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If you are not located in the United States, you +will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before +using this eBook. + +Title: The Central Eskimo + Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary + of the Smithsonian Institution, 1884-1885, Government Printing + Office, Washington, 1888, pages 399-670 + +Author: Franz Boas + +Release Date: February 12, 2013 [eBook #42084] +[Most recently updated: December 17, 2022] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +Produced by: Louise Hope and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CENTRAL ESKIMO *** + + + + +[Transcriber’s Notes: + +This text uses characters that require UTF-8 (Unicode) file encoding, +including: + + χ (Greek chi, see below) + ā ē ī ō ū (long vowels) + œ (“oe” ligature) + ⅔ (only in Figure captions) + +All but χ are rare. + +If any of these characters do not display properly--in particular, +if a diacritic does not appear directly above its letter--or if the +apostrophes and quotation marks in this paragraph appear as garbage, +make sure your text reader’s “character set” or “file encoding” is set +to Unicode (UTF-8). You may also need to change the default font. As a +last resort, use the Latin-1 version of the file instead. + +Parenthetical question marks (?) are in the original. Italics are shown +conventionally with _lines_. In the Glossary (only) small capitals are +shown with #marks#. + +Orthography is explained early in the article. Modern (ICI) forms should +be deducible from Boas’s spellings. These are based on Kleinschmidt, +but with q in place of ĸ (kra). Note that long vowels are rarely marked, +except in the Glossary and in figure captions. Words are often written +with nasalized finals: n for t sometimes, ng for k almost always, +irn (only) for iq. Medial q is usually written χ (chi), representing +the fricative pronunciation: “Eχaluin” and similar. + +Missing punctuation in Figure captions and the Glossary has been +silently supplied. Other typographical errors are listed at the end of +the e-text.] + + + + + Smithsonian Institution----Bureau Of Ethnology. + + THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. + + by + + DR. FRANZ BOAS + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + Page. + Introduction 409 + Authorities quoted 410 + Orthography 413 + Geography of Northeastern America 414 + Distribution of the tribes 419 + General observations 419 + Baffin Land 421 + The Sikosuilarmiut 421 + The Akuliarmiut 421 + The Qaumauangmiut 421 + The Nugumiut 422 + The Oqomiut 424 + The Padlimiut and the Akudnirmiut 440 + The Aggomiut 442 + The Iglulirmiut 444 + The Pilingmiut 444 + The Sagdlirmiut 444 + Western shore of Hudson Bay 444 + The Aivillirmiut 445 + The Kinipetu or Agutit 450 + The Sagdlirmiut of Southampton Island 451 + The Sinimiut 451 + Boothia Felix and Back River 452 + The Netchillirmiut 452 + The Ugjulirmiut 458 + The Ukusiksalirmiut 458 + Smith Sound 459 + The natives of Ellesmere Land 459 + The North Greenlanders 460 + Influence of geographical conditions upon the distribution + of the settlements 460 + Trade and intercourse between the tribes 462 + List of the Central Eskimo tribes 470 + Hunting and fishing 471 + Seal, walrus, and whale hunting 471 + Deer, musk ox, and bear hunting 501 + Hunting of small game 510 + Fishing 513 + Manufactures 516 + Making leather and preparing skins 516 + Sundry implements 523 + Transportation by boats and sledges 527 + The boat 527 + The sledge and dogs 529 + Habitations and dress 539 + The house 539 + Clothing, dressing of the hair, and tattooing 554 + Social and religious life 561 + Domestic occupations and amusements 561 + Visiting 574 + Social customs in summer 576 + Social order and laws 578 + Religious ideas and the angakunirn (priesthood) 583 + Sedna and the fulmar 583 + The tornait and the angakut 591 + The flight to the moon 598 + Kadlu the thunderer 600 + Feasts, religious and secular 600 + Customs and regulations concerning birth, sickness, + and death 609 + Tales and traditions 615 + Ititaujang 615 + The emigration of the Sagdlirmiut 618 + Kalopaling 620 + The Uissuit 621 + Kiviung 621 + Origin of the narwhal 625 + The visitor 627 + The fugitive women 628 + Qaudjaqdjuq 628 + I. Story of the three brothers 628 + II. Qaudjaqdjuq 630 + Igimarasugdjuqdjuaq the cannibal 633 + The Tornit 634 + The woman and the spirit of the singing house 636 + The constellation Udleqdjun 636 + Origin of the Adlet and of the Qadlunait 637 + The great flood 637 + Inugpaqdjuqdjualung 638 + The bear story 638 + Sundry tales 639 + The owl and the raven 641 + Comparison between Baffin Land traditions and those of + other tribes 641 + Science and the arts 643 + Geography and navigation 643 + Poetry and music 648 + Merrymaking among the Tornit 649 + The lemming’s song 649 + Arlum pissinga (the killer’s song) 650 + I. Summer song 653 + II. The returning hunter 653 + III. Song of the Tornit 653 + IV. Song of the Inuit traveling to Nettilling 653 + V. Oχaitoq’s song 654 + VI. Utitiaq’s song 654 + VII. Song 654 + VIII. Song 654 + IX. Song of the Tornit 654 + X. The fox and the woman 655 + XI. The raven’s song 655 + XII. Song of a Padlimio 655 + XIII. Ititaujang’s song 655 + XIV. Playing at ball 656 + XV. Playing at ball 657 + XVI-XIX. Extracts 657-658 + Glossary 659 + Eskimo words used, with derivations and significations 659 + Eskimo geographical names used, with English + significations 662 + Appendix 667 + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS. + + + Page. + + PLATE II. Map showing in detail the geographical divisions + of territory occupied by the Eskimo tribes of + Northeastern America (*) + 1. Oqo and Akudnirn. + 2. Frobisher Bay. + 3. Eclipse Sound and Admiralty Inlet. + 4. Repulse Bay and Lyon Inlet. + 5. Boothia Isthmus and King William Land. + III. Map of the territory occupied by the Eskimo tribes + of North America, showing the boundaries (*) + IV. Map of Cumberland Peninsula, drawn by Aranin, + a Saumingmio 643 + V. Eskimo drawings 648 + VI. Eskimo drawings 650 + VII. Eskimo drawings 651 + VIII. Eskimo carvings 652 + IX. Eskimo carvings 653 + X. Modern implements 654 + + [* In pocket at end of volume.] + + + FIG. 390. Harpoon from Alaska 472 + 391. Modern unang or sealing harpoon 472 + 392. Old style naulang or harpoon head 473 + 393. Modern naulang or harpoon head 473 + 394. Qilertuang or leather strap and clasps for holding + coiled up harpoon lines 474 + 395. Siatko or harpoon head of the Iglulirmiut 475 + 396. Siatko found at Exeter Sound 475 + 397. Eskimo in the act of striking a seal 476 + 398. Tutareang or buckle 477 + 399. Eskimo awaiting return of seal to blowhole 478 + 400. Tuputang or ivory plugs for closing wounds 479 + 401. Wooden case for plugs 480 + 402. Another form of plug 480 + 403. Qanging for fastening thong to jaw of seal 480 + 404. Qanging in form of a seal 481 + 405. Qanging in form of a button 481 + 406. Qanging serving for both toggle and handle 481 + 407. Qidjarung or whirl for harpoon line 481 + 408. Simpler form of whirl 481 + 409. Old pattern of hook for drawing out captured seal 483 + 410. Seal hook of bear’s claw 483 + 411. Modern form of seal hook 483 + 412. Eskimo approaching seal 484 + 413. Frame of a kayak or hunting boat 486 + 414. Kayak with covering of skin 487 + 415. Model of a Repulse Bay kayak 487 + 416. Sirmijaung or scraper for kayak 488 + 417. Large kayak harpoon for seal and walrus 488 + 418. Tikagung or support for the hand 488 + 419. Qatirn or ivory head of harpoon shaft 489 + 420. Manner of attaching the two principal parts + of the harpoon 489 + 421. Tokang or harpoon head in sheath 489 + 422. Tokang or harpoon head taken from a whale in + Cumberland Sound 490 + 423. Ancient tokang or harpoon head 491 + 424. Teliqbing, which is fastened to harpoon line 492 + 425. Qatilik or spear 492 + 426. Avautang or sealskin float 492 + 427. Different styles of poviutang or pipe for + inflating the float 493 + 428. Agdliaq or spear for small seals 494 + 429. Agdliaq points 494 + 430. Spear heads 495 + 431. Large spear head 495 + 432. Anguvigang or lance 496 + 433. Nuirn or bird spear 496 + 434. Nuqsang or throwing board 496 + 435. Sealing at the edge of the ice 498 + 436. Model of sakurpāng´ or whaling harpoon 500 + 437. Niu´tang, with floats 500 + 438. Wooden bow from Iglulik 502 + 439. Wooden bow from Cumberland Sound 502 + 440. Bows of reindeer antlers 503 + 441. Bow of antlers, with central part cut off straight, + from Pelly Bay 503 + 442. Arrows with bone heads 504 + 443. Arrows with metal heads 504 + 444. Arrowhead from Boothia 505 + 445. Showing attachment of arrowhead vertically and + parallel to shank 505 + 446. Various forms of arrowhead 506 + 447. Socket of spear handle from Alaska 506 + 448. Slate arrowhead 506 + 449. Flint arrowheads from old graves 507 + 450. Various styles of quiver 507 + 451. Quiver handles 508 + 452. Whalebone nooses for catching waterfowl 511 + 453. Kakivang or salmon spear 512 + 454. Ivory fish used as bait in spearing salmon 513 + 455. Quqartaun for stringing fish 514 + 456. Salmon hook 515 + 457. Salmon hook 515 + 458. Bait used in fishing with hooks 516 + 459. Butcher’s knife with bone handle 516 + 460. Pana or knife for dissecting game 517 + 461. Form of ulo now in use 518 + 462. Old ulo with top of handle broken off, from + Cape Broughton, Davis Strait 518 + 463. Fragment of an ulo blade of slate 518 + 464. Ulo handle from recent grave 518 + 465. Modern tesirqun or scraper 519 + 466. Old style of tesirqun or scraper 519 + 467. Seligoung or scraper used for softening skins 520 + 468. Old stone scrapers found in graves 521 + 469. Stretcher for lines 522 + 470. Ivory needle 523 + 471. Ivory needle-case from Cumberland Sound 523 + 472. Common pattern of needle-case 523 + 473. Tikiq or thimble 524 + 474. Instrument for straightening bones 525 + 475. Drill for working in ivory and bone 525 + 476. Driftwood used in kindling fire 526 + 477. Eskimo graver’s tool 526 + 478. Framework of Eskimo boat 527 + 479. Kiglo or post 527 + 480. Umiaq or skin boat 528 + 481. Umiaq or skin boat 528 + 482. Qamuting or sledge 529 + 483. Sledge shoe 530 + 484. Clasp for fastening traces to sledge 531 + 485. Artistic form of clasp for fastening traces + to sledge 531 + 486. Uqsirn, for fastening traces to pitu 532 + 487. Ano or dog harness 532 + 488. Sadniriaq or clasp 532 + 489. Tube for drinking 535 + 490. Various styles of snow knife 539 + 491. Ground plan of snow house of Davis Strait tribes 541 + 492. Snow house of Davis Strait, sections 542 + 493. Section and interior of snow house 543 + 494. Ukusik or soapstone kettle 545 + 495. Plan of double snow house 546 + 496. Plan of Iglulik house 547 + 497. Plan of Hudson Bay house 547 + 498. Plan and sections of qarmang or stone house 548 + 499. Plan of large qarmang or stone house 549 + 500. Plan of stone house in Anarnitung, Cumberland Sound 549 + 501. Plan of group of stone houses in Pangnirtung, + Cumberland Sound 550 + 502. Plan and sections of qarmang or house made of + whale ribs 550 + 503. Storehouse in Ukiadliving 551 + 504. Plan and sections of tupiq or tent of + Cumberland Sound 551 + 505. Plan and sections of tupiq or tent of Pond Bay 553 + 506. Plan and sections of double winter tent, + Cumberland Sound 553 + 507. Qaturang or boot ornament 554 + 508. Woman’s jacket 555 + 509. Ivory beads for women’s jackets 555 + 510. Girdle buckles 556 + 511. Infant’s clothing 557 + 512. Child’s clothing 557 + 513. Ivory combs 559 + 514. Buckles 560 + 515. Manner of tattooing face and wearing hair 561 + 516. Manner of tattooing legs and hands 561 + 517. Forks 563 + 518. Ladle of musk ox horn 563 + 519. Skull used in the game ajegaung 565 + 520. Ivory carving representing head of fox, used in + the game ajegaung 565 + 521. Ivory carvings representing polar bear, used in + the game ajegaung 566 + 522. Figures used in playing tingmiujang, a game + similar to dice 567 + 523. Game of nuglutang 568 + 524. The sāketān or roulette 569 + 525. Ajarorpoq or cat’s cradle 569 + 526. Ball 570 + 527. Dolls in dress of the Oqomiut 571 + 528. Dolls in dress of the Akudnirmiut 571 + 529. Modern snow goggles, of wood 576 + 530. Old form of snow goggles, of ivory 576 + 531. Diagram showing interior of qaggi or singing + house among eastern tribes 600 + 532. Plan of Hudson Bay qaggi or singing house 601 + 533. Kilaut or drum 602 + 534. Plans of remains of supposed qaggi or + singing houses 603 + 535. Qailertetang, a masked figure 606 + 536. Model of lamp from a grave in Cumberland Sound 613 + 537. Qaudjaqdjuq is maltreated by his enemies 631 + 538. The man in the moon comes down to help Qaudjaqdjuq 631 + 539. The man in the moon whipping Qaudjaqdjuq 632 + 540. Qaudjaqdjuq has become Qaudjuqdjuaq 632 + 541. Qaudjuqdjuaq killing his enemies 633 + 542. Tumiujang, or lamp of the Tornit 634 + 543. Cumberland Sound and Frobisher Bay, drawn by Itu, + a Nugumio 644 + 544. Cumberland Sound and Frobisher Bay, drawn by + Sunapignang, an Oqomio 645 + 545. Cumberland Sound, drawn by Itu, a Nugumio 646 + 546. Peninsula of Qivitung, drawn by Angutuqdjuaq, + a Padlimio 647 + + + + +THE CENTRAL ESKIMO. + +By Dr. Franz Boas + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +The following account of the Central Eskimo contains chiefly the results +of the author’s own observations and collections made during a journey +to Cumberland Sound and Davis Strait, supplemented by extracts from the +reports of other travelers. The geographical results of this journey +have been published in a separate volume.[1] A few traditions which were +considered unsuitable for publication by the Bureau of Ethnology may be +found in the Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, +Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, 1887. The linguistic material collected +during the journey will be published separately. + +Owing to unfortunate circumstances, the larger portion of the author’s +collections could not be brought home, and it has therefore been +necessary, in preparing this paper, to make use of those made by C. F. +Hall, 1860-1862 and 1865-1869; W. Mintzer, 1873-’74, and L. Kumlien, +1877-’78. Through the kindness of Professor Otis T. Mason, I was allowed +to make ample use of the collections of the National Museum and have +attached its numbers to the specimens figured. The author’s collection +is deposited in the Museum für Völkerkunde at Berlin. I am indebted to +the American Museum of Natural History; to Mr. Appleton Sturgis, of New +York; to Captain John O. Spicer, of Groton, Conn.; and to Mrs. Adams, +of Washington, D.C., for several figures drawn from specimens in their +possession. + + [Footnote 1: Baffin-Land. Geographische Ergebnisse einer in den + Jahren 1883 und 1884 ausgeführten Forschungsreise. Von Dr. Franz + Boas. (Ergänzungsheft No. 80 zu »Petermanns Mitteilungen«.) Gotha: + 1885.] + + +AUTHORITIES QUOTED. + +In citing the various authorities, I have used abbreviations as +indicated at the end of titles in the following list of works consulted: + + De | Martini | Forbisseri | Angli navigati | one in regiones occi + | dentis et septen | trionis | Narratio historica, | Ex Gallico + sermone in La | tinum translata | per | D. Joan. Tho. Freigivm. | + [Design.] | Cum gratia & privilegio Imperiali, ciↄ. iↄ. xxc. + [Colophon:] Noribergæ | Imprimebatur, in officina Ca | tharinæ + Gerlachin, & Hære | dum Iohannis Mon | tani. Anno ciↄ iↄ xxc. + (Cited, Frobisher.) + + A | voyage of discovery, | made under the orders of the Admiralty + | in | His Majesty’s ships | Isabella and Alexander, | for the + purpose of | exploring Baffin’s Bay, | and inquiring into the + probability of a | north-west passage. | By John Ross, K.S. + Captain Royal Navy. | London: | John Murray, Albemarle-street. | + 1819. (Cited, Ross I.) + + Journal | of a voyage for the discovery of a | north-west passage + | from the Atlantic to the Pacific; | performed in the years + 1819-20, | in His Majesty’s ships | Hecla and Griper, | under the + orders of | William Edward Parry, R.N., F.R.S., | and commander of + the expedition. | With an appendix, containing the scientific | + and other observations. | Published by authority of the lords + commissioners | of the admiralty. | London: | John Murray, | + publisher to the admiralty, and board of longitude. | 1821. + (Cited, Parry I.) + + Journal | of a | second voyage for the discovery of a | north-west + passage | from the Atlantic to the Pacific; | performed in the + years 1821-22-23, | in His Majesty’s ships | Fury and Hecla, | + under the orders of | Captain William Edward Parry, R.N., F.R.S., + | and commander of the expedition. | Illustrated by numerous + plates. | Published by authority of the lords commissioners | of + the admiralty. | London: | John Murray, | publisher to the + admiralty, and board of longitude. | 1824. (Cited, Parry II.) + + The | private journal | of | Captain G. F. Lyon, | of H.M.S. + Hecla, | during | the recent voyage of discovery under | Captain + Parry. | With a map and plates. | London: | John Murray, + Albemarle-Street. | 1824. (Cited, Lyon.) + + A | brief narrative | of | an unsuccessful attempt | to reach | + Repulse Bay, | through | Sir Thomas Rowe’s “Welcome,” | in | His + Majesty’s ship Griper, | in the year | 1824. | By Captain G. F. + Lyon, R.N. | With a chart and engravings. | London: | John Murray, + Albemarle street. | 1825. (Cited, Lyon, Attempt to reach Repulse + Bay.) + + Narrative | of a | second voyage in search of | a | north-west + passage, | and of a | residence in the Arctic regions | during the + years 1829, 1830, 1831, 1832, 1833. | By | Sir John Ross, C.B., + K.S.A., K.C.S., &c. &c. | captain in the Royal Navy. | Including + the reports of | Commander, now Captain, James Clark Ross, R.N., + F.R.S., F.L.S., &c. | and | The Discovery of the Northern Magnetic + Pole. | London: | A. W. Webster, 156, Regent street. | 1835. + (Cited, Ross II.) + + A narrative | of some passages in the history of | Eenoolooapik, | + a young Esquimaux who was brought to Britain in 1839, in the ship + “Neptune” | of Aberdeen. | An account of the | discovery of + Hogarth’s Sound: | remarks on the northern whale fishery, | and + suggestions for its improvement, &c. &c. | By Alexander M’Donald, + L.R.C.S.E. | Member of Cuvieran Natural History Society of + Edinburgh. | Edinburgh: Fraser & Co. | And J. Hogg, 116 Nicolson + Street, | 1841. (Cited, Eenoolooapik.) + + Narrative | of | the discoveries | on | the north coast of + America; | effected by the | officers of the Hudson’s Bay Company + | during the years 1836-39. | By Thomas Simpson, esq. | London: | + Richard Bentley, New Burlington Street. | Publisher in Ordinary to + Her Majesty | 1843. | (Cited, Dease and Simpson.) + + Narrative | of an | expedition to the shores | of | the Arctic sea + | in 1846 and 1847. | By John Rae, | Hudson Bay Company’s service, + commander of the expedition.| With maps. | London: | T. & W. + Boone, 29, New Pond Street. | 1850. (Cited, Rae I.) + + Further papers | relative to the Recent Arctic expeditions | in + search of | Dr. John Franklin, | and the crews of | H.M.S. + “Erebus” and “Terror.” | Presented to both houses of Parliament by + command of Her Majesty, | January, 1855. London: | Printed by + George Edward Eyre and William Spottiswoode, | Printers to the + Queen’s most excellent Majesty. | For Her Majesty’s stationery + office. | 1855. (Cited, Rae II.) + + Same volume: Observations on the Western Esquimaux and the country + they inhabit; from Notes taken during two years at Point Barrow, + by Mr. John Simpson, Surgeon R.N., Her Majesty’s Discovery Ship + “Plover.” (Cited, Simpson.) + + The voyage of the ‘Fox’ in the Arctic seas. | A narrative | of the + | discovery of the fate | of | Sir John Franklin | and | his + companions. | By Captain M’Clintock, R.N., LL.D. | honorary member + Royal Dublin Society. | [Portrait.] | With maps and illustrations. + | London: | John Murray, Albemarle street, | publisher to the + admiralty. | 1859. (Cited, M’Clintock.) + + Life with the Esquimaux: | a narrative of Arctic experience in + search of | survivors of Sir John Franklin’s | Expedition. | By | + Captain Charles Francis Hall, | of the whaling barque “George + Henry,” | From May 29, 1860, to September 13, 1862. | Popular + Edition. | With Maps, | Coloured illustrations, and one hundred + wood cuts. | London: | Sampson Low, son, and Marston, | Milton + House, Ludgate Hill. | 1865. (Cited, Hall I.) + + Tales and traditions | of the | Eskimo | with a sketch of | their + habits, religion, language | and other peculiarities | by | Dr + Henry Rink | knight of Dannebrog | Director of the Royal Greenland + board of trade, and | formerly Royal Inspector of South Greenland | + author of ‘Grönland geographik og | statistick beckrevest,’ etc. | + Translated from the Danish by the author | Edited by | Dr Robert + Brown | F.L.S., F.R.G.S. | author of ‘The races of mankind,’ etc. | + With numerous illustrations, drawn and | engraved by Eskimo | + William Blackwood and Sons | Edinburgh and London | 1875. | All + rights reserved. (Cited, Rink.) + + Eskimoiske | Eventyr og Sagn | oversatte | efter de indfødte + fortælleres opskrifter | og meddelelser | af | H. Rink, | + inspektør i Sydgrønland. | Kjøbenhavn. | C. A. Reitzels Boghandel. + | Louis Kleins Bogtrykkeri. | 1866. (Cited, Rink, Eventyr og + Sagn.) + + Eskimoiske | Eventyr og Sagn. | Supplement | indeholdende | et + Tillæg om Eskimoerne | af | H. Rink. | Kjøbenhavn. | C. A. + Reitzels Boghandel. | Louis Kleins Bogtrykkeri. | 1871. (Cited, + Rink, Eventyr og Sagn, Supplement.) + + Narrative | of the | second Arctic expedition | made by | Charles + F. Hall: | his voyage to Repulse Bay, sledge journeys to the + Straits [_sic_] of Fury | and Hecla and to King William’s Land, | + and | residence among the Eskimos during the years 1864-’69. | + Edited under the orders of the Hon. Secretary of the Navy, | by | + Prof. J. E. Nourse, U.S.N. | U.S. Naval Observatory, | 1879. | + Trübner & Co., | Nos. 57 and 59 Ludgate Hill, | London. (Cited, + Hall II.) + + Als Eskimo unter den Eskimos. | Eine Schilderung der Erlebnisse | + der | Schwatka’schen Franklin-Aufsuchungs-Expedition | in den + Jahren 1878-80. | Von | Heinrich W. Klutschak, | Zeichner und + Geometer der Expedition. | Mit 3 Karten, 12 Vollbildern und + zahlreichen in den Text gedruckten Illustrationen | nach den + Skizzen des Verfassers. | Wien. Pest. Leipzig. | A. Hartleben’s + Verlag. | 1881. | Alle Rechte vorbehalten. (Cited, Klutschak.) + + Schwatka’s Search | sledging in the Arctic in quest of | the + Franklin records | By | William H. Gilder | second in command | + with maps and illustrations | London | Sampson Low, Marston, + Searle, and Rivington | Crown Buildings, 188, Fleet Street. | All + rights reserved. (Cited, Gilder.) + + Eskimoisches Wörterbuch, | gesammelt | von den Missionaren | in | + Labrador, | revidirt und herausgegeben | von | Friedrich Erdmann. + | Budissin, | gedruckt bei Ernst Moritz Monse. | 1864. (Cited, + Wörterbuch des Labradordialectes.) + + David Cranz | Historie | von | Grönland | enthaltend | Die + Beschreibung des Landes und | der Einwohner &c. | insbesondere | + die | Geschichte | der dortigen | Mission der | Evangelischen | + Brüder | zu | Neu-Herrnhut | und | Lichtenfels. | Mit acht + Kupfertafeln und einem Register. | Barby bey Heinrich Detlef + Ebers, und in Leipzig | in Commission bey Weidmanns Erben und + Reich. | 1765. (Cited, Cranz.) + + Bruchstükke | eines Tagebuches, | gehalten in | Grönland | in den + Jahren 1770 bis 1778 | von Hans Egede Saabye, | vormaligem + ordinierten Missionar in den Destrikten Claushavn | und + Christianshaab, jetzigem Prediger zu Udbye | im Stifte Füthnen. | + Aus dem Dänischen übersetzt | von | G. Fries, | beabschiedigtem + königlich dänischen Capitaine. | Mit einer Vorrede des + Uebersetzers, | enthaltend einige Nachrichten von der Lebensweise + der | Grönländer, der Mission in Grönland, samt andern damit | + verwandten Gegenständen, und einer Karte | über Grönland. Hamburg. + | Bey Perthes und Besser. | 1817. (Cited, Egede.) + + Baffin-Land. | Geographische Ergebnisse | einer | in den Jahren + 1883 und 1884 ausgeführten Forschungsreise. | Von | Dr. Franz + Boas. | Mit zwei Karten und neun Skizzen im Text. | + (Ergänzungsheft No. 80 zu »Petermanns Mitteilungen«.) | Gotha: + Justus Perthes. | 1885. (Cited, Baffin-Land.) + + Die Amerikanische | Nordpol-Expedition | von | Emil Bessels. | Mit + zahlreiche Illustrationen in Holzschnitt, Diagrammen und | einer + Karte in Farbendruck. | Leipzig. | Verlag von Wilhelm Engelmann. | + 1879. (Cited, Bessels.) + + Contributions | to the | Natural History of | Arctic America, | + made in connection with | the Howgate Polar expedition, 1877-’78, + | by | Ludwig Kumlien, | Naturalist of the expedition. | + Washington: | Government Printing Office. | 1879. + + Report | of the | Hudson’s Bay expedition, | under the command of + | Lieut. A. R. Gordon, R.N., | 1884. + + Traditions indiennes | du | Canada nord-ouest | par Émile Petitot + | Ancien missionnaire. | Paris | Maisonneuve frères et Ch. + Leclerc, | 25, Quai Voltaire, | 1886. + +The following is a list of the papers published by the author on the +results of his journey to Baffin Land and of studies connected with it. +The ethnological remarks contained in these brief communications have +been embodied in the present paper. The method of spelling in the first +publications differs from that applied in the present paper. It was +decided to use the latter after a conference with Dr. H. Rink. + + “Reiseberichte aus Baffin-Land.” Berliner Tageblatt, August 4, + October 28, November 4, November 25. 1883; September 28, October + 19, November 2, November 9, November 16, November 23, December 28, + 1884; January 4, April 3, April 27, 1885. + + “Unter dem Polarkreise.” New-Yorker Staats-Zeitung, February 1, + February 22, March 2, 1885. + + “The configuration of Ellesmere Land.” Science, February 27, 1885. + + “A journey in Cumberland Sound and on the west shore of Davis + Strait in 1883 and 1884, with map.” Bull. Am. Geogr. Soc., pp. + 241-272, 1884. + + “Die Wohnsitze und Wanderungen der Baffin-Land Eskimos.” Deutsche + geogr. Blätter, p. 31, 1885. + + “Cumberland Sound and its Esquimaux.” Popular Science Monthly, p. + 768, May, 1885. + + “Die Eskimos des Baffin-Landes.” Verh. des V. deutschen + Geographentags zu Hamburg. Berlin, 1885. + + “Reise im Baffinlande, 1883 und 1884.” Verh. der Ges. für Erdkunde + zu Berlin, 1885, Nos. 5, 6. + + “Die Sagen der Baffin-Land Eskimos.” Verh. der Berlin, anthrop. + Gesellschaft, 1885, p. 161. + + “The Eskimo of Baffin Land.” Transactions of the Anthropological + Society of Washington, Vol. 3, pp. 95-102. + + “Sammlung aus Baffin-Land.” Original Mittheilungen aus der ethnol. + Abtheilung der Kgl. Museen zu Berlin, 1886, p. 131. + + +ORTHOGRAPHY. + +In the spelling of Eskimo words the author has adhered as closely as +possible to Kleinschmidt’s orthography, as he did not deem it proper to +introduce a linguistic alphabet after so much has been published in +another and almost sufficient one. + +Accents and lengths have been marked where it seemed to be desirable. In +quotations Eskimo words are spelled according to this system where it is +possible to recognize their meaning and derivation. In other cases the +original spelling of the authors has been retained. The alphabet used in +this paper is as follows: + +_Vowels_: + + a--a in father. + e--ey in they. + i--ee in feel. + o--o in nose. + u--oo in pool. + au--ow in how. + ai--i in hide. + +_Consonants_: + + q--a hard, guttural sound (Kleinschmidt’s ĸ). + r--the German guttural r. + rn--a guttural and nasal r. + χ--the German ch in Buch; Scotch ch in loch. + g--English g in go. + k--English k. + ng--English ng in during. + b--English b. + p--English p. + v--pronounced with the lips only. + f--pronounced with the lips only. + m--English m. + d--English d. + t--English t. + s--English s in soul. + n--English n. + (g)dl--ḏ of Lepsius’s standard alphabet. + (g)dtl--ṯ of Lepsius’s standard alphabet. + l--English l. + j--German j in jung; English y. + ss--š of Lepsius’s standard alphabet, sounding between s and sh. + + +GEOGRAPHY OF NORTHEASTERN AMERICA.[2] + + [Footnote 2: A glossary of Eskimo geographic terms will be found + on p. 662] + +The Eskimo inhabit almost the whole extent of the coast of Arctic +America. A large part of this country is occupied by the Central Eskimo, +one of the great groups into which that people is divided. They live in +the northeastern part of the continent and on the eastern islands of the +Arctic-American Archipelago. In Smith Sound they inhabit the most +northern countries visited by man and their remains are even found at +its northern outlet. The southern and western boundaries of this +district are the countries about Fort Churchill, the middle part of Back +River, and the coast west of Adelaide Peninsula. Along the whole extent +of this line they are the neighbors of Indian tribes, with whom they are +generally on very bad terms, a mutual distrust existing between the two +races. + +The geography of the whole country is known only in outline, and a great +portion of it awaits its explorer. Following is a sketch of what is +known about it, so far as it is of importance to the ethnologist. + +The vast basin of Hudson Bay separates two large portions of the +American continent: Labrador and the region of the large Arctic rivers. +The southern shore of the bay is inhabited by Indian tribes who +interrupt the communication between the Eskimo of both regions. Hudson +Bay, however, has the character of a true mediterranean sea, the +northern parts of its opposite shores being connected by a number of +islands and peninsulas. The low and narrow Rae Isthmus, which presents +an easy passage to the Arctic Ocean, unites Melville Peninsula to the +main body of the continent. From this peninsula Baffin Land stretches +out toward the north of Labrador, with only two narrow channels +intervening: Fury and Hecla Strait and Hudson Strait. Another chain of +islands, formed by the parts of Southampton Island and Mansfield Island, +stretches from Repulse Bay to the northwest point of Labrador, but the +distances between the islands and the roughness of the sea prevent +communication. + +On the western part of the continent the great bays, Chesterfield Inlet +and Wager River, are of importance, as they allow the Eskimo, though +they are a coast people, to penetrate into the interior of the +continent. A narrow isthmus separates the head of the bays from the +lakes of Back River. At Coronation Bay the latter approaches the Arctic +Ocean very closely, and it is probable that the coast west of Adelaide +Peninsula, which is skirted by innumerable islands, is indented by deep +inlets extending towards the lakes of Back River. Thus communication +between the Arctic Ocean and Hudson Bay is facilitated by this large +river, which yields an abundant supply of fish. From Wager River an +isthmus leads to its estuary. + +Boothia Felix, the most northern peninsula of the continent, is united +to it by two narrow isthmuses, the former extending from Pelly Bay to +Shepherd Bay, the latter from Lord Mayor Bay to Spence Bay. It is +separated from North Somerset by the narrow Bellot Strait. Farther west +Adelaide Peninsula and King William Land form the continuation of the +continent toward the western extremity of Boothia, thus outlining a +spacious bay sheltered from the currents and the pack ice of Melville +Sound and the adjoining bays. The eastern sides of Boothia and North +Somerset and the western coasts of Melville Peninsula and Baffin Land +form a gulf similar to Fox Basin. + +Farther north, between Baffin Land and Greenland, North Devon and +Ellesmere Land are situated. Thus Baffin Land forms a connecting link +for three regions inhabited by Eskimo: the Hudson Bay Territory, +Labrador, and Greenland. + +The orography of the western coast of Hudson Bay is little known. Most +of this coast seems to form a hilly land, consisting generally of +granite. Between Wager River and Chesterfield Inlet it rises to a chain +of hills of about one thousand feet in height, extending to a plateau +farther north. Another chain seems to stretch in a northeasterly +direction from Back River to the source of Hayes River. West of Back +River Silurian strata prevail. The granite hills form a favorite haunt +for the musk ox and reindeer. + +Melville Peninsula consists chiefly of a chain of granite hills, sloping +down to a Silurian plain in the eastern part of the peninsula. The +northeastern part of Baffin Land is formed by a high chain of mountains +stretching from Lancaster Sound to Cape Mercy. Long fjords and deep +valleys divide them into many groups. Bylot Island, which stands high +out of the sea, is separated from the mainland by Pond Bay and Eclipse +Sound. The next group stretches from Pond Bay to the fjord of +Anaulereë´ling. Farther to the southeast the groups are smaller, and in +Home Bay they are separated by wide valleys, particularly near +Eχalualuin, a large fjord on the southern side of that bay. + +From this fjord an enormous highland, which I named Penny Highland, +extends as far as Cumberland Sound, being terminated by the narrow +valley of Pangnirtung. The eastern boundary runs through the fjords +Maktartudjennaq and Narpaing to Nedluqseaq and Nudlung. In the interior +it may extend to about fifteen miles east of Issortuqdjuaq, the most +northern fjord of Cumberland Sound. The whole of the vast highland is +covered by an ice cap sending forth numerous glaciers in every +direction. In Pangnirtung and on Davis Strait they reach the level of +the sea. + +Penny Highland, which forms the main body of Cumberland Peninsula, has +attached to it a few mountain groups of moderate extent: the peninsula +of Nudlung and the highland of Eχalualuin and that of Qivitung. + +Farther southeast, between the valleys of Pangnirtung and +Kingnait-Padli, is situated the highland of Kingnait, with sharp peaks +emerging from the ice cap which covers the lower parts of the plateau. +The rest of Cumberland Peninsula is formed by the highland of Saumia, +which much resembles that of Kingnait. Near Cape Mercy the ice covered +highland slopes down to a hilly region, which falls abruptly to the sea. + +The southern parts of this range of mountains are composed of gneiss and +granite. It may be that Silurian strata occur in some places, but they +have not yet been found anywhere in situ. The northern parts are too +imperfectly known to enable us to form an idea of their geological +character. + +The mountains just described slope down to a hilly region, which farther +to the west levels off to a plain. The hills are composed of granite, +the plains of Silurian limestone, which extends from Prince Regent Inlet +to the head of Frobisher Bay. + +The peninsula between Cumberland Sound and Frobisher Bay is formed by a +plateau, which slopes down gradually to the northwest. It is drained by +a great river flowing into Auqardneling, a fjord on the western shore of +Cumberland Sound. Near Lake Nettilling the country is very low, the +level of the lake being only forty feet above that of the sea. Here the +watershed between Cumberland Sound and Fox Basin closely approaches the +eastern shore, coming within five miles of the head of Nettilling Fjord. +It is formed by a narrow neck of land about a quarter of a mile wide and +sixty-five feet above the level of the sea. + +From Eskimo reports I conclude that the plateau of Nugumiut, as we may +call the peninsula between Frobisher Bay and Cumberland Sound, is +comparatively level. Only a single mountain south of Qasigidjen (Bear +Sound) rises into the region of eternal snow. + +The peninsula between Frobisher Bay and Hudson Strait is formed by a +granite highland, the Meta Incognita of Queen Elizabeth. It is covered +with ice and sends a few glaciers into the sea. Farther west, near +Lesseps Bay and White Bear Sound, the country becomes lower. The narrow +isthmus leading from Hudson Strait to Amaqdjuaq cannot be very high, as +the Eskimo carry their kayaks to the lake, which I believe is about two +hundred feet above the level of the sea. + +Last of all I have to mention the highlands of King Cape. The rest of +the land is taken up by a vast plain in which two large lakes are +situated; the southern, Amaqdjuaq, empties by a short river into Lake +Nettilling, whence the long and wide Koukdjuaq runs to the shallow sea. +From observations made by Captain Spicer, of Groton, Conn., and +information obtained from the Eskimo, we learn that the whole of the +eastern part of Fox Basin is extremely shallow and that there are many +low islands scattered about in those parts of the sea. The plains of +Baffin Land, Fox Basin, and the eastern half of Melville Peninsula may +be considered a wide basin of Silurian strata bordered by granitic +elevations on every side. + +Besides the configuration of the land, the extent of the land ice formed +during the winter is of vital importance to the inhabitants of the +Arctic region, because during the greater part of the year it affords +the only means of communication between the tribes, and because in +winter the seal, which constitutes the principal food of the Eskimo, +takes to those parts of the coast where extensive floes are formed. +Therefore the state of the ice regulates the distribution of the natives +during the greater part of the year and must be considered in studying +the habits of the Eskimo. The extent of the land ice principally depends +on the configuration of the land and the strength of the currents. On a +shore exposed to a strong current an extensive floe can only be formed +where projecting points of land form deep bays. We find the distribution +of ice regulated in accordance with this fact all around the shores of +the Arctic Ocean. + +The strong current setting out of Lancaster Sound and Smith Sound +generally prevents ice from forming under the steep cliffs of the land. +Sometimes the pack ice of the sounds is stopped and freezes together +into rough floes; a smooth plain is never formed. By far the largest +land floe is formed from Bylot Island to Cape Dyer (Okan). In Home Bay +it extends to a distance of about eighty miles from the mainland. The +formation of this floe is favored by a number of shoals which extend +from the peninsulas of Cape Eglinton (Aqojang), Cape Aston +(Niaqonaujang), and Qivitung, for the large floes drifting south are +stopped by the icebergs aground on these banks. The greater part of the +floe is very rough, smooth ice prevailing only in the bays. + +The strong southerly current passing through the narrowest part of Davis +Strait between Cape Walsingham (Idjuk) and Holsteinborg breaks up the +ice all along the shore from Cape Dyer to Cape Walsingham, Exeter Sound +alone being covered by a larger floe. The bay between Cape Mickleham +(Nuvuktirpang) and Cape Mercy is well covered with ice, which extends to +the islands farthest out toward the sea. + +Near Cape Mercy the strong tides caused by Cumberland Sound prevent the +ice from consolidating in the entrance of the gulf. As the sound widens +greatly behind the narrow passage formed by Nuvukdjuaq and Qaχodluin, +the tide sets in with great force. For this reason the floe never +extends beyond that narrow entrance. Often the head of the open water +runs from Qeqerten to Nuvujen, and instances are known where it even +reaches the line of Pujetung-Umanaq. + +The southwestern shore of Cumberland Sound from Qaχodluin to Cape +Brevoort (Qeqertuqdjuaq) is always washed by water, because a strong +current, which often breaks up the ice of Field and Grinnell Bay (the +bays of Ukadliq and Nugumiut), sets along the coast. + +The floe seldom extends to Lady Franklin and Monumental Islands +(Kitigtung and Taχolidjuin), but usually runs from point to point, +compelling the natives to pass across the land in order to reach the +floe of the neighboring bay. Most of the time the edge of the floe +covering Frobisher Bay extends to a line from Countess of Warwick Sound +(Tuarpukdjuaq) to about fifteen miles southeast of Gabriel Island +(Qeqertuqdjuaq), whence it runs south to Kingnait. Sometimes +Aqbirsiarbing (Cape True) is the most eastern point inclosed by the ice. +A dangerous current sets through the strait between Resolution Island +(Tudjaqdjuaq) and the mainland, forming whirlpools which menace every +ship that attempts the passage. + +Hudson Strait never freezes over. The greater part of the year it is +filled with an immense pack which never consolidates into a continuous +floe. As there are no large bays along the northern shore of that +strait, no land floes of great importance are formed. Only the Bay of +Qaumauang, North Bay, and Behm Bay (the bay of Quaiirnang and that east +of Akuliaq) are covered with floes which are of importance to the +natives. The bays east of Akuliaq and the large fjords of that region +form a comparatively large body of ice. + +Probably no land ice is formed between King Cape (Nuvukdjuaq) and the +northern parts of Fox Basin. According to Parry and the reports of the +natives, Fury and Hecla Strait and the bay which forms its eastern +outlet are covered by land ice which is connected with the floe of the +bays of Fox Basin as far as Piling. + +In Hudson Bay there are very few places in which the land ice extends to +a considerable distance from the shore. Neither Frozen Strait nor Rowe’s +Welcome freezes over, each being kept open by the swiftly running tides. +The most extensive floes are formed in Repulse Bay, Wager Bay, and +Chesterfield Inlet. + +The drifting ice of the Gulf of Boothia never consolidates and even +Committee Bay is rarely covered by a smooth land floe. Pelly Bay and the +sea on the east coast of Boothia as far as Victoria Harbor (Tikeraqdjuq) +freeze over, since they are sheltered by numerous islands. Still larger +is the sheet of ice which covers the bay formed by the estuary of Back +River, King William Land, and Boothia. The western shore of this +peninsula farther north is skirted by a border of land ice the extent of +which is unknown. + +It is a remarkable fact that, although the extreme western and eastern +parts of the country abound with extensive floes, the Hudson Bay region +and the Gulf of Boothia are almost devoid of them. + +This brief sketch will enable one to understand the geographical +distribution and the migrations of the Eskimo tribes who inhabit this +country. + + + + +DISTRIBUTION OF THE TRIBES. + +GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. + + +The mode of life of all the Eskimo tribes of Northeastern America is +very uniform; therefore it is desirable to make a few general +observations on the subject before entering into a detailed description +of each tribe. All depends upon the distribution of food at the +different seasons. The migrations or the accessibility of the game +compel the natives to move their habitations from time to time, and +hence the distribution of the villages depends, to a great extent, upon +that of the animals which supply them with food. + +As the inhospitable country does not produce vegetation to an extent +sufficient to sustain life in its human inhabitants, they are forced to +depend entirely upon animal food. In Arctic America the abundance of +seals found in all parts of the sea enables man to withstand the +inclemency of the climate and the sterility of the soil. The skins of +seals furnish the material for summer garments and for the tent; their +flesh is almost the only food, and their blubber the indispensable fuel +during the long dark winter. Scarcely less important is the deer, of +whose heavy skin the winter garments are made, and these enable the +Eskimo to brave the storms and the cold of winter. + +That the mode of life of the Eskimo depends wholly on the distribution +of these animals will therefore be apparent, for, as already observed, +they regulate their dwelling places in accordance with the migrations of +the latter from place to place in search of food. + +When the constraint of winter is broken the natives leave their old +habitations. The warm rays of the sun melt the roofs of their snow +houses, the strong vaults which afforded shelter and comfortable warmth +during the long cold winter begin to break down, and new houses must be +built. They therefore exchange the solid snow houses for light tents, +which are very small and poor, until a sufficient number of sealskins +for better structures is secured. + +As at this time seals are found in abundance everywhere, basking in the +warm sunshine and enjoying the beginning of the spring, a great supply +is easily secured. As the season advances food becomes more plentiful, +and with the breaking up of the rivers and ponds the salmon leave the +latter and descend to the sea. About this time the Eskimo establish +their settlements at the head of the fjords, where salmon are easily +caught in the shallow rivers. In July the snow, which has covered the +land for nine months, has melted away and the natives undertake hunting +trips inland, in order to obtain the precious skins of the reindeer and +the meat of the fawns, which is always highly prized. With the breaking +up of the ice the variety of food is further increased by the arrival of +the walrus and the ground and harp seals, which leave the country during +the winter. Birds are also found in abundance, and no cares afflict the +natives. + +Before the sea begins to freeze over again the Eskimo return from deer +hunting and gather at places where there are the best chances for +obtaining food in the autumn. A few weeks are spent in making short +excursions near the settlements, as longer journeys would be too +dangerous during this tempestuous season. The colder it grows the more +the natives are confined to their huts and the more they become +dependent on the seal. While in summer shrubs of various kinds are +available for cooking purposes, in winter blubber affords the only fuel +for cooking and for heating their huts. + +At last the smaller bays are sufficiently frozen to permit a new way of +pursuing the game. The hunters visit the edge of the newly formed floe +in order to shoot the seals, which are secured by the harpoon. + +The process of freezing goes on quickly and the floating pieces of ice +begin to consolidate. Only a few holes are now found, in places where +icebergs, moved by the tides or the strong currents, prevent the sea +from freezing. During a short time these openings form the favorite +hunting ground of the natives. Though the walrus and the ground seal +migrate to the edge of the floe as soon as the ice begins to form, the +common seal (_Pagomys fœtidus_) remains, and this is always the +principal food of the natives. In the autumn the fjords and the narrow +channels between the islands are its favorite haunt; later in the season +it resorts to the sea, frequently appearing at the surface through +breathing holes, which it scratches in the ice. As winter comes on it is +hunted by the Eskimo at these holes. + +The foregoing observations will serve as a preliminary to the +description of the distribution of the tribes of Northeastern America. +The object of this section is to treat of the immediate relations +between the country and its inhabitants, and a detailed account of their +habits will be found in subsequent pages. + + * * * + +According to Dr. H. Rink, the Inuit race may be divided into five +groups: the Greenlanders; the central tribes of Smith Sound, Baffin +Land, the west shore of Hudson Bay, the Back River region, and Boothia; +the Labradorians, on the shores of that peninsula; the Mackenzie tribes +of the central parts of the north shore of America; and the tribes of +Alaska. I am somewhat in doubt whether the central tribes and those of +Labrador differ enough to justify a separate classification, as the +natives of both shores of Hudson Strait seem to be closely related. +A decisive answer on the division of these tribes may be postponed until +the publication of Lucien M. Turner’s excellent observations and +collections, which were made at Fort Chimo. + + +BAFFIN LAND. + +_The Sikosuilarmiut._--I shall begin with the enumeration of the tribes +in the southwestern part of Baffin Land. This country is inhabited by +the Sikosuilarmiut, i.e., the inhabitants of the shore without an ice +floe. They are settled in two places: Nurata, east of King Cape, and +Sikosuilaq, within the peninsula (or island?) which projects east of +King Cape. The large fjords Sarbaq and Sarbausirn, which belong to their +territory, are known to me only by a description which I received in +Cumberland Sound. In summer they visit the upper parts of this long +fjord to hunt deer on the plains which reach to the shore of Fox Basin. +Probably they do not extend their migrations very far to the north or +northeast; otherwise, they would reach Lakes Amaqdjuaq and Nettilling, +the region about the latter being the hunting ground of the natives of +Cumberland Sound. + +I know of only a single meeting between the Eskimo visiting Lake +Nettilling and others who are supposed to have come from Hudson Strait. +It occurred in 1883 south of the lake. + +_The Akuliarmiut._--This tribe is settled on the northern shore of +Hudson Strait. Their winter resort lies west of Qeqertuqdjuaq (Parry’s +North Bluff). In summer they travel through White Bear Sound or Lesseps +Bay to Lake Amaqdjuaq, which they reach after crossing a neck of land +about ten miles in width. The exact direction of the road cannot be +ascertained, as the position of their starting point, which is called +Tuniqten, is doubtful. Crossing a short portage they ascend to Lake +Amitoq, whence on a second portage they pass the watershed between Lake +Amaqdjuaq and Hudson Strait. From the small Lake Mingong a brook runs +into Sioreling and thence into Lake Amaqdjuaq (Baffin-Land, p. 67). On +the southern shore of the large lake they erect their summer tents. +Farther east, in North Bay, there is another winter residence of the +same tribe. Unfortunately, I cannot specify the place of this +settlement, which is called Quaiirnang. + +_The Qaumauangmiut._--East of the Akuliarmiut live the Eskimo so +frequently met near Middle Savage Islands. Their principal residence is +near Lake Qaumauang, from which they take their name Qaumauangmiut. My +investigations concerning these tribes were much embarrassed by the want +of trustworthy charts. If charts are tolerably well delineated, the +Eskimo understand the meaning of every point and island and can give +detailed accounts of the situation of the settlements and the migrations +of the inhabitants. + +Between Sikosuilaq and Akuliaq but a moderate amount of intercourse is +kept up, as the settlements are separated by a wide and uninhabited +stretch of land. Notwithstanding this many members of one tribe are +found to have settled among the other. An American whaling station which +was established in Akuliaq a few years ago may have had some influence +upon the distribution and the life of these tribes. The greater +importance of Akuliaq, however, cannot be ascribed to the presence of +the whalers alone, as a few harbors near Sikosuilaq are also frequently +visited by them. The whalers report that there are about fifty +inhabitants in Sikosuilaq, about two hundred in Akuliaq, and farther +east fifty more. Thus the population of the north shore of Hudson Strait +probably amounts to three hundred in all. + +The Qaumauangmiut are probably closely related to the Nugumiut of +Frobisher Bay. + +_The Nugumiut._--I can give a somewhat more detailed description of this +tribe, among the families of which Hall passed the winters of 1860-’61 +and 1861-’62 (Hall I). Unfortunately, he does not give any coherent +account of their life, only meager information being furnished in the +record of his journeys. Besides, generalizations cannot be made from his +two years’ experience. My own observations in Cumberland Sound may serve +as a complement to those of Hall. As he gives only a few native names of +places, it is sometimes difficult to ascertain the exact position of the +localities to which he alludes. + +According to Hall and my own inquiries four places are inhabited by this +tribe almost every winter: Tornait (Jones Cape of Hall), about +thirty-five miles above Bear Sound, in Frobisher Bay; Operdniving and +Tuarpukdjuaq, in Countess of Warwick Sound; Nugumiut, in (Cyrus W.) +Field Bay; and Ukadliq, in (Cornell) Grinnell Bay. As these bays open +into Davis Strait the formation of the ice is retarded and its extent +diminished, and consequently some peculiarities in the arrangement of +the life of the Eskimo are observed here. The only occupation of the +Nugumiut and the inhabitants of Ukadliq is sealing with the harpoon on +the floe of the inner parts of the bay. Near Ukadliq the tide holes east +and west of Allen Island abound with seals. In winter, when the seals +take to the open ice, the village of this group of families is +established near Roger’s Island, where the floe of the bay forms the +hunting ground of the natives. + +During the autumn the Nugumiut stay in Field Bay. The women are then +busy preparing the deerskins; for, on account of the requirements of +their religion, the walrus hunt cannot be begun until the deerskins +which were taken in summer have been worked up for use. As soon as this +is done they travel across Bayard Taylor Pass (so called by Hall) to +Frobisher Bay, and in the latter half of December or in the beginning of +January settle on Operdniving or on Tuarpukdjuaq in company with the +natives who stay here during the fall. In Cumberland Sound I learned +that this changing of the habitations takes place almost regularly and +that sometimes the settlement is moved to Aqbirsiarbing (Cape True) if +the bay is frozen over beyond Operdniving. In traveling to Aqbirsiarbing +the tide holes of Ikerassaqdjuaq (Lupton Channel) are avoided by using +the pass of Chappell Inlet. Here and in Tornait the natives go sealing +on the ice or walrusing at the edge of the floe, which in most cases is +not very far off. + +About the latter half of March part of the Eskimo begin to travel up +Frobisher Bay. In the middle of April, 1862, Hall found a settlement on +Qeqertuqdjuaq (Gabriel Island), from which island the floe edge was +visited and young seals were caught in the narrow channels between the +numerous islands. Towards the end of the month a portion of the natives +went farther to the northwest in pursuit of the basking seals (I, p. +470), intending to reach the head of the bay in July. Hall found summer +habitations at Ukadliq (I, p. 468); on Field Bay (p. 296); and on +Frobisher Bay at Agdlinartung (p. 308), Opera Glass Point (p. 341), +Waddell Bay (p. 341), and Nuvuktualung, on the southern point of Beecher +Peninsula (p. 348). + +A very important hunting ground of the inhabitants of Tiniqdjuarbiusirn +(Frobisher Bay), of which I received some detailed accounts, is Lake +Amaqdjuaq. In the foregoing remarks on the Akuliaq tribe I described the +course which leads from Hudson Strait to the lake. Another route is +followed in traveling from the head of Frobisher Bay to Lake Amaqdjuaq, +a distance of about fifty miles. Probably the men leave Sylvia Grinnell +River and ascend to Lake Amartung, from which lake a brook runs westward +to Lake Amaqdjuaq (Baffin-Land, p. 68). The women take a different route +and arrive at Aqbeniling after a tramp of six days, near a small bay +called Metja. Here the summer huts are erected and birds and deer are +killed in abundance. + +The facility in reaching the lake from Hudson Strait and Frobisher Bay +is a very important consideration, as the Akuliarmiut and the Nugumiut +meet here, and thus an immediate intercourse between the tribes is +opened. The inhabitants of Hudson Strait leave Tuniqten in spring, +arrive at the head of Frobisher Bay in the fall, and after the formation +of the ice reach the Nugumiut settlements by means of sledges. When Hall +wintered in Field Bay a traveling party of Sikosuilarmiut which had +accomplished the distance from King Cape in one year arrived there +(I, p. 267). + +Another route, which is practicable only for boats, connects Qaumauang +with Nugumiut. It leads along the shore of Hudson Strait. The traveler +sails through the dangerous passage between Tudjaqdjuaq (Resolution +Island) and the mainland and crosses Frobisher Bay either at its +entrance or in the shelter of the group of islands farther up the bay. + +In their intercourse with the Nugumiut, the inhabitants of Cumberland +Sound generally follow the long coast between Ukadliq and Naujateling, +passing through the numerous sounds formed by long, narrow islands. +I can describe this region from personal observations. + +_The Oqomiut._--The Eskimo of Davis Strait call the tribes of Cumberland +Sound and Saumia by the name of Oqomiut. The whole of the land from +Prince Regent Inlet to the plateau of Nugumiut is divided by the Eskimo +into three parts, Aggo, Akudnirn, and Oqo--i.e., the weather side, the +center, and the lee side--and accordingly the tribes are called the +Aggomiut, Akudnirmiut, and Oqomiut. + +Unquestionably the whole of Cumberland Sound and the coast of Davis +Strait from Cape Mercy to Exeter Sound belong to the Oqo of the Northern +Eskimo. Farther north, the inhabitants of Padli extend their migrations +from Qarmaqdjuin to Qivitung. These people occupy an intermediate +position between the Akudnirmiut and the Oqomiut, having easy +communication with both, and consequently it is doubtful to which they +belong, so that the determination of the boundary between Oqo and +Akudnirn remains arbitrary. In regard to their customs and from the +position of the land, however, they may be more properly joined to the +Akudnirmiut, of whom they would form a subdivision. + +The names Oqo, Akudnirn, and Aggo must not be understood as respectively +meaning a region strictly limited: they denote rather directions and the +intervals between the localities situated in these directions. In asking +for the position of Oqo one would be directed southeast, as this is +considered the lee side; in the same way, if asking for Aggo, one would +be directed to the shore of Prince Regent Inlet, the farthest land in +the northwest, the weather side. In Cumberland Sound the natives of +Iglulik are considered Aggomiut, while in Pond Bay they are known as a +separate tribe. In the southern parts the whole of the northern region +is comprised in the name Aggo; in the north Oqo means the whole of the +southeastern regions. + +Formerly, the Oqomiut were divided into four subtribes: the +Talirpingmiut, on the west shore of Cumberland Sound; the Qinguamiut, +at the head of it; the Kingnaitmiut, on the east shore; and the +Saumingmiut, on the southeastern slope of the highland of Saumia. The +names are derived from the districts which they inhabit, respectively. +As the head of every fjord is called “qingua” (its head), the upper part +of the large Cumberland Sound is also so named. The Qingua region may be +limited by Imigen on the western shore and Ussualung on the eastern +shore, though the name is applied to a region farther north; indeed, the +name covers the whole district at the head of the sound. In looking from +the head to the entrance of the sound the coasts are called according to +their position: the southwestern Talirpia, i.e., its right one, and the +northeastern Saumia, i.e., its left one; between Saumia and Qingua the +highland Kingnait, i.e., the higher land as compared to the opposite +shore, is situated. + +Although at the present time this division is hardly justifiable, the +names of these four tribes are often mentioned on the shore of Davis +Strait. Their old settlements are still inhabited, but their separate +tribal identity is gone, a fact which is due as well to the diminution +in their numbers as to the influence of the whalers visiting them. + +In my opinion a great difference between these tribes never existed. +Undoubtedly they were groups of families confined to a certain district +and connected by a common life. Such a community could more easily +develop as long as the number of individuals was a large one. When the +whalers first wintered in Cumberland Sound the population may have +amounted to about 1,500. In 1840, when Penny discovered the sound, he +met 40 Eskimo in Anarnitung (Eenoolooapik, p. 91). The greater number of +the inhabitants were at the head of the fjords fishing for salmon, +others were whaling in Issortuqdjuaq, and some were inland on a deer +hunting expedition. The whole number at that time probably amounted to +200. A few years later the Kingnaitmiut of Qeqerten were able to man +eighteen whaleboats. Assuming five oarsmen and one harpooner to each +boat, the steersman being furnished by the whalers, and for each man one +wife and two children, we have in all about 400 individuals. The +inhabitants of Nettilling Fjord may have numbered as many, and 100 are +said to have lived in Imigen. Penny found in Ugjuktung about 30 +individuals who belonged to the Saumingmiut and had come thither from +Davis Strait. Accordingly I estimate the whole tribe at 150 individuals. +On the southwestern coast of the sound between Nuvujen and Naujateling a +large number of natives were reported. They lived in three settlements +and numbered about 600. These estimates are not absolutely reliable, +as they are compiled largely from hearsay and conjecture. Many of the +natives being away in the summer, at the time when these estimates were +made, accuracy in their preparation was impossible. From inquiries which +were made among American whalers who had visited this sound since 1851, +the population of Qeqerten must have been larger than that of any of the +settlements contiguous to the sound. The estimation is the more +difficult as a few settlements were sometimes deserted; for instance, +Ukiadliving, in Saumia, and Qarmaqdjuin (Exeter Bay). Probably eight +settlements, with a population of 200 inhabitants each--i.e., 1,600 in +the sound--would be about the true number in 1840. At first I was +inclined to believe in the existence of a larger number, but from later +reports I should consider this number too large rather than too small. +Since that time the population has diminished at a terrible rate. In +1857 Warmow, a Moravian missionary who accompanied Penny, estimated it +at 300. If this was correct, the rapid diminution must have occurred +during the first years after the rediscovery of the sound. In December, +1883, the Talirpingmiut numbered 86 individuals, the Qinguamiut 60, the +Kingnaitmiut 82, the Saumingmiut 17; total, 245. These were distributed +in eight settlements. Beginning with the most southern settlement, the +Talirpingmiut lived in Umanaqtuaq, Idjorituaqtuin, Nuvujen, and +Qarussuit; the Qinguamiut, in Imigen and Anarnitung; the Kingnaitmiut, +in Qeqerten; the Saumingmiut, in Ukiadliving. Accordingly the population +of the settlements numbered as follows: + + M. Men + W. Women + B. Boys + G. Girls + WM Widowers + WW Widows + + ---------------|----------|-----------------------------|------- + | Married. | Unmarried. | + Name of the |----|-----|----|----|----|----|----|----| Total. + settlement. | M. | W. | WM | WW | M. | W. | B. | G. | + ---------------|----|-----|----|----|----|----|----|----|------- + | | | | | | | | | + Naujateling | 6 | 6 | 1 | - | - | 1 | 3 | 3 | 20 + Idjorituaqtuin | 3 | 3 | - | 1 | 1 | - | 2 | 1 | 11 + Nuvujen | 8 | 8 | 1 | 2 | 1 | - | 4 | 2 | 26 + Qarussuit | 10 | 10 | - | 2 | - | - | 2 | 5 | 29 + Imigen | 6 | 6 | - | - | - | - | 4 | 1 | 17 + Anarnitung | 12 | 12 | 1 | 1 | 1 | - | 8 | 8 | 43 + Qeqerten | 26 | 26 | - | 6 | 4 | - | 9 | 1 | 82 + Ukiadliving | 6 | 6 | - | 1 | - | 1 | 2 | 1 | 17 + Padli | 11 | 13 | 2 | 2 | 1 | - | 7 | 7 | 43 + Akudnirn | 8 | 12 | - | - | 2 | - | (18) | 40 + |----|-----|----|----|----|----|----|----|------- + Total | 96 | 102 | 5 | 15 | 10 | 2 | (98) | 328 + ---------------|----|-----|----|----|----|----|----|----|------- + +I have included in the foregoing table the inhabitants of Davis Strait +and may add that the Nugumiut number about 80, the Eskimo of Pond Bay +about 50 (?), those of Admiralty Inlet 200, and of Iglulik about 150. +The total number of inhabitants of Baffin Land thus ranges between 1,000 +and 1,100. + +The reason for the rapid diminution in the population of this country is +undoubtedly to be found in the diseases which have been taken thither by +the whalers. Of all these, syphilis has made the greatest ravages among +the natives. Of other diseases I am unable to give a full account and +can only refer to those which came under my observation during the year +that I passed in this region. In Qeqerten a man died of cancer of the +rectum, two women of pneumonia, and five children of diphtheria, this +disease being first brought into the country in 1883. In Anarnitung I +knew of the death of two women and one child. On the west shore a number +of children died of diphtheria, while the health of the adults was good. +In the year 1883-’84 I heard of two births, one occurring in Qeqerten, +the other in Padli. At Qarussuit and Anarnitung there were two +abortions. + +The opinion that the Eskimo are dying out on account of an insufficient +supply of food is erroneous, for, even though the natives slaughter the +seals without discrimination or forethought, they do not kill enough to +cause any considerable diminution in numbers. The whalers do not hunt +the seal to any extent, and when one realizes how small the population +of the country is and how vast the territory in which the seal lives it +is easy to understand that famine or want cannot arise, as a rule, from +the cutting off of the natural food supply. In fact, in the spring +enormous numbers of seals may be seen together basking in the sun or +swimming in the water. + +The causes of the famines which occur somewhat frequently among the +Eskimo must be sought in another direction. Pressing need often prevails +if in the latter part of the autumn the formation of the floe is +retarded; for in that case hunters are not able either to go hunting in +boats or to procure the necessary food at the edge of the floe, as new +ice is attached to its more solid parts and the seals do not yet open +their breathing holes. Such was the case at Niaqonaujang, on Davis +Strait, in the fall of 1883. Gales of wind following in quick succession +broke the floe. The new ice which had formed immediately prevented the +natives from sealing, and in November and December a famine visited the +settlement. Very soon the supply of blubber was exhausted, and being +unable to feed the dogs the inhabitants were obliged to kill them one +after another and to live upon their frozen carcasses. Only two dogs +survived these months of need and starvation. Consequently the hunting +season was a very poor one, since the natives missed the services of +their dogs, which scent the breathing holes, and could not leave their +settlement for any great distance. + +In winter a long spell of bad weather occasions privation, since the +hunters are then prevented from leaving the huts. If by chance some one +should happen to die during this time, famine is inevitable, for a +strict law forbids the performance of any kind of work during the days +of mourning. When this time is over, however, or at the beginning of +good weather, an ample supply is quickly secured. I do not know of any +cases of famine arising from the absolute want of game, but only from +the impossibility of reaching it. + +Sometimes traveling parties that are not acquainted with the nature of +the country which they visit are in want of food. For instance, a large +company, consisting of three boat crews, were starved on the eastern +shore of Fox Basin, their boats being crushed by the heavy ice and the +game they expected to find in abundance having left the region +altogether. On one of the numerous islands of Nettilling a number of +women and children perished, as the men, who had been deer hunting, were +unable to find their way back to the place in which they had erected +their huts. + +Another case of starvation is frequently mentioned by the Eskimo. Some +families who were traveling from Akuliaq to Nugumiut passed the isthmus +between Hudson Strait and Frobisher Bay. When, after a long and tedious +journey, they had reached the sea, the men left their families near +Qairoliktung and descended with their kayaks to Nugumiut in order to +borrow some boats in which they could bring their families to the +settlements. On the way they were detained by stormy weather, and +meanwhile the families were starved and resorted to cannibalism. One +woman especially, by the name of Megaujang, who ate all her children, +was always mentioned with horror. + +Generally food is plentiful between the months of April and October and +an ample supply may be secured without extraordinary exertion. During +the winter sealing is more difficult, but sufficiently successful to +prevent any want, except in the case of continuous bad weather. + +I shall now proceed to a description of the single settlements of +Cumberland Sound. Separated from the Nugumiut by a long and uninhabited +stretch of land we find the settlement of Naujateling, the most southern +one of the Talirpingmiut. In the fall the natives erect their huts on +the mainland or on an island near it, as the seal, at this season, +resort to the narrow channels and to the fjords. Besides, the shelter +which is afforded by the islands against the frequent gales is an +important consideration, and in these protected waters the natives can +manage their frail boats, which would not live for a moment in the +tempestuous open sea. Later in the season the ice consolidates in the +shelter of the islands, while beyond the bays and channels drifting +floes fill the sea. + +After the consolidation of the pack ice the natives move their huts to +the sea. They leave Naujateling about December and move to Umanaqtuaq. +I do not know exactly where they live if the water reaches that island. +Should this happen, the floe between Qaχodluin, Umanaqtuaq, and +Idjorituaqtuin would offer a productive hunting ground. + +About the middle of March the season for hunting the young seal opens. +The hunt is prosecuted with much energy over the entire extent of +Cumberland Sound, because the white coat of the young animal is of prime +importance for the inner garments. The pregnant females take to the +rough ice, where deep snowbanks have been formed by the winter gales, +and dig large excavations, in which parturition takes place. Another +favorite place is the ground ice on gradually declining shores, where +large caves are found between the broken pieces of ice. Therefore the +fjords and islands which offer a long coast line furnish a good hunting +ground, and in the latter part of March and in April the Eskimo either +visit these regions or the floes of rough ice. At such times they +sometimes live for a long period on the ice of the open sea in order to +be nearer to their hunting ground. As the success of the hunt depends on +the extent of ice visited, the Eskimo scatter over a large area, almost +every one traveling over a separate tract. + +At this time the winter settlements are almost totally broken up. Some +of the natives of Naujateling go bear hunting instead of “young +sealing,” but only a few polar bears lose their way into Cumberland +Sound. They are generally found within a few miles of the floe edge, and +even if the water reaches pretty far up the sound they do not travel +beyond Qaχodluin and Miliqdjuaq, nor does the pack ice carry them far up +the sound in summer. On one occasion, in the year 1880, three bears were +seen near Qeqerten, about five years earlier one was killed in Qingua, +and almost twenty years earlier another one near Anarnitung. Every +occurrence of this kind is considered an event of such importance that +it is talked about for years afterwards. I myself saw bear tracks in +Kouaqdjuaq in March, 1884, and also at Miliqdjuaq. In February a bear +was killed between Kautaq and Naujateling. + +If the water washes the foot of the cliffs between Kautaq and Sulung, +the Eskimo cross the isthmus which lies between Ijelirtung, the eastern +branch of Qasigidjen, and Qaχodluin Bay on a sledge road and hunt among +the islands that are scattered along the shore south of Qaχodluin. In +summer they visit the same region on their hunting excursions. + +The principal summer settlements are at the head of Qasigidjen and +Kangertlung Fjords, which are situated near Idjorituaqtuin and +Qimissung. + +From here they ascend the plateau of Nugumiut and hunt on the level +highlands. I think it takes them but a day to travel to the top of the +plateau. They travel from Qasigidjen to Agdlinartung, a fjord of +Frobisher Bay, whence the Nugumiut ascend the highland. Another route +leads from Kangertlung to Eχaluin, near the head of Frobisher Bay. + +Farther up the sound we find the winter settlement of Idjorituaqtuin. +The same relation exists between this place and Qimissung as between +Umanaqtuaq and Naujateling. On Qimissung, which lies near the mainland, +the natives gather in the fall after returning from deer hunting, and +only move to Idjorituaqtuin after the freezing up of the sea. Deer are +hunted inland, the summer settlements being at the head of one of the +numerous fjords of the west shore. Favorite places are Kangertlung, +which is also visited by the Naujateling Eskimo; Eχaluin, which can be +reached from Kangertlung by a short overland road; Auqardneling; and +Utiqimitung, at the entrance of Nettilling Fjord. A large river, which, +according to Eskimo reports, runs through the greater part of the +peninsula, empties into Auqardneling. As it is very deep and wide it +cannot be crossed without a vessel of some character, and thus it puts a +stop to the migrations from Kangertlung and Eχaluin. In traveling from +Kangertlung to Frobisher Bay the river must be crossed. To accomplish +this the natives fill a deerskin with shrubs, sew it up, and float +themselves across. Only the road leading from Qasigidjen to Frobisher +Bay avoids the river. + +North of Idjorituaqtuin we find the winter settlement of Nuvujen with +the fall settlement, Nuvujalung, a high cliff at the entrance of +Nettilling Fjord, belonging to it. + +By far the most interesting branch of the Talirpingmiut are the +inhabitants of Nettilling Fjord. Among all the tribes of Baffin Land +this one claims particular attention, as it is the only one whose +residence is not limited to the seashore. From Greenland to the mouth of +the Mackenzie only two Eskimo tribes are known who do not live all the +year round on the coast of the sea. These are the Talirpingmiut and the +Kinipetu of Chesterfield Inlet. Back and Anderson and Stewart say that +the latter tribe spend a great part of the year at the lakes of Back +River. + +Formerly the Talirpingmiut had three or four settlements on Lake +Nettilling: at Tikeraqdjung, near the south point of the lake; at the +outlet of Koukdjuaq, on the left bank of the river, opposite to +Nikosiving Island; at Qarmang; and probably a fourth one, on the north +shore. As the lake abounds with seals, they could live here at all +seasons. Its western part seems to have been particularly fitted for +winter stations. In the winter of 1877-’78, three families staid near +Koukdjuaq without encountering any considerable difficulty in procuring +food. This was the last time that natives passed the winter at the lake; +the greater portion of the tribe may have retreated to Nettilling Fjord +about twenty years ago. + +Though the Eskimo assert that the discovery of Lake Nettilling is of +recent date, naming two men, Kadlu and Sagmu, as those who first reached +it, this assertion is not trustworthy, for with them almost every +historical tradition is supposed to have originated a comparatively +short time ago. I was told, for instance, that an event which is the +subject of the tale Igimarasugdjuqdjuaq the cannibal occurred at the +beginning of this century, and yet the tradition is told almost word for +word in Greenland and in Labrador. + +Just so with Kadlu and Sagmu. According to the assertion of the natives +the lake was discovered by the generation before the last--i.e., about +1810--and yet an old woman about seventy-five years of age told me that +her grandfather when a young man, starting from Nettilling, had visited +Iglulik and that he had lived on the lake. The customs and habits of the +Eskimo would have led to the discovery of the lake very soon after the +first visit to Cumberland Sound, and no doubt their attention was then +called to the abundance of game in this region. + +The greater part of the natives spent the winter in Nettilling Fjord, +starting on their way inland about the beginning of May, and returning +to the sea about December. I suppose that cases in which men spent their +whole life on the lake were exceptional, for they are referred to by the +natives as remarkable events. For instance, a man called Neqsiang, who +had two wives, lived on a small island near Koukdjuaq and never +descended to Cumberland Sound. A few times only he is said to have sent +his son to barter with the Talirpingmiut of Nettilling Fjord. He came to +Qarussuit in the spring, but returned after a short stay. It may be +remarked here that the total absence of salt does not prevent the +natives from staying on Lake Nettilling. + +About 1850 the mode of life of the Talirpingmiut was as follows: In +November they gathered in Isoa, the easternmost bay of the lake, +descended toward the sea, and lived during the following months at the +entrance of Nettilling Fjord. There they lived in the same manner as the +other Oqomiut, pursuing the seals at their breathing holes. In the +spring they hunted young seals; but, when the other natives began to +prepare for whaling, they traveled on sledges westward. They avoided the +large tide holes of the long fjord by making use of a few passes. +Although the fjord is impassable in spring, a safe road leads along its +northern shore to its northern branch, Kangertlukdjuaq, where the water +hole Sarbaqdualung may be avoided by crossing the land at Tunukutang. +In the spring large water holes are formed near Neqemiarbing and at the +entrance of Audnerbing, compelling travelers to pass over the island +which separates the two passages of Sarbaqdualung. The pass Tunukutang, +which is used in winter, consists of a steep and narrow neck of land, +which separates a small lake from Kangertlukdjuaq, and a short and +winding river, the outlet of the lake. The second tide hole of the fjord +may be passed by the branches Qasigidjen and Sarbaqdjukulu and the +adjoining flat isthmus. The holes of Qognung, yet farther up the fjord, +do not hinder the natives, as they do not occupy the whole width of the +floe. + +At length they reached Kangia, and from here a chain of small lakes was +ascended, the watershed Ujaraqdjuin was crossed, and finally they +arrived at Amitoq. Cairns are everywhere erected on prominent points for +way marks. After they had come to Lake Nettilling, they rested a short +time at Isoa, where the skin boats and the necessary household goods had +been left the preceding fall. These were lashed upon the sledges and +then they traveled as quickly as possible to the west. After following +the southeastern shore to Tikeraqdjuaq they crossed the lake to a point +near Tikeraqdjung, whence they went along the southern shore of the +lake, reaching Koukdjuaq in about a fortnight. Here their tents were +established on the left bank of the river, opposite to Nikosiving, where +they staid until the breaking up of the ice. Then the men descended the +river in their kayaks. Four days they followed the coast, passing the +bay of Aggirtijung before they reached Qudjitariaq, a long and deep +river, which they ascended. For a few weeks they hunted deer among the +lakes of this region, which is called Majoraridjen, and then slowly +turned southward. At last, about the latter half of August, they reached +Qarmang, where at the beginning of summer the women and old men had +arrived in their large boats. Here the whole party stopped until the +lake was frozen up. Then they returned on sledges to Isoa and to the +sea. + +It would be very interesting to learn how far the natives formerly +extended their migrations along the shore of Fox Basin and whether a +regular intercourse existed between Iglulik and Cumberland Sound. +According to reports of some old Eskimo, who had themselves passed the +winter on the lake, there was always a small settlement at Qarmang. From +here the shore of Fox Basin was reached with great ease. If, however, +the route through Koukdjuaq had to be taken, a long, roundabout way was +necessary. According to all reports, even in olden times expeditions to +Iglulik were very rare. It is said that one was made about 1750 by a +party under the leadership of an Eskimo, Makulu. About 1800 another +party left, in which Kotuko assumed the leadership. About these a more +detailed account exists. With a few boats and four kayaks they left +Nettilling and followed the coast. Alone in his kayak, Kotuko visited +Sagdlirn, an island east of Iglulik, but he did not see any people, +as they were on a hunting excursion. He found one hut and a large dog. +There were a great number of deerskins and walrus tusks, which proved +the existence of an abundance of game. He returned, but on account of +the prevailing fog could scarcely find his kayak. The absence of the +party is said to have lasted three years. + +About 1820 another party left for Iglulik, among whom two women, Amaroq +and Sigjeriaq, were the most prominent. When they returned, after an +absence of three years, they praised the country (Piling), where they +had spent some time, as a land of plenty and abundance, and by these +tales, in 1835, induced three boat crews to leave Nettilling in order to +visit this happy land. They were grievously disappointed and after many +misfortunes they perished on the narrow isthmus of Ipiuting. Their +bodies were found by the Iglulik Eskimo, who related that the poor +fellows had resorted to cannibalism. Among those who perished was a +sister of the famous Hannah (Taqulitu), the companion of Hall in his +travels in the Arctic. I must mention here that Hall, in 1868, met a +native at Iglulik who was said to belong to Cumberland Sound. As, +however, in Iglulik Cumberland Sound and Davis Strait are often +confounded, I am inclined to think he was a native of the latter region. + +From these facts it appears that a regular intercourse between the +tribes along the shore of Fox Basin never existed, though formerly +interviews were more frequent than they are at present. Since the last +mentioned expedition no Eskimo has visited Piling, nor have any gone by +the way of Lake Nettilling to Iglulik. Accordingly the ideas of the +Oqomiut about that region are very indefinite. An old man was the only +person whom I could find who knew Iglulik by name and remembered Ingnirn +and Piling, two places which had been inhabited by many Eskimo. He +mentioned another inhabited region beyond Iglulik, Augpalugtijung, which +I was not able to identify. It was described as a large peninsula. + +It is worth remarking that the Talirpingmiut seem never to have traveled +over the country south of Koukdjuaq. I have not even heard mentioned a +single hunting excursion made in this direction. + +In the foregoing paragraphs I have described the mode of life of the +greater part of the Talirpingmiut. Still another part staid in +Cumberland Sound until the ice had gone and went away in the latter half +of July. The passage through the rapids of the fjords was very +dangerous, as in the whirlpools and overfalls the bulky boats were +easily capsized. Therefore the changing of the tides had to be +considered in order to effect a safe passage. The men preferred carrying +the kayaks over the passes in order to avoid the dangers imminent to +their frail crafts. Even up to this day tradition tells of a disaster +which happened when the stubborn owner of a boat, against the warning of +his friends, tried to pass Sarbaqdualung when the spring tide was +running swiftly. The boat was upset and the crew were drowned, with the +exception of one woman, who was saved on a bundle of deerskins. + +From Kangia boats had to be carried over the portages Igpirto, +Igpirtousirn, and Ujaraqdjuin. The rapids of Angmartung were also +avoided by a portage over the level bottom of the valley. After passing +Taquirbing, Lake Nettilling was reached, on the shore of which the huts +were erected. In the fall the party returned before the beginning of the +cold season. It has been already mentioned that only a few of the +natives staid at the lake during the entire year, and even among these +there were some who descended to the sea in March to take part in the +young sealing, for the skins of the young seal cannot be altogether +replaced by deerskins. + +At the present time it is exceptional for any one to remain inland +during the entire year. There may be seals enough in the lake to prevent +hunger or starvation, but they are taken much more easily from the sea. +In case of a lack of blubber, deer’s marrow may be used for fuel. It is +probable that the high mortality of recent years has induced the Eskimo +to band together more closely than they formerly did and to adopt the +plan of returning to Nettilling Fjord at the beginning of winter. In the +fall the boats and other articles which are of no use in winter are left +in Isoa, and some time is spent in Kangia, where snow houses are built. +Here the kayaks are left, and in December, when the sealing begins to be +more successful near the sound, the Eskimo turn to the entrance of +Nettilling Fjord, where Tininiqdjuaq and Neqemiarbing are favorite +places. Seals are hunted there with the harpoon in the same way as in +the other settlements or Sarbaqdualung is visited for the purpose of +shooting seals which frequent the tide holes. This, however, is not a +favorite way of hunting, as the ice near the tide holes is very rough +and treacherous. + +In March and April young seals are caught on the shores of the numerous +islands between Tininiqdjuaq and Nuvujalung, and at the same time the +old settlements are left, as large water holes begin to appear. +Qarussuit and Qingaseareang are the favorite places about this time of +the year. + +As soon as the young sealing is finished the hunt of the basking seal is +opened, which is very successful here. Nowhere else did I see such large +numbers of animals enjoying the warmth of the sun as in Nettilling +Fjord. In April, when on the east shore scarcely any dared to leave the +water, hundreds might be seen here. By the first of May all the natives +have procured a sufficient number of sealskins for their summer dress, +the skins being then in the best condition, as the first moulting has +just occurred. This done, they eagerly prepare for the journey to the +lake. + +The natives start in the first week of May, and in two or three days +arrive at Kangia, whence they reach Isoa in one day’s journey. Following +the southern shore of Lake Nettilling they sleep the first night on +Tikeraqdjuausirn, the second on the island Manirigtung, near +Tikeraqdjuaq, and five days after leaving Qarussuit arrive at +Tikeraqdjung, where they settle for the summer. As numerous deer are +found in this region, they live without any care or trouble. Very soon +after their arrival the birds return. While moulting great quantities of +these are caught. The geese are so abundant here that they are fed to +the dogs. Many deer are caught while passing the deep river which runs +from Lake Amaqdjuaq to Lake Nettilling. Frequently they visit the +southern plains, which are filled with lakes and lakelets. Sometimes +they go as far as Amaqdjuaq, which, as the older natives report, was +formerly a summer settlement. + +In the river whose outlet is near Padli salmon are caught in abundance. +In this district the Talirpingmiut stay until the eastern part of the +lake is frozen over. + +In the shelter of the islands the floe is more quickly formed than in +the open water of the western part, and in November the natives return +by sledges to Isoa. + +As they take with them heavy loads of deerskins they make very slow +progress and generally arrive at their place of destination after six +days of traveling. Sometimes they make a short trip to Isoa in March or +April to hunt deer or to look for the things which were left behind in +Kangia and Isoa at the time of their last departure. + +Besides the Talirpingmiut quite a number of Cumberland Sound natives +visit the lake by means of boats. They cross the sound after the +breaking up of the ice and go to Nettilling, carrying the boats over the +portages between Kangia and Isoa. As the Talirpingmiut have no boats +they stay at Tikeraqdjuaq; the other natives, however, sometimes change +their habitations and even visit Qarmang and the north shore of the +lake. These journeys, however, are rare, for in the eastern part an +inexhaustible supply of food may be obtained; therefore long excursions +are quite unnecessary. At the beginning of October the boats leave the +lake and the natives return to the fall settlements in the sound. + +Nettilling Fjord, with its numerous islands, forms the northern boundary +of Talirpia. Farther north we come to Qingua, the head of Tiniqdjuarbing +(Cumberland Sound). It extends from Imigen to Ussualung. The winter +settlement on the island of Imigen is situated in the midst of one of +the best winter hunting grounds, for the southern portion of the island, +on which the huts are erected, projects far out into the sea. The hunt +is often rendered somewhat difficult by the rough ice which is due to +the strong currents between Pujetung, Imigen, and Nettilling Fjord. +Towards spring the natives sometimes resort to a place yet nearer the +open sea, the largest island of the Pujetung group. Young seals are +caught near Imigen, at the Kilauting Islands, and in Qaggilortung. This +district, however, cannot be visited every year, as almost every spring +the whole area west of a line from Imigen to Anarnitung is covered with +very deep and soft snow, which prevents the Eskimo from using their dog +sledges. When this condition prevails the natives settle on the sea ice +between Augpalugtung and Imigen, or a little farther north, and remain +there from the middle of March until the latter part of April. + +These natives go deer hunting either to Issortuqdjuaq--where they live +at Eχaluaqdjuin, Sirmiling, or Midlurieling--or to Eχaluqdjuaq, near +Ussualung, where they hunt in the hilly land adjoining the ice-covered +Penny Plateau. As the land farther northwest is said to consist of +irregular hills and disconnected valleys, the skins and the meat of the +killed deer would have to be carried up and down hills before the +settlement was reached. Therefore the natives dislike hunting in this +part of the country. + +Eχaluaqdjuin and Eχaluqdjuaq, as is denoted by the names, are productive +salmon rivers. In starting from the former and ascending a narrow +valley, Lake Eχoleaqdjuin is reached, whence a pass leads to the valley +adjoining Eχaluaqdjuin. Taking another road the long Lake Imeraqdjuaq is +reached, which borders upon the glaciers of the highland. From here, +after a four days’ tramp following a large river, the traveler comes to +Midlurieling. From Issortuqdjuaq a narrow isthmus offering a good +sledging road is used in visiting the head of Qaggilortung. Another +route, which is suitable only for foot passengers, leads by a chain of +lakes to the head of Kangertlukdjuaq. It is not necessary to enumerate +the overland routes in this district, as numerous valleys permit the +traveler to pass from the east to the west and from the south to the +north. In the fall the natives resort to Saunirtung or to +Saunirtuqdjuaq, two islands northwest of Imigen, where they stay until +January, when they return to the sea. + +The second settlement of the Qinguamiut is Anarnitung, at the northern +entrance of Qaggilortung. The small island and the neighboring point of +Igdlungajung are, next to Qeqerten, the seat of the most important +settlement of Cumberland Sound. On the southern and eastern declivity of +the low hills which form this island are a number of very old stone +foundations (see p. 549), such as are found everywhere on the Arctic +shores of North America (Baffin-Land, p. 77). + +If the ice in the upper parts of the sound is smooth, families belonging +to this community settle on Kilauting, the largest island of a group +running from northwest to southeast a few miles north of Imigen. Here +they go sealing with the harpoon. If the ice, however, is rough (as it +happened to be during my stay in Cumberland Sound), they remain in +Anarnitung, whence some go to the water holes at the entrance of +Issortuqdjuaq and shoot the blowing seals, while others go hunting on +the ice near Anarnitung. + +During the young sealing season they almost always leave the island. The +favorite resort at this season is Sakiaqdjung, near Manituling, in +Qaggilortung, but heavy snowfalls often compel them to exchange this +region for the open sea. If they insist upon stopping there, snowshoes +are used as the only means of traveling in the deep and soft snow. In +1878, when the Florence wintered in Anarnitung Harbor, the greater part +of the natives remained near the ship; but her presence is accountable +for this exception, as some of the families were in her service and +others staid near her in order to barter seals, skins, &c. + +Of some importance are the passes leading around the numerous water +holes at the head of Cumberland Sound. The narrow island of Nudnirn, +which separates Sarbuqdjuaq from Putukin, offers a good passage by way +of a deep valley. Should the passage be made in a mild winter or in +spring, when the water holes of Sarbuqdjuaq have enlarged, they must +avoid the latter by passing over the inconvenient isthmus of +Itidliaping, west of the steep cliff Naujan. + +In spring the tide holes of Kangidliuta extend over the passage between +that island and Surosirn, preventing sledges from passing to +Issortuqdjuaq or to Tessiujang. Then Qaχodlualung is crossed by the way +of Naqoreang or the more southerly Tappitariaq, which leads into the +sound near Siegtung. Both passes are very inconvenient. From Tessiujang, +Issortuqdjuaq may be reached by the fjords Ugjuktung and Itijareling and +by the adjoining passes. + +Lastly, I have to mention the road formerly used by the natives of +Anarnitung in traveling to Nettilling. They crossed the entrance of +Qaggilortung and ascended Tarrionitung, whence they came by the Lakes +Qamusiojodlang and Irtiujang to Missirtung, in Nettilling Fjord, thus +avoiding a much longer journey around the large peninsula projecting to +the eastward. A similar pass farther east connects Tornait and +Kangertlukjuaq. + +The ruins of a third settlement of the Qinguamiut are found at Tulukan +on Qeqertelung. + +The next subtribe to be treated is the Kingnaitmiut, who are now located +exclusively upon Qeqerten. Formerly they lived in several places--for +instance, near Pangnirtung and on Miliaqdjuin--but for a long time they +have gathered on Qeqerten, as two whaling stations are established here, +many natives being in the service of the whalers. The island is the +largest settlement of the sound. It is a favorite resort during the fall +and the first part of winter. In November and December, before the ice +of the sound consolidates, the ice east of the islands is the best +hunting ground. Later that west of the islands is preferred. There is +one disadvantage peculiar to Qeqerten which is not shared by the other +settlements, namely, the fohn-like winds which often blow for many days +from Kingnait Fjord with irresistible violence. These confine the +natives to their huts, though a few miles north or south calm weather +prevails. Should fair weather ensue, the snow, which has been firmly +packed by these gales, affords a good hunting ground; but if, on the +other hand, long spells of bad weather follow, want and hunger may be +the result. The young seals are eagerly pursued all about Qeqerten. + +In Pangnirtung and in the little valley Niutang, in Kingnait, well up in +these fjords, are the ruins of two large, ancient settlements. The +conditions which formerly enabled the natives to live here will be +mentioned later. + +The Kingnaitmiut go deer hunting to Kitingujang, at the head of Kingnait +Fjord; to Nirdlirn, in the bay behind Augpalugtung and Sednirun; to +Pangnirtung; or to the more southern fjords Eχaluaqdjuin and +Kangertlukdjuaq. + +I shall describe the districts occupied by the Kingnaitmiut, +Saumingmiut, and Padlimiut together, as they all bear a uniform +character. + +From Nirdlirn the mountains of Ussualung or the highland near Ukiuqdjuaq +are visited. The same country is traveled over from Pangnirtung, where +the settlement is established either above Qordlubing or opposite +Aulitiving. The deep valley, with its numerous glaciers, adjoining +Pangnirtung and connecting Cumberland Sound and Davis Strait is rarely +visited. + +The favorite place for the settlement is Kitingujang in Kingnait. In the +river which empties here many salmon are caught, and the declivities of +the neighboring highlands, which are less steep than those of +Pangnirtung, afford ample opportunity for long hunting excursions. Deer +are found on the mountains, for here they escape the mosquitoes which +swarm in the valleys. The natives do not go beyond Padli, but most of +them have been there. They often travel through the valleys of +Nerseqdjuaq and Tunussung to Pangnirtung, of Davis Strait, down the +eastern shore of which they go a considerable distance. Sometimes they +make boat excursions during the summer from Kitingujang, visiting the +brooks which empty into Kingnait Fjord, or they settle in Tornait, +whence Tupirbikdjuin in Pangnirtung is accessible by the wide valleys +surrounding Angiuqaq. + +I may omit the description of the separate summer habitations farther +south, for the head of every fjord and every valley that is a means of +reaching the interior are used for erecting the tents. The interior of +the region, which is covered with ice, remains unvisited, no game being +found there. Therefore it may be said in general that the Eskimo are +limited to the peninsulas formed by the numerous fjords. + +The Saumingmiut visit the southern fjords of Cumberland Peninsula, where +I have marked the settlements on the chart. Here they pursue deer and +polar bears, which frequently come down to Cape Mercy during the summer. + +An important summer settlement of the Saumingmiut is Touaqdjuaq, from +which place they visit the peninsula limited by Exeter Sound and +Touaqdjuaq. An important summer station of both Saumingmiut and +Padlimiut is Qarmaqdjuin, while Eχaloaping (Durban Harbor of the +whalers), near the entrance of Padli, is visited only by the latter +tribe. + +The number of deer on Cumberland Peninsula is so variable that the +result of the hunt is often unsatisfactory. Although in some seasons +numerous herds are met, in others scarcely enough animals are killed to +afford a sufficient stock of skins for the winter clothing. Early in the +spring the deer pass quite regularly through Itidlirn (the lower part of +Padli Valley, between Ikaroling and Padli), in their migrations from +Narpaing to Qarmaqdjuin. I was told that in both the latter districts +many deer can be found at all times. + +Lastly, I have to describe the winter settlements of the Saumingmiut. +They are in the habit of separating in the fall, part of them staying +during winter on Qeqertaujang, in Ugjuktung, and the remainder at +Ukiadliving, on Davis Strait. + +Strange as it may seem, walrus are not found in the upper part of the +sound, while farther south they are abundant. Akuliaχating, east of +Qeqerten, is the most northern point that they visit. It is said that in +former times they were met with everywhere in the sound, and indeed some +of the local names give evidence of the truth of these traditions; for +instance, the name of Uglirn (which is always applied to walrus +islands), in the fjord Qaggilortung, and that of Anarnitung (a place +having a bad smell from walrus excrement), at the head of the sound. + +Before Cumberland Sound begins to freeze up, the Eskimo of Ugjuktung +take walrus on the islands Uglirn, south of Qeqertaujang, and at +Qeqertaq in Anartuajuin. The animals killed during the fall are buried +under stones, and with this stock of provisions the Saumingmiut do not +suffer want during the winter. In addition, however, they go sealing at +the entrance of Ugjuktung, or travel overland to Kangertloaping, +a branch of Kouaqdjuaq, as Nuvukdjuaq is almost always washed by water +and cannot be passed in winter. The young sealing is here of little +importance, as the bears visit the fjords about this season and frighten +the animals away. In March the natives go bear hunting or move up the +sound to join the Kingnaitmiut during the time of young sealing. In the +spring the settlement is always abandoned, as most of them go to Davis +Strait and join the other part of the tribe. Crossing the country, they +travel over a pass leading from Anartuajuin to Ujaradjiraaitjung. + +The favorite settlement on the east coast is Ukiadliving. There are +several stone foundations in this place which are frequently +reconstructed and used as dwellings. Here walrus are hunted in the +summer and in the fall and a great stock of provisions is laid up. In +winter the floe offers a good hunting ground for sealing and in the +spring the bears visit the land and the islands to pursue the pupping +(i.e., pregnant or parturient) seals. At the same time the she bear +brings forth her young, the meat and skin of which are highly prized. +Many old bears and cubs are killed at this season and the precious skins +are prepared for sale. + +Besides the beforementioned route another and longer one leads to +Cumberland Sound. In taking this course the sledges start from +Nedluqseaq, west of Ukiadliving, and follow a river which rises in a +small lake whence the inland ice is ascended. Farther on the valley +leading to Eχaluaqdjuin and Kangertlukdjuaq is reached. This is the only +overland route on which the inland ice is crossed. Cape Mercy can be +passed by a number of short isthmuses. In the shelter of the bay formed +by the cape and Muingmang a floe is formed reaching to the foot of +Uibarun (Cape Mercy). The pass Tappitaridjen, which cuts off two +peninsulas, leads into the sound. The bays farther west are frozen up +and the projecting points are avoided by short passes. Unfortunately +this road was unknown to me during my stay in Saumia, else I could have +easily visited Cape Mercy. At last Anartuajuin is reached. The water +rarely extends to Nuvukdjuaraqdjung, the point between Anartuajuin and +Ugjuktung. It may be passed by a difficult road leading across the +peninsula. If the water extends to Iliqimisarbing a pass is used which +is ascended from Eχalualuin, in the bay of Naujaqdjuaq. + +On Davis Strait a few important isthmuses must be mentioned. One is used +by the inhabitants of Ukiadliving in traveling to Exeter Sound. They +leave the sea at the head of Touaqdjuaq and by a difficult overland +route cross to the southern shore of Exeter Sound. Much of the time the +ice and snow near Udlimaulitelling make the route almost impassable in +that direction. If, therefore, this route is impracticable or that +through Touaqdjuaq is too difficult on account of the absence of snow, +the journey is postponed until late in spring, when the hummocks begin +to be leveled off and the snow becomes harder as it settles; then the +rough ice can be passed, and after reaching Ituatukan, a fjord near Cape +Walsingham, the Eskimo ascend it, so as to avoid the cape, which is +always washed by water. If snow and ice are in a suitable condition the +passage by way of Ituatukan is always preferred. + +From Exeter Sound Kangertlukdjuaq, in Padli Fjord, may be reached by a +pass of short extent; but the snow is always so deep here that the +passage cannot be effected until June. The peninsulas between Padli +Fjord and Exeter Sound, which have no ice foot, can be crossed by narrow +isthmuses near the head of the bays. + +Before leaving Cumberland Sound and its inhabitants, the Oqomiut, +altogether, I wish to add a few remarks on the whale fishery, which the +Eskimo formerly carried on in their bulky skin boats. They pursued the +monstrous animal in all waters with their imperfect weapons, for a +single capture supplied them with food and fuel for a long time. I do +not know with certainty whether the natives used to bring their boats to +the floe edge in the spring in order to await the arrival of the whales, +as the Scotch and American whalers do nowadays, or whether the animals +were caught only in summer. On Davis Strait the Padlimiut and the +Akudnirmiut used to erect their tents in June near the floe edge, whence +they went whaling, sending the meat, blubber, and whalebone to the main +settlement. In Cumberland Sound whales were caught in all the fjords, +particularly in Kingnait, Issortuqdjuaq, and the narrow channels of the +west shore. Therefore the Eskimo could live in the fjords during the +winter, as the provisions laid up in the fall lasted until spring. If, +therefore, there is a perceptible diminution in the supply of their food +it is due to the fact that the whale fishery has been abandoned by them +or rather has been yielded up to Europeans and Americans. It is not +probable, however, that a sufficient number of whales were ever caught +to support the entire population during the whole of the winter. The +whaling is still kept up by the Eskimo of Hudson Strait and Hudson Bay, +though only to a limited extent, owing to the visits of whaling ships +and the establishment of whaling stations. + +_The Padlimiut and the Akudnirmiut._--The next tribes to be described +are the Padlimiut and the Akudnirmiut, but this may be done very +briefly, as the nature of this region is similar to that of Saumia. +A peculiarity of the Akudnirmiut is their more decided migratory +character as compared with the Oqomiut. They do not spend every winter +at the same place, as we observed that the Oqomiut do, but are more +inclined to visit, in turn, the different winter stations of their +country. + +In summer the following places are almost always inhabited: Qarmaqdjuin, +Eχaloaping in Padli Fjord, Qivitung, and Niaqonaujang. The deer hunting +season opens here at the same time as farther south, but it is much +facilitated from the fact that the ice breaks up later. The deer visit +the numerous islands scattered along the mainland and thus their +pasturing ground is easily reached. As the islands of Home Bay +constitute a good hunting ground the Eskimo sometimes settle there for a +few weeks. + +The long, low peninsula Pamiujang, near Nedluqseaq, and the head of +Nudlung are the favorite summer settlements of the Padlimiut. Nudlung, +Eχalualuin, Ijelirtung, and Inugsuin are visited by the Akudnirmiut. An +abundance of deer is found along the southern part of Home Bay, where +the plains extend to the sea. It is remarkable that all along this shore +there is no island on which birds build their nests. Though fowls do not +form an important constituent of the food of the Oqomiut and the more +southern tribes, the egg islands are frequently visited. On Davis Strait +it is only by chance that ducks &c. are caught, and eggs can scarcely be +obtained. The only island which is visited by birds is Avaudjelling, +in Home Bay. In July, however, large flocks of eider ducks descend +Itirbilung Fjord and many are caught near its head. From this fjord an +overland route, which is practicable only in summer, leads to Piling, +a district on the shore of Fox Basin, which may be reached in three +days. Though the route is well known, it seems to be passing into +disuse; at least I do not know any natives who have crossed the land by +it. Another interesting road leading overland must be mentioned, namely, +the one which leads from Nudlung and Eχalualuin to Majoraridjen and +Nettilling. The former region is still visited by the Akudnirmiut, but I +know of but one family who went to Nettilling and wintered there. + +As a rule, about the beginning of August the Akudnirmiut move to +Niaqonanjang in order to have an opportunity of meeting the whalers on +their way south. For the same reason the southern families gather at +Qivitung. + +As soon as the sea is frozen up, part of the natives of Qivitung move +southward and settle on Qeqertuqdjuaq, where they stay until February, +while in spring some stay here or move farther up the bay, where they +establish their huts on Qeqertaq; the rest travel to Padli Fjord and +live with the families who had passed the winter there on Padloping. As +the floe edge approaches the land here, the country is favorable for +bear hunting, which is pursued in March and April. In June the natives +move up Padli Fjord to catch salmon, which are found in enormous numbers +at Padli. A few visit Agpan, where flocks of loons nest. The natives who +intend to return to Qivitung in summer leave about the end of May or the +beginning of June. + +Those who remain at Qivitung during the winter go sealing in the bay +east of the peninsula and subsist upon the product of this occupation, +as well as on the walrus meat which was stored up in the summer and +autumn. A few leave Qivitung after the consolidation of the floe and +settle on Nanuqtaqdjung, an island in Home Bay, near the northern point +of Qeqertalukdjuaq. + +In the winter the Akudnirmiut of Niaqonaujang generally remove to +Ipiutelling, on the southern shore of Koukteling, and in May go farther +south, to the island Avaudjelling. In the spring they go bear hunting on +Koukteling and the peninsula of Niaqonaujang, where the she bears dig +holes in the snow banks, in which they whelp. + +Though the isthmuses are of great value in facilitating the intercourse +between the separate settlements of Cumberland Sound and Davis Strait, +as their headlands are washed by water, they are not indispensable for +the tribes of Davis Strait, for the ice is passable at all points. The +low peninsulas are crossed by the natives in their travels in preference +to rounding their headlands. Thus they not only shorten their journey, +but they avoid the rough ice often found off the points. + +For example, a pass leads from the western bay of Padli Fjord to +Kangertloaping, and another from Tessiujang, near Qivitung, across the +narrow and low isthmus into Home Bay. Similar passes are used in +crossing Koukteling, the peninsulas of Niaqonaujang, Aqojang, and +Aqojartung. + +At Niaqonaujang I reached the limit of my travels and have only to add +reports which I obtained from other tribes and in other settlements. +River Clyde and Aqbirtijung are not always inhabited, but are visited at +irregular intervals by the Akudnirmiut, the same who usually stay at +Niaqonaujang. It is probable that Aqbirtijung and Kangertlualung are +sometimes visited by the Tununirmiut of Pond Bay. + +_The Aggomiut._--I can say but little about the two subtribes of the +Aggomiut (the Tununirmiut and the Tununirusirmiut), as the reports are +scanty and the chart of the region is too incorrect to convey any exact +information. A few statements may be derived from the Eskimo charts +published by Hall (II, pp. 356 and 370). It appears that the natives +winter near the entrance of Navy Board Inlet and in the back of Eclipse +Sound. Settlements of the Tununirusirmiut at the western entrance of +Admiralty Inlet and near its head are mentioned by Hall. Besides seals +these natives also pursue the white whales and narwhals which frequent +the sound. In summer the Tununirmiut live at the entrance of Pond Bay. + +Although I am not informed as to the position of the settlements, and +for this reason am unable to judge of the details of the life of the +Aggomiut, I can give the more general facts of their relations to the +neighboring tribes. Of the greatest importance is their connection with +the Iglulirmiut, for through them a regular intercourse is kept up +between the continent of America and the eastern shore of Baffin Land. +One road leads through Kangertlukdjuaq, a fjord east of Parry’s Murray +Maxwell Inlet, to the head of Anaulereëling. I received a detailed +description of this road from a native whom I met at Niaqonaujang. +Hall’s statement that this way leads to Pond Bay is very likely +erroneous, as the natives probably said that it led to Tununirn, which +comprises the whole district of Eclipse Sound and the region east of it. +It is possible that another road leads to Eχaluin, a fjord of Eclipse +Sound. Another route which is often used leads from Kangertlung, Parry’s +Gifford River, to Angmang, and farther west to Tununirusirn. This route +has already been described by Parry, who attempted to reach the north +shore of Baffin Land by it (II, p. 449). Parry’s description was +confirmed in 1869 by Hall (II, p. 356). I am somewhat doubtful whether +Fury and Hecla Strait, which is often filled with rough ice, can be +passed regularly, and whether a route leading to Tununirusirn follows +the shore of the Gulf of Boothia, as stated by some of the natives of +Davis Strait. This uncertainty did not occur to me until after I had +read Parry’s description. Communication between Tununirn and +Tununirusirn is by way of the isthmus between Kangertlung and Navy Board +Inlet. + +The journeys of the Aggomiut are not at all confined to Baffin Land. In +favorable winters they cross Lancaster Sound, passing the small island +Uglirn, and winter on the eastern half of Tudjan (North Devon). While +here they keep up some intercourse with the inhabitants of Umingman Nuna +(Ellesmere Land). + +It is said that they cross the ice covered island on sledges. In four +days they reach the northern shore, whence a long, narrow peninsula, +Nedlung, stretches toward Ellesmere Land. Through the narrow passage +which separates Tudjan from Nedlung runs a very swift tide which keeps +open a water hole throughout the winter. All around this place the ice +wastes quickly in the spring and a large basin is formed which abounds +with seals. Only that part of the peninsula which lies nearest North +Devon is high and steep, presenting a bold face. Farther north it is +rather low. + +Having reached Umingman Nuna, the Eskimo who gave me this information +affirm that they fell in with a small tribe who resided on this shore. +Here they lived for some time, as there was an abundance of seals during +the whole year. Farther northwest is a large fjord, Kangertluksiaq, off +which an island is found, Qeqertakadlinang by name. The Eskimo do not +visit the land on the other side of this fjord, as bears are said to be +very numerous and large there. Though these migrations to Jones Sound do +not occur very frequently, they have by no means been discontinued. For +instance, a family which was well known to me has visited Smith Sound, +and the father of some friends of a resident of Cumberland Sound +returned about fifteen years ago from a long stay on Tudjan and Nedlung. + +_The Iglulirmiut._--The last group of natives belonging to Baffin Land +are those of Iglulik. Our knowledge of this tribe is due to Parry and +Hall. As soon as the sea begins to freeze up, the natives gather on +Iglulik, where they hunt the walrus throughout the winter. According to +the position of the floe edge, Iglulik, Pingitkalik, or Uglit Islands +are the favorite settlements. Later in the winter, when new ice is +frequently attached to the floe, part of the families move to the ice +northeast of Igluling, where seals are caught with the harpoon. Another +winter settlement seems to be near Amitoq. In April young seals are +hunted in the bays and fjords, particularly in Hooper Inlet. According +to Hall the western coast of Melville Peninsula is sometimes visited +during the winter for walrusing and bear hunting (II, p. 343). An +overland route leads to this district, crossing the long Grinnell Lake +and Brevoort River, thus named by Hall (II, p. 342). As soon as the warm +season approaches the natives go deer hunting on Melville Peninsula or +more frequently on Baffin Land. From the reports of Parry and Hall and +from my own inquiries, there can be no doubt that they visit the eastern +shore of Fox Basin. + +_The Pilingmiut._--Two tribes were settled on the eastern coast of Fox +Basin, the Pilingmiut and the Sagdlirmiut, who had but slight +intercourse with the Iglulirmiut. I heard both mentioned at times when +traveling along Davis Strait. According to my information I should say +that Piling is about 74° west and 69° north. From Parry’s reports it +appears that the intercourse between these tribes and Iglulik was not +very active; for, although he had staid two years at Aivillik and +Iglulik, the Pilingmiut when visiting the latter tribe did not know +anything about this fact, which was one of the greatest importance to +all the natives (II, p. 430). Sometimes the Talirpingmiut of Cumberland +Sound meet the Pilingmiut, for both tribes go deer hunting northwest of +Nettilling. I heard of one such meeting between hunting parties in that +district. + +_The Sagdlirmiut._--The information as to the Sagdlirmiut is yet more +scanty than that relating to the inhabitants of Piling. Parry learned +that Sagdlirn is about east-northeast of Iglulik (II, p. 549). The +description which I received on Davis Strait confirms this opinion, for +the direction was denoted as qaningnang, i.e., east-northeast; besides, +Sagdlirn was described as a long and narrow island. + + +WESTERN SHORE OF HUDSON BAY. + +A remarkable difference exists between the customs of the western tribes +who live on the continent of America and those of the tribes that +inhabit Baffin Land and Melville Peninsula. This is chiefly due to the +difference in the nature of their territorial surroundings and to the +presence of the musk ox, which they frequently hunt. In addition, the +tribes of the continent do not hunt the seal in the winter, laying up +instead their supply of meat and blubber in the fall. The information in +regard to two of these tribes is quite complete, as they have been +visited by explorers frequently and at all seasons. The two tribes +referred to are the Aivillirmiut, of the northwestern part of Hudson +Bay, and the Netchillirmiut of Boothia Felix. Unfortunately the +information in respect to the others, the Kinipetu or Agutit, the +Sinimiut, Ugjulirmiut, and Ukusiksalirmiut, is less complete. + +_The Aivillirmiut._--In order to describe the mode of life of the +Aivillirmiut I shall give an abstract of Dr. John Rae’s observations in +1846-’47 and 1854-’55, of C. F. Hall’s life with these natives from 1864 +to 1869, and of Lieut. F. Schwatka’s residence among them from 1877 to +1879. A pretty correct idea of the migrations and favorite resorts of +this tribe at the different seasons may be obtained from the journals of +these travelers. + +When Rae arrived in Repulse Bay in the latter part of July, 1846, he met +with twenty-six natives who were deer hunting among the numerous lakes +of Rae Isthmus (I, pp. 35, 40, 48). Another part of the tribe had +resorted to Akugdlit, where they hunted the musk ox near Point Hargrave +(I, p. 49). Committee Bay (Akugdlit) was filled with a heavy pack about +that time, and the natives hunted walrus in their kayaks (I, p. 58). +Wherever they killed a deer or musk ox they made deposits of the meat +and carefully put up the walrus blubber in sealskin bags for use during +the winter. When, about the end of September, the deer were migrating +southward and new ice was forming on the lakes, the natives settled in +the center of that part of the country which had been their hunting +ground during the summer, in order to be near their depots. For this +reason they were well scattered all over the country, some establishing +their tents on the lakes of the isthmus, others staying on the shore of +Repulse Bay, where large deposits of deer meat and blubber had been +made. During the winter most of the natives gathered in one settlement +east of Fort Hope (near Aivillik), whence they started to bring in their +deposits. About the 20th of February they scattered all over the bay +(I, p. 91), but it is doubtful whether they did this in order to be +nearer their depots or to go sealing. In March the first deer of the +season were seen. (I, p. 93), but it was not until April that larger +herds passed Repulse Bay on their migration northward (I, p. 99). At +this time a small supply of trout was procured from Christie Lake, but +it was not sufficient for the support of the natives (I, p. 99). Caches +of venison were made and frequently visited until late in June (p. 166). +The sealing had begun in the beginning of May (p. 135), when the first +animals were seen basking on the ice. But the Eskimo were now almost +independent of their old food supply. When the salmon left the lakes and +the deer were roaming among the hills the time of plenty was at hand. +The salmon creeks were visited, deer were caught, and seals pursued on +the ice (p. 170). Although the first deer were caught in traps in May, +the principal season for deer hunting opened after the breaking up of +the ice, when they were easily taken while crossing the lakes. + +When Rae wintered the second time in Repulse Bay (1854-’55) he was much +surprised to find no natives there. They had wintered farther south, and +did not come to the bay until May, 1855, when they could catch seals on +the land ice. In 1864, when Hall arrived at Wager River, Repulse Bay was +again deserted. This year of Hall’s stay in Hudson Bay is very +instructive, as we learn from his account the particulars of the +migration of the Aivillirmiut from Nuvung to Repulse Bay. The following +facts are taken from his journal: + +In June, 1865, a traveling party arrived in Repulse Bay (Hall II, p. +177), where numerous deer were met with. Their tents were erected on +Uglariaq, whence seals were pursued, and they began at once to make +blubber deposits (p. 179). They were very eager to store as much +provision as possible, as there was no chance of obtaining a fresh stock +at Repulse Bay during the winter. Some of the party brought their boats +to the floe edge in order to follow the seal and walrus, which were +swimming in the water or lying on the drifting ice in great numbers, +while others preferred sledging on the land floe and shooting the +basking seals (p. 181). After the breaking up of the ice, whales were +seen, and kayaks and boats were made ready for their pursuit. In +September most of the natives returned to North Pole Lake to hunt deer +at the lower narrows (p. 202), where the meat was deposited for winter +use (p. 204). + +On the 19th of October the last deer was killed (p. 205), and most of +the natives returned to the bay. They located at Naujan, the men in the +party numbering 43 (p. 216). During the winter no kind of hunt was kept +up, only a few salmon and trout being caught in the lakes (p. 210). +Towards the latter part of March the settlement was broken up and its +members scattered for the purpose of hunting and fishing (p. 227). +Salmon were caught in North Pole Lake and deer shot in the narrow passes +(p. 227). The sealing did not begin until the first of April (p. 239). +In the summer, deer, seal, walrus, and salmon were caught in great +abundance. In the following years the mode of life was about the same, +but it maybe remarked that in August the natives lived at Pitiktaujang +and afterwards went to Lyon Inlet (Maluksilaq) to hunt deer (p. 323). +Part of them returned to Repulse Bay, where walrus were caught on the +drifting ice during September. In the ensuing winter (1867-’68) 55 +natives had gathered in a village about twenty miles east of Fort Hope +(p. 333), where they lived on the stores deposited during the preceding +summer. After the breaking up of the ice they succeeded in killing +several whales, which afforded an ample supply of meat and blubber +(p. 363). Subsequently, they hunted deer west of Repulse Bay (p. 364) +and near Lyon Inlet, where probably the greater part of the families had +staid since the previous year. + +In November, Hall found near the head of this inlet a number of natives +who came to Repulse Bay towards the end of the year, having heard that a +whale had been taken there. By this addition the village of Repulse Bay +suddenly increased in population to 120 inhabitants (p. 369). This was +the only winter in which the natives, began sealing in January (p. 371). +In March they built their huts upon the ice and scattered early in the +spring for sealing and catching salmon. + +From these reports and some more general accounts of these travelers, an +idea can be formed of the mode of life of this part of the Aivillirmiut +during the different seasons. In the spring, when the seals commence to +bask upon the ice, the tents are established on the floe of Repulse Bay, +the large winter settlements being broken up into a number of smaller +ones. During this season they begin to store away blubber, which is +carefully put into sealskin bags. Besides, reindeer are killed in the +deer passes. In July a great number of the natives leave the ice and +resort to the salmon rivers, where an abundant supply of food is +secured, but the sealing is also continued until the breaking up of the +ice. At this time of the year (i.e., in August), walrus and seal are +taken in large numbers, and thus an ample stock of provisions for winter +use is collected. In some seasons a few whales are caught and stored +away at once. In September, most of the natives move to the lakes or +rivers, particularly North Pole Lake, to hunt deer as well as the musk +ox on the hills. Other favorite localities for deer hunting are west of +Repulse Bay or near Lyon Inlet. Large deposits of venison are made, and +when the deer go south the natives settle in the center of their +summer’s hunting ground, building their snow houses on the lakes in +order to have a supply of water near at hand. About January most of them +gather in one settlement, which is established at Uglariaq, Naujan, or +Inugsulik. Those who come from Lyon Inlet do not always join the Repulse +Bay tribe, but may be identical with Parry’s Winter Island Eskimo, who +move to the bay south of Lyon Inlet in winter. They go sealing in winter +only in case of need, for the hunt seems to be unproductive, and they +subsist on the stores deposited during the preceding summer. Towards the +latter half of March the settlements are broken up and some of the +natives go to the lakes to fish for trout and salmon, while others begin +the sealing. + +Another winter station of the Aivillirmiut is Akugdlit, which, however, +has never been as important as Aivillik itself. Rae found some families +here in August, 1846. They hunted the musk ox on the western shore of +the bay, and later in the season, upon the pack ice which filled the +sea, they hunted the walrus (Rae I, p. 58). They reported that the bay +was very unfavorable for any kind of chase, as it is usually filled with +closely packed ice, which prevents the visits of animals and endangers +the boats of the natives (p. 49). In July the salmon creeks of Akugdlit +(Committee Bay) were visited by these families, who extended their +hunting ground from Colville Bay to the most northern parts of Melville +Peninsula (p. 145). According to Hall a number of families live here at +times. They were in the habit of staying at Repulse Bay during the early +part of the summer and went to Akugdlit in the autumn to hunt the musk +ox and deer. In the winter they transferred their deposits of blubber +from Aivillik across the lakes to their settlement. Probably these +families returned to Repulse Bay about the first of March, at which time +their deposits were always exhausted (Hall II, p. 383). In some seasons +the natives journey much farther south, that is, to the country between +Cape Fullerton and Wager River. Klutschak’s report upon this subject, +which is extracted from his observations during Schwatka’s search for +the Franklin records, will be found tolerably correct (Deutsche +Rundschau für Geographie und Statistik, III, 1881, p. 422). The report +contains the following statement: + + In the spring of every year these Eskimo live on the land floe of + Hudson Bay, at some distance from the point where the tides and + winds carry the pack ice past the shore. Here is the favorite + feeding place of the walrus, and the Eskimo confine themselves to + the pursuit of this animal. They settle near one of the numerous + islands situated near the shore. + +Later in the season they live in tents, and the hunting of seals and +walrus is continued as long as the presence of ice permits. The greater +part of the Aivillirmiut live near Depot Island (Pikiulaq). Here, on +Cape Fullerton, and near the northern entrance of Chesterfield Inlet, +the natives deposit their stores for winter use. As soon as the ice is +gone they resort to the mainland, where deer, which descend to the shore +at this season, are hunted. When the snow begins to cover the country +they move inland, where they continue the deer hunt. In October they +settle near a deer pass or a lake which is crossed by the herds +migrating southward. In December all the deer have left the country and +the natives live upon the stores deposited in the fall. Towards the +beginning of the new year part of them return to the sea and live upon +the deposits of walrus meat or disperse over the land floe, where seals +are killed in their breathing holes. Another part take to the hills near +Chesterfield Inlet and Wager River, a favorite feeding ground for the +musk ox. They only return to the bay in March or April, to hunt seals +until the breaking up of the ice. If the supplies of walrus meat are +very abundant the Eskimo gather in one large settlement. + +It appears from Klutschak’s own journal that this report is not quite +complete, and I shall therefore add those of his own observations which +seem to be important: + +The natives who had hunted deer in the fall returned in December to +Depot Island, where ten inhabitants lived at that time. They hunted +walrus at the edge of the floe during the whole winter, but did not +exclusively use their old stores (Klutschak, p. 32). In summer whales +were hunted by means of kayaks, the blubber and meat being immediately +stored for future use (p. 269). It is interesting to learn that a single +family spent a whole year in the interior of the country, about two or +three days’ journey west of Depot Island, living on the flesh of the +musk ox most of the time (p. 196). He does not say what kind of fuel +they used. + +In Klutschak’s chart of Hudson Bay, which is published with his essay, +a winter settlement is marked on Wager River, where the natives probably +lived on seals caught in the breathing holes. + +The mode of life of this tribe, as observed by Hall during his stay +among them in 1864, differs in some material points from Klutschak’s +account. It is particularly important that Hall found them at Wager +River. + +About forty Eskimo are said to have lived in Nuvung during that year, +while others were at Depot Island. Large depots of deer meat were +scattered over the country around the settlement (Hall II, p. 76) and +were brought in by the natives one by one. In the middle of November, +after having finished the work of currying their deerskins, they +commenced the walrus hunt, but meantime they frequently fed on deer meat +from their depots (Hall II, pp. 102, 128, 132, 133). Towards the end of +February they commenced to disperse, at first moving southward in order +to be nearer the floe edge (p. 144). In the beginning of March an +advance party of natives moved to Wager River, where they intended to +catch salmon through the ice and to visit depots in that part of the +country (p. 149). In April all the former inhabitants of Nuvung had +settled on the ice of Wager River, where salmon in moderate numbers were +caught (p. 164), but the main subsistence was the seals, which were at +first watched for at the breathing holes, while later on they were +killed when basking on the ice. + +As a summary of the foregoing statements, we may say that the five +principal settlements of the Aivillirmiut are Pikiulaq (Depot Island), +Nuvung and Ukusiksalik (Wager River), Aivillik (Repulse Bay), Akugdlit +(Committee Bay), and Maluksilaq (Lyon Inlet). They may be divided into +two groups, the former comprising the southern settlements, the latter +the northern ones. Every one of these settlements has certain well known +sites, which are frequented at the proper seasons. + +It yet remains to describe the roads which are used in the intercourse +between these settlements. From Pikiulaq to Nuvung the natives travel by +means of sledges. In the winter of 1864-’65 two journeys were made, the +first in December, the latter in January. Besides, boats are used in +traveling along the shore in summer. Sledge journeys from Nuvung to +Ukusiksalik cannot be accomplished on the ice, as in the entrance of the +bay large water holes are formed. The sledges follow a chain of long, +narrow lakes beginning near Nuvung and running almost parallel with the +coast through a deep gorge. The bay is but a short distance beyond this +gorge. I am not acquainted with the sledge road from Nuvung to Aivillik. +Rae was visited at Fort Hope by a number of Eskimo, who came by sledges +from Nuvung in June (I, p. 169). Hall traveled with the natives in +boats, passing the narrows and following the edge of the land ice, while +the rest of the families sledged on the shore or on the land ice (II, p. +177). The principal road across Rae Isthmus leads over North Pole Lake +and is described by Rae and Hall. The latter accompanied the natives on +two sledge roads, the one leading from Sagdlua, in Haviland Bay, to +Qariaq, in Lyon Inlet, the other crossing the land farther south. I am +not sure whether a road leading from Nebarvik to Committee Bay connects +Maluksilaq with Akugdlit. It is doubtful whether the coast between +Aivillik and Gore Bay is visited by the natives. + +It is remarkable that the Aivillirmiut very rarely go to Southampton +Island, though they are sometimes carried across Frozen Strait or Rowe’s +Welcome by drifting ice. Scarcely ever of their own accord do they visit +the island, which they call Sagdlirn. They know that it is inhabited, +but have very little intercourse with its people. + +_The Kinipetu or Agutit._--The reports upon the Kinipetu or Agutit of +Chesterfield Inlet are very scanty as compared with those of the +beforementioned tribe. All authors agree that they differ materially in +their habits from the Aivillirmiut, and it has often been affirmed that +they scarcely ever descend to the sea. As there is, however, no other +tribe mentioned south of the Aivillirmiut besides this one and as in +every voyage to these shores, even far south of Chesterfield Inlet, +Eskimo are met with who frequently visit Fort Churchill, the most +northern station of the Hudson Bay Company, there can be no doubt that +they also visit the shore and the islands and hunt seals. Probably the +greater part of the tribe live inland from July to March, hunting deer +and the musk ox, and in winter only descend to the sea in order to +procure blubber and sealskins during the season in which these are most +easily obtained. It may be that another part stay near the head of +Chesterfield Inlet all the year round or remain in the hilly country +between the deep gulf and Back River hunting the musk ox. According to +all reports, they are rather independent of the hunt of sea animals, and +they do not even use their skins for garments (Klutschak, Deutsche +Rundschau für Geographie und Statistik, III, p. 419). For this reason +they would afford interesting material for investigation, and it is +unfortunate that no trustworthy accounts of the tribe exist. Back, on +his journey to the shores of the Arctic Ocean, found traces of the +Eskimo on the lakes of Back River, ample proof that they were in the +habit of visiting this region every summer. He found the first traces +near 107° west longitude, and farther down, at the mouth of Baillie +River. He did not see the natives whom Anderson and Stewart met in the +summer of 1855 near McKinley River and later between Pelly and Garry +Lakes. Their clothing and even the covers of their kayaks were made of +deer and musk ox skins. They observed among these natives such articles +of European make as the Hudson Bay Company used for barter and which +were traded to the most southern Eskimo tribes of Hudson Bay. Therefore +it is likely that these natives belonged to Chesterfield Inlet. This +opinion is supported by Klutschak’s remark that a native of the mouth of +Back River knew an overland route leading from the lakes at its upper +course to Chesterfield Inlet. + +_The Sagdlirmiut of Southampton Island._--Before leaving the subject of +the Hudson Bay Eskimo I may mention the inhabitants of Southampton +Island, a tribe which is almost unknown and the only record of which was +obtained by Captain Lyon during the few hours which he passed among them +in 1824 (Attempt to reach Repulse Bay, p. 54). In August he found a few +families on the island south of Cape Pembroke, who were living upon +salmon which had been deposited in stone caches and who had tents made +of sealskins. A winter house was found at the same point. About 1865 an +American whaling vessel found some natives on Manico Point living in +five tents. Even then they had scarcely any iron, but used the old stone +implements; this proves the want of all communication with the natives +of the mainland. Parry found traces of Eskimo in York Bay and they have +been seen on many other parts of the island. The Hudson Bay tribes call +this tribe the Sagdlirmiut, i.e., the inhabitants of Sagdlirn, and their +knowledge about them is very scanty, as they meet very rarely and by +chance only. + +_The Sinimiut._--Northwest of Hudson Bay we find a tribe in Pelly Bay. +The reports upon it are very scanty and it is difficult to find out the +extent of the district which is occupied by it. Ross did not fall in +with the tribe, and in the accounts of the Netchillirmiut on their +journey to Repulse Bay no mention is made of an intervening tribe +(II, p. 263). In April, 1847, Rae found signs of the tribe near Helen +Island, in Pelly Bay (I, p. 113). There was an abundance of seals on the +ice all around the islands (p. 111), but besides these they had large +stocks of dried musk ox and salmon (p. 124). On his second journey he +found their winter habitation on Barrow and Cameroon Lakes (II, p. 938), +and on the 20th of April he met with seventeen natives on the mainland +west of Augustus Island, among whom were five women. In traveling +farther west he fell in with a native who had been hunting the musk ox. +On the 17th of May he found twelve natives settled in the same place and +living on seal (II, p. 842). + +Hall met with this tribe twice, in 1866 and in 1869. On the 28th of +April, in his first attempt to reach King William Land, he found the +Sinimiut settled near Cape Beaufort, in Committee Bay, where they were +probably sealing (II, p. 255). No further account of this meeting is +found except the remark that these natives were on their way to Repulse +Bay (p. 259). Therefore it is rather doubtful whether the eastern shore +of Simpson Peninsula belongs to their customary district. In April, +1869, on his second visit to Pelly Bay, Hall found their deserted winter +huts on Cameroon Lake (p. 386). In the early part of the spring they had +lived on the ice south of Augustus Island, the only place where seals +could be caught, as the rest of the bay was filled with heavy floes +which had been carried south by the northerly winds prevailing during +the preceding fall. The natives themselves were met with on the mainland +west of Augustus Island, where they were hunting the musk ox. When Hall +crossed the bay in the first days of June the natives had changed +neither their place nor their mode of subsistence. + +There is a discrepancy in Nourse’s extract from Hall’s journal, for he +sometimes refers to the Pelly Bay natives as different from the +Sinimiut, while in other passages all the inhabitants of the bay are +comprised in the latter term. I think this discrepancy is occasioned by +the fact that a number of Aivillirmiut had settled in Pelly Bay and some +others were related to natives of that locality; the latter Nourse calls +the Pelly Bay men, the rest the Sinimiut. The place Sini itself, +according to a statement of Hall, is near Cape Behrens, on the +northwestern shore of the bay. + +As the winter huts of the Sinimiut have been found four times on the +lakes of the isthmus of Simpson Peninsula, we may suppose that they +generally spend the winter there, living on the stores deposited in the +preceding season and occasionally angling for trout and salmon (Rae I, +p. 110) or killing a musk ox. In March they leave for the sea in order +to hunt seals and to secure a fresh supply of blubber for their lamps. +Their chief subsistence is the musk ox; besides, salmon are caught in +great numbers, for they live on dried fish until spring (Rae I, p. 124). + + +BOOTHIA FELIX AND BACK RIVER. + +_The Netchillirmiut._--Following the shore westward we find the +interesting tribes that inhabit Boothia Felix, King William Land, and +the mouth of Back River. Among them the Netchillirmiut are the most +important. Their favorite hunting grounds seem to have undergone a +remarkable change since they were first visited by Ross in 1829. At that +period their district occupied the southern part of Boothia Felix, +particularly the narrow isthmus and the adjoining parts of both coasts. +They were acquainted with Bellot Strait (Ikerasaq), which they described +as the way the Victory had to take in order to effect a passage to the +western sea. A part of the tribe was in the habit of wintering on Owutta +Island; they also probably visited the eastern part of King William +Land. The southwestern termination of their district cannot be exactly +defined, but from their description of the land south of Lake +Willerstedt it appears that they visited Shepherd Bay; besides, I find +that in June, 1831, a number of families lived south of Netchillik, +i.e., probably in Rae Strait or on Shepherd Bay (Ross II, p. 537). + +So far as can be gathered from Ross’s account the tribe had three winter +settlements, one on the eastern shore of the Isthmus of Boothia, another +at Lake Netchillik, and the third on Owutta Island.[3] As to the first +meeting of the natives with the Victory two contradictory accounts are +found. At first it is related (p. 252) that they came from Akugdlit, +having been on the road ten days. Later, and this is more probable, it +is said that two natives had descried the ship in September, 1829, when +passing near Victoria Harbor (p. 309). Being in great fear, they had +immediately traveled to Netchillik to communicate with their countrymen. +There they met with a woman who had been on board of Parry’s ships, and +she had induced all the natives, by her stories, to be on the lookout +for the Europeans. At the first meeting, on the 9th of January, 1830, 31 +men approached the ship. This would answer to a population of about one +hundred and twenty persons, and it is quite unprecedented that such a +party should travel for any distance and even beyond the limitations of +their own territory and of their customary migrations. Probably a +traveling party had joined the Netchillirmiut, who had lived somewhere +in Lord Mayor’s Bay, and they all went to meet the ship. + + [Footnote 3: From a rather ambiguous statement (p. 355) it would + seem that Owutta belongs to the territory of the Ugjulirmiut; but + in later passages ample proof is found that it is inhabited by the + Netchillirmiut (pp. 423, 427). I myself was formerly misled by the + above passage (Zeitschr. Gesell. Erdk., p. 171, Berlin, 1883).] + +From Ross we also learn that during January and February these natives +lived on seals, which were killed with harpoons (pp. 250, 255, 259), +but, in addition, they had deposits of venison, seal blubber, and fish +(pp. 251, 262). Sometimes they went hunting the musk ox on the mainland +farther north, and a small party may have staid there throughout the +winter (p. 265). In the first days of March they began to scatter all +over the ice (p. 290), in order to have a better chance of sealing and +of catching young seals in the white coat (pp. 293, 295). The young +sealing commenced about the 10th of March. It is worth remarking that +this is the only tribe on the continent of America which pursues the +young seal; they are enabled to do this by the extent of the land floe +in the large bays. In the last days of March some of the natives started +for Sarvaq and Netchillik to fetch their kayaks (p. 315), which they had +left there the preceding season. As they intended to hunt deer at the +lakes farther north, they were obliged to have their boats at hand at +the breaking up of the ice. The further the season advanced the more the +settlements were broken up (p. 338), and towards the end of April the +first families left for Netchillik to join the other part of the tribe +(p. 323). At this season the musk ox and the returning reindeer were +frequently hunted (pp. 252, 335, 349). In the first days of May some of +the natives went to Netchillik (p. 337), and another party followed a +month later (p. 383). They stopped on Middle Lake for a short time to +fish for trout (p. 384). A number of families remained near the ship, +sealing, catching salmon, and hunting the musk ox (pp. 436, 441, 450, +453) until the beginning of July, when the fishing season ended and they +went to the inland lakes to hunt deer and fish for trout in the rapids +between the lakes (p. 450). In the summer their principal fishing +stations were Lindsay River and Sarvaq. + +The other part of the tribe which had lived at Lake Netchillik were even +more numerous than that of the coast, as 21 snow houses were found which +had been inhabited by them during the winter (p. 389). The number of +inhabitants of this village was about one hundred and seventy, and, +since there were a few who lived on Owutta Island and yet others who may +have been scattered in different parts of the country, it is probable +that the whole tribe numbered 350 persons. + +As they were seen only a few times by the expedition the reports are +rather incomplete. In the winter they lived on a plain, which was called +Okavit, on the eastern shore of Lake Netchillik (p. 315). The exact +position cannot be learned from Ross’s journal. As some mention is made +of blubber deposits at Netchillik (p. 388), it is probable that they +lived on stores deposited in summer. Toward the end of May and in the +beginning of June they were met with at Spence Bay and Josephine Bay. +One of their stations was on the island Inugsulik, near Padliaq, the +head of Spence Bay. Here their principal food was codfish, which they +caught in holes cut through the ice, while the sealing was there a less +important interest (pp. 391, 426). The kayaks which were found deposited +on the west shore of Boothia as far as Josephine Bay proved that they +resorted to this region in the deer hunting season (pp. 406, 407). The +families who had been at Owutta during the winter of 1829-’30 were found +in June, 1831, in Padliaq, whence they crossed the isthmus and visited +Tarionitjoq (p. 431). + +In 1830 no natives were seen after the usual time of their departure for +the interior of the country, and it was not until April, 1831, that they +were found again. They had wintered at Lake Avatutiaq, on the eastern +shore of Boothia (p. 511), where they had lived on a large stock of +salmon caught in the fall (p. 531) and on musk oxen which were hunted +during the entire year in the hilly country near the lakes. Others had +wintered farther south, on Lake Owen (p. 524). A portion of these Eskimo +set out for Netchillik in April (p. 522), while the others remained in +Tom’s Bay and subsisted upon codfish, salmon, and seals (p. 546). + +In June another party left for Netchillik, whence some of the natives, +who had not seen the ship before, arrived at Victoria Harbor in July, +probably having heard of her new station at this place through the +returning families (p. 577). In August the last of them left, going west +(p. 592). + +Though these reports are rather imperfect, they enable us to get a fair +idea of the mode of life of this tribe. + +In the large bays on the eastern side of the isthmus the natives live +just as do the southern tribes of Baffin Land, pursuing the seal at its +breathing hole during the winter. Here, as everywhere else, the +settlements were broken up early in the spring. The fishing is commenced +remarkably early, while in the east scarcely any salmon are caught +before the breaking up of the lakes. West of Melville Peninsula the +fishing is commenced in March or even earlier. On Boothia the most +important means of subsistence for the natives is the codfish, on which +they live during the spring and probably during a part of the winter. +It is also an important article of food for the other tribes of this +region, while farther east it is of no importance. The salmon fisheries +of Boothia are very productive, of which Netchillik and Padliaq in +Josephine Bay, Stanley and Lord Lindsay Rivers, Qogulortung, +Angmalortuq, and Sarvaq may be considered the most important. Deer are +hunted while swimming across the numerous lakes of Boothia, and the musk +ox in the granite hills of its northern part. Here is also another +winter resort of the tribe, from which the island Tukia, north of Lake +Avatutiaq, is visited in summer, to collect pyrite or native iron +(p. 362), which is used for kindling fire. The life of the western part +of the tribe, as far as we are acquainted with it, was described in the +foregoing paragraph. + +Neither Dease and Simpson, who visited Castor and Pollux River in 1839, +nor Rae, on his second voyage to Boothia, met the natives themselves; +the latter, however, saw their marks on the islands of Acland Bay +(II, p. 840). + +The next traveler who fell in with the tribe was M’Clintock, who visited +King William Land in search of the Franklin records. In February, 1859, +he met several families near Cape Adelaide (p. 230). They traveled +during the spring all along the shore and had been near Tasmania Islands +in March and April. They were seen by him on their return journey to +Netchillik, near Cape Nicholas. They traveled slowly south, hunting +seals. They knew the coast as far as Bellot Strait and were able to name +every cape of this district. A few families who had wintered in company +with this party at Cape Victoria had returned to Netchillik when the +other parties started north (p. 253). On the 4th of May, twenty deserted +snow huts were found on the southwest point of Matty Island (p. 257). +From the direction of the sledge tracks, M’Clintock concluded that the +natives who had formerly lived here had gone to Netchillik. On the 7th +of May a settlement of 30 or 40 individuals was found on the eastern +coast of King William Land (p. 260). This party had not communicated +with the villages on the mainland of Boothia since the preceding fall +(p. 260). + +An interesting change in the territory which is inhabited by this tribe +has occurred since Ross’s visit to this country. In order to describe it +more fully, I must refer to the relations of the Netchillirmiut to the +Ugjulirmiut. At this early period the intercourse between the tribes of +Ugjulik and Netchillik was of little consequence. No European had ever +been in their districts, which included Adelaide Peninsula and the +southern shore of King William Land (Ross II, p. 317), but quite a +number of persons were known to the Netchillirmiut (p. 357), who had met +them in their trading excursions. In addition to this, a young single +man of Ugjulik had been adopted by a Netchillirmio who lived on the +eastern coast of King William Land and on Owutta Island (p. 355). When +the Franklin expedition perished on King William Land, in 1848, the +Netchillirmiut had not yet visited that part of the country. From +Schwatka’s inquiries we learn that the tribe that found Crozier and his +fellow sufferers did not extend its migrations beyond Adelaide Peninsula +and the southern shore of King William Land. In the summer of 1848 they +attempted in vain to cross Simpson Strait, and were compelled to stay on +the island. They traveled all over the country as far as Peel Inlet, +opposite to Matty Island (Gilder, p. 91). Hence it is obvious that the +Netchillirmiut, up to the time of the Franklin catastrophe, lived in +their old territory, as the inhabitants of Boothia in 1859 had only +indirect news of the shipwreck. + +When the Ugjulirmiut obtained an enormous stock of metals and wood by +the destruction of Franklin’s ships, the Netchillirmiut commenced to +visit King William Land, in order to partake also of these riches. Thus +they began, by degrees, to move westward, and became intermingled with +the Ugjulirmiut. Hall mentions quite a number of Boothians who had met +Ross on the eastern shore of the isthmus, though they were living on +King William Land at that time (Hall II, p. 405). Besides, according to +all accounts, the number of women is much smaller among the +Netchillirmiut than that of men, and these are obliged to look for wives +among the neighboring tribes, particularly among the Ugjulirmiut. As +these do not differ in the fashion of their clothing and tattooing from +the Netchillirmiut, it is scarcely possible at the present time to +separate the tribes. It is worth remarking, however, that Gilder and +Klutschak use both terms, and therefore I conclude that the natives +themselves are conscious of belonging to different tribes. + +Schwatka describes the limits of their territory as he learned them from +his observations in the summer of 1879 (Science, December 19, 1884, +p. 543). He found them on the mainland opposite King William Land and +along the islands in the vicinity of Simpson Strait. They were most +numerous along the northern shores of Adelaide Peninsula, their villages +being scattered every few miles along the coast from Montreal Island to +Smith Point. On the chart accompanying this account the eastern shore of +the Back River estuary is included in the district inhabited by the +Netchillirmiut. + +It is important to compare this description with the observations which +were made by Hall in 1869. He found the first traces of natives at the +very head of Shepherd Bay, where a sledge track was observed (p. 395). +Near Point Acland several snow huts and a number of natives were met +with on the 30th of April (p. 396). Farther west he found a village on +Point Booth (p. 397), but the most interesting fact is that in May, +1869, the party had fresh salmon from Netchillik (p. 400). This +statement is decisive of the question whether the Netchillirmiut still +continued their visits to the isthmus from which they take their name. + +From Klutschak’s journal a few more details may be gathered. From it we +learn that in summer the Netchillirmiut scatter, and, while some go +sealing near Montreal Island (p. 75), many others go inland to hunt deer +in the lakes of the peninsula and farther south (p. 119). A third party +resort to King William Land, the southern shore of which they frequent +until September, while the more northern parts are seldom visited +(p. 79). At this season they leave the island and all return to Adelaide +Peninsula (p. 126). I suppose, however, that this report does not refer +to the whole tribe, but that another party visited Shepherd Bay in +winter. It seems to me very improbable that in the interval between 1869 +and 1879 a total change should have occurred. In the spring they catch +salmon, which are dried and stored to be used in winter. Their stock of +blubber and deer meat is sufficient to last them during the greater part +of the winter. At this season they fish only in holes made through the +ice. Important winter settlements are at Point Richardson and at the +outlet of Qimuqsuq (Sherman Inlet), where all the deer needed are caught +in the fall while they are crossing the bay. + +Although these statements do not altogether harmonize, it appears, +notwithstanding, that King William Land and Adelaide Peninsula, which +were not visited by the tribe in the early part of our century, became +its favorite hunting ground after the loss of the Franklin expedition. +Since that period the more northern parts of Boothia may have been +abandoned by the natives, though no certain proof of this can be +offered. Netchillik itself and the more southern parts were visited up +to 1869, and probably they are yet inhabited by the Eskimo. This cannot +be said with positiveness, however, for this part of the country has not +been visited since the times of Ross and M’Clintock. The migration of +the natives was caused, without doubt and as we have already remarked, +by the profusion of metals and wood obtained from the wrecks and the +starved traveling parties. + +_The Ugjulirmiut._--Several important facts regarding the Ugjulirmiut +are mentioned above. Dease and Simpson found their first traces on the +western shore of Adelaide Peninsula. From Ross’s account (I, p. 427) it +appears that their territory was the same at that period as it is now, +and M’Clintock’s meeting with them on the shore of King William Land may +be adduced as a proof of this. Their old country is now inhabited by +both Ugjulirmiut and Netchillirmiut. Therefore their mode of life is +identical and requires no comment. Visits to the northern parts of King +William Land have been very rare, but it was on one of these that +Franklin’s ships were discovered (Klutschak). They rarely went hunting +beyond Cape Herschel, but looked for driftwood on the northern shore of +the island. + +_The Ukusiksalirmiut._--The last tribe of the Central Eskimo, the +Ukusiksalirmiut, inhabit the estuary of Back River. They were met by +Back and by Anderson and Stewart. Recently Schwatka and his party +communicated with them on their visit to King William Land. Klutschak +affirms that they are the remains of a strong tribe which formerly +inhabited Adelaide Peninsula but was supplanted by the Netchillirmiut +and the Ugjulirmiut. Klutschak calls them Ukusiksalik; Gilder, sometimes +Ukusiksalik, sometimes Ugjulik. The latter author relates that a single +family living on Hayes River (Kugnuaq) had formerly had its station on +Adelaide Peninsula, but had retired to this country when the warlike +Netchillirmiut began to visit King William Land and Adelaide Peninsula. +Schwatka could identify the same man with one of those whom Back had +seen in the estuary of the river in 1833 (Gilder, p. 78). Therefore they +must have lived in this district a long time before the Netchillirmiut +began to move westward. According to Back the party with which he fell +in did not know the land beyond the estuary of Back River, which +indicates that they were neither from Ugjulik nor Netchillik. As the +Ugjulirmiut lived on Adelaide Peninsula when Ross wintered in Boothia, +I do not consider it probable that the Ukusiksalirmiut ever lived in +that part of the country, and I cannot agree with Klutschak. I may add +Parry’s remark, that beyond Ukusiksalik (Wager River) another +Ukusiksalik (Back River) was known to the natives of Winter Island. + +The reports on their mode of life are very deficient. They were met by +Schwatka a little above the great bend of Hayes River in May, 1879; +he also met another party in December at the Dangerous Rapids of Back +River. Schwatka counted seven families at the former and nine at the +latter place. Their principal food consisted of fish, which are caught +in abundance in Back River (Klutschak, p. 164). It is said that they +have no fuel during the winter. Undoubtedly they use some kind of fuel, +and I rather doubt the implication that they do not hunt seals at all. +The musk ox and fish, however, are their main food, according to both +Klutschak and Gilder. It is very remarkable that all the natives west of +Boothia depend much more on fish than do any other tribes of the Central +Eskimo. + +A word in regard to the roads used in the intercourse between the +tribes. From Akugdlit a road leads over the lakes of Simpson Peninsula +to Pelly Bay. Rae and Hall traveled over it on their journeys to the +northwest and it was used by the Sinimiut when they visited Repulse Bay +in 1866. From Pelly Bay two roads lead to Netchillik and the estuary of +Back River, the one following the east shore of the Boothia, the other +running to Lake Simpson, whence the valley of Murchison River +facilitates the access to Inglis Bay. The Isthmus of Boothia is crossed +by the two chains of lakes discovered by Ross. In visiting the +northeastern part of the peninsula the natives ascend Stanley River and +cross the lakes farther north. Between Netchillik and Ugjulik the Eskimo +pass by Owutta Island to Peel Inlet, whence they travel overland to the +south shore of King William Land and cross Simpson Strait. Another road +leads from Cape Colville to Matheson Point, following the south shore of +King William Land. In traveling from Ugjulik to Back River they use +Sherman Inlet and the adjoining isthmus. It is probable that Back River +is visited by natives belonging to Wager River. The existence of a +communication between Back River and Chesterfield Inlet is proved by +Anderson and Stewart, who found Eskimo at Lake Garry, and by a remark of +Klutschak (p. 170), who learned from a native of Back River that +Chesterfield Inlet could be reached from the upper part of that river. +It is quite probable that thus an immediate though limited intercourse +is kept up between the Kinipetu and the Ukusiksalirmiut. + + +SMITH SOUND. + +_The natives of Ellesmere Land._--Last of all I have to mention the +natives of Ellesmere Land and those of North Greenland. Although the +latter are not generally considered as belonging to the central tribes, +I find that their habits and their implements resemble those of the +Central Eskimo rather than those of the Greenlanders, and therefore a +brief mention of them will not be inappropriate. The inhabitants of +Umingman Nuna (Ellesmere Land) probably live on the southern shore, near +the western part of Jones Sound, and, according to Bessel’s and my own +inquiries, they travel all around this island, passing by Hayes Sound. + +_The North Greenlanders._--The North Greenlanders live in the sounds of +the peninsula between Melville Bay and Kane Basin, hunting seals on the +smooth floes of the bays and pursuing walrus at the floe edges. They +make large deposits of the blubber and meat obtained in the fall, on +which they live during the winter. They also pursue seals in winter with +the harpoon. In summer they hunt reindeer on the mountains adjoining the +inland ice. + + +INFLUENCE OF GEOGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS UPON THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE +SETTLEMENTS. + +In considering the distribution of the tribes it is evident that they +are settled wherever extensive floes afford a good sealing ground during +the winter. The Sikosuilarmiut live on the large bay east of King Cape, +which is sheltered by numerous islands. The Akuliarmiut are settled near +Lesseps and North Bays. I am unable to say whether there is a floe near +the winter settlement of the Qaumauangmiut, as there are no reports upon +the subject. Probably ice is formed in the sound, which is protected by +the Middle Savage Islands, and besides it may be that the natives move +to North Bay. The important tribe of Nugumiut lives on Frobisher Bay and +the adjoining Grinnell and Field Bays. On the largest floe of this part +of the country, in Cumberland Sound, including Lake Nettilling, the +largest tribe is settled: the Oqomiut. On Davis Strait ice floes are +formed between Cape Mickleham and Cape Mercy, in Exeter Sound, and +between Okan and Bylot Island. The tribes are distributed accordingly: +the Saumingmiut of Ukiadliving, the inhabitants of Qarmaqdjuin with +their winter settlement in Exeter Sound, and the Padlimiut and the +Akudnirmiut farther north. The immense land floe of Davis Strait is not +so valuable a hunting ground for the Eskimo as Cumberland Sound, the ice +being very rough a few miles from the coast and at some places even +close inshore. When the sea begins to freeze in the fall the newly +formed ice is broken up by severe gales and by the currents and is piled +up into high hummocks before it consolidates. The sealing on rough ice +during the winter is very difficult and unsuccessful, as it is hard to +find the breathing holes and the traveling is very laborious. It is only +in the northern parts of Home Bay and in the large fjords that smooth +ice is formed. The settlements of the natives are manifestly distributed +in accordance with these facts. In every place where smooth ice is +formed we find that natives either are settled or have been settled. +Aqbirtijung, River Clyde, Ijellirtung, Home Bay, Brodie Bay, Merchant +Bay, and Padli are the only places along the shore of Davis Strait where +smooth ice occurs. On the long shores between them, which are +unsheltered from winds and currents, the ice is always very hummocky, +and, therefore, the natives do not settle upon them in the winter. In +the far north, extensive floes of smooth ice are formed in Eclipse Sound +and Admiralty Inlet. + +Concerning the country farther west the reports are rather scanty. The +southwest shore of Baffin Land and the eastern entrance of Fury and +Hecla Strait are always frozen over and afford a good hunting ground. +On the mainland, the large floes of Repulse Bay and Wager River, +Chesterfield Inlet and the bights all around it, Pelly Bay and the +narrow bays adjoining Boothia Peninsula, and the mouth of Back River are +important places for the distribution of the Eskimo. + +There are only a few districts where the proximity of open water favors +walrus hunting during the winter, and all of these have neighboring +floes on which seals may be hunted with the harpoon. These places are +Sikosuilaq, Akuliaq, Frobisher Bay, Iglulik, the west shore of Hudson +Bay, and Smith Sound. As to the remainder the Eskimo live altogether +independent of the open water during the winter. + +Generally speaking, two conditions are required for winter settlements, +viz, the existence of an extensive floe and smooth ice. + +The different mode of hunting in the spring causes a different +distribution of the settlements. During this season those regions which +had been deserted during the winter are most visited by the hunters. On +light dog sledges they travel over the rough ice and along the shores of +the fjords and islands. The natives who lived in large settlements +during the winter are spread over the whole country, in order that every +one may have a better chance of traveling over his own hunting ground. +In a few places the young sealing induces the Eskimo to leave the winter +settlements; in other places the kayaks are prepared for visiting the +floe edge, and bears and the returning birds are hunted. + +Though the greater variety of food which is to be obtained and the +difference in the methods of hunting in the spring require the +dispersion over a wide area of the families which had kept together +during the winter, the selection of places for the new settlements +remains wholly dependent upon the state of the ice. + +After the ice breaks up, the distribution of the deer regulates the +location of the summer settlements. While during the winter the state of +the ice is of decisive importance, the orography of the land comes now +into consideration. + +Wherever deep valleys give access to an extensive area, wherever +practicable roads enable the natives to ascend the plateaus, summer +settlements are established. The heads of the fjords are favorite +places, as they abound with salmon. The adjoining valleys and the +peninsulas which they form give the best chances for a successful deer +hunt. These facts are most apparent on the coast of the steep highland +of Nugumiut, over which numerous herds of deer roam. + +A great influence is also exerted by the extensive plains of the western +part of Baffin Land, which abound in deer. We observe that a number of +tribes visit these districts, though their winter stations are at a +great distance. The Akuliarmiut of Hudson Strait and the Nugumiut travel +to Lake Amaqdjuaq, the Oqomiut stay on Lake Nettilling, and the +Akudnirmiut visit Majoraridjen. In the same way all the tribes of Hudson +Bay visit the land farther west, which is frequented by herds of the +musk ox, and they go even as far as Back River. This important fact +shows the attraction which is exerted by a rich country on all the +tribes of the neighboring districts. + + +TRADE AND INTERCOURSE BETWEEN THE TRIBES. + +In treating of the single tribes, the routes were mentioned which are +followed by the natives as they travel from shore to shore and from +settlement to settlement. These routes are established by tradition and +the Eskimo never stray from them. In order to obtain a more thorough +understanding of the migrations of single individuals and of families, +the relations between the tribes and the settlements must be discussed. + +By the lively intercourse which is always kept up between the +settlements, it cannot fail that marriages between members of different +tribes should be of frequent occurrence and that many ties of affinity +and consanguinity should thus be created. These relations, however, +as distances increase, quickly become less common. For instance, in +Cumberland Sound three people are found belonging to Tununirn, about ten +belonging to Akudnirn, and quite a number coming from Padli. Also, two +Sikosuilarmiut live there, a few natives of Akuliaq and Qaumauang, and +very many Nugumiut. Hall’s accounts concerning the Nugumiut and the +Aivillirmiut prove a similar proportion of strange natives among these +tribes. Every tribe may be said to bring together its immediate +neighbors, as it is closely related to them, while those which are +separated by the tribe itself are strangers to one another. The +importance of this mediate position is regulated by the strength of the +tribe, by the significance of the country in reference to its produce, +and by the routes crossing it. + +Thus, the Sikosuilarmiut and the Nuratamiut are closely connected, and +may be considered as forming one group with the Akuliarmiut. The +Sikosuilarmiut have intercourse with the Igdlumiut, the inhabitants of +the northern shore of Labrador. According to Lucien M. Turner, three +tribes may be distinguished there as inhabiting the shores of Ungava Bay +and the eastern shore of Hudson Bay. This report differs somewhat from +the accounts of the Moravian missionaries who have intercourse with the +inhabitants of Ungava Bay near Cape Chidleigh. From their reports four +tribes may be distinguished: the Kangivamiut of George River, the +Kouksoarmiut of Big River, the Ungavamiut of Hope Advance Bay (which is +properly named Ungava), and the Itivimiut of Hudson Bay. I am rather +undecided whether Ungava is a bay or a large strait separating Cape +Wolstenholme and the adjacent land from the continent, as the name +Ungava is also reported south of Cape Wolstenholme. The inhabitants of +this shore are the Itivimiut of the Labrador Eskimo and the Igdlumiut of +the natives of Baffin Land. Probably the intercourse between Sikosuilaq +and Cape Wolstenholme is of no great importance. The Sikosuilarmiut +visit Trinity Islands (Nannuragassain) in skin boats to hunt walrus and +cross by the three islands Tudjaraaq´djung, Akugdlirn, and +Tudjaqdjuara´lung to the opposite shore of Hudson Strait. The passage +across the strait is considered very dangerous, and therefore is rarely +undertaken. The natives do not utter a single word during the long +passage; they believe a destructive gale might be conjured up if they +did. Only once have natives been met with on Salisbury Island (Lyon, +Attempt to reach Repulse Bay, p. 128), but it is doubtful whether they +belonged to the northern or to the southern shore of the strait. As for +the rest, the passage is only known to me by reports I received in +Cumberland Sound, which were confirmed by the whalers visiting the +northern shore of Hudson Strait. I do not know whether any intercourse +exists between Sikosuilaq and Southampton Island. It is worth remarking +that on Mansfield Island numerous ruins of Eskimo habitations have been +found (Gordon, Report on the Hudson’s Bay Expedition, 1884, p. 38). + +The Qaumauangmiut are connected with the Nugumiut in the same manner as +with the Akuliarmiut, and many are said to winter near North Bay, which +is also visited by the Akuliarmiut. From Hall’s reports it would appear +that many are settled in Frobisher Bay. + +At present the intercourse between the Nugumiut and the Oqomiut is of no +significance, as many years may pass without a journey being made from +one tribe to the other. Formerly, when many whalers visited Cumberland +Sound and Field Bay, a number of Nugumiut immigrated to the sound, and +consequently almost half of the Eskimo now settled on the western shore +of Cumberland Sound were born in Nugumiut or Ukadliq. At the same time +many Oqomiut settled among the Nugumiut. That period was doubtless an +exceptional one; at any rate, the long stretch of uninhabited shore +between the settlements of the two tribes is not favorable to intimate +intercourse. Indeed, even now the Nugumiut are considered strangers in +the sound, and, notwithstanding the existence of many intermarriages +between the tribes, a number of families are not at all acquainted with +one another. It is remarkable that the number of natives born in +Nugumiut is much larger on the western shore than on the eastern. They +seem to have joined their nearest neighbors, the southern Talirpingmiut, +perhaps for the reason that in their district the geographic character +of the land is most similar to that of Frobisher Bay. The number of +Nugumiut settled among the inhabitants of Nettilling Fjord and among the +Kingnaitmiut is far less. Among the Saumingmiut there is no one who has +traveled beyond Naujateling, and in Padli or farther north there are +very few individuals who have been south of Cumberland Sound. It is only +by careful consideration of the birthplace of the different individuals +who are members of the settlements of Cumberland Sound that it is +possible at the present time to detect the former division of the +Oqomiut into subtribes. The inhabitants of the eastern shore are related +to the Padlimiut and the Akudnirmiut; those of the western shore, to the +Nugumiut. In 1840 a brisk intercourse existed between Padli and the +sound (Eenoolooapik, p. 81), and probably sledges crossed the peninsula +every winter. Though the intercourse is not so intimate to-day as it is +between the settlements of the sound, it is yet active. The Kingnaitmiut +form the medium of the regular intercourse between Saumia and Padli, +while families removing to Akudnirn travel along the shore of Davis +Strait. Among the subtribes of the Oqomiut the Saumingmiut are most +nearly related to the Padlimiut and extend their migrations farthest to +the north. + +The Akudnirmiut, who are closely connected with the Padlimiut, are +considered strangers by the Oqomiut. The intercourse between the +Akudnirmiut and the Aggomiut is not very frequent, and seems to be +maintained as irregularly as that between the Nugumiut and the Oqomiut. + +The inhabitants of the northern sounds and of Fury and Hecla Strait +frequently visit one another. Parry mentions a number of journeys in +each direction (II, p. 436). Hall found natives of Tununirn and +Tununirusirn settled in Iglulik (II, p. 356). I myself found two +Iglulirmiut among the Akudnirmiut. The intercourse seems to have been +always very active, and consequently those tribes may be considered as +one group. + +The inhabitants of North Devon belong to the Tununirusirmiut, a few +families of this tribe sometimes settling on the island and after a few +years’ absence returning to their former home. + +From Parry’s, Hall’s, and Schwatka’s reports it appears that the +Aivillirmiut are closely related to the Iglulirmiut, while the Eskimo of +Chesterfield Inlet, the Agutit or Kinipetu, form a separate group. + +It is remarkable that between the tribes of Hudson Bay and the more +western ones a deep distrust exists, which prevents a frequent and +unlimited intercourse. The Sinimiut and Netchillirmiut are feared by the +Aivillirmiut, though intermarriages and removals from one tribe to the +other are not rare. No doubt they are less closely related than are the +neighboring tribes hitherto mentioned. Unfortunately, too little is +known of the western tribes to admit of a decided opinion whether or not +there exists an important difference in customs and habits. The +Sinimiut, the Netchillirmiut, and the Ugjulirmiut may be comprised in +one group, for they all hold frequent intercourse with one another and +the last two even inhabit the same region at the present time. The +change which the relations between these tribes have undergone since +1833 has already been referred to, as has their intercourse with the +Ukusiksalirmiut. Schwatka (Science, Vol. IV, p. 543) states that they +occasionally meet the Qidneliq of Coronation Bay, but that both tribes +distrust each other. Our knowledge about the migrations from North Devon +to Ellesmere Land and North Greenland is very scanty, but it is +necessary to mention its existence. + +Between tribes that are strangers to one another ceremonies of greeting +are customary which are not adapted to facilitate intercourse. The +ceremonies will be described further on (see p. 609). For the present it +will be sufficient to say that duels, with varying details, are common +between a stranger and a man of the tribe, and these sometimes result in +the death of the former. + +Among neighboring tribes these ceremonies are dispensed with, for +instance, between the Padlimiut and Oqomiut, Padlimiut and Akudnirmiut, +while a Nugumio or an Akudnirmio unknown in Oqo has there to go through +the whole of the performance. The exception in favor of the former +tribes is doubtless due to the frequent intermarriages with those +tribes, whereby a constant acquaintance is kept up. + +Real wars or fights between settlements, I believe, have never happened, +but contests have always been confined to single families. The last +instance of a feud which has come to my knowledge occurred about seventy +years ago. At that time a great number of Eskimo lived at Niutang, in +Kingnait Fjord, and many men of this settlement had been murdered by a +Qinguamio of Anarnitung. For this reason the men of Niutang united in a +sledge journey to Anarnitung to revenge the death of their companions. +They hid themselves behind the ground ice and killed the returning +hunter with their arrows. All hostilities have probably been of a +similar character. + +One tradition only refers to a real fight between the tribes. On the +steep island Sagdluaqdjung, near Naujateling, ruins of huts are found on +the level summit. They are said to have been built by Eskimo who lived +by the seashore and were attacked by a hostile tribe of inlanders. The +tradition says that they defended themselves with bows and arrows, and +with bowlders which they rolled down upon the enemy. The occurrence of +huts upon the top of an island is very unusual, and this tradition is +the only one referring to any kind of fights or wars. Even the tradition +of the expulsion of the Tornit a fabulous tribe said to have lived with +the Eskimo on these shores, does not refer to a combat. The details of +this tradition will be found in a subsequent chapter. + +I wish to state here that my inquiries and my understanding of the facts +as they have been reported by other travelers do not agree with the +opinions given by Klutschak (Deutsche Rundschau für Geographie und +Statistik, III, p. 418), who claims for the Eskimo of the west shore of +Hudson Bay reservations which are limited by precise lines of +demarkation. In comparing this statement with his own and with Gilder’s +narratives I am led to believe that the relations between the tribes are +the same in these regions as they are farther east. This opinion is +strengthened by Dall’s remarks on the Alaska tribes (Science, p. 228, +1885). + +The reasons for the frequent removals of individual Eskimo to strange +tribes are to be looked for in the customs of the natives. I can only +mention here that intermarriage, adoption, and the fear of blood +vengeance are the principal ones. + +It is peculiar to the migratory habits of the Eskimo that almost without +exception the old man returns to the country of his youth, and +consequently by far the greater part of the old people live in their +native districts. + +During the last decades the most important inducement to removals has +been the presence of the whalers in certain parts of the country. Since +the beginning of our century their fleets have visited the west shore of +Baffin Bay and Davis Strait, and thus European manufactures have found +their way to the inhospitable shores of the Arctic Sea. The most +valuable objects which were bartered were metals and wood. The value of +the former may be seen in its economical application for knives and +harpoon heads. By means of this trade the Akudnirmiut and the +Tununirmiut became far superior to the Oqomiut and the Iglulirmiut, with +whom they traded extensively in dogs, skins, &c. The Akuliarmiut and the +Qaumauangmiut also enjoyed the advantages which accrued from trade with +the ships of the Hudson Bay Company. + +When the whalers became better acquainted with the natives and the +peculiar jargon which is still in use was developed, the traffic became +very active, and reached its height after Cumberland Sound was +rediscovered by Penny. As soon as the whalers began to winter in the +sound and to employ the natives the latter received firearms and +European boats in exchange for their wares, and then their modes of +living became materially changed. The immense quantity of European +manufactured articles which thus came into the possession of the natives +induced the removal of many families to the favored region. Particularly +did the Nugumiut and the Akudnirmiut migrate during that period. When in +the course of time the Bay of Nugumiut was visited by the whalers +removals of members of this tribe became less frequent. + +After the Eskimo had become acquainted with the advantages of firearms +the natives of Davis Strait also began to trade bearskins for guns and +ammunition, having learned how highly they were prized in Cumberland +Sound. Besides, they received, in exchange for seals and walrus blubber +put up for the whalers, tobacco, pipes, coffee, boxes, &c. In a similar +way the Saumingmiut barter with the whalers of Cumberland Sound, whom +they visit during the winter, carrying heavy loads of bearskins to the +stations. + +A brief sketch of the way in which the whaling and the trade with the +Eskimo in Cumberland Sound are carried on may be of interest at this +point. Two of the whaling stations are still kept up. They are situated +on Qeqerten, the settlement of the Kingnaitmiut. When the Eskimo who +have spent the summer inland return at the beginning of October they +eagerly offer their services at the stations, for they receive in +payment for a half year’s work a gun, a harmonium or something of that +nature, and a ration of provisions for their families, with tobacco +every week. Every Saturday the women come into the house of the station, +at the blowing of the horn, to receive their bread, coffee, sirup, and +the precious tobacco. In return the Eskimo is expected to deliver in the +kitchen of the station a piece of every seal he catches. + +The time for the fall fishing commences as soon as the ice begins to +form. If the weather, which is generally stormy, permits it, the boats +leave the harbor to look out for the whales which pass along the east +shore of the sound toward the north. During the last few years the catch +has been very unprofitable, only a few whales having been seen. As the +ice forms quickly the boats must be brought back about the end of +October or the beginning of November. Since the whale fishery has become +unprofitable the stations have followed the business of collecting seal +blubber and skins, which they buy from the Eskimo. (See Appendix, +Note 1.) + +A lively traffic springs up as soon as the ice becomes strong enough to +allow sledges to pass from shore to shore. The sledges of the stations +are sent from one settlement to another to exchange tobacco, matches, +coffee, bread, &c. for skins and the spare blubber which the Eskimo have +carefully saved up. On the other hand, those natives who require useful +articles, such as cooking pots, lamps, &c., collect quantities of hides +and blubber and go to Qeqerten to supply their wants. The winter passes +quickly amid the stir of business, till everything comes to a stop at +the end of March, when the young sealing season fairly opens. + +When the sun has reached such a height that the snow begins to melt in +favored spots, a new life begins at the stations. The skins which have +been collected in the winter and become frozen are brought out of the +store room and exposed to the sun’s rays. Some of the women busy +themselves, with their crescent shaped knives, in cutting the blubber +from the skins and putting it away in casks. Others clean and salt the +skins, which are likewise packed away. The men also find enough work to +do after the young sealing is over, for the whale boats must be got +ready for the spring fishing. Strangers whose services have been engaged +by the station for the next few months arrive daily with their families +and all their goods to take up their abode on Qeqerten. The boats are +dug out of the deep snow, the oars and sails are looked after, the +harpoons are cleaned up and sharpened, and everything is in busy +preparation. The boats are made as comfortable as possible with awnings +and level floors, for the crews are not to come to the shore for about +six weeks. + +By the beginning of May, the arrangements having been completed, the +boats are put upon the sledges, which, under the direction of native +drivers, are drawn by dog teams, with their crews, to the floe edge. The +sledges being heavily laden and food for the dogs having to be provided +by hunting, each day’s stage is rather short. Arriving at the floe edge +the sledges are unloaded and the boats are launched. Seals and birds of +all kinds are now found in profusion and the chase is opened without +delay upon everything that is useful and can be shot. Sledges are +regularly sent back to Qeqerten with skins and meat for the families of +the Eskimo, while the blubber is packed in casks, which are kept ready +on the spot. + +The most important object of the expedition is the whale. Harpoons and +lines are always in readiness for the contest with the mighty monster. +The boats return to the north with the breaking up of the ice and the +fishing ends in July. The Eskimo are paid off and dismissed and resume +their reindeer hunting, while the whites are glad to enjoy some rest +after the weeks of exhausting labor. + +The constant contact between the Eskimo and the whalers has effected a +perfect revolution in the trade between the Eskimo tribes. As the whale +catch in Cumberland Sound has fallen off during the past fifteen years, +a remigration of the population of Davis Strait has occurred, ships +visiting these shores every fall and a regular traffic being kept up. +Therefore many Oqomiut now travel as far as Qivitung in order to trade +there. As Nugumiut is still frequently visited by whalers, there is no +inducement for the inhabitants to leave their country. + +Within a few years the Akuliarmiut also have become amply provided with +firearms and European products in general by means of a new whaling +station which has been established in their vicinity. + +As to the Iglulirmiut, the importation of European manufactures at Pond +Bay makes the trade with that region even more important than formerly. + +The Aivillirmiut and the Kinipetu have immediate intercourse with the +whalers frequenting the western shore of Hudson Bay. Besides, the +southern tribes trade with the stations of the Hudson Bay Company. + +The more western tribes of Boothia and its environs are dependent on the +mediation of the Aivillirmiut for their supply of goods, as they +themselves have no chance of communicating with the whites. + +Finally, I shall describe the old trading routes which existed between +these tribes before matters were totally changed by the influence of the +Europeans. Two desiderata formed the principal inducement to long +journeys, which sometimes lasted even several years: wood and soapstone. +The shores of Davis Strait and Cumberland Sound are almost destitute of +driftwood, and consequently the natives were obliged to visit distant +regions to obtain that necessary material. Tudjaqdjuaq in particular was +the objective point of their expeditions. Their boats took a southerly +course, and, as the wood was gathered, a portion of it was immediately +manufactured into boat ribs and sledge runners, which were carried back +on the return journey; another portion was used for bows, though these +were also made of deer’s horns ingeniously lashed together. A portion of +the trade in wood seems to have been in the hands of the Nugumiut, who +collected it on Tudjaqdjuaq and took it north. Another necessary and +important article of trade, soapstone, is manufactured into lamps and +pots. It is found in a few places only, and very rarely in pieces large +enough for the manufacture of the articles named. Among the places +visited by the natives for the purpose of obtaining it may be mentioned +Kautaq, east of Naujateling; Qeqertelung, near the former place; +Qarmaqdjuin (Exeter Bay), and Committee Bay. The visitors come from +every part of the country, the soapstone being dug or “traded” from the +rocks by depositing some trifles in exchange. In addition to wood and +soapstone, metals, which were extremely rare in old times, have formed +an important object of trade. They were brought to Baffin Bay either by +the Aivillirmiut, who had obtained them from the Hudson Bay Company and +the Kinipetu, or by the Akuliarmiut. Even when Frobisher visited the +Nugumiut in 1577 he found them in possession of some iron (Frobisher). + +The occurrence of flint, which was the material for arrowheads, may have +given some importance to places where it occurs. Formerly an important +trade existed between the Netchillirmiut and the neighboring tribes. As +the district of the former is destitute of driftwood and potstone they +are compelled to buy both articles from their neighbors. In Ross’s time +they got the necessary wood from Ugjulik, the potstone from Aivillik. +They exchanged these articles for native iron (or pyrite), which they +found on the eastern shore of Boothia and which was used for striking +fire. After having collected a sufficient stock of it during several +years, they traveled to the neighboring tribes. For reasons which have +been mentioned this trade is now essentially changed. According to +Schwatka there is a mutual distrust between the Ugjulirmiut and the +Netchillirmiut on one side and the Qidnelik on the other, for which +reason the intercourse between these tribes is very limited. + + + + +LIST OF THE CENTRAL ESKIMO TRIBES. + + +The following list gives the tribes of the Central Eskimo and their +geographical distribution: + + I. Northern coast of Labrador: + (1) Kangivamiut (George River). + (2) Kouksoarmiut (Big River). + (3) Ungavamiut (Hope Advance Bay). + (4) Itivimiut (Cape Wolstenholme). + + II. Northern shore of Hudson Strait: + (5) Sikosuilarmiut (King Cape). + (6) Akuliarmiut (North Bluff). + (7) Qaumauangmiut (Middle Savage Islands). + + III. Davis Strait: + (8) Nugumiut (Frobisher Bay). + (9) Oqomiut (Cumberland Sound): + _a._ Talirpingmiut (west shore of Cumberland Sound and +Nettilling). + _b._ Qinguamiut (head of Cumberland Sound). + _c._ Kingnaitmiut (Qeqerten and environs). + _d._ Saumingmiut (southern part of Cumberland Peninsula). + (10) Akudnirmiut (Davis Strait). + _a._ Padlimiut (Padli Fjord). + _b._ Akudnirmiut (Home Bay). + + IV. Northern part of Baffin Land, North Devon, and Ellesmere Land: + (11) Aggomiut. + _a._ Tununirmiut (Eclipse Sound). + _b._ Tununirusirmiut (Admiralty Inlet and North Devon). + (12) Inhabitants of Umingman Nuna (Ellesmere Land). + + V. Melville Peninsula, Wager River, and Southampton Island: + (13) _a._ Iglulirmiut (Fury and Hecla Strait). + _b._ Amitormiut (eastern coast of Melville Peninsula). + (14) _a._ Pilingmiut (eastern coast of Fox Basin). + _b._ Sagdlirmiut (islands of Fox Basin). + (15) Aivillirmiut (Repulse Bay and Wager River). + (16) Sagdlirmiut (Southampton Island): + + VI. (17) Kinipetu (Chesterfield Inlet). + + VII. Boothia Felix and King William Land: + (18) Sinimiut (Pelly Bay). + (19) Netchillirmiut (Boothia Felix and King William Land). + (20) Ugjulirmiut (King William Land and Adelaide Peninsula). + (21) Ukusiksalirmiut (estuary of Back River). + + VIII. Qidnelik (coast west of Adelaide Peninsula). + + IX. Inhabitants of North Greenland. + + + + +HUNTING AND FISHING.[4] + + [Footnote 4: A glossary of the Eskimo words used throughout this + paper will be found on p. 659.] + + +SEAL, WALRUS, AND WHALE HUNTING. + +The staple food of the Central Eskimo is the seal, particularly _Pagomys +fœtidus_. The methods of hunting this animal differ materially at +different seasons, as its mode of life depends on the state of the ice. + +In the winter it takes to the smooth parts of the floe a few miles from +the coast, where it scratches breathing holes through the ice, in which +it rises to blow. It shuns hummocky ice and floes of more than one +year’s age. Wherever the edge of the ice is at a great distance from the +settlements, the only way of procuring seals is by watching for them at +these holes. For the pursuit a light harpoon is used, called unang. The +shape of this weapon has been somewhat changed since the introduction of +rod iron. Formerly it consisted of a shaft having at one end an ivory +point firmly attached by thongs and rivets, the point tapering toward +the end. The point was slanting on one side so as to form almost an +oblique cone. Thus it facilitated the separation of the harpoon head +from the unang. On the opposite end of the shaft another piece of ivory +was attached, generally forming a knob. The material used in making the +shaft was wood, bone, or ivory, according to the region in which it was +manufactured. In Iglulik and in Aggo the narwhal’s horn was the favorite +material for the whole implement, a single horn being sufficient to make +a whole shaft. Wherever wood could be procured small pieces were +ingeniously lashed together. As the shaft is apt to be broken by the +struggles of the animal when struck by the weapon, it was strengthened +by a stout thong running along the whole length of the shaft. In all +other respects the old design corresponds to the modern one. +Unfortunately I have seen no specimen of this description, but a figure +may be seen in Ross II, p. 272, in the hand of one of the natives. In +Alaska a similar harpoon is in use, a specimen of which is represented +in Fig. 390. It consists of a wooden shaft, with a stout ivory point at +the lower end and another at the upper end. Both are fastened to the +shaft by whalebone strings. In the upper end a slanting ivory point is +inserted, which serves for attaching the harpoon head to it. The whole +shaft is strengthened by a seal line, as shown in the figure. + +The unang now in use in Baffin Land and on the western shore of Hudson +Bay (Fig. 391) consists of a wooden shaft into which an iron rod +(unartenga) is sunk. The latter is pointed at the end (see, also, Fig. +393) in about the same way as the old ivory implement. The socket is +secured by a small ivory ring (unaqiuta) or a string wound around the +end of the shaft. In the socket close to the iron rod a bent nail is +inserted, forming a narrow eye (tagusiarbing). Near the center of the +whole implement a small piece of ivory (tikagung; see, also, Fig. 418) +is fastened to the shaft, forming a support for the hand when throwing +the weapon. At the lower end of the shaft a string of deer sinews or a +thong is fastened, forming a loop (nabiring) which passes through a hole +drilled through the shaft. A stout iron point is also attached to the +lower end of the shaft (tounga). + + [Illustration: FIG. 390. harpoon from Alaska. (American Museum of + Natural History, New York.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 391. Modern unang or sealing harpoon. (Museum + für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6729.)] + +The natives carry this implement on all their winter excursions, as it +is serviceable for numerous purposes. It is always kept within reach on +the sledge, as the strong iron point is useful for cutting down +hummocks, should any obstruct the passage of the sledges, or for cutting +holes through the ice, or it takes the place of a hatchet in breaking +the frozen meat which is carried along for dogs’ food. The long iron rod +is extremely useful in trying the strength of the ice or the depth of +the snow. By taking precautionary measures of this kind the natives pass +over extensive floes of weak ice. + + [Illustration: FIG. 392. Old style naulang or harpoon head. (Museum + für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6692.) 1/1] + +The head belonging to the unang is called naulang. Since iron has been +introduced in Baffin Land and Hudson Bay, the natives file their harpoon +heads out of it, but adhere almost exactly to the old pattern. The old +naulang was cut out of bone or more frequently out of ivory (Fig. 392). +It was one inch to two inches long and had a piece of metal inserted +into the slit at the top. Through the middle of the instrument a hole +was drilled parallel to the plane of the blade. The harpoon line passed +through the hole, and as soon as the point struck an animal and a strain +was put upon the line it turned at a right angle to the latter, thus +acting as a toggle. The effect was increased by two points at the lower +end of the naulang, called uming (beard). These pressed into the flesh +or the skin of the animal and prevented the harpoon head from slipping +back. + + [Illustration: FIG. 393. Modern naulang or harpoon head (Museum für + Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6729.) ½] + +The modern naulang (Fig. 393) is about the same length as the old one, +but much more slender. While the back of the old pattern was straight, +the points of the iron one are bent outward and backward in order to +increase its effect. + +The naulang is fastened to the harpoon line (iparang). This part of the +instrument is much longer than the unang, as it must allow for the +struggles of the diving seal. The end of the line passes through the +hole of the naulang and a loop is formed and secured by deer sinew or +arranged as may be seen in Fig. 393. At a distance equal to the length +of the iron rod of the unang a small thong (taguta) is attached to the +line and serves to fasten it to the shaft (see Fig. 391). It is drawn +through the eye formed by the tagusiarbing. As soon as a strain is put +upon the naulang the line parts from the shaft, as the taguta is only +squeezed into the eye and is easily detached. The harpoon line passes +through the nabiring or is fastened by a slipping hitch to the shaft of +the unang. + +If the unang has a nabiring the line passes through this loop. A few +feet below it a small piece of ivory (akparaiktung) is attached to the +line, acting as a hook after it has run out. It catches the nabiring and +drags the harpoon along, thus impeding the movements of the animal (see +Fig. 391). + + [Illustration: FIG. 394. Qilertuang or leather strap and clasps + for holding coiled up harpoon lines. _a_, _c_ (National Museum, + Washington. _a_, 34128; _c_, 34132.) _b_ (Museum für Völkerkunde, + Berlin.) 1/1] + +The rest of the line is coiled up and held by the hunter. The end is +doubled so as to form a loop which serves as a handle when the line runs +out with the diving seal. Generally, a small piece of leather (Fig. 394) +with two slits at one end and an ivory clasp (qilertuang) at the other +is fastened to this loop; it serves to hold the bights together when the +line is detached from the harpoon and rolled up. Some art is bestowed on +the manufacture of this clasp (Fig. 394). Usually it represents a seal, +the head of which forms a hook on which the slits can be fastened. The +clasp is either tied or otherwise secured to the leather strap. Some +specimens in the British Museum, which are about one hundred and fifty +years old, show that these implements have not undergone any change +during that time. + +Parry describes another harpoon head used by the Iglulirmiut for the +unang. He calls it a siatko (Fig. 395). I myself have not seen any of a +similar pattern, but Kumlien gives a sketch of one found in a grave at +Exeter Sound (Fig. 396). The principal difference between the naulang +and the siatko is that the edge of the former is parallel to the hole +through which the line passes, while in the latter their directions are +vertical to each other. The head of the whaling harpoon (see Fig. 436) +acts on the same principle. + +When the day begins to dawn the Eskimo prepares for the hunt. The dogs +are harnessed to the sledge and the hunting implements are fitted up. +The harpoon line and the snow knife are hung over the deer’s antlers, +which are attached to the hind part of the sledge, a seal or bear skin +is lashed upon the bottom, and the spear secured under the lashing. The +hunter takes up the whip and the dogs set off for the hunting ground. +When near the place where he expects to find seals, the hunter stops the +team and takes the implements from the sledge, which is then turned +upside down. The points of the runners and the short brow antler are +pressed into the snow in order to prevent the dogs from running away. +A dog with a good scent is then taken from the team and the Eskimo +follows his guidance until a seal’s hole is found. In winter it is +entirely covered with snow, but generally a very small elevation +indicates the situation. The dog is led back to the sledge and the +hunter examines the hole to make sure that it is still visited by the +seal. Cautiously he cuts a hole through the snow covering and peeps into +the excavation. If the water is covered with a new coat of ice the seal +has left the hole and it would be in vain to expect its return. The +hunter must look for a new hole promising better results. + + [Illustration: FIG. 395. Siatko or harpoon head of the Iglulirmiut. + (From Parry II, p. 550.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 396. Siatko found at Exeter Sound. (From a + drawing by L. Kumlien.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 397. Eskimo in the act of striking a seal. (From + a photograph.)] + +If he is sure that the seal has recently visited a hole he marks its +exact center on the top of the snow and then fills up his peep hole with +small blocks of snow. All these preparations must be made with the +utmost precaution, as any change in the appearance of the snow would +frighten away the seal. The Eskimo take particular care that no hairs +from their clothing fall into the hole or remain sticking in the snow, +for they believe that the smell would scare away the animal. The center +of the breathing hole must be marked, as the game remains invisible and +only a stroke into the center will be likely to hit it. If the snow +covering is very thick and strong it is cut down, but is replaced with +loose snow, which is heaped around the end of the harpoon, the latter +being placed upon the central point. After the harpoon has been +extracted a hole remains which forms the mark for the harpooner. If the +Eskimo expects the early return of the seal, he spreads a small piece of +skin, generally that of a young seal, close to the hole and places his +feet upon it, thus keeping them warm. He fastens the naulang to the +harpoon shaft, while the lower end of the line is folded up in a coil, +which he holds in the left hand. The unang is held in both hands, and +thus the hunter sometimes remains for hours, occasionally stooping and +listening, until he hears the blowing of the seal. Then, all of a +sudden, he stands upright, and, with all his strength, sends the harpoon +straight downward into the hole, paying out the line at the same time, +but keeping a firm hold of the loop at its end (Fig. 397). Generally the +seal is struck near the head. If the line is fastened to the shaft by a +slipping hitch it is at once detached and the harpoon either remains +sticking in the snow or falls down by the hole. If the line runs through +the nabiring, the harpoon is dragged into the water and impedes the +movements of the animal. The hunter then begins at once to cut down the +snow covering with his knife, which has been left within easy reach, and +hauls in the line. As soon as the seal comes to the surface to breathe +it is easily dispatched and drawn up on the ice. + + [Illustration: FIG. 398. Tutareang or buckle. (Museum für + Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6710.) 1/1] + +The arrangements at the seal hole are more elaborate if the sealer +expects to wait a long time. If only a few men go out hunting and famine +is impending, he sometimes waits for a whole day or even longer, though +it be cold and the wind rage over the icy fields. He builds up a +semicircular wall of snow blocks to keep off the piercing wind and makes +a seat in the center of it. A skin is spread under his feet and his legs +are tied together with a thong, which is fastened by a peculiar kind of +buckle (tutareang) with two holes (Fig. 398). One end of the thong is +firmly tied to the buckle, passing through one of the holes, while the +opposite end passes tightly through the second hole. The thong may be +quickly opened by a strong effort on the part of the hunter, while it +helps to keep him quiet. At his right hand (Fig. 399; in this drawing it +appears on the left) the snow knife is stuck into the snow, while to the +left the unang is placed upon two pegs. The coil of the line lies in his +lap. His left arm is drawn out of his sleeve, that he may more easily +keep warm. Both sleeves are generally held together by a piece of deer’s +horn with a branch on each side which serves as a hook. Thus the hunter +waits until he hears the breathing of the seal. As it usually stays for +several minutes he is in no hurry to get ready. Cautiously he places his +left arm into the sleeve, having first disengaged it from the hook. He +then takes hold of the coil, picks up his unang, and, having risen, +strikes the center of the hole. + + [Illustration: FIG. 399. Eskimo awaiting return of seal to blowhole. + (From a photograph.)] + +Ross (II, p. 268) and Rae (I, p. 123) state that the sealing at the hole +is more difficult in daylight than in the dark. I suppose, however, that +when the snow is deep there is no difference; at least the Eskimo of +Davis Strait never complain about being annoyed by the daylight. + +Sometimes a small instrument is used in the hunt to indicate the +approach of the seal. It is called qipekutang and consists of a very +thin rod with a knob or a knot at one end (Parry II, p. 550, Fig. 20). +It is stuck through the snow, the end passing into the water, the knob +resting on the snow. As soon as the seal rises to blow, it strikes the +rod, which, by its movements, warns the Eskimo. Generally it is made of +whalebone. Sometimes a string is attached to the knob and fastened by a +pin to the snow, as its movements are more easily detected than those of +the knob. The natives are somewhat averse to using this implement, as it +frequently scares the seals. + + [Illustration: FIG. 400. Tuputang or ivory plugs for closing wounds. + _e_ (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6706.) _b_, _c_, _d_ + (National Museum, Washington. _b_, 10192; _c_, 10390; _d_, 9836.) + 1/1] + + [Illustration: FIG. 401. Wooden case for plugs. (Museum für + Völkerkunde, Berlin.) 1/1] + + [Illustration: FIG. 402. Another form of plug. (Museum für + Völkerkunde, Berlin.) ⅔] + + [Illustration: FIG. 403. Qanging for fastening thong to jaw of seal. + _a_ (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6825.) _b_, _c_ (National + Museum, Washington. _b_, 34126; _c_, 34129.) 1/1] + +After the carcass of the animal has been drawn out of the water, the +wounds are closed with ivory plugs (tuputang) (Fig. 400), which are +carried in a wooden or leathern case (Fig. 401) and are either +triangular or square. The plug is pushed under the skin, which is +closely tied to its head. Another form of plug which, however, is rarely +used, is represented in Fig. 402. The skin is drawn over the plug and +tied over one of the threads of the screw cut into the wood. After the +dead animal’s wounds are closed, a hole is cut through the flesh beneath +the lower jaw and a thong is passed through this hole and the mouth. +A small implement called qanging is used for fastening it to the seal. +It usually forms a toggle and prevents the line from slipping through +the hole. The patterns represented in Fig. 403 are very effective. The +hole drilled through the center of the instrument is wider at the lower +end than elsewhere, thus furnishing a rest for a knot at the end of the +thong. The points are pressed into the flesh of the seal, and thus a +firm hold is secured for the whole implement. The Eskimo display some +art in the manufacture of this implement, and frequently give it the +shape of seals and the like (Fig. 404). Fig. 405 represents a small +button, which is much less effective than the other patterns. A very few +specimens consist merely of rude pieces of ivory with holes drilled +through them. Fig. 406 shows one of these attachments serving for both +toggle and handle. + + [Illustration: FIG. 404. Qanging in form of a seal. (Museum für + Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6825.) 1/1] + + [Illustration: FIG. 405. Qanging in form of a button. (National + Museum, Washington. 34130.) 1/1] + + [Illustration: FIG. 406. Qanging serving for both toggle and handle. + (National Museum, Washington. 10400.) ⅔] + + [Illustration: FIG. 407. Qidjarung or whirl for harpoon line. + (National Museum, Washington. 34121.) 1/1] + + [Illustration: FIG. 408. Simpler form of whirl. (Museum für + Völkerkunde, Berlin.) 1/1] + +In order to prevent the line from getting out of order, a whirl +(qidjarung) is sometimes used. Fig. 407 represents one brought from +Cumberland Sound by Kumlien, and is described by him (p. 38). There was +a ball in the hollow body of this instrument, which could not be pulled +through any of the openings. One line was fastened to this ball, passing +through the central hole, and another one to the top of the whirl. +A simpler pattern is represented in Fig. 408. + +On its capture, the seal is dragged to the sledge and after being +covered with the bearskin is firmly secured by the lashing. It freezes +quickly and the hunter sits down on top of it. If the seal happens to +blow soon after the arrival of the hunter, a second one may be procured, +but generally the day is far spent when the first seal is killed. + +Wherever water holes are found they are frequently visited during the +winter by the Eskimo, especially by those who have firearms. They lie in +wait at the lower side of the hole, i.e., the side to which the tide +sets, and when the seal blows they shoot him, securing him with the +harpoon after he has drifted to the edge of the ice. These holes can +only be visited at spring tides, as in the intervals a treacherous floe +partly covers the opening and is not destroyed until the next spring +tide. + +In March, when the seal brings forth its young, the same way of hunting +is continued, besides which young seals are eagerly pursued. The +pregnant females make an excavation from five to ten feet in length +under the snow, the diving hole being at one end. They prefer snowbanks +and rough ice or the cracks and cavities of grounded ice for this +purpose, and pup in these holes. The Eskimo set out on light sledges +dragged by a few dogs, which quickly take up the scent of the seals. The +dogs hurry at the utmost speed to the place of the hole, where they stop +at once. The hunter jumps from the sledge and breaks down the roof of +the excavation as quickly as possible, cutting off the retreat of the +seal through its hole if he can. Generally the mother escapes, but the +awkward pup is taken by surprise, or, if very young, cannot get into the +water. The Eskimo draws it out by means of a hook (niksiang) and kills +it by firmly stepping on the poor beast’s breast. An old pattern of the +hook used is represented according to Kumlien’s drawing in Fig. 409; +another, made from a bear’s claw, in Fig. 410; the modern pattern, in +Fig. 411. + +Sometimes the natives try to catch the old seal in a most cruel way, by +using the love of the dam for her pup to lure her to the surface of the +hole. They tie a thong to the hind flipper of the pup and throw it into +the hole. It dives at once, crying pitifully. When it comes up to +breathe the hunter pushes it back, and frequently the dam returns to her +young and attempts to draw it away. As soon as she is seen the harpoon +is plunged into her body and she is quickly drawn out of the water and +killed. + +The young seal is also pursued by foxes, which drag it from the +excavation and leave nothing but the skin, which becomes a welcome find +for the Eskimo. + + [Illustration: FIG. 409. Old pattern of hook for drawing out + captured seal.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 410. Seal hook of bear’s claw. Actual size, + 3 feet. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6728.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 411. Modern form of seal hook. (From a drawing + by Kumlien.)] + +As the season advances and the rays of the sun become warmer the seals +break down the snow roofs and are seen basking beside their holes. The +young ones remain with their dams until late in June. + +At this season a new method of hunting is practiced, by which seals are +caught with greater ease than in winter. The hunter approaches the +animal from the windward side until he is within seventy or eighty yards +of it. He then lies down, after having fastened a piece of skin under +his left arm, upon which he reclines. The skin protects him from the +melting snow, facilitates speed, and diminishes the noise as he creeps. +He moves on toward the seal, resting on his left arm and side and +pushing himself forward with his right foot and left arm (Fig. 412). The +seal frequently raises his head and gazes around to make sure that no +danger threatens. As long as the seal is looking around the hunter lies +flat and keeps perfectly still, or, if he is somewhat close to the +animal, imitates its movements by raising his head and rolling and +playing with his hands and feet as a seal does with its flippers. Some +natives will utter sounds similar to those of a blowing seal or use a +small sledge with a white screen to conceal themselves from view. The +sealskin clothing makes man and seal look so extremely alike that it is +difficult to distinguish one from the other at some distance. If the +hunter succeeds in deceiving the animal it lies down again to sleep and +he pushes himself on. As the naps of the seal last but a few moments, +the Eskimo approaches very slowly. At last he is near enough. He levels +his gun and tries to hit the animal’s head, as it must be killed by the +first shot, else it jumps into the hole and escapes. If the snow is hard +and water has not yet appeared on the top of the ice, a seal may be +killed in this way in twenty or thirty minutes. If the snow is very soft +and deep it is almost impossible to get near enough, as it is extremely +difficult to push one’s self along. The approach is rather easy through +rough ice, which conceals the hunter, but the seals seldom frequent such +places. Sometimes they are found at the edges of rough ice or near the +shore and are easily caught when in this position. + + [Illustration: FIG. 412. Eskimo approaching seal. (From a + photograph.)] + +Formerly, the harpoon was used instead of the gun, and is even now +preferred by some hunters. The hunter gets near enough to reach the seal +with the harpoon, and having struck his prey has a better chance of +securing it, as the weapon prevents its escape. + +After the shot has been fired or the harpoon thrown, the Eskimo at once +jumps to his feet in order to prevent the escape of the animal to its +hole, to which it takes if only wounded. An expert hunter can kill from +ten to fifteen seals in one day. + +Rae, in describing the method of hunting, states (I, p. 170) that the +women at Repulse Bay are very skillful, and when they have no harpoon +frequently use a small wooden club, with which they strike the seal on +the nose, killing it. + +Generally two men go sealing together. They set out early in the morning +on one sledge, and while one creeps toward the seals the other keeps the +dogs quiet. A single hunter cannot hunt successfully at this season with +a sledge, for when he leaves it the dogs will either follow him or, if +made fast to the ice, raise such a howling that the seal is put upon its +guard. Therefore it is necessary that a continuous watch be kept on the +dogs. When the shot is fired and they perceive that the seal is killed, +no amount of whipping will restrain them; they rush forward until they +have reached the victim, which is then lashed on the sledge. + +The hunters go on in search of a second seal, at the sight of which the +dogs are again stopped. When the Eskimo intend to remain out only a few +hours they leave the dead animals at their holes and load them on the +sledge on the return journey. A single hunter cannot leave the +settlement for a long distance, but is limited to sealing near the +village and killing no more animals than he can drag to it himself. +Sometimes it happens that the seals are fast asleep. Then the hunter can +go up to them without any precaution and kill them immediately, and even +a dog team running at full speed can take them by surprise. In winter a +similar method of hunting is followed whenever the edge of the floe is +close to the land. In such places all kinds of seals lie on the ice, +even in the midst of winter, and are pursued in the way which has been +already described. + +A strange method of hunting is reported by Ross (II, p. 451) as +practiced by the Netchillirmiut. Eight men slowly approached the basking +seal until it raised its head, when those in front stopped and shouted +as loud as they could; on which three others ran up with incredible +swiftness and the leader struck it with the spear. + +Still later in the season, when the snow is all gone, a very successful +method of hunting is practiced. All the inhabitants of the settlements +set out at once, men, women, and children, and occupy every seal hole +over a large area. The men keep their harpoons ready to strike the +animal when it comes up to blow, while the women and children are +provided with sticks only, with which they frighten away the seals +whenever they rise where they are standing. The animals are compelled to +rise somewhere, as otherwise they would be drowned, and thus an ample +supply is secured in a short time. + +After the breaking up of the ice the natives take to their kayaks and +the summer hunt is started. As at this season the methods of catching +all kinds of seal and walrus are almost identical, I shall describe them +together; and, first, the most important part of the hunting gear, the +kayak and its belongings. + +The kayak (qajaq) is almost exclusively used for hunting by all Eskimo +tribes from Greenland to Alaska. According to Bessels the Ita natives do +not know its use, though they have retained the word. As a connection +exists between this tribe and those of Baffin Land, I have no doubt that +they are acquainted with the use of the boat, though it may be of little +avail in that ice encumbered region. When I first visited the tribes of +Davis Strait no kayak was to be found between Cape Mercy and Cape Raper, +nor had there been any for several years. In the summer of 1884, +however, two boats were built by these natives. + +The general principles of their construction are well known. The kayak +of the Nugumiut, Oqomiut, and Akudnirmiut is bulky as compared with that +of Greenland and Hudson Bay. It is from twenty-five to twenty-seven feet +long and weighs from eighty to one hundred pounds, while the Iglulik +boats, according to Lyon (p. 322), range from fifty to sixty pounds in +weight. It may be that the Repulse Bay boats are even lighter still. +According to Hall they are not heavier than twenty-five pounds (II, p. +216). + + [Illustration: FIG. 413. Frame of a kayak or hunting boat. (Museum + für Völkerkunde, Berlin.)] + +The frame of the kayak (Fig. 413) consists, first, of two flat pieces of +wood which form the gunwale (apumang). From ten to twenty beams (ajang) +keep this frame on a stretch above. The greatest width between them is a +little behind the cock pit (p. 487). A strong piece of wood runs from +the cross piece before the hole (masing) to the stem, and another from +the cross piece abaft the hole (itirbing) to the stern (tuniqdjung). The +proportion of the bow end to the stern end, measured from the center of +the hole, is 4 to 3. The former has a projection measuring one-fourth of +its whole length. Setting aside the projection, the hole lies in the +very center of the body of the kayak. A large number of ribs (tikping), +from thirty to sixty, are fastened to the gunwales and kept steady by a +keel (kujang), which runs from stem to stern, and by two lateral strips +of wood (siadnit), which are fastened between gunwale and keel. The stem +projection (usujang), which rises gradually, begins at a strong beam +(niutang) and its rib (qaning). The extreme end of the stern (aqojang) +is bent upward. The bottom of the boat is partly formed by the keel, +partly by the side supports. The stern projection has a keel, but in the +body of the boat the side supports are bent down to the depth of the +keel, thus forming a flat bottom. Rising again gradually they terminate +close to the stern. Between the masing and the itirbing is the hole (pa) +of the kayak, the rim of which is formed by a flat piece of wood or +whalebone bent into a hoop. It is flattened abaft and sharply bent at +the fore part. The masing sometimes rests upon a stud. + + [Illustration: FIG. 414. Kayak with covering of skin. (Museum für + Völkerkunde, Berlin.)] + +The whole frame is covered with skins (aming) tightly sewed together and +almost waterproof (Fig. 414). Usually the cover consists of three or +four skins of _Pagomys fœtidus_. When put upon the frame it is +thoroughly wetted and stretched as much as possible so as to fit +tightly. It is tied by thongs to the rim of the hole. A small piece of +ivory is attached to each side of the niutang and serves to fasten a +thong which holds the kayak implements. Two more thongs are sewed to the +skin just before the hole, another one behind it, and two smaller ones +near the stern. + +The differences between this boat and that of the Iglulirmiut may be +seen from Lyon’s description (page 320). Their kayak has a long peak at +the stern, which turns somewhat upward. The rim round the hole is higher +in front than at the back, whereas that of the former has the rim of an +equal height all around. At Savage Islands Lyon saw the rims very neatly +edged with ivory. The bow and the stern of the Iglulik kayaks were +equally sharp and they had from sixty to seventy ribs. While the kayaks +of the Oqomiut have only in exceptional cases two lateral supports +between keel and gunwale, Lyon found in the boats of these natives seven +siadnit, but no keel at all. These boats are well represented in Parry’s +engravings (II, pp. 271 and 508). Instead of the thongs, ivory or wooden +holders are fastened abaft to prevent the weapons from slipping down. + +If the drawing in Lyon’s book (p. 14) be correct, the kayak of the +Qaumauangmiut (Savage Islands) has a very long prow ending in a sharp +peak, the proportion to the stern being 2 to 1. Its stern is much +shorter and steeper than that of the northern boats and carries the same +holders as that of the Iglulirmiut. + + [Illustration: FIG. 415. Model of a Repulse Bay kayak. (National + Museum, Washington. 68126.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 416. Sirmijaung or scraper for kayak. (Museum + für Völkerkunde, Berlin.) ½] + + [Illustration: FIG. 417. Large kayak harpoon for seal and walrus. + Actual length, 6½ feet. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 418. Tikagung or support for the hand. _a_, _b_, + _c_ (National Museum, Washington. _a_, 30000; _b_, 30005; _c_, + 30004.) _d_ (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.)] + +The model of a Repulse Bay kayak is represented in Fig. 415. The rim of +the hole is in the same position as in the Iglulik kayak, the fore part +resting on a rib bent like a hoop, whereas in the others it rests on a +beam. The stern resembles closely that of the Cumberland Sound boats, +while the head is less peaked, the keel having a sharper bend at the +beginning of the projection, which does not turn upward. Early in the +spring and in the autumn, when ice is still forming, a scraper +(sirmijaung) (Fig. 416) is always carried in the kayak for removing +the sleet which forms on the skin. When the boat has been pulled on +shore, it is turned upside down and the whole bottom is cleaned with +this implement. A double bladed paddle (pauting) is used with the boat. +It has a narrow handle (akudnang), which fits the hand of the boatman +and widens to about four inches at the thin blades (maling), which are +edged with ivory. Between each blade and the handle there is a ring +(qudluqsiuta). + +The kayak gear consists of the large harpoon and its line (to which the +sealskin float is attached), the receptacle for this line, the bird +spear (with its throwing board), and two lances. + + [Illustration: FIG. 419. Qatirn or ivory head of harpoon shaft. + (National Museum, Washington. 34101.) ⅔] + + [Illustration: FIG. 420. Manner of attaching the two principal parts + of the harpoon.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 421. Tokang or harpoon point in sheath. (In the + possession of Captain John O. Spicer, Groton. Conn.) ⅔] + +The large harpoon (Fig. 417) is used for hunting seals and walrus from +the kayak. The shaft (qijuqtenga) consists of a stout pole from four and +a half to five feet in length, to which an ivory knob is fastened at the +lower end. At its center of gravity a small piece of ivory (tikagung) is +attached, which serves to support the hand in throwing the weapon. +A remarkable pattern of this tikagung, which nicely fits the hand of the +hunter, is represented in the first of the series of Fig. 418, and +another one, which differs only in size from that of the unang, in the +second. At right angles to the tikagung a small ivory knob is inserted +in the shaft and serves to hold the harpoon line. At this part the shaft +is greatly flattened and the cross section becomes oblong or rhombic. At +the top it is tenoned, to be inserted into the mortice of the ivory head +(qatirn). The latter fits so closely on the tenon that it sticks without +being either riveted or tied together. The qatirn is represented in Fig. +419. Into the cavity at its top a walrus tusk is inserted and forms with +it a ball and socket joint (igimang). + +The tusk and the qatirn are fastened to each other in a most ingenious +way, which may be readily made out from the engraving (Fig. 420). The +principal effect of this arrangement of the holes and the thong is that +the tusk is kept steady by two parallel thongs that prevent it from +tipping over and only allow a movement in the plane of the flattening of +the shaft as soon as any considerable force is applied to the tusk. + +The harpoon head used in connection with this weapon is the tokang. To +prevent it from being injured, it is carried in a wooden sheath (Fig. +421). The iron point is secured by a string of whalebone or sealskin; +the lower part is fastened to the sheath as indicated in the figure. The +tokang differs from the naulang in that it is larger and stouter. In +some cases great care is bestowed upon the finishing of this important +weapon. + +An interesting specimen of this variety of harpoon head was found by +Kumlien in Cumberland Sound (Fig. 422). It was taken from a whale and +differs from the device of that country. The back is bent similar to +that of the iron naulang and the barbs have two points each instead of +one. The front part is sharply ridged. The specimen is very nicely +finished. A few very old harpoon heads of the same pattern are deposited +in the British Museum and were of Hudson Strait manufacture; therefore I +conclude that Kumlien’s specimen is from the same part of the country. + + [Illustration: FIG. 422. Tokang or harpoon head taken from a whale + in Cumberland Sound. (National Museum, Washington. 34069.) ⅔] + +Fig. 423 represents an ancient harpoon head of the same style, the +locality of which is unfortunately unknown. The specimen is of +particular interest, as it shows the method of fastening the stone to +the ivory part. A similar specimen is in the collections of the British +Museum; it formed part of the Sloane collection. Both these specimens +show perforations at the lower end of the harpoon head which are not +found in the modern ones. Probably these served for holding the harpoon +head to the shaft by means of a thin line, in order to prevent the head +from coming off before the seal or walrus was struck. These holes are +similar to the ones shown in Figs. 395 and 436. + + [Illustration: FIG. 423. Ancient tokang or harpoon head. (In + A. Sturgis’s collection, New York.)] + +The harpoon line (alirn) is attached to the tokang in the same way as +the iparang is to the naulang. When it is fastened to the igimang, the +bend of the tusk facilitates the disengagement of the harpoon head, +which turns its back to that of the tusk. Attached to the line at the +level of the ivory knob which has been mentioned is the teliqbing (Fig. +424), into the hole of which the knob fits closely. As the line from the +tokang to the teliqbing is just long enough to allow it to be pulled +down far enough to reach the knob, it holds shaft and head firmly +together so long as the tusk remains in its position. As soon as a +lateral strain is put upon the tusk the distance between the head and +the knob is diminished and the teliqbing slips off, thus disengaging the +line with the harpoon head from the shaft. Sometimes the teliqbing has +two holes, one being used when the line is wet and longer, the other +when it is dry and shorter. + +In Iglulik the spear is called qatilik (Fig. 425). In pattern it is the +same as that of Akudnirn and Oqo, the only difference, according to +Parry’s description, being that the toung (the tusk) is straight and has +a notch near its socket (see Fig. 425), while the harpoon head which +belongs to it has only a single point at its lower end. + + [Illustration: FIG. 424. Teliqbing, which is fastened to harpoon + line. (National Museum, Washington. 34123.) 1/1] + + [Illustration: FIG. 425. Qatilik or spear from Iglulik (From Parry + II, p. 550.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 426. Avautang or sealskin float. (National + Museum, Washington. 30009.)] + +This harpoon is placed on the right side of the prow of the kayak, with +the point directed towards its head. The harpoon line, with the tokang, +lies just before the hunter in a flat receptacle (asedlun), which +consists of a wooden ring with a handle, held by thongs before the hole +of the kayak. The receptacle rests on the skin cover, having no feet, as +has the Greenland one. In Hudson Strait it is secured upon holders. The +harpoon line is rolled up in a coil, but its end is fastened to the seal +float, which lies behind the hunter and is held in place by a thong. The +line passes along the right side of the kayak hole. The float (avautang) +(Fig. 426) consists of a whole sealskin which had been removed from the +animal dexterously, its entire body being pulled through the mouth, +which is enlarged by means of a cut along the throat. The nails of the +flippers are frequently extracted and the openings sewed up, the hind +flippers and the tail being cut off and firmly tied together by a thong, +thus forming a neck (atauta), to which the harpoon line is attached. At +the head a pipe for blowing up the skin (poviutang) is inserted (Fig. +427); the skin is firmly tied to the ring of the pipe, on which the +stopper is secured as soon as the skin is sufficiently inflated. This +device is a very convenient one, for it is difficult to inflate the skin +without some kind of mouthpiece. If there are any holes in the float +they are closed by a button similar to the one shown in Fig. 427 _a_, +which, however, is without a hole. + + [Illustration: FIG. 427. Different styles of poviutang or pipe for + inflating the float. (National Museum, Washington. _a_, 29986; _b_, + 34118; _c_, 34119; _d_, 34120.)] + +If the harpoon is to be used for hunting large animals, such as walrus +or whales, a very ingenious contrivance is sometimes inserted between +the line and the float in the shape of a wooden hoop with a seal or deer +skin stretched over it (niutang) (see Fig. 437). Three or four thongs of +equal length are fastened to the hoop at equal distances and bound +together. At their point of union they are attached to the line. As soon +as a walrus is struck and starts to swim away, the hoop is thrown at +right angles to the stretched line and exerts a strong resistance when +dragged along, thus diminishing the speed of the animal and quickly +exhausting its strength. The float prevents its escape, as it is too +buoyant to be drawn under water. The animal cannot dive, and thus the +hunter does not lose sight of his prey. + +For small seals a similar weapon is used, the agdliaq (Fig. 428), the +main difference being that it is much smaller and has a seal bladder for +a float attached to the shaft. I have not seen this weapon myself, but +Kumlien has brought away parts of it. Fig. 429 shows that its point +differs only in size from the large igimang. The head (probably the +naulang) is tied to the shaft, which acts as a drag. + +The points are fastened to the shaft in almost the same way as the +former, the only difference being that they are straight; the drill +holes do not cross one another. Fig. 430 represents the heads belonging +to this spear; Fig. 431, a large one which is used with the large +harpoon. As the lines in all these run as is represented in Fig. 429 +_b_, they cannot act as harpoons. I had no opportunity of seeing any of +these weapons myself. + + [Illustration: FIG. 428. Agdliaq or spear for small seals. (From + Parry II, p. 550.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 429. Agdliaq points. (National Museum, + Washington. _a_, 90165; _b_, 2991; _c_, 34098; _d_, 34063.)] + +In hunting walrus a lance (anguvigang) (Fig. 432) is used which is +similar to the igimang. The shaft and the joint are alike in both, only +the knob for the teliqbing being absent. The head is made of bone or the +straight part of a walrus tusk and has an iron blade on the top. The +lance serves to dispatch the animal after it has been harpooned with the +igimang. + +The joint prevents the shaft from being broken by the struggles of the +animal. Its place is behind the hunter on the right side of the kayak, +the point being directed toward the stern. Generally a second lance is +carried on the left side of the boat parallel with the other. It is +either of the same kind or a slender shaft with a long point firmly +inserted in it (kapun, ipun). The point is about one and one-third of a +foot to one and one-half feet long. This weapon, however, is more +particularly in use for hunting deer in the lakes and ponds. + + [Illustration: FIG. 430. Spear heads. (National Museum, Washington. + _a_, 34076: _b_, 34068.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 431. Large spear head. (National Museum, + Washington. 10136.) ½] + +The last implement in the kayak gear to be described is the bird spear, +nuirn (Fig. 433), with its throwing board, nuqsang (Fig. 434). It has a +shaft of about four feet in length, flattened at the lower end. Among +the natives on the east and southeast of Baffin Land it has an iron +prong at its point, whereas in Iglulik it has two points of unequal +length, with double barbs. Three double barbed prongs are attached to +the center of the shaft. They have a sharp bend at their lower part, the +points running parallel to the shaft. The prongs of the Greenland dart +are straight and diverge from the shaft. The lower end of the bird spear +fits into the groove of the throwing board. Therefore the end of the +shaft is squared. The ivory knob at the end of the spear contains a +small hole for the insertion of the spike which is in the end of the +groove. When the board is used it is held firmly in the right hand, the +first finger passing through the hole by the side of the groove, the +thumb clasping the notch on the left side (Fig. 434 _b_), the other +fingers those on the right side. The shaft is held by the points of the +fingers. When the spear is hurled the posterior point of the groove +describes a wide circle, and the fingers let go the shaft, which, +remaining in its first position, is driven forward by the spike with +great violence, and thus it attains considerable velocity. + + [Illustration: FIG. 432. Anguvigang or lance. Museum für Völkerkunde + Berlin.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 433. Nuirn or bird spear. (Museum für + Völkerkunde, Berlin.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 434. Nuqsang or throwing board, (_a_ front and + (_b_ back view. National Museum, Washington. 30013.] + +I will now give a description of the methods of hunting seals and walrus +during the summer. As long as ice cakes are drifting in the bays the +natives do not use their seal floats, which would be severed from the +line and easily torn to pieces. They paddle to a small cake, on which +they lift their kayaks, and cautiously move the cake towards another one +on which a seal or walrus is asleep. After they have come within range +of their game they shoot it. As an abundance of all kinds of seals and +walrus are basking on the ice plenty of food can be obtained. + +An ingenious way of walrusing during this season is described by Lyon +(p. 330): + + When the hunters, in their canoes, perceive a large herd sleeping + on the floating ice, as is their custom, they paddle to some other + piece near them, which is small enough to be moved. On this they + lift their canoes, and then bore several holes, through which they + fasten their tough lines, and when everything is ready, they + silently paddle the hummock towards their prey, each man sitting + by his own line and spear. In this manner they, reach the ice on + which the walruses are lying snoring; and if they please, each man + may strike an animal, though, in general, two persons attack the + same beast. The wounded and startled walrus rolls instantly to the + water, but the siatko, or harpoon, being well fixed, he cannot + escape from the hummock on which the Eskimo have fastened the + line. When the animal becomes a little weary, the hunter launches + his canoe, and lying out of his reach, spears him to death. + +When the ice is gone seals are shot or harpooned with the igimang and +the agdliaq. The float prevents their escape and they are killed with +the anguvigang or the qapun. Later in summer, when they begin to shed +their fur, they lose almost all their blubber and sink when shot; +therefore they must be hunted with the harpoon and the float. As the +walrus is a dangerous foe should it turn upon the hunters in their light +boats, the harpoon is thrown from a great distance, and the animal is +not attacked at close quarters until it is well nigh exhausted by +dragging the float and the niutang and by loss of blood. A great number +of walrus are shot or harpooned while basking on the low islands and +rocks. + +There are a few shoals and narrow inlets in Frobisher Bay and Cumberland +Sound in which great numbers of seals are caught during the summer. In +hunting them at those places some of the Eskimo in kayaks occupy the +shallow entrance of the inlet, while others scare the seals from its +head. As the seals approach its outlet they are speared by those who are +lying in wait for them. Since the natives have procured firearms seals +are shot from the boats, and in whale boats they even attack the walrus, +though they prefer to have drifting ice near at hand in case the fierce +animal should turn upon them and tear the boat with its powerful tusks. +This method of hunting is very successful in openings which intersect +the land floe in spring. To these places an enormous number of seals and +walrus resort, and they are shot either when basking at the edge of the +water or when blowing. + +In the fall, when the small bays are covered with ice and newly formed +floes drift to and fro in the open sea, the natives go sealing at the +edge of the land ice (Fig. 435). The seals are shot on the drifting ice +or in the water and are secured by means of the unang, in the following +manner: The hunter jumps upon a small cake, which he pushes on with his +spear until he is near the body of the animal, and then drags it upon +the land floe with the harpoon line. This method is almost the same as +the one used in sealing and walrusing during the winter wherever the +open water is close to the shore. + + [Illustration: FIG. 435. Sealing at the edge of the ice. (From a + photograph.)] + +This hunt is described by Gilder in the following words (pp. 182-184): + + Usually there are two hunters who approach the walrus, one hiding + behind the other, so that the two appear but as one. When the + spear is thrown, both hold on to the line, which is wound around + their arms so as to cause as much friction as possible, in order + to exhaust the animal speedily. * * * When the line is nearly run + out the end of the spear shaft is passed through a loop in the end + of the line and held firmly by digging a little hole in the ice + for the end of the spear to rest in, the foot resting upon the + line and against the spear to steady it. This gives the hunter an + immense advantage over his powerful game, and if he is fortunate + enough to secure this hold there is no escape for the walrus + except that the line may cut on the edge of the sharp ice, or the + thin ice break off, and hunter, line, and all be precipitated into + the water--a not unusual experience in walrus hunting. Another + cause of misfortune is for the line to become entangled around the + arm of the hunter so that he cannot cast it off, in which case he + is most assuredly drawn into the sea, and in nine cases out of ten + drowned, for his knife is seldom at hand for an emergency and no + amount of experience will ever induce an Inung [Eskimo] to provide + against danger. + + Sometimes the hunter is alone when he strikes a walrus, and in + that case it requires considerable dexterity to secure the spear + hold in the ice; or if he fails to get that he may sit down and + brace his feet against a small hummock, when it comes to a sheer + contest of muscle between the hunter and the walrus. In these + contests victory generally perches upon the banner of the walrus, + though the Inung [Eskimo] will never give up until the last + extremity is reached. Often he is dragged to the very edge of the + ice before he finds a protuberance against which to brace his + feet, and often he is drawn down under the ice before he will + relinquish his hold. He is very tenacious under such circumstances, + for he knows that when he loses the walrus he loses his line and + harpoon also. + +Hall (I, p. 459) describes the hunt, according to his observations in +Frobisher Bay, as follows: + + The line is coiled, and hung about the neck of the hunter; thus + prepared he hides himself among the broken drifting ice, and + awaits the moment for striking his game. The spear is then thrown + and the hunter at once slips the coil of line off his head, + fastens the end to the ice by driving a spear through a loop in + it, and waits till the walrus comes to the surface of the water, + into which he has plunged on feeling the stroke of the harpoon; + then the animal is quickly despatched by the use of a long lance. + +Sometimes the walrus when swimming under an extensive floe of new ice +are drowned by being frightened down every time they try to come up to +blow. + +Formerly whaling was one of the favorite hunts of the Central Eskimo and +in some places it is even continued to this day. Whales are either +pursued in kayaks or in skin boats. If the kayak is used, they are +harpooned in the same way as the walrus, a very large float (avautapāq´) +being attached to the harpoon head. The whale is pursued by a great +number of kayaks and every boatman endeavors to drive his harpoon into +the animal, which, by the loss of blood and the resistance of the +niutang and floats, is tired out and killed with lances. + +More frequently it is pursued in skin boats (p. 527), which for the +purpose are propelled by means of paddles (angun). In this case the crew +consists entirely of men, although on other occasions the rowing falls +to the women’s share; a skillful boatman steers the boat and the +harpooner stands in the bow watching his opportunity to strike the +whale. The implement used in this pursuit is represented in Fig. 436. +I could not procure the weapon itself (sakurpāng´, i.e., the largest +weapon), but had a model made by an Akudnirmio, of which the figure is a +drawing. The shaft is said to be very long and heavy, measuring from ten +to twelve feet. To this shaft a bone point tapering towards the end is +firmly attached. The harpoon head consists of two pieces similar to the +siatko of the Iglulirmiut (see Fig. 395). The iron edge is inserted into +a flat piece of bone, which fits into the slit of a large head. The +latter is made from the jawbone of a whale and is extremely heavy. When +the whale is struck, both parts, the head and the edge, are disengaged +from the shaft and separated from each other, but both enter the flesh +of the whale and work in the same way as the tokang. + + [Illustration: FIG. 436. Model of sakurpāng´ or whaling harpoon.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 437. Niutang, with floats.] + +The long harpoon line is coiled up on the first thwart of the boat. On +the second one the niutang and five large floats (Fig. 437), which were +fastened to the line, are kept ready and heaved overboard as soon as the +harpoon is fast to a whale. The buoys and the niutang tire it out +quickly and the boat can easily follow it up. It is lanced with the +kalugiang whenever it comes up to blow. This lance consists of a heavy +handle with a long point of rod iron; formerly bone or narwhal ivory, +with an iron edge inserted into its point, was used for this purpose. + +The narwhal and the white whale are hunted in the same way as the walrus +and the right whale. There are a few shallow bays to which the white +whale resorts in the summer. If a shoal of them has entered such a bay, +the Eskimo take to their boats and kayaks, and by throwing stones +frighten them into the shallowest part, where they are easily harpooned. + + +DEER, MUSK OX, AND BEAR HUNTING. + +When the snow has melted and the short summer is at hand the Eskimo +start for the deer hunt. The tribes possessed of firearms can easily +procure deer all the year round, particularly where uneven land +facilitates their approach toward the herd; but in summer the hunt is +most important, as it is the only season in which deerskins are fit for +clothing. + +The favorite method of hunting is to attack the deer in the ponds when +swimming from one side to the other. In many places the deer in their +migrations are in the habit of crossing the narrow parts of lakes, and +here the natives lie in ambush with their kayaks. In other places they +are driven into the water by the Eskimo and attacked by the drivers or +by hunters stationed on the lake. Favorite places for such a chase are +narrow peninsulas, generally called nedlung. The Eskimo deploy into a +skirmish line and slowly drive the herd to the point of the peninsula, +whence the deer, the retreat being cut off, take to the water. + +If the shore be too straight to permit this method of hunting, they +drive the deer to a hill stretching to the lake. A line of cairns +(inugsung) is erected on the top, intended to deceive the deer, which +believe them a new line of hunters approaching from the opposite side. +They take to the water, as they see no retreat. If there are no hills a +line of cairns is erected in some part of the plain. Such monuments are +found all over the country, most of them having the appearance of being +very old. + +As soon as the deer are in the water the natives pursue them in their +kayaks, and as their boats are propelled much more swiftly than the +animals can swim they are quickly overtaken and killed with the spear +(kapun). Sometimes the wounded deer will turn upon the boat, in which +cases the hunter must make his escape with the utmost speed, else he +will be capsized or the skin of the boat will be torn to pieces by the +animal’s antlers. + +In some of the narrow valleys with steep faces on both sides the deer +are driven toward the hunters. As there is no chance for escape on +either side they are killed by the men who lie in ambush. A remarkable +tradition referring to the deer hunts of a fabulous tribe in these +passes is frequently told by the Eskimo (see p. 635). + +Some places are particularly favorable to these methods of hunting. The +herds when traveling north in spring and south in autumn take the same +course every year, passing rivers, lakes, and valleys at the deer +passes. Here the Eskimo stay during the migrations of the deer, as they +are sure to fall in with them and to secure plenty of meat and skins +during the season. In spring the rivers and lakes are not yet freed from +their icy fetters and the pursuit is more difficult; in the autumn, +however, they are easily captured in the water. Some important stations +of this kind are the island Qeqertome itoq tudlirn, south of Lake +Nettilling; the outlet of this lake, Koukdjuaq, particularly the +peninsula formed by the river and the south shore of the lake; the +country about Qudjitariaq, farther north, and the narrow valley between +Piling and Itirbilung: on the continent, the lakes of Rae Isthmus, +particularly North Pole Lake; some passes in the hills north of +Chesterfield Inlet; the isthmus of Boothia; the entrance of Qimuqsuq, +on Adelaide Peninsula; and Simpson Strait. + +Referring to the last, Klutschak describes an interesting method of +hunting deer which is in vogue in that locality (p. 130). The narrow +strait which separates Ita Island from King William Land freezes up +early in the season, and the reindeer in trying to cross the strait +frequently gather on this island. The Eskimo deploy over the icy bridge +and make a terrible noise, frightening the reindeer, which are gradually +driven toward a place the ice of which is treacherous at this time of +the year. Here they break through and, being able to move only with +great difficulty, are easily killed. + + [Illustration: FIG. 438. Wooden bow from Iglulik. (From Parry II, + p. 550.)] + +When the deer have scattered over the country they must be stalked, and, +wherever the natives have no firearms, bows and arrows are used. + + [Illustration: FIG. 439. Wooden bow from Cumberland Sound. (National + Museum, Washington.)] + +They have two kinds of bows (pitiqse): a wooden one (Figs. 438 and 439) +and another made of reindeer antlers (Figs. 440 and 441). Parry gives a +very good description of the former (II, p. 510): + + One of the best of their bows was made of a single piece of fir, + four feet eight inches in length, flat on the inner side and + rounded on the outer, being five inches in girth about the middle + where, however, it is strengthened on the concave side, when + strung, by a piece of bone ten inches long, firmly secured by + tree-nails of the same material. At each end of the bow is a knob + of bone, or sometimes of wood covered with leather, with a deep + notch for the reception of the string. The only wood which they + can procure, not possessing sufficient elasticity combined with + strength, they ingeniously remedy the defect by securing to the + back of the bow, and to the knobs at each end, a quantity of small + lines, each composed of a plat or “sinnet” of three sinews. The + number of lines thus reaching from end to end is generally about + thirty; but besides these, several others are fastened with + hitches round the bow, in pairs, commencing eight inches from one + end, and again united at the same distance from the other, making + the whole number of strings in the middle of the bow sometimes + amount to sixty. These being put on with the bow somewhat bent the + contrary way, produce a spring so strong as to require + considerable force as well as knack in stringing it, and giving + the requisite velocity to the arrow. The bow is completed by a + woolding round the middle and a wedge or two here and there, + driven in to tighten it. + + [Illustration: FIG. 440. Bows of reindeer antlers. (National Museum, + Washington. _a_, 34053; _b_, 34055.)] + +The bow represented in Fig. 439 is from Cumberland Sound and resembles +the Iglulik pattern. The fastening of the sinew lines is different and +the piece of bone giving additional strength to the central part is +wanting. In Cumberland Sound and farther south wooden bows each made of +a single piece were not very rare; the wood necessary for their +manufacture was found in abundance on Tudjan (Resolution Island), whence +it was brought to the more northern districts. + + [Illustration: FIG. 441. Bow of antlers, with central part cut off + straight, from Pelly Bay. (National Museum, Washington. 10270.)] + +The bows which are made of antlers generally consist of three pieces, +a stout central one slanted on both sides and two side pieces riveted to +it. The central part is either below or above the side ones, as +represented in Fig. 440. These bows are strengthened by plaited sinews +in the same way as the wooden ones and generally the joints are secured +by strong strings wound around them. A remarkable bow made of antlers is +represented in Fig. 441. The central part is not slanted, but cut off +straight. The joint is effected by two additional pieces on each side, +a short stout one outside, a long thin one inside. These are firmly tied +together with sinews. The short piece prevents the parts from breaking +apart, the long one gives a powerful spring. The specimen here +represented was brought home by Hall from the Sinimiut of Pelly Bay, and +a similar one was brought by Collinson from Victoria Land and has been +deposited in the British Museum. The strings are attached to these bows +in the same way as to the wooden ones. + + [Illustration: FIG. 442. Arrows with bone heads. (National Museum, + Washington. _a_, 34054; _b_, 10270.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 443. Arrows with metal heads. _a_, _b_ (National + Museum, Washington. _a_, 30056; _b_, 34056.) _c_ (Museum für + Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6707.)] + +The arrows (qaqdjung) are made of round pieces of wood generally +tapering a little towards the lower end, to which two feathers of an owl +or some other bird are attached. The bone heads of these arrows are +joined to the shaft as represented in Fig. 442, while metal heads are +inserted as shown in Fig. 443. The difference in the methods used by the +Mackenzie and the central tribes in fastening the point to the shaft is +very striking. The arrow point of the former and of the western tribes +is pointed and inserted in the shaft (Fig. 444),[5] while that of the +latter is always slanted and lashed to it (Figs. 442 and 443). The +direction of the slant is either parallel or vertical to the edge (Fig. +445). Other forms of arrows are shown in Fig. 446. A similar difference +between the fastenings of the socket to the spear handle exists in the +two localities. The western tribes give its base the form of a wedge +(Fig. 447), which is inserted in the shaft, while the Central Eskimo use +a mortise. + + [Footnote 5: According to the Museum catalogue, the point + represented in this figure is from Victoria Island, Boothia, from + Hall’s collection; however, it is a typical western arrow.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 444. Arrowhead from Boothia. (National Museum, + Washington. 10205.) ½] + + [Illustration: FIG. 445. Showing attachment of arrowhead vertically + and parallel to shank. (National Museum, Washington. _b_, 10137.) ½] + + [Illustration: FIG. 446. Various forms of arrowhead. (National + Museum, Washington. _a_, 29993; _e_, 10213.) ½] + + [Illustration: FIG. 447. Socket of spear handle from Alaska. + (National Museum, Washington. 36060.) ¼] + + [Illustration: FIG. 448. Slate arrowhead. (National Museum, + Washington. 10403.) 1/1] + +Formerly slate heads were in general use (Fig. 448); now the heads are +almost everywhere made of iron or tin, riveted or tied to the point +(Fig. 446). In ancient graves flint heads are frequently found, some of +which are represented in Fig. 449. On Southampton Island stone heads are +in use even at the present time. Fig. 423 probably shows how they were +attached to the shank. + + [Illustration: FIG. 449. Flint arrowheads from old graves. (National + Museum, Washington. _c_, 30109; _d_, 34138.) 1/1] + + [Illustration: FIG. 450. Various styles of quiver. _a_, _b_ Two + views of a quiver from Cumberland Sound. (National Museum, + Washington. 30015.) _c_ Quiver from Iglulik (from Parry II, p. + 550).] + +The quiver (Fig. 450) is made of sealskin, the hair of which is removed. +It comprises three divisions, a larger one containing the bow and a +smaller one containing four or six arrows, the head directed toward the +lower end of the case. When extracted from the quiver they are ready for +use. Between the two compartments there is also a small pouch, in which +tools and extra arrowheads are carried. + + [Illustration: FIG. 451. Quiver handles. (Museum für Völkerkunde, + Berlin. _a_, _b_, IV A 6843.)] + +When traveling the Eskimo carry the quiver by an ivory handle; when in +use it is hung over the left shoulder. Fig. 451 represents quiver +handles, the first being fashioned in imitation of an ermine. + +If the deer cannot be driven into the water the Eskimo either stalk them +or shoot them from a stand. In a plain where the hunter cannot hide +himself it is easier to approach the herd if two men hunt together. They +advance, the second man hiding behind the first one by stooping a +little. The bows or the guns are carried on the shoulders so as to +resemble the antlers of a deer. The men imitate their grunting and +approach slowly, now stopping and stooping, now advancing. If the deer +look about suspiciously they sit down, the second man lying almost flat +on the ground, and both, at some distance off, greatly resemble the +animals themselves. Ross (II, p. 252) states that the inhabitants of +Boothia imitate the appearance of the deer, the foremost of two men +stalking a herd bearing a deer’s head upon his own. + +It is somewhat difficult to approach the deer near enough to get within +range, especially if they are hunted with bow and arrow. Generally it is +not necessary to get quite near them, for when feeding the herd moves on +in the same direction for some time, and the hunter can hide behind a +stone lying in that direction and wait until they are within range. +After the first shot has been fired they do not take to flight at once, +but stand for a few seconds, struck with surprise, and a clever hunter +may kill two or three before they run away. If the country is very level +the Eskimo raise heaps of stones or build circular or semicircular walls +to conceal themselves and allure the animals by grunting. As the deer +possess a very fine scent they must always be approached from the lee +side. + +An interesting method of hunting is described by Parry (II, p. 512) and +confirmed by Hall (II, p. 178). Parry writes: + + Two men walk directly from the deer they wish to kill, when the + animal almost always follows them. As soon as they arrive at a + large stone, one of the men hides behind it with his bow, while + the other continuing to walk on soon leads the deer within range + of his companion’s arrows. + +Hall says that one hunter hides himself behind a stone while the other +utters grunting sounds to attract it. + +In winter deer are sometimes caught in traps made by digging holes in +the snow and covering them with slabs of the same material. Sometimes +urine is poured upon and around the trap or salt water ice is placed +upon it, in order to allure the deer (Klutschak, p. 131). Having been +attracted to the trap they fall through the roof and are speared in the +hole. + +Wherever the musk ox is found it is eagerly pursued by the Eskimo. +Though dogs are of no use in the chase of the nimble deer, they are of +great help in hunting this animal. When a track is found the dogs are +let loose and soon overtake the herd. The latter form a circle of +defense in which they are kept at bay until the hunter approaches. While +the dogs continue attacking and dodging, the musk oxen try to hit them +with their horns and do not heed the Eskimo, who assails them at close +quarters with a lance to which a thong is frequently attached. When an +ox is wounded it makes an impetuous attack on the hunter, who dodges to +one side. The dogs being at hand again immediately keep it at bay, thus +enabling the hunter to let fly another arrow or throw his lance again. +Thus the struggle continues until the greater part of the herd is +killed. In rare instances an ox dashes out of the circle and escapes +from the pack. + +Polar bears are hunted in about the same manner as the musk ox. The +Eskimo pursue them in light sledges, and when they are near the pursued +animal the traces of the most reliable dogs in the team are cut, when +they dash forward and bring the bear to bay. As the hunter gets +sufficiently near, the last dogs are let loose and the bear is killed +with a spear or with bow and arrow. The best season for bear hunting is +in March and April, when the bears come up the fjords and bays in +pursuit of the young seals. At this season the she bear is accompanied +by the cub which was born in February or March. Its skin and flesh are +highly prized by the Eskimo. At some places, for instance at Cape Raper +and at Cape Kater on Davis Strait, the she bears dig holes in the snow +banks, in which they sleep during the winter. The natives seek these +holes and kill the bear before it awakes. + +The chase of the musk ox and that of the bear have become much easier +since the introduction of firearms in Arctic America, and the Eskimo can +kill their game without encountering the same dangers as formerly. + + +HUNTING OF SMALL GAME. + +Lastly, I mention the methods used in catching smaller animals, such as +wolves, foxes, and hares. Wolves are only pursued when they become too +troublesome. Frequently they linger about the villages in winter, and +when everybody is asleep they attack the store rooms or the dogs, which +have the greatest fear of this voracious animal; for, although dogs will +brave the bear, they do not venture to resist a single wolf. If a pack +of these beasts linger about the village for weeks preying upon the +native stores, traps are finally built or the Eskimo lie in ambush near +a bait to kill them. The wolf trap is similar to the one used to catch +deer. The hole dug in the snow is about eight or nine feet deep and is +covered with a slab of snow, on the center of which a bait is laid. +A wall is built around it which compels the wolf to leap across it +before he can reach the bait. By so doing he breaks through the roof +and, as the bottom of the pit is too narrow to afford him jumping room, +he is caught and killed there (Rae I, p. 135). + +A remarkable method of killing wolves has been described by Klutschak +(p. 192) and confirmed by the Eskimo of Cumberland Sound. A sharp knife +is smeared with deer’s blood and sunk into the snow, the edge only +protruding. The wolves lick the knife and cut their tongues so severely +as to bleed to death. Another method is to roll a strip of whalebone, +about two feet long, in a coil, which is tied up with sinews. At each +end a small metal edge is attached to the whalebone. This strip, wrapped +in a piece of blubber or meat, is gulped down by the hungry wolf. As it +is digested the sinews are dissolved and the elastic strap is opened and +tears the stomach of the animal. A very ingenious trap is described by +Parry (II, p. 514): + + It consists of a small house built of ice, at one end of which a + door, made of the same plentiful material, is fitted to slide up + and down in a groove; to the upper part of this a line is attached + and, passing over the roof, is led down into the trap at the inner + end, and there held by slipping an eye in the end of it over a peg + of ice left for the purpose. Over the peg, however, is previously + placed a loose grummet, to which the bait is fastened, and a false + roof placed over all to hide the line. The moment the animal drags + at the bait the grummet slips off the peg, bringing with it the + line that held up the door, and this falling down closes the trap + and secures him. + +Foxes are usually caught in traps. An ice house about six feet high is +built of hummocks, which are cut down with the point of the spear. It is +covered with ice slabs, only a hole in the center being left. Blocks of +snow and slabs of ice are piled up around the building so as to permit +easy access to the roof. Some blood is sprinkled round the hole to +attract the fox and a larger bait is placed upon the floor of the house. +The fox jumps down and, as the only exit is in the center of the roof, +cannot escape. Another trap has a slab of ice erected in such a manner +as to fall and kill the fox when he touches the bait. + +A third trap, similar to the one above mentioned, has been described by +Lyon, p. 339: + + It is like a small lime kiln in form, having a hole near the top, + within which the bait is placed, and the foxes (for these animals + alone are thus taken) are obliged to advance to it over a piece of + whalebone, which, bending beneath their weight, lets them into + prison, and then resumes its former position: thus a great number + of them are sometimes caught in a night. In the summer they are + but rarely taken, and it is then by means of a trap of stones, + formed like the ice trap, with a falling door. + +Hares are either killed with small shot or with arrows or caught in +whalebone snares, as are ermines and lemmings. + + [Illustration: FIG. 452. Whalebone nooses for catching waterfowl. + (In the possession of Captain Spicer, of Groton, Conn.)] + +Waterfowl of all descriptions are caught in abundance in whalebone +nooses (Fig. 452) fastened to a long whalebone line or to a thong. The +line is set along the edge of a lake, particularly near nesting places. +In shallow lakes these lines are placed across the water to catch the +diving and swimming birds, which are drawn to the shore with the line. +On the low egg islands, which are inhabited by innumerable ducks, snares +are set on the nests, and great numbers are caught in a short time. +Swans and geese are procured in the same way. Other birds, and +particularly partridges, are killed with arrows and with small shot. + +Large flocks of ducks and other kinds of birds fly through certain +valleys in the fall and in spring when migrating. Great numbers are +caught here without any difficulty, as they can be killed with sticks. + +A favorite method of catching gulls is by building a flat snow house. +One block of the roof is translucent and so thin as to permit the +hunter, who is hidden in the house, to push his hand through it. A bait +is placed on this block, and as soon as a bird alights to feed it is +pulled through the roof into the hut. + + [Illustration: FIG. 453. Kakivang or salmon spear. (National Museum, + Washington, _a_, 34087; _b_, 34086.) ¼] + +By far the greater number of birds are caught during the molting season. +Partridges can be caught with the hand and waterfowl are pursued with +the kayak. The waterfowl dive as soon as the boat comes near them and +being frightened down again as soon as they rise they are eventually +drowned. One species of goose (kango) which frequents the lakes of the +country is caught in a remarkable way. A circular wall of stones is +raised, with a single entrance. The Eskimo drive a flock of these birds +towards the building, one man, whom the stupid creatures follow, leading +the way. As soon as they have entered the wall the entrance is shut up +and they are slaughtered. If they happen to be met with on the water +they are encircled by kayaks and driven towards the shore, one boat +leading. Then they are driven within the stone wall as already +described. + + [Illustration: FIG. 454. Ivory fish used as bait in spearing salmon. + _a_ From Repulse Bay. _a_, _c_, _d_ (National Museum, Washington. + _a_, 10400; _c_, 34109; _d_, 34134.) 1/1 _b_ (Museum für + Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6830.) 1/1] + + +FISHING. + +The most important fish is the salmon, which is caught in abundance +during the summer. When the lakes begin to break up the salmon descend +to the sea, following the narrow lead between the land floe and the +water. In some places they are so plentiful as to fill the water +completely. Here they are speared with the kakivang (Fig. 453). This +instrument consists of a handle which widens towards the end; in the +center it has a prong of bone or iron, and two larger ones at the sides, +made of deer antlers or musk ox horn. These latter diverge and are +furnished with a bone or iron nail on the inner side. The elasticity of +these side prongs is increased by thongs or strings holding them tightly +together. If the salmon are very plentiful no bait is needed and the +natives cannot spear them as quickly as they swim along. When the ice is +gone they are caught in the shallow rivers falling from the lakes into +the sea. The natives stand on the bank or step into the water. A small +ivory fish (Fig. 454) (eχalujang), tied by two or three holes in the +back to a plaited string of deer sinews, is used as a bait. Frequently +bear’s teeth are used for bait. They are attached to a separate line +which the hunter continually moves up and down to attract the attention +of the fish. When the salmon comes near the bait it is speared with the +kakivang. In the left hand the fisherman holds an instrument for +stringing the fish (quqartaun), some illustrations of which are given in +Fig. 455. It is made of ivory. A thong fastened to the hole of the +instrument has a thick knot at the opposite end. As soon as a salmon is +caught it is taken out of the nippers (kakivang) and the point of the +quqartaun is pushed into the gills and brought out again at the mouth; +thus the fish remains sticking until it is dead. Sometimes it is killed +by pushing the ivory point of the instrument into its neck. When dead it +is pushed on the thong. + + [Illustration: FIG. 455. Quqartaun for stringing fish. _c_ (Museum + für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6831.)] + +At some places wears are built, above which the fish are caught. These +consist of dikes of stones about one and a half or two feet high, which +are piled across a creek some distance below high water mark. The salmon +cross the wall at high water, but are cut off from the sea at half tide +and are speared while there. In other places the forks of rivers are +shut off by dikes, above which the salmon gather. + +In autumn salmon are caught when ascending the rivers. Sometimes they +linger too long in small ponds and, as the rivers quickly dry up at this +season, are prevented from getting out of the pools. Here they are +caught until late in the season. Some of these ponds freeze to the +bottom in winter, and the natives, when visiting them in the spring, cut +holes in the ice and take out the frozen fish. + + [Illustration: FIG. 456. Salmon hook. (National Museum, Washington. + 10142.) 1/1] + + [Illustration: FIG. 457. Salmon hook. (Museum für Völkerkunde, + Berlin. 6847.) 1/1] + +In the early part of the spring salmon are caught with hooks (kakliokia, +Iglulik; niksiartaung, Oqo), holes being cut through the ice of the +lake. Formerly the hooks were made of deer antlers. Another device +consists of a nail, crooked and pointed at one end, the other being let +into a piece of ivory or bone (Fig. 456). A third one is represented in +Fig. 457. + +The fishing line is made of plaited deer sinews and is either held in +the hand or tied to a short rod. Along with these hooks baits are used +similar to those mentioned in the foregoing description. If the carving +represented in Fig. 458 is used, the hook is tied to it by means of two +holes on the lower side of the fish, while the line passes through its +back. The fish, in coming near the bait, is generally caught by the hook +in the back or side. In this manner salmon, trout, and all kinds of sea +fish are caught. + + [Illustration: FIG. 458. Bait used in fishing with hooks. (National + Museum, Washington. 34108.) 1/1] + +I myself have never seen any nets for fishing, but Klutschak found them +in use among the Utkusiksalik tribe, and Petitot (Les grands Esquimaux, +p. 278), among the natives of Anderson River. The Labrador Eskimo also +use nets. + + + + +MANUFACTURES. + + +MAKING LEATHER AND PREPARING SKINS. + +Most of the implements of the Eskimo are made of some part of the +animals which they pursue. The skins are used for clothing, for building +purposes, and for covering the frames of boats. Many implements are made +of bone, others of walrus tusks or narwhal horn. As wood is extremely +scarce, bone or other parts of animals must make up the deficiency. +I shall here describe the methods of preparing these materials. + + [Illustration: FIG. 459. Butcher’s knife with bone handle. (National + Museum, Washington. 34080.) ¼] + +The skin of the seal (_Pagomys fœtidus_) is dressed in different ways, +according to the purpose for which it is intended. In skinning the +animal a longitudinal cut is made across the belly with a common +butcher’s knife (saving). Most natives have procured this useful +instrument and even in olden times a considerable number had found their +way from Hudson Bay territory to their countries. The large knives of +their own manufacture (pilaut) are of similar form, a metal edge being +inserted into an ivory blade. Figure 459 is a more modern knife, an iron +blade being fastened to a bone handle. + +The skin, with the blubber, is cut from the flesh with the same knife, +or still more easily with the pana, the old device of which is +represented in Fig. 460 _a_ (Parry II, p. 550). This knife is about one +foot and a half long (Parry II, p. 503). The use of the small prongs +near the blade was not explained by Parry. In Fig. 460 _b_ is presented +a pana from the eastern coast of Hudson Bay, collected by Dr. R. Bell; +the handle is made of bone, the blade of iron. The flippers are cut off +at the joints, and thus the whole skin is drawn off in a single piece. +In dressing the animal the natives open the belly and first scoop out +the blood, then the entrails are taken out, the ribs are separated from +the breast bone and from the vertebrae, the fore flippers (with the +shoulders and the hind flippers) are taken out, the only part remaining +being the head, the spinal column, and the rump bone. Generally these +are not eaten, but are used for dogs’ food. + + [Illustration: FIG. 460. Pana or knife for dissecting game, _a_ + (From Parry II, p. 548.) _b_ (American Museum of Natural History.)] + +The knife (ulo) used by the women serves to clean and prepare the skins. +This implement, with which almost all the cutting is done, is shaped +like a crescent, the handle being attached to the center, and greatly +resembles a mincing knife. Fig. 461 represents the form which is now in +use. Fig. 462 is a very old ulo handle from a stone circle on +Qeqertuqdjuaq (Cape Broughton). It is made of bone and has a slit for +the slate blade. It is worth remarking that this blade had not been +riveted to the handle, but fastened with a kind of glue (see p. 526). +There are a few arrow and harpoon heads the blades of which are inserted +in the same manner; the bone is heated and the blade is inserted while +it is hot. As it is cooling the slit becomes narrower and the blade is +firmly squeezed into the bone handle. Part of a slate blade, which had +been riveted to the handle, is shown in Fig. 463. Fig. 464 represents a +handle from a recent grave. + + [Illustration: FIG. 461. Form of ulo now in use. (Museum für + Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6733.) ⅔] + + [Illustration: FIG. 462. Old ulo with top of handle broken off from + Cape Broughton, Davis Strait. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.) 1/1] + + [Illustration: FIG. 463. Fragment of an ulo blade of slate. (Museum + für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6714.) 1/1] + + [Illustration: FIG. 464. Ulo handle from recent grave. (National + Museum, Washington. 34137.)] + +In preparing the skin the women spread it over a piece of whalebone +(asimautang), a small board, or a flat stone, and sit down before it, +resting on their knees, the feet bent under the thighs. They hold the +skin at the nearest edge and, pushing the ulo forward, remove the +blubber from it and deposit the latter in a small tub which stands near +the board. As they proceed to the opposite end of the skin, the finished +part is rolled up and held in the left hand. + + [Illustration: FIG. 465. Modern tesirqun or scraper. (Museum für + Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6734.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 466. Old style of tesirqun or scraper. (Museum + für Völkerkunde, Berlin.)] + +If the skin is to be used with the hair on it, the tough membrane (mami) +which covers the inner side is removed in the same way as the blubber +and, after it has been carefully patched up and holes have been cut all +around the edge, is stretched over a gravelly place or on snow by means +of long pegs (pauktun), which hold it a few inches above the ground, +thus allowing the air to circulate underneath it. The skin itself is +washed and rubbed with gravel, snow, or ice and every hole made by the +bullet or by the spear or in preparing it is sewed up. It very seldom +happens that the women in preparing it damage the skin or even the thin +mami. It is particularly difficult to split the skin near a hole. First +they finish the work all around it and then carefully sever the membrane +at its edge. The skin is dried in the same way as the membrane. In the +early part of spring, though it may still be very cold, a few choice +young sealskins are dried on snow walls which face to the south. In +order thoroughly to dry a sealskin one fine warm spring day is needed. +If the Eskimo are greatly in need of skins they dry them in winter over +the lamps. A frame is made of four poles, lashed together, according to +the size of the skin. A thong passes through the slits along its edge +and around the frame, keeping the skin well stretched. Thus it is placed +over the lamps or near the roof of the hut. However, it is disagreeable +work to dry the skins inside the huts, and, as they are much inferior to +those which are dried on the ground, the Eskimo avoid it if they can. +When so prepared the sealskins are only fit for covering tents, making +bags, &c.; they are far too hard to be used for clothing, for which +purpose the skin of yearlings is almost exclusively used. The young +seals, having shed for the first time, have a very handsome coat, the +hair being of a fine texture and much longer than in older animals. From +the middle of May until late in summer their skins are most suitable for +the manufacture of summer clothing, but it is necessary to protect the +carcasses of the killed animals from the burning rays of the sun as soon +as possible or the skin would be quickly spoiled. + +After being dried they are cleaned with the sharp scraper (tesirqun), +the modern device of which is represented in Fig. 465. It consists of a +handle having a round back and a flat front, with two grooves for the +knuckles of the first and second fingers, while the thumb and the other +fingers clasp the handle. The scraper itself consists of a rounded piece +of tin riveted to the handle. The old scraper (Fig. 466) was made of a +deer’s shoulder or of some other bone. I have never seen any that were +made of a thigh bone, similar to those found by Lucien M. Turner in +Ungava Bay. + +After being scraped the skin is soaked in salt water and washed again. +As soon as it is dry it is softened with the straight scraper +(seligoung) (Fig. 467). + + [Illustration: FIG. 467. Seligoung or scraper used for softening + skins. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6697.)] + +Fig. 468 shows some very old stone scrapers found in graves. As the +stones are sharpened it is probable that they were used for cleaning the +skins. The hole in the right side of the handle is used for the second +finger, the grooves on the back for the third and fourth. The bone is +fastened to the handle by whalebone straps or thongs. + +Skins of _Phoca annellata_, _Phoca cristata_, _and Phoca grœnlandica_ +are prepared in the same way. + +Those which are intended for kayak covers, boots, mittens, quivers, &c. +are prepared in a different way. They are either put into hot water or +laid in a brook for a few days until the hair begins to loosen. Then +both sides are worked with the ulo, in order to clean and shave them. +When the hair is removed they are dried and made pliable in the same way +as has been described. If it is intended to make the skin as soft as +possible it is allowed to become putrid before it is cleansed. Then the +hair and the blubber are removed, and afterwards it is left to hang in +the sun for a few days until it acquires a light color. + + [Illustration: FIG. 468. Old stone scrapers found in graves. + (National Museum, Washington, _a_, _b_, 34083; _c_, 34084; _d_, + 34085.) ⅔] + +The large ground seal (_Phoca barbata_) is skinned in a different +manner. Its skin is very thick, thicker even than sole leather, and +therefore extremely durable and suitable for all sorts of lines, +particularly traces, lashings, and harpoon lines, and for soles, +drinking cups, and boat covers. This seal is very large, sometimes +attaining a length of ten feet. The skin of the back and of the breast +dries unequally, and therefore a piece covering the throat and breast is +taken out before the rest is skinned, and the parts are dried +separately. If it is to be used for lines it is cut by making girdles +about six inches in width around the body. The hair and the blubber are +removed from these cylindrical rings, from which lines are made by +cutting spirally, a strip seventy or eighty feet long being thus +obtained. This line is stretched as taut as possible between two rocks, +and while drying it undergoes an enormous tension. Before being taken +from the rocks the edges are rounded and cleaned with a knife. + +Walrus hide is always cut up before being prepared. As soon as the +walrus is killed it is cut into as many parts as there are partners in +the hunt, every part being rolled up in a piece of skin and carried home +in it. Sometimes the skin is used for making boats, but generally it is +cut into lines. Both kinds of hide, that of the walrus and that of the +ground seal, are as stiff as a board when dried and require much work +before being fit for use. They are chewed by the natives until they +become thin and pliable. The whole skin must be chewed in this way +before it can be used for soles and boat covers. Afterwards it is +scraped with the tesirqun and softened with the straight scraper. The +new thongs, after being dried between the rocks, must also be chewed +until they become sufficiently pliable, after which they are +straightened by a stretcher that is held with the feet (Fig. 469). +Frequently they are only pulled over the sole of the boot for this +purpose, the man taking hold of the line at two points and pulling the +intermediate part by turns to the right and to the left over the sole of +the foot. + + [Illustration: FIG. 469. Stretcher for lines. (National Museum, + Washington. 9836.) 1/1] + +Another kind of line is cut from the hide of the white whale, which is +skinned in the same way as the ground seal, but, as it must be slit on +the spinal column, the single pieces of line are much shorter, and they +cannot be used to the same extent as seal lines. Some lines are cut from +the skins of _Pagomys fœtidus_, but these are weak and greatly inferior +to lines of ground seal hide. + +Deerskins are dried in summer and dressed after the ice has formed. Like +all other kinds of skins they are not tanned, but curried. They are hung +up among the rafters of the hut, and the workers--in Oqo and Akudnirn +the women, in Hudson Bay the men--take off their jackets and begin +preparing them with the sharp scraper. After being cleaned in this way +they are thoroughly dried, either by hanging them near the roof of the +hut or, according to Gilder, by wrapping them around the upper part of +the body next to the skin, after which they are again scraped with the +tesirqun. This done, the flesh side is wetted, the skin is wrapped up +for half a day or a day, and afterwards undergoes a new scraping. Then +it is chewed, rubbed, and scraped all over, thus acquiring its +pliability, softness, and light color. + +In the spring the skins of bears and of seals are sometimes dried on +large frames which are exposed to the sun, the skins being tied to the +frames with thongs. Smaller quadrupeds, as foxes and ermines, are +skinned by stripping the entire animal through its mouth without making +a single cut in the skin. Birds are opened at the breast and the body is +taken out through this small hole, the head, wings, and legs being cut +off at the neck and the other joints. Ducks are frequently skinned by +cutting the skin around the head and the outer joints of the wings and +legs and stripping it off. The skins are cleaned by sucking out the fat +and chewing them. + +Skins of salmon are used for water proof bags; intestines of seals, +particularly those of ground seals, are carefully dried and after being +sewed together are used for sails, windows, and kayak jackets. + + [Illustration: FIG. 470. Ivory needle. (National Museum, Washington. + 34135.) 1/1] + + [Illustration: FIG. 471. Ivory needle case from Cumberland Sound. + (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. 6832.) 1/1] + + [Illustration: FIG. 472. Common pattern of needle case. Iglulik. + (From Parry II, p. 548.)] + + +SUNDRY IMPLEMENTS. + +The sewing is done with thread made of deer or white whale sinews. +Particularly are those sinews at the back dried and when intended for +use they can easily be split as thin as required. At present steel +needles are in general use. Wherever they are wanting ivory ones of the +same pattern are used (Fig. 470). The thread is fastened to the eyehole +by a kind of loop, the short end being twisted around the longer one. +Kumlien described a needle of a very different device (p. 25): + + This tool was almost exactly like an awl in shape, but had an eye + near the point. They must have had to thread this instrument for + each stitch. The needle part was apparently of deer horn and the + handle of walrus ivory. + +Probably it was used like a packing needle for sewing tent covers, &c. +The needles (mirqun) are kept in ivory needle cases (umī´ujang). The +case represented in Fig. 471 is from a grave in Cumberland Sound. The +grooves on both sides are evidently intended for a leather strap which +is to be tied around it. This specimen is closed at the bottom and had a +stopper for closing the mouth. Fig. 472 is a more common pattern. The +ivory piece forms a tube through which a leather strap passes. The +needles are stuck into the leather and drawn into the tube. Small ivory +implements and ornaments are attached to both ends of the strap. + + [Illustration: FIG. 473. Tikiq or thimble. (National Museum, + Washington. 10181.) 1/1] + +Thimbles (tikiq) (Fig. 473) are made of an oblong piece of ground +sealskin, fitting to the point of the first finger. A rim is cut around +half of its circumference and thus it can be drawn over the finger. The +women sew by pulling the thread toward them and making an overcast seam. + +Whalebone is used for making elastic thongs and in the place of wood; +for example, for kayak ribs, for the rim of the kayak hole, boxes, &c. +It requires no particular preparation, being easily split and shaped so +as to fit any purpose. If wood is to be bent into hoops or deer horn is +to be straightened, it is made pliable by being put into boiling water +for some time. Bones of whales and other large animals and the penis +bone of the walrus are used instead of poles. In olden times, when iron +was extremely rare and an effective saw could not be procured, they +split the bone by drilling many holes, one close to the other, +afterwards breaking the pieces asunder. + +Small pieces of bone, used for arrows &c., were straightened, after +being steamed, with the implement represented in Fig. 474. + +The drill (Fig. 475) is the most important implement for working in +ivory and bone. It consists of three parts: the bow with its string +(niuqtung), the drill (qaivun), and the mouthpiece (qingmiaq). The +string of the bow is twisted around the shaft of the drill, the +mouthpiece (which is made of wood or of bone) is taken into the mouth, +and the rounded end of the drill is placed in its hole. Then the whole +implement is put firmly against the place to be perforated and is set in +motion by moving the bow. Instead of the latter, a string is sometimes +used with a handle at each end. For one man, however, the first device +is handier. The string of the second form is usually pulled by one man +while the other holds the mouthpiece. + + [Illustration: FIG. 474. Instrument for straightening bones.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 475. Drill for working in ivory and bone. + (National Museum, Washington. 34114.) ⅔] + +The same instrument is sometimes used for making fire. Instead of the +iron, a piece of hard wood (ground willow) is put into the mouthpiece +and placed upon a piece of driftwood cut to the shape represented in +Fig. 476. The wooden drill turns rapidly in a hole of the driftwood +until it begins to glow. A little moss is applied to the glowing wood +and gently blown until it begins to burn. Wherever flint and pyrite are +to be had these are used for striking fire. Moss or the wool-like hair +of _Eryophorum_ serves for tinder. + + [Illustration: FIG. 476. Driftwood used in kindling fire from + Nugumiut. (National Museum, Washington. 10258.) ¼] + +Ivory implements are cut out of the tusks with strong knives and are +shaped by chipping pieces from the blocks until they acquire the desired +forms. In olden times it must have been an extremely troublesome work to +cut them out, the old knives being very poor and ineffective. They are +finished with the file, which on this account is an important tool for +the natives; it is also used for sharpening knives and harpoons. The +women’s knives are cut, by means of files, from old saw blades; the seal +harpoons, from Scotch whale harpoons. If files are not obtainable, +whetstones are used for sharpening the iron and stone implements. + + [Illustration: FIG. 477. Eskimo graver’s tool. (National Museum, + Washington. 34105.) ½] + +Engravings in bone and ivory are made with the implement represented in +Fig. 477. An iron point is inserted in a wooden handle; formerly a +quartz point was used. The notch which separates the head from the +handle serves as a hold for the points of the fingers. The designs are +scratched into the ivory with the iron pin. + +Stone implements were made of flint, slate, or soapstone. Flint was +worked with a squeezing tool, generally made of bone. Small pieces were +thus split off until the stone acquired the desired form. Slate was +first roughly formed and then finished with the drill and the whetstone. +The soft soapstone is now chiseled out with iron tools. If large blocks +of soapstone cannot be obtained, fragments are cemented together by +means of a mixture of seal’s blood, a kind of clay, and dog’s hair. This +is applied to the joint, the vessel being heated over a lamp until the +cement is dry. According to Lyon (p. 320) it is fancied that the hair of +a bitch would spoil the composition and prevent it from sticking. + + + + +TRANSPORTATION BY BOATS AND SLEDGES. + + +THE BOAT (UMIAQ). + + [Illustration: FIG. 478. Framework of Eskimo boat.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 479. Kiglo or post.] + +The main part of the frame of a boat is a timber which runs from stem to +stern (Fig. 478). It is the most solid part and is made of driftwood, +which is procured in Hudson Strait, Hudson Bay, and on the northern +shore of King William Land. In Iglulik, and probably in Pond Bay, boats +are rarely used and never made, as wood is wanting. The central part of +this timber is made a little narrower than the ends, which form stout +heads. A mortise is cut into each of the latter, into which posts +(kiglo) are tenoned for the bow and for the stern. The shape of this +part will best be seen from the engraving (Fig. 479). A strong piece of +wood is fitted to the top of these uprights and the gunwales are +fastened to them with heavy thongs. The gunwales and two curved strips +of wood (akuk), which run along each side of the bottom of the boat from +stem to stern, determine its form. These strips are steadied by from +seven to ten cross pieces, which are firmly tied to them and to the +central piece. From this pair of strips to the gunwales run a number of +ribs, which stand somewhat close together at the bow and the stern, but +are separated by intervals of greater distance in the center of the +boat. The cross pieces along the bottom are arranged similarly to the +ribs. Between the gunwale and the bottom two or three pairs of strips +also run along the sides of the boat and steady its whole frame. The +uppermost pair (which is called tuving) lies near the gunwale and serves +as a fastening for the cover of the boat. The thwarts, three or four in +number, are fastened between the gunwale and these lateral strips. All +these pieces are tied together with thongs, rivets not being used at +all. + + [Illustration: FIG. 480. Umiaq or skin boat.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 481. Umiaq or skin boat.] + +The frame is covered with skins of ground seals (Figs. 480, 481). It +requires three of these skins to cover a medium sized boat; five to +cover a large one. If ground seals cannot be procured, skins of harp or +small seals are used, as many as twelve of the latter being required. +The cover is drawn tightly over the gunwale and, after being wetted, is +secured by thongs to the lateral strip which is close to the gunwale. +The wooden pieces at both ends are perforated and the thongs for +fastening the cover are pulled through these holes. + +The boat is propelled by two large oars. The rowlocks are a very +ingenious device. A piece of bone is tied upon the skin in order to +protect it from the friction of the oar, which would quickly wear it +through (Fig. 481 _a_). On each side of the bone a thong is fastened to +the tuving, forming a loop. Both loops cross each other like two rings +of a chain. The oar is drawn through both loops, which are twisted by +toggles until they become tight. Then the toggles are secured between +the gunwale and the tuving. + +The oar (ipun) consists of a long shaft and an oval or round blade +fastened to the shaft by thongs. Two grooves and the tapering end serve +for handles in pulling. Generally three or four women work at each oar. + +For steering, a paddle is used of the same kind as that used in whaling +(see p. 499). A rudder is rarely found (Fig. 480), and when used most +probably is made in imitation of European devices. + +If the wind permits, a sail is set; but the bulky vessel can only run +with the wind. The mast is set in the stem, a mortise being cut in the +forehead of the main timber, with a notch in the wooden piece above it +to steady it. A stout thong, which passes through two holes on each side +of the notch, secures the mast to the wooden head piece. The sail, which +is made of seal intestines carefully sewed together, is squared and +fastened by loops to a yard (sadniriaq) which is trimmed with straps of +deerskin. It is hoisted by a rope made of sealskin and passing over a +sheave in the top of the mast. This rope is tied to the thwart farthest +abaft, while the sheets are fastened to the foremost one. + + +THE SLEDGE AND DOGS. + +During the greater part of the year the only passable road is that +afforded by the ice and snow; therefore sledges (qamuting) of different +constructions are used in traveling. + + [Illustration: FIG. 482. Qamuting or sledge.] + +The best model is made by the tribes of Hudson Strait and Davis Strait, +for the driftwood which they can obtain in abundance admits the use of +long wooden runners. Their sledges (Fig. 482) have two runners, from +five to fifteen feet long and from twenty inches to two and a half feet +apart. They are connected by cross bars of wood or bone and the back is +formed by deer’s antlers with the skull attached. The bottom of the +runners (qamun) is curved at the head (uinirn) and cut off at right +angles behind. It is shod with whalebone, ivory, or the jawbones of a +whale. In long sledges the shoeing (pirqang) is broadest near the head +and narrowest behind. This device is very well adapted for sledging in +soft snow; for, while the weight of the load is distributed over the +entire length of the sledge, the fore part, which is most apt to break +through, has a broad face, which presses down the snow and enables the +hind part to glide over it without sinking in too deeply. + + [Illustration: FIG. 483. Sledge shoe. (National Museum, Washington. + 34096.) ¼] + +The shoe (Fig. 483) is either tied or riveted to the runner. If tied, +the lashing passes through sunken drill holes to avoid any friction in +moving over the snow. The right and left sides of a whale’s jaw are +frequently used for shoes, as they are of the proper size and permit the +shoe to be of a single piece. Ivory is cut into flat pieces and riveted +to the runner with long treenails. The points are frequently covered +with bone on both the lower and upper sides, as they are easily injured +by striking hard against hummocks or snowdrifts. Sometimes whalebone is +used for the shoes. + +The cross bars (napun) project over the runners on each side and have +notches which form a kind of neck. These necks serve to fasten the +thongs when a load is lashed on the sledge. The bars are fastened to the +runners by thongs which pass through two pairs of holes in the bars and +through corresponding ones in the runners. If these fastenings should +become loose, they are tightened by winding a small thong round them and +thus drawing the opposite parts of the thong tightly together. If this +proves insufficient, a small wedge is driven between the thong and the +runner. + +The antlers attached to the back of the sledge have the branches removed +and the points slanted so as to fit to the runners. Only the brow +antlers are left, the right one being cut down to about three inches in +length, the left one to one and a half inches. This back forms a very +convenient handle for steering the sledge past hummocks or rocks, for +drawing it back when the points have struck a snowdrift, &c. Besides, +the lashing for holding the load is tied to the right brow antler and +the snow knife and the harpoon line are hung upon it. + +Under the foremost cross bar a hole is drilled through each runner. +A very stout thong (pitu) consisting of two separate parts passes +through the holes and serves to fasten the dogs’ traces to the sledge. +A button at each end of this thong prevents it from slipping through the +hole of the runner. The thong consists of two parts, the one ending in a +loop, the other in a peculiar kind of clasp (partirang). Fig. 484 +represents the form commonly used. The end of one part of the thong is +fastened to the hole of the clasp, which, when closed, is stuck through +the loop of the opposite end (see Fig. 482). A more artistic design is +shown in Fig. 485. One end of the line is tied to the hole in the under +side of this implement. When it is in use the loop of the other end is +stuck through another hole in the center and hung over the nozzle. The +whole represents the head of an animal with a gaping mouth. The dogs’ +traces are strung upon this line by means of the uqsirn, an ivory +implement with a large and a small eyelet (Fig. 486). The trace is tied +to the former, while the latter is strung upon the pitu. + + [Illustration: FIG. 484. Clasp for fastening traces to sledge. + (National Museum, Washington. 34110.) ½] + + [Illustration: FIG. 485. Artistic form of clasp for fastening traces + to sledge. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.) 1/1] + +The dogs have harnesses (ano) made of sealskin (Fig. 487) or sometimes +of deerskin, consisting of two bights passing under the fore legs. They +are joined by two straps, one passing over the breast, the other over +the neck. The ends are tied together on the back, whence the trace runs +to the sledge. According to Parry (II, p. 517), the Iglulik harnesses +consisted of three bights, one passing over the breast and shoulder and +two under the fore legs. + + [Illustration: FIG. 486. Uqsirn, for fastening traces to pitu. _a_ + (National Museum, Washington. 34122.) 1/1 _b_ (Museum für + Völkerkunde, Berlin.) ½] + +It was mentioned at another place (p. 475) that in sealing a dog is +taken out of the sledge to lead the hunter to the breathing hole. For +this purpose the traces of some harnesses are made of two pieces, which +are united by the sadniriaq, a clasp similar to that of the pitu (Figs. +487, 488). If the dog is to be taken from the sledge the fore part of +the trace is unbuttoned. + + [Illustration: FIG. 487. Ano or dog harness. (Museum für + Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6730.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 488. Sadniriaq or clasp. (National Museum, + Washington.) ⅔] + +Besides this form of sledge a great number of others are in use. +Whenever whales are caught their bone is sawed or cut into large pieces, +which are shod with the same material. If large bones are not to be had, +a substitute is found in walrus skins or rolls of sealskins, which are +wetted and sewed up in a bag. This bag is given the desired form and +after being frozen to a solid mass is as serviceable as the best plank. +In Boothia frozen salmon are used in the same way and after having +served this purpose in winter are eaten in the spring. Other sledges are +made of slabs of fresh water ice, which are cut and allowed to freeze +together, or of a large ice block hollowed out in the center. All these +are clumsy and heavy and much inferior to the large sledge just +described. + +Parry (II, p. 515) states that at Igiulik the antlers are detached from +the sledge in winter when the natives go sealing. The tribes of Davis +Strait do not practice this custom, but use scarcely any sledge without +a pair of antlers. + +As to the appearance of the dogs I would refer to Parry (II, p. 515) and +other writers and confine my remarks to a description of their use by +the Eskimo. + +As the traces are strung upon a thong, as just described, the dogs all +pull at one point; for that reason they may seem, at first sight, to be +harnessed together without order or regularity; but they are arranged +with great care. The strongest and most spirited dog has the longest +trace and is allowed to run a few feet in advance of the rest as a +leader; its sex is indifferent, the choice being made chiefly with +regard to strength. Next to the leader follow two or three strong dogs +with traces of equal length, and the weaker and less manageable the dogs +the nearer they run to the sledge. A team is almost unmanageable if the +dogs are not accustomed to one another. They must know their leader, who +brings them to terms whenever there is a quarrel. In a good team the +leader must be the acknowledged chief, else the rest will fall into +disorder and refuse to follow him. His authority is almost unlimited. +When the dogs are fed, he takes the choice morsels; when two of them +quarrel, he bites both and thus brings them to terms. + +Generally there is a second dog which is inferior only to the leader, +but is feared by all the others. Though the authority of the leader is +not disputed by his own team, dogs of another team will not submit to +him. But when two teams are accustomed to travel in company the dogs in +each will have some regard for the leader of the other, though +continuous rivalry and quarrels go on between the two leaders. Almost +any dog which is harnessed into a strange team will at first be +unwilling to draw, and it is only when he is thoroughly accustomed to +all his neighbors and has found out his friends and his enemies that he +will do his work satisfactorily. Some dogs when put into a strange team +will throw themselves down and struggle and howl. They will endure the +severest lashing and allow themselves to be dragged along over rough ice +without being induced to rise and run along with the others. +Particularly if their own team is in sight will they turn back and try +to get to it. Others, again, are quite willing to work with strange +dogs. + +Partly on this account and partly from attachment to their masters, dogs +sold out of one team frequently return to their old homes, and I know of +instances in which they even ran from thirty to sixty miles to reach it. +Sometimes they do so when a sledge is traveling for a few days from one +settlement to another, the dogs not having left home for a long time +before. In such cases when the Eskimo go to harness their team in the +morning they find that some of them have run away, particularly those +which were lent from another team for the journey. In order to prevent +this the left fore leg is sometimes tied up by a loop which passes over +the neck. When one is on a journey it is well to do so every night, as +some of the dogs are rather unwilling to be harnessed in the morning, +thus causing a great loss of time before they are caught. In fact such +animals are customarily tied up at night, while the others are allowed +to run loose. + +Sometimes the harnesses are not taken off at night. As some dogs are in +the habit of stripping off their harness, it is fastened by tying the +trace around the body. Though all these peculiarities of the dogs give a +great deal of trouble to the driver, he must take care not to punish +them too severely, as they will then become frightened and for fear of +the whip will not work at all. + +Before putting the dogs to the sledge it must be prepared and loaded. +In winter the shoes of the runners are covered with a thick coat of ice, +which diminishes the friction on the snow. If the shoes are of good +bone, ivory, or whalebone, the icing is done with water only, the driver +taking a mouthful and carefully letting it run over the shoe until a +smooth cover of about one third of an inch in thickness is produced. The +icicles made by the water which runs down the side of the runner are +carefully removed with the snow knife, and the bottom is smoothed with +the same implement and afterward somewhat polished with the mitten. Skin +runners and others which have poor shoes are first covered with a +mixture of moss and water or clay and water. This being frozen, the +whole is iced, as has been described. Instead of pure water, a mixture +of blood and water or of urine and water is frequently used, as this +sticks better to the bone shoe than the former. + +This done, the sledge is turned right side up and loaded. In winter, +when the snow is hard, small sledges with narrow shoes are the best. In +loading, the bulk of the weight is placed behind. When the snow is soft +or there are wide cracks in the floe, long sledges with broad shoes are +by far the best. In such cases the heaviest part of the load is placed +on the middle of the sledge or even nearer the head. Particularly in +crossing cracks the weight must be as near the head as possible, for if +the jump should be unsuccessful a heavy weight at the hind part would +draw the sledge and the dogs into the water. + +The load is fastened to the sledge by a long lashing (naqetarun). This +is tied to the first cross bar and after passing over the load is drawn +over the notch of the next bar, and so on from one notch, over the load, +to a notch on the opposite side. After having been fastened in this way +it is tightened. Two men are required for the work, one pulling the +lashing over the notch, the other pressing down the load and lifting and +lowering the thong in order to diminish the friction, thus making the +pulling of the other man more effective. The end is fastened to the brow +antler. Implements which are used in traveling are hung upon the antlers +at the back of the sledge. In spring, when the snow is melting and water +is found under it, the travelers frequently carry in their pouch a tube +for drinking (Fig. 489). + + [Illustration: FIG. 489. Tube for drinking. (National Museum, + Washington. 10383.) ¼] + +When the sledge has been loaded the dogs are hitched to it and the +driver takes up the whip and is ready for starting. The handle of the +whip is about a foot or a foot and a half in length. It is made of wood, +bone, or whalebone and has a lash of from twenty to twenty-five feet in +length. The lash is made of walrus or ground seal hide, the lower end +being broad and stiff, thus giving it greater weight and a slight +springiness near the handle, which facilitates its use. A broad piece of +skin clasps the handle, to which it is tied with seal thongs. Another +way of making the lower part heavy is by plaiting ground seal lines for +a length of a foot or a foot and a half. + +When starting the driver utters a whistling guttural sound which sounds +like h!h!, but cannot exactly be expressed by letters, as there is no +vowel in it, and yet on account of the whistling noise in the throat it +is audible at a considerable distance. The dogs, if well rested and +strong, jump to their feet and start at once. If they are lazy it +requires a great deal of stimulating and lashing before they make a +start. If the load is heavy it is difficult to start it and the Eskimo +must use some strategy to get them all to pull at once. The sledge is +moved backward and forward for about a foot, so as to make a short track +in which it moves easily. Then the driver sings out to the dogs, at the +same time drawing the traces tight with his hands and pulling at the +sledge. The dogs, feeling a weight at the traces, begin to draw, and +when the driver suddenly lets go the traces the sledge receives a sudden +pull and begins to move. If assistance is at hand the sledge may be +pushed forward until it gets under way. + +It is extremely hard work to travel with a heavy load, particularly in +rough ice or on soft snow. The dogs require constant stimulating; for +this purpose a great number of exclamations are in use and almost every +Eskimo has his own favorite words for driving. The general exclamation, +used for stimulating is the above mentioned h! h! or aq! aq! which is +pressed out from the depths of the breast and the palate, the vowel +being very indistinct. Others are: djua! the a being drawn very long and +almost sung in a high key, or ah! pronounced in the same way; iatit! or +jauksa koksa! and smacking with the tongue. If a seal is seen basking on +the ice or if the sledge happens to pass a deserted snow hut, the driver +says, Ha! Do you see the seal? Ai! A seal! a seal! (Ha! Takuviuk? Ai! +Uto! uto!) and Ai! There is a house; a small house! (Ai! Iglu; +igluaqdjung!) or, Now we go home! (Sarpoq! Sarpoq!) The latter, however, +are only used when the dogs are going at a good rate. + +For directing the sledge the following words are used: Aua, aua! Aua! +ja aua! for turning to the right; χoiaχoi! ja χoia! for turning to the +left. In addition the whip lash is thrown to the opposite side of the +dogs. The leader is the first to obey the order, but a turn is made very +slowly and by a long curve. If the driver wants to make a sharper turn +he must jump up and run to the opposite side of the sledge, throwing the +whip lash at the same time toward the team. For stopping the dogs the +word Ohoha! pronounced in a deep key, is used. + +If the traveling is difficult the driver must walk along at the right +side of the sledge and wherever hummocks obstruct the passage he must +direct it around them either by pushing its head aside or by pulling at +the deer’s skull at the back. But notwithstanding all this stimulating +and all the pulling the sledge is frequently stopped by striking a piece +of ice or by sinking into soft snow. As soon as it sinks down to the +cross bars it must be lifted out, and when the load is heavy the only +means of getting on is by unloading and afterwards reloading. In the +same way it must be lifted across hummocks through which a road is cut +with the end of the spear, which, for this purpose, is always lashed in +a place where it is handy for use, generally on the right side of the +bottom of the sledge. The difficulties of traveling across heavy ice +which has been subjected to heavy pressures have frequently been +described. When the sledge stops the dogs immediately lie down, and if +they cannot start again, though pulling with all their strength, the +leader frequently looks around pitifully, as if to say, We cannot do +more! + +Traveling with a light sledge and strong dogs is quite different. Then +the team is almost unmanageable and as soon as it is hitched up it is +off at full speed. The driver sits down on the fore part and lets the +whip trail along, always ready for use. Now the dogs have time enough +for playing and quarreling with one another. Though they generally keep +their proper place in the team, some will occasionally jump over the +traces of their neighbors or crawl underneath them; thus the lines +become quickly entangled, and it is necessary to clear them almost every +hour. + +If any dog of the team is lazy the driver calls out his name and he is +lashed, but it is necessary to hit the dog called, for if another is +struck he feels wronged and will turn upon the dog whose name has been +called; the leader enters into the quarrel, and soon the whole pack is +huddled up in one howling and biting mass, and no amount of lashing and +beating will separate the fighting team. The only thing one can do is to +wait until their wrath has abated and to clear the traces. It is +necessary, however, to lay the mittens and the whip carefully upon the +sledge, for the leader, being on the lookout for the traces to be +strung, may give a start when the driver is scarcely ready, and off the +team will go again before the driver can fairly get hold of the sledge. +If anything has dropped from it he must drive in a wide circle to the +same place before he can stop the team and pick it up. On an old track +it is very difficult to stop them at all. When attempting to do so the +driver digs his heels into the snow to obstruct their progress and +eventually comes to a stop. Then he stands in front of the sled and +makes the dogs lie down by lashing their heads gently. Should the dogs +start off he would be thrown upon the sledge instead of being left +behind, which might easily happen should he stand alongside. + +The sledge is steered with the legs, usually with the right foot of the +driver, or, if it must be pulled aside from a large hummock, by pulling +the head aside or by means of the deer’s antlers. If two persons are on +the sledge--and usually two join for a long drive--they must not speak +to each other, for as soon as the dogs hear them they will stop, turn +around, sit down, and listen to the conversation. It has frequently been +said that the method of harnessing is inconvenient, as the dogs cannot +use their strength to the best advantage; but whoever has driven a +sledge himself will understand that any other method would be even more +troublesome and less effective. On smooth ice and hard snow any method +of harnessing could be used; but, on rough ice, by any other method +every cross piece would quickly break on attempting to cross the +hummocks. Frequently the traces catch a projecting point and the dogs +are then pulled back and thrown against the ice or under the sledge if +the trace does not break. If for any reason a dog should hang back and +the trace should trail over the snow the driver must lift it up to +prevent it from being caught by the sledge runner, else the dog will be +dragged in the same way as if the trace were caught by a hummock. Many +dogs are able in such cases to strip off their harnesses and thus escape +being dragged along, as the team cannot be stopped quickly enough to +prevent this. Besides the driver must see to it that the dogs do not +step across their traces, which in such cases would run between their +hind legs, for should this happen the skin might be severely chafed. +If the driver sees a trace in this position he runs forward and puts it +back without stopping the team. Particular attention must be paid to +this matter when the dogs rise just before starting. + +The sledges are not used until the ice is well covered with snow, as the +salt crystals formed on the top of the ice in the autumn hurt the dogs’ +feet and cause sores that heal slowly. Late in the spring, when the snow +has melted and sharp ice needles project everywhere, the feet of the +dogs are covered with small pieces of leather, with holes for the nails, +which are tied to the leg. As they are frequently lost and the putting +on of these shoes takes a long time, their use is very inconvenient. + +At this season numerous cracks run through the floe. They are either +crossed on narrow snow bridges which join the edges at convenient places +or on a drifting piece of ice by floating across. + +A few more words in conclusion concerning the training of the dogs. The +Eskimo rarely brings up more than three or four dogs at the same time. +If the litter is larger than this number the rest are sold or given +away. The young dogs are carefully nursed and in winter they are even +allowed to lie on the couch or are hung up over the lamp in a piece of +skin. When about four months old they are first put to the sledge and +gradually become accustomed to pull along with the others. They undergo +a good deal of lashing and whipping before they are as useful as the old +ones. + +If food is plentiful the dogs are fed every other day, and then their +share is by no means a large one. In winter they are fed with the heads, +entrails, bones, and skins of seals, and they are so voracious at this +time of the year that nothing is secure from their appetite. Any kind of +leather, particularly boots, harnesses, and thongs, is eaten whenever +they can get at it. In the spring they are better fed and in the early +part of summer they grow quite fat. In traveling, however, it sometimes +happens at this time of the year, as well as in winter, that they have +no food for five or six days. In Cumberland Sound, Hudson Strait, and +Hudson Bay, where the rise and fall of the tide are considerable, they +are carried in summer to small islands where they live upon what they +can find upon the beach, clams, codfish, &c. If at liberty they are +entirely able to provide for themselves. I remember two runaway dogs +which had lived on their own account from April until August and then +returned quite fat. + +The Eskimo of all these regions are very much troubled with the well +known dog’s disease of the Arctic regions. The only places where it +seems to be unknown are Davis Strait and Aggo. Here every man has a team +of from six to twelve dogs, while in Cumberland Sound, in some winters, +scarcely any have been left. (See Appendix, Note 2.) + + + + +HABITATIONS AND DRESS. + + +THE HOUSE. + + [Illustration: FIG. 490. Various styles of snow knife. (National + Museum, Washington. _a_, 10386; _b_, 10385.)] + +The houses of the Eskimo differ according to the season. All the tribes +from Smith Sound to Labrador and from Davis Strait to Victoria Land are +in the habit of building snow houses in winter. Though they erect +another more durable kind of winter house, these are more frequently in +use. The principles of construction are the same everywhere. A level +place is selected for erecting the snow house. To be suitable for +cutting into blocks the snowbank must have been formed by a single +storm, for blocks which are cut from drifts composed of several layers +break when cut. It must be very fine grained, but not so hard that it +cannot be readily cut with the saw or the snow knife. The whole building +is constructed of blocks of about three feet or four feet in length, two +feet in height, and from six inches to eight inches in thickness. They +are cut with snow knives or dovetail saws, which for this reason are +much in demand. The old snow knife (sulung) was made of ivory and had a +slight curve (Fig. 490). The blocks are cut either vertically or +horizontally, the former way being more convenient if the snowdrift is +deep. Two parallel cuts of the breadth and the depth of the blocks are +made through the drift, and after having removed a small block the +Eskimo go on cutting or sawing parallel to the surface. A cross cut is +then made and the block is loosened with the point of the foot and +lifted out of the bank. Vertical blocks are more easily detached from +the snowdrift than horizontal ones. + +Two men unite in building a house, the one cutting the blocks, the other +building. At first a row of blocks is put up in a circle, the single +pieces being slanted so as to fit closely together. Then the first block +is cut down to the ground and the top of the row is slanted so as to +form one thread of a spiral line. The builder places the first block of +the second row with its narrow side upon the first block and pushes it +with his left hand to the right so that it touches the last block of the +first row. Thus the snow block, which is inclined a little inward, has a +support on two sides. The vertical joint is slanted with the snow knife +and tightly pressed together, the new block resting on the oblique side +of the former. In building on in this way the blocks receive the shape +of almost regular trapezoids. Every block is inclined a little more +inward than the previous one, and as the angle to the vertical becomes +greater the blocks are only kept in their places by the neighboring +ones. In order to give them a good support the edges are the more +slanted as their angle is greater. + +This method of building is very ingenious, as it affords the possibility +of building a vault without a scaffold. If the blocks were placed in +parallel rows, the first block of a new row would have no support, while +by this method each reclines on the previous one. When the house has +reached a considerable height the man who cuts the blocks outside must +place them upon the last row. The builder supports them with his head +and pushes them to their proper places. The key block and those which +are next to it are either cut inside or pushed into the house through a +small door cut for the purpose. The key block is generally shaped +irregularly, as it is fitted into the hole which remains; usually the +last two blocks are triangular. When the vault is finished the joints +between the blocks are closed up by cutting down the edges and pressing +the scraps into the joints. Larger openings are closed with snow blocks +and filled up with loose snow pressed into the fissures. Thus the whole +building becomes a tight vault, without any holes through which the warm +air inside may escape. Such a snow house, about five feet high and seven +feet in diameter, is used as a camp in winter journeys. It takes about +two hours for two skilled men to build and finish it. For winter +quarters the vaults are built from ten to twelve feet high and twelve to +fifteen feet in diameter. In order to reach this height the builder +makes a bench on which he steps while finishing the upper part of the +building. + +The plan of a snow house of the Davis Strait tribes is a little +different from that of the Hudson Bay and the Iglulik tribes. + +I shall first describe the former according to my own observations +(Figs. 491 and 492). + + [Illustration: FIG. 491. Ground plan of snow house of Davis Strait + tribes.] + +The entrance to the main building is formed by two, or less frequently +by three, small vaults. The first one (uadling) is a small dome about +six feet in height, with a door two and a half feet in height; the +second one is a long passage of equal height formed by an elliptical +vault (igdluling). Its roof is generally arched, but sometimes the top +is cut off evenly and covered with slabs of snow. Both vaults together +form the entrance and are called toqsung. A door about three feet high +leads into the main room, the floor of which is about nine inches above +that of the former. Two very small vaults are always attached to the +whole building (Fig. 491). One is situated alongside of the uadling and +the igdluling, and serves as a storeroom for clothing and harness +(sirdloang). It is not connected with the interior of the hut, but one +of the blocks of the vault can be taken out and is made to serve as a +lid. On the left side of the entrance of the main building is another +small vault (igdluarn), which is accessible from the main building. It +serves for keeping spare meat and blubber. Frequently there is a second +igdluarn on the opposite side, and sometimes even a third one in the +igdluling. Another appendix of the main building is frequently used, the +audlitiving (Fig. 491 and Fig. 492 _c_). It is a vault similar to the +sirdloang and is attached to the back of the main room. It serves for +storing up meat for future use. + +Directly over the entrance a window is cut through the wall, either +square or more frequently forming an arch, which is generally covered +with the intestines of ground seals, neatly sewed together, the seams +standing vertically (Fig. 493). In the center there is a hole (qingang) +through which one can look out. In some instances a piece of fresh water +ice is inserted in the hole. According to Ross it is always used by the +Netchillirmiut (II, p. 250), who make the slab by letting water freeze +in a sealskin. + + [Illustration: FIG. 492. Snow house of Davis Strait, sections.] + +In the rear half and on both sides of the door a bank of snow two and a +half feet high is raised and cut off straight, a passage trench five +feet wide and six feet long remaining. The rear half forms the bed, the +adjoining parts of the side benches are the place for the lamps, while +on both sides of the entrance meat and refuse are heaped up. Frequently +the snowbank on which the hut is built is deep enough so that the bed +needs very little raising, and the passage is cut into the bank. As this +is much more convenient in building, the huts are generally erected on a +sloping face, the entrance lying on the lower part, which faces the +beach. + + [Illustration: FIG. 493. Section and interior of snow house.] + +Before the bed is arranged and the hut furnished the vault is lined with +skins, frequently with the cover of the summer hut. The lining +(ilupiqang) is fastened to the roof by small ropes (nirtsun), which are +fastened by a toggle on the outside of the wall (Fig. 493). In the lower +part of the building the lining lies close to the wall; in the upper +part it forms a flat roof about two or three feet below the top of the +vault. The effect of this arrangement is to prevent the warm air inside +from melting the snow roof, as above the skins there is always a layer +of colder air. Close to the top of the building a small hole (qangirn) +is cut through the wall for ventilation. The lamps require a good +draught, which is secured by this hole. The cold air enters through the +door, slowly filling the passage, and after being warmed rises to the +lamps and escapes through the skin cover and the hole. The moisture of +the air forms long ice needles on the inside of the roof. Sometimes they +fall down upon the skins, and must be immediately removed by shaking it +until they glide down at the sides, else they melt and wet the room +thoroughly. Frequently a high ice funnel forms around the hole from the +freezing moisture of the escaping air. + +The southern and western tribes rarely line the snow house. The +continuous dropping from the roof, however, causes great inconvenience, +and, besides, the temperature cannot be raised higher than two or three +degrees centigrade above the freezing point, while in the lined houses +it is frequently from ten to twenty degrees centigrade, so that the +latter are much more comfortable. To avoid the dropping the natives +apply a cold piece of snow to the roof before the drop falls down, which +at once freezes to it, the roof acquiring by this repeated process a +stalactitic appearance. The eastern tribes use the lining in their +permanent houses without any exception. The western and southern tribes, +who leave the walls bare, heap a thick layer of loose snow over the +whole building, almost covering it up, the window and the ventilating +hole alone excepted. For this purpose snow shovels are used. + +The edge of the bed is formed by a long pole. The surface of the +snowbank which forms the foundation for the bed is covered with pieces +of wood, oars, paddles, tent poles, &c. These are covered with a thick +layer of shrubs, particularly _Andromeda tetragona_. Over these numerous +heavy deerskins are spread, and thus a very comfortable bed is made. + +According to Parry the arrangement in Iglulik is as follows (II, p. +501): + + The beds are arranged by first covering the snow with a quantity + of small stones, over which are laid their paddles, tent poles, + and some blades of whalebone; above these they place a number of + little pieces of network made of thin slips of whalebone, and + lastly a quantity of twigs of birch and of the _Andromeda + tetragona_. * * * The birch, they say, had been procured from the + southward by way of Nuvuk. * * * There deerskins, which are very + numerous, can now be spread without risk of their touching the + snow. + +At night, when the Eskimo go to bed, they put their clothing, their +boots excepted, on the edge of the platform under the deerskins, thus +forming a pillow, and lie down with the head toward the entrance. The +blankets (qipiq) for their beds are made of heavy deerskins, which are +sewed together, one blanket serving for a whole family. The edge of the +blanket is trimmed with leather straps. + +On the side benches in front of the bed is the fireplace, which consists +of a stone lamp and a framework from which the pots are suspended (see +Fig. 493). The lamp (qudlirn), which is made of soapstone, is a shallow +vessel in the shape of a small segment of a circle. Sometimes a small +space is divided off at the back for gathering in the scraps of blubber. +The wick consists of hair of _Eryophorum_ or of dried moss rubbed down +with a little blubber so as to be inflammable. It is always carried by +the women in a small bag. The whole vessel is filled with blubber as +high as the wick, which is spread along the straight side of the vessel. +It requires constant attention to keep the desired length burning +without smoking, the length kindled being in accordance with the heat or +light required. The trimming of the wick is done with a bit of bone, +asbestus, or wood, with which the burning moss is spread along the edge +of the lamp and extinguished or pressed down if the fire is not wanted +or if it smokes. At the same time this stick serves to light other lamps +(or pipes), the burnt point being put into the blubber and then kindled. +Sometimes a long, narrow vessel stands below the lamp, in which the oil +that drops from the edge is collected. + +In winter the blubber before being used is frozen, after which it is +thoroughly beaten. This bursts the vesicles of fat and the oil comes out +as soon as it is melted. The pieces of blubber are either put into the +lamp or placed over a piece of bone or wood, which hangs from the +framework a little behind the wick. In summer the oil must be chewed +out. It is a disgusting sight to see the women and children sitting +around a large vessel all chewing blubber and spitting the oil into it. + +The frame of the fireplace consists of four poles stuck in the snow in a +square around the lamp and four crossbars connecting the poles at the +top. From those which run from the front to the back the kettle (ukusik) +is suspended by two pairs of strings or thongs. It is made of soapstone +and has a hole in each corner for the string. The kettle which is in use +among the eastern tribes has a narrow rim and a wide bottom (Fig. 494), +while that of the western ones is just the opposite. Parry, however, +found one of this description in River Clyde (I, p. 286). When not in +use it is shoved back by means of the strings. Since whalers began to +visit the country a great number of tin pots have been introduced, which +are much more serviceable, the process of cooking being quickened. + + [Illustration: FIG. 494. Ukusik or soapstone kettle.] + +On the top of the frame there is always a wood or bone hoop with a net +of thongs stretched across it (inetang). It serves to dry clothing, +particularly boots, stockings, and mittens, over the fire. In the +passage near the entrance to the hut there is frequently a small lamp +(adlirn), which is very effective for warming the cold air entering +through the door, and in the remotest corner in the back of the hut +there is sometimes another (kidlulirn). When all the lamps are lighted +the house becomes warm and comfortable. + +Two small holes are frequently cut in the snowbank which forms the +ledge, at about the middle of its height (see Fig. 492 _a_). They are +closed with small snow blocks, each of which has a groove for a handle, +and serve to store away anything that must be kept dry. At night the +entrance of the inner room is closed with a large snow block, which +stands in the passage during the day. + +These huts are always occupied by two families, each woman having her +own lamp and sitting on the ledge in front of it, the one on the right +side, the other on the left side of the house. If more families join in +building a common snow house, they make two main rooms with one +entrance. The plan of such a building is seen in Fig. 495. + + [Illustration: FIG. 495. Plan of double snow house.] + +The plans of the Iglulik and Hudson Bay houses are different from the +one described here. The difference will best be seen by comparing the +plans represented in Fig. 496 and Fig. 497, which have been reprinted +from Hall and Parry, respectively, with the former ones. Among the +eastern tribes I have never seen the beds on the side of the passage, +but always at the rear of the house. + + [Illustration: FIG. 496. Plan of Iglulik house. (From Parry II, p. + 500.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 497. Plan of Hudson Bay house. (From Hall II, + p. 128.)] + +Besides these snow houses a more solid building is in use, called +qarmang. On the islands of the American Archipelago and in the +neighboring parts of the mainland numerous old stone foundations are +found, which prove that all these islands were once inhabited by the +Eskimo. It has often been said that the central tribes have forgotten +the art of building stone houses and always live in snow huts. At the +present time they do not build houses, but cover the walls of an old hut +with a new roof whenever they take possession of it. There is no need of +any new buildings, as the Eskimo always locate in the old settlements +and the old buildings are quite sufficient to satisfy all their wants. + + [Illustration: FIG. 498. Plan and sections of qarmang or stone + house.] + +Those in good condition have a long stone entrance (ka´teng) (Fig. 498), +sometimes from fifteen to twenty feet long. This is made by cutting an +excavation into the slope of a hill. Its walls are covered with large +slabs of stone about two and a half feet high and three feet wide, the +space between the stone and the sides of the excavation being afterwards +filled up with earth. The floor of the passage slopes upward toward the +hut. The last four feet of the entrance are covered with a very large +slab and are a little higher than the other parts of the roof of the +passageway. The slab is at the same height as the benches of the +dwelling room, which is also dug out, the walls being formed of stones +and whale ribs. The plan of the interior is the same as that of the snow +house, the bed being in the rear end of the room and the lamps on both +sides of the entrance. The floor of the hut is about eight inches higher +than that of the passage. The roof and the window, however, differ from +those of the snow house. In the front part of the hut the rib of a whale +is put up, forming an arch. A great number of poles are lashed to it and +run toward the back of the house, where they rest on the top of the +wall, forming, as it were, the rafters. The whole curve formed by the +rib is covered with a window of seal intestines, while the poles are +covered with sealskins, which are fastened in front to the whale rib. At +the other end they are either fastened to the ribs in the wall or, more +frequently, are steadied by stones. The roof is covered with a thick +layer of _Andromeda_, and another skin, which is fastened in the same +way, is spread over both covers. This kind of hut is very warm, light, +and comfortable. The stone banks forming the bed are covered as already +described. + + [Illustration: FIG. 499. Plan of large qarmang or stone house for + three families.] + +If three families occupy one house the whale’s rib which forms the +window is placed a few feet farther forward than in the previous case, +at the end of the large slab which forms the roof of the last part of +the passage. + + [Illustration: FIG. 500. Plan of stone house in Anarnitung, + Cumberland Sound. (From a drawing by L. Kumlien.)] + +By means of poles and bones a small side room is built (qareang), the +ceiling of which is sewed to that of the main room (Fig. 499). The large +slab which is in front of the window (at the end of the passage) is +utilized as a storeroom for both families living on that side of the +house, a place being left open only in the middle, where the spy hole +is. In some instances this side room is inclosed in the stone walls of +the hut. + +Fig. 500 and Fig. 501 present sketches of plans of some of these houses. +From such sketches it appears that several houses might have a common +entrance. + + [Illustration: FIG. 501. Plan of group of stone houses in + Pangnirtung, Cumberland Sound.] + +In Anarnitung I observed no passage at all for the houses, the walls +being entirely above the ground and piled up with bowlders and sod. They +are, however, covered in the same way as the others and the entrance is +made of snow. + + [Illustration: FIG. 502. Plan and sections of qarmang or house made + of whale ribs.] + +A winter house built on the same plan is represented in Fig. 502. The +wall is made entirely of whale ribs, placed so that their ends cross one +another. The poles are tied over the top of the ribs and the whole frame +is covered with the double roof described above. A few narrow snow +vaults form the entrance. The front rib forms the door, and thus the hut +becomes quite dark. Huts of this kind are also called qarmang or +qarmaujang, i.e., similar to a qarmang. + +In Ukiadliving I found, along with a great number of fine qarmat, some +very remarkable storehouses, such as are represented in Fig. 503. +Structures of this kind (ikan´) consist of heavy granite pillars, on the +top of which flat slabs are piled to a height of from nine to ten feet. +In winter, blubber and meat are put away upon these pillars, which are +sufficiently high to keep them from the dogs. Sometimes two pillars, +about ten feet apart, are found near the huts. In winter the kayak is +placed upon them in order to prevent it from being covered by snowdrifts +or from being torn and destroyed by the dogs. In snow villages these +pillars are made of snow. + +The purpose of the long, kayak-like building figured by Kumlien (see +Fig. 500) is unknown to me. I found a similar one, consisting of two +rows of stones, scarcely one foot high but twenty feet long, in +Pangnirtung, Cumberland Sound, but nobody could explain its use. + + [Illustration: FIG. 503. Storehouse in Ukiadliving. (From a sketch + by the author.)] + +In the spring, when the rays of the sun become warmer, the roofs of the +snow houses fall down. At this season the natives build only the lower +half of a snow vault, which is covered with skins. + + [Illustration: FIG. 504. Plan and sections of tupiq or tent of + Cumberland Sound.] + +Still later they live in their tents (tupiq) (Fig. 504). The framework +consists of poles, which are frequently made of many pieces of wood +ingeniously lashed together. The plan (Fig. 504 _a_) is the same as that +of the winter houses. At the edge of the bed and at the entrance two +pairs of converging poles are erected. A little below the crossing +points two cross strips are firmly attached, forming the ridge. Behind +the poles, at the edge of the bed, six or eight others are arranged in a +semicircle resting on the ground and on the crossing point of those +poles. The frame is covered with a large skin roof fitting tightly. The +back part, covering the bed, is made of sealskins; the fore part, +between the two pairs of poles, of the thin membrane which is split from +the skins (see p. 519), and admits the light. The door is formed by the +front part of the cover, the left side (in entering) ending in the +middle of the entrance, the right one overlapping it, so as to prevent +the wind from blowing into the hut. The cover is steadied with heavy +stones (Fig. 504 _c_). In Cumberland Sound and the more southern parts +of Baffin Land the back of the hut is inclined at an angle of 45°; in +Davis Strait it is as steep as 60°, or even more. In the summer tent the +bed and the side platforms are not raised, but only separated from the +passage by means of poles. + +Farther north and west, in Pond Bay, Admiralty Inlet, and Iglulik, where +wood is scarce, the Eskimo have a different plan of construction (Fig. +505). A strong pole is set up vertically at the end of the passage, +a small cross piece being lashed to its top. The entrance is formed by +an oblique pole, the end of which lies in the ridge of the roof. The +latter is formed by a stout thong which runs over the top of both poles +and is fastened to heavy stones on both sides. If wood is wanting, then +poles are made from the penis bones of the walrus. Parry found one of +these tents at River Clyde, on his first expedition, and describes it as +follows (I, p. 283): + + The tents which compose their summer habitations, are principally + supported by a long pole of whalebone, 14 feet high, standing + perpendicularly, with 4 or 5 feet of it projecting above the skins + which form the roof and sides. The length of the tent is 17, and + its breadth from 7 to 9 feet, the narrowest part being next the + door, and widening towards the inner part, where the bed, composed + of a quantity of the small shrubby plant, the _Andromeda + tetragona_, occupies about one-third of the whole apartment. The + pole of the tent is fixed where the bed commences, and the latter + is kept separate by some pieces of bone laid across the tent from + side to side. The door which faces the southwest, is also formed + of two pieces of bone, with the upper ends fastened together, and + the skins are made to overlap in that part of the tent, which is + much lower than the inner end. The covering is fastened to the + ground by curved pieces of bone, being generally parts of the + whale. + +This kind of tent differs from the one described by me only in the +construction of its door. + +I could not find a description of the tent of the Hudson Bay Eskimo. +There is only one illustration in Klutschak (p. 137) and one in Ross +(II, p. 581) representing tents of the Netchillirmiut. In the former +there are a few conical tents, such as are used by the eastern tribes +before a sufficient number of skins for a large tent can be procured. +The same kind is represented in Ross’s book. The other tent drawn by +Klutschak is similar to the Iglulik one, but the arrangement of the +poles in the back part is invisible. The entrance is formed by two +converging poles and a rope runs over the ridge and is tied to a rock. + + [Illustration: FIG. 505. Plan and sections of tupiq or tent of Pond + Bay.] + +The small tents which are used in the spring are made of a few +converging poles forming a cone. They are covered with a skin roof. + + [Illustration: FIG. 506. Plan and sections of double winter tent, + Cumberland Sound.] + +Some families, instead of building snow houses or stone houses in +winter, cover the summer tent with shrubs and spread over them a second +skin cover. In front of the tent snow vaults are built to protect the +interior from the cold. In some instances several families join their +tents (Fig. 506). In the front part where the tents adjoin each other +the covers are taken away and replaced by a whale rib which affords a +passage from one room to the other. + +The plans of the feasting houses, will be found in another place +(p. 600). + + +CLOTHING, DRESSING OF THE HAIR, AND TATTOOING. + +The styles of clothing differ among the tribes of the Central Eskimo. In +summer the outer garment is always made of sealskins, though the women +wear deerskins almost the entire year. The sealskin clothing is made +from the skins of _Pagomys fœtidus_, yearlings being used, and also +from those of _Callocephalus_, if they can be obtained. The latter +particularly are highly valued by the natives. The inner garment is made +either of the skin of the young seal in the white coat or of a light +deerskin. It is cut entirely with the woman’s knife and is sewed with +deer sinews. + +The prettiest clothing is made by the tribes of Davis Strait. Both men +and women wear boots, trousers, and jackets. The style of the men’s +clothing may be seen from Figs. 397 and 399, which represent men in the +winter clothing, and 412 and 435, which show them in summer clothing. +The summer boots are made from the hairless skin of _Pagomys fœtidus_, +the soles from that of _Phoca_, the sole reaching to the top of the +foot. The leg of the boot is kept up by a string passing through its rim +and firmly tied around the leg. At the ankle a string passes over the +instep and around the foot to prevent the heel from slipping down. On +the top of the foot a knob (qaturang) is sometimes attached to the +string as an ornament (Fig. 507). The stocking is made of light +deerskin. It reaches above the knee, where it has a trimming made from +the white parts of a deerskin, whereas the boot ends below the knee. +Next to the stocking is a slipper, which is made of birdskin, the +feathers being worn next to the foot. This is covered with a slipper of +sealskin, the hair side worn outward and the hair pointing toward the +heel. The boot finishes the footgear. In the huts the birdskin slippers +are frequently laid aside. + + [Illustration: FIG. 507. Qaturang or boot ornament. (Museum für + Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6850.)] + +The breeches of the men consist of an outside and an inside pair, the +former being worn with the hair outside; the latter, which are made of +the skins of young seals or of deer, with the hair inside. They are +fastened round the body by means of a string and reach a little below +the knee. Their make will best be seen from the figures. Only the +southern tribes trim the lower end of the trousers by sewing a piece to +them, the hair of which runs around the leg, while above it runs +downward. This pattern looks very pretty. + + [Illustration: FIG. 508. Woman’s jacket. (National Museum, + Washington.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 509. Ivory beads for women’s jackets, _a_ + (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6841) _b_, _c_ (National + Museum, Washington. 34134.) 1/1] + +The jacket does not open in front, but is drawn over the head. It has a +hood fitting closely to the head. The back and the front are made of a +sealskin each. The hood of the Oqomiut is sharply pointed, while that of +the Akudnirmiut is more rounded. The jackets are cut straight and have a +slit in front. Some have a short tail behind, particularly the winter +jackets. The cut of the winter clothing, which is made of deerskin, +is the same as the former, and it is frequently trimmed with straps of +deerskin. The jacket is rarely worn with the hood down, as it is only +used while hunting and traveling. It is never brought into the huts, but +after being cleaned from the adhering snow with the snowbeater +(tiluqtung, as named by the eastern tribes; arautaq, as called by Hudson +Bay tribes) is kept in the storeroom outside the house. + +The women’s trousers are composed of two pieces. The upper one fits +tightly and covers the upper half of the thigh. It is made of the skin +of a deer’s belly. The other parts are, as it were, leggings, which +reach from a little below the knee to the middle of the thigh and are +kept in place by a string running to the upper part of the trousers. The +women’s jacket (Fig. 508) is much more neatly trimmed than that of the +men. It is frequently adorned with ivory or brass beads running round +the edge (Fig. 509). It has a wide and large hood reaching down almost +to the middle of the body. In front the jacket has a short appendage; +behind, a very long tail which trails along the ground (see Fig. 508). +If a child is carried in the hood, a leather girdle fastened with a +buckle (Fig. 510) is tied around the waist and serves to prevent the +child from slipping down. The first specimen given in Fig. 510 is +remarkable for its artistic design. + + [Illustration: FIG. 510. Girdle buckles. _a_, _c_, _d_ (Museum für + Völkerkunde, Berlin.) _b_ (National Museum, Washington. 34125.) 1/1] + +Among the Akudnirmiut of Davis Strait another fashion is more frequently +in use much resembling that of Iglulik. The women have a wider jacket +with a broader hood, enormous boots with a flap reaching up to the hip, +and breeches consisting of one piece and reaching to the knees. +Unfortunately I have no drawing of this clothing and must therefore +refer to Parry’s engravings, which, however, are not very well executed, +and to the figures representing dolls in this costume (see Fig. 528). + +When children are about a month old they are put into a jacket made from +the skin of a deer fawn and a cap of the same material, their legs +remaining bare, as they are always carried in their mother’s hood. In +some places, where large boots are in use, they are said to be carried +in these. The cap is separate and is always made of the head of a fawn, +the ears standing upright on each side of the head. The jacket is either +quite open in front or has a short slit. Children of more than two years +of age wear the same clothing, with trousers and boots (Fig. 511). When +they are about eight years old they are clothed like men (Fig. 512). +Girls frequently wear the same kind of dress for some time, until they +are from nine to ten years old, when they assume the clothing of the +women. + + [Illustration: FIG. 511. Infant’s clothing. (Museum für Völkerkunde, + Berlin.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 512. Child’s clothing.] + +As to the mode of clothing of the other tribes I give the descriptions +of the authors. + +Parry describes the dress of the Iglulirmiut as follows (II, p. 495): + + In the jacket of the women, the tail or flap behind is very broad, + and so long as almost to touch the ground; while a shorter and + narrower one before reaches halfway down the thigh. The men have + also a tail in the hind part of their jacket, but of smaller + dimensions; but before, it is generally straight or ornamented by + a single scollop. The hood of the jacket * * * is much the largest + in that of the women, for the purpose of holding a child. The back + of the jacket also bulges out in the middle to give the child a + footing, and a strap or girdle below this, and secured round the + waist by two large wooden buttons in front, prevents the infant + from falling through when, the hood being in use, it is necessary + thus to deposit it. * * * The upper (winter) garment of the + females, besides being cut according to a regular and uniform + pattern, and sewed with exceeding neatness, which is the case with + all the dresses of these people, has also the flaps ornamented in + a very becoming manner by a neat border of deerskin, so arranged + as to display alternate breadths of white and dark fur. This is, + moreover, usually beautified by a handsome fringe, consisting of + innumerable long, narrow threads of leather hanging down from it. + This ornament is not uncommon also in the outer jackets of the + men. When seal-hunting, they fasten up the tails of their jackets + with a button behind. + +The breeches and the foot gear of the men are described as being much +the same as those of the Akudnirmiut. Parry remarks (loc. cit.) that +several serpentine pieces of hide are sewed across the soles to prevent +them from wearing out: + + The inner boot of the women, unlike that of the men, is loose + around the leg, coming as high as the knee joint behind, and in + front carried up by a long, pointed flap nearly to the waist and + there fastened to the breeches. The upper boot, with the hair as + usual outside, corresponds with the other in shape, except that it + is much more full, especially on the outer side, where it bulges + out so preposterously as to give the women the most awkward, + bow-legged appearance imaginable. * * * Here, also, as in the + jacket, considerable taste is displayed in the selection of + different parts of the deerskin, alternate strips of dark and + white being placed up and down the sides and front by way of + ornament. The women also wear a moccasin (itigega) overall in the + winter-time. + +The dress of the Aivillirmiut is similar to that of the Igiulirmiut +(Gilder, p. 139). + +Traces of clothing found in old graves of Cumberland Sound and +Frobisher’s description of the dress of the Nugumiut show that the style +of clothing now used by the Igiulirmiut formerly obtained in all parts +of Baffin Land. + +All the Eskimo wear mittens. Those used in winter are made of the skin +of young seals or of deerskin. In summer they use hairless sealskin, and +sometimes make them with two thumbs, so as to turn the mitten round if +one side should become wet. + +The manner of dressing the hair practiced by the tribes of Northeastern +Baffin Land differs from that of other tribes. On Davis Strait and in +Hudson Bay the men allow it to grow to a considerable length, but +frequently cut it short on the forehead. If all the hair is long it is +kept back by a band made of the skin of deer antlers taken in the +velvet. Sometimes these ties are very neatly finished. Frobisher states +that the Nugumiut shaved part of their heads. The Kinipetu shave the top +of the head; the Netchillirmiut wear their hair short. + +The women have two styles of dressing their hair. They always part it on +the top of the head. The back hair is wound into a bunch protruding from +the back of the head or nicely arranged in a knot. The hair at the sides +is plaited and folded over the ears, joining the knot behind. The other +way is to arrange these parts in small pigtails reaching a little below +the ears. They are kept in order by an ivory or brass ring (see Fig. +515). + +The manner in which the Iglulirmiut dress their hair is thus described +by Parry (II, p. 493): + + They separate their locks into two equal parts, one of which hangs + on each side of their heads and in front of their shoulders. To + stiffen and bind these they use a narrow strap of deerskin, + attached at one end to a round piece of bone, fourteen inches + long, tapered to a point, and covered over with leather. This + looks like a little whip, the handle of which is placed up and + down the hair and the strap wound round it in a number of spiral + turns, making the tail, thus equipped, very much resemble one of + those formerly worn by our seamen. The strap of this article of + dress, which is altogether called a tugliga, is so made from the + deerskin as to show when bound round the hair, alternate turns of + white and dark fur, which give it a very neat and ornamental + appearance. * * * Those who are less nice dispose * * * their hair + into a loose plait on each side or have one tugliga and one plait. + + [Illustration: FIG. 513. Ivory combs. (National Museum, Washington. + 10195.) 1/1] + +The natives of Southampton Island arrange their hair in a bunch +protruding from the forehead (sulubaut). The same dress is worn at +certain feasts on Davis Strait (p. 608). + +For dressing the hair ivory combs are in use, two specimens of which are +represented in. Fig. 513. + +The clothing is frequently trimmed with straps of white deerskin, giving +it a pleasing appearance. The edge of the women’s jacket is adorned with +ivory beads. Instead of these, teeth, deer’s ears, foxes’ noses, or +brass bells are sometimes used. + + [Illustration: FIG. 514. Buckles. _c_ (From Tununirnusirn.) + (National Museum, Washington, _a_, 10196; _b_, 10400; _c_, 10177; + _d_, 10196; _e_, 10195; _f_, 10207.) 1/1] + +The inner jackets of the men are sometimes trimmed with beads, feathers, +or leather straps, forming a collar and figures of different kinds on +the back and on the breast. An amulet is worn in the middle of the back +(p. 592). These ornaments and the amulet are only visible when the outer +garment is taken off in the hut. + +Fig. 514 represents a number of buckles serving to carry needlecases or +similar implements at the girdle, to which the eye is tied, the button +being fastened to the implement. Head ornaments are in frequent use and +are sometimes beautifully finished. + + [Illustration: FIG. 515. Manner of tattooing face and wearing hair.] + +The women are in the habit of adorning their faces by tattooing. It is +done, when they are about twelve years of age, by passing needle and +thread covered with soot under the skin, or by puncture, the points of +the tattooing instruments being rubbed with the same substance in both +cases, which is a mixture of the juice of _Fucus_ and soot, or with +gunpowder, by which process they obtain a blue color. The face, arms, +hands, thighs, and breasts are the parts of the body which are generally +tattooed. The patterns will be seen in Figs. 515 and 516. + + [Illustration: FIG. 516. Manner of tattooing legs and hands.] + + + + +SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS LIFE. + + +DOMESTIC OCCUPATIONS AND AMUSEMENTS. + +It is winter and the natives are established in their warm snow houses. +At this time of the year it is necessary to make use of the short +daylight and twilight for hunting. Long before the day begins to dawn +the Eskimo prepares for hunting. He rouses his housemates; his wife +supplies the lamp with a new wick and fresh blubber and the dim light +which has been kept burning during the night quickly brightens up and +warms the hut. While the woman is busy preparing breakfast the man fits +up his sledge for hunting. He takes the snow block which closes the +entrance of the dwelling room during the night out of the doorway and +passes through the low passages. Within the passage the dogs are +sleeping, tired by the fatigues of the day before. Though their long, +heavy hair protects them from the severe cold of the Arctic winter, they +like to seek shelter from the piercing winds in the entrance of the hut. + +The sledge is iced, the harnesses are taken out of the storeroom by the +door, and the dogs are harnessed to the sledge. Breakfast is now ready +and after having taken a hearty meal of seal soup and frozen and cooked +seal meat the hunter lashes the spear that stands outside of the hut +upon the sledge, hangs the harpoon line, some toggles, and his knife +over the antlers, and starts for the hunting ground. Here he waits +patiently for the blowing seal, sometimes until late in the evening. + +Meanwhile the women, who stay at home, are engaged in their domestic +occupations, mending boots and making new clothing, or they visit one +another, taking some work with them, or pass their time with games or in +playing with the children. While sitting at their sewing and at the same +time watching their lamps and cooking the meat, they incessantly hum +their favorite tunes. About noon they cook their dinner and usually +prepare at the same time the meal for the returning hunters. As soon as +the first sledge is heard approaching, the pots, which have been pushed +back during the afternoon, are placed over the fire, and when the hungry +men enter the hut their dinner is ready. While hunting they usually open +the seals caught early in the morning, to take out a piece of the flesh +or liver, which they eat raw, for lunch. The cut is then temporarily +fastened until the final dressing of the animal at home. + +In the western regions particularly the hunters frequently visit the +depots of venison made in the fall, and the return is always followed by +a great feast. + +After the hunters reach home they first unharness their dogs and +unstring the traces, which are carefully arranged, coiled up, and put +away in the storeroom. Then the sledge is unloaded and the spoils are +dragged through the entrance into the hut. A religious custom commands +the women to leave off working, and not until the seal is cut up are +they allowed to resume their sewing and the preparing of skins. This +custom is founded on the tradition that all kinds of sea animals have +risen from the fingers of their supreme goddess, who must be propitiated +after being offended by the murder of her offspring (see p. 583). The +spear is stuck into the snow at the entrance of the house, the sledge is +turned upside down, and the ice coating is removed from the runners. +Then it is leaned against the wall of the house, and at last the hunter +is ready to enter. He strips off his deerskin jacket and slips into his +sealskin coat. The former is carefully cleaned of the adhering ice and +snow with the snowbeater and put into the storeroom outside the house. + +This done, the men are ready for their dinner, of which the women do not +partake. In winter the staple food of the Eskimo is boiled seal and +walrus meat, though in some parts of the western districts it is musk ox +and venison, a rich and nourishing soup being obtained by cooking the +meat. The natives are particularly fond of seal and walrus soup, which +is made by mixing and boiling water, blood, and blubber with large +pieces of meat. + + [Illustration: FIG. 517. Forks. _a_, _b_ (From Iglulik.) (National + Museum, Washington, _a_, 10395; _b_, 10393.)] + +The food is not always salted, but sometimes melted sea water ice, which +contains a sufficient quantity of salt, is used for cooking. Liver is +generally eaten raw and is considered a tidbit. I have seen the +intestines eaten only when there was no meat. + + [Illustration: FIG. 518. Ladle of musk ox horn. (National Museum. + Washington. 10382.) ½] + +Forks (Fig. 517)[6] are used to take the meat out of the kettle and the +soup is generally poured out into a large cup. Before the introduction +of European manufactures these vessels and dishes generally consisted of +whalebone. One of these has been described by Parry (I, p. 286). It was +circular in form, one piece of whalebone being bent into the proper +shape for the sides and another flat piece of the same material sewed to +it for a bottom, so closely as to make it perfectly watertight. A ladle +or spoon (Fig. 518) is sometimes used in drinking it, but usually the +cup is passed around, each taking a sip in turn. In the same way large +pieces of meat are passed round, each taking as large a mouthful as +possible and then cutting off the bit close to the lips. They all smack +their lips in eating. The Eskimo drink a great deal of water, which is +generally kept in vessels standing near the lamps. When the men have +finished their meal the women take their share, and then all attack the +frozen meat which is kept in the storerooms. The women are allowed to +participate in this part of the meal. An enormous quantity of meat is +devoured every night, and sometimes they only suspend eating when they +go to bed, keeping a piece of meat within reach in case they awake. + + [Footnote 6: The fork first represented in this figure is + evidently broken, a series of knobs having originally formed the + handle.] + +After dinner the seals, which have been placed behind the lamps to thaw, +are thrown upon the floor, cut up, and the spare meat and skins are +taken into the storerooms. If a scarcity of food prevails in the village +and a hunter has caught a few seals, every inhabitant of the settlement +receives a piece of meat and blubber, which he takes to his hut, and the +successful hunter invites all hands to a feast. + +The dogs are fed every second day after dinner. For this purpose two men +go to a place at a short distance from the hut, taking the frozen food +with them, which they split with a hatchet or the point of the spear. +While one is breaking the solid mass the other keeps the dogs off by +means of the whip, but as soon as the food is ready they make a rush at +it, and in less than half a minute have swallowed their meal. No dog of +a strange team is allowed to steal anything, but is kept at a distance +by the dogs themselves and by the whip. If the dogs are very hungry they +are harnessed to the sledge in order to prevent an attack before the men +are ready. They are unharnessed after the food is prepared, the weakest +first, in order to give him the best chance of picking out some good +pieces. Sometimes they are fed in the house; in such a case, the food +being first prepared, they are led into the hut singly; thus each +receives his share. + +All the work being finished, boots and stockings are changed, as they +must be dried and mended. The men visit one another and spend the night +in talking, singing, gambling, and telling stories. The events of the +day are talked over, success in hunting is compared, the hunting tools +requiring mending are set in order, and the lines are dried and +softened. Some busy themselves in cutting new ivory implements and seal +lines or in carving. They never spend the nights quite alone, but meet +for social entertainment. During these visits the host places a large +lump of frozen meat and a knife on the side bench behind the lamp and +every one is welcome to help himself to as much as he likes. + +The first comers sit down on the ledge, while those entering later stand +or squat in the passage. When any one addresses the whole assembly he +always turns his face to the wall and avoids facing the listeners. Most +of the men take off their outer jacket in the house and they sit +chatting until very late. Even the young children do not go to bed +early. + + [Illustration: FIG. 519. Skull used in the game ajegaung, from + Ungava Bay. (From L. M. Turner’s collection.) (National Museum, + Washington. 90227.) 1/1] + + [Illustration: FIG. 520. Ivory carving representing head of fox, + used in the game ajegaung. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A + 6820.) 1/1] + +The women sit on the bed in front of their lamps, with their legs under +them, working continually on their own clothing or on that of the men, +drying the wet footgear and mittens, and softening the leather by +chewing and rubbing. If a bitch has a litter of pups it is their +business to look after them, to keep them warm, and to feed them +regularly. Generally the pups are put into a small harness and are +allowed to crawl about the side of the bed, where they are tied to the +wall by a trace. Young children are always carried in their mothers’ +hoods, but when about a year and a half old they are allowed to play on +the bed, and are only carried by their mothers when they get too +mischievous. When the mother is engaged in any hard work they are +carried by the young girls. They are weaned when about two years old, +but women suckle them occasionally until they are three or four years of +age. During this time they are frequently fed from their mothers’ +mouths. When about twelve years old they begin to help their parents, +the girls sewing and preparing skins, the boys accompanying their +fathers in hunting expeditions. The parents are very fond of their +children and treat them kindly. They are never beaten and rarely +scolded, and in turn they are very dutiful, obeying the wishes of their +parents and taking care of them in their old age. + + [Illustration: FIG. 521. Ivory carvings representing polar bear, + used in the game ajegaung. _a_ (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A + 6819.) _b_ (National Museum, Washington. 34078.) ⅔] + +In winter gambling is one of the favorite amusements of the Eskimo. +Figs. 519-521 represent the ajegaung, used in a game somewhat similar to +our cup and ball. The most primitive device is Fig. 519, a hare’s skull +with a number of holes drilled through it. A specimen was kindly lent to +me by Lucien M. Turner, who brought it from Ungava Bay; but in Baffin +Land exactly the same device is in use. Fig. 520 represents the head of +a fox, in ivory; Fig. 521, a polar bear. The specimen shown in Fig. 521 +_b_ was brought from Cumberland Sound by Kumlien. The neck of the bear +is more elaborate than the one shown in _a_. The attachment of the part +representing the hind legs is of some interest. The game is played as +follows: First, the skull or the piece of ivory must be thrown up and +caught ten times upon the stick in any one of the holes. Then, beginning +with the hole in front (the mouth), those of the middle line must be +caught. The three holes on the neck of the bear are double, one crossing +vertically, the other slanting backward, but both ending in one hole on +the neck. After the mouth has been caught upon the stick the vertical +hole in the neck is the next, then the oblique one, and so on down the +middle line of the animal’s body. If, in the first part of the game, the +player misses twice he must give up the pieces to his neighbor, who then +takes his turn. In the second part he is allowed to play on as long as +he catches in any hole, even if it be not the right one, but as soon as +he misses he must give it up. After having caught one hole he proceeds +to the next, and the player who first finishes all the holes has won the +game. + + [Illustration: FIG. 522. Figures used in playing tingmiujang, a game + similar to dice. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6823.) 1/1] + +A game similar to dice, called tingmiujang, i.e., images of birds, is +frequently played. A set of about fifteen figures like those represented +in Fig. 522 belong to this game, some representing birds, others men or +women. The players sit around a board or a piece of leather and the +figures are shaken in the hand and thrown upward. On falling, some stand +upright, others lie flat on the back or on the side. Those standing +upright belong to that player whom they face; sometimes they are so +thrown that they all belong to the one who tossed them up. The players +throw by turns until the last figure is taken up, the one getting the +greatest number of the figures being the winner. + + [Illustration: FIG. 523. Game of nuglutang. (Museum für Völkerkunde, + Berlin. IV A 6821.)] + +A favorite game is the nuglutang (Fig. 523). A small, rhomboidal plate +of ivory with a hole in the center is hung from the roof and steadied by +a heavy stone or a piece of ivory hanging from its lower end. The Eskimo +stand around it and when the winner of the last game gives a signal +every one tries to hit the hole with a stick. The one who succeeds has +won. This game is always played amid great excitement. + +The sāketān resembles a roulette. A leather cup with a rounded bottom +and a nozzle is placed on a board and turned round. When it stops the +nozzle points to the winner. At present a tin cup fastened with a nail +to a board is used for the same purpose (Fig. 524). + + [Illustration: FIG. 524. The sāketān or roulette. (Museum für + Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6854.)] + +Their way of managing the gain and loss is very curious. The first +winner in the game must go to his hut and fetch anything he likes as a +stake for the next winner, who in turn receives it, but has to bring a +new stake, in place of this, from his hut. Thus the only one who loses +anything is the first winner of the game, while the only one who wins +anything is the last winner. + + [Illustration: FIG. 525. The ajarorpoq or cat’s cradle. _a_ + representing deer; _b_, hare; _c_, hill and ponds.] + +The women are particularly fond of making figures out of a loop, a game +similar to our cat’s cradle (ajarorpoq). They are, however, much more +clever than we in handling the thong and have a great variety of forms, +some of which are represented in Fig. 525. + +As an example I shall describe the method of making the device +representing a deer (Fig. 525 _a_): Wind the loop over both hands, +passing it over the back of the thumbs inside the palms and outside the +fourth fingers. Take the string from the palm of the right hand with the +first finger of the left and vice versa. The first finger of the right +hand moves over all the parts of the thong lying on the first and fourth +fingers of the right hand and passes through the loop formed by the +thongs on the thumb of the right hand; then it moves back over the +foremost thong and takes it up, while the thumb lets go the loop. The +first finger moves downward before the thongs lying on the fourth finger +and comes up in front of all the thongs. The thumb is placed into the +loops hanging on the first finger and the loop hanging on the first +finger of the left hand is drawn through both and hung again over the +same finger. The thumb and first finger of the right and the thumb of +the left hand let go their loops. The whole is then drawn tight. A few +other devices from Hudson Bay are represented by Klutschak (p. 139). + + [Illustration: FIG. 526. Ball. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A + 6822.)] + +The ball (Fig. 526) is most frequently used in summer. It is made of +sealskin stuffed with moss and neatly trimmed with skin straps. One man +throws the ball among the players, whose object it is to keep it always +in motion without allowing it to touch the ground. Another game of ball +I have seen played by men only. A leather ball filled with hard clay is +propelled with a whip, the lash of which is tied up in a coil. Every man +has his whip and is to hit the ball and so prevent his fellow players +from getting at it. + +A third game at ball called igdlukitaqtung is played with small balls +tossed up alternately from the right to the left, one always being in +the air. Songs used in the game will be found in the last pages of this +paper. + +An amusement of women and children is to point successively on the +forehead, the cheek, and the chin and to pronounce as rapidly as +possible sulubautiχu´tika, tudliχu´tika, tadliχu´tika, tudliχú´tika, +i.e., the forehead, the cheek, the chin, the cheek. + + [Illustration: FIG. 527. Dolls in dress of the Oqomiut. (Museum für + Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6702.) 1/1] + + [Illustration: FIG. 528. Dolls in dress of the Akudnirmiut. (Museum + für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6702.) 1/1] + +Young children play with toy sledges, kayaks, boats, bows and arrows, +and dolls. The last are made in the same way by all the tribes, a wooden +body being clothed with scraps of deerskin cut in the same way as the +clothing of men. Fig. 527 shows dolls in the dress of the Oqomiut; Fig. +528, in that of the Akudnirmiut. + +In summer children and grown up people exercise by sitting down on their +knees in a large circle and simultaneously jumping up and down, by +kneeling and holding their toes in their hands and trying to outdo one +another in running in this position, &c. + +A favorite amusement during the long winter nights is telling tales and +composing songs. Old traditions are always related in a highly +ceremonious manner. The narrator takes off his outer jacket, pulls the +hood over his head, and sits down in the rear part of the hut, turning +his face toward the wall, and then tells the story slowly and solemnly. +All the stories are related in a very abridged form, the substance being +supposed to be known. The form is always the same, and should the +narrator happen to say one word otherwise than is customary he will be +corrected by the listeners. + +Children tell one another fables and sing short songs. Comic songs +making fun of any person are great favorites. Details on the poetry and +music of the Eskimo will be found further on. + +Parry’s description of the games and sports practiced by the Iglulirmiut +is so interesting that I insert it here (II, p. 538): + + On an occasion when most of the men were absent from the huts on a + sealing excursion, the women joined in playing, one of them being + the chief performer. Being requested to amuse the rest, she + suddenly unbound her hair, platted it, tied both ends together to + keep it out of her way, and then stepping out into the middle of + the hut, began to make the most hideous faces that can be + conceived, by drawing both lips into her mouth, poking forward her + chin, squinting frightfully, occasionally shutting one eye, and + moving her head from side to side as if her neck had been + dislocated. This exhibition, which they call ajokitarpoq, and + which is evidently considered an accomplishment that few of them + possess in perfection, distorts every feature in the most horrible + manner imaginable, and would, I think, put our most skillful + horse-collar grinners quite out of countenance. + +This performance is identical with one described later (p. 578) as +practiced during the meals in summer. + + The next performance consists in looking steadfastly and gravely + forward and repeating the words tăbā’-tăbā’; kjaibo, kjaibo; + kebang inutovik, kebang inutovik; amatama, amatama, in the order + in which they are here placed, but each at least four times, and + always by a peculiar modulation of the voice speaking them in + pairs as they are coupled above. The sound is made to proceed from + the throat in a way much resembling ventriloquism, to which art it + is indeed an approach. After the last amatama she always pointed + with her finger toward her body, and pronounced the word angakoq, + steadily retaining her gravity for five or six seconds, and then + bursting into a loud laugh, in which she was joined by all the + rest. The women sometimes produce a much more guttural and + unnatural sound, repeating principally the word ikeri-ikeri, + coupling them as before, and staring in such a manner as to make + their eyes appear ready to burst out of their sockets with the + exertion. Two or more of them will sometimes stand up face to + face, and with great quickness and regularity respond to each + other, keeping such exact time that the sound appears to come from + one throat instead of several. Very few of the females are + possessed of this accomplishment, which is called pitkusiraqpoq, + and it is not uncommon to see several of the younger females + practising it. A third part of the game, distinguished by the word + kaitikpoq, consists only in falling on each knee alternately, + a piece of agility which they perform with tolerable quickness, + considering the bulky and awkward nature of their dress. * * * + Then the same woman came forward, and letting her arms hang down + loosely and bending her body very much forward, shook herself with + extreme violence, as if her whole frame had been strongly + convulsed, uttering at the same time, in a wild tone of voice, + some of the unnatural sounds before mentioned. + + This being at an end, a new exhibition was commenced in which ten + or twelve women took a part, and which our gentlemen compared to + blind man’s buff. A circle being formed, and a boy dispatched to + look out at the door of the hut, a woman placed herself in the + center, and, after making a variety of guttural noises for about + half a minute, shut her eyes, and ran about till she had taken + hold of one of the others, whose business it then became to take + her station in the center, so that almost every woman in her turn + occupied this post, and in her own peculiar way, either by + distortion of countenance or other gestures, performed her part in + the game. This continued three-quarters of an hour, and, from the + precaution of placing a lookout who was withdrawn when it was + over, as well as from some very expressive signs which need not + here be mentioned, there is reason to believe that it is usually + followed by certain indecencies, with which their husbands are not + to be acquainted. * * * + + The most common amusement however, and to which their husbands + made no objection, they performed at Winter Island expressly for + our gratification. The females, being collected to the number of + ten or twelve, stood in as large a circle as the hut would admit, + with a man in the center. He began by a sort of half howling, half + singing noise, which appeared as if designed to call the attention + of the women, the latter soon commencing the Amna Aya song. This + they continued without variety, remaining quite still while the + man walked round within the circle; his body was rather bent + forward, his eyes sometimes closed, his arms constantly moving up + and down, and now and then hoarsely vociferating a word or two as + if to increase the animation of the singers, who, whenever he did + this, quitted the chorus and rose into the words of the song. At + the end of ten minutes they all left off at once, and after one + minute’s interval commenced a second act precisely similar and of + equal duration, the man continuing to invoke their muse as before. + A third act which followed this, varied frequently towards the + close only in his throwing his feet up before and clapping his + hands together, by which exertion he was thrown into a violent + perspiration. He then retired, desiring a young man (who as we + were informed was the only individual of several then present thus + qualified) to take his place in the center as master of the + ceremonies, when the same antics as before were again gone + through. After this description it will scarcely be necessary to + remark that nothing can be poorer in its way than this tedious + singing recreation, which, as well as in everything in which + dancing is concerned, they express by the word mumipoq. They seem, + however, to take great delight in it; and even a number of the men + as well as all the children crept into the hut by degrees to peep + at the performance. + + The Eskimo women and children often amuse themselves with a game + not unlike our “skip-rope.” This is performed by two women holding + the ends of a line and whirling it regularly round and round, + while a third jumps over it in the middle according to the + following order. She commences by jumping twice on both feet, then + alternately with the right and left, and next four times with the + feet slipped one behind the other, the rope passing once round at + each jump. After this she performs a circle on the ground, jumping + about half a dozen times in the course of it, which bringing her + to her original position, the same thing is repeated as often as + it can be done without entangling the line. One or two of the + women performed this with considerable agility and adroitness, + considering the clumsiness of their boots and jackets, and seemed + to pride themselves in some degree on the qualification. A second + kind of this game consists in two women holding a long rope + by its ends and whirling it round in such a manner over the heads + of two others standing close together near the middle of the + bight, that each of these shall jump over it alternately. The art + therefore, which is indeed considerable, depends more on those + whirling the rope than on the jumpers, who are, however, obliged + to keep exact time in order to be ready for the rope passing under + their feet. + +Of all these games I observed only the one called pitkusiraqpoq by +Parry, which I saw played several times at Cumberland Sound. (See +Appendix, Note 3.) + + * * * + +While in times of plenty the home life is quite cheerful, the house +presents a sad and gloomy appearance if stormy weather prevents the men +from hunting. The stores are quickly consumed, one lamp after another is +extinguished, and everybody sits motionless in the dark hut. +Nevertheless the women and men do not stop humming their monotonous amna +aya and their stoicism in enduring the pangs of hunger is really +wonderful. At last, when starvation is menacing the sufferers, the most +daring of the men resolves to try his luck. Though the storm may rage +over the icy plain he sets out to go sealing. For hours he braves the +cold and stands waiting and watching at the breathing hole until he +hears the blowing of the seal and succeeds in killing it. + +When those who have remained at home hear the sound of the returning +sledge, they rush out of the houses to meet it. Quickly they help the +bold hunter to get on shore. The sledge is unloaded, the seal dragged +into the house, and every one joyfully awaits his share. The animal is +cut up, every household receiving a piece of meat and blubber. The +gloomy huts are again lighted up and the pots, which had been out of use +for some days, are again hung up over the lamps. + +If the hunter, however, has tried in vain to procure food, if the storm +does not subside, the terrors of famine visit the settlement. The dogs +are the first to fall victims to the pressing hunger, and if the worst +comes cannibalism is resorted to. But all these occurrences are spoken +of with the utmost horror. In such cases children particularly are +killed and eaten. Fortunately, however, such occurrences are very rare. + + +VISITING. + +As soon as the ice has consolidated in winter a lively intercourse +springs up between the settlements. Friends visit one another, trading +excursions are undertaken, and almost every few days visitors arrive at +the village. They are welcomed with great hospitality. The sledge is +unloaded and the dogs are fed by the host. The visitor is led into the +hut, served with the choicest pieces of meat, and the hostess puts his +clothing in order. In the winter these visits are generally short, +rarely lasting more than a few days. + +Longer journeys are postponed until spring, when food can be procured +more easily. These journeys are planned a long time before they are +made. While the families generally leave what they can spare of their +household goods in winter at their summer settlement, they bring away +everything they possess to the winter village if they intend to visit a +neighboring tribe in the spring. In April or May they leave their snow +houses; the tent poles and the whole of their goods are loaded upon the +sledge, only the boats being left behind in charge of some friend, and +then they start upon their long, lonely journey. On the first day they +do not travel far, but make the first halt after about a twelve-mile +journey. As the load is heavy the men and women sit on the top of the +sledges only to rest. The driver walks alongside and the women lead the +way, the dogs pulling more willingly if they see somebody ahead of the +sledge. At night it is not unloaded, only those things being taken out +which are necessary for building a small tent and for cooking. In order +to protect the sledge from the attacks of the dogs, the pitu (see p. +530) is taken out and fastened to an eye cut into the ice with the end +of the spear. After having traveled about three days a longer halt is +made; the sledge is unloaded, the dogs are unharnessed, and the men go +out hunting in order to procure food for the dogs and for themselves. +Thus they slowly proceed until they at last reach the end of their +journey. Here they settle down with the friends whom they have come to +visit, establish a hut of their own, and spend a whole year with them. +In the following spring they retrace their journey to their own homes. +Journeys of four to five hundred miles in one spring are not of rare +occurrence; longer journeys, however, frequently last for years. + +A journey of two hundred miles, going and coming, is sometimes +accomplished in one season. For such a journey they would set out in +March or April, leaving all their goods behind, and live with the +friends whom they visit for a month or two, returning about June. While +on the visit the visitors help their friends to provide for their +families. + +In traveling in the spring the Eskimo always use snow goggles to protect +themselves from snow blindness. The modern ones (Fig. 529), which are +made of wood and have a shade and a narrow slit for each eye, are very +effective. The old design is represented in Fig. 530, the specimen being +made of ivory. + +Long journeys are sometimes made in summer, several families traveling +together in their boats. As, however, the open season is very short in +many parts of Northeastern America, spring journeys are more frequently +made. + +When traveling by boat the tent poles, skin covers, and all the +household goods are stowed away in the bottom. The women do the pulling, +three or four working at each oar, while a man sits on the stern board +steering with a paddle. They move on at their leisure, stopping whenever +they are tired or when a seal is seen blowing near the boat. The kayaks +are tied to the stern and towed along. Children and dogs lie about in +the bottom of the boat. In the center there is a tub containing all +kinds of provisions, and every now and then they take some refreshment +from it. During the nights the tents are erected at suitable points. The +natives are well acquainted with these, and, if they are not compelled +by severe weather to seek shelter at the nearest point, always visit the +same places. These have a smooth, sloping beach, fresh water, and dry, +gravelly places in which the tents are built. + + [Illustration: FIG. 529. Modern snow goggles, of wood. (National + Museum, Washington. 29978.) ½] + + [Illustration: FIG. 530. Old form of snow goggles, of ivory, found + in Idjorituaqtuin, Cumberland Sound. (Museum für Völkerkunde, + Berlin. IV A 6833.)] + + +SOCIAL CUSTOMS IN SUMMER. + +When the rays of the sun begin to be warmer and the roofs of the snow +houses tumble down the natives live in a very uncomfortable way until a +sufficient number of sealskins are procured to build a tent. Sometimes a +family live under a roof too small to cover them all, though they sit as +close as possible, and too low to permit them to sit upright; but, as +seals are basking everywhere on the ice, this state of affairs does not +last long. The women split a number of large skins and dry them on the +snow, and by the middle of May they can build a pretty large tent; but +it is not until they settle permanently at the place of the summer +village that the large tent is sewed and put up. + +At this season salmon and venison form the staple food of the Eskimo. +The old men, women, and children, who stay at the lakes or at the salmon +rivers, depend almost entirely upon this food. They fish and eat the +salmon in a raw as well as in a cooked state. Birds are caught and eaten +raw. The surplus salmon are split and dried on poles erected for the +purpose. Deer shoulders, legs, and backs are also cut into thin pieces +and dried. Sometimes the dried fish and venison are deposited in stone +caches for later use, but most of it is eaten in summer, especially when +the Eskimo go traveling. When the men go deer hunting they take a supply +of dried salmon with them, and thus can stay out for a week or even +longer. When a deer is killed it is skinned at once, the legs being slit +and the belly opened. The paunch is carefully tied up, as the contents +are a favorite dish of the Eskimo. The head, the legs, and the ribs are +cut off and after being piled up the whole is covered with heavy stones, +only the horns protruding from the top of the depot. The hams and the +skin are generally carried to the hut at once, and, if the distance is +not too great or the carcass can be reached with sledges or boats, the +whole animal is brought home. Large depots are only made in the fall, +when there is no danger of the meat spoiling. + +At this season the natives visit deer passes and lakes, near which they +establish their huts. The tents and all the household goods are packed +up in heavy bundles, some of which are carried by the dogs, the load +hanging on both sides of the back; others, by men and women, being +secured by one strap which passes over the forehead and by another which +passes over the breast. Their strength and their perseverance in +carrying heavy loads over long distances are remarkable. + +The social life in the summer settlements is rather different from that +in winter. At this season the families do not cook their own meals, but +a single one provides for the whole settlement. The day before it is her +turn to cook, the woman goes to the hills to fetch shrubs for the fire. +Three stones are put up near the hut as a fireplace, the opening facing +the wind. The kettle is placed on the top of it and the fire is fed with +shrubs and blubber. When the meal is ready the master of the house +stands beside it, crying Ujo! Ujo! (boiled meat) and everybody comes out +of the hut provided with a knife. The dish is carried to a level place +and the men sit down around it in one circle, while the women form +another. Then large lumps of meat are passed around, everybody cutting +off a piece and taking a swallow of the soup, which is passed around in +a large leather cup. These dinners, which are held in the evening after +the return from the hunt, are almost always enlivened by a mimic +performance. A man or an old woman sits down in the center of the circle +and amuses the assembly by singing and dancing or by making faces. +A favorite performance is one in which a man, with blackened face and +with a thong tied around his head, writhes and makes odd grimaces. + +After dinner the men sit chatting or gambling before the huts, while the +women and children amuse themselves by running about, playing at ball, +or dancing. + +A strict religious custom forbids the Eskimo to work on the deerskins +which are obtained in summer before the ice has formed; they are only +dried and tied up in large bundles. In the fall, when on their way to +the winter settlements, the Eskimo travel rather quickly. The boats are +piled up with the spoils of the summer hunt and the place of destination +is generally reached before the stormy weather sets in. + +When it gets colder short excursions are made by boat in order to +collect shrubs for covering the tents. Several families join in building +a common hut, and on a fine day the old tents are torn down and the tent +poles are converted into a strong frame, which is covered with a double +roof. The bed and the platforms for the lamps are raised and henceforth +all the cooking is done inside. + +As soon as the first seals are caught with the harpoon the deer skins +are prepared. If they were deposited under stones in summer, sledges set +out to bring them to the settlements, and then they are distributed for +winter clothing. According to Hall the western tribes are in the habit +of spreading all the skins on one place and distributing them among the +inhabitants of the settlement. I did not observe the same custom among +the eastern tribes. Then they devote themselves to dressing the skins. +On Davis Strait this work falls to the share of the women, while among +the Hudson Bay tribes it is done by the men. At this season the great +religious feasts of the natives are celebrated, which announce, as it +were, the commencement of winter. + + +SOCIAL ORDER AND LAWS. + +The social order of the Eskimo is entirely founded on the family and on +the ties of consanguinity and affinity between the individual families. +Generally children are betrothed when very young, but these engagements, +not being strictly binding, may be broken off at any time. When the +children reach maturity the girl learns the duties of a woman and the +boy those of a man. As soon as he is able to provide for a family and +she can do the work falling to her share, they are allowed to marry. It +happens frequently that the young man’s parents are unwilling to allow +him to provide for his parents-in-law, and then _he_ may be rejected at +any moment. Usually the young couple must begin housekeeping with the +young wife’s family and the young man, if belonging to a strange tribe, +must join that of his wife. It is not until after his parents-in-law are +dead that he is entirely master of his own actions. Though the betrothal +be entered into in the days of childhood the bride must be bought from +the parents by some present. In other instances the men choose their +wives when grown up and sometimes a long wooing precedes the marriage. +The consent of the bride’s parents, or, if they are dead, that of her +brothers, is always necessary. Marriages between relatives are +forbidden: cousins, nephew and niece, aunt and uncle, are not allowed to +intermarry. There is, however, no law to prevent a man from marrying two +sisters. It is remarkable that Lyon states just the reverse (p. 353). +I am sure, however, that my statements are correct in reference to the +Davis Strait tribes. + +Should the newly married couple join the wife’s family this would serve +as a check to polygamy, which, however, is quite allowable. It is only +when the new family settles on its own account that a man is at full +liberty to take additional wives, among whom one is always considered +the chief wife. Monogamy is everywhere more frequent than polygamy, only +a very few men having two or more wives. According to Ross polyandry +occurs with the Netchillirmiut (II, pp. 356, 373). As long as the +mother-in-law lives with the young family the wives are subordinate to +her, while the mothers of both parties are independent of each other. No +example came to my notice of both parents living with the newly married +couple. Sometimes the man and wife do not set up a new household at +once, but each remains at home. The property necessary for establishing +a new family is the hunting gear of the man and the knife, scraper, +lamp, and cooking pot of the women. + +A strange custom permits a man to lend his wife to a friend for a whole +season or even longer and to exchange wives as a sign of friendship. On +certain occasions it is even commanded by a religious law (see p. 605). +Nevertheless I know of some instances of quarrels arising from jealousy. +Lyon states, however, that this passion is unknown among the Iglulirmiut +(p. 355). The husband is not allowed to maltreat or punish his wife; if +he does she may leave him at any time, and the wife’s mother can always +command a divorce. Both are allowed to remarry as soon as they like, +even the slightest pretext being sufficient for a separation. + +I may be allowed to refer once more to the division of labor between the +man and woman. The principal part of the man’s work is to provide for +his family by hunting, i.e., for his wife and children and for his +relatives who have no provider. He must drive the sledge in traveling, +feed the dogs, build the house, and make and keep in order his hunting +implements, the boat cover and seal floats excepted. The woman has to do +the household work, the sewing, and the cooking. She must look after the +lamps, make and mend the tent and boat covers, prepare the skins, and +bring up young dogs. It falls to her share to make the inner outfit of +the hut, to smooth the platforms, line the snow house, &c. On Davis +Strait the men cut up all kinds of animals which they have caught; on +Hudson Bay, however, the women cut up the seals. There the men prepare +the deerskins, which is done by the women among the eastern tribes. +Everywhere the women have to do the rowing in the large boats while the +man steers. Cripples who are unable to hunt do the same kind of work as +women. + +Children are treated very kindly and are not scolded, whipped, or +subjected to any corporal punishment. Among all the tribes infanticide +has been practiced to some extent, but probably only females or children +of widows or widowers have been murdered in this way, the latter on +account of the difficulty of providing for them. It is very remarkable +that this practice seems to be quite allowable among them, while in +Greenland it is believed that the spirit of the murdered child is turned +into an evil spirit, called angiaq, and revenges the crime (Rink, +p. 45). + +Besides the children properly belonging to the family, adopted children, +widows, and old people are considered part of it. Adoption is carried on +among this people to a great extent. + +If for any reason a man is unable to provide for his family or if a +woman cannot do her household work, the children are adopted by a +relative or a friend, who considers them as his own children. In the +same way widows with their children are adopted by their nearest +relative or by a friend and belong to the family, though the woman +retains her own fireplace. + +It is difficult to decide which relative is considered the nearest, but +the ties of consanguinity appear to be much closer than those of +affinity. If a woman dies the husband leaves his children with his +parents-in-law and returns to his own family, and if a man dies his wife +returns to her parents or her brothers, who are the nearest relatives +next to parents or children. When a woman dies, however, after the +children are grown up the widower will stay with them. In case of a +divorce the children generally remain with the mother. + +As a great part of the personal property of a man is destroyed at his +death or placed by his grave, the objects which may be acquired by +inheritance are few. These are the gun, harpoon, sledge, dogs, kayak, +boat, and tent poles of the man and the lamp and pots of the woman. The +first inheritor of these articles is the eldest son living with the +parents. Sons and daughters having households of their own do not +participate in the inheritance. An elder adopted son has a preference +over a younger son born of the marriage. Details of the laws which +relate to inheritance are unknown to me. + +Sometimes men are adopted who may almost be considered servants. +Particularly bachelors without any relations, cripples who are not able +to provide for themselves, or men who have lost their sledges and dogs +are found in this position. They fulfill minor occupations, mend the +hunting implements, fit out the sledges, feed the dogs, &c.; sometimes, +however, they join the hunters. They follow the master of the house when +he removes from one place to another, make journeys in order to do his +commissions, and so on. The position, however, is a voluntary one, and +therefore these men are not less esteemed than the self dependent +providers. + +Strangers visiting their friends for a season are generally in a similar +position, though they receive a wife if the host happens to have more +than one; if the friend has hunting gear, a sledge, and dogs of his own, +he can arrange a separate fireplace in the hut. + +In summer most families have each their own tent, but in the fall from +two to four join in building a house. Frequently the parents live on one +side, the family of the son-in-law on the other, and a friend or +relative in a small recess. Sometimes two houses have a common entrance +or the passages communicate with one another. The inhabitants of both +parts usually live quite independently of one another, while the oldest +man of every house has some influence over his housemates. + +If the distance between the winter and the summer settlement is very +great or when any particular knowledge is required to find out the +haunts of game, there is a kind of chief in the settlement, whose +acknowledged authority is, however, very limited. He is called the +pimain (i.e., he who knows everything best) or the issumautang. His +authority is virtually limited to the right of deciding on the proper +time to shift the huts from one place to the other, but the families are +not obliged to follow him. At some places it seems to be considered +proper to ask the pimain before moving to another settlement and leaving +the rest of the tribe. He may ask some men to go deer hunting, others to +go sealing, but there is not the slightest obligation to obey his +orders. + +Every family is allowed to settle wherever it likes, visiting a strange +tribe being the only exception. In such a case the newcomer has to +undergo a ceremony which consists chiefly in a duel between a native of +the place and himself. If he is defeated he runs the risk of being +killed, by those among whom he has come (see pp. 465, 609). + +There are numerous regulations governing hunting, determining to whom +the game belongs, the obligations of the successful hunter towards the +inhabitants of the village, &c. + +When a seal is brought to the huts everybody is entitled to a share of +the meat and blubber, which is distributed by the hunter himself or +carried to the individual huts by his wife. This custom is only +practiced when food is scarce. In time of plenty only the housemates +receive a share of the animal. + +A ground seal belongs to all the men who take part in the hunt, the skin +especially being divided among them. A walrus is cut up at once into as +many parts as there are hunters, the one who first struck it having the +choice of the parts and receiving the head. A whale belongs to the whole +settlement and its capture is celebrated by a feast (p. 603). + +A bear or a young seal belongs to the man who first saw it, no matter +who kills it. + +Lost objects must be restored to the owner if he is known, game, +however, excepted; for example, if a harpoon line breaks and the animal +escapes, but is found later by another man, the game belongs to the +latter. In Hudson Bay he is also allowed to keep the harpoon and line. + +There is no way of enforcing these unwritten laws and no punishment for +transgressors except the blood vengeance. It is not a rare occurrence +that a man who is offended by another man takes revenge by killing the +offender. It is then the right and the duty of the nearest relative of +the victim to kill the murderer. In certain quarrels between the +Netchillirmiut and the Aivillirmiut, in which the murderer himself could +not be apprehended, the family of the murdered man has killed one of the +murderer’s relations in his stead. Such a feud sometimes lasts for a +long time and is even handed down to a succeeding generation. It is +sometimes settled by mutual agreement. As a sign of reconciliation both +parties touch each other’s breasts, saying, Ilaga (my friend) +(Klutschak, p. 70). + +If a man has committed a murder or made himself odious by other outrages +he may be killed by any one simply as a matter of justice. The man who +intends to take revenge on him must ask his countrymen singly if each +agrees in the opinion that the offender is a bad man deserving death. If +all answer in the affirmative he may kill the man thus condemned and no +one is allowed to revenge the murder. (See Appendix, Note 4.) + +Their method of carrying on such a feud is quite foreign to our +feelings. Strange as it may seem, a murderer will come to visit the +relatives of his victim (though he knows that they are allowed to kill +him in revenge) and will settle with them. He is kindly welcomed and +sometimes lives quietly for weeks and months. Then he is suddenly +challenged to a wrestling match (see p. 609), and if defeated is killed, +or if victorious he may kill one of the opposite party, or when hunting +he is suddenly attacked by his companions and slain. + + +RELIGIOUS IDEAS AND THE ANGAKUNIRN (PRIESTHOOD). + +Although the principal religious ideas of the Central Eskimo and those +of the Greenlanders are identical, their mythologies differ in many +material points. I will only mention here that they believe in the +Tornait of the old Greenlanders, while the Tornarsuk (i.e., the great +Tornaq of the latter) is unknown to them. Their Supreme Being is a woman +whose name is Sedna. + +The first report on this tradition is found in Warmow’s journal of his +visit to Cumberland Sound (Missionsblatt aus der Brüdergemeinde, 1859, +No. I, p. 19). The editor says: + + The name of the good spirit is Sanaq or Sana, and he seems to be + worshiped as the unknown deity. Nobody could give a definite + answer to Brother Warmow’s frequent questions as to what they + believed he was. They only said they invoked his help if they were + in need. “Then we ask him,” one of the men said, “and Takaq (the + moon) gives us what we want, seals and deer.” Another one said + that Sanaq had lived on the earth and afterwards ascended to the + moon. + +In Hall’s account of his explorations in Frobisher Bay it is mentioned +that the tribes of that country, the Nugumiut, believe in a Supreme +Being, and the following statement is given (Hall I, p. 524): + + There is one Supreme Being, called by them Anguta, who created the + earth, sea, and heavenly bodies. There is also a secondary + divinity, a woman, the daughter of Anguta, who is called Sidne. + She is supposed to have created all things having life, animal and + vegetable. She is regarded also as the protecting divinity of the + Inuit people. To her their supplications are addressed; to her + their offerings are made; while most of their religious rites and + superstitious observances have reference to her. + +It is of great importance that in the journals of Hall’s second journey +Sedna is mentioned a few times (spelled Sydney), this being the only +proof that she is known among the tribes of Hudson Bay. + +The statements of the whalers visiting the Sikosuilarmiut and the +Akuliarmiut of Hudson Strait correspond with my own observations. Before +entering into a comparison of this tradition with similar ones belonging +to other tribes, I will give the particulars of the myth as I received +it from the Oqomiut and the Akudnirmiut. + + +SEDNA AND THE FULMAR. + +Once upon a time there lived on a solitary shore an Inung with his +daughter Sedna. His wife had been dead for some time and the two led a +quiet life. Sedna grew up to be a handsome girl and the youths came from +all around to sue for her hand, but none of them could touch her proud +heart. Finally, at the breaking up of the ice in the spring a fulmar +flew from over the ice and wooed Sedna with enticing song. “Come to me,” +it said; “come into the land of the birds, where there is never hunger, +where my tent is made of the most beautiful skins. You shall rest on +soft bearskins. My fellows, the fulmars, shall bring you all your heart +may desire; their feathers shall clothe you; your lamp shall always be +filled with oil, your pot with meat.” Sedna could not long resist such +wooing and they went together over the vast sea. When at last they +reached the country of the fulmar, after a long and hard journey, Sedna +discovered that her spouse had shamefully deceived her. Her new home was +not built of beautiful pelts, but was covered with wretched fishskins, +full of holes, that gave free entrance to wind and snow. Instead of soft +reindeer skins her bed was made of hard walrus hides and she had to live +on miserable fish, which the birds brought her. Too soon she discovered +that she had thrown away her opportunities when in her foolish pride she +had rejected the Inuit youth. In her woe she sang: “Aja. O father, if +you knew how wretched I am you would come to me and we would hurry away +in your boat over the waters. The birds look unkindly upon me the +stranger; cold winds roar about my bed; they give me but miserable food. +O come and take me back home. Aja.” + +When a year had passed and the sea was again stirred by warmer winds, +the father left his country to visit Sedna. His daughter greeted him +joyfully and besought him to take her back home. The father hearing of +the outrages wrought upon his daughter determined upon revenge. He +killed the fulmar, took Sedna into his boat, and they quickly left the +country which had brought so much sorrow to Sedna. When the other +fulmars came home and found their companion dead and his wife gone, they +all flew away in search of the fugitives. They were very sad over the +death of their poor murdered comrade and continue to mourn and cry until +this day. + +Having flown a short distance they discerned the boat and stirred up a +heavy storm. The sea rose in immense waves that threatened the pair with +destruction. In this mortal peril the father determined to offer Sedna +to the birds and flung her overboard. She clung to the edge of the boat +with a death grip. The cruel father then took a knife and cut off the +first joints of her fingers. Falling into the sea they were transformed +into whales, the nails turning into whalebone. Sedna holding on to the +boat more tightly, the second finger joints fell under the sharp knife +and swam away as seals (_Pagomys fœtidus_); when the father cut off the +stumps of the fingers they became ground seals (_Phoca barbata_). +Meantime the storm subsided, for the fulmars thought Sedna was drowned. +The father then allowed her to come into the boat again. But from that +time she cherished a deadly hatred against him and swore bitter revenge. +After they got ashore, she called her dogs and let them gnaw off the +feet and hands of her father while he was asleep. Upon this he cursed +himself, his daughter, and the dogs which had maimed him; whereupon the +earth opened and swallowed the hut, the father, the daughter, and the +dogs. They have since lived in the land of Adlivun, of which Sedna is +the mistress. + + * * * + +This tradition is handed down in an old song. I shall give the substance +of it here, as it differs in some points from the above myth. + +The story begins when the fulmar carries Sedna to his home and she +discovers that he has brought her to a very wretched tent. The next year +the father and a brother, whom I find mentioned nowhere else, came to +visit her and take her home. The fulmar follows their boat and causes a +heavy gale to rise which almost upsets it. The father cuts off her +fingers, which are transformed into whales, seals, and ground seals. +Besides, he pierces her eye and thus kills her. Then he takes the body +into the boat and carries it to the shore. There he lays it on the beach +and covers it with a dogskin. When the flood comes in it covers Sedna. + +Sedna and her father are described by the angakut (see p. 591), who +sometimes visit her house or see them when both dwell among the natives, +as follows: She is very large and much taller than the Inuit. In +accordance with the second form of the tradition she has only one eye +and is scarcely able to move. Her father is also a cripple and appears +to the dying, whom he grasps with his right hand, which has only three +fingers. + +There is a remarkable resemblance between this tradition and one related +by Lyon (p. 362), who describes the religious ideas of the Iglulirmiut, +more particularly the genii of one of their angakut. He says that the +principal spirits are Aiviliajoq (Ay-willi-ay-oo) or Nuliajoq +(Noo-le-ay-oo), a female spirit, and her father, Napajoq (Nap-payok) or +Anautalik (An-now-ta-lig). Then he continues: + + The former is in the first place the mother, protectress, and not + unfrequently the monopolist of sea animals, which she sometimes + very wantonly confines below, and by that means causes a general + scarcity in the upper world. When this is the case, the angakok is + persuaded to pay her a visit, and attempt the release of the + animals on which his tribe subsist. I know not what ceremonies he + performs at the first part of the interview; but as the spell by + which the animals are held lies in the hand of the enchantress, + the conjuror makes some bold attempts to cut it off, and, + according to his success, plenty, more or less, is obtained. If + deprived of her nails, the bears obtain their freedom; amputation + of the first joint liberates the netsiq (_Pagomys_); while that of + the second loosens the ugjuq (_Phoca_). Should the knuckles be + detached whole herds of walrus rise to the surface; and should the + adventurous angakoq succeed in cutting through the lower part of + the metacarpal bones, the monstrous whales are disenthralled and + delightedly join the other creatures of the deep. * * * Her house + is exceedingly fine, and very like a Kabluna (European) + looking-glass(?); and, what is still more attractive to an Eskimo, + it contains plenty of food. Immediately within the door of the + dwelling, which has a long passage of entrance, is stationed a + very large and fierce dog, which has no tail, and whose hinder + quarters are black. * * * Aiviliajoq is described as being equally + wonderful in her personal appearance as in her actions. She is + very tall and has but one eye, which is the left, the place of the + other being covered by a profusion of black hair. She has one + pigtail only, contrary to the established fashion in the upper + Eskimo world, which is to wear one on each side of the face, and + this is of such immense magnitude, that a man can scarcely grasp + it with both hands. Its length is exactly twice that of her arm, + and it descends to her knee. The hood of her jacket is always worn + up. * * * + + Her father has but one arm, the hand of which is covered by a very + large mitten of bearskin. * * * He is not larger than a boy of ten + years of age. He bears the character of a good, quiet sort of + person and is master of a very nice house, which, however, is not + approachable, on account of the vast herds of walrus lying round + it, which, with numerous bears, make a terrific howling. * * * He + has nothing to eat, and does not even require it; in which + particular he differs widely from his daughter, who has a most + voracious appetite. I know not if he is the father of all + terrestrial animals, but he is certainly their patron, and + withholds them at times from the Eskimo. + +The name of the father, Anautalik (An-now-ta-lig), i.e., the man with +something to cut (with a knife), is very remarkable. Besides, it is +interesting that the angakoq who visits the dwelling of Nuliajoq has to +cut off her hand in order to liberate the sea animals. In the tradition +related in the foregoing, Sedna has another name, to wit, +Uinigumisuitung, i.e., she who would not have a husband; her father, +Savirqong, i.e., the man with the knife. Often he is only called Anguta, +her father. + +It is evident that Nuliajoq is identical with Sedna, though some +peculiarities exist in the tradition as related by Lyon which it is +rather difficult to reconcile with the myth as it is related among the +Oqomiut. It seems to me that this difficulty arises from the mixing up +of the angakoq’s visit to Sedna with the tradition itself. Indeed Lyon +only refers to the angakoq’s visit to Nuliajoq, whom he considers a +genius of a great angakoq, though he remarks in another place (p. 363) +that she “has a boundless command over the lives and destinies of +mankind.” + +The tale of the angakoq’s visit makes the tradition very similar to the +Greenland myth of Arnaquagsaq, i.e., the old woman. According to Cranz +(p. 264) and to Rink (p. 40) this spirit has her abode in the depth of +the ocean. She represents the source of nourishment, supplying the +physical wants of mankind. She sits in her dwelling in front of a lamp, +beneath which is placed a vessel which receives the oil that keeps +flowing down from the lamp. From this vessel, as well as from the dark +interior of her hut, she sends out all the animals which serve for food, +but in certain cases withholds the supply, thus causing want and famine. +The reason for thus withholding the supply was that certain filthy and +noxious parasites fastened themselves upon her head, of which she could +only be relieved by an angakoq. Then she could be induced again to send +out the animals for the benefit of man. In going to her he (the angakoq) +had first to pass the Arsissut and then to cross an abyss, in which, +according to the earliest authors, a wheel as slippery as ice was +constantly turning around; then, having safely passed a boiling kettle +with seals in it, he arrived at the house, in front of which watch was +kept by terrible animals, sometimes described as seals, sometimes as +dogs; and, lastly, within the house passage itself, he had to cross an +abyss by means of a bridge as narrow as a knife edge. + +About the same tale is found among the Baffin Land tribes; according to +Captain Spicer, of Groton, Conn., she is called Nanoquagsaq by the +Akuliarmiut. She is visited by the angakut, who liberate the sea animals +by subduing her or rather by depriving her of a charm by which she +restrains the animals. + +I am inclined to think that the form in which Lyon gives this tradition +is not quite correct, but is a mixture of the Sedna myth and that of the +angakoq’s visit to Arnaquagsaq. This seems the more probable from a +Greenland tale which Dr. Rink kindly communicated to me, in which it is +related that the grandfather of Arnaquagsaq cut off her fingers, which +were changed into sea animals. + +For this reason it is most probable that Arnaquagsaq, Sedna, and +Nuliajoq proceed from the same myth, though the traditions differ from +one another as they are related by the travelers. In the mythology of +the central tribes this character has a much more decided influence upon +their religious belief than the Arnaquagsaq of the Greenlanders seems to +have had. + +The myth of Sedna is confused with another which treats of the origin of +the Europeans and of the Adlet (see p. 637). The legends are in part +almost identical. Sedna orders her dog to gnaw off her father’s feet; +Uinigumisuitung’s children maim their grandfather in the same way; and, +besides, Sedna’s second name is also Uinigumisuitung. In both tales the +father is called Savirqong. In Lyon’s Private Journal (p. 363) an +important statement is found to the effect that the dog which protects +Nuliajoq’s dwelling is by some natives called her husband, by others +merely her dog, but that he is generally considered the father of +Erqigdlit (identical with Adlet, p. 637) and Qadlunait (Europeans). + +Finally, I must record the legend of the origin of the walrus and the +reindeer, which is closely related to the Sedna tradition. I could never +learn any other reason why the use of sea animals and reindeer at the +same period should be forbidden, except the fear of offending Sedna. She +is represented as disliking the deer, which accordingly are not found in +her house. Any reason for this dislike is not given. The Akuliarmiut, +however, have a tradition that a woman, most probably Sedna herself, +created the walrus and the reindeer during a famine. She opened her +belly and took out a small piece of fat which she carried up the hills +where it was transformed by a magic spell into a reindeer. As soon as +she saw the animal she became frightened and ordered it to run away, but +the deer turned upon her and would not go; then she became angry and +knocked out its teeth. It turned round at once, but before it could +leave she gave it a kick which lopped off its tail. Thus it happened +that the deer is deficient as to certain teeth and has scarcely any +tail. The woman, however, continued to hate the deer. Afterward she +descended to the beach and threw another piece of fat into the water. It +was transformed into a walrus, which swam away at once. (According to a +communication of Captain Spicer.) + +The form of this tradition as related by the Akudnirmiut is somewhat +different. During a famine a woman (I could not learn whether she was +identical with Sedna or not) carried her boots to the hills and +transformed them by magic into deer, which spread all over the country. +Then she carried her breeches to the sea, where they were changed into +walrus. The first deer, however, had large tusks and no horns, while the +walrus had horns and no tusks. The Eskimo soon found that this was very +dangerous for the hunter, as the deer killed pursuers with their tusks, +while the walrus upset the boats. Therefore an old man transferred the +horns to the deer and the tusks to the walrus. + +It is very probable that this woman was Sedna, as the Eskimo affirm that +the observances referring to walrus and deer are commanded by Sedna and +as the first tradition accounts for her dislike of the deer. + +I could not find any trace of the tradition reported by Lyon, that +Anautalik, Nuliajoq’s father, is the protector of land animals, nor of +that of a being to whom he refers by the name of Pukimna (derived from +pukiq, the white parts of a deerskin), who lives in a fine country far +to the west and who is the immediate protectress of deer, which animals +roam in immense herds around her dwelling. + +Sedna is the mistress of one of the countries to which the souls go +after death. It has been related in the foregoing tradition of Sedna and +the fulmar that she descended to Adlivun; since that time she has been +the mistress of the country, and when invoked as such has the name of +Idliragijenget. She has a large house, in which no deerskins are found. +There she lives with her father, each occupying one side of it. The +father, who is unable to move, lies on the ledge and is covered with old +skins. In the entrance across the threshold lies Sedna’s dog watching +her house. Like her, the father has only one eye, and he never moves +from his place while in the house. + +The dead, who are seized by Sedna’s father, Anguta, are carried to this +dwelling. The dog moves aside only a little, just enough to allow the +souls to pass. They have to stay in this dismal abode during a whole +year, lying by the side of Anguta, who pinches them. + +The happy land is heaven and is called Qudlivun (the uppermost ones). +It abounds with deer, which are easily caught, and no ice or snow ever +visits it. + +The Oqomiut and the Akudnirmiut make a distinction between Adlivun and +Adliparmiut. Adlivun means “those who live beneath us;” Adliparmiut, +“the inhabitants of the country farthest below us;” and the same +difference exists between Qudlivun and Qudliparmiut. Though these names +intimate the probability that the Eskimo believe in a series of places, +located in a descending scale, each below the other, I could not find +any more detailed description of the conception. + +Hall’s observations agree fairly with my own. He says (I, p. 524): + + Qudliparmiut (heaven) is upward. Everybody happy there. All the + time light; no snow, no ice, no storms; always pleasant; no + trouble; never tired; sing and play all the time--all this to + continue without end. + + Adliparmiut (hell) is downward. Always dark there. No sun; trouble + there continually; snow flying all the time, terrible storms; + cold, very cold; and a great deal of ice there. All who go there + must always remain. + + All Inuit who have been good go to Qudliparmiut; that is, who have + been kind to the poor and hungry, all who have been happy while + living on this earth. Any one who has been killed by accident, or + who has committed suicide, certainly goes to the happy place. + + All Inuit who have been bad--that is, unkind one to another--all + who have been unhappy while on this earth, will go to Adliparmiut. + If an Inung kills another because he is mad at him, he will + certainly go to Adliparmiut. + +Kumlien’s remarks on this subject, as well as on other ethnographic +subjects, are not trustworthy. He has transferred Greenland tales to +Cumberland Sound, though the traditions of these tribes differ +materially one from the other. I tried hard to corroborate his +statements concerning the amaroq and the tornarsuq, concerning certain +customs, &c., and am convinced that they are totally unknown to all the +natives of Baffin Land from Nugumiut to Tununirn. + +Kumlien states that the better land is below the surface of the earth +and that those who are killed by violence descend after death. According +to Hall and to replies to my own inquiries, it is quite the reverse. +Lyon’s report is extremely interesting, particularly his description of +the stages of the nether world, of which I could only find a scanty hint +in the names. He says (p. 372): + + There are two places appointed to receive the souls of the good: + one of these is in the center of the earth, the other in qilaq, or + heaven. To the latter place, such as are drowned at sea, starved + to death, murdered, or killed by walruses or bears, are instantly + wafted, and dwell in a charming country, which, however, has never + been seen by any angakoq. * * * + + The place of souls in the world below is called Adli generally; + but there are, properly, four distinct states of blessedness, and + each rank has a world to itself, the lowest land being the last + and best, which all hope to reach. The day on which a good person + dies and is buried, the soul goes to a land immediately under the + visible world; and, still descending, it arrives the second day at + one yet lower; the third day it goes farther yet; and on the + fourth it finds, “below the lowest deep, a deeper still.” This is + the “good land,” and the soul which reaches it is for ever happy. + The three first stages are bad uncomfortable places for in each + the sky is so close to the earth, that a man cannot walk erect: + yet these regions are inhabited; and the good soul, in passing + through them, sees multitudes of the dead, who, having lost their + way, or, not being entitled to the “good land,” are always + wandering about and in great distress. Whether these unhappy souls + are in purgatory or not, I was unable to learn; but they suffer no + other pain than what we would call the “fidgets.” In the lowest + Adli a perpetual and delightful summer prevails. + +The belief of these tribes undoubtedly is that all who die by accident +or by violence and women who die in childbirth are taken to the upper +world. I never heard a different opinion expressed by any native. I do +not know whether they believe in a series of upper worlds similar to the +nether worlds of the Iglulirmiut, but it is probable, from the names +Qudlivun and Qudliparmiut. In the Greenland tradition the upper world is +represented as a country with hills and valleys, over which the solid +blue sky is expanded. Sedna of the Oqomiut lives in Adlivun, and here +the souls must stay one year after death. Everybody who dies from +disease or who has offended Sedna by infringing her orders is taken to +her. The Eskimo are in great fear of the terrors of her abode. Murderers +and offenders against human laws, after they have entered Sedna’s house, +will never leave it; the other souls, however, are taken to the +Adliparmiut, where they live comparatively at their ease, although they +are not nearly so blessed as the Qudliparmiut. They hunt whales and +walrus and are almost always troubled by ice and snow. + +The older authors on Greenland mythology state that the conceptions of +the natives do not coincide (Cranz). According to one tradition the good +land is below, and tornarsuq, the supreme tornaq, is master of it. Here +continuous summer prevails and there is plenty of fresh water, with a +profusion of game. Only those people are allowed to come here who have +been good hunters and workers, who have accomplished great exploits, +caught many seals, who have suffered much, or have died by violence or +in childbirth. The souls of the deceased must slide for five days, or +even longer, down a steep rock, which has become quite slippery from the +blood which has been sprinkled over it. Those who have been lazy and +unfit for working go to the upper world, where they suffer from scarcity +of food. Particularly the bad and witches are taken to this country, +where they are tormented by ravens. + +Another tradition places the good land in heaven. The souls travel on +the rainbow to the moon, near which they find a large lake abounding +with fowls and fish. Rink gives the following statement on this subject +(p. 37): + + After death, human souls either go to the upper or to the under + world. The latter is decidedly to be preferred, as being warm and + rich in food. There are the dwellings of the happy dead called + arsissut,--viz, those who live in abundance. On the contrary, + those who go to the upper world will suffer from cold and famine; + and these are called the arssartut, or ball players, on account of + their playing at ball with a walrus head, which gives rise to the + aurora borealis. + +While the Iglulirmiut believe that the soul leaves the body immediately +after death and descends to Adli, the tribes of Davis Strait suppose +that it lingers three days around the body, unable to leave it. Then it +descends to Sedna’s house. During its stay in Adlivun the soul is called +tupilaq, which is represented by the figure of a man with wide, loose, +shabby clothing. It is looked upon as a malevolent spirit, frequently +roaming around the villages. The tupilaq is not allowed to enter the +houses, and if the angakoq perceives and announces his presence no one +would dare to leave the houses. His touch kills men at once, the sight +of him causes sickness and mischief. As soon as the soul has become an +adliparmio, it is at rest and ceases to be feared as a tupilaq. + +It is worth remarking that the Greenlanders designate with the name of +tupilaq a supernatural being made by men for the purpose of destroying +their enemies (Rink, p. 53). It is composed of various parts of +different animals and is enabled to act in the shape of any of them at +will. I have not found any trace of this idea among the Central Eskimo. + + +THE TORNAIT AND THE ANGAKUT. + +A consideration of the religious ideas of the Eskimo shows that the +tornait, the invisible rulers of every object, are the most remarkable +beings next to Sedna. Everything has its inua (owner), which may become +the genius of man who thus obtains the qualities of angakunirn. I am not +quite sure that every inua can become the tornaq of a man, though with +the Greenlanders this was possible. I learned of three kinds of spirits +only, who are protectors of angakut: those in the shape of men, of +stones, and of bears. These spirits enable the angakut to have +intercourse with the others who are considered malevolent to mankind, +and though those three species are kind to their angakut they would hurt +strangers who might happen to see them. The bear seems to be the most +powerful among these spirits. The tornait of the stones live in the +large bowlders scattered over the country. The Eskimo believe that these +rocks are hollow and form a nice house, the entrance of which is only +visible to the angakoq whose genius lives in the stone. The tornaq is a +woman with only one eye, in the middle of the brow. Another kind of +tornaq lives in the stones that roll down the hills in spring when the +snow begins to melt. If a native happens to meet such a stone, which is +about to become his tornaq, the latter addresses him: “I jumped down in +long leaps from my place on the cliff. As the snow melts, as water is +formed on the hills, I jump down.” Then it asks the native whether he is +willing to have it for his tornaq, and if he answers in the affirmative +it accompanies him, wabbling along, as it has no legs. + +The bear tornaq is represented as a huge animal without any hair except +on the points of the ears and of the tail and at the mouth. If a man +wishes to obtain a bear for his tornaq he must travel all alone to the +edge of the land floe and summon the bears. Then a large herd will +approach and frighten him almost to death. He falls down at once. Should +he fall backward he would die at once. If he falls upon his face, +however, one bear out of the herd steps forward and asks him if he +wishes him to become his tornaq. He then recovers and takes the bear for +his spirit and is accompanied by him on the return journey. On the way +home, they pass a seal hole and the bear captures the animal for his +master. The Eskimo is now a great angakoq, and whenever he wants help he +is sure to get it from his bear. + +The Eskimo do not make images of the tornait or other supernatural +beings in whom they believe, but use to a great extent amulets +(arngoaq), some of which are given by the tornait, while others are +inherited. The most common varieties of amulets are the feather of an +owl, a bear’s tooth, and the like, which are always worn on the middle +of the back of the inner jacket. Rare minerals (e.g., iron) sewed up in +a piece of skin are sometimes used for the same purpose. A small part of +the first gown worn by a child is considered a powerful amulet and is +preserved for this reason. It is worn at the point of the hood at a +great feast celebrated every fall (see pp. 604, 611) and is called +koukparmiutang. + +Lyon (p. 367) gives the following account of the use of amulets in +Iglulik: + + Bones and teeth of animals, hanging as solitary pendants, or + strung in great numbers, have peculiar virtues, and the bones of + the feet of the kabliaqdjuq, which I imagine to be the wolverine, + are the most in request. The front teeth of musk oxen are + considered as jewels, while the grinders, one or two together, are + much esteemed as tassels for the strings used to tie up the + breeches of the women. Eye teeth of foxes are sometimes seen to + the number of hundreds, neatly perforated and arranged as a kind + of fringe round caps or dresses, and even the bones and teeth of + fish have their value. + + Leather cases of the size of a quill, and containing small pieces + of deer’s or other flesh, are frequently attached to the caps or + hoods of children, but whether to render them expert hunters, or + to preserve their health, I could not discover. I was assured that + broken spear heads, and other equally cumbrous pendants, worn + round the necks of young girls, were spells for the preservation + of their chastity, while the same ornaments caused the women to be + prolific. + +The principal office of the angakut is to find out the reason of +sickness and death or of any other misfortune visiting the natives. + +The Eskimo believes that he is obliged to answer the angakoq’s questions +truthfully. The lamps being lowered, the angakoq strips off his outer +jacket, pulls the hood over his head, and sits down in the back part of +the hut facing the wall. He claps his hands, which are covered with +mittens, and, shaking his whole body, utters sounds which one would +hardly recognize as human. + +Thus he invokes his tornaq, singing and shouting alternately, the +listeners, who sit on the edge of the bed, joining the chorus and +answering his questions. Then he asks the sick person: “Did you work +when it was forbidden?” “Did you eat when you were not allowed to eat?” +And if the poor fellow happens to remember any transgression of such +laws, he cries: “Yes, I have worked.” “Yes, I have eaten.” And the +angakoq rejoins “I thought so” and issues his commands as to the manner +of atonement. + +These are manifold. Exchange of wives between two men or adoption of a +sick child by another family in order to save its life are frequently +demanded. The inhabitants of a village are forbidden to wash themselves +for a number of days, to scrape the ice from the windows, and to clean +their urine pots before sunrise. Sometimes the angakoq commands that the +clothing be thrown away or gives regulations for diet, particularly +forbidding the eating of venison, working on deerskins, filing iron, &c. + +Disorders of women are considered as a punishment for the neglect to +observe the regulations referring to their behavior at certain periods, +which regulations were established by Sedna. The same is stated by Lyon +(p. 363). + +A method of finding out the reason of a disease is by “head lifting.” +A thong is tied round the head of the sick person or of a relative, who +must lie down on the bed, the angakoq holding the thong. Then he asks +his tornaq the reason of the sickness and the remedy. If the tornaq +answers a question of the angakoq in the affirmative the head is easily +lifted. In the other case it feels so heavy that he is unable to move +it. Another method is by lifting a boot or a stone, which has been +placed under the pillow of the patient. The angakut believe that the +boot or stone becomes heavy and cannot be lifted when the tornaq answers +their incantations. + +At the beginning of some of their performances I have observed the +angakoq crawling about in the passage of the hut, howling and shouting, +while those inside kept on singing. Then he entered the hut and +continued the incantations on the back part of the bed. + +Sometimes their cure for sickness is laying a piece of burning wick upon +the diseased part of the body and blowing it up into the air or merely +blowing upon it. + +Storm and bad weather, when lasting a long time and causing want of +food, are conjured by making a large whip of seaweed, stepping to the +beach, and striking out in the direction whence the wind blows, at the +same time crying Taba (It is enough). + +A great number of the performances of the angakut require much skill and +expertness. Thus in invoking a tornaq or flying to a distant place they +can imitate a distant voice by a sort of ventriloquism. In these +performances they always have the lamps extinguished and hide themselves +behind a screen hung up in the back part of the hut. The tornaq, being +invoked, is heard approaching and shaking the hut. The angakoq believes +that it is unroofed and flies with his spirit to their place of +destination, to propitiate the wrath of a hostile tornaq, to visit the +moon or Sedna’s dismal abode. + +Part of their performances might almost be called juggling. Hall (II, p. +101) describes one of these performances: + + The angakoq (Ar-too-a) now made use of three walrus spears. One of + these he thrust into the wall of the snow house, and * * * ran + with it outside of the igdlu [house] where his ejaculations were + responded to by the party inside with the cries of “Atte! Atte!” + [Go on! Go on!]. Returning with his spear to the door, he had a + severe wrestling match with four of the men, who overcame him. But + coming again into the central igdlu, and having the lights which + had been at the first patted down, relit, he showed the points of + two spears apparently covered with fresh blood, which he held up + in the presence of all. + +The performance of the angakut in the Sedna feast, which will be +described hereafter (p. 604) is quite astonishing. Some pierce their +bodies with harpoons, evidently having bladders filled with blood +fastened under their jackets beforehand, and bleed profusely as they +enter the hut. (See Appendix, Note 5.) + +A memorable ceremony has been described by Hall (I, p. 469): + + I heard a loud shout just outside [the hut]. As quick as thought, + the Eskimo sprang for the long knives lying around, and hid them + wherever they could find places. * * * Immediately there came + crawling into the low entrance to the hut a man with long hair + completely covering his face and eyes. He remained on his knees on + the floor of the hut, feeling round like a blind man at each side + of the entrance, back of the firelight, the place where meat is + usually kept, and where knives may generally be found. Not finding + any, the angakoq slowly withdrew. * * * If he had found a knife he + would have stabbed himself in the breast. + +It is one of their favorite tricks to have their hands tied up and a +thong fastened around their knees and neck. Then they begin invoking +their tornaq, and all of a sudden the body lies motionless while the +soul flies to any place which they wish to visit. After returning, the +thongs are found untied, though they had been fastened by firm knots. +The resemblance of this performance to the experiments of modern +spiritualists is striking. + +The angakut use a sacred language in their songs and incantations. +A great number of words have a symbolic meaning, but others are old +roots, which have been lost from common use in the lapse of time. These +archaic words are very interesting from a linguistic point of view. +Indeed, some are found which are still in use in Greenland, though lost +in the other dialects, and others which are only used in Alaska. + +I ought to add here that most of the angakut themselves believe in their +performances, as by continued shouting and invoking they fall into an +ecstasy and really imagine they accomplish the flights and see the +spirits. + +The angakoq, who must be paid at once for curing a sick person, receives +pretty large fees for services of this kind. + +Although witchcraft occupied a prominent place in the belief of the +Greenlanders I could only find very faint traces of it in Baffin Land, +to wit, the opinion that a man has the power of injuring a distant enemy +by some means the details of which I did not learn. + +I shall add here the numerous regulations referring to eating and +working, many of which are connected with the Sedna tradition, and the +observance of which is watched by the angakut. As all sea animals have +originated from her fingers the Eskimo must make an atonement for every +animal he kills. When a seal is brought into the hut the women must stop +working until it is cut up. After the capture of a ground seal, walrus, +or whale they must rest for three days. Not all kinds of work, however, +are forbidden, for they are allowed to mend articles made of sealskin, +but they must not make anything new. For instance, an old tent cover may +be enlarged in order to build a larger hut, but it is not permitted to +make a new one. Working on new deerskins is strictly forbidden. No skins +of this kind obtained in summer may be prepared before the ice has +formed and the first seal is caught with the harpoon. Later, as soon as +the first walrus is caught, the work must stop again until the next +fall. For this reason all families are eager to finish the work on +deerskins as quickly as possible, as the walrusing season is not +commenced until that is done. + +The laws prohibiting contact with deer and sea animals at the same time +are very strict. According to the Eskimo themselves Sedna dislikes the +deer (probably for some reason connected with the tradition of its +origin,) and therefore they are not allowed to bring it in contact with +her favorites. The meat of the whale, seal, or walrus must not be eaten +on the same day with venison. It is not permitted that both sorts of +meat lie on the floor of the hut or behind the lamps at the same time. +If a man who has eaten venison in the morning happens to enter a hut in +which seal meat is being cooked he is allowed to eat venison on the bed, +but it must be wrapped up before being carried into the hut and he must +take care to keep clear of the floor. Before changing from one food to +the other the Eskimo must wash themselves. For the same reason walrus +hide must not be carried to Lake Nettilling, which is considered the +domain of deer. + +A similar custom requires that the Ukusiksalirmiut carry salmon into a +hut by a separate entrance, for it must not pass through the same one as +seal oil. Besides, the fish must only be cooked at the distance of a +day’s journey from the place where they have been caught. If eaten on +the spot they must be eaten raw (Klutschak, p. 158). + +Their customs referring to hunting are manifold. When skinning a deer +they must not break a single bone; then, they cut off bits of different +parts of the animal and bury them in the ground or under stones (Hall I, +p. 386). I have never noticed this custom myself. On the west shore of +Hudson Bay dogs are not allowed to gnaw deer bones during the deer +hunting season or seal bones during the sealing season (Klutschak, p. +123). Deer bones must not be broken while walrus are hunted (Hall II, +p. 155). + +When the men go out hunting in their kayaks the women of the +Aivillirmiut take a cup down to the shore and leave it there, believing +that it will bring luck (Hall II, p. 103). On Davis Strait they throw a +piece of seal’s blubber on their husband’s kayak when he is about to go +hunting (Kumlien, p. 45). After the capture of a whale the Aivillirmiut +are not allowed to burn shrubs, but use bones of the whale instead, +which are mixed with blubber (Hall II, p. 364). If an animal that is +with young is killed the fetus must not be taken and used for food (Hall +II, p. 253). When a bear is caught the Nugumiut and the Oqomiut are +accustomed to fasten its bladder to a stick which is placed upright near +the hut or encampment for three days. + +When a house is deserted the Aivillirmiut are in the habit of carrying +all the bones lying inside to some distance and putting them upon the +ice (Hall II, p. 175). If they intend to move to a place some distance +away they are in the habit of burying some of their clothing. Klutschak +observed this custom among the Netchillirmiut; I myself, among the +Akudnirmiut. If a great number of families leave a village those who +remain build new houses, as they believe that they would otherwise have +bad luck in hunting. + +A great number of regulations refer to the behavior of women during +menstruation. They are not allowed to eat raw meat, they must cook in +separate pots, and are not permitted to join in festivals, being looked +upon as unclean during this period. Customs referring to childbirth and +sickness will be found further on (see p. 609). + +When a traveling party visits a neighboring tribe it is obliged to adopt +the customs and regulations of the latter. + +This account does not by any means include all the peculiar customs of +these people, for they are so numerous and the difficulty of finding out +anything pertaining to this subject is so great that it is probable that +the greater part of them have escaped notice. + +I shall also mention a few customs that are peculiar to certain places. +At Qeqertelung, east of Naujateling, in Cumberland Sound, the Eskimo dig +potstone, but must buy it from the rock: that is, having dug out a +piece, they must give the rock something in exchange; for example, ivory +carvings, beads, food, or the like. + +At Arligaulik, near Wager River, the Eskimo address a large rock and bid +it farewell when passing (Hall II, p. 174). + +In Cumberland Sound there is a cape called Iliqimisarbing, i.e., the +place of headshaking. The place is very dangerous, as heavy squalls +sweep down the steep rocks and slides frequently occur. Therefore the +natives never pass it without shaking their heads, at the same time +uttering a deep murmur. + +Besides the tornait already mentioned, a number of others are known +which cannot become genii of men. A spirit of the sea, Kalopaling or +Mitiling, is described in a tradition (see p. 620). In Erdmann’s +Wörterbuch des Labradordialectes “Mitiling” is translated Gespenst, +i.e., ghost. No doubt it is the name of the same spirit or at least of a +similar one which is recognized among the northern tribes, the literal +translation being “with eider ducks.” Another spirit of which the +natives are in great fear is Qiqirn, a phantom in the shape of a huge +dog almost without hair. Like the bear which has been alluded to, it has +hair only at the mouth, the feet, and the points of the ears and the +tail. If it comes near dogs or men they fall into fits and only recover +when Qiqirn has left. It is exceedingly afraid of men and runs away as +soon as an angakoq descries it. + +A very remarkable tornaq is the qaggim inua, i.e., master of the dancing +house. The natives build large houses for feasting, singing, and +dancing, which are devoted to spirits. This tornaq has the shape of a +bandy legged man, his knees being bent outward and forward. He has not a +single hair upon his entire body and no bones at the back of his head. +To touch him would result in immediate death (see p. 636). + +Besides these tornait, more powerful supernatural beings are known, who +are “owners” (inua) of the stars and constellations and of meteorologic +processes. Moon and sun are considered brother and sister, and in this +the tradition of the Central Eskimo exactly corresponds with that of the +Greenlanders. It is even known among the Eskimo of Point Barrow +(Simpson, p. 940). From Repulse Bay (Aivillirmiut) a few scanty traces +of this tradition are recorded by Rae (I, p. 79). He relates as follows: + + It is said that many years ago, not long after the creation of the + world, there was a mighty conjurer, who gained so much power that + at last he raised himself up into the heavens, taking with him his + sister (a beautiful girl) and a fire. To the latter he added great + quantities of fuel, which thus formed the sun. For some time he + and his sister lived in great harmony, but at last they disagreed, + and he, in addition to maltreating the lady in many ways, at last + scorched the side of her face. She had suffered patiently all + sorts of indignities, but the spoiling of her beauty was not to be + borne; she therefore ran away from him and formed the moon, and + continues so until this day. Her brother is still in chase of her, + but although he gets near, he will never overtake her. When it is + new moon, the burnt side of the face is towards us; when full + moon, the reverse is the case. + +The following form of the legend, which I received from some Akudnirmiut +and Oqomiut, is almost identical with the Greenland one: + +In olden times a brother and his sister lived in a large village in +which there was a singing house, and every night the sister with her +playfellows enjoyed themselves in this house. Once upon a time, when all +the lamps in the singing house were extinguished, somebody came in and +outraged her. She was unable to recognize him; but she blackened her +hands with soot and when the same again happened besmeared the man’s +back with it. When the lamps were relighted she saw that the violator +was her brother. In great anger she sharpened a knife and cut off her +breasts, which she offered to him, saying: “Since you seem to relish me, +eat this.” Her brother fell into a passion and she fled from him, +running about the room. She seized a piece of wood (with which the lamps +are kept in order) which was burning brightly and rushed out of the +house. The brother took another one, but in his pursuit he fell down and +extinguished his light, which continued to glow only faintly. Gradually +both were lifted up and continued their course in the sky, the sister +being transformed into the sun, the brother into the moon. Whenever the +new moon first appears she sings: + + Aningaga tapika, takirn tapika qaumidjatedlirpoq; qaumatitaudle. + Aningaga tapika, tikipoq tapika. + + (My brother up there, the moon up there begins to shine; + he will be bright. + My brother up there, he is coming up there.) + + +THE FLIGHT TO THE MOON. + +There exists another tradition in regard to the spirit of the moon, +which is also known to the Greenlanders. While in the first tradition +the moon is a man carrying a glowing light, in the other she is the moon +man’s house (Rink, p. 440). The legend, as told by the Oqomiut and +Akudnirmiut, is the narrative of the flight of an angakoq to the moon +and is as follows: + +A mighty angakoq, who had a bear for his tornaq, resolved to pay a visit +to the moon. He sat down in the rear of his hut, turning his back toward +the lamps, which had been extinguished. He had his hands tied up and a +thong fastened around his knees and neck. Then he summoned his tornaq, +which carried him rapidly through the air and brought him to the moon. +He observed that the moon was a house, nicely covered with white +deerskins, which the man in the moon used to dry near it. On each side +of the entrance was the upper portion of the body of an enormous walrus, +which threatened to tear in pieces the bold intruder. Though it was +dangerous to pass by the fierce animals, the angakoq, by help of his +tornaq, succeeded in entering the house. + +In the passage he saw the only dog of the man of the moon, which is +called Tirie´tiang and is dappled white and red. On entering the main +room he perceived, to the left, a small additional building, in which a +beautiful woman, the sun, sat before her lamp. As soon as she saw the +angakoq entering she blew her fire, behind the blaze of which she hid +herself. The man in the moon came to meet him kindly, stepping from the +seat on the ledge and bidding the stranger welcome. Behind the lamps +great heaps of venison and seal meat were piled up, but the man of the +moon did not yet offer him anything. He said: “My wife, Ululiernang, +will soon enter and we will perform a dance. Mind that you do not laugh, +else she will slit open your belly with her knife, take out your +intestines, and give them to my ermine which lives in yon little house +outside.” + +Before long a woman entered carrying an oblong vessel in which her ulo +(see p. 518) lay. She put it on the floor and stooped forward, turning +the vessel like a whirligig. Then she commenced dancing, and when she +turned her back toward the angakoq it was made manifest that she was +hollow. She had no back, backbone, or entrails, but only lungs and +heart. + +The man joined her dance and their attitudes and grimaces looked so +funny that the angakoq could scarcely keep from laughing. But just +at the right moment he called to mind the warnings of the man in +the moon and rushed out of the house. The man cried after him, +“Uqsureliktaleqdjuin” (“Provide yourself with your large white bear +tornaq”).[7] Thus he escaped unhurt. + + [Footnote 7: Uqsurelik, with blubber, signifies in the language of + the angakut the white bear; lauk, large; -leqdjorpoq, he provides + himself with.] + +Upon another visit he succeeded in mastering his inclination to laugh +and was hospitably received by the man after the performance was +finished. He showed him all around the house and let him look into a +small additional building near the entrance. There he saw large herds of +deer apparently roaming over vast plains, and the man of the moon +allowed him to choose one animal, which fell immediately through a hole +upon the earth. In another building he saw a profusion of seals swimming +in an ocean and was allowed to pick out one of these also. At last the +man in the moon sent him away, when his tornaq carried him back to his +hut as quickly as he had left it. + +During his visit to the moon his body had lain motionless and soulless, +but now it revived. The thongs with which his hands had been fastened +had fallen down, though they had been tied in firm knots. The angakoq +felt almost exhausted, and when the lamps were relighted he related to +the eagerly listening men his adventures during his flight to the moon. + +It is related in the course of this tradition that the man in the moon +has a qaumat, some kind of light or fire, but I could not reach a +satisfactory understanding of the meaning of this word. It is derived +from qauq (daylight) and is used in Greenland for the moon herself. +Among the Eskimo of Baffin Land it is only employed in the angakoq +language, in which the moon is called qaumavun, the sun qaumativun. +Another name of the moon is aninga (her brother), in reference to the +first legend. The natives also believe that the man in the moon makes +the snow. He is generally considered a protector of orphans and of the +poor, and sometimes descends from his house on a sledge drawn by his +dog, Tirie´tiang, in order to help them (see the tradition of +Qaudjaqdjuq, p. 630). + + +KADLU THE THUNDERER. + +It is said that three sisters make the lightning, the thunder, and the +rain. The names of two of them are Ingnirtung (the one who strikes the +fire) and Udluqtung (the one who rubs the skins), whose second name is +Kadlu (thunder), while that of the third I could not ascertain. They +live in a large house the walls of which are supported by whale ribs. It +stands in the far west, at a great distance from the sea, as Kadlu and +her sisters do not like to go near it. If an Eskimo should happen to +enter the house he must hasten away or Ingnirtung will immediately kill +him with her lightning. Even the stones are afraid of her and jump down +the hills whenever they see the lightning and hear the thunder. The +faces of the sisters are entirely black and they wear no clothes at +all.(?) Ingnirtung makes the lightning by striking two red stones +together (flint). Kadlu makes the thunder by rubbing sealskins and +singing. The third sister makes the rain by urinating. They procure food +by striking reindeer with the lightning, which singes their skins and +roasts their flesh. The Akudnirmiut say that beyond Iglulik, on the +continent of America, a large tribe of Eskimo live whom they call +Kakī´joq. The women of the tribe are said to have rings tattooed round +their eyes. These natives offer the dried skins of a species of small +seals to Kadlu, who uses them for making the thunder. + + +FEASTS, RELIGIOUS AND SECULAR. + +The Eskimo have some very interesting feasts, most of which are closely +connected with their religious notions. In summer feasts are celebrated +in the open air, but in winter a house, called qaggi, or, as we may call +it, singing house, is built for that purpose. + + [Illustration: FIG. 531. Diagram showing interior of qaggi or + singing house among eastern tribes.] + +The plan of the house which is used by the eastern tribes is represented +in Fig. 531. It is a large snow dome about fifteen feet in height and +twenty feet in diameter, without any lining. In the center there is a +snow pillar five feet high, on which the lamps stand. When the +inhabitants of a village assemble in this building for singing and +dancing the married women stand in a row next the wall. The unmarried +women form a circle inside the former, while the men sit in the +innermost row. The children stand in two groups, one at each side of the +door. When the feast begins, a man takes up the drum (kilaut), which +will be described presently, steps into the open space next the door, +and begins singing and dancing. Among the stone foundations of Niutang, +in Kingnait (Cumberland Sound), there is a qaggi built on the same plan +as the snow structure. Probably it was covered with a snow roof when in +use. + + [Illustration: FIG. 532. Plan of Hudson Bay qaggi or singing house. + (From Hall II, p. 220.)] + +Hall gives the plan of the Hudson Bay qaggi (Fig. 532), a copy of which +is here introduced, as well as his description of the drum (Fig. 533), +which I have never seen made (Hall II, p. 96): + + The drum is made from the skin of the deer [or seal], which is + stretched over a hoop made of wood, or of bone from the fin of a + whale, by the use of a strong, braided cord of sinew passed around + a groove on the outside. The hoop is about 2½ inches wide, 1½ + inches thick, and 3 feet in diameter, the whole instrument + weighing about 4 pounds. The wooden drumstick, 10 inches in length + and 3 inches in diameter, is called a kentun. * * * + + The deerskin which is to be the head of the instrument is kept + frozen when not in use. It is then thoroughly saturated with + water, drawn over the hoop, and temporarily fastened in its place + by a piece of sinew. A line of heavy, twisted sinew, about 50 feet + long, is now wound tightly on the groove on the outside of the + hoop, binding down the skin. This cord is fastened to the handle + of the kilaut [drum], which is made to turn by the force of + several men (while its other end is held firmly), and the line + eased out as required. To do this a man sits on the bed-platform, + “having one or two turns of the line about his body, which is + encased in furred deerskins, and empaled by four upright pieces of + wood.” Tension is secured by using a round stick of wood as a + lever on the edge of the skin, drawing it from beneath the cord. + When any whirring sound is heard, little whisps of reindeer hair + are tucked in between the skin and the hoop, until the head is as + tight as a drum. + + [Illustration: FIG. 533. Kilaut or drum.] + + When the drum is played, the drum handle is held in the left hand + of the performer, who strikes the edge of the rim opposite that + over which the skin is stretched. He holds the drum in different + positions, but keeps it in a constant fan-like motion by his hand + and by the blows of the kentun struck alternately on the opposite + sides of the edge. Skillfully keeping the drum vibrating on the + handle, he accompanies this with grotesque motions of the body, + and at intervals with a song, while the women keep up their own + Inuit songs, one after another, through the whole performance. + +The feast is described as follows: + + As usual the women sat on the platform Turk fashion; the men, + behind them with extended legs. The women were gayly dressed. They + wore on each side of the face an enormous pigtail, made by + wrapping their hair on a small wooden roller a foot in length; + strips of reindeer-fur being wrapped with the hair [see p. 559]. + These were black and white for those who had sons and black only + for those who had none. Shining ornaments were worn on the head + and on the breast they had masonic-like aprons, the groundwork of + which was of a flaming red color, ornamented with glass beads of + many colors. + +In Cumberland Sound the women also wear pigtails at the celebration of +these feasts. The drum is sometimes played with the wrist of the right +hand instead of the beater. + +Every singing house is dedicated to a tornaq, the qaggim inua, as +mentioned above. For this reason all these performances may be +considered religious feasts. + +The songs are always composed by the singer himself. Satiric songs are +great favorites on these occasions. While the men listen in silence the +women join in the chorus, amna aya, the never failing end of each verse. +The dancer remains on one spot only, stamping rhythmically with the +feet, swinging the upper part of his body, and at the same time playing +the kilaut. While dancing he always strips the upper part of the body, +keeping on only trousers and boots. Singing and dancing are alternated +with wrestling matches and playing at hook and crook. Almost every great +success in hunting is celebrated in the qaggi, and especially the +capture of a whale. Such a feast has been described by Parry. + + [Illustration: FIG. 534. Plans of remains of supposed qaggin or + singing houses. (From Parry II, p. 362.)] + +The stone foundations observed by Parry and copied here (Fig. 534) are +probably the remains of singing houses. Parry’s description is as +follows (II, p. 362): + + It appears that the whole whale or a principal part of it is + dragged into the enclosure, where some of the men are employed in + cutting it up and throwing the pieces over the wall to the rest, + who stand ready to receive them outside; while within the women + range themselves in a circle around the whale and continue singing + during the operation. * * * Each of these structures * * * was the + distinct property of a particular individual; and had probably, in + its turn, been the seat of feasting and merriment either to the + present owner, or those from whom he had inherited it. + +Great feasts closely connected with the Sedna tradition are celebrated +every fall. + +When late in the fall storms rage over the land and release the sea from +the icy fetters by which it is as yet but slightly bound, when the +loosened floes are driven one against the other and break up with loud +crashes, when the cakes of ice are piled in wild disorder one upon +another, the Eskimo believes he hears the voices of spirits which +inhabit the mischief laden air. + +The spirits of the dead, the tupilaq, knock wildly at the huts, which +they cannot enter, and woe to the unhappy person whom they can lay hold +of. He immediately sickens and a speedy death is regarded as sure to +come. The wicked qiqirn pursues the dogs, which die with convulsions and +cramps as soon as they see him. All the countless spirits of evil are +aroused, striving to bring sickness and death, bad weather, and failure +in hunting. The worst visitors are Sedna, mistress of the under world, +and her father, to whose share the dead Inuit fall. While the other +spirits fill the air and the water, she rises from under the ground. + +It is then a busy season for the wizards. In every hut we may hear them +singing and praying; conjuring of the spirits is going on in every +house. The lamps burn low. The wizard sits in a mystic gloom in the rear +of the hut. He has thrown off his outer coat and drawn the hood of his +inner garment over his head, while he mutters indescribable sounds, +unnatural to a human voice. At last the guardian spirit responds to the +invocation. The angakoq lies in a trance and when he comes to himself he +promises in incoherent phrases the help of the good spirit against the +tupilaq and informs the credulous, affrighted Inuit how they can escape +from the dreaded ghosts. + +The hardest task, that of driving away Sedna, is reserved for the most +powerful angakoq. A rope is coiled on the floor of a large hut in such a +manner as to leave a small opening at the top, which represents the +breathing hole of a seal. Two angakut stand by the side of it, one of +them holding the seal spear in his left hand, as if he were watching at +the seal hole in the winter, the other holding the harpoon line. Another +angakoq, whose office it is to lure Sedna up with a magic song, sits at +the back of the hut. At last she comes up through the hard rocks and the +wizard hears her heavy breathing; now she emerges from the ground and +meets the angakoq waiting at the hole. She is harpooned and sinks away +in angry haste, drawing after her the harpoon, to which the two men hold +with all their strength. Only by a desperate effort does she tear +herself away from it and return to her dwelling in Adlivun. Nothing is +left with the two men but the blood sprinkled harpoon, which they +proudly show to the Inuit. + +Sedna and the other evil spirits are at last driven away, and on the +following day a great festival for young and old is celebrated in honor +of the event. But they must still be careful, for the wounded Sedna is +greatly enraged and will seize any one whom she can find out of his hut; +so on this day they all wear protecting amulets (koukparmiutang) on the +tops of their hoods. Parts of the first garment which they wore after +birth are used for this purpose. + +The men assemble early in the morning in the middle of the settlement. +As soon as they have all got together they run screaming and jumping +around the houses, following the course of the sun (nunajisartung or +kaivitijung). A few, dressed in women’s jackets, run in the opposite +direction. These are those who were born in abnormal presentations. The +circuit made, they visit every hut, and the woman of the house must +always be in waiting for them. When she hears the noise of the band she +comes out and throws a dish containing little gifts of meat, ivory +trinkets, and articles of sealskin into the yelling crowd, of which each +one helps himself to what he can get. No hut is omitted in this round +(irqatatung). + +The crowd next divides itself into two parties, the ptarmigans +(aχigirn), those who were born in the winter, and the ducks (aggirn), or +the children of summer. A large rope of sealskin is stretched out. One +party takes one end of it and tries with all its might to drag the +opposite party over to its side. The others hold fast to the rope and +try as hard to make ground for themselves. If the ptarmigans give way +the summer has won the game and fine weather may be expected to prevail +through the winter (nussueraqtung). + +The contest of the seasons having been decided, the women bring out of a +hut a large kettle of water and each person takes his drinking cup. They +all stand as near the kettle as possible, while the oldest man among +them steps out first. He dips a cup of water from the vessel, sprinkles +a few drops on the ground, turns his face toward the home of his youth, +and tells his name and the place of his birth (oχsoaχsavepunga----me, +I was born in ----). He is followed by an aged woman, who announces her +name and home, and then all the others do the same, down to the young +children, who are represented by their mothers. Only the parents of +children born during the last year are forbidden to partake in this +ceremony. As the words of the old are listened to respectfully, so those +of the distinguished hunters are received with demonstrative applause +and those of the others with varying degrees of attention, in some cases +even with joking and raillery (imitijung). + +Now arises a cry of surprise and all eyes are turned toward a hut out of +which stalk two gigantic figures. They wear heavy boots; their legs are +swelled out to a wonderful thickness with several pairs of breeches; the +shoulders of each are covered by a woman’s over-jacket and the faces by +tattooed masks of sealskins. In the right hand each carries the seal +spear, on the back of each is an inflated buoy of sealskin, and in the +left hand the scraper. Silently, with long strides, the qailertetang +(Fig. 535) approach the assembly, who, screaming, press back from them. +The pair solemnly lead the men to a suitable spot and set them in a row, +and the women in another opposite them. They match the men and women in +pairs and these pairs run, pursued by the qailertetang, to the hut of +the woman, where they are for the following day and night man and wife +(nulianititijung). Having performed this duty, the qailertetang stride +down to the shore and invoke the good north wind, which brings fair +weather, while they warn off the unfavorable south wind. + +As soon as the incantation is over, all the men attack the qailertetang +with great noise. They act as if they had weapons in their hands and +would kill both spirits. One pretends to probe them with a spear, +another to stab them with a knife, one to cut off their arms and legs, +another to beat them unmercifully on the head. The buoys which they +carry on their backs are ripped open and collapse and soon they both lie +as if dead beside their broken weapons (pilektung). The Eskimo leave +them to get their drinking cups and the qailertetang awake to new life. +Each man fills his sealskin with water, passes a cup to them, and +inquires about the future, about the fortunes of the hunt and the events +of life. The qailertetang answer in murmurs which the questioner must +interpret for himself. + + [Illustration: FIG. 535. Qailertetang, a masked figure. (From a + sketch by the author.)] + +The evening is spent in playing ball, which is whipped all around the +settlement (ajuktaqtung). (See Appendix, Note 6.) + +This feast is celebrated as here described in Cumberland Sound and +Nugumiut. Hall and Kumlien make a few observations in regard to it, but +the latter has evidently misunderstood its meaning. His description is +as follows (p. 43): + + An angakoq dresses himself up in the most hideous manner, having + several pairs of pants on among the rest, and a horrid looking + mask of skins. The men and women now range themselves in separate + and opposite ranks, and the angakoq takes his place between them. + He then picks out a man and conducts him to a woman in the + opposite ranks. This couple then go to the woman’s hut and have a + grand spree for a day or two. This manner of proceeding is kept up + till all the women but one are disposed of. This one is always the + angakoq’s choice, and her he reserves for himself. + +Another description by Kumlien (p. 19) evidently refers to the same +feast: + + They have an interesting custom or superstition, namely, the + killing of the evil spirit of the deer; sometime during the winter + or early in spring, at any rate before they can go deer hunting, + they congregate together and dispose of this imaginary evil. The + chief ancut [angakoq], or medicine man, is the main performer. He + goes through a number of gyrations and contortions, constantly + hallooing and calling, till suddenly the imaginary deer is among + them. Now begins a lively time. Every one is screaming, running, + jumping, spearing, and stabbing at the imaginary deer, till one + would think a whole madhouse was let loose. Often this deer proves + very agile, and must be hard to kill, for I have known them to + keep this performance up for days; in fact, till they were + completely exhausted. + + During one of these performances an old man speared the deer, + another knocked out an eye, a third stabbed him, and so on till he + was dead. Those who are able or fortunate enough to inflict some + injury on this bad deer, especially he who inflicts the death + blow, is considered extremely lucky, as he will have no difficulty + in procuring as many deer as he wants, for there is no longer an + evil spirit to turn his bullets or arrows from their course. + +I could not learn anything about this ceremony, though I asked all the +persons with whom Kumlien had had intercourse. Probably there was some +misunderstanding as to the meaning of their feast during the autumn +which induced him to give this report. + +Hall describes the feast as celebrated by the Nugumiut (I, p. 528), as +follows: + + At a time of the year apparently answering to our Christmas, they + have a general meeting in a large igdlu [snow house] on a certain + evening. There the angakoq prays on behalf of the people for the + public prosperity through the subsequent year. Then follows + something like a feast. The next day all go out into the open air + and form in a circle; in the centre is placed a vessel of water, + and each member of the company brings a piece of meat, the kind + being immaterial. The circle being formed, each person eats his or + her meat in silence, thinking of Sedna, and wishing for good + things. Then one in the circle takes a cup, dips up some of the + water, all the time thinking of Sedna, and drinks it; and then, + before passing the cup to another, states audibly the time and the + place of his or her birth. This ceremony is performed by all in + succession. Finally, presents of various articles are thrown from + one to another, with the idea that each will receive of Sedna good + things in proportion to the liberality here shown. + + Soon after this occasion, at a time which answers to our New + Year’s day, two men start out, one of them being dressed to + represent a woman, and go to every house in the village, blowing + out the light in each. The lights are afterwards rekindled from a + fresh fire. When Taqulitu [Hall’s well known companion in his + journeys] was asked the meaning of this, she replied, “New + sun--new light,” implying a belief that the sun was at that time + renewed for the year. + +Inasmuch as Hall did not see the feast himself, but had only a +description by an Eskimo, into which he introduced points of similarity +with Christian feasts, it may be looked upon as fairly agreeing with the +feast of the Oqomiut. The latter part corresponds to the celebration of +the feast as it is celebrated in Akudnirn.[8] + + [Footnote 8: Since the above was written I learn from a paper by + Mr. Lucien M. Turner that a similar feast is celebrated in Ungava + Bay. (American Naturalist, August, 1887.)] + +According to a statement in the journal of Hall’s second expedition +(II, p. 219) masks are also used on the western shore of Hudson Bay, +where it seems that all the natives disguise themselves on this +occasion. + +The Akudnirmiut celebrate the feast in the following way: The +qailertetang do not act a part there, but other masks take their place. +They are called mirqussang and represent a man and his wife. They wear +masks of the skin of the ground seal, only that of the woman being +tattooed. The hair of the man is arranged in a bunch protruding from the +forehead (sulubaut), that of the woman in a pigtail on each side and a +large knot at the back of the head. Their left legs are tied up by a +thong running around the neck and the knee, compelling them to hobble. +They have neither seal float and spear nor inflated legs, but carry the +skin scraper. They must try to enter the huts while the Inuit hold a +long sealskin thong before them to keep them off. If they fall down in +the attempt to cross it they are thoroughly beaten with a short whip or +with sticks. After having succeeded in entering the huts they blow out +all the fires. + +The parts of the feast already described as celebrated in Cumberland +Sound seem not to be customary in Akudnirn, the conjuration of Sedna and +the exchanges of wives excepted, which are also practiced here. +Sometimes the latter ceremony takes place the night before the feast. +It is called suluiting or quvietung. + +When it is quite dark a number of Inuit come out of their huts and run +crying all round their settlements. Wherever anybody is asleep they +climb upon the roof of his hut and rouse him by screaming and shouting +until all have assembled outside. Then a woman and a man (the +mirqussang) sit down in the snow. The man holds a knife (sulung) in his +hand, from which the feast takes its name, and sings: + + Oangaja jaja jajaja aja. + Pissiungmipadlo panginejernago + Qodlungutaokpan panginejerlugping + Pissiungmipadlo panginejernago. + +To this song the woman keeps time by moving her body and her arms, at +the same time flinging snow on the bystanders. Then the whole company +goes into the singing house and joins in dancing and singing. This done, +the men must leave the house and stand outside while the mirqussang +watch the entrance. The women continue singing and leave the house one +by one. They are awaited by the mirqussang, who lead every one to one of +the men standing about. The pair must re-enter the singing house and +walk around the lamp, all the men and women crying, “Hrr! hrr!” from +both corners of the mouth. Then they go to the woman’s hut, where they +stay during the ensuing night. The feast is frequently celebrated by all +the tribes of Davis and Hudson Strait, and even independently of the +great feast described above. + +The day after, the men frequently join in a shooting match. A target is +set up, at which they shoot their arrows. As soon as a man hits, the +women, who stand looking on, rush forward and rub noses with him. + +If a stranger unknown to the inhabitants of a settlement arrives on a +visit he is welcomed by the celebration of a great feast. Among the +southeastern tribes the natives arrange themselves in a row, one man +standing in front of it. The stranger approaches slowly, his arms folded +and his head inclined toward the right side. Then the native strikes him +with all his strength on the right cheek and in his turn inclines his +head awaiting the stranger’s blow (tigluiqdjung). While this is going on +the other men are playing at ball and singing (igdlukitaqtung). Thus +they continue until one of the combatants is vanquished. + +The ceremonies of greeting among the western tribes are similar to those +of the eastern, but in addition “boxing, wrestling, and knife testing” +are mentioned by travelers who have visited them. In Davis Strait and +probably in all the other countries the game of “hook and crook” is +always played on the arrival of a stranger (pakijumijartung). Two men +sit down on a large skin, after having stripped the upper part of their +bodies, and each tries to stretch out the bent arm of the other. These +games are sometimes dangerous, as the victor has the right to kill his +adversary; but generally the feast ends peaceably. The ceremonies of the +western tribes in greeting a stranger are much feared by their eastern +neighbors and therefore intercourse is somewhat restricted. The meaning +of the duel, according to the natives themselves, is “that the two men +in meeting wish to know which of them is the better man.” The similarity +of these ceremonies with those of Greenland, where the game of hook and +crook and wrestling matches have been customary, is quite striking, as +is that of the explanation of these ceremonies. + +The word for greeting on Davis Strait and Hudson Strait, is +Assojutidlin? (Are you quite well?) and the answer, Tabaujuradlu (Very +well). The word Taima! which is used in Hudson Strait, and Mane taima! +of the Netchillirmiut seem to be similar to our Halloo! The +Ukusiksalirmiut say Ilaga! (My friend!) + + +CUSTOMS AND REGULATIONS CONCERNING BIRTH, SICKNESS, AND DEATH. + +I have mentioned that it is extremely difficult to find out the +innumerable regulations connected with the religious ideas and customs +of the Eskimo. The difficulty is even greater in regard to the customs +which refer to birth, sickness, and death, and it is no wonder that, +while some of the accounts of different writers coincide tolerably well, +there are great discrepancies in others, particularly as the customs +vary to a great extent among the different tribes. + +Before the child is born a small hut or snow house is built for the +mother, in which she awaits her delivery. Sick persons are isolated in +the same way, the reason being that in case of death everything that had +been in contact with the deceased must be destroyed. According to +Kumlien (p. 28) the woman is left with only one attendant, a young girl +appointed by the head ancut (angakoq) of the encampment; but this, no +doubt, is an error. She may be visited by her friends, who, however, +must leave her when parturition takes place. She must cut the navel +string herself, and in Davis Strait this is done by tying it through +with deer sinews; in Iglulik (Lyon, p. 370), by cutting it with a stone +spear head. The child is cleaned with a birdskin and clothed in a small +gown of the same material. According to Lyon the Iglulirmiut swathe it +with the dried intestines of some animal. + +Kumlien describes a remarkable custom of which I could find no trace, +not even upon direct inquiry (p. 281): + + As soon as the mother with her new born babe is able to get up and + go out, usually but a few hours, they are taken in charge by an + aged female angakoq, who seems to have some particular mission to + perform in such cases. She conducts them to some level spot on the + ice, if near the sea, and begins a sort of march in circles on the + ice, the mother following with the child on her back; this + manœuvre is kept up for some time, the old woman going through a + number of performances the nature of which we could not learn and + continually muttering something equally unintelligible to us. The + next act is to wade through snowdrifts, the aged angakoq leading + the way. We have been informed that it is customary for the mother + to wade thus bare-legged. + +Lyon says (p. 370): + + After a few days, or according to the fancy of the parents, an + angakoq, who by relationship or long acquaintance is a friend of + the family, makes use of some vessel, and with the urine the + mother washes the infant, while all the gossips around pour forth + their good wishes for the little one to prove an active man, if a + boy, or, if a girl, the mother of plenty of children. This + ceremony, I believe, is never omitted, and is called qoqsiuariva. + +Though I heard about the washing with urine, I did not learn anything +about the rest of the ceremony in Cumberland Sound and Davis Strait. + +A few days after birth the first dress of the child is exchanged for +another. A small hood made from the skin of a hare’s head is fitted +snugly upon the head, a jacket for the upper part of the body is made of +the skin of a fawn, and two small boots, made of the same kind of a +skin, the left one being wreathed with seaweed (_Fucus_), cover the +legs. While the child wears this clothing that which was first worn is +fastened to a pole which is secured to the roof of the hut. In two +months the child gets a third suit of clothes the same as formerly +described (p. 557). Then the second gown is exposed for some time on the +top of the hut, the first one being taken down, and both are carefully +preserved for a year. After this time has expired both are once more +exposed on the top of a pole and then sunk into the sea, a portion of +the birdskin dress alone being kept, for this is considered a powerful +amulet and is held in high esteem and worn every fall at the Sedna feast +on the point of the hood (see p. 604). I have stated that those who were +born in abnormal presentations wear women’s dresses at this feast and +must make their round in a direction opposite to the movement of the +sun. Captain Spicer, of Groton, Conn., affirms that the bird used for +the first clothing is chosen according to a strict law, every month +having its own bird. So far as I know, waterfowl are used in summer and +the ptarmigan in winter, and accordingly the men are called at the great +autumn feast the ducks and ptarmigans, the former including those who +were born in summer, the latter those born in winter. + +As long as any portion of the navel string remains a strip of sealskin +is worn around the belly. + +After the birth of her child the mother must observe a great number of +regulations, referring particularly to food and work. She is not allowed +for a whole year to eat raw meat or a part of any animal killed by being +shot through the heart. In Cumberland Sound she must not eat for five +days anything except meat of an animal killed by her husband or by a boy +on his first hunting expedition. This custom seems to be observed more +strictly, however, and for a longer period if the new born child dies. +Two months after delivery she must make a call at every hut, while +before that time she is not allowed to enter any but her own. At the end +of this period she must also throw away her old clothing. The same +custom was observed by Hall among the Nugumiut (I, p. 426). On the +western shore of Hudson Bay she is permitted to re-enter the hut a few +days after delivery, but must pass in by a separate entrance. An opening +is cut for the purpose through the snow wall. She must keep a little +skin bag hung up near her, into which she must put a little of her food +after each meal, having first put it up to her mouth. This is called +laying up food for the infant, although none is given to it (Hall II, +p. 173). I have already mentioned that the parents are not allowed in +the first year after the birth of a child to take part in the Sedna +feast. + +The customs which are associated with the death of an infant are very +complicated. For a whole year, when outside the hut, the mother must +have her head covered with a cap, or at least with a piece of skin. If a +ground seal is caught she must throw away the old cap and have a new one +made. The boots of the deceased are always carried about by the parents +when traveling, and whenever they stop these are buried in the snow or +under stones. Neither parent is allowed to eat raw flesh during the +following year. The woman must cook her food in a small pot which is +exclusively used by her. If she is about to enter a hut the men who may +be sitting inside must come out first, and not until they have come out +is she allowed to enter. If she wants to go out of the hut she must walk +around all the men who may happen to be there. + +The child is sometimes named before it is born. Lyon says upon this +subject (p. 369): + + Some relative or friend lays her hand on the mother’s stomach, and + decides what the infant is to be called, and, as the names serve + for either sex, it is of no consequence whether it proves a girl + or a boy. + +On Davis Strait it is always named after the persons who have died since +the last birth took place, and therefore the number of names of an +Eskimo is sometimes rather large. If a relative dies while the child is +younger than four years or so, his name is added to the old ones and +becomes the proper name by which it is called. It is possible that +children receive the names of all the persons in the settlement who die +while the children are quite young, but of this I am not absolutely +certain. When a person falls sick the angakut change his name in order +to ward off the disease or they consecrate him as a dog to Sedna. In the +latter event he gets a dog’s name and must wear throughout life a +harness over the inner jacket. Thus it may happen that Eskimo are known +in different tribes by different names. It may also be mentioned here +that friends sometimes exchange names and dogs are called by the name of +a friend as a token of regard. + +The treatment of the sick is the task of the angakoq, whose +manipulations have been described. + +If it is feared that a disease will prove fatal, a small snow house or a +hut is built, according to the season, into which the patient is carried +through an opening at the back. This opening is then closed, and +subsequently a door is cut out. A small quantity of food is placed in +the hut, but the patient is left without attendants. As long as there is +no fear of sudden death the relatives and friends may come to visit him, +but when death is impending the house is shut up and he is left alone to +die. If it should happen that a person dies in a hut among its inmates, +everything belonging to the hut must be destroyed or thrown away, even +the tools &c. lying inside becoming useless to the survivors, but the +tent poles may be used again after a year has elapsed. No doubt this +custom explains the isolation of the sick. If a child dies in a hut and +the mother immediately rushes out with it, the contents of the hut may +be saved. + +Though the Eskimo feel the greatest awe in touching a dead body, the +sick await their death with admirable coolness and without the least +sign of fear or unwillingness to die. I remember a young girl who sent +for me a few hours before her death and asked me to give her some +tobacco and bread, which she wanted to take to her mother, who had died +a few weeks before. + +Only the relatives are allowed to touch the body of the deceased. They +clothe it or wrap it in deerskins and bury it at once. In former times +they always built a tomb, at least when death occurred in the summer. +From its usual dimensions one would suppose that the body was buried +with the legs doubled up, for all of them are too short for grown +persons. If the person to be buried is young, his feet are placed in the +direction of the rising sun, those of the aged in the opposite +direction. According to Lyon the Iglulirmiut bury half grown children +with the feet towards the southeast, young men and women with the feet +towards the south, and middle aged persons with the feet towards the +southwest. This agrees with the fact that the graves in Cumberland Sound +do not all lie east and west. The tomb is always vaulted, as any stone +or piece of snow resting upon the body is believed to be a burden to the +soul of the deceased. The man’s hunting implements and other utensils +are placed by the side of his grave; the pots, the lamps, knives, &c., +by the side of that of the woman; toys, by that of a child. Hall (I, p. +103) observed in a grave a small kettle hung up over a lamp. These +objects are held in great respect and are never removed, at least as +long as it is known to whose grave they belong. Sometimes models of +implements are used for this purpose instead of the objects themselves. +Figure 536 represents a model of a lamp found in a grave of Cumberland +Sound. Nowadays the Eskimo place the body in a box, if they can procure +one, or cover it very slightly with stones or snow. It is strange that, +though the ceremonies of burying are very strictly attended to and +though they take care to give the dead their belongings, they do not +heed the opening of the graves by dogs or wolves and the devouring of +the bodies and do not attempt to recover them when the graves are +invaded by animals. + + [Illustration: FIG. 536. Model of lamp from a grave in Cumberland + Sound. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.)] + +The body must be carried to the place of burial by the nearest +relatives, a few others only accompanying it. For this purpose they +rarely avail themselves of a sledge, as it cannot be used afterward, but +must be left with the deceased. Dogs are never allowed to drag the +sledge on such an occasion. After returning from the burial the +relatives must lock themselves up in the old hut for three days, during +which they mourn the loss of the deceased. During this time they do not +dress their hair and they have their nostrils closed with a piece of +deerskin. After this they leave the hut forever. The dogs are thrown +into it through the window and allowed to devour whatever they can get +at. For some time afterward the mourners must cook their meals in a +separate pot. A strange custom was observed by Hall in Hudson Bay +(II, p. 186). The mourners did not smoke. They kept their hoods on from +morning till night. To the hood the skin and feathers of the head of +_Uria grylle_ were fastened and a feather of the same waterfowl to each +arm just above the elbow. All male relatives of the deceased wore a belt +around the waist, besides which they constantly wore mittens. It is +probable that at the present time all Eskimo when in mourning avoid +using implements of European manufacture and suspend the use of tobacco. +It has already been stated that women who have lost a child must keep +their heads covered. + +Parry, Lyon (p. 369), and Klutschak (p. 201) state that when the Eskimo +first hear of the death of a relative they throw themselves upon the +ground and cry, not for grief, but as a mourning ceremony. + +For three or sometimes even four days after a death the inhabitants of a +village must not use their dogs, but must walk to the hunting ground, +and for one day at least they are not allowed to go hunting at all. The +women must stop all kinds of work. + +On the third day after death the relatives visit the tomb and travel +around it three times in the same direction as the sun is moving, at the +same time talking to the deceased and promising that they will bring him +something to eat. According to Lyon the Iglulirmiut chant forth +inquiries as to the welfare of the departed soul, whether it has reached +the land Adli, if it has plenty of food, &c., at each question stopping +at the head of the grave and repeating some ceremonial words (p. 371). + +These visits to the grave are repeated a year after death and whenever +they pass it in traveling. Sometimes they carry food to the deceased, +which he is expected to return greatly increased. Hall describes this +custom as practiced by the Nugumiut (I, p. 426). He says: + + They took down small pieces of [deer] skin with the fur on, and of + [fat]. When there they stood around [the] grave [of the woman] + upon which they placed the articles they had brought. Then one of + them stepped up, took a piece of the [deer meat], cut a slice and + ate it, at the same time cutting off another slice and placing it + under a stone by the grave. Then the knife was passed from one + hand to the other, both hands being thrown behind the person. This + form of shifting the implement was continued for perhaps a minute, + the motions being accompanied by constant talk with the dead. Then + a piece of [deer] fur and some [fat] were placed under the stone + with an exclamation signifying, “Here is something to eat and + something to keep you warm.” Each of the [natives] also went + through the same forms. They never visit the grave of a departed + friend until some months after death, and even then only when all + the surviving members of the family have removed to another place. + Whenever they return to the vicinity of their kindred’s grave, + a visit is made to it with the best of food as a present for the + departed one. Neither seal, polar bear, nor walrus, however, is + taken. + +According to Klutschak (p. 154), the natives of Hudson Bay avoid staying +a long time on the salt water ice near the grave of a relative. + +On the fourth day after death the relatives may go for the first time +upon the ice, but the men are not allowed to hunt; on the next day they +must go sealing, but without dogs and sledge, walking to the hunting +ground and dragging the seal home. On the sixth day they are at liberty +to use their dogs again. For a whole year they must not join in any +festival and are not allowed to sing certain songs. + +If a married woman dies the widower is not permitted to keep any part of +the first seal he catches after her death except the flesh. Skin, +blubber, bones, and entrails must be sunk in the sea. + +All the relatives must have new suits of clothes made and before the +others are cast away they are not allowed to enter a hut without having +asked and obtained permission. (See Appendix, Note 7.) + +Lyon (p. 368) makes the following statement on the mourning ceremonies +in Iglulik: + + Widows are forbidden for six months to taste of unboiled flesh; + they wear no * * * pigtails, and cut off a portion of their long + hair in token of grief, while the remaining locks hang in loose + disorder about their shoulders. * * * After six months, the + disconsolate ladies are at liberty to eat raw meat, to dress their + pigtails and to marry as fast as they please; while in the + meantime they either cohabit with their future husbands, if they + have one, or distribute their favors more generally. A widower and + his children remain during three days within the hut where his + wife died, after which it is customary to remove to another. He is + not allowed to fish or hunt for a whole season, or in that period + to marry again. During the three days of lamentation all the + relatives of the deceased are quite careless of their dress; their + hair hangs wildly about, and, if possible, they are more than + usually dirty in their persons. All visitors to a mourning family + consider it as indispensably necessary to howl at their first + entry. + +I may add here that suicide is not of rare occurrence, as according to +the religious ideas of the Eskimo the souls of those who die by violence +go to Qudlivun, the happy land. For the same reason it is considered +lawful for a man to kill his aged parents. In suicide death is generally +brought about by hanging. + + + + +TALES AND TRADITIONS. + + +ITITAUJANG. + +A long, long time ago, a young man, whose name was Ititaujang, lived in +a village with many of his friends. When he became grown he wished to +take a wife and went to a hut in which he knew an orphan girl was +living. However, as he was bashful and was afraid to speak to the young +girl himself, he called her little brother, who was playing before the +hut, and said, “Go to your sister and ask her if she will marry me.” The +boy ran to his sister and delivered the message. The young girl sent him +back and bade him ask the name of her suitor. When she heard that his +name was Ititaujang she told him to go away and look for another wife, +as she was not willing to marry a man with such an ugly name.[9] But +Ititaujang did not submit and sent the boy once more to his sister. +“Tell her that Nettirsuaqdjung is my other name,” said he. The boy, +however, said upon entering, “Ititaujang is standing before the doorway +and wants to marry you.” Again the sister said “I will not have a man +with that ugly name.” When the boy returned to Ititaujang and repeated +his sister’s speech, he sent him back once more and said, “Tell her that +Nettirsuaqdjung is my other name.” Again the boy entered and said, +“Ititaujang is standing before the doorway and wants to marry you.” The +sister answered, “I will not have a man with that ugly name.” When the +boy returned to Ititaujang and told him to go away, he was sent in the +third time on the same commission, but to no better effect. Again the +young girl declined his offer, and upon that Ititaujang went away in +great anger. He did not care for any other girl of his tribe, but left +the country altogether and wandered over hills and through valleys up +the country many days and many nights. + + [Footnote 9: Ititaujang means “similar to the anus.” This + tradition is curtailed, as some parts were considered + inappropriate for this publication. The full text will be found in + the Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, + Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, Berlin, 1888.] + +At last he arrived in the land of the birds and saw a lakelet in which +many geese were swimming. On the shore he saw a great number of boots; +cautiously he crept nearer and stole as many as he could get hold of. +A short time after the birds left the water and finding the boots gone +became greatly alarmed and flew away. Only one of the flock remained +behind, crying, “I want to have my boots; I want to have my boots.” +Ititaujang came forth now and answered, “I will give you your boots if +you will become my wife.” She objected, but when Ititaujang turned round +to go away with the boots she agreed, though rather reluctantly. + +Having put on the boots she was transformed into a woman and they +wandered down to the seaside, where they settled in a large village. +Here they lived together for some years and had a son. In time +Ititaujang became a highly respected man, as he was by far the best +whaler among the Inuit. + +Once upon a time the Inuit had killed a whale and were busy cutting it +up and carrying the meat and the blubber to their huts. Though +Ititaujang was hard at work his wife stood lazily by. When he called her +and asked her to help as the other women did she objected, crying, “My +food is not from the sea; my food is from the land; I will not eat the +meat of a whale; I will not help.” + +Ititaujang answered, “You must eat of the whale; that will fill your +stomach.” Then she began crying and exclaimed, “I will not eat it; +I will not soil my nice white clothing.” + +She descended to the beach, eagerly looking for birds’ feathers. Having +found a few she put them between her fingers and between those of her +child; both were transformed into geese and flew away. + +When the Inuit saw this they called out, “Ititaujang, your wife is +flying away.” Ititaujang became very sad; he cried for his wife and did +not care for the abundance of meat and blubber, nor for the whales +spouting near the shore. He followed his wife and ascended the land in +search of her. + +After having traveled for many weary months he came to a river. There he +saw a man who was busy chopping chips from a piece of wood with a large +hatchet. As soon as the chips fell off he polished them neatly and they +were transformed into salmon, becoming so slippery that they glided from +his hands and fell into the river, which they descended to a large lake +near by. The name of the man was Eχaluqdjung (the little salmon). + +On approaching, Ititaujang was frightened almost to death, for he saw +that the back of this man was altogether hollow and that he could look +from behind right through his mouth. Cautiously he crept back and by a +circuitous way approached him from the opposite direction. + +When Eχaluqdjung saw him coming he stopped chopping and asked, “Which +way did you approach me?” Ititaujang, pointing in the direction he had +come last and from which he could not see the hollow back of +Eχaluqdjung, answered, “It is there I have come from.” Eχaluqdjung, on +hearing this, said, “That is lucky for you. If you had come from the +other side and had seen my back I should have immediately killed you +with my hatchet.” Ititaujang was very glad that he had turned back and +thus deceived the salmon maker. He asked him, “Have you not seen my +wife, who has left me, coming this way?” Eχaluqdjung had seen her and +said, “Do you see yon little island in the large lake? There she lives +now and has taken another husband.” + +When Ititaujang heard this report he almost despaired, as he did not +know how to reach the island; but Eχaluqdjung kindly promised to help +him. They descended to the beach; Eχaluqdjung gave him the backbone of a +salmon and said, “Now shut your eyes. The backbone will turn into a +kayak and carry you safely to the island. But mind you do not open your +eyes, else the boat will upset.” + +Ititaujang promised to obey. He shut his eyes, the backbone became a +kayak, and away he went over the lake. As he did not hear any splashing +of water, he was anxious to see whether the boat moved on, and opened +his eyes just a little. But he had scarcely taken a short glimpse when +the kayak began to swing violently and he felt that it became a backbone +again. He quickly shut his eyes, the boat went steadily on, and a short +time after he was landed on the island. + +There he saw the hut and his son playing on the beach near it. The boy +on looking up saw Ititaujang and ran to his mother crying, “Mother, +father is here and is coming to our hut.” The mother answered, “Go, play +on; your father is far away and cannot find us.” The child obeyed; but +as he saw Ititaujang approaching he re-entered the hut and said, +“Mother, father is here and is coming to our hut.” Again the mother sent +him away, but he returned very soon, saying that Ititaujang was quite +near. + +Scarcely had the boy said so when Ititaujang opened the door. When the +new husband saw him he told his wife to open a box which was in a corner +of the hut. She did so, and many feathers flew out of it and stuck to +them. The woman, her new husband, and the child were thus again +transformed into geese. The hut disappeared; but when Ititaujang saw +them about to fly away he got furious and cut open the belly of his wife +before she could escape. Then many eggs fell down. + + +THE EMIGRATION OF THE SAGDLIRMIUT. + +In the beginning all the Inuit lived near Ussualung, in Tiniqdjuarbing +(Cumberland Sound). The Igdlumiut, the Nugumiut, and the Talirpingmiut +in the south, the Aggomiut in the far north, and the Inuit, who tattoo +rings round their eyes, in the far west, all once lived together. There +is a tradition concerning the emigration of the Sagdlirmiut (see p. 451) +who live east of Iglulik. The Akudnirmiut say that the following events +did not happen in Tiniqdjuarbing, but in Aggo, a country where nobody +lives nowadays. Ikeraping, an Akudnirmio, heard the story related by a +Tununirmio, who had seen the place himself, but all the Oqomiut assert +that Ussualung is the place where the events in the story happened. + +An old woman, the sister of Mitiq, the angakoq, told the story as +follows: + +Near Ussualung there are two places, Qerniqdjuaq and Eχaluqdjuaq. In +each of these was a large house, in which many families lived together. +They used to keep company during the summer when they went deer hunting, +but returned to their separate houses in the fall. + +Once upon a time it happened that the men of Qerniqdjuaq had been very +successful, while those of Eχaluqdjuaq had caught scarcely any deer. +Therefore the latter got very angry and resolved to kill the other +party, but they preferred to wait until the winter. Later in the season +many deer were caught and put up in depots. They were to be carried down +to the winter settlements by means of sledges. + +One day both parties agreed upon a journey to these depots and the men +of Eχaluqdjuaq resolved to kill their enemies on this occasion. They set +out with their dogs and sledges, and when they were fairly inland they +suddenly attacked their unsuspecting companions and killed them. For +fear that the wives and children of the murdered men might be suspicious +if the dogs returned without their masters, they killed them too. After +a short time they returned and said they had lost the other party and +did not know what had happened to them. + +A young man of Eχaluqdjuaq was the suitor of a girl of Qerniqdjuaq and +used to visit her every night. He did not stop his visits now. He was +kindly received by the woman and lay down to sleep with his young wife. + +Under the snow bench there was a little boy who had seen the young man +of Eχaluqdjuaq coming. When everybody was sleeping he heard somebody +calling and soon recognized the spirits of the murdered men, who told +him what had happened and asked him to kill the young man in revenge. +The boy crept from his place under the bed, took a knife, and put it +into the young man’s breast. As he was a small boy and very weak, the +knife glided from the ribs and entered deep into the heart, thus killing +the young man. + +Then he roused the other inhabitants of the hut and told them that the +spirits of the dead men had come to him, that they had told him of their +murder, and had ordered him to kill the young man. The women and +children got very much frightened and did not know what to do. At last +they resolved to follow the advice of an old woman and to flee from +their cruel neighbors. As their dogs were killed, the sledges were of no +use, but by chance a bitch with pups was in the hut and the old woman, +who was a great angakoq, ordered them to go and whip the young dogs, +which would thus grow up quickly. They did so and in a short time the +pups were large and strong. They harnessed them and set off as quickly +as possible. In order to deceive their neighbors they left everything +behind and did not even extinguish their lamps, that they might not +excite suspicion. + +The next morning the men of Eχaluqdjuaq wondered why their companion had +not returned and went to the hut in Qernirtung. They peeped through the +spy hole in the window and saw the lamps burning, but nobody inside. At +last they discovered the body of the young man, and, finding the tracks +of the sledges, they hurriedly put their sledges in order and pursued +the fugitives. + +Though the latter had journeyed rapidly their pursuers followed still +more rapidly and seemed likely to overtake them in a short time. They +therefore became very much frightened, fearing the revenge of their +pursuers. + +When the sledge of the men drew near and the women saw that they were +unable to escape, a young woman asked the old angakoq: “Don’t you know +how to cut the ice?” The matron answered in the affirmative and slowly +drew a line over the ice with her first finger across the path of their +pursuers. The ice gave a loud crack. Once more she drew the line, when a +crack opened and quickly widened as she passed on. The floe began moving +and when the men arrived they could not cross over the wide space of +water. Thus the party were saved by the art of their angakoq. + +For many days they drifted to and fro, but finally they landed on the +island of Sagdlirn, where they took up their abode and became the +mothers of the Sagdlirmiut. + + +KALOPALING. + +Kalopaling is a fabulous being that lives in the sea. His body is like +that of a human being and he wears clothing made of eider ducks’ skins. +Therefore he is sometimes called Mitiling (with eider ducks). As these +birds have a black back and a white belly, his gown looked speckled all +over. His jacket has an enormous hood, which is an object of fear to the +Inuit. If a kayak capsizes and the boatman is drowned Kalopaling puts +him into this hood. He cannot speak, but can only cry, “Be, be! Be, be!” +His feet are very large and look like inflated sealskin floats. + +The Inuit believe that in olden times there were a great number of +Kalopalit, but gradually their number diminished and there are now very +few left. They may be seen from the land swimming very rapidly under the +water and sometimes rising to the surface. While swimming they make a +great noise by splashing with arms and legs. In summer they like to bask +on rocks and in winter they sometimes sit on the ice near cracks or at +the edge of drifting floes. As they pursue the hunters the most daring +men try to kill them whenever they can get near them. Cautiously they +approach the sleeping Kalopaling, and as soon as they come near enough +they throw the walrus harpoon at him. They must shut their eyes +immediately until the Kalopaling is dead, else he will capsize the boat +and kill the hunters. The flesh of the Kalopaling is said to be +poisonous, but good enough for dog’s food. + +An old tradition is handed down which refers to a Kalopaling: + +An old woman lived with her grandson in a small hut. As they had no +kinsmen they were very poor. A few Inuit only took pity on them and +brought them seal’s meat and blubber for their lamps. Once upon a time +they were very hungry and the boy cried. The grandmother told him to be +quiet, but as he did not obey she became angry and called Kalopaling to +come and take him away. He entered at once and the woman put the boy +into the large hood, in which he disappeared almost immediately. + +Later on the Inuit were more successful in sealing and they had an +abundance of meat. Then the grandmother was sorry that she had so rashly +given the boy to Kalopaling and wished to see him back again. She +lamented about it to the Inuit, and at length a man and his wife +promised to help her. + +When the ice had consolidated and deep cracks were formed near the shore +by the rise and fall of the tide, the boy used to rise and sit alongside +the cracks, playing with a whip of seaweed. Kalopaling, however, was +afraid that somebody might carry the boy away and had fastened him to a +string of seaweed, which he held in his hands. The Inuit who had seen +the boy went toward him, but as soon as he saw them coming he sang, “Two +men are coming, one with a double jacket, the other with a foxskin +jacket” (Inung maqong tikitong, aipa mirqosailing, aipa kapiteling). +Then Kalopaling pulled on the rope and the boy disappeared. He did not +want to return to his grandmother, who had abused him. + +Some time afterward the Inuit saw him again sitting near a crack. They +took the utmost caution that he should not hear them when approaching, +tying pieces of deerskin under the soles of their boots. But when they +could almost lay hold of the boy he sang, “Two men are coming, one with +a double jacket, the other with a foxskin jacket.” Again Kalopaling +pulled on the seaweed rope and the boy disappeared. + +The man and his wife, however, did not give up trying. They resolved to +wait near the crack, and on one occasion when the boy had just come out +of the water they jumped forward from a piece of ice behind which they +had been hidden and before he could give the alarm they had cut the rope +and away they went with him to their huts. + +The boy lived with them and became a great hunter. + + +THE UISSUIT. + +Besides the Kalopalit there are the Uissuit, a strange people that live +in the sea. They are dwarfs and are frequently seen between Iglulik and +Netchillik, where the Anganidjen live, an Inuit tribe whose women are in +the habit of tattooing rings around their eyes. There are men and women +among the Uissuit and they live in deep water, never coming up to the +surface. When the Inuit wish to see them, they go in their boats to a +place where they cannot see the bottom and try to catch them by hooks +which they slowly move up and down. As soon as they get a bite they draw +in the line. The Uissuit are thus drawn up; but no sooner do they +approach the surface than they dive down headlong again, only their legs +having emerged from the water. The Inuit have never succeeded in getting +one out of the water. + + +KIVIUNG. + +An old woman lived with her grandson in a small hut. As she had no +husband and no son to take care of her and the boy, they were very poor, +the boy’s clothing being made of skins of birds which they caught in +snares. When the boy would come out of the hut and join his playfellows, +the men would laugh at him and tear his outer garment. Only one man, +whose name was Kiviung, was kind to the young boy; but he could not +protect him from the others. Often the lad came to his grandmother +crying and weeping, and she always consoled him and each time made him a +new garment. She entreated the men to stop teasing the boy and tearing +his clothing, but they would not listen to her prayer. At last she got +angry and swore she would take revenge upon his abusers, and she could +easily do so, as she was a great angakoq. + +She commanded her grandson to step into a puddle which was on the floor +of the hut, telling him what would happen and how he should behave. As +soon as he stood in the water the earth opened and he sank out of sight, +but the next moment he rose near the beach as a yearling seal with a +beautiful skin and swam about lustily. + +The men had barely seen the seal when they took to their kayaks, eager +to secure the pretty animal. But the transformed boy quickly swam away, +as his grandmother had told him, and the men continued in pursuit. +Whenever he rose to breathe he took care to come up behind the kayaks, +where the men could not get at him with their harpoons; there, however, +he splashed and dabbled in order to attract their attention and lure +them on. But before any one could turn his kayak he had dived again and +swam away. The men were so interested in the pursuit that they did not +observe that they were being led far from the coast and that the land +was now altogether invisible. + +Suddenly a gale arose; the sea foamed and roared and the waves destroyed +or upset their frail vessels. After all seemed to be drowned the seal +was again transformed into the lad, who went home without wetting his +feet. There was nobody now to tear his clothing, all his abusers being +dead. + +Only Kiviung, who was a great angakoq and had never abused the boy, had +escaped the wind and waves. Bravely he strove against the wild sea, but +the storm did not abate. After he had drifted for many days on the wide +sea, a dark mass loomed up through the mist. His hope revived and he +worked hard to reach the supposed land. The nearer he came, however, the +more agitated did the sea become, and he saw that he had mistaken a +wild, black sea, with raging whirlpools, for land. Barely escaping he +drifted again for many days, but the storm did not abate and he did not +see any land. Again he saw a dark mass looming up through the mist, but +he was once more deceived, for it was another whirlpool which made the +sea rise in gigantic waves. + +At last the storm moderated, the sea subsided, and at a great distance +he saw the land. Gradually he came nearer and following the coast he at +length spied a stone house in which a light was burning. He landed and +entered the house. Nobody was inside but an old woman whose name was +Arnaitiang. She received him kindly and at his request pulled off his +boots, slippers, and stockings and dried them on the frame hanging over +the lamp. Then she went out to light a fire and cook a good meal. + +When the stockings were dry, Kiviung tried to take them from the frame +in order to put them on, but as soon as he extended his hand to touch +them the frame rose out of his reach. Having tried several times in +vain, he called Arnaitiang and asked her to give him back the stockings. +She answered: “Take them yourself; there they are; there they are” and +went out again. The fact is she was a very bad woman and wanted to eat +Kiviung. + +Then he tried once more to take hold of his stockings, but with no +better result. He called again for Arnaitiang and asked her to give him +the boots and stockings, whereupon she said: “Sit down where I sat when +you entered my house; then you can get them.” After that she left him +again. Kiviung tried it once more, but the frame rose as before and he +could not reach it. + +Now he understood that Arnaitiang meditated mischief; so he summoned his +tornaq, a huge white bear, who arose roaring from under the floor of the +house. At first Arnaitiang did not hear him, but as Kiviung kept on +conjuring the spirit came nearer and nearer to the surface, and when she +heard his loud roar she rushed in trembling with fear and gave Kiviung +what he had asked for. “Here are your boots,” she cried; “here are your +slippers; here are your stockings. I’ll help you put them on.” But +Kiviung would not stay any longer with this horrid witch and did not +even dare to put on his boots, but took them from Arnaitiang and rushed +out of the door. He had barely escaped when it clapped violently +together and just caught the tail of his jacket, which was torn off. He +hastened to his kayak without once stopping to look behind and paddled +away. He had only gone a short distance before Arnaitiang, who had +recovered from her fear, came out swinging her glittering woman’s knife +and threatening to kill him. He was nearly frightened to death and +almost upset his kayak. However, he managed to balance it again and +cried in answer, lifting up his spear: “I shall kill you with my spear.” +When Arnaitiang heard these words she fell down terror stricken and +broke her knife. Kiviung then observed that it was made of a thin slab +of fresh water ice. + +He traveled on for many days and nights, following the shore. At last he +came to a hut, and again a lamp was burning inside. As his clothing was +wet and he was hungry, he landed and entered the house. There he found a +woman who lived all alone with her daughter. Her son-in-law was a log of +driftwood which had four boughs. Every day about the time of low water +they carried it to the beach and when the tide came in it swam away. +When night came again it returned with eight large seals, two being +fastened to every bough. Thus the timber provided its wife, her mother, +and Kiviung with an abundance of food. One day, however, after they had +launched it as they had always done, it left and never returned. + +After a short interval Kiviung married the young widow. Now he went +sealing every day himself and was very successful. As he thought of +leaving some day, he was anxious to get a good stock of mittens (that +his hands might keep dry during the long journey?). Every night after +returning from hunting he pretended to have lost his mittens. In reality +he had concealed them in the hood of his jacket. + +After awhile the old woman became jealous of her daughter, for the new +husband of the latter was a splendid hunter and she wished to marry him +herself. One day when he was away hunting, she murdered her daughter, +and in order to deceive him she removed her daughter’s skin and crept +into it, thus changing her shape into that of the young woman. When +Kiviung returned, she went to meet him, as it had been her daughter’s +custom, and without exciting any suspicion. But when he entered the hut +and saw the bones of his wife he at once became aware of the cruel deed +and of the deception that had been practiced and fled away. + +He traveled on for many days and nights, always following the shore. At +last he again came to a hut where a lamp was burning. As his clothing +was wet and he was hungry, he landed and went up to the house. Before +entering it occurred to him that it would be best to find out first who +was inside. He therefore climbed up to the window and looked through the +peep hole. On the bed sat an old woman, whose name was Aissivang +(spider). When she saw the dark figure before the window she believed it +was a cloud passing the sun, and as the light was insufficient to enable +her to go on with her work she got angry. With her knife she cut away +her eyebrows, ate them, and did not mind the dripping blood, but sewed +on. When Kiviung saw this he thought that she must be a very bad woman +and turned away. + +Still he traveled on days and nights. At last he came to a land which +seemed familiar to him and soon he recognized his own country. He was +very glad when he saw some boats coming to meet him. They had been on a +whaling excursion and were towing a great carcass to the village. In the +bow of one of them stood a stout young man who had killed the whale. He +was Kiviung’s son, whom he had left a small boy and who was now grown up +and had become a great hunter. His wife had taken a new husband, but now +she returned to Kiviung. + + +ORIGIN OF THE NARWHAL. + +A long, long time ago a widow lived with her daughter and her son in a +hut. When the boy was quite young he made a bow and arrows of walrus +tusks and shot birds, which they ate. Before he was grown up he +accidentally became blind. From that moment his mother maltreated him in +every way. She never gave him enough to eat, though he had formerly +added a great deal to their sustenance, and did not allow her daughter, +who loved her brother tenderly, to give him anything. Thus they lived +many years and the poor boy was very unhappy. + +Once upon a time a polar bear came to the hut and thrust his head right +through the window. They were all very much frightened and the mother +gave the boy his bow and arrows that he might kill the animal. But he +said, “I cannot see the window and I shall miss him.” Then the sister +leveled the bow and the boy shot and killed the bear. The mother and +sister went out and took the carcass down and skinned it. + +After they had returned into the hut they told the boy that he had +missed the bear, which had run away when it had seen him taking his bow +and arrows. The bad mother had strictly ordered her daughter not to tell +that the bear was dead, and she did not dare to disobey. The mother and +the daughter ate the bear and had an ample supply of food, while the boy +was almost starving. Sometimes, when the mother had gone away, the girl +gave her brother something to eat, as she loved him dearly. + +One day a loon flew over the hut and observing the poor blind boy it +resolved to restore his eyesight. It sat down on the top of the roof and +cried, “Come out, boy, and follow me.” When he heard this he crept out +and followed the bird, which flew along to a lake. There it took the boy +and dived with him to the bottom. When they had risen again to the +surface it asked, “Can you see anything?” The boy answered, “No, +I cannot yet see.” They dived again and staid a long time in the water. +When they emerged, the bird asked, “Can you see now?” The boy answered, +“I see a dim shimmer.” Then they dived the third time and staid very +long under water. When they had risen to the surface the boy had +recovered his eyesight altogether. + +He was very glad and thankful to the bird, which told him to return to +the hut. Then he found the skin of the bear he had killed drying in the +warm rays of the sun. He got very angry and cut it into small pieces. +He entered the hut and asked his mother: “From whom did you get the +bearskin I saw outside of the hut?” The mother was frightened when she +found that her son had recovered his eyesight, and prevaricated. She +said, “Come here, I will give you the best I have; but I am very poor; +I have no supporter; come here, eat this, it is very good.” The boy, +however, did not comply and asked again, “From whom did you get yon +bearskin I saw outside the hut?” Again she prevaricated; but when she +could no longer evade the question she said, “A boat came here with many +men in it, who left it for me.” + +The boy did not believe the story, but was sure that it was the skin of +the bear he had killed during the winter. However, he did not say a +word. His mother, who was anxious to conciliate him, tried to +accommodate him with food and clothing, but he did not accept anything. + +He went to the other Inuit who lived in the same village, made a spear +and a harpoon of the same pattern he saw in use with them, and began to +catch white whales. In a short time he had become an expert hunter. + +By and by he thought of taking revenge on his mother. He said to his +sister, “Mother abused me when I was blind and has maltreated you for +pitying me; we will revenge ourselves on her.” The sister agreed and he +planned a scheme for killing the mother. + +When he went to hunt white whales he used to wind the harpoon line round +his body and, taking a firm footing, hold the animal until it was dead. +Sometimes his sister accompanied him and helped him to hold the line. + +One day he told his mother to go with him and hold his line. When they +came to the beach he tied the rope round her body and asked her to keep +a firm footing. She was rather anxious, as she had never done this +before, and told him to harpoon a small dolphin, else she might not be +able to resist the strong pull. After a short time a young animal came +up to breathe and the mother shouted, “Kill it, I can hold it;” but the +boy answered, “No, it is too large.” Again a small dolphin came near and +the mother shouted to him to spear it; but he said, “No, it is too +large.” At last a huge animal rose quite near. Immediately he threw his +harpoon, taking care not to kill it, and tossing his mother forward into +the water cried out, “That is because you maltreated me; that is because +you abused me.” + +The white whale dragged the mother into the sea, and whenever she rose +to the surface she cried, “Louk! Louk!” and gradually she became +transformed into a narwhal. + +After the young man had taken revenge he began to realize that it was +his mother whom he had murdered and he was haunted by remorse, and so +was his sister, as she had agreed to the bad plans of her brother. They +did not dare to stay any longer in their hut, but left the country and +traveled many days and many nights overland. At last they came to a +place where they saw a hut in which a man lived whose name was +Qitua´jung. He was very bad and had horribly long nails on his fingers. +The young man, being very thirsty, sent his sister into the hut to ask +for some water. She entered and said to Qitua´jung, who sat on the bed +place, “My brother asks for some water;” to which Qitua´jung responded, +“There it stands behind the lamp. Take as much as you like.” She stooped +to the bucket, when he jumped up and tore her back with his long nails. +Then she called to her brother for help, crying, “Brother, brother, that +man is going to kill me.” The young man ran to the hut immediately, +broke down the roof, and killed the bad man with his spear. + +Cautiously he wrapped up his sister in hares’ skins, put her on his +back, and traveled on. He wandered over the land for many days, until he +came to a hut in which a man lived whose name was Iqignang. As the young +man was very hungry, he asked him if he might eat a morsel from the +stock of deer meat put up in the entrance of the hut. Iqignang answered, +“Don’t eat it, don’t eat it.” Though he had already taken a little bit, +he immediately stopped. Iqignang was very kind to the brother and +sister, however, and after a short time he married the girl, who had +recovered from her wounds, and gave his former wife to the young +man.[10] + + [Footnote 10: See foot-note on p. 616.] + + [[Footnote 9 (p. 616): “.... The full text will be found in + the Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, + Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, Berlin, 1888.”]] + + +THE VISITOR. + +An old hag lived in a house with her grandson. She was a very bad woman +who thought of nothing but playing mischief. She was a witch and tried +to harm everybody by witchcraft. Once upon a time a stranger came to +visit some friends who lived in a hut near that of the old woman. As the +visitor was a good hunter and procured plenty of food for his hosts, she +envied them and resolved to kill the new comer. She made a soup of +wolf’s and man’s brains, which was the most poisonous meal she could +prepare, and sent her grandson to invite the stranger. She cautioned him +not to say what she had cooked, as she knew that the visitor was a great +angakoq, who was by far her superior in wisdom. + +The boy went to the neighboring hut and said: “Stranger, my grandmother +invites you to come to her hut and to have there a good feast on a +supper she has cooked. She told me not to say that it is a man’s and a +wolf’s brains and I do not say it.” + +Though the angakoq understood the schemes of the old hag he followed the +boy and sat down with her. She feigned to be very glad to see him and +gave him a dish full of soup, which he began to eat. But by help of his +tornaq the food fell right through him into a vessel which he had put +between his feet on the floor of the hut. This he gave to the old witch +and compelled her to eat it. She died as soon as she had brought the +first spoonful to her mouth. + + +THE FUGITIVE WOMEN. + +Once upon a time two women who were with child quarreled with their +husbands and fled from their families and friends to live by themselves. +After having traveled a long distance they came to a place called +Igdluqdjuaq, where they resolved to stay. It was summer when they +arrived. They found plenty of sod and turf and large whale ribs +bleaching on the beach. They erected a firm structure of bones and +filled the interstices with sod and turf. Thus they had a good house to +live in. In order to obtain skins they made traps, in which they caught +foxes in sufficient numbers for their dresses. Sometimes they found +carcasses of ground seals or of whales which had drifted to the shore, +of which they ate the meat and burnt the blubber. There was also a deep +and narrow deer pass near the hut. Across this they stretched a rope and +when the deer passed by they became entangled in it and strangled +themselves. Besides, there was a salmon creek near the house and this +likewise furnished them with an abundance of food. + +In winter their fathers came in search of their lost daughters. When +they saw the sledge coming they began to cry, as they were unwilling to +return to their husbands. The men, however, were glad to find them +comfortable, and having staid two nights at their daughters’ house they +returned home, where they told the strange story that two women without +the company of any men lived all by themselves and were never in want. + +Though this happened a long time ago the house may still be seen and +therefore the place is called Igdluqdjuaq (The Large House). + + +QAUDJAQDJUQ. + +I. STORY OF THE THREE BROTHERS. + +A long time ago there lived three brothers. Two of them were grown up, +but the third was a young lad whose name was Qaudjaqdjuq. The elder +brothers had left their country and traveled about many years, while the +youngest lived with his mother in their native village. As they had no +supporter, the poor youth was abused by all the men of the village and +there was nobody to protect him. + +At last the elder brothers, being tired of roaming about, returned home. +When they heard that the boy had been badly used by all the Inuit they +became angry and thought of revenge. At first, however, they did not say +anything, but built a boat, in which they intended to escape after +having accomplished their designs. They were skillful boat builders and +finished their work very soon. They tried the boat and found that it +passed over the water as swiftly as an eider duck flies. As they were +not content with their work they destroyed it again and built a new +boat, which proved as swift as an ice duck. They were not yet content, +destroyed this, and built a third one that was good. After having +finished the boat they lived quietly with the other men. In the village +there was a large singing house, which was used at every festival. One +day the three brothers entered it and shut it up. Then they began +dancing and singing and continued until they were exhausted. As there +was no seat in the house they asked their mother to bring one, and when +they opened the door to let her pass in, an ermine, which had been +hidden in the house, escaped. + +Near the singing house the other Inuit of the village were playing. When +they saw the ermine, which ran right through the crowd, they endeavored +to catch it. In the eagerness of pursuit one man, who had almost caught +the little animal, stumbled over a bowlder and fell in such a manner +that he was instantly killed. The ermine was sprinkled with blood, +particularly about its mouth. During the ensuing confusion it escaped +into the singing house, where it concealed itself again in the same +corner. + +The brothers, who were inside, had recommenced singing and dancing. When +they were exhausted they called for their mother (to bring something to +eat). When they opened the door the ermine again escaped and ran about +among the Inuit, who were still playing outside. + +When they saw it they believed that the brothers would induce them to +pursue it again, and thus make them perish one by one. Therefore the +whole crowd stormed the singing house with the intention of killing the +brothers. As the door was shut they climbed on the roof and pulled it +down, but when they took up their spears to pierce the three men they +opened the door and rushed down to the beach. Their boat was quite near +at hand and ready to be launched, while those of the other Inuit were a +long distance off. + +They embarked with their mother, but, when they were at a short distance +and saw that the other men had not yet reached their boats, they +pretended that they were unable to move theirs, though they pulled with +the utmost effort. In reality, they played with the oars on the water. +A few young women and girls were on the shore looking at the brothers, +who seemed to exert themselves to the utmost of their strength. The +eldest brother cried to the women: “Will you help us? We cannot get +along alone.” Two girls consented, but as soon as they had come into the +boat the brothers commenced pulling as hard as possible, the boat flying +along quicker than a duck, while the girls cried with fright. The other +Inuit hastened up desirous to reach the fugitives, and soon their boats +were manned. + +The brothers were not afraid, however, as their boat was by far the +swiftest. When they had almost lost sight of the pursuers they were +suddenly stopped by a high, bold land rising before the boat and +shutting up their way. They were quite puzzled, as they had to retrace +their way for a long distance and feared they would be overtaken by the +other boats. But one of the brothers, who was a great angakoq, saved +them by his art. He said: “Shut your eyes and do not open them before I +tell you, and then pull on.” They did as they were bade, and when he +told them to look up they saw that they had sailed right through the +land, which rose just as high and formidable behind them as it had +formerly obstructed their way. It had opened and let them pass. + +After having sailed some time they saw a long black line in the sea. +On coming nearer they discovered that it was an impenetrable mass of +seaweed, so compact that they could leave the boat and stand upon it. +There was no chance of pushing the boat through, though it was swifter +than a duck. The eldest brother, however, thought of his angakoq art and +said to his mother, “Take your hair lace and whip the seaweed.” As soon +as she did so it sank and opened the way. + +After having overcome these obstacles they were troubled no more and +accomplished their journey in safety. When they arrived in their country +they went ashore and erected a hut. The two women whom they had taken +from their enemies they gave to their young brother Qaudjaqdjuq. + +They wanted to make him a very strong man, such as they were themselves. +For this reason they led him to a huge stone and said, “Try to lift that +stone.” As Qaudjaqdjuq was unable to do so, they whipped him and said, +“Try it again.” Now Qaudjaqdjuq could move it a little from its place. +The brothers were not yet content and whipped him once more. By the last +whipping he became very strong and lifted the bowlder and cast it over +the hut. + +Then the brothers gave him the whip and told him to beat his wives if +they disobeyed him. + + +II. QAUDJAQDJUQ. + +A long time ago there was a poor little orphan boy who had no protector +and was maltreated by all the inhabitants of the village. He was not +even allowed to sleep in the hut, but lay outside in the cold passage +among the dogs, who were his pillows and his quilt. Neither did they +give him any meat, but flung old, tough walrus hide at him, which he was +compelled to eat without a knife. A young girl was the only one who +pitied him. She gave him a very small piece of iron for a knife, but +bade him conceal it well or the men would take it from him. He did so, +putting it into his urethra. Thus he led a miserable life and did not +grow at all, but remained poor little Qaudjaqdjuq. He did not even dare +to join the plays of the other children, as they also maltreated and +abused him on account of his weakness. + + [Illustration: FIG. 537. Qaudjaqdjuq is maltreated by his enemies. + Drawn by Qeqertuqdjuaq, an Oqomio.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 538. The man in the moon comes down to help + Qaudjaqdjuq.] + +When the inhabitants assembled in the singing house Qaudjaqdjuq used to +lie in the passage and peep over the threshold. Now and then a man would +lift him by the nostrils into the hut and give him the large urine +vessel to carry out (Fig. 537). It was so large and heavy that he was +obliged to take hold of it with both hands and his teeth. As he was +frequently lifted by the nostrils they grew to be very large, though he +remained small and weak. + + [Illustration: FIG. 539. The man in the moon whipping Qaudjaqdjuq.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 540. Qaudjaqdjuq has become Qaudjuqdjuaq.] + +At last the man in the moon,[11] who had seen how badly the men behaved +towards Qaudjaqdjuq, came down to help him. He harnessed his dog[12] +(Fig. 538) Tirie´tiang to his sledge and drove down. When near the hut +he stopped and cried, “Qaudjaqdjuq, come out.” Qaudjaqdjuq answered, +“I will not come out. Go away!” But when he had asked him a second and a +third time to come out, he complied, though he was very much frightened. +Then the man in the moon went with him to a place where some large +bowlders were lying about and, having whipped him (Fig. 539), asked, “Do +you feel stronger now?” Qaudjaqdjuq answered: “Yes, I feel stronger.” +“Then lift yon bowlder,” said he. As Qaudjaqdjuq was not yet able to +lift it, he gave him another whipping, and now all of a sudden he began +to grow, the feet first becoming of an extraordinary size (Fig. 540). +Again the man in the moon asked him: “Do you feel stronger now?” +Qaudjaqdjuq answered: “Yes, I feel stronger;” but as he could not yet +lift the stone he was whipped once more, after which he had attained a +very great strength and lifted the bowlder as if it were a small pebble. +The man in the moon said: “That will do. To-morrow morning I shall send +three bears; then you may show your strength.” + + [Footnote 11: The man in the moon is the protector of orphans.] + + [Footnote 12: By a mistake of the Eskimo who made the drawings, + four dogs are harnessed to the sledge. According to his own + explanation the dappled one ought to be the only dog.] + +He returned to the moon, but Qaudjaqdjuq, who had now become +Qaudjuqdjuaq (the big Qaudjaqdjuq), returned home tossing the stones +with his feet and making them fly to the right and to the left. At night +he lay down again among the dogs to sleep. Next morning he awaited the +bears, and, indeed, three large animals soon made their appearance, +frightening all the men, who did not dare to leave the huts. + +Then Qaudjuqdjuaq put on his boots and ran down to the ice. The men who +looked out of the window hole said, “Look here, is not that Qaudjaqdjuq? +The bears will soon make way with him.” But he seized the first by its +hind legs and smashed its head on an iceberg, near which it happened to +stand. The other one fared no better; the third, however, he carried up +to the village and slew some of his persecutors with it. Others he +pressed to death with his hands or tore off their heads (Fig. 541), +crying: “That is for abusing me; that is for your maltreating me.” Those +whom he did not kill ran away, never to return. Only a few who had been +kind to him while he had been poor little Qaudjaqdjuq were spared, among +them the girl who had given him the knife. Qaudjuqdjuaq lived to be a +great hunter and traveled all over the country, accomplishing many +exploits. + + [Illustration: FIG. 541. Qaudjuqdjuaq killing his enemies.] + + +IGIMARASUGDJUQDJUAQ THE CANNIBAL. + +Igimarasugdjuqdjuaq was a very huge and bad man, who had committed many +murders and eaten the victims after he had cut them up with his knife. +Once upon a time his sister-in-law came to visit his wife, but scarcely +had she entered the hut before Igimarasugdjuqdjuaq killed her and +commanded his wife to cook her. + +His wife was very much frightened, fearing that she herself would be the +next victim, and resolved to make her escape. When Igimarasugdjuqdjuaq +had left to go hunting she gathered heather, stuffed her jacket with it, +and placed the figure in a sitting position upon the bed. Then she ran +away as fast as she could and suc-ceeded in reaching a village. When her +husband came home and saw the jacket he believed that it was a stranger +who had come to visit him and stabbed him through the body. When he +discovered, however, that his wife had deceived and left him, he fell +into a passion and pursued her. + +He came to the village and said: “Have you seen my wife? She has run +away.” The Inuit did not tell him that she was staying with them, but +concealed her from his wrath. At last Igimarasugdjuqdjuaq gave her up +for lost and returned home. + +The Inuit, however, resolved to revenge the many outrages which he had +wrought upon them. They went to visit him and met him on the ice just +below the hut. When he told them he was going bear hunting they said: +“Let us see your spear.” This spear had a stout and sharp walrus tusk +for a point. “Ah,” said they; “that is good for bear hunting; how sharp +it is. You must hit him just this way.” And so saying they struck his +brow, the point of the spear entering his brain, and then cut the body +up with their knives. + + +THE TORNIT.[13] + + [Footnote 13: See foot-note on p. 616.] + [[Footnote 9: “.... The full text will be found in the + Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, + Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, Berlin, 1888.”]] + +In olden times the Inuit were not the only inhabitants of the country in +which they live at the present time. Another tribe similar to them +shared their hunting ground. But they were on good terms, both tribes +living in harmony in the villages. The Tornit were much taller than the +Inuit and had very long legs and arms. Almost all of them were blear +eyed. They were extremely strong and could lift large bowlders, which +were by far too heavy for the Inuit. But even the Inuit of that time +were much stronger than those of to-day, and some large stones are shown +on the plain of Miliaqdjuin, in Cumberland Sound, with which the ancient +Inuit used to play, throwing them great distances. Even the strongest +men of the present generations are scarcely able to lift them, much less +to swing them or throw them any distance. + + [Illustration: FIG. 542. Tumiujang or lamp of the Tornit. (Museum + für Volkerkunde, Berlin IV, A 6848.)] + +The Tornit lived on walrus, seals, and deer, just as the Eskimo do +nowadays, but their methods of hunting were different. The principal +part of their winter dress was a long and wide coat of deerskins, +similar to the jumper of the Eskimo, but reaching down to the knees and +trimmed with leather straps. When sealing in winter they wore this +garment, the lower edge of which was fastened on the snow by means of +pegs. Under the jacket they carried a small lamp, called tumiujang +(literally, resembling a footprint) or quming (Fig. 542), over which +they melted snow in a small pot. Some Eskimo say that they opened the +seals as soon as they were caught and cooked some meat over these lamps. +When the seal blew in the hole they whispered, “Kapatipara” (I shall +stab it) and, when they had hit it, “Igdluiliq.” Frequently they forgot +about the lamp and in throwing the harpoon upset it and burned their +skin. + +All their weapons were made of stone. For the blades of their knives +they used green slate (uluqsaq, literally material for women’s knives), +which was fastened by ivory pins to a bone or ivory handle. + +The points of their harpoons were made of bone, ivory, or slate; those +of their lances, of flint or quartz, which was also used for drillheads; +and they made neither kayaks nor bows. + +Their method of hunting deer was remarkable. In a deer pass, where the +game could not escape, they erected a file of cairns across the valley +and connected them by ropes. Some of the hunters hid behind the cairns, +while others drove the deer toward them. As the animals were unable to +pass the rope they fled along it, looking for an exit, and while +attempting to pass a cairn were lanced by the waiting hunter, who seized +the body by the hind legs and drew it behind the line. + +This tale is related as a proof of their enormous strength and it is +said that they were able to hold a harpooned walrus as the Eskimo hold a +seal. + +The Tornit could not clean the sealskins so well as the Inuit, but +worked them up with part of the blubber attached. Their way of preparing +meat was disgusting, since they let it become putrid and placed it +between the thigh and the belly to warm it. + +The old stone houses of the Tornit can be seen everywhere. Generally +they did not build snow houses, but lived the whole winter in stone +buildings, the roofs of which were frequently supported by whale ribs. +Though the Eskimo built similar structures they can be easily +distinguished from one another, the bed of their huts being much larger +than that of the Tornit. + +Though both tribes lived on very good terms, the Inuit did not like to +play at ball with the Tornit, as they were too strong and used large +balls, with which they hurt their playfellows severely. + +A remarkable tradition is told referring to the emigration of this +people. + +The Tornit did not build any kayaks, but as they were aware of the +advantages afforded by their use in hunting they stole the boats from +the Inuit, who did not dare to defend their property, the Tornit being +by far their superiors in strength. Once upon a time a young Tuniq had +taken the kayak of a young Inung without asking him and had injured it +by knocking in the bottom. The Inung got very angry and ran a knife into +the nape of the Tuniq’s neck while he was sleeping. (According to +another tradition he drilled a hole into his head; this form is also +recorded in Labrador.) The Tornit then became afraid that the Inuit +would kill them all and preferred to leave the country for good. They +assembled at Qernirtung (a place in Cumberland Sound), and in order to +deceive any pursuers they cut off the tails of their jumpers and tied +their hair into a bunch protruding from the crown of the head. + +In another form of the tradition it is said that while playing with the +Tornit a young Inung fell down and broke his neck. The Tornit feared +that the Inuit might take revenge upon them and left the country. + +Many old ditties are sung which either treat of the Tornit or are +reported to have been sung by them. Some of them will be found in the +linguistic account connected with my journey. + + +THE WOMAN AND THE SPIRIT OF THE SINGING HOUSE. + +Once upon a time a woman entered the singing house when it was quite +dark. For a long time she had wished to see the spirit of the house, and +though the Inuit had warned her of the impending danger she had insisted +upon her undertaking. + +She summoned the spirit, saying, “If you are in the house, come here.” +As she could not see him, she cried, “No spirit is here; he will not +come.” But the spirit, though yet invisible, said, “Here I am; there I +am.” Then the woman asked, “Where are your feet; where are your shins; +where are your thighs; where are your hips; where are your loins?” Every +time the spirit answered, “Here they are; there they are.” And she asked +further, “Where is your belly?” “Here it is,” answered the spirit. +“Where is your breast; where are your shoulders; where is your neck; +where is your head?” “Here it is; there it is;” but in touching the head +the woman all of a sudden fell dead. It had no bones and no hair +(p. 597). + + +THE CONSTELLATION UDLEQDJUN. + +Three men went bear hunting with a sledge and took a young boy with +them. When they approached the edge of the floe they saw a bear and went +in pursuit. Though the dogs ran fast they could not get nearer and all +of a sudden they observed that the bear was lifted up and their sledge +followed. At this moment the boy lost one of his mittens and in the +attempt to pick it up fell from the sledge. There he saw the men +ascending higher and higher, finally being transformed into stars. The +bear became the star Nanuqdjung (Betelgeuse); the pursuers, Udleqdjun +(Orion’s belt); and the sledge, Kamutiqdjung (Orion’s sword). The men +continue the pursuit up to this day; the boy, however, returned to the +village and told how the men were lost. + + +ORIGIN OF THE ADLET AND OF THE QADLUNAIT. + +Savirqong, an old man, lived alone with his daughter. Her name was +Niviarsiang (i.e., the girl), but as she would not take a husband she +was also called Uinigumissuitung (she who would not take a husband). She +refused all her suitors, but at last a dog, spotted white and red, whose +name was Ijirqang, won her affection and she took him for a husband. +They had ten children, five of whom were Adlet and five dogs. The lower +part of the body of the Adlet was that of a dog and hairy all over, the +soles excepted, while the upper part was that of a man. When the +children grew up they became very voracious, and as the dog Ijirqang did +not go out hunting at all, but let his father in law provide for the +whole family, it was difficult for Savirqong to feed them. Moreover, the +children were awfully clamorous and noisy; so at last the grandfather +got tired of it, put the whole family into his boat, and carried them to +a small island. He told the dog Ijirqang to come every day and fetch +meat. + +Niviarsiang hung a pair of boots round his neck and he swam across the +narrow channel. But Savirqong, instead of giving him meat, filled the +boots with heavy stones, which drowned Ijirqang when he attempted to +return to the island. + +The daughter thought of revenging the death of her husband. She sent the +young dogs to her father’s hut and let them gnaw off his feet and hands. +In return Savirqong, when Niviarsiang happened to be in his boat, threw +her overboard and cut off her fingers when she held to the gunwale. As +they fell into the sea they were transformed into seals and whales. At +last he allowed her to climb into the boat. + +As she feared that her father might think of killing or maiming her +children, she ordered the Adlet to go inland, where they became the +ancestors of a numerous people. She made a boat for the young dogs, +setting up two sticks for masts in the soles of her boots, and sent the +puppies across the ocean. She sang: “Angnaijaja. When you arrive there +across the ocean you will make many things giving you joy. Angnaija.” +They arrived in the land beyond the sea and became the ancestors of the +Europeans. + + +THE GREAT FLOOD. + +A long time ago the ocean suddenly began to rise, until it covered the +whole land. The water even rose to the top of the mountains and the ice +drifted over them. When the flood had subsided the ice stranded and ever +since forms an ice cap on the top of the mountains. Many shellfish, +fish, seal, and whales were left high and dry and their shells and bones +may be seen to this day. A great number of Inuit died during this +period, but many others, who had taken to their kayaks when the water +commenced to rise, were saved. + + +INUGPAQDJUQDJUALUNG.[14] + + [Footnote 14: See foot-note on p. 616.] + [[Footnote 9: “.... The full text will be found in the + Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, + Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, Berlin, 1888.”]] + +In days of yore, an enormous man, whose name was Inugpaqdjuqdjualung, +lived in company with many other Inuit in a village on a large fjord. +He was so tall that he could straddle the fjord. He used to stand thus +every morning and wait for whales to pass beneath him. As soon as one +came along he stooped and caught it, just as another man would scoop up +some little thing that had fallen into the water, and he ate it as other +men eat a small piece of meat. + +One day all the natives had manned their boats to hunt a whale. +Inugpaqdjuqdjualung at the time was sitting lazily near his hut, but +when he saw the efforts of the men he scooped both whale and boats from +the water and placed them upon the beach. + +At another time, being tired from running about, he lay down on a high +hill to take a nap. The Inuit told him that a couple of huge bears had +been seen near the village, but he said he didn’t care, and told his +friends to rouse him by throwing large stones upon him if they should +see the bears coming. They did so and Inugpaqdjuqdjualung, suddenly +starting up, cried: “Where are they? Where are they?” When the Inuit +pointed them out he said: “What! those little things? Those are not +worth the bustle; they are small foxes, not bears,” and he crushed one +between his fingers, while he put the other into the eyelet of his boot +and strangled it there. + + +THE BEAR STORY. + +This story is reprinted from Hall (II, p. 240): + + Many moons ago, a woman obtained a polar bear cub but two or three + days old. Having long desired just such a pet, she gave it her + closest attention, as though it were a son, nursing it, making for + it a soft warm bed alongside her own, and talking to it as a + mother does to her child. She had no living relative, and she and + the bear occupied the house alone. Kunikdjuaq, as he grew up, + proved that the woman had not taught him in vain, for he early + began to hunt seals and salmon, bringing them to his mother before + eating any himself, and receiving his share from her hands. She + always watched from the hilltop for his return, and if she saw + that he had been unsuccessful, she begged from her neighbors + blubber for his food. She learned how this was from her lookout, + for if successful, he came back in the tracks made on going out, + but if unsuccessful always by a different route. Learning to excel + the Inuit in hunting, he excited their envy, and, after long years + of faithful service, his death was resolved upon. On hearing this, + the old woman, overwhelmed with grief, offered to give up her own + life if they would but spare him who had so long supported her. + Her offer was sternly refused. Upon this, when all his enemies had + retired to their houses, the woman had a long talk with her + son--now well grown in years--telling him that wicked men were + about to kill him, and that the only way to save his life and hers + was for him to go off and not return. At the same time she begged + him not to go so far that she could not wander off and meet him, + and get from him a seal or something else which she might need. + The bear, after listening to what she said with tears streaming + down her furrowed cheeks, gently placed one huge paw on her head, + and then throwing both around her neck, said, “Good mother, + Kunikdjuaq will always be on the lookout for you and serve you as + best he can.” Saying this, he took her advice and departed, almost + as much to the grief of the children of the village as to the + mother. + + Not long after this, being in need of food, she walked out on the + sea ice to see if she could not meet her son, and soon recognized + him as one of two bears who were lying down together. He ran to + her, and she patted him on the head in her old familiar way, told + him her wants, and begged him to hurry away and get something for + her. Away ran the bear, and in a few moments the woman looked upon + a terrible fight going on between him and his late companion, + which, however, to her great relief, was soon ended by her son’s + dragging a lifeless body to her feet. With her knife she quickly + skinned the dead bear, giving her son large slices of the blubber, + and telling him that she would soon return for the meat, which she + could not at first carry to her house, and when her supply should + again fail she would comeback for his help. This she continued to + do for “a long, long time,” the faithful bear always serving her + and receiving the same unbroken love of his youth. + + +SUNDRY TALES. + +(1) Two little girls, while playing about a cliff near Aivillik, with +infants in the hoods on their backs, went into an opening between the +rocks, which closed upon them before escape was possible. All attempts +at rescue were unsuccessful, and the poor children, to whom for a time +meat and water were passed, perished in the cliffs (Hall II, p. 222). + +(2) Opposite to Niutang, a village in Kingnait, Cumberland Sound, there +is a vein of diorite resembling a boot, and therefore called +Kamingujang. A long time ago two enemies lived in the village. One day +they stood on the beach ready to go hunting. Suddenly the one exclaimed, +pointing to Kamingujang, “There he blows,” making his enemy believe that +a whale was passing up the fjord and inducing him to look out for it. +Then he killed him from behind, piercing him with the spear. + +(3) At Qognung, near the head of Nettilling Fjord, there is a large +white stone on each side of the fjord, somewhat resembling a bear. It is +said that these stones have been bears which, being pursued by an Eskimo +in the water, escaped to the land, but were transformed into these +stones. + +(4) A long time ago a dead boy was buried under a large stone. Before +his relatives had returned to their hut the body was transformed into a +hare, which jumped forth from the tomb. All hares come from this animal. + +(5) It is said that albinos of seals and deer spring from an egg of +about half a foot in length, which forms itself in the earth. The seal +digs an underground passage to the sea, the deer a similar one to a +distant part of the country, and there they rise. The albinos are said +to be very quick. + + * * * + +I will add here an enumeration of the fabulous tribes of which I gained +intelligence, but of some of them I only know the names. + +(1) The Tornit, or, as they are called by the Akudnirmiut, the +Tuniqdjuait (p. 634). It is remarkable that this people is considered +here, as well as in Labrador, a tribe similar to the Eskimo, with whom +they formerly lived in company, but who were subsequently expelled by +the latter. In Greenland they are entirely a fabulous tribe, each +individual being of enormous size, living inland and seldom hunting in +the upper parts of the fjords. While in the western parts of the Eskimo +country a more historical form of the tradition is preserved, it is +entirely mythical in Greenland. + +(2) The Adlet or Erqigdlit. In the tradition treating of this tribe a +similar change occurs. The Labrador Eskimo call the Indians of the +interior Adlet, the tribes west of Hudson Bay call them Erqigdlit. The +Baffin Land Eskimo and the Greenlanders have forgotten this relation +altogether, but denote with the term a fabulous tribe with dogs’ legs +and a human body. The name Adla is used as far north as Cumberland +Peninsula, the Akudnirmiut and the more northern tribes using the term +Erqigdlit. It is difficult to account for the use of these different +terms in both senses. + +(3) The Ardnainiq, a tribe living in the extreme northwest. The men of +this people are small, tiny, like children, but entirely covered with +hair. They are carried about in the hoods of their wives, just like +children. The women are of normal size. They do all the work, going out +hunting in the kayaks and providing for the men. + +(4) The Inuarudligang, dwarfs living in the cliffs near the shore. + +(5) The Igdlungajung, a bandy legged people living inland. + +(6) The Uissuit, dwarfs living in the depth of the sea (p. 621). + +(7) The Ijirang. + +(8) The Qailerte´tang, a people consisting of women only (p. 605). + + * * * + +Finally, I will mention the animals which are only known to the natives +by reports of foreign tribes and are described as fabulous creatures. +These are the umingmang (the musk ox), which is represented as a fierce +animal with black and red streaks and larger than a bear, and the agdlaq +(the black bear), which, according to their belief, is also of enormous +size. It is said to live inland and to devour everything that comes near +it. I am unable to decide whether the report of an enormous fish, the +idluk, which is said to live in the lakes, is altogether fabulous. The +natives say that if they want to catch the fish they build a snow house +on the lake and cut a hole through the ice, into which they sink the +hook with a deer’s ham for a bait and a stout thong for a fishing line. +Six men hold the line by turns, and as soon as they feel the fish has +nibbled they pull it up with all their strength. + +The fabulous amaroq and avignaq of the Greenlanders are unknown, but the +terms denote real animals, the wolf and the lemming. + + * * * + +Besides traditions of this kind the Eskimo have a great number of +fables. Following is an example. + + +THE OWL AND THE RAVEN. + +The owl and the raven were fast friends. One day the raven made a new +dress, dappled white and black, for the owl, who in return made a pair +of boots of whalebone for the raven and then began to make a white +dress. But when he was about to try it on, the raven kept hopping about +and would not sit still. The owl got angry and said: “Now sit still or I +shall pour out the lamp over you.” As the raven continued hopping about, +the owl fell into a passion and poured the oil upon it. Then the raven +cried “Qaq! Qaq!” and since that day has been black all over. + + +COMPARISON BETWEEN BAFFIN LAND TRADITIONS AND THOSE OF OTHER TRIBES. + +The similarity of the language and traditions of the Eskimo from Behring +Strait to Greenland is remarkable, considering the distance which +separates the tribes. Unfortunately the material from other tribes, +except the Greenlanders, is very scanty, but it is probable that the +same traditions or elements of traditions are known to all the tribes. +In the following table the above traditions are compared with Rink’s +Tales and Traditions of the Greenlanders and with those of other tribes: + + Traditions of Greenlanders and other tribes: + + Traditions of the Central Eskimo: + + Qagsaqsuq, Rink, p. 93. + Qaudjaqdjuq, p. 630. + + The man who recovered his sight, Rink, p. 99. + The origin of the narwhal, p. 625. + + Igimarasugsuq, Rink, p. 106. + Igimarasugdjuqdjuaq, p. 633. + + The man who mated himself with a sea fowl, Rink, p. 145. + Ititaujang, p. 615. + + Givioq, Rink, pp. 157 and 429. + Kiviung, p. 621. + + Tiggaq, Rink, p. 162. + The visitor, p. 627. + + A lamentable story, Rink, p. 239. + No. 1, sundry tales, p. 639. + + The sun and the moon, Rink, p. 236. (L’homme lunaire, Petitot, + Traditions indiennes du Canada Nord-Ouest, p. 7. Also found by Simpson + at Point Barrow.) + The sun and the moon, p. 597. + + The moon, Rink, p. 440. + The angakoq’s flight to the moon, p. 598. + + The Tornit (from Labrador), Rink, p. 469. + The Tornit, p. 634. + + A woman who was mated with a dog, Rink, p. 471. + (Fragmentary in J. Murdoch: “A few legendary fragments from the + Point Barrow Eskimos,” American Naturalist, p. 594, July, 1886.) + Origin of the Adlet and the white men, p. 637. + +Some of these stories are almost identical in both countries, for +instance, Qaudjaqdjuq, the origin of the narwhal, &c., and it is of +great interest to learn that some passages, particularly speeches and +songs, occur literally in both countries, for instance, the interesting +song of Niviarsiang (page 637) and the conclusion of the Kiviung +tradition. The tradition of the Tornit and the form of the second tale +(origin of the narwhal) resemble much more those of Labrador than those +of Greenland. The elements of which the traditions are composed are +combined differently in the tales of Baffin Land and Greenland, but most +of these elements are identical. I give here a comparative table. + + Greenland. + + Baffin Land. + + Transformation of a man into a seal. + Rink, pp. 222, 224, 469. + Kiviung, p. 621. + + Men walking on the surface of the water. + Rink, pp. 123, 407. + Kiviung, p. 622. + + Harpooning a witch. + Rink, p. 372. + Sedna, p. 604. + + Erqigdlit. + Rink, pp. 401 et seq. + Adlet, p. 637. + + Sledge of the man of the moon drawn by one dog. + Rink, pp. 401, 442. + Qaudjaqdjuq, p. 631, and The flight to the moon, p. 598. + + Origin of the salmon. + Cranz, p. 262. + Ititaujang, p. 617. + + Arnaquagsaq. + Rink, pp. 150, 326, 466. + Sedna, p. 583. + + Origin of the thunder. + Cranz, p. 233; Egede, p. 207. + Kadlu, p. 600. + +The following is a comparison between traditions from Alaska and the +Mackenzie and those of the Central Eskimo: + + Traditions from Alaska and the Mackenzie: + + Traditions of the Central Eskimo: + + Men as descendants of a dog, Murdoch, op. cit., 594. + Origin of the Adlet and white men, p. 637. + + The origin of reindeer, Murdoch, op. cit., p. 595. + Origin of the reindeer and walrus, p. 587. + + The origin of the fishes, Murdoch, op. cit., p. 595. + Ititaujang, p. 617. + + Thunder and lightning, Murdoch, op. cit., p. 595. + Kadlu the thunderer, p. 600. + + Sun and moon, Petitot, op. cit., p. 7. + Sun and moon, p. 597. + + Orion, Simpson, p. 940. + Orion, p. 636. + + + [Illustration: BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. IV + + CUMBERLAND PENINSULA, DRAWN BY ARANIN, A SAUMINGNIO. + + ESKIMO DRAWINGS.] + + +The table shows that the following ideas are known to all tribes from +Alaska to Greenland: The sun myth, representing the sun as the brother +of the moon; the legend of the descent of man from a dog; the origin of +thunder by rubbing a deerskin; the origin of fish from chips of wood; +and the story of the origin of deer. + +It must be regretted that very few traditions have as yet been collected +in Alaska, as the study of such material would best enable us to decide +upon the question of the origin of the Eskimo. + + + + +SCIENCE AND THE ARTS. + + +GEOGRAPHY AND NAVIGATION. + +The Eskimo exhibit a thorough knowledge of the geography of their +country. I have already treated of their migrations and mentioned that +the area they travel over is of considerable extent. They have a very +clear conception of all the countries they have seen or heard of, +knowing the distances by day’s journeys, or, as they say, by sleeps, and +the directions by the cardinal points. So far as I know, all these +tribes call true south piningnang, while the other points are called +according to the weather prevailing while the wind blows from the +different quarters. In Cumberland Sound uangnang is west-northwest; +qaningnang (that is, snow wind), east-northeast; nigirn, southeast; and +aqsardnirn, the fohn-like wind blowing from the fjords of the east +coast. On Nettilling these names are the same, the east-northeast only +being called qanara (that is, is it snow?) In Akudnirn uangnang is +west-southwest; ikirtsuq (i.e., the wind of the open sea), +east-northeast; oqurtsuq (i.e., the wind of the land Oqo or of the lee +side, southeast; and avangnanirn (i.e., from the north side along the +shore), the northwestern gales. According to Parry the same names as in +Cumberland Sound are used in Iglulik. + +If the weather is clear the Eskimo use the positions of the sun, of the +dawn, or of the moon and stars for steering, and find their way pretty +well, as they know the direction of their point of destination exactly. +If the weather is thick they steer by the wind, or, if it is calm, they +do not travel at all. After a gale they feel their way by observing the +direction of the snowdrifts. + +They distinguish quite a number of constellations, the most important of +which are Tuktuqdjung (the deer), our Ursa Major; the Pleiades, +Sakietaun; and the belt of Orion, Udleqdjun. + +As their knowledge of all the directions is very detailed and they are +skillful draftsmen they can draw very good charts. If a man intends to +visit a country little known to him, he has a map drawn in the snow by +some one well acquainted there and these maps are so good that every +point can be recognized. Their way of drawing is first to mark some +points the relative positions of which are well known. They like to +stand on a hill and to look around in order to place these correctly. +This done, the details are inserted. It is remarkable that their ideas +of the relative position and direction of coasts far distant one from +another are so very clear. Copies of some charts drawn by Eskimo of +Cumberland Sound and Davis Strait are here introduced (Plate IV, p. 643, +and Figs. 543-546). A comparison between the maps and these charts will +prove their correctness. Frequently the draftsman makes his own country, +with which he is best acquainted, too large; if some principal points +are marked first, he will avoid this mistake. The distance between the +extreme points represented in the first chart (Fig. 543) is about five +hundred miles. + + [Illustration: FIG. 543. Cumberland Sound and Frobisher Bay, drawn + by Itu, a Nugumio. (Original in the Museum für Völkerkunde, + Berlin.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 544. Cumberland Sound and Frobisher Bay, drawn + by Sunapignang, an Oqomio.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 545. Cumberland Sound, drawn by Itu, a Nugumio.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 546. Peninsula of Qivitung, drawn by + Angutuqdjuaq, a Padlimio.] + +The Eskimo have a sort of calendar. They divide the year into thirteen +months, the names of which vary a great deal, according to the tribes +and according to the latitude of the place. The surplus is balanced by +leaving out a month every few years, to wit, the month siringilang +(without sun), which is of indefinite duration, the name covering the +whole time of the year when the sun does not rise and there is scarcely +any dawn. Thus every few years this month is totally omitted, when the +new moon and the winter solstice coincide. The name qaumartenga is +applied only to the days without sun but with dawn, while the rest of +the same moon is called siriniktenga. The days of the month are very +exactly designated by the age of the moon. Years are not reckoned for a +longer space than two, backward and forward. + + * * * + +The Eskimo are excellent draftsmen and carvers. Most of the drawings are +similar to the bear and deer shown on Plate V (Figs. _d_ and _g_) or to +the illustrations of the Qaudjaqdjuq tale (see Figs. 537-541, pp. +631-633.) The rest, on Plates VI and VII, are excellently made, and by +far superior to any I have seen made by other Eskimo of these regions. +A number of carvings are represented on Plates VIII and IX. The narwhal +and the whale are particularly admirable. Among the implements +represented in this paper there are many of beautiful and artistic +design. + +I also add a number of engravings of implements plainly showing the +influence of European patterns (Plate X). + + +POETRY AND MUSIC. + + [Transcriber’s Note: + The HTML version of this etext includes all music in MIDI format. + Each piece is a separate file in the /music directory. Filenames are + given here in brackets as [central648] or [eskimo2]. + The “killer” in no. I. is a killer whale (_arluk_, gen. _arluup_ + or _arlum_).] + +Among the arts of the Eskimo poetry and music are by far the most +prominent. The tales which have been related are only a small part of +their stock of traditions. Besides the contents their form also is very +interesting, as most of them have been handed down in unchanged form and +their narration demands a great deal of art. Many traditions are told in +a very abridged form, the substance being supposed to be known. +A specimen of this kind is the Sedna tradition (p. 604). All these tales +must be considered recitatives, many of them beginning with a musical +phrase and continuing as a rhythmic recitation, others being recited in +rhythmic phrases throughout. Other traditions are told in a more +detailed and prosaic manner, songs or recitations, however, being +sometimes included. Ititaujang, for instance, in traveling into the +country looking for his wife, sings the song No. XIII, and in the +Kalopaling tradition the boy, on seeing the two Inuit coming, sings: + + [Music [central648]: + Inung-- maqong-- tikitong-- aipa-- kapiteling aipa-- mirqosailing] + + + [Illustration: BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. V + + _a_, _b_, _c_, _e_ Drawn by Aisē´ang, a native of Nuvujen. + _d_, _f_, _g_ Drawn by Maleki, a native of Imigen. + + ESKIMO DRAWINGS.] + + +Some Eskimo are very good narrators and understand how to express the +feelings of the different persons by modulations of the voice. In +addition, as a number of tales are really onomatopoetic, an artistic +effect is produced. The way of reciting is always similar to the one +above described by notes (p. 648). + +Besides these tales, which may be called poetic prose, there are real +poems of a very marked rhythm, which are not sung but recited. The +following are examples: + + MERRYMAKING AMONG THE TORNIT. + + [Music [central649a]: + Pika pikagning mingepignirming qijepignirming sukadla. aq! aq!] + +The Eskimo reciting this song jump up and down and to the right and left +with their legs bent and their hands hanging down, the palms touching +each other. In crying aq! aq! they jump as high as possible. + + THE LEMMING’S SONG. + + [Music [central649b]: + _Allegretto._ + Ikergnapigen, ikergnapigen sirdnaturenain + aχeeroqturenain nakusungming aukturenain + pijungmadjangilatit qialungnuaralungnan] + +Besides these old songs and tales there are a great number of new ones, +and, indeed, almost every man has his own tune and his own song. A few +of these become great favorites among the Eskimo and are sung like our +popular songs. The summer song (No. I) and “The returning hunter” +(No. II) may be most frequently heard. As to the contents of the songs, +they treat of almost everything imaginable: of the beauty of summer; +of thoughts and feelings of the composer on any occasion, for instance, +when watching a seal, when angry with somebody, &c.; or they tell of an +important event, as of a long journey. Satiric songs are great +favorites. + +The form of both old and new songs is very strict, they being divided +into verses of different length, alternating regularly. I give here some +examples: + + ARLUM PISSINGA (the killer’s song). + + [Music [central650]: + _Moderato._ + Qiangalo taitoχalunga qolaralo taitoχalunga + Qiangalogalo qolaralogalo aisinaiisi + senilearaluqdjuara maliksiaqtuaqtugo + uvanaleunen audlatsiapiata kingodnidlaqdjuagung + qangatirgakulung uaijuvara.] + + I. The killer’s song: + + (1) Qiangalo taitoχalunga, + Qolaralo taitoχalunga + Qiangalogalo + Qolarologalo + Aisinaisi.[15] + (2) Senilearaluqdjuara + Maliksiaqtuaqtugo. + Uvanaleunen + Audlatsiapiata + Kingodnidlaqdjuagung + (3) Qangatirgakulung uaijuvara. + + [Footnote 15: The stanza is scanned thus: + _´ . _´ . .´ . . _´ + _´ . . _´ . .´ . . _´ + _´ . _´ . _´ + .´ . . _´ . _´ + _´ . . _´ . _´ ] + + II. Summer song: + + Aja. + (1) Ajaja adlenaipa. + Adlenaitariva silekdjua una aujaratarame + Ajaja, Ajaja! + Aja! + (2) Ajaja adlenaipa + Adlenaitariva silekdjua una tektorotikelektlune. + Ajaja, Ajaja. + Aja! + (3) Ajaja nipituovokpan! + Nipituovokpan kouvodlalimokoa nunatine aujadle + Ajaja, Ajaja + Aja! + &c. + + III. Utitiaq’s song: + + Aja! + (1) Adlenaipunganema adlenait. + Adlenaipunganema + Adlenaipunganema adlenait, + Aja! + (2) Sikuqdjualimena adlenait. + Atoqpoqtaromena + Tanerangitu adlenait. + Aja! + &c. + + IV. Kadlu’s song: + + (1) Odlaqē´, odlaqē´, odlaqē´. + Odlaqē´ saranga tutaranga atujang una ajajaja. + Odlaqē´ atedlirlungai aχigirn qodlusuaning + aχiatungitunga ajaja. + Nettiulunga iχatijetingirn pinassousirdlunirn + pinasuatautlirpadlirunirn. + (2) Odlaqē´, odlaqē´, odlaqē´. + Odlaqē´ saranga tutaranga atujang una ajajaja. + Odlaqē´ atedlirlungai aχigirn qodlusuaning + aχiatungitunga ajaja. + Ugjurutlarunirn iχatijitingirn pinassousirdlunirn + pinasuatautlirpadlirnunirn. + (3) . . . . &c. + + + [Illustration: BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. VI + + Drawn by Aisē´ang, a native of Nuvujen. + + ESKIMO DRAWINGS.] + + + [Illustration: BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. VII + + Drawn by Aise´ang, a native of Nuvujen. + + ESKIMO DRAWING.] + + +Some of these verses contain only a single word, the rhythm being +brought about by the chorus aja, amna aja, &c. I add two examples of +this kind: + + V. Song in the language of the Angakut: + + Ajarpaija taitlaniqdjuaq ajarpe aitarpik ajijaija. + Ajarpaija ataqdjuaq ajarpe aitarpik ajijaija. + Ajarpaija mingeriaqdjuaq ajarpe aitarpik ajijaija. + + VI. Oχaitoq’s song: + + Aja. + (1) Tavunga tavunga tavunga tavunga + Tavunga tavunga tavunga tavunga tavungadlo tavunga + Aja. + (2) Pissutaramaima tavunga tavunga. + Pissutaramaima tavunga tavunga tavungadlo tavunga, &c. + +The rhythm of the songs will best be understood by examining the +melodies. Every long syllable may be replaced by two or even three short +ones; other short syllables appear as unaccented parts before the +accented part of a measure; in short, the rhythmic adaptation of the +words to the melody is very arbitrary and interchanges frequently occur, +so that it is impossible to speak of metric feet. At the same time this +furnishes distinct proof that the musical rhythm is the decisive element +in determining the form. The rhythmic arrangement of the words is +regulated with considerable exactness by the quantity of the syllables, +and not by the accent. While, for instance, in speaking, it would be +“palirtu´gun,” in song No. IV it is “palir´tugun´,” and in No. I +“tekto´roti´kelek´tlune,” instead of “tektorotikelektlu´ne,” &c. Such +displacements of the accent, however, are avoided if possible, and in +the best and most popular songs they hardly appear at all. + + [Transcriber’s Note: + The numbers refer to the songs printed below, so “No. I” is the + Summer Song, No. II above. But the quoted word “tektorotikelektlune” + occurs only in the first version.] + +The construction of the songs corresponds entirely with that of the +music, inasmuch as every melody and every rhythmically spoken song is +made up of musical, that is, rhythmic, phrases which are divided by +cæsuræ. Repetitions of the same phrases are very frequent. The +adaptation of the melodies to our divisions of time and measure is also +somewhat arbitrary, as they frequently consist of a mixture of three and +four part phrases. It is for this reason that I have noted down some +songs without any division into bars or measures and in those cases have +only marked the accented syllables. + +Among the twenty melodies and rhythmic poems we find ten of binary +measures, five of triple measures, and six of mixed ones. Of the whole +number, nine begin on the full bar, eleven on the arsis. + +The melodies move within the following range: In a fifth (No. III), one; +in a minor sixth (Nos. VII, IX, X), three; in a major sixth (Nos. II, +IV, XVII), three; in a seventh (Nos. XII, XIV), two; in an octave, (Nos. +I, II, V, VIII, XI, XVI), six; in a minor ninth (No. VI), one; in a +major ninth (No. V), one; in a tenth (No. XIII), one. + +These may be divided into two very characteristic and distinct groups. +The first, which would coincide with our major key, contains the +following essential tones: + + [Music: c d e g a] + +The fourth and the sixth occur seldom, and then only as subordinate +tones. This key is identical with the Chinese and many of the Indian +ones. + +In the second group, which corresponds to our minor key, we frequently +find the fourth, while the sixth only appears twice and then as a +subordinate tone (in No. XV). We furthermore find the major seventh in +the lower position leading back to the beginning, i.e., the key note. +The essential components of this key are: + + [Music: g# a b c d e] + +Professor R. Succo calls attention to the fact that the relation of the +melodies to their key note resembles that of the Gregorian chants, +especially the psalmodic ones among them. + +If we, in accordance with our ideas, suppose the melody--No. XIII, for +example--to begin in C major, it nevertheless does not conclude in the +same key, but in E. We would say that No. XIV is written in A minor; +still it ends in E. We find the same in the Gregorian chants. They also +resemble the songs of the Eskimo in the retention of the same note +during a large number of consecutive syllables. + +On the whole the melodies, even to our musical sense, can be traced to a +key note. However, changes often occur as well (see No. VI). A very +striking construction appears in No. XIII, where the oft-repeated E +forms a new key note, while at the conclusion the melody leaps back +without any modulation to C through the peculiar interval, ḇ, c. + + + [Illustration: BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. VIII + + Carving representing whale. (In the possession of Mrs. Adams, + Washington.) 1/1 + Carving representing whale. (National Museum, Washington. 29998.) + 1/1 + Carving representing seal. (National Museum, Washington. 29991.) + 1/1 + + ESKIMO CARVINGS] + + + [Illustration: BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. IX + + Carving representing narwhal. (In the possession of Capt. John O. + Spicer, Groton. Conn.). ½ + Seal. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.) 1/1 + Walrus head. (National Museum, Washington. 10414.) 1/1 + Polar bear. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.) 1/1 + Sealskin float. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.) 1/1 + Seal. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.) 1/1 + Knife. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.) 1/1 + Spyglass. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.) 1/1 + + ESKIMO CARVINGS.] + + +I. SUMMER SONG. + + [Music: + _Moderato._ + A-ja. + A-ja-ja, adlenaipa, adlenaitariva silekdjua una aujaratarame. + A-ja-ja, A-ja-ja, A-ja.] + +II. THE RETURNING HUNTER. + + [Music: + a. + _Allegro._ + Angutivun taina taunane taina, auvasimameta avavasimameta + neriopaluktunga--, hanga anga; hanga anga agaga. + + b. + Angutivun taina taunane taina, auvasimameta + avavasimameta neriopaluktunga; hanga anga agaga.] + +III. SONG OF THE TORNIT. + + [Music: + _Andante._ + Savu saujaqdjuin tetetlirpavun, aqtungan. + Surqarmun pilaktutu aχi lurpa, aqtungan.] + +IV. SONG OF THE INUIT TRAVELING TO NETTILLING. + + [Music: + _Adagio non troppo._ + A-ja. Aχagodlo palirtugun; uangnangmun tipavunga, + i-ja ji-ja a-ja-ja. A-ja.] + +V. OXAITOQ’S SONG. + + [Music: + _Allegro._ + A-ja. Tavunga tavunga tavunga tavunga. + Tavunga tavunga tavunga tavunga tavungadlo tavunga. A-ja.] + +VI. UTITIAQ’S SONG. + + [Music: + _Allegro._ + A-ja. Adlenaipunganema adlenait. + Adlenaipunganema adlenaipunganema adlenait. A-ja.] + +VII. SONG. + + [Music: + _Allegro._ + A-ja. A-ja-ja-ja a-ja-ja-ja a-ja-ja a-ja-ja-ja a-ja-ja + a-ja-ja a-ja-ja-ja-ja-ja.] + +VIII. SONG. + + [Music: + _Allegro._ + Haja-jaja ha-ja-ja haja-jaja ha-jaja haja-jaja hajaja + haja-jaja ha-jaja.] + +IX. SONG OF THE TORNIT. + + [Music: + _Allegro._ + Savungaja a-ja a-ja Sama a-ja-ja a-ja. [FINE.] + Nunataχatoq sedna--, sersertaχatoq sedna. [_D. C. al Fine._]] + + + [Illustration: BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. X. + + (National Museum, Washington. _a_, 10395; _b_, 68146; _c_, 10396; + _e_, 10394.) + + MODERN IMPLEMENTS] + + +X. THE FOX AND THE WOMAN. + + [Music: + _Adagio._ + Sourme oχomejame--, kangedlirpiuk ta-ja-ja-ja-ja. [FINE.] + RECITATIVE [_Slowly._] + Irdning-- nuχingnaq-- ujarqamoma-- satuaitiem-- + aqbiranga pirietukilaunga. [_Song Da Capo_]] + +XI. THE RAVEN SINGS. + + [Music: + _Andantino._ + A-a-ja a-ja a-ja a-ja-ja a-ja a-ja a-ja-ja. + A-a-ja a-ja a-ja a-ja qilirsiutarata taunane. + Arnaqdjuqpun una qiavoqtung qitungnaqdjuago nutingmen.] + +XII. SONG OF A PADLIMIO. + + [Music: + _Moderato_ + Ananema Padli unguatane naunirpunga ananega oqsomiksema + qijanurpomena kijutaidle noutlarputin kungesiening qaqoamudle + noutlarputidle a-ja.] + +XIII. ITITAUJANG’S SONG. + + [Music: + _Allegro_ + Tavungavunga pisupagasupunga pisupagasupunga silapotuadnun + [_rit._] tigmidjen nunanun tavungaja i-ja-a-ja. [FINE.] + + RECITATIVE. + Nutitavun okoa quliqdjuaq una niguviksao adjirdjangirtun + qangiqsao adjirdjangirtun kissieni okoa + oχomeangitigun majoardlunga tavunga + imma pisutalupurmalirmijunga. [_D. C. al Fine._]] + +XIV. PLAYING AT BALL. + + [Music: + _Allegretto._ + Sake-etan sungmunpingmeta naumunpingmeta + qaujarajuva udlujarajuva + amutai qimutai idlo-oma una qagiela una + idnir sorivara inung ikoa oaitiangikoa audlertouqikoa + togitjugitjuge togitjugitjuge setidle-- sinadle-- + arnarisaigneman tigmidjen arnaining tunigo + anejuidla qausirtuming ita itjamuna + majaoadlelatit ikuseka-- avasituko-- + oqsukena taotugnite akataotuktara + sugavikana kananepa iluqio gnariputit + aaiqtodlutidlo-- nesertodlutidlo + avatirtunggiengodlutidlo] + + +XV. PLAYING AT BALL. + + [Music: + χolurpajause χolupirpajause surivanga pangmane majoriva pangmane.] + +XVI. From Parry, Second Voyage, p. 542, Iglulik. + + [Music: + Amna a-ya a-ya amna ah + amna a-ya a-ya amna ah ah + etc.] + +The sixteenth bar is probably [Music] + + [Transcriber’s Note: b flat rather than the printed a] + +XVII. From Lyon, Private Journal, p. 135, Iglulik. + + [Music: + Pilitai, avata vat . . . + ah! hooi! ah! hooi!] + +According to Parry, p. 542, the fourth bar of XVII is written: [Music]; +the eighth, [Music]; Lyon bar after the twelfth bar [Music] inserted. + + [Transcriber’s Note: + Fourth bar: b gg instead of the printed d gg + Eighth bar: ends in d e instead of the printed d d + Inserted bar: g g g g after two bars of a g g g] + +XVIII. From Kane, Arctic Explorations. The Second Grinnell Expedition, +I, p. 383. From Ita, Smith Sound. + + [Music: + Amna gat amnaya amna ja amnayet.] + +XIX. From Bessels’s Amerikanische Nordpol-Expedition, p. 372. + + [Music: + Ahjajajajajajajajaja ahjajajajajajajajaja ahjajajajajajajajaja ah.] + + + + +GLOSSARY. + +ESKIMO WORDS USED, WITH DERIVATIONS AND SIGNIFICATIONS. + + +A. + +#Adlipar´miut#, the inhabitants of the country farthest below; from +_at_, below; _-lirn_, being in a certain direction; _-pāng_, +superlative; _-mio_ (plural, _-miut_), inhabitant of. + +#A´dlirn#, a small lamp on the floor of the hut; from _at_, below; +_-lirn_, being in a certain direction. + +#Adli´vun#, those beneath us; from _at_, below; _-lirn_, being in a +certain direction; _-vun_, possessive first person plural. + +#A´gdlag#, black bear. + +#Agdliaq#, a small spear; from _ake-_, across; _-dlivoq_, he provides +with; _-aq_, past participle. + +#Ag´girn#, a species of duck (_Anas glacialis_). + +#Aiss´ivang#, spider. + +#A´jang#, beam of kayak; from _ajaq-_, to support. + +#Aja´rorpoq#, he plays the game cat’s cradle. + +#Aje´gaung#, a game. + +#Ajokitarpoq#, a game. + +#Ajuktaq´tung#, batting the ball. + +#Akparaik´tung#, hook for preventing the loss of harpoon. + +#Akud´nang#, paddle handle; from _ako_, middle. + +#A´kuk#, lateral strips of wood used in boat; from _ako_, middle. + +#A´lirn#, harpoon line. + +#A´maroq#, wolf. + +#A´ming#, skin of land animals, cover of boat and kayak. + +#Ang´akoq#, a magician, conjurer. + +#Angakunirn#, the art of the angakoq. + +#Ang´akut#, plural of angakoq. + +#Angiaq#, spirit of a murdered child (Greenland). + +#Ang´un#, paddle. + +#Anguta´#, his father. + +#Angu´vigang#, lance; from _anguvoq_, he goes sealing with the harpoon. + +#Aning´a#, her brother (the moon). + +#A´no#, dog harness. + +#A´pumang#, gunwale. + +#Aqo´jang#, stern of kayak. + +#Aqsar´dnirn#, wind blowing down a valley. + +#Arau´taq#, snow beater (Aivillik dialect). + +#Arng´oaq#, amulet. + +#Ase´dlun#, flat receptacle for the harpoon line on kayak. + +#Asimau´tang#, piece of board or whalebone on which skins are cleaned. + +#Atau´ta#, neck of sealskin float; from _atav-_, to be connected. + +#Audliti´ving#, vault back of snow house. + +#Avangna´nirn#, northwestern gales along the coast of Baffin Land. + +#Avau´tang#, sealskin float. + +#Avautapāq´#, large sealskin float; from _avautang_, sealskin float; +_-pāq_, superlative. + +#A´vignaq#, lemming. + +#Aχi´girn#, ptarmigan. + + +E. + +#Eχalū´jang#, carved ivory fish, used as bait; from _eχaluq_, salmon; +_-ujang_, similar to. + +#Eχaluq#, salmon. + + +I. + +#Idluk´#, a fabulous fish. + +#Igdl´u#, snow house. + +#Igdl´uarn#, a vault attached to snow hut; from _igdlu_, snow house; +_-arn_, small. + +#Igdlukitaq´tung#, playing with two balls, tossing them up alternately; +from _igdlung_, both; _-kitarpoq_, he uses at the same time. + +#Igdlu´ling#, second vault of snow house; from _igdlu_, snow house; +_-ling_, with. + +#I´gimang#, ball-and-socket joint of harpoon and lance; from _igipā´_, +he throws it off. + +#Ikan´#, store room supported by stone pillars; from _ikarpoq_, it +stretches from one support to another. + +#Ikirt´suq#, wind blowing from the open sea. + +#Ilaga#, my friend (Netchillik). + +#Ilupi´qang#, lining of snow house; from _ilo_, inner. + +#Imiti´jung#, drinking water; from _imiq_, fresh water. + +#Inetang#, hoop with net of thongs to dry clothing etc. in snow house; +from _inivā´_, he hangs it up. + +#In´ua#, its man, owner; possessive third person of _inung_, man. + +#Inug´sung#, cairn; from _inung_, man. + +#Ipar´ang#, harpoon line. + +#Ip´un#, oar, a spear. + +#Irqata´tung#, a certain circuit among the huts. + +#Issumau´tang#, a chief; from _issu´mavoq_, he thinks. + +#Itigega#, boot (Iglulik). + +#Itir´bing#, cross piece abaft the hole in kayak; from _itiq_. + + +K. + +#Kabliaqdjuq#, wolverine (Iglulik). + +#Kaitikpoq#, a game. + +#Kaiviti´jung#, a game. + +#Kaki´vang#, fish spear. + +#Kaklio´kia#, hook (Iglulik). + +#Kalu´giang#, a heavy lance (_qalugiang?_). + +#Kang´o#, a species of goose. + +#Ka´pun, Spear#; from _kapivā´_, he stabs him. + +#Ka´teng#, entrance to stone hut. + +#Kentun#, drumstick. + +#Kidlu´lirn#, lamp standing in the rear of the hut. + +#Ki´glo#, boat post. + +#Kilaut#, drum. + +#Koukparmiu´tang#, a certain amulet at point of hood. + +#Ku´jang#, keel of kayak. + + +M. + +#Ma´ling#, paddle blade. + +#Ma´mi#, membrane or inner side of skin. + +#Ma´sing#, cross piece before hole in kayak. + +#Mir´qun#, needle. + +#Mirquss´ang#, two masked persons. + +#Mumipoq#, he dances. + + +N. + +#Nabi´ring#, a loop; from _nā´poq_, he hinders a motion. + +#Na´po# (plural _napun_), cross bar of sledge. + +#Naqeta´run#, lashing for the sledge; from _naqigpoq_, it is pressed +down. + +#Nau´lang#, harpoon head. + +#Ne´tivang#, _Phoca cristata_. + +#Ni´girn#, southeast. + +#Niksiang#, hook. + +#Niksiar´taung#, fish hook. + +#Nirt´sun#, small ropes used in sledge and house. + +#Niuq´tung#, drill bow with string; from _niorpoq_, he drills. + +#Niu´tang#, hoop with skin stretched over it; beam of kayak. + +#Nuglu´tang#, a certain game. + +#Nu´irn#, bird spear. + +#Nulianititi´jung#, exchange of wives. + +#Nunajisar´tung#, a certain festival. + +#Nuqsang#, throwing board. + +#Nussueraqtung#, a certain festival. + + +O. + +#Oqur´tsuq# (Akudnirn), southeast, blowing from Oqo; from _oqo_, weather +side. + + +P. + +#Pa#, hole of kayak. + +#Pakijumijar´tung#, game of hook and crook. + +#Pa´na#, double edged knife. + +#Parti´rang#, button for closing the _pitu_; from _pārpa_, he meets him. + +#Pauk´tun#, pegs. + +#Pau´ting#, double bladed kayak paddle. + +#Pi´laut#, large knife. + +#Pilek´tung#, cutting something. + +#Pi´main#, chief, he who knows everything best by practice. + +#Pi´ningnang#, true south. + +#Pir´qang#, shoeing of runners of sledge. + +#Pitiq´se#, bow. + +#Pitkusi´rarpoq#, a certain game. + +#Pi´tu#, a stout thong, consisting of two parts to fasten traces to +sledge. + +#Poviu´tang#, pipe for inflating skins; from _pō-_, to blow. + +#Pukiq#, the white part of a deerskin. + + +Q. + +#Qadlunait#, Europeans. + +#Qag´gi#, singing house. + +#Qailerte´tang#, a certain masked figure. + +#Qai´vun#, drill. + +#Qa´jaq#, kayak. + +#Qa´mun#, sledge runner. + +#Qa´muting# (dual of _qamun_), sledge. + +#Qana´ra#, east-northeast (Nettilling); from _qaning_, falling snow. + +#Qang´ing#, a toggle. + +#Qang´irn#, a ventilating hole in snow house; from _qa_, above. + +#Qa´ning#, a certain rib of kayak. + +#Qa´ningnang#, east-northeast; from _qaning_, falling snow. + +#Qaq´djung#, arrow. + +#Qa´reang#, annex of house for an additional family. + +#Qar´mang# (plural _qarmat_), stone or bone house. + +#Qarmau´jang#, similar to a _qarmang_; suffix, _-ujang_, similar to. + +#Qasi´giaq#, _Phoca annellata_. + +#Qatilik#, a spear (Iglulik); from _qatirn_, ivory head of harpoon +shaft; _-lik_, with. + +#Qa´tirn#, ivory head of harpoon shaft. + +#Qatu´rang#, a boot ornament. + +#Qaumarteng´a#, days without sun, but with dawn. + +#Qau´mat#, a kind of fire (?); from _qauq_, daylight. + +#Qaumati´vun#, sun (in the sacred language of the angakut). + +#Qauma´vun#, moon (in the sacred language of the angakut). + +#Qauq#, daylight. + +#Qidja´rung#, whirl; from _qipivā´_, he twists it. + +#Qijuqteng´a#, harpoon shaft; from _qijuq_, wood. + +#Qilaq#, sky. + +#Qiler´tuang#, clasp for holding the coils of the harpoon line; from +_qilerpā´_, he ties it with a knot. + +#Qing´ang#, a hole to look out of snow house. + +#Qing´miaq#, mouth piece of drill. + +#Qipeku´tang#, rod to indicate approach of seal to his hole. + +#Qi´piq#, blanket. + +#Qi´qirn#, phantom in the shape of a huge, hairless dog. + +#Qoqsiuariva#, the ceremony of washing children with urine. + +#Qudlipar´miut#, the inhabitants of the country farthest above; from +_qu_, above; _-lirn_, being in a certain direction; _-pāng_, +superlative; _-mio_ (plural, _-miut_), inhabitant of. + +#Qudlirn#, a lamp; from _qu_, above; _-lirn_, being in a certain +direction. + +#Qudli´vun#, the uppermost ones; from _qu_, above; _-lirn_, being in a +certain direction; _-vun_, possessive first person plural. + +#Qudluqsiu´ta#, ring on a paddle. + +#Qu´ming#, a certain lamp. + +#Quqar´taun#, an implement to string fish. + +#Quvie´tung#, a festival. + + +S. + +#Sadni´riaq#, cross piece, a certain button, from _sadne_, side, across. + +#Sadni´run#, a yard. + +#Sāketān´#, roulette; from _sakagpā´_, he pushes it. + +#Sakie´taun#, the Pleiades. + +#Sakurpāng´#, whale harpoon; from _sako_, weapon; _-pāng_, the largest. + +#Sa´ving#, knife. + +#Seligo´ung#, scraper; from _selivā´_, he cleans a skin. + +#Siad´nirn# (plural, _siadnit_), lateral strip in kayak; from _siaq-_, +to place in a row; _-nirn_, being. + +#Siat´ko#, harpoon head (Iglulik). + +#Siek´tung#, the three stars in Orion’s belt: those standing in a row. + +#Sir´dloang#, store room of snow house. + +#Siring´ilang#, the excepted month in balancing Eskimo calendars, the +month without sun; from _sirinirn_, sun; _-ngilang_, he has not. + +#Sirinikteng´a#, the first days with sunlight; from _sirinirn_, sun; +_-tang_, new; _-a_, possessive third person singular. + +#Sirmi´jaung#, scraper for kayak; from _sirming_, thin ice. + +#Sulubaut´#, bunch of hair projecting from forehead. + +#Sului´tung#, festival in which a knife (_sulung_) is used. + +#Su’lung#, wing; knife shaped like a wing. + + +T. + +#Tagusiar´bing#, eye (of harpoon). + +#Taguta´#, a thong (of harpoon). + +#Teliq´bing#, certain piece on harpoon line. + +#Tesir´qun#, scraper; from _tesivā´_, he stretches it. + +#Tigdluiq´djung#, blow with the fist (of a stranger); from _tigdlugpā´_, +he strikes him with the fist. + +#Tika´gung#, support of hand in throwing harpoon. + +#Ti´kiq#, thimble. + +#Tik´ping#, rib of kayak. + +#Tiluq´tung#, snow beater; from _tiluqpā´_, he strikes it, in order to +shake something off. + +#Tingmi´ujang#, images of birds (used for dice); from _tingmiang_, bird; +_-ujang_, similar to. + +#To´kang#, harpoon head. + +#Toq´sung#, vaulted entrance to snow house. + +#Tor´naq#, a guardian spirit. + +#Tornarsuq#, the great _tornaq_. + +#To´ung#, tusk, point. + +#Toung´a#, point of spear. + +#Tugliga#, a tress. + +#Tuktuq´djung#, the constellation of the Reindeer, or the Great Bear, +Ursa Major; from _tukto_, caribou (deer). + +#Tumi´ujang#, a certain lamp resembling a footprint; from _tume_, +footprint; _-ujang_, similar to. + +#Tuniq´djung#, stern of kayak. + +#Tu´pilaq#, spirit of a deceased person. + +#Tu´piq#, tent. + +#Tupu´tang#, plugs for closing wounds. + +#Tuta´reang#, a certain buckle. + +#Tu´ving#, strip in the boat nearest the gunwale; from _tuk-_, to stop a +motion; _tupā´_, he makes it fast. + + +U. + +#Ua´dling#, first vault of snow house. + +#Uang´nang#, west-northwest, Cumberland Sound; west-southwest in +Akudnirn. + +#Udleq´djung#, Sword of Orion: following one another. + +#Ui´nirn#, head of sledge runner. + +#U´kusik#, soapstone kettle. + +#U´lo#, woman’s knife. + +#Uluq´saq#, green slate, material for women’s knives; from _ulo_ and +_-saq_, material for. + +#U´miaq#, large skin boat. + +#Uming#, beard. + +#U´mingmang#, musk ox. + +#Umī´ujang#, needle case. + +#U´nang#, sealing harpoon. + +#Unaqiu´ta#, ring on shaft of sealing harpoon; from _unang_; _-iarpā´_, +he fastens it; _-ta_, past participle. + +#Unarteng´a#, iron rod of sealing harpoon; from _unang_; _-tang_, +belonging to; _-a_, possessive. + +#Uqsirn#, implement for fastening traces to sledge. + +#Usujang#, stern projection of kayak; from _usung_, penis; _-ujang_, +similar to. + + +ESKIMO GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES USED, WITH ENGLISH SIGNIFICATIONS. + +A. + +#Agdlinartung.# + +#Aggirtijung#, abounding with ducks. + +#Aggo#, the weather side. + +#Aggomiut#, the inhabitants of Aggo. + +#Agpan#, loons. + +#Agutit.# + +#Aivillik#, with walrus. + +#Aivillirmiut#, the inhabitants of Aivillik (the walrus country). + +#Akudnirmiut#, the inhabitants of Akudnirn. + +#Akudnirn#, the intervening country. + +#Akugdlirn#, the central one. + +#Akugdlit#, the central ones. + +#Akuliaχating.# + +#Akuliaq.# + +#Akuliarmiut#, the inhabitants of Akuliaq. + +#Amaqdjuaq#, the large place where children are carried in the hood. + +#Amartung#, a woman carrying a child in the hood. + +#Amitoq#, the narrow one. + +#Anarnitung#, smelling of excrements. + +#Anartuajuin#, the excrements. + +#Anaulereë´ling.# + +#Angiuqaq#; from _angivoq_, it is large. + +#Angmalortuq#, the round one. + +#Angmang#, jasper. + +#Angmartung#, the open one (not frozen over). + +#Aqbeniling#, six; so called because reached after six days’ travel. + +#Aqbirsiarbing#, a lookout for whales. + +#Aqbirtijung#, abounding with whales. + +#Aqojang#; from _aqo_, stern. + +#Aqojartung#; from _aqo_, stern. + +#Arligaulik.# + +#Audnerbing#, place where seals are approached by the crawling hunter. + +#Augpalugtijung#, with many red places. + +#Augpalugtung#, the red one. + +#Aulitiving#, an annex of the snow house; hills lying at the foot of +steep cliffs. + +#Auqardneling#, with many places where the ice melts early in spring. + +#Avatutiaq.# + +#Avaudjeling#, with a low saddle. + + +E. + +#Eχaloaping#, with common salmon. + +#Eχalualuin#, the large salmon (plur.). + +#Eχaluaqdjuin#, the small salmon (plur.). + +#Eχaluin#, the salmon (plur.). + +#Eχaluqdjuaq#, the shark. + +#Eχoleaqdjuin.# + + +I. + +#Idjorituaqtuin#, the only places with an abundance of grass. + +#Idjuk#, the testicles. + +#Igdlumiut#, the inhabitants of the other side. + +#Igdlungajung#, the bandy legged man; so called from a fabulous tribe. + +#Igdluqdjuaq#, the large house. + +#Iglulik#, with houses. + +#Iglulirmiut#, the inhabitants of the place with houses. + +#Igpirto#, with many hills. + +#Igpirtousirn#, the smaller place with many hills. + +#Ijelirtung.# + +#Ikaroling#, with a ford. + +#Ikerassaq#, the narrow strait. + +#Ikerassaqdjuaq#, the large narrow strait. + +#Iliqimisarbing#, where one shakes one’s head. + +#Imeraqdjuaq.# + +#Imigen#, with fresh water. + +#Ingnirn#, flint. + +#Inugsuin#, the cairns. + +#Inugsulik#, with cairns. + +#Ipiuteling#, with an isthmus. + +#Ipiuting#, the isthmus; literally, the traces of a dog. + +#Irtiujang.# + +#Isiritung.# + +#Isoa#, its cover. + +#Issortuqdjuaq#, the large one with muddy water. + +#Ita#, food. + +#Itidliaping#, the common pass. + +#Itidlirn#, the pass. + +#Itijareling#, with a small pass. + +#Itirbilung#, the anus. + +#Itivimiut#, the inhabitants of the coast beyond the land. + +#Ituatukan.# + +#Itutonik# (Etotoniq). + + +K. + +#Kaming´ujang#, similar to a boot. + +#Kangertloa´ping#, the common bay. + +#Kangertlua´lung#, the large bay. + +#Kangertlukdjuaq#, the large bay. + +#Kangertluk´siaq.# + +#Kangertlung#, the bay. + +#Kangia#, its head, its upper part (of a bay). + +#Kangianga#, its upper part. + +#Kangidliuta#, nearest to the land. + +#Kangivamiut#, inhabitants of Kangia. + +#Kautaq#, diorite. + +#Kilauting#, the drum. + +#Kingnait#, the high land. + +#Kingnaitmiut#, the inhabitants of Kingnait. + +#Kinipetu.# + +#Kitigtung#, the island lying farthest out toward the sea. + +#Kitingujang#, the gorge. + +#Kouaqdjuaq.# + +#Koukdjuaq#, the large river. + +#Kouksoarmiut#, the inhabitants of Kouksoaq. + +#Koukteling#, with a river. + +#Kugnuaq#, the small nice river. + + +M. + +#Majoraridjen#, the places where one has to climb up. + +#Maktartudjennaq#, where one eats whale’s hide. + +#Maluksilaq.# + +#Manirigtung#, with many eggs. + +#Manituling#, with uneven places. + +#Metja#, the lid. + +#Midlurieling#, where stones are thrown (for catching white whales). + +#Miliaqdjuin#, the small ones, which shut it up(?). + +#Miliqdjuaq#, the large one, which shuts up(?). + +#Mingong#, the beetle. + +#Misiqtung.# + +#Muingmang.# + + +N. + +#Nanuqtuaqdjung#, the little bear. + +#Nanuragassain#, abounding in young bears. + +#Naqoreang.# + +#Narpaing.# + +#Naujan#, the gulls. + +#Naujaqdjuaq#, the large gull. + +#Naujateling#, with gulls. + +#Nebarvik.# + +#Nedlung#, peninsula from the point of which deer are driven into the +water; from _nedlugpoq_, he swims. + +#Nedluqseaq#; from _nedlugpoq_, he swims. + +#Neqemiarbing#, where something is carried in the hand. + +#Nerseqdjuaq#, the large valley. + +#Netchillik#, with seals. + +#Netchillirmiut#, the inhabitants of Netchillik (the seal country). + +#Nettilling#, with seals. + +#Niaqonaujang#, similar to a head. + +#Nikosiving#; from _nikuipoq_, it stands erect. + +#Nirdlirn#, the goose. + +#Niutang#, hoop used in whaling. + +#Nudlung#, the posteriors. + +#Nudnirn#, the point. + +#Nugumiut#, the inhabitants of the point. + +#Nurata.# + +#Nuratamiut#, the inhabitants of Nurata. + +#Nuvujalung#, the large cape or point. + +#Nuvujen#, the points. + +#Nuvukdjuaq#, the great point. + +#Nuvukdjuaraqdjung#, the little Nuvukdjuaq. + +#Nuvuktirpāng´#, the greatest point. + +#Nuvuktualung#, the only great point. + +#Nuvung#, the point. + + +O. + +#Okan#, the codfish (plural). + +#Okavit.# + +#Operdniving#, place where one lives in spring. + +#Oqo#, the weather side. + +#Oqomiut#, the inhabitants of Oqo. + +#Owutta.# + + +P. + +#Padli#, with the mouth of a river. + +#Padliaq#, the little mouth of the river.(?) + +#Padlimiut#, the inhabitants of Padli. + +#Padloping#; from _padlorpoq_ (lying on the face?). + +#Pamiujang#, similar to a tail. + +#Pangnirtung#, with many bucks. + +#Pikiulaq#, _Uria grylle_. + +#Piling#, with many things (i.e., game). + +#Pilingmiut#, the inhabitants of Piling. + +#Pingitkalik.# + +#Pitiktaujang.# + +#Pujetung#, with plenty of blubber. + +#Putukin.# + + +Q. + +#Qaggilortung#; from _qaggi_, singing house. + +#Qairoliktung#, with plenty of seals (_Phoca grœnlandica_). + +#Qamusiojodlang.# + +#Qariaq.# + +#Qarmang#, walls. + +#Qarmaqdjuin#, the large walls. + +#Qarussuit#, the caves. + +#Qasigidjen#, _Callocephali_. + +#Qaumauang#; from _qauq_, daylight. + +#Qaumauangmiut#, the inhabitants of Qaumauang. + +#Qaχodlualung#, the large fulmar. + +#Qaχodluin#, the fulmars. + +#Qeqertakadlinang#; from _qeqertaq_, island. + +#Qeqertalukdjuaq#, the large island. + +#Qeqertaq#, the island. + +#Qeqertaujang#, similar to an island. + +#Qeqertelung#, the large island. + +#Qeqerten#, the islands. + +#Qeqertome itoq tudlirn#, next to the island. + +#Qeqertuqdjuaq#, the large island. + +#Qerniqdjuaq#, the great black place. + +#Qidnelik.# + +#Qimissung#, the snow drift. + +#Qimuqsuq#; from _qimuqpoq_, he draws the sledge. + +#Qingaseareang.# + +#Qingua#, its head. + +#Qinguamiut#, the inhabitants of Qingua. + +#Qivitung#, the hermit. + +#Qognung#, the narrow place. + +#Qogulortung# (Qaggilortung?). + +#Qordluving#, where the water runs in a solid stream. + +#Quaiirnang.# + +#Qudjitariaq.# + + +S. + +#Sagdlirmiut#, the inhabitants of Sagdlirn. + +#Sagdlirn#, the island nearest the sea. + +#Sagdlua#, its Sagdlirn. + +#Sakiaqdjung#, the little rib. + +#Sarbaq# (_sarvaq_), the rapids. + +#Sarbaqdjukulu#, the small rapids. + +#Sarbaqdualung#, the large rapids. + +#Sarbausirn#, the smaller rapids. + +#Sarbuqdjuaq#, the large rapids. + +#Saumia#, its left side. + +#Saumingmiut#, the inhabitants of Saumia. + +#Saunirtung#, with many bones. + +#Saunirtuqdjuaq#, the great one with many bones. + +#Sednirun#, the yard. + +#Siegtung#, the scattered ones. + +#Sikosuilaq#, the coast without ice. + +#Sikosuilarmiut#, the inhabitants of Sikosuilaq. + +#Sini#, the edge. + +#Sinimiut#, the inhabitants of Sini. + +#Sioreling#, with sand. + +#Sirmiling#, with a glacier. + +#Sulung#, the valley through which the wind blows howling. + +#Surosirn#, the boy. + + +T. + +#Talirpia#, its right side. + +#Talirpingmiut#, the inhabitants of Talirpia. + +#Tappitariaq#, the pass crossing two isthmuses. + +#Tappitaridjen#, the passes crossing two isthmuses. + +#Taquirbing.# + +#Tarionitjoq#, the salt water basin. + +#Tarrionitung#, the salt water basin. + +#Taχolidjuin.# + +#Tessiujang#, similar to a pond. + +#Tikeraqdjuaq#, the great point. + +#Tikeraqdjuausirn#, the smaller great point. + +#Tikeraqdjung#, the small point. + +#Tikeraqdjuq#, the small point. + +#Tininiqdjuaq#, the large beach. + +#Tiniqdjuaurbing#, the great place with a high tide. + +#Tiniqdjuarbiusirn#, the smaller great place with a high tide. + +#Tornait#, Spirits. + +#Touaqdjuaq.# + +#Tuarpuqdjuaq.# + +#Tudjan.# + +#Tudjaqdjuaq.# + +#Tudjaqdjuaralung.# + +#Tudjaraaqdjung.# + +#Tukia#, its farthest corner. + +#Tulukan#, the ravens. + +#Tuniqten#, those lying behind it. + +#Tunukutang.# + +#Tununirmiut#, the inhabitants of Tununirn. + +#Tununirn#, the country lying back of something. + +#Tununirusirmiut#, the inhabitants of Tununirusirn. + +#Tununirusirn#, the smaller Tununirn. + +#Tunussung#, the nape. + +#Tupirbikdjuin#, the tent sites. + + +U. + +#Udlimauliteling#, with a hatchet. + +#Ugjuktung#, with many ground seals. + +#Ugjulik#, with ground seals. + +#Ugjulirmiut#, the inhabitants of Ugjulik (the ground seal country). + +#Uglariaq.# + +#Uglirn#, walrus island. + +#Uglit#, the walrus islands. + +#Uibarun#, the cape. + +#Ujaraqdjuin#, the large stones. + +#Ujaradjiraaitjung#; from _ujaraq_, stone. + +#Ukadliq#, the hare. + +#Ukiadliving#, the place where one lives in the fall. + +#Ukiukdjuaq#, the great winter. + +#Ukusiksalik#, the place with pot stone. + +#Ukusiksalirmiut#, inhabitant of Ukusiksalik. + +#Umanaq#, the heart-like island. + +#Umanaqtuaq#, the great heart-like island. + +#Umingman Nuna#, the land of the musk ox. + +#Ungava.# + +#Ungavamiut.# + +#Ussualung#, the large penis. + +#Utiqimitung.# + + + + +APPENDIX. + + +After the preceding paper was in type some additional information was +received from whalers who returned from Cumberland Sound in the autumn +of 1887. In the following notes I give the substance of these reports: + + +NOTE 1. + +Page 467. Since 1883 the whalers have been more successful, and +consequently more ships visit the sound. In the present +winter--1887-’88--one American and two Scottish whaling stations are in +operation in Cumberland Sound; a new station was established in Nugumiut +two years ago, and the Scottish steamers which used to fish in Baffin +Bay and the northern parts of Davis Strait are beginning to visit +Cumberland Sound and Hudson Strait. The whaling in Baffin Bay shows a +sudden falling off and it seems that the number of ships will be greatly +reduced. This cannot be without influence upon the Eskimo, who will +probably begin again to flock to Cumberland Sound and Nugumiut. + + +NOTE 2. + +Page 538. In 1884 and 1885 a lively intercourse existed between Padli +and Cumberland Sound, and in the spring of the latter year the dog’s +disease broke out for the first time on the coast of Davis Strait, and +spread, so far as is known, to the northern part of Home Bay. + + +NOTE 3. + +Page 574. A peculiar game is sometimes played on the ice in spring. The +men stand in a circle on the ice, and one of them walks, the toes turned +inward, in a devious track. It is said that only a few are able to do +this in the right way. Then the rest of the men have to follow him in +exactly the same track. + +One of their gymnastic exercises requires considerable knack and +strength. A pole is tied with one end to a stone or to a piece of wood +that is firmly secured in the snow. A man then lies down on his back, +embracing the pole, his feet turned toward the place where the pole is +tied to the rock. Then he must rise without bending his body. + +In another of their gymnastic exercises they lie down on their stomachs, +the arms bent so that the hands lie close together on the breast, palms +turned downward. Then they have to jump forward without bending their +body, using only their toes and hands. Some are said to be able to jump +several feet in this manner. + + +NOTE 4. + +Page 582. In the Report of the Hudson Bay Expedition of 1886, p. 16, +Lieut. A. Gordon remarks that the same custom is reported from Port +Burwell, near Cape Chidleigh, Labrador. He says: “There lived between +the Cape and Aulatsivik a good Eskimo hunter whose native name is not +given, but who was christened by our station men ’Old Wicked.’ He was a +passionate man and was continually threatening to do some bodily harm to +the other more peaceably inclined natives. * * * His arrogance and petty +annoyances to the other natives became at length unbearable. It appears +that these unfortunates held a meeting and decided that Old Wicked was a +public nuisance which must be abated, and they therefore decreed that he +should be shot, and shot he was accordingly one afternoon when he was +busily engaged in repairing the ravages which a storm had made in his +‘igdlu’ or snow house. The executioner shot him in the back, killing him +instantly. The murderer or executioner (one hardly knows to which title +he is more justly entitled) then takes Old Wicked’s wives and all his +children and agrees to keep them * * * so that they shall be no burden +on the company.” + +The fact that the custom is found among tribes so widely separated will +justify a description of those events which came under my own +observation. There was a native of Padli by the name of Padlu. He had +induced the wife of a Cumberland Sound native to desert her husband and +follow him. The deserted husband, meditating revenge, cut off the upper +part of the barrel of his gun so that he could conceal it under his +jacket. He crossed the land and visited his friends in Padli, but before +he could accomplish his intention of killing Padlu the latter shot him. +When this news was reported in Qeqerten, the brother of the murdered man +went to Padli to avenge the death of his brother; but he also was killed +by Padlu. A third native of Cumberland Sound, who wished to avenge the +death of his relatives, was also murdered by him. On account of all +these outrages the natives wanted to get rid of Padlu, but yet they did +not dare to attack him. When the pimain of the Akudnirmiut in +Niaqonaujang learned of these events he started southward and asked +every man in Padli whether Padlu should be killed. All agreed; so he +went with the latter deer hunting in the upper part of Pangnirtung, +northwest of Padli, and near the head of the fjord he shot Padlu in the +back. + +In another instance a man in Qeqerten had made himself odious. After it +was agreed that he was a bad man an old man of Qeqerten, Pakaq, attacked +him on board a Scottish whaler, but was prevented from killing him. + + +NOTE 5. + +Page 594. The following performance was observed in Umanaqtuaq, on the +southwestern coast of Cumberland Sound, in the winter of 1886-’87: An +angakoq began his incantations in a hut after the lamps were lowered. +Suddenly he jumped up and rushed out of the hut to where a mounted +harpoon was standing. He threw himself upon the harpoon, which +penetrated his breast and came out at the back. Three men followed him +and holding the harpoon line led the angakoq, bleeding profusely, to all +the huts of the village. When they arrived again at the first hut he +pulled out the harpoon, lay down on the bed, and was put to sleep by the +songs of another angakoq. When he awoke after a while he showed to the +people that he was not hurt, although his clothing was torn and they had +seen him bleeding. + +Another angakoq performed a similar feat on the island Utussivik in the +summer of 1887. He thrust a harpoon through his body and was led by +about twenty-five men through the village. It is said that he imitated +the movements and voice of a walrus while on the circuit. + +Still another exhibition was witnessed by the whalers in the fall of +1886 in Umanaqtuaq. An angakoq stripped off his outer jacket and began +his incantations while walking about in the village. When the men heard +him, one after the other came out of his hut, each carrying his gun. +After a while the angakoq descended to the beach; the men followed him, +and suddenly fired a volley at him. The angakoq, of course, was not +hurt, and then the women each gave him a cup of water, which he drank. +Then he put on his jacket, and the performance was ended. The similarity +of this performance with part of the festival which is described on pp. +605 et seq. is evident. + + +NOTE 6. + +Page 606. The same feast was celebrated in 1886 in Umanaqtuaq, in +Cumberland Sound, where all the Talirpingmiut had gathered. The +witnesses of this festival describe it exactly in the same way as I +described it above. One thing ought to be added, which I did not mention +because it seemed to me accidental, but as it was repeated in the same +way in 1886 it must have some meaning. I noticed that the Qailertetang, +after having invoked the wind, hop about, making a grunting noise and +accosting the people. When doing so they are attacked by the natives and +killed. According to the description of the whalers they imitate +sometimes deer, sometimes walrus. Perhaps this fact gave rise to +Kumlien’s description of the “killing of the evil spirit of the deer.” +It is remarkable that in 1883 in Qeqerten and in 1886 in Umanaqtuaq the +festival was celebrated on exactly the same day, the 10th of November. +This can hardly be accidental, and does not agree with the idea +sometimes advanced, that the festival refers to the winter solstice. +Unfortunately Hall (I, p. 528) does not give the dates of the festival +in Nugumiut. On the western coast of Hudson Bay a festival in which +masks were used was celebrated about the end of January, 1866 (Hall II, +p. 219), but it is hardly possible to draw conclusions from Nourse’s +superficial account of Hall’s observations. + + +NOTE 7. + +Page 615. It may be of interest to learn that in 1885 and 1886 two +instances of this kind occurred in Cumberland Sound. There was a very +old woman in Qeqerten by the name of Qaχodloaping. She was well provided +for by her relatives, but it seems that one of the most influential men +in Qeqerten, Pakaq, whom I mentioned above (p. 668) as the executioner +of a murderer, deemed it right that she should die. So, although she +resisted him, he took her out of her hut one day to a hill and buried +her alive under stones. Another case was that of an old woman whose +health had been failing for a number of years. She lived with her son, +whose wife died late in the autumn of 1886. According to the religious +ideas of the Eskimo, the young man had to throw away his clothing. When, +later on, his mother felt as though she could not live through the +winter, she insisted upon being killed, as she did not want to compel +her son to cast away a second set of clothing. At last her son complied +with her request. She stripped off her outside jacket and breeches, and +was conveyed on a sledge to a near island, where she was left alone to +die from cold and hunger. The son who took her there did not use his own +sledge nor any other Eskimo sledge for this purpose, but borrowed that +of the Scottish whaling station. + + + + +INDEX + + + Adlet and Qadlunait, origin of the 637 + Adlet or Erqigdlit 640 + Aggomiut Eskimo tribe, situation and subdivisions of 442-444 + Agutit Eskimo tribe, situation of 450, 451 + Aivillirmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of 445-450 + Akudnirmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of 440-442 + Akuliarmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of 421 + American Museum of Natural History, acknowledgments to 409 + figured specimens from 472, 517 + Anderson and Stewart, cited 458, 459 + Ardnainiq, fabulous tribe in Eskimo tradition 640 + + Back, cited 485 + Baffin Land, description of 415, 416 + distribution of tribes in 421-444 + traditions of, with comparisons 641-643 + Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie etc., Verhandlungen der, + cited 409, 616 + Bessels, Emil, cited 412, 460, 486 + Boothia Felix and Back River, tribes of 452-459 + + Collinson, cited 503 + Cranz, D., cited 412, 586, 590 + Cumberland Sound, description of settlements of 428-440 + + Davis Strait Indian tribes, snow houses of 541-544 + Dease and Simpson, cited 458 + Dogs and sledges of Eskimo 529-538 + + Eenoolooapik, cited 410, 425, 464 + Egede, H., cited 412 + Ellesmere Land, natives of 459, 460 + Emigration of the Sagdlirmiut 616-620 + Erdmann, F., cited 412, 597 + + Fishing, Eskimo methods of 513-516 + Flight to the moon 598, 599 + Frobisher, M., cited 410, 469, 558 + Frobisher Bay, use of, by Eskimo 423 + + Geography, Eskimo knowledge of 643-647 + Gilder, W. H., cited 411, 456, 457, 458, 459, 466, 498, 522 + Glossary of Eskimo terms 663-669 + Gordon, A. R., cited 412, 463 + + Hall, C. F., acknowledgments to 409 + cited 411, 422, 432, 442, 443, 444, 445, 446, 447, 448, 449, 450, + 452, 456, 457, 459, 462, 463, 464, 486, 499, 503, 509, 547, + 578, 583, 589, 594, 595, 596, 601, 602, 606, 607, 608, 611, + 614, 615, 639 + Harpoons of Eskimo, mode of constructing 489-494 + Hudson Bay, tribes of western shore of 444-452 + Hudson Bay district, geographic description of 414-418 + Hudson Bay Indians, snow houses of 547 + Hunting, Eskimo methods of 471-513 + + Igdlumiut Eskimo tribe, situation of 463 + Igdlungajung, fabulous tribe in Eskimo tradition 640 + Igimarasugdjuqdjuaq the cannibal 633, 634 + Iglulik Eskimo tribe, snow houses of 546, 547 + Iglulirmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of 444 + Ijirang, fabulous people in Eskimo tradition 640 + Inuarudligang, fabulous tribe in Eskimo tradition 640 + Inugpaqdjuqdjualung 638 + Inuit race, divisions of 420 + Ititaujang 615-618 + Itivimiut Eskimo tribe, situation of 463 + + Kadlu the thunderer 600 + Kalopaling 620, 621 + Kangivamiut Eskimo tribe, situation of 463 + Kayak, construction of 486-489 + Kingnaitmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of 424 + Kinipetu or Agutit Eskimo tribe, situation of 450, 451 + Kiviung 621 + Kleinschmidt, Eskimo orthography of 413 + Klutschak, H. W., cited 411, 448, 449, 451, 457, 458, 459, 466, + 502, 509, 510, 516, 552, 553, 570, 582, 595, 596, 614, 615 + Kouksoarmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of 463 + Kumlien, L., acknowledgments to 409 + cited 412, 471, 474, 475, 482, 483, 524, 549, 550, 567, 589, 596, + 606, 607, 610 + + Lepsius, cited 413 + Lyon, G. F., cited 410, 451, 463, 487, 497, 511, 579, 585, 586, + 587, 588, 589, 590, 592, 593, 610, 612, 613, 614, 615 + + M’Donald, A., cited 410 + M’Clintock, Captain, cited 411, 455, 456, 458 + Manufactures, Eskimo 516-526 + Mason, O. T., acknowledgments to 409 + Mintzer, W., acknowledgments to 409 + Moravian missionaries, cited 463 + Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin, acknowledgments to 409 + figured specimens from 472, 473, 474, 477, 479, 480, 481, 483, + 486, 487, 488, 496, 508, 513, 514, 515, 518, 519, 520, 523, + 531, 532, 554, 555, 556, 557, 565, 566, 567, 568, 569, 570, + 571, 576, 613, 634, 644 + Music and poetry of the Eskimo 648-658 + + Narwhal, origin of the 625-627 + National Museum, acknowledgments to 409 + figured specimens from 474, 479, 480, 481, 487, 488, 489, 490, + 492, 493, 494, 495, 496, 502, 503, 504, 505, 506, 507, 512, + 513, 515, 516, 518, 521, 522, 523, 524, 525, 526, 530, 531, + 532, 535, 539, 555, 556, 559, 560, 563, 565, 566, 576 + Navigation, Eskimo proficiency in 643 + Netchillirmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of 452-458 + Northeastern America, geography of 414-418 + North Greenlanders 460 + Nourse, cited 452 + Nugumiut Eskimo tribe, situation of 424 + + Oqomiut Eskimo tribe, situation and subdivisions of 424-440 + Origin of the Adlet and the Qadlunait 637 + Origin of the narwhal 625-627 + + Padlimiut Eskimo tribe, situation of 440-442 + Parry, W. E., cited 410, 443, 444, 447, 451, 458, 464, 474, 475, + 478, 487, 492, 494, 502, 509, 510, 517, 523, 533, 544, 545, + 547, 552, 556, 557, 558, 559, 572, 574, 603, 614 + Penny, cited 425 + Petermanns Mitteilungen, cited 409 _note_ + Petitot, É., cited 412, 516 + Pilingmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of 444 + Poetry and music of the Eskimo 648-658 + + Qailertétang, fabulous people in Eskimo tradition 640 + Qaudjaqdjuq 628-633 + Qaumauangmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of 421, 422 + Qingnamlut Eskimo tribe, situation of 424 + + Rae, John, cited 411, 445, 446, 448, 450, 451, 452, 455, 459, 478, + 485, 510, 597 + Religious ideas of the Eskimo 583-609 + Rink, H., cited 411, 420, 580, 586, 587, 590, 591, 598, 599 + acknowledgments to 412 + Ross, J., cited 410, 451, 453, 454, 455, 456, 458, 469, 471, 478, + 485, 508, 552, 553, 579 + + Sagdlirmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of 444 + Sagdlirmiut of Southampton Island 451 + Saumingmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of 424 + Schwatka, F., cited 445, 457, 458, 459, 464, 465, 470 + Science and the arts among the Eskimo 643-658 + Seal hunting, Eskimo method of 471-501 + Sedna and the fulmar 583-587 + Sedna feast 594 + Sikosuilarmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of 421, 463 + Simpson, J., cited 411, 597 + Simpson, T., cited 410, 458 + Singing house of Eskimo 600-602 + Sinimiut Eskimo tribe, situation of 451 + Sledges and boats, description of Eskimo 527-538 + Smith Sound, Eskimo tribes of 459, 460 + Snow houses, of Davis Strait Eskimo 541-544 + of Iglulik Eskimo tribe 544 + of Hudson Bay Indians 547 + Social life and customs of Eskimo 574-578 + Spicer, J. O., acknowledgments to 409 + cited 489, 511, 587, 588, 611 + Sturgis, A., acknowledgments to 409 + cited 491 + + Talirpingmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of 424 + Tents of Eskimo, mode of construction of 551-553 + Tornait and angakut 591-598 + Tornit, the 634-636, 640 + Trade and intercourse between Eskimo tribes 462-470 + Tununirmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of 442-444 + Tununirusirmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of 442-444 + Turner, L. M., cited 420, 462, 520, 565, 567, 608 _note_ + + Udleqdjun 636, 637 + Ugjulirmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of 458 + Uissuit 621 + fabulous people in Eskimo tradition 640 + Ukusiksalirmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of 458 + Ungavimiut Eskimo tribe, situation of 463 + + Warmow, cited 425, 583 + + + * * * * * + * * * * + + +Errors and Inconsistencies (noted by transcriber) + +The word “invisible” means that there is an appropriately sized empty +space, but the letter or punctuation itself is missing. + +_List of Illustrations_ + 437. Niu´tang, with floats [Niū´tang] + +_List of Sources_ + + Her Majesty’s Discovery Ship “Plover.” (Cited, Simpson.) + [_closing parenthesis missing_] + author of ‘Grönland geographik og | statistick beckrevest,’ etc. + [_missing close quote_] + [_spelling as shown, but the book’s correct subtitle is + ‘Grönland geographisk og statistisk beskrevet,’ etc._] + David Cranz | Historie | von | Grönland ... + [_in this and the following citation, all umlauts are printed + as small “e” above the primary vowel_] + +_Orthography_ + + dtl--ṯ of Lepsius’s standard alphabet. + [_probably an error for tl alone: dtl does not occur_] + +_Primary Text_ + + being immediately stored for future use (p. 269). + [_opening parenthesis missing_] + since the preceding fall (p. 260). [(p. 260.)] + (see, also, Fig. 393) ... (tikagung; see, also, Fig. 418) + [_punctuation unchanged_] + FIG. 417. Large kayak harpoon for seal and walrus + [_“l” in “seal” invisible_] + FIG. 434. Nuqsang or throwing board, (_a_ front and (_b_ back view. + [_printed as shown_] + FIG. 435. ... (From a photograph.) + [_closing parenthesis missing_] + DEER, MUSK OX, AND BEAR HUNTING. + [_final . missing or invisible_] + FIG. 441. ... (National Museum, Washington. 10270.) + [_closing parenthesis missing_] + At some places wears are built + [_spelling “wears” unchanged_] + with a bit of bone, asbestus, or wood + [_spelling “asbestus” unchanged_] + or, more frequently, are steadied by stones. + [_final . missing_] + FIG. 500. ... (From a drawing by L. Kumlien.) + [_closing .) missing_] + FIG. 507. ... (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6850.) + [_closing ) missing_] + ... threads of leather hanging down from it. This ornament is not + uncommon also in the outer jackets of the men. When seal-hunting ... + [_punctuation transposed at consecutive line-ends:_ + ... leather hanging down from it- + ... jackets of the men. When seal.] + but use to a great extent amulets (arngoaq) + [_armgoaq_] + a man sits on the bed-platform, [platorm] + stamping rhythmically with the feet [rythmically] + Every one is screaming, running, jumping, spearing, and stabbing + [_“i” in “running” invisible_] + After awhile the old woman became jealous + [_spacing of “awhile” unchanged_] + Qangatirgakulung uaijuvara. [_printed without space_] + in a major ninth (No. V), one [ninth No. (V), one] + +_Glossary_ + + #Arng´oaq#, amulet. [#Arm´goaq#] + #Kang´o#, a species of goose. [#Kan´go#] + + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CENTRAL ESKIMO *** + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will +be renamed. + +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the +United States without permission and without paying copyright +royalties. 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