in the -outer chapel holds its own; but the thing to see, of course, is the -array of windows, twenty-three of them, all of great size, within the -choir screen. It flatters national vanity, though it may not show great -critical acumen, to ascribe them to English hands. Evidently many hands -were employed, some much more expert than others. It seems there is -documentary evidence to show that the contracts for them (1516-1526) -were undertaken by Englishmen. Very possibly they were executed in -England, and even, as it is said they were, in London. That they were -not painted by the men who drew them, or even by painters in touch with -the draughtsmen, is indicated by such accidents as the yellow-haired, -white-faced negro, of pronounced African type, among the adoring Magi. -It is as clear that the painter had never seen a black man as that the -draughtsman had drawn his Gaspar from the life. Certain of the accessory -scroll-bearing figures, which keep, as it were, ornamental guard between -the pictures, might possibly have been designed by Holbein, who is -reported to have had a hand in the scheme; but they are at least as -likely to be the handiwork of men unknown to fame. But, no matter who -designed the glass, it is on a grand scale, and largely designed. It is -not, however, a model of the fit treatment of glass, though it belongs -to the second quarter of the sixteenth century. For the designers have -been more than half afraid to use leading enough to bind the glass well -together, and have been at quite unnecessary pains to do without lead -lines. The windows vary, too, in merit; and they bear evidence, if only -in the repetition of sundry stock figures, of haste in production. -Still, they have fine qualities of design and colour, and they are, on -the whole, glass-like as well as delightful pictures. We have nothing to -compare with them in their way. - -To see how far pictorial glass painting can be carried, go to Holland. -No degree of familiarity with old glass quite prepares one for the kind -of thing which has made the humdrum market town of Gouda famous. Imagine -a big, bare, empty church with some thirty or more huge windows, mostly -of six lights, seldom less than five-and-twenty feet in height, all -filled with great glass pictures, some of them filling the whole window, -and designed to suggest that you see the scene through the window arch. -They do not, of course, quite give that impression, but it is marvellous -how near they go to doing it. No wonder the painters have won the -applause due to their daring no less than to what they have done. Any -one appreciating the qualities of glass, and realising what can best be -done in it, is disposed at first to resent the popularity of this -scene-painting in glass;--one measures a work naturally by the standard -of its fame;--but a workman's very appreciation of technique must, in -the end, commend to him this masterly glass painting. For the Crabeth -Brothers, their pupils, and coadjutors, were not only artists of -wonderful capacity, daring what only great artists can dare, but they -had the fortune to live at a time when the traditions of their art had -not yet been cast to the winds. Though working during the latter half of -the sixteenth century, they were the direct descendants of the men who -had raised glass painting to the point of perfection, and they inherited -from their forbears much that they could not unlearn. Ambitious as they -might be, and impatient of restraint, they could not quite emancipate -themselves from the prejudices in which they were brought up. More than -a spark of the old fire lay smouldering still in the kiln of the glass -painter, and it flared up at Gouda, brilliantly illuminating the -declining years of the century, and of the art which may be said to have -flickered out after that. - -This last expiring effort in glass painting counts for more, in that it -is the doing not only of strong men but of men who knew their trade. It -is extremely interesting to trace the work of the individual artists -employed; which a little book published at Gouda, and translated into -most amusing English, enables one to do. Dirk Crabeth's work is -pre-eminent for dignity of design, his figures are well composed, and -his colour is rich; although in the rendering of architectural interiors -he falls into the mud, that is to say, into the prevailing Netherlandish -opacity of paint. His brother Walter has not such a heavy hand; he -excels in architectural distance, as Dirk does in landscape; and his -work is generally bright and sparkling, not so strong as his brother's, -but more delicate. Their pupils, too, do them credit, though they lack -taste. Among the other more or less known artists who took part in the -glass, Lambrecht van Ort distinguishes himself in canopy work, as a -painter-architect might be expected to do; Adrian de Vrije and N. -Johnson delight also in architecture, Wilhelmus Tibault and Cornelius -Clok in landscape. Clok and Tibault compete in colour with the Crabeths, -and go beyond them in originality. - -Description of this unrivalled collection of later Dutch glass painting, -except on the spot, is as hopeless as it would be dull. The windows must -be seen. The men were artists and craftsmen, and their work is truly -wonderful. Who shall attempt what these men failed to do? That is the -moral of it. - -[Illustration: 255. THE VIRGIN, S. MARTIN-ÈS-VIGNES, TROYES.] - -The only other place where later glass is of sufficient worth to make it -worth seeing, the only place where Seventeenth century work arouses -much interest, is Troyes. There is a quantity of it in the churches of -S. Nizier, S. Pantaleon, and in the cathedral, attributed, for the most -part, to Linard Gontier, who is certainly responsible for some of the -best of it. But it is in the church of S. Martin-ès-Vignes, in the -outskirts of the town, that it is to be appreciated _en masse_. There -you may see some hundred and ten lights in all, executed during the -first forty years of the seventeenth century. This is the place to study -the decline and fall of glass painting--a melancholy sort of -satisfaction. Here more thoroughly than ever must be realised how -hopeless it is to evade in glass the glazier's part of the business; how -powerless enamel is to produce effect; how weak, poor, lacking in -limpidity and lustre, its colour is--and this even in the hands of an -artist born, one may say, after his time. Gonthier was an incomparable -glass painter. He could produce with a wash of pigment effects which -lesser men could only get by laborious stippling and scratching; he -could float enamel on to glass with a dexterity which enabled him to get -something like colour in it; but he was not a colourist, nor yet, -probably, a designer. The difference in the work attributed to him, and -the style of his design (which is sometimes that of an earlier and -better day) lead one rather to suppose that he adapted or adopted the -designs of his predecessors as suited his convenience. - -To see what glass painting came to in the eighteenth century you cannot -do better than go to Oxford. You have there the design of no less a man -than Sir Joshua Reynolds, painted by one of the best china painters of -his day. None but a china painter, by the way, could be found to do it. -It is not unfair, therefore, to compare this masterpiece of its poor -period with the rude work of the fourteenth century, done by no one -knows whom. And what do we find? Conspicuous before us is the great West -window, which might as well have been painted on linen, so little of the -translucency of glass is there left in it. It in no way lessens the -credit of the great portrait painter that he knew nothing of the -capacities of glass; that was not his _métier_. And there was no one to -advise him wisely in the matter. But the result is disastrous. The -beauty of his drawing--and there is charm at least in the figures of the -Virtues--counts for little, as compared with the dulness of it all. It -has neither the colour of mosaic glass nor the sparkle of grisaille. -The white is obscured by masses of heavy paint, which, when the sun -shines very brightly behind it, kindles at best into a foxy-brown; and -even this is in danger of peeling off, and showing the poverty of the -glass it was meant to enrich. Any pictorial effect it might have had is -ruined by the leads and bars, which assert themselves in the most -uncompromising manner. In short, the qualities of oil painting aimed at -are altogether missed, and the facilities which glass offered are not so -much as sought. - -It is no hardship to turn your back upon such poor stuff. And there, -high up on the other side, are seven great Gothic windows. These are by -no means of the best period. The design consists largely of canopy work, -never profoundly interesting; the figures are, at the best, rudely -drawn; some of them are even grotesquely awkward. Their heads are too -large by half, their hands and feet flattened out in the familiar, -childish, mediæval way. In all the sixty-four figures there is not one -that can be called beautiful. Yet for all that, there is a dignity in -them which the graceful Virtues lack. They are designed, moreover, with -a large sense of decoration. The balance of white and colour is just -perfect, and the way the patches of deep colour are embedded, as it -were, in grisaille, is skilful in the extreme. To compare them with the -futile effort of the eighteenth century, opposite, is to apprehend what -can be done in glass, and what cannot. The whole secret of the success -of the mere craftsman where the great painter failed, is that he knew -what to seek in glass,--colour, brilliancy, decorative breadth. He not -only knew what to do, but how to do it; and he did it in the manliest -and most straightforward way. Rude though the work, it fits its place, -fulfils its function, adorns the architecture, gives grandeur to it. -What more can you ask? - -Domestic glass, such as that in which the Swiss excelled (window panes, -many of them, rather than windows), is best studied in museums, whither -most of it has drifted. There is no national collection without good -examples. Better or more accessible it would be difficult to find than -those in the quiet little museum at Lucerne--so quiet that, if you spend -a morning there, studying them, you become yourself, by reason of your -long stay, an object of interest. So little attention do these -masterpieces in miniature glass painting attract, that the guardians do -not expect any one to give them more than a passing glance; but they -leave you, happily, quite free to pursue your harmless, if inexplicable, -bent. - -The list of windows worth seeing is by no means exhausted. In many a -town, as at York, Tours, Troyes, Evreux, Bourges, Rouen, Nuremberg, -Cologne, and in many a single church, you may find the whole course of -glass painting, from the thirteenth to the sixteenth century, more or -less completely illustrated; and, where that is so, of course one period -throws light upon another. But the impression is always stronger when -the century has left its mark upon the church. - -Not until you have a clear idea of the characteristics of style, can you -sort out for yourself the various specimens, which occur in anything but -historic sequence in the churches where they are to be found. Having -arrived at understanding enough to do that, you will need no further -guidance, and may go a-hunting for yourself. To the glass hunter there -are almost everywhere windows worth seeing. - - - - -CHAPTER XXXIII. - -A WORD ON RESTORATION. - - -If old windows have suffered at the hands of time, they have also -gained, apart from sentiment, a tone and quality which the glass had not -when it was new. - -Their arch-enemy is the restorer, at whose hands they have suffered -cruel and irreparable wrong. He is the thief who has robbed so much old -glass of its glory, and a most impenitent one: there are times when any -one who cares for glass could find it in his heart to wish he were -crucified. So greedy is he of work, if not of gain, that restoration -cannot safely be left even to the most learned of men; to him, perhaps, -can it least of all be entrusted. - -The twelfth century windows at S. Denis should be among the most -interesting extant. They are ruined by restoration. The beauty which -they may have had, which they must have had, is wiped out; and, for -purposes of study, they are of use only to those who have opportunity -and leisure to ferret out what is genuine amidst the sham. The S. -Chapelle is cited as a triumph of restoration, an object lesson, in -which we may see a thirteenth century chapel with its glass as it -appeared when first it was built. If that is so, then time has indeed -been kinder even than one had thought. No less an authority than Mr. -Ruskin (in a letter to Mr. E. S. Dallas, published in the _Athenæum_) -praises the new work there, and says he cannot distinguish it from the -old. There is at least a window and a half (part of the East window, and -the one to the left of that) in which, at all events, the old is easily -distinguishable from the new. But if the new is not more obvious -throughout, that is not because the new is so good, but because the old -has been so restored that it is unrecognisable--as good as new, in fact, -and no better. The old glass is so smartened up, so watered down with -modern, that it gives one rather a poor idea of unspoiled thirteenth -century work. A more adequate impression of what it must have been, may -be gained from the few panels of it, comparatively unhurt by -restoration, now in South Kensington Museum. - -The story of destruction repeats itself wherever the restorer has had -his way. Sometimes he has actually inserted new material if only the old -was cracked, obscured, corroded; and has effaced the very qualities -which come of age and accident. Sometimes he has indulged in a brand-new -background. There, at least, it seemed to his ignorance, he might safely -substitute nice, new, even-tinted, well-made glass for streaky, -speckled, rough, mechanically imperfect material. Invariably he has -thinned the effect of colour by diluting the old glass with new. Many -quite poor new-looking windows, spick and span from the restorer (those, -for example, at the East end of Milan Cathedral), turn out to contain a -certain amount of old work, good perhaps, lost in garish modern -manufacture. At Notre Dame, at Paris, the considerable remains of Early -and Early Decorated glass go for very little. One has to pick them out -from among modern work designed to deceive. Certain windows at Mantes -have suffered such thorough restoration that one begins to wonder if -they are not altogether new; and you have precisely the same doubt at -Limoges and at scores of other places. At Lyons an Early Rose has been -made peculiarly hideous by restoration. Much of the harsh purple in -Early French mosaic is surely due to the admixture of crude new glass. -It is needless to multiply examples; they will occur to every one. All -this old work swamped in modern imitation goes inevitably for nought. If -the new is good it puzzles and perplexes one; if bad, one can see -nothing else. What is crude kills what is subdued. It is as if one -listened for a tender word at parting, and it was drowned in the screech -of the steam-engine. - -Early glass was so mechanically imperfect, and age has so roughened and -pitted it, that its colour has, almost of necessity, a quality which new -work has not; and one is disposed, perhaps too hastily, to ascribe all -garish glass in old windows to the restorer. Many a time, however, the -new work convicts itself. At Strassburg it is quite easily detected. You -may check your judgment in this respect by surveying the windows from -the rear. It is a very good plan to preface the study of old work by -examining it from the churchyard, the street, the close, or in the case -of a big church from its outer galleries. The surface exposed to the -weather, with the light upon it, explains often at a glance what would -else be unaccountable. A vile habit of the restorer is to smudge over -his glass with dirty paint, perhaps burnt in, perhaps merely in varnish -colour; this he terms "antiquating." - -The worse the new work added to the old, the more thoroughly it spoils -it; the better the forgery, the more serious the doubt it throws upon -what may be genuine. The modern ideal of restoration is thoroughly -vicious. All that can be done is mending; and it should be an axiom with -the repairer, that, where glass (however broken) can possibly be made -safe by lead joints, no new piece of glass should ever be inserted in -its place. Better any disfigurement by leads than the least adulteration -of old work. - -It is absurd to set good old work in the midst of inferior reproduction -of it, as the common practice is, more especially in the case of Early -work. Every bungler has thought himself equal to the task of restoring -thirteenth century glass. It was rudely drawn and roughly painted. What -could be easier than to repeat details of ornament, or even to make up -bogus old subjects, and so complete the window? To paint figures -anything like those in the picture windows of the sixteenth century was -obviously not so easy, and the difficulty has acted as a deterrent. -Where it has not, the discrepancy between old and new is usually -unmistakable. Men like M. Capronnier, however, have sometimes put -excellent workmanship into their restoration of Renaissance work, to be -detected only by a certain air of modernity, which happily has crept -into it, in spite of the restorer. But was it not he who flattened the -grey-blue background to the transept windows at S. Gudule? The fine -window at S. Gervais, Paris, with the Judgment of Solomon, has lost much -of its charm in restoration. To compare it with the two lights in the -window to the right of it, is to see how much of the quality of old -glass has been restored away. That quality may be due in part to age and -decay. What then? Beauty is beauty; and if it comes of decay (which we -cannot hinder), let us at least enjoy the beauty of decay. - -It has been proved at Strassburg that thirteenth or even twelfth century -work may be quite harmoniously worked into fourteenth century windows. -And even in the sixteenth century there were artists who managed to -adapt quite Early mosaic glass to Renaissance windows, in which -abundant stain, and even enamel, was used. The effect may be perplexing, -but it does not deceive. Why will not a man frankly tell us what is new -in his work? Then we could appreciate what he had done. But it is only -once in a while that he takes you into his confidence. This happens, by -way of exception, in a window at S. Mary's Redcliffe, Bristol, in the -case of some figure work on quarry backgrounds, in which the new work is -all of clear unpainted white or coloured glass, but so judiciously -chosen that you do not at first perceive the patching. The effect is -absolutely harmonious; and when you begin to study the glass, you do so -without any fear that imposition is being practised upon you. Where the -painting has in parts been made good, there is always that fear, as, for -example, at S. Mary's Hall, Coventry: the windows have been restored -with great taste; but one cannot always be quite sure as to what is -modern. - -The merest jumble of old glass, more especially if it be all of one -period or quality, is far better than what is called restoration. Who -does not call to mind window after window in which the glass is so mixed -as to be quite meaningless, and is yet, for all that, beautiful? The -Western Rose at Reims is an unintelligible jumble mainly of blue and -green. It may not be design, but it is magnificent. Again, the Western -lights at Auxerre, in great part patchwork, are simply glorious when the -afternoon sun shines through. - -At the East end of Winchester Cathedral is a seven-light window, -reckoned by Winston to be one of the finest of a fine period. At the -West end is an enormous window, which seems to be a mere medley of odds -and ends. On examination you can trace in perhaps twelve out of -forty-four lights of this last the outline of canopy-work, and in two or -three that of the figure under it; but for the rest, certainly in the -two lower tiers (which are best seen), it is mere patchwork, including -some quite crude blue, and a certain amount of common clear white sheet. -The effect, when you examine it closely, is anything but pleasing. But -as you stand near the choir screen on a not very bright morning, and -look from one window to the other, the effect is just the opposite of -what might have been expected. For the really fine East window has been -restored; and, whether to preserve it or to bring old work and new into -uniformity, it has been screened with sheets of perforated zinc! On the -other hand, the really considerable amount of crude white and colour -with which the West window has been botched is, so to speak, swallowed -up in silvery radiance. Probably it helps even to give it quality; -anyway, the effect is delightful. Indeed, it recalls the impression of -the Five Sisters at York, or suggests some monster cobweb in which the -light is caught. Beauty, forbid that any busybody should restore it! At -Poitiers (S. Radegonde) is a grisaille window of the fourteenth century, -all patched, defaced, undecipherable--mended only with thick bulbous -bits of green-white glass--which is quite all one could desire in the -way of decoration. - -[Illustration: 256. A RESTORATION AT ANGERS.] - -In very many churches there remain fragments of old glass in stray -tracery openings, not enough to produce effect. The question has been -what to do with them. A common practice is to use up such scraps in the -form of bordering to common white quarry glass. That is quite a futile -thing to do. The effect of setting old glass amidst plain white is to -put out its colour; and this, not only in the case of deep-coloured -glass, but equally of Early grisaille; which when framed in clear glass, -looks merely dirty. The most beautiful and sparkling of thirteenth -century glass so framed would be degraded. At Angers are some windows -consisting of a mosaic of scraps worked up into pattern (before the days -of restoration as we know it); and the mere introduction amidst it of a -strapwork of thin white sheet (above) is enough to take from it all -charm of colour, all quality of old glass. Massed all together in one -window, without such adulteration, the most miscellaneous collection of -chips makes usually colour. In the hands of a colourist it would be -certain to do so. What if it be confused? Mystery is, at all events, one -element of charm, and even of beauty. - -[Illustration: 257. S. JEAN-AUX-BOIS.] - -It is not beyond the bounds of possibility to marry old work with new; -but the union is rarely happy. It wants, in the first place, good modern -glass. Further than that, it wants an artist, and one who has more care -for old work than for his own. There is some satisfactory eking out old -glass with new at Evreux, where a number of small subjects, many of them -old, are framed in grisaille, in great part new, in a very ingenious -way. At Munster is a window in which little tracery lights (you can tell -that by their shapes) are used as points of interest in a modern -composition--with a result, only less happy than where, at S. Mary's -Redcliffe, a window is made up almost entirely of old glass, very much -of one period, the more fragmentary remains forming a sort of broken -mosaic background to circular medallions, heads, and other important -pieces, arranged more or less pattern-wise upon it. Old glass must needs -be mended sometimes, patched perhaps; new may have to be added to it; it -has even to be adapted on occasion to a new window, with or without the -admixture of new; but none of this is restoration of the glass in the -modern sense. That implies restoring it to what once it was--which is, -on the face of it, absurd. - -The effect of windows made up (as at S. Jean-aux-Bois, page 409) of -segments of two or three old windows satisfies the artistic sense -perfectly. What the restorer does is to take each pattern he finds in it -for what he calls "authority," and to make two or three windows, all of -which have much more the appearance of modern forgeries (which in great -part they are) than of old work. The "antiquation" of the new glass in -them deceives none but the most ignorant; but it does throw doubt upon -the genuineness of the old work found in such very bad company. - -If there remain enough old glass to make a window, let it be judiciously -repaired; if there be not enough for that, let it be piously preserved, -best of all, in a museum, where those who care for such scraps may see -it: scattered about in stray windows in out-of-the-way churches they are -practically unseen. Better than what is called restoration, the -brutality of the mason who plasters up gaps in the clerestory windows of -great churches with mortar, or the plumber's patch of zinc, which -temporarily at least keeps out the weather and the crude white light, -leaving us in full enjoyment of the colour and effect of old glass. How -grateful we are when it is only cobbled, and not restored. Restoration -is a word to make the artist shudder. - -In a window at Auch, representing the Risen Christ, with, on the one -side, the doubting Thomas, and on the other the Magdalene, the customary -inscription, "Noli me tangere," is followed (in letters of precisely the -same character) by the signature of the artist, Arnaut de Moles. It is -the reverend Abbé responsible for the authorised description of the -church, who suggests that it may have been with intention he signed his -name just there. He has come off, as it happens, very much better at the -hands of the restorer than most men. Had it been possible for him to -foresee what nineteenth century "restoration" meant, well might he have -written over his signature "Leave me alone"! - - - - -INDEX. - -(The ordinary figures refer to the numbers of the illustrations, and -those in black type to the pages of the book.) - - - ABRASION, =60=, =62= - AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, 14 - ALABASTER windows, =380=, =381= - ALENÇON, =366= - ANGELS, =375= - ANGERS, 61, 62, 63, 256 - " museum, 168 - " (S. Serge), 17, 85, 86 - ANNEALING, =63= - ANTWERP, =80=, =82=, =226=, =227=, =258= - ARAB glass, =19=, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23 - ARCHITECTURE (due consideration of), =356= - AREZZO, =248=, 41, 43, 181, 254 - ASSISI, =262=, 53, 177, 187 - AUCH, =233=, =280=, =393=, =410= - AUGSBURG, =118= - AUXERRE, 55, 75, 220 - - BACKGROUND, =251= - " (architectural), =209=, =211= - " (landscape), =209=, =211= - BARS, =101=, =113=, =114=, =122=, =158=, =267=, =275= - " (shaped), 68, 69 - BEAUVAIS, =374=, =394=, 247 - BEVERLEY minster, =74= - BLACK PAINT (used for local colour), =89= - BOLOGNA, =264=, 180 - BONLIEU, =11= - BORDERS (Early), =114=, =327= - " (Decorated), =174-7=, =335= - " (Perpendicular), =190=, =344= - BOURGES, =392=, 70, 72, 234 - " (S. Bonnet), =208=, 157 - BRABOURNE church, 16 - BRISTOL (S. Mary's), =407= - BRITISH Museum, =1= - BROU, =393= - BRUSSELS (S. Gudule), =69=, =79=, =80=, =233=, =395=, 42 - BULL'S-eye windows, =267= - - CAMBRIDGE (King's College), =216=, =257=, =396= - CANOPIES (Early), =135=, =313=, =334= - " (Decorated), =155=, =197=, =313= - " (Italian), 264=, 265= - " (Perpendicular), =184= _et seq._, =340= - " (Renaissance), =205=, =221=, =224=, =225=, =347= - CANOPY (the beginning of the), =135= - CANTERBURY, =385=, 23, 73, 79, 81, 214 - CARCASSONNE, =362=, =369= - CARTOUCHES, =229= - CHÂLONS, =393=, 12, 13, 98, 121, 122, 227 - CHANTILLY, =303=, 160 - CHARTRES, =144=, =387=, 27, 71, 76, 103, 117, 216, 219 - " (S. Pierre), 96, 115 - CHETWODE church, 201 - CHOICE of glass, =60=, =101= - CLERESTORY windows, =283= - CLOK (Cornelius) =399= - COATED glass, =49= - COLOGNE, =392=, 147 - " (S. Kunibert), 25, 28, 77, 222, 223 - " (S. Peter), 240 - COLOUR (Early), =122=, =328=, =330= - " (Decorated), =338= - " in quarry windows, =287= - " (Italian), =268=, =270= - " (Perpendicular), =346= - CONCHES, =394= - CONFUSED effect, =42=, =134=, =217= - COSTA (Lorenzo), =264= - COUTANCES, 101 - CRABETHS (the), =247=, =399= - CUTTING, =8= - " (economy of), =25= - - DA UDINE (Giovanni), =300= - DECAY, =219= - DECLINE of glass painting, =86= - DECORATED borders, =176=, =335= - " canopies, =155=, =313=, =334= - " colour, =338= - " composition, =334= - " figure design, =157=, =337= - " grisaille, =163=, =337= - " Jesse windows, =363= - " medallion windows, =152= - " quarries, =290= - " style, =333-338= - " tracery, =278= - DESIGN (banded), =160= - " (Early), =36=, =111=, =112= - " (effect of window-shape upon), =113= - " (essential conditions of), =96= - " (Perpendicular), =187=, =340= - DETAIL (ornamental), =328= - DEVILS, =374= - DIAPER (geometric), =133= - " (German), =171= - " (painted or picked out), =35=, 32, 33, 36, 49, 56 - DONORS, =221= - "DOOM" windows, =372= - DRAMATIC effect, =378= - DRAWING, =346= - - EARLY canopies, =313= - " colour, =328=, =330= - " design, =36=, =111=, =112= - " English, =327= - " figures, their crudity, =41= - " glass (confusion in effect of), =42= - " glazing, =330= - " grisaille, =137= _et seq._, =408= - " Jesse windows, =362= - " mosaic windows, =32= _et seq._ - " ornament, =40=, =115=, =130= - " rose windows, =273= - " tracery, =274= - ECOUEN, =394= - ENAMEL, =12= _et seq._, =77= _et seq._, =99=, =232= - " (influence of Byzantine), =17= - " (objections to), =84= - " (use of in ornament), =78= - ENAMEL _plus_ POT-METAL, =79= - ENGLISH (Early), =327= - " (Perpendicular), =190= - EVREUX, =176=, =177=, 113, 118, 190, 191 - - FAIRFORD, =374=, =391=, 34, 143, 144, 150, 173, 236, 237, 248, 249, - 250, 253 - FIFTEENTH century glass, =322=, =340= - FIGURE-AND-CANOPY windows, =326= - FIGURE design, =157=, =337= - FIGURES (Early), =41=, =42= - FIGURES and ornament, =126=, =319= - FIVE Sisters (the), =146=, =147= - FLASHED glass, =49=, =50= - FLESH tints, =77=, =106= - FLORENCE, =264=, =270=, =300=, 179, 182, 183 - " (Certosa in Val d'Ema), 202, 203, 204, 242 - " (S. Maria Novella), 178, 199 - FOURTEENTH century glass, =322=, =333= - " " painting, =47= - FREIBURG, 105, 126, 127, 244 - FRENCH glass painting, =75= - " medallion windows, =125= - - GEOMETRIC diaper (German), =171= - " " (mosaic), =133= - GERMAN foliated pattern windows, =174= - " geometric diaper, =171= - GLAZING, =6=, =15= _et seq._, =80=, =82=, =101=, =229=, =282=, 168 - " (Early), =330= - " (economy in), =144= - " (ingenuity in), =56= - GLAZING _plus_ PAINTING, =43=, =44=, =53=, =54= - " in rectangular panes, =80=, =225= - " shadows in pot-metal, =72=, =224= - GONTIER (Linard), =80=, =81=, =229=, =230= - GOTHIC influence, =203= - " (Italian), =263= - " landscape, =253= - " pattern windows, =291= - " tracery, =280= - GOUDA, =223=, =256=, =258=, =398=, =401=, 46, 161, 162, 165, 172, 176 - GRISAILLE (Early), =137= _et seq._, =331=, =408= - GRISAILLE (Decorated), =163=, =337= - " (Perpendicular), =192=, =343= - " and colour, =106=, =120=, =157= - - HERALDRY, =198= - HITCHIN church, 21 - - INTERLACING, =167= - ITALIAN canopies, =265= - " Gothic, =263= - " glass, =248=, =260= _et seq._, =299= - - JESSE windows, =360= _et seq._ - " (Early), =362= - " (Decorated), =363= - " (Renaissance), =367= - JEWELLERY (glass related to), =21= - JOHNSON (N.), =399= - - KALEIDOSCOPIC effect, =42= - KING'S College, Cambridge, =216=, =257=, =396= - - LANDSCAPE, =209=, =251=, =256= - LAST Judgment windows, =372= - LATE GOTHIC pattern windows, =291= - " " style, =343= - " " technique, =346= - " " tracery, =280= - " " windows, =178= _et seq._ - LATE RENAISSANCE canopies, =225= - LEAD lines, =38= - " outlines, =23= - LEADING (its influence on colour), =39= - LEADS (contrivances for avoiding), =61=, =62=, =63=, =97= - " (scheming of), =27=, =28= - LE MANS, 20, 218 - LICHFIELD, =214=, =395= - LIÈGE, =214=, =395= - LINCOLN, 67, 93, 95, 185, 189, 192 - LISIEUX, 167 - LOCAL schools, =261= - LONDON (S. George's, Hanover Square), =214=, 159 - LUCERNE, =403= - LYONS, 26, 83, 84, 153, 188, 239 - - MALVERN, =55=, 37 - MANY lights (windows of), =151= _et seq._ - MAP of a window, =8= - MARSEILLES (William of), =248= - MATERIAL and design, =107= - MEDALLION windows, =123= _et seq._, =324=, =325= - " " (Decorated), =152= - " " (French), =125= - " " of many lights, =153= - MEDIÆVAL artlessness, =376= - MENDING (judicious), =407= - MIDDLE GOTHIC glass, =162= _et seq._ - MILAN, =263= - MISUSE of shading, =68= - MONTMORENCY, =394=, 40, 158 - MOSAIC, =5=, =6= - " (marble and glass), =29= - " diaper, =133= - MULLIONS, =151=, =195=, =197=, =198=, =240=, =272= - MUNICH museum, 124, 128, 129, 131 - - NATURALISM, =337= - NEEDLE-POINT work, =87= _et seq._ - NETHERLANDISH glass, =73=, =302= - NEW departures, =109= - NIMBUS (the), =208= - NORBURY, 114 - NUREMBERG, =224=, 125 - " (S. Lorenz), 164 - " (S. Sebald), 163 - - OBSCURATION, =68=, =79=, =82= - OLD work (the spirit of), =358= - ORNAMENT (a plea for), =317= _et seq._ - " (Early), =40=, =115=, =130= - " (Decorated), =160= - " (Perpendicular), =343= - " (possibilities in), =321= - " (Renaissance), =349= - ORVIETO, =380=, 19 - OXFORD (All Souls' College), 35, 141 - " (New College), =179=, =401=, 48, 109, 137 - - PAINT (brushing out), =64= - " (early use of), =33= - " (first use of), =11= - PAINT as local colour, =57= - PAINTED mosaic glass, =43= _et seq._ - PAINTER as glass designer (the), =69= - PAINTING, =6=, =44=, =45=, =47=, =53=, =59= _et seq._, =64=, =68=, - =85=, =89=, =103=, =105=, =190=, =211=, =247=, =263=, =331=, =338=, - =346= - PAINTING out, =11=, =34=, =35=, =44=, =45=, =278= - PALETTE (the early), =328= - PARIS (Louvre), 208 - " (Musée des Arts Décoratifs), 243 - PARIS (S. Eustache), =223= - " (S. Gervais), 166 - PATTERN windows (German), =174= - " " (Late Gothic), =291= - PECKITT, =233= - PERPENDICULAR, =340= - " (English), =188=, =190= - " (German), =188= - PERPENDICULAR borders, =344= - " canopies, =184=, =340= - " colour, =346= - " design, =187=, =340= - " detail, =343= - " drawing, =346= - " grisaille, =343= - " ornament, =343= - " style, =340= - " tracery, =278=, =279=, =343= - PICKING out, =35=, =103= - PICTORIAL _versus_ DECORATIVE, =238= - PICTURE (achievement in), =250= - " (the ideal glass), =246= - PICTURES (a medley of), =195= - PICTURE-WINDOWS, =236= _et seq._ - PISA, =263= - PLAIN glazing, =226=, 166, 167 - " " and painted grisaille, =139= - POICTIERS, =388=, 24, 58, 59, 60 - POSSIBILITIES in the way of ornament, =321= - POT-METAL, =5= - PRATO, 184 - - QUARRIES, =146=, =168=, =192=, =283= _et seq._ - QUARRY-LIKE patterns, =169= - QUARRY windows (colour in), =287= - - REGENSBURG, =389=, 123, 128, 131, 252 - REIMS, 92, 99 - " (S. Remi), =118=, 22, 65, 66, 213 - RENAISSANCE canopies, =205=, =347= - " " (Late), =225= - RENAISSANCE Jesse windows, =367= - " landscape, =255= - " ornament, =349= - " tracery, =280-282=, =349= - RESOURCES of the glass painter, =95= _et seq._ - RESTORATION, =404= _et seq._ - REYNOLDS (Sir Joshua), =401=, =402= - ROSE windows, =272= _et seq._, =326= - " " (Early), =273= - ROSS (S. Mary), 55, 145, 232 - ROUEN, =392=, =394=, 45, 119, 238 - " (S. Godard), 154 - " (S. Ouen), 29, 229 - " (S. Patrice), =377=, =378=, 155 - " (S. Vincent), =375=, =377=, 44, 156, 175 - ROUNDELS, =293=, 199 - - S. DENIS, =404= - S. JEAN-AUX-BOIS, 87, 88, 100, 224, 257 - S. MINIATO, =381= - SALISBURY, =385=, 15, 30, 64, 97, 102, 221, 225, 251 - SCRAPS, =409= - SENS, 90 - SEVENTEENTH century glass, =233=, =323= - " " style, =352= - SHADING (misuse of), =68=, =70=, =73=, =79=, =80=, =247= - " (the beginning of), =13=, =45= - SHREWSBURY, 38, 39, 57, 139, 142, 152, 171, 174 - SILVER stain, =52= - SINGLE-FIGURE windows, =118=, =197= - SIXTEENTH century glass, =323=, =347= - " " style, =348= - " " technique, =350= - " " windows, =201= _et seq._ - SOISSONS, 89, 91 - SOUTH KENSINGTON Museum, 205 - STAIN, =50=, =52=, =60=, =61=, =62=, =105=, =182=, =336=, =344= - STANTON S. John, 120 - STORIED windows, =195=, =209=, =371= _et seq._ - STRASSBURG, =388=, 134 - STYLE, =111=, =112=, =156=, =177=, =178=, =323= - " (Early), =324= - " (Decorated), =335=, =338= - " (Late Gothic), =343= - " (Perpendicular), =340= - " (16th century), =348= - " (17th century), =352= - " (the characteristics of), =322= _et seq._ - " in modern glass, =354= _et seq._ - SUBJECTS not within mullions, =198= - SUBJECT-WINDOWS, =197= - SWISS glass, =87=, =94=, =308= - - THIRTEENTH century glass, =322= - " " ornament, =130= - TIBALDI (Pellegrino), =264= - TIBAULT (Wilhelmus), =399= - TIME of day to see windows (the), =382= - TOURS, =362=, =389= - TRACERY (Early), =274= - " (Decorated), =278= - " (Gothic), =280= - " (Perpendicular), =343= - " (Renaissance), =280-2=, =349= - TRACERY lights, =272= _et seq._ - TRANSITION, =165=, =178=, =181=, =333= - " from Gothic to Renaissance, =65=, =202=, =204= - " from plain glazing to painted grisaille, =139= - TREE of Life (the), =370= - TRIFORIUM windows, =284= - TROYES, =32=, =366=, =401=, 112, 148, 149, 151, 228, 246 - " (museum), 211 - " (private collection), 207 - " (S. Jean), 241 - " (S. Martin ès Vignes), =230=, 47, 169, 170, 255 - " (S. Urbain), 31, 108, 114, 226 - - VAN LINGE, =233= - VAN ORLEY (Bernard), =69=, =222=, =245= - VAN ORT (Lambrecht), =399= - VAN THULDEN, =233= - VERONA (S. Anastasia), 199 - - WARWICK Castle, 54, 206, 209 - WATER Perry, 94 - WELLS, =390=, 136, 231, 245 - WHITE and colour (combination of), =193= - WHITE as a frame for colour, =192=, =315= - WHITE-LINE work, =91= - WINCHESTER, =407= - WINDOW plane (the), =242= - WINDOW shape (effect of, upon design), =113=, =211=, =212=, =240= - WINDOWS (how to see), =380= _et seq._ - WINE press (the), =368= - WORKMANLIKENESS, =244= - WORKMANSHIP (Early), =330= - - YELLOW stain, =52= - YORK, =147=, =192=, =277=, =387=, 146 - " (All Saints), =371=, 36 - - -NOTE--_The name of a town without mention of a church may be taken to mean -that the glass is in the cathedral or principal church._ - - -THE END. - - -BRADBURY, AGNEW, & CO. LD., PRINTERS, LONDON AND TONBRIDGE. - - - * * * * * - - -TRANSCRIBER NOTES: - - - Archaic, alternate and misspellings of words have been retained to - match the original work with the exception of those listed below. - - Missing punctuation has been added and obvious punctuation errors - have been corrected. - - Illustrations have been moved so as not to interrupt the flow of the - text. - - Page 85: the printing of several lines was transposed in the - original. They have been corrected. - - Page 125: "borders-lines" changed to "border-lines" (He frames his - little pictures with sufficient border-lines to keep them distinct). - - Page 226: "(16R5)" changed to "(1615)" (as in the cathedral at - Antwerp (1615)). - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Windows, A Book About Stained & -Painted Glass, by Lewis F. 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