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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 18:34:02 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 18:34:02 -0700 |
| commit | 3180f67e71e5dafec9535be3cca87956c611ee33 (patch) | |
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margin: 1em; border: 3px ridge #A9F; +font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 94%;} + +</style> + +</head> + +<body> + +<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Central Eskimo, by Franz Boas</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online +at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you +are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the +country where you are located before using this eBook. +</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The Central Eskimo<br> + Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1884-1885, Government Printing Office, Washington, 1888, pages 399-670</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Franz Boas</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: February 12, 2013 [eBook #42084]<br> +[Most recently updated: January 10, 2023]</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: Louise Hope and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team</div> +<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CENTRAL ESKIMO ***</div> + +<div class="mynote"> +<p><a name="start" id="start">This text</a> uses characters that +require UTF-8 (Unicode) file encoding, including:</p> + +<p class="inset"> +χ (Greek chi, see below)<br> +ā ē ī ō ū (long vowels)<br> +œ (“oe” ligature)<br> +⅔ (see List of Illustrations)</p> + +<p>In the main text, all but <b>χ</b> are rare. Long-vowel marks are +used in Figure captions and in the Glossary; <b>œ</b> occurs only in +scientific terms.</p> + +<p>If any of these characters do not display properly—in +particular, if a diacritic does not appear directly above its +letter—or if the apostrophes and quotation marks in this paragraph +appear as garbage, you may have an incompatible browser or unavailable +fonts. First, make sure that your browser’s “character set” or “file +encoding” is set to Unicode (UTF-8). You may also need to change the +default font.</p> + +<p>Parenthetical question marks (?) are in the original.</p> + +<p>Orthography is explained early in the article. Modern (ICI) forms +should be deducible from Boas’s spellings. These are based on +Kleinschmidt, but with <b>q</b> in place of <b>ĸ</b> (kra). Note that +long vowels are rarely marked, except in the Glossary and in figure +captions. Words are often written with nasalized finals: +<b>n</b> for <b>t</b> sometimes, <b>ng</b> for <b>k</b> almost +always, <b>irn</b> (only) for <b>iq</b>. Medial <b>q</b> is usually +written <b>χ</b> (chi), representing the fricative pronunciation: +“Eχaluin” and similar.</p> + +<p>Missing punctuation in Figure captions and the Glossary has been +silently supplied. Other typographical errors are shown with <ins class="correction" title="like this">mouse-hover popups</ins>.</p> + +<p>The <a href="#arts_music">music</a> section (pages 648-658) +includes sound files in midi format. Depending on your browser, they +will either play as-is or will need to be downloaded to your computer. +Some browsers will offer two “Music” links; use the one that works best +for you.</p> + +<hr class="mid"> + +<p class="center"> +<a href="#contents">Contents</a><br> +<a href="#illus">List of Illustrations</a></p> +<p class="center"> +<a href="#eskimo">The Central Eskimo</a></p> +<p class="center"> +<a href="#index">Index</a></p> +<p class="center"> +<a href="#endnote">Transcriber’s Notes</a></p> +</div> + + +<div class="titlepage"> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page399" id="page399">399</a></span> + +<h3>SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION—BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY.</h3> + +<hr class="mid"> + +<h1>THE CENTRAL ESKIMO.</h1> + +<p class="center">BY</p> + +<h2>DR. FRANZ BOAS</h2> + +</div> + +<p class="caption plate"> +BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. II</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="plateII" id="plateII"> </a> +<img src="images/plateII.jpg" width="549" height="609" alt="map" +usemap="#plateIImap"></p> + +<map name="plateIImap"> +<area shape="poly" coords="5,0, 338,0, 338,167, 419,241, 549,241, +549,609, 176,609, 176,481, 147,481, 147,368, 229,368, 229,243, 205,214, +169,214, 169,69, 5,69" href="images/map1_I.jpg" alt="map" target="_blank"> + +<area shape="poly" coords="5,214, 205,214, 229,243, 229,368, 5,368" +href="images/map1_II.jpg" alt="inset map" target="_blank"> + +<area shape="rect" coords="5,69,169,214" href="images/map1_III.jpg" alt="inset map" target="_blank"> + +<area shape="rect" coords="0,368,147,481" href="images/map1_IV.jpg" alt="inset map" target="_blank"> + +<area shape="poly" coords="338,0, 549,0, 549,241, 419,241, 338,167" +href="images/map1_V.jpg" alt="inset map" target="_blank"> +</map> + +<p>I. <a href="images/map1_I.jpg" target="_blank">Oqo and +Akudnirn</a><br> +II. <a href="images/map1_II.jpg" target="_blank">Frobisher +Bay</a><br> +III. <a href="images/map1_III.jpg" target="_blank">Eclipse Sound and +Admiralty Inlet</a><br> +IV. <a href="images/map1_IV.jpg" target="_blank">Repulse Bay and +Lyon Inlet</a><br> +V. <a href="images/map1_V.jpg" target="_blank">Boothia Isthmus and +King William Land</a></p> + +<hr> + +<a name="page400" id="page400"> </a> + +<div class="maintext"> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page401" id="page401">401</a></span> + +<h2><a name="contents" id="contents">CONTENTS.</a></h2> + +<hr class="small"> + +<table class="toc"> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class="page">Page.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#intro">Introduction</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page409">409</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#intro_auth">Authorities quoted</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page410">410</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#intro_ortho">Orthography</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page413">413</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#intro_geog">Geography of Northeastern +America</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page414">414</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><a href="#tribes">Distribution of the tribes</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page419">419</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#tribes_general">General +observations</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page419">419</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#tribes_baffin">Baffin Land</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page421">421</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"><a href="#tribes_baffin_sikosuilarmiut">The +Sikosuilarmiut</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page421">421</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"><a href="#tribes_baffin_akuliarmiut">The +Akuliarmiut</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page421">421</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"><a href="#tribes_baffin_qaumauangmiut">The +Qaumauangmiut</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page421">421</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"><a href="#tribes_baffin_nugumiut">The +Nugumiut</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page422">422</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"><a href="#tribes_baffin_oqomiut">The +Oqomiut</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page424">424</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"><a href="#tribes_baffin_padlimiut">The Padlimiut +and the Akudnirmiut</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page440">440</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"><a href="#tribes_baffin_aggomiut">The +Aggomiut</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page442">442</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"><a href="#tribes_baffin_iglulirmiut">The +Iglulirmiut</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page444">444</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"><a href="#tribes_baffin_pilingmiut">The +Pilingmiut</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page444">444</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"><a href="#tribes_baffin_sagdlirmiut">The +Sagdlirmiut</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page444">444</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#tribes_hudson">Western shore of Hudson +Bay</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page444">444</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"><a href="#tribes_hudson_aivillirmiut">The +Aivillirmiut</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page445">445</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"><a href="#tribes_hudson_kinipetu">The Kinipetu or +Agutit</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page450">450</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"><a href="#tribes_hudson_sagdlirmiut">The +Sagdlirmiut of Southampton Island</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page451">451</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"><a href="#tribes_hudson_sinimiut">The +Sinimiut</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page451">451</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#tribes_boothia">Boothia Felix and Back +River</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page452">452</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"><a href="#tribes_boothia_netchillirmiut">The +Netchillirmiut</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page452">452</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"><a href="#tribes_boothia_ugjulirmiut">The +Ugjulirmiut</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page458">458</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"><a href="#tribes_boothia_ukusiksalirmiut">The +Ukusiksalirmiut</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page458">458</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#tribes_smith">Smith Sound</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page459">459</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"><a href="#tribes_smith_ellesmere">The natives of +Ellesmere Land</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page459">459</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"><a href="#tribes_smith_greenland">The North +Greenlanders</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page460">460</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><p><a href="#geog">Influence of geographical conditions upon the +distribution of the settlements</a></p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page460">460</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><p><a href="#trade">Trade and intercourse between the +tribes</a></p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page462">462</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><a href="#list">List of the Central Eskimo tribes</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page470">470</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><a href="#hunt">Hunting and fishing</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page471">471</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#hunt_seal">Seal, walrus, and whale +hunting</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page471">471</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#hunt_deer">Deer, musk ox, and bear +hunting</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page501">501</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#hunt_small">Hunting of small +game</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page510">510</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#hunt_fish">Fishing</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page513">513</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><a href="#manufacture">Manufactures</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page516">516</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#manufacture_leather">Making leather and +preparing skins</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page516">516</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#manufacture_sundry">Sundry +implements</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page523">523</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><a href="#transport">Transportation by boats and sledges</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page527">527</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#transport_boat">The boat</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page527">527</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#transport_sledge">The sledge and +dogs</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page529">529</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><span class="pagenum"><a name="page402" id="page402">402</a></span> +<a href="#habit">Habitations and dress</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page539">539</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#habit_house">The house</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page539">539</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><p><a href="#habit_dress">Clothing, dressing of +the hair, and tattooing</a></p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page554">554</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><a href="#social">Social and religious life</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page561">561</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#social_domestic">Domestic occupations +and amusements</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page561">561</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#social_visit">Visiting</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page574">574</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#social_summer">Social customs in +summer</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page576">576</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#social_laws">Social order and +laws</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page578">578</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><p><a href="#social_religion">Religious ideas and +the angakunirn (priesthood)</a></p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page583">583</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"><a href="#social_religion_sedna">Sedna and the +fulmar</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page583">583</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"><a href="#social_religion_tornait">The tornait +and the angakut</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page591">591</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"><a href="#social_religion_moon">The flight to the +moon</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page598">598</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"><a href="#social_religion_kadlu">Kadlu the +thunderer</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page600">600</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#social_feasts">Feasts, religious and +secular</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page600">600</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><p><a href="#social_birth">Customs and regulations +concerning birth, sickness, and death</a></p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page609">609</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><a href="#tales">Tales and traditions</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page615">615</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#tales_ititaujang">Ititaujang</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page615">615</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#tales_sagdlirmiut">The emigration of the +Sagdlirmiut</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page618">618</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#tales_kalopaling">Kalopaling</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page620">620</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#tales_uissuit">The Uissuit</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page621">621</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#tales_kiviung">Kiviung</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page621">621</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#tales_narwhal">Origin of the +narwhal</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page625">625</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#tales_visitor">The visitor</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page627">627</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#tales_fugitive">The fugitive +women</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page628">628</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#tales_qaudjaqdjuq">Qaudjaqdjuq</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page628">628</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"><a href="#tales_qau_brothers"> I. Story of +the three brothers</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page628">628</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"><a href="#tales_qau_orphan">II. +Qaudjaqdjuq</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page630">630</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#tales_cannibal">Igimarasugdjuqdjuaq the +cannibal</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page633">633</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#tales_tornit">The Tornit</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page634">634</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><p><a href="#tales_singing">The woman and the +spirit of the singing house</a></p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page636">636</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#tales_udleqdjun">The constellation +Udleqdjun</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page636">636</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><p><a href="#tales_origin">Origin of the Adlet and +of the Qadlunait</a></p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page637">637</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#tales_flood">The great flood</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page637">637</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#tales_inugpaq">Inugpaqdjuqdjualung</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page638">638</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#tales_bear">The bear story</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page638">638</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#tales_sundry">Sundry tales</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page639">639</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"><a href="#tales_sundry_owl">The owl and the +raven</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page641">641</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><p><a href="#tales_compare">Comparison between +Baffin Land traditions and those of other tribes</a></p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page641">641</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><a href="#arts">Science and the arts</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page643">643</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#arts_geog">Geography and +navigation</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page643">643</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><a href="#arts_music">Poetry and music</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page648">648</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"><a href="#song_merry">Merrymaking among the +Tornit</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page649">649</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"><a href="#song_lemming">The lemming’s +song</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page649">649</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"><a href="#song_killer">Arlum pissinga (the +killer’s song)</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page650">650</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"> +<span class="tocnum"><a href="#songI">I.</a></span> +Summer song</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page653">653</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"> +<span class="tocnum"><a href="#songII">II.</a></span> +The returning hunter</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page653">653</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"> +<span class="tocnum"><a href="#songIII">III.</a></span> +Song of the Tornit</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page653">653</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"> +<span class="tocnum"><a href="#songIV">IV.</a></span> +Song of the Inuit traveling to Nettilling</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page653">653</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"> +<span class="tocnum"><a href="#songV">V.</a></span> +Oχaitoq’s song</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page654">654</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"> +<span class="tocnum"><a href="#songVI">VI.</a></span> +Utitiaq’s song</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page654">654</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"> +<span class="tocnum"><a href="#songVII">VII.</a></span> +Song</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page654">654</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"> +<span class="tocnum"><a href="#songVIII">VIII.</a></span> +Song</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page654">654</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"> +<span class="tocnum"><a href="#songIX">IX.</a></span> +Song of the Tornit</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page654">654</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"><span class="pagenum"><a name="page403" id="page403">403</a></span> +<span class="tocnum"><a href="#songX">X.</a></span> +The fox and the woman</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page655">655</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"> +<span class="tocnum"><a href="#songXI">XI.</a></span> +The raven’s song</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page655">655</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"> +<span class="tocnum"><a href="#songXII">XII.</a></span> +Song of a Padlimio</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page655">655</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"> +<span class="tocnum"><a href="#songXIII">XIII.</a></span> +Ititaujang’s song</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page655">655</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"> +<span class="tocnum"><a href="#songXIV">XIV.</a></span> +Playing at ball</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page656">656</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"> +<span class="tocnum"><a href="#songXV">XV.</a></span> +Playing at ball</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page657">657</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset2"><a href="#songXVI">XVI-XIX.</a> Extracts</td> +<td class="number locked"><a href="#page657">657–658</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td><a href="#glossary">Glossary</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page659">659</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><p><a href="#glossary_words">Eskimo words used, +with derivations and significations</a></p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page659">659</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="inset"><p><a href="#glossary_geog">Eskimo geographical +names used, with English significations</a></p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page662">662</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><a href="#appendix">Appendix</a></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#page667">667</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<a name="page404" id="page404"> </a> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page405" id="page405">405</a></span> + +<h2><a name="illus" id="illus">ILLUSTRATIONS.</a></h2> + +<hr class="small"> + +<div class="mynote"> +<p>Illustrations have been placed as close as practicable to their +discussion in the text. The List of Illustrations shows their original +location. Plates II and III, the color maps, are shown at the beginning +and end of the text, respectively. Plates II-IV and Figures 544-546 are +shown as thumbnails. Click to see a larger version.</p> + +<p>A few figures have notation such as “½” or “⅔”, referring to actual +size. In this <span class="locked">e-text</span>, “actual size” +generally corresponds to a resolution of 100dpi:</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/ruler100.gif" width="413" height="65" +alt="ruler in inches and cm"></p> + +<p>Images may come out slightly larger or smaller on your screen.</p> +</div> + +<table class="toc" summary="list of illustrations"> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td></td> +<td class="page">Page.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item smallcaps"><a href="#plateII">Plate II.</a></td> +<td><p>Map showing in detail the geographical divisions of territory +occupied by the Eskimo tribes of Northeastern America</p></td> +<td class="number">(<a href="#plateII">*</a>)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td></td> +<td class="inset">1. Oqo and Akudnirn.<br> +2. Frobisher Bay.<br> +3. Eclipse Sound and Admiralty Inlet.<br> +4. Repulse Bay and Lyon Inlet.<br> +5. Boothia Isthmus and King William Land.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#plateIII">III.</a></td> +<td><p>Map of the territory occupied by the Eskimo tribes of North +America, showing the boundaries</p></td> +<td class="number">(<a href="#plateII">*</a>)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#plateIV">IV.</a></td> +<td>Map of Cumberland Peninsula, drawn by Aranin, a Saumingmio</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#plateIV">643</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#plateV">V.</a></td> +<td>Eskimo drawings</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#plateV">648</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#plateVI">VI.</a></td> +<td>Eskimo drawings</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#plateVI">650</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#plateVII">VII.</a></td> +<td>Eskimo drawings</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#plateVII">651</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#plateVIII">VIII.</a></td> +<td>Eskimo carvings</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#plateVIII">652</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#plateIX">IX.</a></td> +<td>Eskimo carvings</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#plateIX">653</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#plateX">X.</a></td> +<td>Modern implements</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#plateX">654</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="3"> +<p>* In pocket at end of volume.</p> +</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="item smallcaps"> +<a href="#fig390">Fig. 390.</a></td> +<td>Harpoon from Alaska</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig390">472</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig391">391.</a></td> +<td>Modern unang or sealing harpoon</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig391">472</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig392">392.</a></td> +<td>Old style naulang or harpoon head</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig392">473</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig393">393.</a></td> +<td>Modern naulang or harpoon head</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig393">473</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig394">394.</a></td> +<td><p>Qilertuang or leather strap and clasps for holding coiled up +harpoon lines</p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig394">474</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig395">395.</a></td> +<td>Siatko or harpoon head of the Iglulirmiut</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig395">475</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig396">396.</a></td> +<td>Siatko found at Exeter Sound</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig396">475</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig397">397.</a></td> +<td>Eskimo in the act of striking a seal</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig397">476</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig398">398.</a></td> +<td>Tutareang or buckle</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig398">477</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig399">399.</a></td> +<td>Eskimo awaiting return of seal to blowhole</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig399">478</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig400">400.</a></td> +<td>Tuputang or ivory plugs for closing wounds</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig400">479</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig401">401.</a></td> +<td>Wooden case for plugs</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig401">480</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig402">402.</a></td> +<td>Another form of plug</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig402">480</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig403">403.</a></td> +<td>Qanging for fastening thong to jaw of seal</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig403">480</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig404">404.</a></td> +<td>Qanging in form of a seal</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig404">481</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig405">405.</a></td> +<td>Qanging in form of a button</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig405">481</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig406">406.</a></td> +<td>Qanging serving for both toggle and handle</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig406">481</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig407">407.</a></td> +<td>Qidjarung or whirl for harpoon line</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig407">481</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig408">408.</a></td> +<td>Simpler form of whirl</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig408">481</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig409">409.</a></td> +<td>Old pattern of hook for drawing out captured seal</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig409">483</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig410">410.</a></td> +<td>Seal hook of bear’s claw</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig410">483</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig411">411.</a></td> +<td>Modern form of seal hook</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig411">483</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig412">412.</a></td> +<td>Eskimo approaching seal</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig412">484</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig413">413.</a></td> +<td>Frame of a kayak or hunting boat</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig413">486</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig414">414.</a></td> +<td>Kayak with covering of skin</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig414">487</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><span class="pagenum"><a name="page406" id="page406">406</a></span> +<a href="#fig415">415.</a></td> +<td>Model of a Repulse Bay kayak</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig415">487</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig416">416.</a></td> +<td>Sirmijaung or scraper for kayak</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig416">488</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig417">417.</a></td> +<td>Large kayak harpoon for seal and walrus</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig417">488</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig418">418.</a></td> +<td>Tikagung or support for the hand</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig418">488</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig419">419.</a></td> +<td>Qatirn or ivory head of harpoon shaft</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig419">489</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig420">420.</a></td> +<td><p>Manner of attaching the two principal parts of the +harpoon</p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig420">489</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig421">421.</a></td> +<td>Tokang or harpoon head in sheath</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig421">489</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig422">422.</a></td> +<td><p>Tokang or harpoon head taken from a whale in Cumberland +Sound</p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig422">490</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig423">423.</a></td> +<td>Ancient tokang or harpoon head</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig423">491</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig424">424.</a></td> +<td>Teliqbing, which is fastened to harpoon line</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig424">492</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig425">425.</a></td> +<td>Qatilik or spear</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig425">492</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig426">426.</a></td> +<td>Avautang or sealskin float</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig426">492</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig427">427.</a></td> +<td><p>Different styles of poviutang or pipe for inflating the +float</p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig427">493</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig428">428.</a></td> +<td>Agdliaq or spear for small seals</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig428">494</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig429">429.</a></td> +<td>Agdliaq points</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig429">494</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig430">430.</a></td> +<td>Spear heads</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig430">495</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig431">431.</a></td> +<td>Large spear head</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig431">495</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig432">432.</a></td> +<td>Anguvigang or lance</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig432">496</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig433">433.</a></td> +<td>Nuirn or bird spear</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig433">496</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig434">434.</a></td> +<td>Nuqsang or throwing board</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig434">496</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig435">435.</a></td> +<td>Sealing at the edge of the ice</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig435">498</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig436">436.</a></td> +<td>Model of sakurpāng´ or whaling harpoon</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig436">500</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig437">437.</a></td> +<td><ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘Niū´tang’ with macron">Niu´tang</ins>, with floats</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig437">500</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig438">438.</a></td> +<td>Wooden bow from Iglulik</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig438">502</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig439">439.</a></td> +<td>Wooden bow from Cumberland Sound</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig439">502</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig440">440.</a></td> +<td>Bows of reindeer antlers</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig440">503</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig441">441.</a></td> +<td><p>Bow of antlers, with central part cut off straight, from Pelly +Bay</p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig441">503</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig442">442.</a></td> +<td>Arrows with bone heads</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig442">504</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig443">443.</a></td> +<td>Arrows with metal heads</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig443">504</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig444">444.</a></td> +<td>Arrowhead from Boothia</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig444">505</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig445">445.</a></td> +<td><p>Showing attachment of arrowhead vertically and parallel to +shank</p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig445">505</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig446">446.</a></td> +<td>Various forms of arrowhead</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig446">506</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig447">447.</a></td> +<td>Socket of spear handle from Alaska</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig447">506</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig448">448.</a></td> +<td>Slate arrowhead</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig448">506</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig449">449.</a></td> +<td>Flint arrowheads from old graves</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig449">507</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig450">450.</a></td> +<td>Various styles of quiver</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig450">507</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig451">451.</a></td> +<td>Quiver handles</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig451">508</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig452">452.</a></td> +<td>Whalebone nooses for catching waterfowl</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig452">511</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig453">453.</a></td> +<td>Kakivang or salmon spear</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig453">512</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig454">454.</a></td> +<td>Ivory fish used as bait in spearing salmon</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig454">513</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig455">455.</a></td> +<td>Quqartaun for stringing fish</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig455">514</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig456">456.</a></td> +<td>Salmon hook</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig456">515</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig457">457.</a></td> +<td>Salmon hook</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig457">515</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig458">458.</a></td> +<td>Bait used in fishing with hooks</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig458">516</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig459">459.</a></td> +<td>Butcher’s knife with bone handle</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig459">516</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig460">460.</a></td> +<td>Pana or knife for dissecting game</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig460">517</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig461">461.</a></td> +<td>Form of ulo now in use</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig461">518</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig462">462.</a></td> +<td><p>Old ulo with top of handle broken off, from Cape Broughton, Davis +Strait</p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig462">518</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig463">463.</a></td> +<td>Fragment of an ulo blade of slate</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig463">518</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig464">464.</a></td> +<td>Ulo handle from recent grave</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig464">518</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig465">465.</a></td> +<td>Modern tesirqun or scraper</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig465">519</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig466">466.</a></td> +<td>Old style of tesirqun or scraper</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig466">519</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><span class="pagenum"><a name="page407" id="page407">407</a></span> +<a href="#fig467">467.</a></td> +<td>Seligoung or scraper used for softening skins</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig467">520</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig468">468.</a></td> +<td>Old stone scrapers found in graves</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig468">521</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig469">469.</a></td> +<td>Stretcher for lines</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig469">522</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig470">470.</a></td> +<td>Ivory needle</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig470">523</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig471">471.</a></td> +<td>Ivory needle-case from Cumberland Sound</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig471">523</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig472">472.</a></td> +<td>Common pattern of needle-case</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig472">523</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig473">473.</a></td> +<td>Tikiq or thimble</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig473">524</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig474">474.</a></td> +<td>Instrument for straightening bones</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig474">525</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig475">475.</a></td> +<td>Drill for working in ivory and bone</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig475">525</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig476">476.</a></td> +<td>Driftwood used in kindling fire</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig476">526</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig477">477.</a></td> +<td>Eskimo graver’s tool</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig477">526</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig478">478.</a></td> +<td>Framework of Eskimo boat</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig478">527</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig479">479.</a></td> +<td>Kiglo or post</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig479">527</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig480">480.</a></td> +<td>Umiaq or skin boat</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig480">528</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig481">481.</a></td> +<td>Umiaq or skin boat</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig481">528</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig482">482.</a></td> +<td>Qamuting or sledge</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig482">529</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig483">483.</a></td> +<td>Sledge shoe</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig483">530</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig484">484.</a></td> +<td>Clasp for fastening traces to sledge</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig484">531</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig485">485.</a></td> +<td><p>Artistic form of clasp for fastening traces to sledge</p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig485">531</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig486">486.</a></td> +<td>Uqsirn, for fastening traces to pitu</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig486">532</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig487">487.</a></td> +<td>Ano or dog harness</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig487">532</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig488">488.</a></td> +<td>Sadniriaq or clasp</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig488">532</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig489">489.</a></td> +<td>Tube for drinking</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig489">535</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig490">490.</a></td> +<td>Various styles of snow knife</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig490">539</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig491">491.</a></td> +<td>Ground plan of snow house of Davis Strait tribes</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig491">541</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig492">492.</a></td> +<td>Snow house of Davis Strait, sections</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig492">542</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig493">493.</a></td> +<td>Section and interior of snow house</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig493">543</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig494">494.</a></td> +<td>Ukusik or soapstone kettle</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig494">545</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig495">495.</a></td> +<td>Plan of double snow house</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig495">546</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig496">496.</a></td> +<td>Plan of Iglulik house</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig496">547</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig497">497.</a></td> +<td>Plan of Hudson Bay house</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig497">547</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig498">498.</a></td> +<td>Plan and sections of qarmang or stone house</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig498">548</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig499">499.</a></td> +<td>Plan of large qarmang or stone house</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig499">549</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig500">500.</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of stone house in Anarnitung, Cumberland Sound</p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig500">549</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig501">501.</a></td> +<td><p>Plan of group of stone houses in Pangnirtung, Cumberland +Sound</p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig501">550</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig502">502.</a></td> +<td><p>Plan and sections of qarmang or house made of whale ribs</p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig502">550</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig503">503.</a></td> +<td>Storehouse in Ukiadliving</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig503">551</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig504">504.</a></td> +<td><p>Plan and sections of tupiq or tent of Cumberland Sound</p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig504">551</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig505">505.</a></td> +<td>Plan and sections of tupiq or tent of Pond Bay</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig505">553</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig506">506.</a></td> +<td><p>Plan and sections of double winter tent, Cumberland +Sound</p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig506">553</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig507">507.</a></td> +<td>Qaturang or boot ornament</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig507">554</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig508">508.</a></td> +<td>Woman’s jacket</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig508">555</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig509">509.</a></td> +<td>Ivory beads for women’s jackets</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig509">555</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig510">510.</a></td> +<td>Girdle buckles</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig510">556</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig511">511.</a></td> +<td>Infant’s clothing</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig511">557</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig512">512.</a></td> +<td>Child’s clothing</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig512">557</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig513">513.</a></td> +<td>Ivory combs</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig513">559</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig514">514.</a></td> +<td>Buckles</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig514">560</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig515">515.</a></td> +<td>Manner of tattooing face and wearing hair</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig515">561</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig516">516.</a></td> +<td>Manner of tattooing legs and hands</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig516">561</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig517">517.</a></td> +<td>Forks</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig517">563</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig518">518.</a></td> +<td>Ladle of musk ox horn</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig518">563</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig519">519.</a></td> +<td>Skull used in the game ajegaung</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig519">565</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><span class="pagenum"><a name="page408" id="page408">408</a></span> +<a href="#fig520">520.</a></td> +<td><p>Ivory carving representing head of fox, used in the game +ajegaung</p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig520">565</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig521">521.</a></td> +<td><p>Ivory carvings representing polar bear, used in the game +ajegaung</p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig521">566</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig522">522.</a></td> +<td><p>Figures used in playing tingmiujang, a game similar to +dice</p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig522">567</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig523">523.</a></td> +<td>Game of nuglutang</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig523">568</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig524">524.</a></td> +<td>The sāketān or roulette</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig524">569</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig525">525.</a></td> +<td>Ajarorpoq or cat’s cradle</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig525">569</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig526">526.</a></td> +<td>Ball</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig526">570</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig527">527.</a></td> +<td>Dolls in dress of the Oqomiut</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig527">571</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig528">528.</a></td> +<td>Dolls in dress of the Akudnirmiut</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig528">571</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig529">529.</a></td> +<td>Modern snow goggles, of wood</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig529">576</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig530">530.</a></td> +<td>Old form of snow goggles, of ivory</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig530">576</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig531">531.</a></td> +<td><p>Diagram showing interior of qaggi or singing house among eastern +tribes</p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig531">600</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig532">532.</a></td> +<td>Plan of Hudson Bay qaggi or singing house</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig532">601</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig533">533.</a></td> +<td>Kilaut or drum</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig533">602</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig534">534.</a></td> +<td><p>Plans of remains of supposed qaggi or singing houses</p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig534">603</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig535">535.</a></td> +<td>Qailertetang, a masked figure</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig535">606</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig536">536.</a></td> +<td>Model of lamp from a grave in Cumberland Sound</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig536">613</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig537">537.</a></td> +<td>Qaudjaqdjuq is maltreated by his enemies</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig537">631</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig538">538.</a></td> +<td><p>The man in the moon comes down to help Qaudjaqdjuq</p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig538">631</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig539">539.</a></td> +<td>The man in the moon whipping Qaudjaqdjuq</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig539">632</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig540">540.</a></td> +<td>Qaudjaqdjuq has become Qaudjuqdjuaq</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig540">632</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig541">541.</a></td> +<td>Qaudjuqdjuaq killing his enemies</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig541">633</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig542">542.</a></td> +<td>Tumiujang, or lamp of the Tornit</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig542">634</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig543">543.</a></td> +<td><p>Cumberland Sound and Frobisher Bay, drawn by Itu, a +Nugumio</p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig543">644</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig544">544.</a></td> +<td><p>Cumberland Sound and Frobisher Bay, drawn by Sunapignang, an +Oqomio</p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig544">645</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig545">545.</a></td> +<td>Cumberland Sound, drawn by Itu, a Nugumio</td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig545">646</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="item"><a href="#fig546">546.</a></td> +<td><p>Peninsula of Qivitung, drawn by Angutuqdjuaq, a Padlimio</p></td> +<td class="number"><a href="#fig546">647</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<hr> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page409" id="page409">409</a></span> +<h2><a name="eskimo" id="eskimo">THE CENTRAL ESKIMO.</a></h2> + +<hr class="small"> + +<p class="author">By Dr. Franz Boas</p> + +<hr class="small"> + + +<h3><a name="intro" id="intro">INTRODUCTION.</a></h3> + + +<p>The following account of the Central Eskimo contains chiefly the +results of the author’s own observations and collections made during a +journey to Cumberland Sound and Davis Strait, supplemented by extracts +from the reports of other travelers. The geographical results of this +journey have been published in a separate volume.<a class="tag" name="tag1" id="tag1" href="#note1">1</a> A few traditions which +were considered unsuitable for publication by the Bureau of Ethnology +may be found in the Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für +Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, 1887. The linguistic +material collected during the journey will be published separately.</p> + +<p>Owing to unfortunate circumstances, the larger portion of the +author’s collections could not be brought home, and it has therefore +been necessary, in preparing this paper, to make use of those made by +C. F. Hall, 1860–1862 and 1865–1869; W. Mintzer, +1873-’74, and L. Kumlien, 1877-’78. Through the kindness of +Professor Otis T. Mason, I was allowed to make ample use of the +collections of the National Museum and have attached its numbers to the +specimens figured. The author’s collection is deposited in the Museum +für Völkerkunde at Berlin. I am indebted to the American Museum of +Natural History; to Mr. Appleton Sturgis, of New York; to Captain John +O. Spicer, of Groton, Conn.; and to Mrs. Adams, of Washington, D.C., for +several figures drawn from specimens in their possession.</p> + + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page410" id="page410">410</a></span> + +<h4><a name="intro_auth" id="intro_auth">AUTHORITIES +QUOTED.</a></h4> +<p>In citing the various authorities, I have used abbreviations as +indicated at the end of titles in the following list of works +consulted:</p> + +<div class="citation"> +<p>De | Martini | Forbisseri | Angli navigati | one in regiones occi | +dentis et septen | trionis | Narratio historica, | Ex Gallico sermone in +La | tinum translata | per | D. Joan. Tho. Freigivm. | [Design.] | +Cum gratia & privilegio Imperiali, ciↄ. iↄ. xxc. [Colophon:] +Noribergæ | Imprimebatur, in officina Ca | tharinæ Gerlachin, & Hære +| dum Iohannis Mon | tani. Anno ciↄ iↄ xxc. (Cited, Frobisher.)</p> + +<p>A | voyage of discovery, | made under the orders of the Admiralty | +in | His Majesty’s ships | Isabella and Alexander, | for the purpose of +| exploring Baffin’s Bay, | and inquiring into the probability of a | +north-west passage. | By John Ross, K.S. Captain Royal Navy. | London: | +John Murray, Albemarle-street. | 1819. (Cited, Ross I.)</p> + +<p>Journal | of a voyage for the discovery of a | north-west passage | +from the Atlantic to the Pacific; | performed in the years +1819–20, | in His Majesty’s ships | Hecla and Griper, | under the +orders of | William Edward Parry, R.N., F.R.S., | and commander of the +expedition. | With an appendix, containing the scientific | and other +observations. | Published by authority of the lords commissioners | of +the admiralty. | London: | John Murray, | publisher to the admiralty, +and board of longitude. | 1821. (Cited, Parry I.)</p> + +<p>Journal | of a | second voyage for the discovery of a | north-west +passage | from the Atlantic to the Pacific; | performed in the years +1821–22–23, | in His Majesty’s ships | Fury and Hecla, | +under the orders of | Captain William Edward Parry, R.N., F.R.S., | and +commander of the expedition. | Illustrated by numerous plates. | +Published by authority of the lords commissioners | of the admiralty. | +London: | John Murray, | publisher to the admiralty, and board of +longitude. | 1824. (Cited, Parry II.)</p> + +<p>The | private journal | of | Captain G. F. Lyon, | of H.M.S. Hecla, | +during | the recent voyage of discovery under | Captain Parry. | With a +map and plates. | London: | John Murray, Albemarle-Street. | 1824. +(Cited, Lyon.)</p> + +<p>A | brief narrative | of | an unsuccessful attempt | to reach | +Repulse Bay, | through | Sir Thomas Rowe’s “Welcome,” | in | His +Majesty’s ship Griper, | in the year | 1824. | By Captain G. F. +Lyon, R.N. | With a chart and engravings. | London: | John Murray, +Albemarle street. | 1825. (Cited, Lyon, Attempt to reach Repulse +Bay.)</p> + +<p>Narrative | of a | second voyage in search of | a | north-west +passage, | and of a | residence in the Arctic regions | during the years +1829, 1830, 1831, 1832, 1833. | By | Sir John Ross, C.B., K.S.A., +K.C.S., &c. &c. | captain in the Royal Navy. | Including the +reports of | Commander, now Captain, James Clark Ross, R.N., F.R.S., +F.L.S., &c. | and | The Discovery of the Northern Magnetic Pole. | +London: | A. W. Webster, 156, Regent street. | 1835. (Cited, +Ross II.)</p> + +<p>A narrative | of some passages in the history of | Eenoolooapik, | a +young Esquimaux who was brought to Britain in 1839, in the ship +“Neptune” | of Aberdeen. | An account of the | discovery of Hogarth’s +Sound: | remarks on the northern whale fishery, | and suggestions for +its improvement, &c. &c. | By Alexander M’Donald, L.R.C.S.E. | +Member of Cuvieran Natural History Society of Edinburgh. | Edinburgh: +Fraser & Co. | And J. Hogg, 116 Nicolson Street, | 1841. +(Cited, Eenoolooapik.)</p> + +<p>Narrative | of | the discoveries | on | the north coast of America; | +effected by the | officers of the Hudson’s Bay Company | during the +years 1836–39. | By Thomas Simpson, esq. | London: | Richard +Bentley, New Burlington Street. | Publisher in Ordinary to Her Majesty | +1843. | (Cited, Dease and Simpson.)</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page411" id="page411">411</a></span> +<p>Narrative | of an | expedition to the shores | of | the Arctic sea | +in 1846 and 1847. | By John Rae, | Hudson Bay Company’s service, +commander of the expedition.| With maps. | London: | +T. & W. Boone, 29, New Pond Street. | 1850. (Cited, +Rae I.)</p> + +<p>Further papers | relative to the Recent Arctic expeditions | in +search of | Dr. John Franklin, | and the crews of | H.M.S. “Erebus” and +“Terror.” | Presented to both houses of Parliament by command of Her +Majesty, | January, 1855. London: | Printed by George Edward Eyre and +William Spottiswoode, | Printers to the Queen’s most excellent Majesty. +| For Her Majesty’s stationery office. | 1855. (Cited, Rae II.)</p> + +<p>Same volume: Observations on the Western Esquimaux and the country +they inhabit; from Notes taken during two years at Point Barrow, by Mr. +John Simpson, Surgeon R.N., Her Majesty’s Discovery Ship “Plover.” +(Cited, Simpson<ins class="correction" title="closing ) missing">.) </ins></p> + +<p>The voyage of the ‘Fox’ in the Arctic seas. | A narrative | of the | +discovery of the fate | of | Sir John Franklin | and | his companions. | +By Captain M’Clintock, R.N., LL.D. | honorary member Royal Dublin +Society. | [Portrait.] | With maps and illustrations. | London: | John +Murray, Albemarle street, | publisher to the admiralty. | 1859. (Cited, +M’Clintock.)</p> + +<p>Life with the Esquimaux: | a narrative of Arctic experience in search +of | survivors of Sir John Franklin’s | Expedition. | By | Captain +Charles Francis Hall, | of the whaling barque “George Henry,” | From May +29, 1860, to September 13, 1862. | Popular Edition. | With Maps, | +Coloured illustrations, and one hundred wood cuts. | London: | Sampson +Low, son, and Marston, | Milton House, Ludgate Hill. | 1865. (Cited, +Hall I.)</p> + +<p>Tales and traditions | of the | Eskimo | with a sketch of | their +habits, religion, language | and other peculiarities | by | Dr Henry +Rink | knight of Dannebrog | Director of the Royal Greenland board of +trade, and | formerly Royal Inspector of South Greenland | author of +‘Grönland geographik og | statistick beckrevest,<a class="tag" name="endtagB" id="endtagB" href="#endnoteB">B</a> etc. | Translated from +the Danish by the author | Edited by | Dr Robert Brown | F.L.S., +F.R.G.S. | author of ‘The races of mankind,’ etc. | With numerous +illustrations, drawn and | engraved by Eskimo | William Blackwood and +Sons | Edinburgh and London | 1875. | All rights reserved. (Cited, +Rink.)</p> + +<p>Eskimoiske | Eventyr og Sagn | oversatte | efter de indfødte +fortælleres opskrifter | og meddelelser | af | H. Rink, | inspektør +i Sydgrønland. | Kjøbenhavn. | C. A. Reitzels Boghandel. | Louis +Kleins Bogtrykkeri. | 1866. (Cited, Rink, Eventyr og Sagn.)</p> + +<p>Eskimoiske | Eventyr og Sagn. | Supplement | indeholdende | et Tillæg +om Eskimoerne | af | H. Rink. | Kjøbenhavn. | C. A. Reitzels +Boghandel. | Louis Kleins Bogtrykkeri. | 1871. (Cited, Rink, Eventyr og +Sagn, Supplement.)</p> + +<p>Narrative | of the | second Arctic expedition | made by | Charles F. +Hall: | his voyage to Repulse Bay, sledge journeys to the Straits +[<i>sic</i>] of Fury | and Hecla and to King William’s Land, | and | +residence among the Eskimos during the years 1864-’69. | Edited under +the orders of the Hon. Secretary of the Navy, | by | Prof. J. E. +Nourse, U.S.N. | U.S. Naval Observatory, | 1879. | Trübner & Co., | +Nos. 57 and 59 Ludgate Hill, | London. (Cited, Hall II.)</p> + +<p>Als Eskimo unter den Eskimos. | Eine Schilderung der Erlebnisse | der +| Schwatka’schen Franklin-Aufsuchungs-Expedition | in den Jahren +1878–80. | Von | Heinrich W. Klutschak, | Zeichner und Geometer +der Expedition. | Mit 3 Karten, 12 Vollbildern und zahlreichen in den +Text gedruckten Illustrationen | nach den Skizzen des Verfassers. | +Wien. Pest. Leipzig. | A. Hartleben’s Verlag. | 1881. | Alle Rechte +vorbehalten. (Cited, Klutschak.)</p> + +<p>Schwatka’s Search | sledging in the Arctic in quest of | the Franklin +records | By | William H. Gilder | second in command | with maps and +illustrations | London | Sampson Low, Marston, Searle, and Rivington | +Crown Buildings, 188, Fleet Street. | All rights reserved. (Cited, +Gilder.)</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page412" id="page412">412</a></span> + +<p>Eskimoisches Wörterbuch, | gesammelt | von den Missionaren | in | +Labrador, | revidirt und herausgegeben | von | Friedrich Erdmann. | +Budissin, | gedruckt bei Ernst Moritz Monse. | 1864. (Cited, Wörterbuch +des Labradordialectes.)</p> + +<p class="mynote"> +In the following two items, umlauts (äöü) were printed as a small “e” +above the letter.</p> + +<p>David Cranz | Historie | von | Grönland | enthaltend | Die +Beschreibung des Landes und | der Einwohner &c. | insbesondere | die +| Geschichte | der dortigen | Mission der | Evangelischen | Brüder | zu +| Neu-Herrnhut | und | Lichtenfels. | Mit acht Kupfertafeln und einem +Register. | Barby bey Heinrich Detlef Ebers, und in Leipzig | in +Commission bey Weidmanns Erben und Reich. | 1765. (Cited, Cranz.)</p> + +<p>Bruchstükke | eines Tagebuches, | gehalten in | Grönland | in den +Jahren 1770 bis 1778 | von Hans Egede Saabye, | vormaligem ordinierten +Missionar in den Destrikten Claushavn | und Christianshaab, jetzigem +Prediger zu Udbye | im Stifte Füthnen. | Aus dem Dänischen übersetzt | +von | G. Fries, | beabschiedigtem königlich dänischen Capitaine. | +Mit einer Vorrede des Uebersetzers, | enthaltend einige Nachrichten von +der Lebensweise der | Grönländer, der Mission in Grönland, samt andern +damit | verwandten Gegenständen, und einer Karte | über Grönland. +Hamburg. | Bey Perthes und Besser. | 1817. (Cited, Egede.)</p> + +<p>Baffin-Land. | Geographische Ergebnisse | einer | in den Jahren 1883 +und 1884 ausgeführten Forschungsreise. | Von | Dr. Franz Boas. | Mit +zwei Karten und neun Skizzen im Text. | (Ergänzungsheft No. 80 zu +»Petermanns Mitteilungen«.) | Gotha: Justus Perthes. | 1885. (Cited, +Baffin-Land.)</p> + +<p>Die Amerikanische | Nordpol-Expedition | von | Emil Bessels. | Mit +zahlreiche Illustrationen in Holzschnitt, Diagrammen und | einer Karte +in Farbendruck. | Leipzig. | Verlag von Wilhelm Engelmann. | 1879. +(Cited, Bessels.)</p> + +<p>Contributions | to the | Natural History of | Arctic America, | made +in connection with | the Howgate Polar expedition, 1877-’78, | by | +Ludwig Kumlien, | Naturalist of the expedition. | Washington: | +Government Printing Office. | 1879.</p> + +<p>Report | of the | Hudson’s Bay expedition, | under the command of | +Lieut. A. R. Gordon, R.N., | 1884.</p> + +<p>Traditions indiennes | du | Canada nord-ouest | par Émile Petitot | +Ancien missionnaire. | Paris | Maisonneuve frères et Ch. Leclerc, | 25, +Quai Voltaire, | 1886.</p> +</div> + +<p>The following is a list of the papers published by the author on the +results of his journey to Baffin Land and of studies connected with it. +The ethnological remarks contained in these brief communications have +been embodied in the present paper. The method of spelling in the first +publications differs from that applied in the present paper. It was +decided to use the latter after a conference with Dr. H. Rink.</p> + +<div class="citation"> +<p>“Reiseberichte aus Baffin-Land.” Berliner Tageblatt, August 4, +October 28, November 4, November 25. 1883; September 28, October +19, November 2, November 9, November 16, November 23, December +28, 1884; January 4, April 3, April 27, 1885.</p> + +<p>“Unter dem Polarkreise.” New-Yorker Staats-Zeitung, February 1, +February 22, March 2, 1885.</p> + +<p>“The configuration of Ellesmere Land.” Science, February 27, +1885.</p> + +<p>“A journey in Cumberland Sound and on the west shore of Davis Strait +in 1883 and 1884, with map.” Bull. Am. Geogr. Soc., +pp. 241–272, 1884.</p> + +<p>“Die Wohnsitze und Wanderungen der Baffin-Land Eskimos.” Deutsche +geogr. Blätter, p. 31, 1885.</p> + +<p>“Cumberland Sound and its Esquimaux.” Popular Science Monthly, +p. 768, May, 1885.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page413" id="page413">413</a></span> +<p>“Die Eskimos des Baffin-Landes.” Verh. des V. deutschen +Geographentags zu Hamburg. Berlin, 1885.</p> + +<p>“Reise im Baffinlande, 1883 und 1884.” Verh. der Ges. für Erdkunde zu +Berlin, 1885, Nos. 5, 6.</p> + +<p>“Die Sagen der Baffin-Land Eskimos.” Verh. der Berlin, anthrop. +Gesellschaft, 1885, p. 161.</p> + +<p>“The Eskimo of Baffin Land.” Transactions of the Anthropological +Society of Washington, Vol. 3, pp. 95–102.</p> + +<p>“Sammlung aus Baffin-Land.” Original Mittheilungen aus der ethnol. +Abtheilung der Kgl. Museen zu Berlin, 1886, p. 131.</p> +</div> + + +<h4><a name="intro_ortho" id="intro_ortho">ORTHOGRAPHY.</a></h4> +<p>In the spelling of Eskimo words the author has adhered as closely as +possible to Kleinschmidt’s orthography, as he did not deem it proper to +introduce a linguistic alphabet after so much has been published in +another and almost sufficient one.</p> + +<p>Accents and lengths have been marked where it seemed to be desirable. +In quotations Eskimo words are spelled according to this system where it +is possible to recognize their meaning and derivation. In other cases +the original spelling of the authors has been retained. The alphabet +used in this paper is as follows:</p> + +<table class="ortho"> +<tr> +<td class="right"><i>Vowels</i>: a</td><td>—</td> +<td>a in father.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="right">e</td><td>—</td> +<td>ey in they.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="right">i</td><td>—</td> +<td>ee in feel.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="right">o</td><td>—</td> +<td>o in nose.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="right">u</td><td>—</td> +<td>oo in pool.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="right">au</td><td>—</td> +<td>ow in how.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="right">ai</td><td>—</td> +<td>i in hide.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="3"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="right"><i>Consonants</i>: q</td><td>—</td> +<td>a hard, guttural sound (Kleinschmidt’s ĸ).</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="right">r</td><td>—</td> +<td>the German guttural r.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="right">rn</td><td>—</td> +<td>a guttural and nasal r.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="right">χ</td><td>—</td> +<td>the German ch in Buch; Scotch ch in loch.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="right">g</td><td>—</td> +<td>English g in go.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="right">k</td><td>—</td> +<td>English k.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="right">ng</td><td>—</td> +<td>English ng in during.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="right">b</td><td>—</td> +<td>English b.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="right">p</td><td>—</td> +<td>English p.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="right">v</td><td>—</td> +<td>pronounced with the lips only.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="right">f</td><td>—</td> +<td>pronounced with the lips only.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="right">m</td><td>—</td> +<td>English m.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="right">d</td><td>—</td> +<td>English d.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="right">t</td><td>—</td> +<td>English t.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="right">s</td><td>—</td> +<td>English s in soul.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="right">n</td><td>—</td> +<td>English n.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="right">(g)dl</td><td>—</td> +<td>ḏ of Lepsius’s standard alphabet.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="right">(g)dtl</td><td>—</td> +<td>ṯ of Lepsius’s standard alphabet.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="right">l</td><td>—</td> +<td>English l.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="right">j</td><td>—</td> +<td>German j in jung; English y.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="right">ss</td><td>—</td> +<td><p>š of Lepsius’s standard alphabet, sounding between s and +sh.</p></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page414" id="page414">414</a></span> + +<h4><a name="intro_geog" id="intro_geog">GEOGRAPHY OF NORTHEASTERN +AMERICA.</a><a class="tag" name="tag2" id="tag2" href="#note2">2</a></h4> + +<p>The Eskimo inhabit almost the whole extent of the coast of Arctic +America. A large part of this country is occupied by the Central +Eskimo, one of the great groups into which that people is divided. They +live in the northeastern part of the continent and on the eastern +islands of the Arctic-American Archipelago. In Smith Sound they inhabit +the most northern countries visited by man and their remains are even +found at its northern outlet. The southern and western boundaries of +this district are the countries about Fort Churchill, the middle part of +Back River, and the coast west of Adelaide Peninsula. Along the whole +extent of this line they are the neighbors of Indian tribes, with whom +they are generally on very bad terms, a mutual distrust existing +between the two races.</p> + +<p>The geography of the whole country is known only in outline, and a +great portion of it awaits its explorer. Following is a sketch of what +is known about it, so far as it is of importance to the ethnologist.</p> + +<p>The vast basin of Hudson Bay separates two large portions of the +American continent: Labrador and the region of the large Arctic rivers. +The southern shore of the bay is inhabited by Indian tribes who +interrupt the communication between the Eskimo of both regions. Hudson +Bay, however, has the character of a true mediterranean sea, the +northern parts of its opposite shores being connected by a number of +islands and peninsulas. The low and narrow Rae Isthmus, which presents +an easy passage to the Arctic Ocean, unites Melville Peninsula to the +main body of the continent. From this peninsula Baffin Land stretches +out toward the north of Labrador, with only two narrow channels +intervening: Fury and Hecla Strait and Hudson Strait. Another chain of +islands, formed by the parts of Southampton Island and Mansfield Island, +stretches from Repulse Bay to the northwest point of Labrador, but the +distances between the islands and the roughness of the sea prevent +communication.</p> + +<p>On the western part of the continent the great bays, Chesterfield +Inlet and Wager River, are of importance, as they allow the Eskimo, +though they are a coast people, to penetrate into the interior of the +continent. A narrow isthmus separates the head of the bays from the +lakes of Back River. At Coronation Bay the latter approaches the Arctic +Ocean very closely, and it is probable that the coast west of Adelaide +Peninsula, which is skirted by innumerable islands, is indented by deep +inlets extending towards the lakes of Back River. Thus communication +between the Arctic Ocean and Hudson Bay is facilitated by this large +river, which yields an abundant supply of fish. From Wager River an +isthmus leads to its estuary.</p> + +<p>Boothia Felix, the most northern peninsula of the continent, is +united to it by two narrow isthmuses, the former extending from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page415" id="page415">415</a></span> +Pelly Bay to Shepherd Bay, the latter from Lord Mayor Bay to Spence Bay. +It is separated from North Somerset by the narrow Bellot Strait. Farther +west Adelaide Peninsula and King William Land form the continuation of +the continent toward the western extremity of Boothia, thus outlining a +spacious bay sheltered from the currents and the pack ice of Melville +Sound and the adjoining bays. The eastern sides of Boothia and North +Somerset and the western coasts of Melville Peninsula and Baffin Land +form a gulf similar to Fox Basin.</p> + +<p>Farther north, between Baffin Land and Greenland, North Devon and +Ellesmere Land are situated. Thus Baffin Land forms a connecting link +for three regions inhabited by Eskimo: the Hudson Bay Territory, +Labrador, and Greenland.</p> + +<p>The orography of the western coast of Hudson Bay is little known. +Most of this coast seems to form a hilly land, consisting generally of +granite. Between Wager River and Chesterfield Inlet it rises to a chain +of hills of about one thousand feet in height, extending to a plateau +farther north. Another chain seems to stretch in a northeasterly +direction from Back River to the source of Hayes River. West of Back +River Silurian strata prevail. The granite hills form a favorite haunt +for the musk ox and reindeer.</p> + +<p>Melville Peninsula consists chiefly of a chain of granite hills, +sloping down to a Silurian plain in the eastern part of the peninsula. +The northeastern part of Baffin Land is formed by a high chain of +mountains stretching from Lancaster Sound to Cape Mercy. Long fjords and +deep valleys divide them into many groups. Bylot Island, which stands +high out of the sea, is separated from the mainland by Pond Bay and +Eclipse Sound. The next group stretches from Pond Bay to the fjord of +Anaulereë´ling. Farther to the southeast the groups are smaller, and in +Home Bay they are separated by wide valleys, particularly near +Eχalualuin, a large fjord on the southern side of that bay.</p> + +<p>From this fjord an enormous highland, which I named Penny Highland, +extends as far as Cumberland Sound, being terminated by the narrow +valley of Pangnirtung. The eastern boundary runs through the fjords +Maktartudjennaq and Narpaing to Nedluqseaq and Nudlung. In the interior +it may extend to about fifteen miles east of Issortuqdjuaq, the most +northern fjord of Cumberland Sound. The whole of the vast highland is +covered by an ice cap sending forth numerous glaciers in every +direction. In Pangnirtung and on Davis Strait they reach the level of +the sea.</p> + +<p>Penny Highland, which forms the main body of Cumberland Peninsula, +has attached to it a few mountain groups of moderate extent: the +peninsula of Nudlung and the highland of Eχalualuin and that of +Qivitung.</p> + +<p>Farther southeast, between the valleys of Pangnirtung and +Kingnait-Padli, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page416" id="page416">416</a></span> +is situated the highland of Kingnait, with sharp peaks emerging from the +ice cap which covers the lower parts of the plateau. The rest of +Cumberland Peninsula is formed by the highland of Saumia, which much +resembles that of Kingnait. Near Cape Mercy the ice covered highland +slopes down to a hilly region, which falls abruptly to the sea.</p> + +<p>The southern parts of this range of mountains are composed of gneiss +and granite. It may be that Silurian strata occur in some places, but +they have not yet been found anywhere in situ. The northern parts are +too imperfectly known to enable us to form an idea of their geological +character.</p> + +<p>The mountains just described slope down to a hilly region, which +farther to the west levels off to a plain. The hills are composed of +granite, the plains of Silurian limestone, which extends from Prince +Regent Inlet to the head of Frobisher Bay.</p> + +<p>The peninsula between Cumberland Sound and Frobisher Bay is formed by +a plateau, which slopes down gradually to the northwest. It is drained +by a great river flowing into Auqardneling, a fjord on the western +shore of Cumberland Sound. Near Lake Nettilling the country is very low, +the level of the lake being only forty feet above that of the sea. Here +the watershed between Cumberland Sound and Fox Basin closely approaches +the eastern shore, coming within five miles of the head of Nettilling +Fjord. It is formed by a narrow neck of land about a quarter of a mile +wide and sixty-five feet above the level of the sea.</p> + +<p>From Eskimo reports I conclude that the plateau of Nugumiut, as we +may call the peninsula between Frobisher Bay and Cumberland Sound, is +comparatively level. Only a single mountain south of Qasigidjen (Bear +Sound) rises into the region of eternal snow.</p> + +<p>The peninsula between Frobisher Bay and Hudson Strait is formed by a +granite highland, the Meta Incognita of Queen Elizabeth. It is covered +with ice and sends a few glaciers into the sea. Farther west, near +Lesseps Bay and White Bear Sound, the country becomes lower. The narrow +isthmus leading from Hudson Strait to Amaqdjuaq cannot be very high, as +the Eskimo carry their kayaks to the lake, which I believe is about two +hundred feet above the level of the sea.</p> + +<p>Last of all I have to mention the highlands of King Cape. The rest of +the land is taken up by a vast plain in which two large lakes are +situated; the southern, Amaqdjuaq, empties by a short river into Lake +Nettilling, whence the long and wide Koukdjuaq runs to the shallow sea. +From observations made by Captain Spicer, of Groton, Conn., and +information obtained from the Eskimo, we learn that the whole of the +eastern part of Fox Basin is extremely shallow and that there are many +low islands scattered about in those parts of the sea. The plains of +Baffin Land, Fox Basin, and the eastern half of Melville +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page417" id="page417">417</a></span> +Peninsula may be considered a wide basin of Silurian strata bordered by +granitic elevations on every side.</p> + +<p>Besides the configuration of the land, the extent of the land ice +formed during the winter is of vital importance to the inhabitants of +the Arctic region, because during the greater part of the year it +affords the only means of communication between the tribes, and because +in winter the seal, which constitutes the principal food of the Eskimo, +takes to those parts of the coast where extensive floes are formed. +Therefore the state of the ice regulates the distribution of the natives +during the greater part of the year and must be considered in studying +the habits of the Eskimo. The extent of the land ice principally depends +on the configuration of the land and the strength of the currents. On a +shore exposed to a strong current an extensive floe can only be formed +where projecting points of land form deep bays. We find the distribution +of ice regulated in accordance with this fact all around the shores of +the Arctic Ocean.</p> + +<p>The strong current setting out of Lancaster Sound and Smith Sound +generally prevents ice from forming under the steep cliffs of the land. +Sometimes the pack ice of the sounds is stopped and freezes together +into rough floes; a smooth plain is never formed. By far the +largest land floe is formed from Bylot Island to Cape Dyer (Okan). In +Home Bay it extends to a distance of about eighty miles from the +mainland. The formation of this floe is favored by a number of shoals +which extend from the peninsulas of Cape Eglinton (Aqojang), Cape Aston +(Niaqonaujang), and Qivitung, for the large floes drifting south are +stopped by the icebergs aground on these banks. The greater part of the +floe is very rough, smooth ice prevailing only in the bays.</p> + +<p>The strong southerly current passing through the narrowest part of +Davis Strait between Cape Walsingham (Idjuk) and Holsteinborg breaks up +the ice all along the shore from Cape Dyer to Cape Walsingham, Exeter +Sound alone being covered by a larger floe. The bay between Cape +Mickleham (Nuvuktirpang) and Cape Mercy is well covered with ice, which +extends to the islands farthest out toward the sea.</p> + +<p>Near Cape Mercy the strong tides caused by Cumberland Sound prevent +the ice from consolidating in the entrance of the gulf. As the sound +widens greatly behind the narrow passage formed by Nuvukdjuaq and +Qaχodluin, the tide sets in with great force. For this reason the floe +never extends beyond that narrow entrance. Often the head of the open +water runs from Qeqerten to Nuvujen, and instances are known where it +even reaches the line of Pujetung-Umanaq.</p> + +<p>The southwestern shore of Cumberland Sound from Qaχodluin to Cape +Brevoort (Qeqertuqdjuaq) is always washed by water, because +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page418" id="page418">418</a></span> +a strong current, which often breaks up the ice of Field and Grinnell +Bay (the bays of Ukadliq and Nugumiut), sets along the coast.</p> + +<p>The floe seldom extends to Lady Franklin and Monumental Islands +(Kitigtung and Taχolidjuin), but usually runs from point to point, +compelling the natives to pass across the land in order to reach the +floe of the neighboring bay. Most of the time the edge of the floe +covering Frobisher Bay extends to a line from Countess of Warwick Sound +(Tuarpukdjuaq) to about fifteen miles southeast of Gabriel Island +(Qeqertuqdjuaq), whence it runs south to Kingnait. Sometimes +Aqbirsiarbing (Cape True) is the most eastern point inclosed by the ice. +A dangerous current sets through the strait between Resolution +Island (Tudjaqdjuaq) and the mainland, forming whirlpools which menace +every ship that attempts the passage.</p> + +<p>Hudson Strait never freezes over. The greater part of the year it is +filled with an immense pack which never consolidates into a continuous +floe. As there are no large bays along the northern shore of that +strait, no land floes of great importance are formed. Only the Bay of +Qaumauang, North Bay, and Behm Bay (the bay of Quaiirnang and that east +of Akuliaq) are covered with floes which are of importance to the +natives. The bays east of Akuliaq and the large fjords of that region +form a comparatively large body of ice.</p> + +<p>Probably no land ice is formed between King Cape (Nuvukdjuaq) and the +northern parts of Fox Basin. According to Parry and the reports of the +natives, Fury and Hecla Strait and the bay which forms its eastern +outlet are covered by land ice which is connected with the floe of the +bays of Fox Basin as far as Piling.</p> + +<p>In Hudson Bay there are very few places in which the land ice extends +to a considerable distance from the shore. Neither Frozen Strait nor +Rowe’s Welcome freezes over, each being kept open by the swiftly running +tides. The most extensive floes are formed in Repulse Bay, Wager Bay, +and Chesterfield Inlet.</p> + +<p>The drifting ice of the Gulf of Boothia never consolidates and even +Committee Bay is rarely covered by a smooth land floe. Pelly Bay and the +sea on the east coast of Boothia as far as Victoria Harbor (Tikeraqdjuq) +freeze over, since they are sheltered by numerous islands. Still larger +is the sheet of ice which covers the bay formed by the estuary of Back +River, King William Land, and Boothia. The western shore of this +peninsula farther north is skirted by a border of land ice the extent of +which is unknown.</p> + +<p>It is a remarkable fact that, although the extreme western and +eastern parts of the country abound with extensive floes, the Hudson Bay +region and the Gulf of Boothia are almost devoid of them.</p> + +<p>This brief sketch will enable one to understand the geographical +distribution and the migrations of the Eskimo tribes who inhabit this +country.</p> + + +<div class="tribes"> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page419" id="page419">419</a></span> +<h3><a name="tribes" id="tribes">DISTRIBUTION OF THE +TRIBES.</a></h3> + +<h4><a name="tribes_general" id="tribes_general">GENERAL +OBSERVATIONS.</a></h4> + +<p>The mode of life of all the Eskimo tribes of Northeastern America is +very uniform; therefore it is desirable to make a few general +observations on the subject before entering into a detailed description +of each tribe. All depends upon the distribution of food at the +different seasons. The migrations or the accessibility of the game +compel the natives to move their habitations from time to time, and +hence the distribution of the villages depends, to a great extent, upon +that of the animals which supply them with food.</p> + +<p>As the inhospitable country does not produce vegetation to an extent +sufficient to sustain life in its human inhabitants, they are forced to +depend entirely upon animal food. In Arctic America the abundance of +seals found in all parts of the sea enables man to withstand the +inclemency of the climate and the sterility of the soil. The skins of +seals furnish the material for summer garments and for the tent; their +flesh is almost the only food, and their blubber the indispensable fuel +during the long dark winter. Scarcely less important is the deer, of +whose heavy skin the winter garments are made, and these enable the +Eskimo to brave the storms and the cold of winter.</p> + +<p>That the mode of life of the Eskimo depends wholly on the +distribution of these animals will therefore be apparent, for, as +already observed, they regulate their dwelling places in accordance with +the migrations of the latter from place to place in search of food.</p> + +<p>When the constraint of winter is broken the natives leave their old +habitations. The warm rays of the sun melt the roofs of their snow +houses, the strong vaults which afforded shelter and comfortable warmth +during the long cold winter begin to break down, and new houses must be +built. They therefore exchange the solid snow houses for light tents, +which are very small and poor, until a sufficient number of sealskins +for better structures is secured.</p> + +<p>As at this time seals are found in abundance everywhere, basking in +the warm sunshine and enjoying the beginning of the spring, a great +supply is easily secured. As the season advances food becomes more +plentiful, and with the breaking up of the rivers and ponds the salmon +leave the latter and descend to the sea. About this time the Eskimo +establish their settlements at the head of the fjords, where salmon are +easily caught in the shallow rivers. In July the snow, which has covered +the land for nine months, has melted away and the natives undertake +hunting trips inland, in order to obtain the precious skins of the +reindeer and the meat of the fawns, which is always highly prized. With +the breaking up of the ice the variety +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page420" id="page420">420</a></span> +of food is further increased by the arrival of the walrus and the ground +and harp seals, which leave the country during the winter. Birds are +also found in abundance, and no cares afflict the natives.</p> + +<p>Before the sea begins to freeze over again the Eskimo return from +deer hunting and gather at places where there are the best chances for +obtaining food in the autumn. A few weeks are spent in making short +excursions near the settlements, as longer journeys would be too +dangerous during this tempestuous season. The colder it grows the more +the natives are confined to their huts and the more they become +dependent on the seal. While in summer shrubs of various kinds are +available for cooking purposes, in winter blubber affords the only fuel +for cooking and for heating their huts.</p> + +<p>At last the smaller bays are sufficiently frozen to permit a new way +of pursuing the game. The hunters visit the edge of the newly formed +floe in order to shoot the seals, which are secured by the harpoon.</p> + +<p>The process of freezing goes on quickly and the floating pieces of +ice begin to consolidate. Only a few holes are now found, in places +where icebergs, moved by the tides or the strong currents, prevent the +sea from freezing. During a short time these openings form the favorite +hunting ground of the natives. Though the walrus and the ground seal +migrate to the edge of the floe as soon as the ice begins to form, the +common seal (<i>Pagomys fœtidus</i>) remains, and this is always the +principal food of the natives. In the autumn the fjords and the narrow +channels between the islands are its favorite haunt; later in the season +it resorts to the sea, frequently appearing at the surface through +breathing holes, which it scratches in the ice. As winter comes on it is +hunted by the Eskimo at these holes.</p> + +<p>The foregoing observations will serve as a preliminary to the +description of the distribution of the tribes of Northeastern America. +The object of this section is to treat of the immediate relations +between the country and its inhabitants, and a detailed account of their +habits will be found in subsequent pages.</p> + +<p class="space"> +According to Dr. H. Rink, the Inuit race may be divided into five +groups: the Greenlanders; the central tribes of Smith Sound, Baffin +Land, the west shore of Hudson Bay, the Back River region, and Boothia; +the Labradorians, on the shores of that peninsula; the Mackenzie tribes +of the central parts of the north shore of America; and the tribes of +Alaska. I am somewhat in doubt whether the central tribes and those +of Labrador differ enough to justify a separate classification, as the +natives of both shores of Hudson Strait seem to be closely related. +A decisive answer on the division of these tribes may be postponed +until the publication of Lucien M. Turner’s excellent observations and +collections, which were made at Fort Chimo.</p> + + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page421" id="page421">421</a></span> + +<h4><a name="tribes_baffin" id="tribes_baffin">BAFFIN LAND.</a></h4> + +<h5><a name="tribes_baffin_sikosuilarmiut" id="tribes_baffin_sikosuilarmiut">The Sikosuilarmiut.—</a></h5> + +<p>I shall begin with the enumeration of the tribes in the southwestern +part of Baffin Land. This country is inhabited by the Sikosuilarmiut, +i.e., the inhabitants of the shore without an ice floe. They are settled +in two places: Nurata, east of King Cape, and Sikosuilaq, within the +peninsula (or island?) which projects east of King Cape. The large +fjords Sarbaq and Sarbausirn, which belong to their territory, are known +to me only by a description which I received in Cumberland Sound. In +summer they visit the upper parts of this long fjord to hunt deer on the +plains which reach to the shore of Fox Basin. Probably they do not +extend their migrations very far to the north or northeast; otherwise, +they would reach Lakes Amaqdjuaq and Nettilling, the region about the +latter being the hunting ground of the natives of Cumberland Sound.</p> + +<p>I know of only a single meeting between the Eskimo visiting Lake +Nettilling and others who are supposed to have come from Hudson Strait. +It occurred in 1883 south of the lake.</p> + +<h5><a name="tribes_baffin_akuliarmiut" id="tribes_baffin_akuliarmiut">The Akuliarmiut.—</a></h5> + +<p>This tribe is settled on the northern shore of Hudson Strait. Their +winter resort lies west of Qeqertuqdjuaq (Parry’s North Bluff). In +summer they travel through White Bear Sound or Lesseps Bay to Lake +Amaqdjuaq, which they reach after crossing a neck of land about ten +miles in width. The exact direction of the road cannot be ascertained, +as the position of their starting point, which is called Tuniqten, is +doubtful. Crossing a short portage they ascend to Lake Amitoq, whence on +a second portage they pass the watershed between Lake Amaqdjuaq and +Hudson Strait. From the small Lake Mingong a brook runs into Sioreling +and thence into Lake Amaqdjuaq (Baffin-Land, p. 67). On the +southern shore of the large lake they erect their summer tents. Farther +east, in North Bay, there is another winter residence of the same tribe. +Unfortunately, I cannot specify the place of this settlement, which +is called Quaiirnang.</p> + +<h5><a name="tribes_baffin_qaumauangmiut" id="tribes_baffin_qaumauangmiut">The Qaumauangmiut.—</a></h5> + +<p>East of the Akuliarmiut live the Eskimo so frequently met near Middle +Savage Islands. Their principal residence is near Lake Qaumauang, from +which they take their name Qaumauangmiut. My investigations concerning +these tribes were much embarrassed by the want of trustworthy charts. If +charts are tolerably well delineated, the Eskimo understand the meaning +of every point and island and can give detailed accounts of the +situation of the settlements and the migrations of the inhabitants.</p> + +<p>Between Sikosuilaq and Akuliaq but a moderate amount of intercourse +is kept up, as the settlements are separated by a wide and uninhabited +stretch of land. Notwithstanding this many members of one tribe are +found to have settled among the other. An American +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page422" id="page422">422</a></span> +whaling station which was established in Akuliaq a few years ago may +have had some influence upon the distribution and the life of these +tribes. The greater importance of Akuliaq, however, cannot be ascribed +to the presence of the whalers alone, as a few harbors near Sikosuilaq +are also frequently visited by them. The whalers report that there are +about fifty inhabitants in Sikosuilaq, about two hundred in Akuliaq, and +farther east fifty more. Thus the population of the north shore of +Hudson Strait probably amounts to three hundred in all.</p> + +<p>The Qaumauangmiut are probably closely related to the Nugumiut of +Frobisher Bay.</p> + +<h5><a name="tribes_baffin_nugumiut" id="tribes_baffin_nugumiut">The +Nugumiut.—</a></h5> + +<p>I can give a somewhat more detailed description of this tribe, among +the families of which Hall passed the winters of 1860-’61 and 1861-’62 +(Hall I). Unfortunately, he does not give any coherent account of +their life, only meager information being furnished in the record of his +journeys. Besides, generalizations cannot be made from his two years’ +experience. My own observations in Cumberland Sound may serve as a +complement to those of Hall. As he gives only a few native names of +places, it is sometimes difficult to ascertain the exact position of the +localities to which he alludes.</p> + +<p>According to Hall and my own inquiries four places are inhabited by +this tribe almost every winter: Tornait (Jones Cape of Hall), about +thirty-five miles above Bear Sound, in Frobisher Bay; Operdniving and +Tuarpukdjuaq, in Countess of Warwick Sound; Nugumiut, in (Cyrus W.) +Field Bay; and Ukadliq, in (Cornell) Grinnell Bay. As these bays open +into Davis Strait the formation of the ice is retarded and its extent +diminished, and consequently some peculiarities in the arrangement of +the life of the Eskimo are observed here. The only occupation of the +Nugumiut and the inhabitants of Ukadliq is sealing with the harpoon on +the floe of the inner parts of the bay. Near Ukadliq the tide holes east +and west of Allen Island abound with seals. In winter, when the seals +take to the open ice, the village of this group of families is +established near Roger’s Island, where the floe of the bay forms the +hunting ground of the natives.</p> + +<p>During the autumn the Nugumiut stay in Field Bay. The women are then +busy preparing the deerskins; for, on account of the requirements of +their religion, the walrus hunt cannot be begun until the deerskins +which were taken in summer have been worked up for use. As soon as this +is done they travel across Bayard Taylor Pass (so called by Hall) +to Frobisher Bay, and in the latter half of December or in the beginning +of January settle on Operdniving or on Tuarpukdjuaq in company with the +natives who stay here during the fall. In Cumberland Sound I learned +that this changing of the habitations takes place almost regularly and +that sometimes the settlement is moved to Aqbirsiarbing (Cape True) if +the bay is frozen +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page423" id="page423">423</a></span> +over beyond Operdniving. In traveling to Aqbirsiarbing the tide holes of +Ikerassaqdjuaq (Lupton Channel) are avoided by using the pass of +Chappell Inlet. Here and in Tornait the natives go sealing on the ice or +walrusing at the edge of the floe, which in most cases is not very far +off.</p> + +<p>About the latter half of March part of the Eskimo begin to travel up +Frobisher Bay. In the middle of April, 1862, Hall found a settlement on +Qeqertuqdjuaq (Gabriel Island), from which island the floe edge was +visited and young seals were caught in the narrow channels between the +numerous islands. Towards the end of the month a portion of the natives +went farther to the northwest in pursuit of the basking seals +(I, p. 470), intending to reach the head of the bay in July. +Hall found summer habitations at Ukadliq (I, p. 468); on Field +Bay (p. 296); and on Frobisher Bay at Agdlinartung (p. 308), +Opera Glass Point (p. 341), Waddell Bay (p. 341), and +Nuvuktualung, on the southern point of Beecher Peninsula +(p. 348).</p> + +<p>A very important hunting ground of the inhabitants of +Tiniqdjuarbiusirn (Frobisher Bay), of which I received some detailed +accounts, is Lake Amaqdjuaq. In the foregoing remarks on the Akuliaq +tribe I described the course which leads from Hudson Strait to the lake. +Another route is followed in traveling from the head of Frobisher Bay to +Lake Amaqdjuaq, a distance of about fifty miles. Probably the men +leave Sylvia Grinnell River and ascend to Lake Amartung, from which lake +a brook runs westward to Lake Amaqdjuaq (Baffin-Land, p. 68). The +women take a different route and arrive at Aqbeniling after a tramp of +six days, near a small bay called Metja. Here the summer huts are +erected and birds and deer are killed in abundance.</p> + +<p>The facility in reaching the lake from Hudson Strait and Frobisher +Bay is a very important consideration, as the Akuliarmiut and the +Nugumiut meet here, and thus an immediate intercourse between the tribes +is opened. The inhabitants of Hudson Strait leave Tuniqten in spring, +arrive at the head of Frobisher Bay in the fall, and after the formation +of the ice reach the Nugumiut settlements by means of sledges. When Hall +wintered in Field Bay a traveling party of Sikosuilarmiut which had +accomplished the distance from King Cape in one year arrived there +(I, p. 267).</p> + +<p>Another route, which is practicable only for boats, connects +Qaumauang with Nugumiut. It leads along the shore of Hudson Strait. The +traveler sails through the dangerous passage between Tudjaqdjuaq +(Resolution Island) and the mainland and crosses Frobisher Bay either at +its entrance or in the shelter of the group of islands farther up the +bay.</p> + +<p>In their intercourse with the Nugumiut, the inhabitants of Cumberland +Sound generally follow the long coast between Ukadliq and Naujateling, +passing through the numerous sounds formed by long, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page424" id="page424">424</a></span> +narrow islands. I can describe this region from personal +observations.</p> + +<h5><a name="tribes_baffin_oqomiut" id="tribes_baffin_oqomiut">The +Oqomiut.—</a></h5> + +<p>The Eskimo of Davis Strait call the tribes of Cumberland Sound and +Saumia by the name of Oqomiut. The whole of the land from Prince Regent +Inlet to the plateau of Nugumiut is divided by the Eskimo into three +parts, Aggo, Akudnirn, and Oqo—i.e., the weather side, the center, +and the lee side—and accordingly the tribes are called the +Aggomiut, Akudnirmiut, and Oqomiut.</p> + +<p>Unquestionably the whole of Cumberland Sound and the coast of Davis +Strait from Cape Mercy to Exeter Sound belong to the Oqo of the Northern +Eskimo. Farther north, the inhabitants of Padli extend their migrations +from Qarmaqdjuin to Qivitung. These people occupy an intermediate +position between the Akudnirmiut and the Oqomiut, having easy +communication with both, and consequently it is doubtful to which they +belong, so that the determination of the boundary between Oqo and +Akudnirn remains arbitrary. In regard to their customs and from the +position of the land, however, they may be more properly joined to the +Akudnirmiut, of whom they would form a subdivision.</p> + +<p>The names Oqo, Akudnirn, and Aggo must not be understood as +respectively meaning a region strictly limited: they denote rather +directions and the intervals between the localities situated in these +directions. In asking for the position of Oqo one would be directed +southeast, as this is considered the lee side; in the same way, if +asking for Aggo, one would be directed to the shore of Prince Regent +Inlet, the farthest land in the northwest, the weather side. In +Cumberland Sound the natives of Iglulik are considered Aggomiut, while +in Pond Bay they are known as a separate tribe. In the southern parts +the whole of the northern region is comprised in the name Aggo; in the +north Oqo means the whole of the southeastern regions.</p> + +<p>Formerly, the Oqomiut were divided into four subtribes: the +Talirpingmiut, on the west shore of Cumberland Sound; the Qinguamiut, at +the head of it; the Kingnaitmiut, on the east shore; and the +Saumingmiut, on the southeastern slope of the highland of Saumia. The +names are derived from the districts which they inhabit, respectively. +As the head of every fjord is called “qingua” (its head), the upper part +of the large Cumberland Sound is also so named. The Qingua region may be +limited by Imigen on the western shore and Ussualung on the eastern +shore, though the name is applied to a region farther north; indeed, the +name covers the whole district at the head of the sound. In looking from +the head to the entrance of the sound the coasts are called according to +their position: the southwestern Talirpia, i.e., its right one, and the +northeastern Saumia, i.e., its left one; between Saumia and Qingua the +highland Kingnait, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page425" id="page425">425</a></span> +i.e., the higher land as compared to the opposite shore, is +situated.</p> + +<p>Although at the present time this division is hardly justifiable, the +names of these four tribes are often mentioned on the shore of Davis +Strait. Their old settlements are still inhabited, but their separate +tribal identity is gone, a fact which is due as well to the +diminution in their numbers as to the influence of the whalers visiting +them.</p> + +<p>In my opinion a great difference between these tribes never existed. +Undoubtedly they were groups of families confined to a certain district +and connected by a common life. Such a community could more easily +develop as long as the number of individuals was a large one. When the +whalers first wintered in Cumberland Sound the population may have +amounted to about 1,500. In 1840, when Penny discovered the sound, he +met 40 Eskimo in Anarnitung (Eenoolooapik, p. 91). The greater +number of the inhabitants were at the head of the fjords fishing for +salmon, others were whaling in Issortuqdjuaq, and some were inland on a +deer hunting expedition. The whole number at that time probably amounted +to 200. A few years later the Kingnaitmiut of Qeqerten were able to +man eighteen whaleboats. Assuming five oarsmen and one harpooner to each +boat, the steersman being furnished by the whalers, and for each man one +wife and two children, we have in all about 400 individuals. The +inhabitants of Nettilling Fjord may have numbered as many, and 100 are +said to have lived in Imigen. Penny found in Ugjuktung about 30 +individuals who belonged to the Saumingmiut and had come thither from +Davis Strait. Accordingly I estimate the whole tribe at 150 individuals. +On the southwestern coast of the sound between Nuvujen and Naujateling a +large number of natives were reported. They lived in three settlements +and numbered about 600. These estimates are not absolutely reliable, as +they are compiled largely from hearsay and conjecture. Many of the +natives being away in the summer, at the time when these estimates were +made, accuracy in their preparation was impossible. From inquiries which +were made among American whalers who had visited this sound since 1851, +the population of Qeqerten must have been larger than that of any of the +settlements contiguous to the sound. The estimation is the more +difficult as a few settlements were sometimes deserted; for instance, +Ukiadliving, in Saumia, and Qarmaqdjuin (Exeter Bay). Probably eight +settlements, with a population of 200 inhabitants each—i.e., 1,600 +in the sound—would be about the true number in 1840. At first I +was inclined to believe in the existence of a larger number, but from +later reports I should consider this number too large rather than too +small. Since that time the population has diminished at a terrible rate. +In 1857 Warmow, a Moravian missionary who accompanied Penny, +estimated it at 300. If this was correct, the rapid diminution must have +occurred during the first years after the rediscovery of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page426" id="page426">426</a></span> +sound. In December, 1883, the Talirpingmiut numbered 86 individuals, the +Qinguamiut 60, the Kingnaitmiut 82, the Saumingmiut 17; total, 245. +These were distributed in eight settlements. Beginning with the most +southern settlement, the Talirpingmiut lived in Umanaqtuaq, +Idjorituaqtuin, Nuvujen, and Qarussuit; the Qinguamiut, in Imigen and +Anarnitung; the Kingnaitmiut, in Qeqerten; the Saumingmiut, in +Ukiadliving. Accordingly the population of the settlements numbered as +follows:</p> + + +<table class="population"> +<tr> +<th rowspan="2">Name of the<br>settlement.</th> +<th colspan="2">Married.</th> +<th colspan="6">Unmarried.</th> +<th rowspan="2">Total</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<!-- <td></td> --> +<th>Men.</th><th>Women.</th> +<th>Widowers</th><th>Widows</th> +<th>Men.</th><th>Women.</th> +<th>Boys.</th><th>Girls.</th> +<!-- <td></td> --> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left">Naujateling</td> +<td>6</td><td>6</td><td>1</td><td class="dots"> </td><td class="dots"> </td><td>1</td> +<td>3</td><td>3</td> +<td>20</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left">Idjorituaqtuin</td> +<td>3</td><td>3</td><td class="dots"> </td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td class="dots"> </td> +<td>2</td><td>1</td> +<td>11</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left">Nuvujen</td> +<td>8</td><td>8</td><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>1</td><td class="dots"> </td> +<td>4</td><td>2</td> +<td>26</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left">Qarussuit</td> +<td>10</td><td>10</td><td class="dots"> </td><td>2</td><td class="dots"> </td><td class="dots"> </td> +<td>2</td><td>5</td> +<td>29</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left">Imigen</td> +<td>6</td><td>6</td><td class="dots"> </td><td class="dots"> </td><td class="dots"> </td><td class="dots"> </td> +<td>4</td><td>1</td> +<td>17</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left">Anarnitung</td> +<td>12</td><td>12</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td>1</td><td class="dots"> </td> +<td>8</td><td>8</td> +<td>43</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left">Qeqerten</td> +<td>26</td><td>26</td><td class="dots"> </td><td>6</td><td>4</td><td class="dots"> </td> +<td>9</td><td>1</td> +<td>82</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left">Ukiadliving</td> +<td>6</td><td>6</td><td class="dots"> </td><td>1</td><td class="dots"> </td><td>1</td> +<td>2</td><td>1</td> +<td>17</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left">Padli</td> +<td>11</td><td>13</td><td>2</td><td>2</td><td>1</td><td class="dots"> </td> +<td>7</td><td>7</td> +<td>43</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="left">Akudnirn</td> +<td>8</td><td>12</td><td class="dots"> </td><td class="dots"> </td><td>2</td><td class="dots"> </td> +<td colspan="2" class="center">(18)</td> +<td>40</td> +</tr> +<tr class="total"> +<td class="left">Total</td> +<td>96</td><td>102</td> +<td>5</td><td>15</td> +<td>10</td><td>2</td> +<td colspan="2" class="center">(98)</td> +<td>328</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>I have included in the foregoing table the inhabitants of Davis +Strait and may add that the Nugumiut number about 80, the Eskimo of Pond +Bay about 50 (?), those of Admiralty Inlet 200, and of Iglulik about +150. The total number of inhabitants of Baffin Land thus ranges between +1,000 and 1,100.</p> + +<p>The reason for the rapid diminution in the population of this country +is undoubtedly to be found in the diseases which have been taken thither +by the whalers. Of all these, syphilis has made the greatest ravages +among the natives. Of other diseases I am unable to give a full account +and can only refer to those which came under my observation during the +year that I passed in this region. In Qeqerten a man died of cancer of +the rectum, two women of pneumonia, and five children of diphtheria, +this disease being first brought into the country in 1883. In Anarnitung +I knew of the death of two women and one child. On the west shore a +number of children died of diphtheria, while the health of the adults +was good. In the year 1883-’84 I heard of two births, one occurring in +Qeqerten, the other in Padli. At Qarussuit and Anarnitung there were two +abortions.</p> + +<p>The opinion that the Eskimo are dying out on account of an +insufficient supply of food is erroneous, for, even though the natives +slaughter the seals without discrimination or forethought, they do +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page427" id="page427">427</a></span> +not kill enough to cause any considerable diminution in numbers. The +whalers do not hunt the seal to any extent, and when one realizes how +small the population of the country is and how vast the territory in +which the seal lives it is easy to understand that famine or want cannot +arise, as a rule, from the cutting off of the natural food supply. In +fact, in the spring enormous numbers of seals may be seen together +basking in the sun or swimming in the water.</p> + +<p>The causes of the famines which occur somewhat frequently among the +Eskimo must be sought in another direction. Pressing need often prevails +if in the latter part of the autumn the formation of the floe is +retarded; for in that case hunters are not able either to go hunting in +boats or to procure the necessary food at the edge of the floe, as new +ice is attached to its more solid parts and the seals do not yet open +their breathing holes. Such was the case at Niaqonaujang, on Davis +Strait, in the fall of 1883. Gales of wind following in quick succession +broke the floe. The new ice which had formed immediately prevented the +natives from sealing, and in November and December a famine visited the +settlement. Very soon the supply of blubber was exhausted, and being +unable to feed the dogs the inhabitants were obliged to kill them one +after another and to live upon their frozen carcasses. Only two dogs +survived these months of need and starvation. Consequently the hunting +season was a very poor one, since the natives missed the services of +their dogs, which scent the breathing holes, and could not leave their +settlement for any great distance.</p> + +<p>In winter a long spell of bad weather occasions privation, since the +hunters are then prevented from leaving the huts. If by chance some one +should happen to die during this time, famine is inevitable, for a +strict law forbids the performance of any kind of work during the days +of mourning. When this time is over, however, or at the beginning of +good weather, an ample supply is quickly secured. I do not know of +any cases of famine arising from the absolute want of game, but only +from the impossibility of reaching it.</p> + +<p>Sometimes traveling parties that are not acquainted with the nature +of the country which they visit are in want of food. For instance, +a large company, consisting of three boat crews, were starved on +the eastern shore of Fox Basin, their boats being crushed by the heavy +ice and the game they expected to find in abundance having left the +region altogether. On one of the numerous islands of Nettilling a number +of women and children perished, as the men, who had been deer hunting, +were unable to find their way back to the place in which they had +erected their huts.</p> + +<p>Another case of starvation is frequently mentioned by the Eskimo. +Some families who were traveling from Akuliaq to Nugumiut passed the +isthmus between Hudson Strait and Frobisher Bay. When, after a long and +tedious journey, they had reached the sea, the men left +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page428" id="page428">428</a></span> +their families near Qairoliktung and descended with their kayaks to +Nugumiut in order to borrow some boats in which they could bring their +families to the settlements. On the way they were detained by stormy +weather, and meanwhile the families were starved and resorted to +cannibalism. One woman especially, by the name of Megaujang, who ate all +her children, was always mentioned with horror.</p> + +<p>Generally food is plentiful between the months of April and October +and an ample supply may be secured without extraordinary exertion. +During the winter sealing is more difficult, but sufficiently successful +to prevent any want, except in the case of continuous bad weather.</p> + +<p>I shall now proceed to a description of the single settlements of +Cumberland Sound. Separated from the Nugumiut by a long and uninhabited +stretch of land we find the settlement of Naujateling, the most southern +one of the Talirpingmiut. In the fall the natives erect their huts on +the mainland or on an island near it, as the seal, at this season, +resort to the narrow channels and to the fjords. Besides, the shelter +which is afforded by the islands against the frequent gales is an +important consideration, and in these protected waters the natives can +manage their frail boats, which would not live for a moment in the +tempestuous open sea. Later in the season the ice consolidates in the +shelter of the islands, while beyond the bays and channels drifting +floes fill the sea.</p> + +<p>After the consolidation of the pack ice the natives move their huts +to the sea. They leave Naujateling about December and move to +Umanaqtuaq. I do not know exactly where they live if the water +reaches that island. Should this happen, the floe between Qaχodluin, +Umanaqtuaq, and Idjorituaqtuin would offer a productive hunting +ground.</p> + +<p>About the middle of March the season for hunting the young seal +opens. The hunt is prosecuted with much energy over the entire extent of +Cumberland Sound, because the white coat of the young animal is of prime +importance for the inner garments. The pregnant females take to the +rough ice, where deep snowbanks have been formed by the winter gales, +and dig large excavations, in which parturition takes place. Another +favorite place is the ground ice on gradually declining shores, where +large caves are found between the broken pieces of ice. Therefore the +fjords and islands which offer a long coast line furnish a good hunting +ground, and in the latter part of March and in April the Eskimo either +visit these regions or the floes of rough ice. At such times they +sometimes live for a long period on the ice of the open sea in order to +be nearer to their hunting ground. As the success of the hunt depends on +the extent of ice visited, the Eskimo scatter over a large area, almost +every one traveling over a separate tract.</p> + +<p>At this time the winter settlements are almost totally broken up. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page429" id="page429">429</a></span> +Some of the natives of Naujateling go bear hunting instead of “young +sealing,” but only a few polar bears lose their way into Cumberland +Sound. They are generally found within a few miles of the floe edge, and +even if the water reaches pretty far up the sound they do not travel +beyond Qaχodluin and Miliqdjuaq, nor does the pack ice carry them far up +the sound in summer. On one occasion, in the year 1880, three bears were +seen near Qeqerten, about five years earlier one was killed in Qingua, +and almost twenty years earlier another one near Anarnitung. Every +occurrence of this kind is considered an event of such importance that +it is talked about for years afterwards. I myself saw bear tracks +in Kouaqdjuaq in March, 1884, and also at Miliqdjuaq. In February a bear +was killed between Kautaq and Naujateling.</p> + +<p>If the water washes the foot of the cliffs between Kautaq and Sulung, +the Eskimo cross the isthmus which lies between Ijelirtung, the eastern +branch of Qasigidjen, and Qaχodluin Bay on a sledge road and hunt among +the islands that are scattered along the shore south of Qaχodluin. In +summer they visit the same region on their hunting excursions.</p> + +<p>The principal summer settlements are at the head of Qasigidjen and +Kangertlung Fjords, which are situated near Idjorituaqtuin and +Qimissung.</p> + +<p>From here they ascend the plateau of Nugumiut and hunt on the level +highlands. I think it takes them but a day to travel to the top of +the plateau. They travel from Qasigidjen to Agdlinartung, a fjord +of Frobisher Bay, whence the Nugumiut ascend the highland. Another route +leads from Kangertlung to Eχaluin, near the head of Frobisher Bay.</p> + +<p>Farther up the sound we find the winter settlement of Idjorituaqtuin. +The same relation exists between this place and Qimissung as between +Umanaqtuaq and Naujateling. On Qimissung, which lies near the mainland, +the natives gather in the fall after returning from deer hunting, and +only move to Idjorituaqtuin after the freezing up of the sea. Deer are +hunted inland, the summer settlements being at the head of one of the +numerous fjords of the west shore. Favorite places are Kangertlung, +which is also visited by the Naujateling Eskimo; Eχaluin, which can be +reached from Kangertlung by a short overland road; Auqardneling; and +Utiqimitung, at the entrance of Nettilling Fjord. A large river, +which, according to Eskimo reports, runs through the greater part of the +peninsula, empties into Auqardneling. As it is very deep and wide it +cannot be crossed without a vessel of some character, and thus it puts a +stop to the migrations from Kangertlung and Eχaluin. In traveling from +Kangertlung to Frobisher Bay the river must be crossed. To accomplish +this the natives fill a deerskin with shrubs, sew it up, and float +themselves across. Only the road leading from Qasigidjen to Frobisher +Bay avoids the river.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page430" id="page430">430</a></span> +<p>North of Idjorituaqtuin we find the winter settlement of Nuvujen with +the fall settlement, Nuvujalung, a high cliff at the entrance of +Nettilling Fjord, belonging to it.</p> + +<p>By far the most interesting branch of the Talirpingmiut are the +inhabitants of Nettilling Fjord. Among all the tribes of Baffin Land +this one claims particular attention, as it is the only one whose +residence is not limited to the seashore. From Greenland to the mouth of +the Mackenzie only two Eskimo tribes are known who do not live all the +year round on the coast of the sea. These are the Talirpingmiut and the +Kinipetu of Chesterfield Inlet. Back and Anderson and Stewart say that +the latter tribe spend a great part of the year at the lakes of Back +River.</p> + +<p>Formerly the Talirpingmiut had three or four settlements on Lake +Nettilling: at Tikeraqdjung, near the south point of the lake; at the +outlet of Koukdjuaq, on the left bank of the river, opposite to +Nikosiving Island; at Qarmang; and probably a fourth one, on the north +shore. As the lake abounds with seals, they could live here at all +seasons. Its western part seems to have been particularly fitted for +winter stations. In the winter of 1877-’78, three families staid near +Koukdjuaq without encountering any considerable difficulty in procuring +food. This was the last time that natives passed the winter at the lake; +the greater portion of the tribe may have retreated to Nettilling Fjord +about twenty years ago.</p> + +<p>Though the Eskimo assert that the discovery of Lake Nettilling is of +recent date, naming two men, Kadlu and Sagmu, as those who first reached +it, this assertion is not trustworthy, for with them almost every +historical tradition is supposed to have originated a comparatively +short time ago. I was told, for instance, that an event which is +the subject of the tale Igimarasugdjuqdjuaq the cannibal occurred at the +beginning of this century, and yet the tradition is told almost word for +word in Greenland and in Labrador.</p> + +<p>Just so with Kadlu and Sagmu. According to the assertion of the +natives the lake was discovered by the generation before the +last—i.e., about 1810—and yet an old woman about +seventy-five years of age told me that her grandfather when a young man, +starting from Nettilling, had visited Iglulik and that he had lived on +the lake. The customs and habits of the Eskimo would have led to the +discovery of the lake very soon after the first visit to Cumberland +Sound, and no doubt their attention was then called to the abundance of +game in this region.</p> + +<p>The greater part of the natives spent the winter in Nettilling Fjord, +starting on their way inland about the beginning of May, and returning +to the sea about December. I suppose that cases in which men spent +their whole life on the lake were exceptional, for they are referred to +by the natives as remarkable events. For instance, a man called +Neqsiang, who had two wives, lived on a small island near +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page431" id="page431">431</a></span> +Koukdjuaq and never descended to Cumberland Sound. A few times only +he is said to have sent his son to barter with the Talirpingmiut of +Nettilling Fjord. He came to Qarussuit in the spring, but returned after +a short stay. It may be remarked here that the total absence of salt +does not prevent the natives from staying on Lake Nettilling.</p> + +<p>About 1850 the mode of life of the Talirpingmiut was as follows: In +November they gathered in Isoa, the easternmost bay of the lake, +descended toward the sea, and lived during the following months at the +entrance of Nettilling Fjord. There they lived in the same manner as the +other Oqomiut, pursuing the seals at their breathing holes. In the +spring they hunted young seals; but, when the other natives began to +prepare for whaling, they traveled on sledges westward. They avoided the +large tide holes of the long fjord by making use of a few passes. +Although the fjord is impassable in spring, a safe road leads along +its northern shore to its northern branch, Kangertlukdjuaq, where the +water hole Sarbaqdualung may be avoided by crossing the land at +Tunukutang. In the spring large water holes are formed near Neqemiarbing +and at the entrance of Audnerbing, compelling travelers to pass over the +island which separates the two passages of Sarbaqdualung. The pass +Tunukutang, which is used in winter, consists of a steep and narrow neck +of land, which separates a small lake from Kangertlukdjuaq, and a short +and winding river, the outlet of the lake. The second tide hole of the +fjord may be passed by the branches Qasigidjen and Sarbaqdjukulu and the +adjoining flat isthmus. The holes of Qognung, yet farther up the fjord, +do not hinder the natives, as they do not occupy the whole width of the +floe.</p> + +<p>At length they reached Kangia, and from here a chain of small lakes +was ascended, the watershed Ujaraqdjuin was crossed, and finally they +arrived at Amitoq. Cairns are everywhere erected on prominent points for +way marks. After they had come to Lake Nettilling, they rested a short +time at Isoa, where the skin boats and the necessary household goods had +been left the preceding fall. These were lashed upon the sledges and +then they traveled as quickly as possible to the west. After following +the southeastern shore to Tikeraqdjuaq they crossed the lake to a point +near Tikeraqdjung, whence they went along the southern shore of the +lake, reaching Koukdjuaq in about a fortnight. Here their tents were +established on the left bank of the river, opposite to Nikosiving, where +they staid until the breaking up of the ice. Then the men descended the +river in their kayaks. Four days they followed the coast, passing the +bay of Aggirtijung before they reached Qudjitariaq, a long and deep +river, which they ascended. For a few weeks they hunted deer among the +lakes of this region, which is called Majoraridjen, and then slowly +turned southward. At last, about the latter half of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page432" id="page432">432</a></span> +August, they reached Qarmang, where at the beginning of summer the women +and old men had arrived in their large boats. Here the whole party +stopped until the lake was frozen up. Then they returned on sledges to +Isoa and to the sea.</p> + +<p>It would be very interesting to learn how far the natives formerly +extended their migrations along the shore of Fox Basin and whether a +regular intercourse existed between Iglulik and Cumberland Sound. +According to reports of some old Eskimo, who had themselves passed the +winter on the lake, there was always a small settlement at Qarmang. From +here the shore of Fox Basin was reached with great ease. If, however, +the route through Koukdjuaq had to be taken, a long, roundabout way +was necessary. According to all reports, even in olden times expeditions +to Iglulik were very rare. It is said that one was made about 1750 by a +party under the leadership of an Eskimo, Makulu. About 1800 another +party left, in which Kotuko assumed the leadership. About these a more +detailed account exists. With a few boats and four kayaks they left +Nettilling and followed the coast. Alone in his kayak, Kotuko visited +Sagdlirn, an island east of Iglulik, but he did not see any people, as +they were on a hunting excursion. He found one hut and a large dog. +There were a great number of deerskins and walrus tusks, which proved +the existence of an abundance of game. He returned, but on account of +the prevailing fog could scarcely find his kayak. The absence of the +party is said to have lasted three years.</p> + +<p>About 1820 another party left for Iglulik, among whom two women, +Amaroq and Sigjeriaq, were the most prominent. When they returned, after +an absence of three years, they praised the country (Piling), where they +had spent some time, as a land of plenty and abundance, and by these +tales, in 1835, induced three boat crews to leave Nettilling in order to +visit this happy land. They were grievously disappointed and after many +misfortunes they perished on the narrow isthmus of Ipiuting. Their +bodies were found by the Iglulik Eskimo, who related that the poor +fellows had resorted to cannibalism. Among those who perished was a +sister of the famous Hannah (Taqulitu), the companion of Hall in his +travels in the Arctic. I must mention here that Hall, in 1868, met +a native at Iglulik who was said to belong to Cumberland Sound. As, +however, in Iglulik Cumberland Sound and Davis Strait are often +confounded, I am inclined to think he was a native of the latter +region.</p> + +<p>From these facts it appears that a regular intercourse between the +tribes along the shore of Fox Basin never existed, though formerly +interviews were more frequent than they are at present. Since the last +mentioned expedition no Eskimo has visited Piling, nor have any gone by +the way of Lake Nettilling to Iglulik. Accordingly the ideas of the +Oqomiut about that region are very indefinite. An old man +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page433" id="page433">433</a></span> +was the only person whom I could find who knew Iglulik by name and +remembered Ingnirn and Piling, two places which had been inhabited by +many Eskimo. He mentioned another inhabited region beyond Iglulik, +Augpalugtijung, which I was not able to identify. It was described as a +large peninsula.</p> + +<p>It is worth remarking that the Talirpingmiut seem never to have +traveled over the country south of Koukdjuaq. I have not even heard +mentioned a single hunting excursion made in this direction.</p> + +<p>In the foregoing paragraphs I have described the mode of life of the +greater part of the Talirpingmiut. Still another part staid in +Cumberland Sound until the ice had gone and went away in the latter half +of July. The passage through the rapids of the fjords was very +dangerous, as in the whirlpools and overfalls the bulky boats were +easily capsized. Therefore the changing of the tides had to be +considered in order to effect a safe passage. The men preferred carrying +the kayaks over the passes in order to avoid the dangers imminent to +their frail crafts. Even up to this day tradition tells of a disaster +which happened when the stubborn owner of a boat, against the warning of +his friends, tried to pass Sarbaqdualung when the spring tide was +running swiftly. The boat was upset and the crew were drowned, with the +exception of one woman, who was saved on a bundle of deerskins.</p> + +<p>From Kangia boats had to be carried over the portages Igpirto, +Igpirtousirn, and Ujaraqdjuin. The rapids of Angmartung were also +avoided by a portage over the level bottom of the valley. After passing +Taquirbing, Lake Nettilling was reached, on the shore of which the huts +were erected. In the fall the party returned before the beginning of the +cold season. It has been already mentioned that only a few of the +natives staid at the lake during the entire year, and even among these +there were some who descended to the sea in March to take part in the +young sealing, for the skins of the young seal cannot be altogether +replaced by deerskins.</p> + +<p>At the present time it is exceptional for any one to remain inland +during the entire year. There may be seals enough in the lake to prevent +hunger or starvation, but they are taken much more easily from the sea. +In case of a lack of blubber, deer’s marrow may be used for fuel. It is +probable that the high mortality of recent years has induced the Eskimo +to band together more closely than they formerly did and to adopt the +plan of returning to Nettilling Fjord at the beginning of winter. In the +fall the boats and other articles which are of no use in winter are left +in Isoa, and some time is spent in Kangia, where snow houses are built. +Here the kayaks are left, and in December, when the sealing begins to be +more successful near the sound, the Eskimo turn to the entrance of +Nettilling Fjord, where Tininiqdjuaq and Neqemiarbing are favorite +places. Seals are hunted there with the harpoon in the same way as in +the other settlements +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page434" id="page434">434</a></span> +or Sarbaqdualung is visited for the purpose of shooting seals which +frequent the tide holes. This, however, is not a favorite way of +hunting, as the ice near the tide holes is very rough and +treacherous.</p> + +<p>In March and April young seals are caught on the shores of the +numerous islands between Tininiqdjuaq and Nuvujalung, and at the same +time the old settlements are left, as large water holes begin to appear. +Qarussuit and Qingaseareang are the favorite places about this time of +the year.</p> + +<p>As soon as the young sealing is finished the hunt of the basking seal +is opened, which is very successful here. Nowhere else did I see such +large numbers of animals enjoying the warmth of the sun as in Nettilling +Fjord. In April, when on the east shore scarcely any dared to leave the +water, hundreds might be seen here. By the first of May all the natives +have procured a sufficient number of sealskins for their summer dress, +the skins being then in the best condition, as the first moulting has +just occurred. This done, they eagerly prepare for the journey to the +lake.</p> + +<p>The natives start in the first week of May, and in two or three days +arrive at Kangia, whence they reach Isoa in one day’s journey. Following +the southern shore of Lake Nettilling they sleep the first night on +Tikeraqdjuausirn, the second on the island Manirigtung, near +Tikeraqdjuaq, and five days after leaving Qarussuit arrive at +Tikeraqdjung, where they settle for the summer. As numerous deer are +found in this region, they live without any care or trouble. Very soon +after their arrival the birds return. While moulting great quantities of +these are caught. The geese are so abundant here that they are fed to +the dogs. Many deer are caught while passing the deep river which runs +from Lake Amaqdjuaq to Lake Nettilling. Frequently they visit the +southern plains, which are filled with lakes and lakelets. Sometimes +they go as far as Amaqdjuaq, which, as the older natives report, was +formerly a summer settlement.</p> + +<p>In the river whose outlet is near Padli salmon are caught in +abundance. In this district the Talirpingmiut stay until the eastern +part of the lake is frozen over.</p> + +<p>In the shelter of the islands the floe is more quickly formed than in +the open water of the western part, and in November the natives return +by sledges to Isoa.</p> + +<p>As they take with them heavy loads of deerskins they make very slow +progress and generally arrive at their place of destination after six +days of traveling. Sometimes they make a short trip to Isoa in March or +April to hunt deer or to look for the things which were left behind in +Kangia and Isoa at the time of their last departure.</p> + +<p>Besides the Talirpingmiut quite a number of Cumberland Sound natives +visit the lake by means of boats. They cross the sound after the +breaking up of the ice and go to Nettilling, carrying the boats over the +portages between Kangia and Isoa. As the Talirpingmiut +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page435" id="page435">435</a></span> +have no boats they stay at Tikeraqdjuaq; the other natives, however, +sometimes change their habitations and even visit Qarmang and the north +shore of the lake. These journeys, however, are rare, for in the eastern +part an inexhaustible supply of food may be obtained; therefore long +excursions are quite unnecessary. At the beginning of October the boats +leave the lake and the natives return to the fall settlements in the +sound.</p> + +<p>Nettilling Fjord, with its numerous islands, forms the northern +boundary of Talirpia. Farther north we come to Qingua, the head of +Tiniqdjuarbing (Cumberland Sound). It extends from Imigen to Ussualung. +The winter settlement on the island of Imigen is situated in the midst +of one of the best winter hunting grounds, for the southern portion of +the island, on which the huts are erected, projects far out into the +sea. The hunt is often rendered somewhat difficult by the rough ice +which is due to the strong currents between Pujetung, Imigen, and +Nettilling Fjord. Towards spring the natives sometimes resort to a place +yet nearer the open sea, the largest island of the Pujetung group. Young +seals are caught near Imigen, at the Kilauting Islands, and in +Qaggilortung. This district, however, cannot be visited every year, as +almost every spring the whole area west of a line from Imigen to +Anarnitung is covered with very deep and soft snow, which prevents the +Eskimo from using their dog sledges. When this condition prevails the +natives settle on the sea ice between Augpalugtung and Imigen, or a +little farther north, and remain there from the middle of March until +the latter part of April.</p> + +<p>These natives go deer hunting either to Issortuqdjuaq—where +they live at Eχaluaqdjuin, Sirmiling, or Midlurieling—or to +Eχaluqdjuaq, near Ussualung, where they hunt in the hilly land adjoining +the ice-covered Penny Plateau. As the land farther northwest is said to +consist of irregular hills and disconnected valleys, the skins and the +meat of the killed deer would have to be carried up and down hills +before the settlement was reached. Therefore the natives dislike hunting +in this part of the country.</p> + +<p>Eχaluaqdjuin and Eχaluqdjuaq, as is denoted by the names, are +productive salmon rivers. In starting from the former and ascending a +narrow valley, Lake Eχoleaqdjuin is reached, whence a pass leads to the +valley adjoining Eχaluaqdjuin. Taking another road the long Lake +Imeraqdjuaq is reached, which borders upon the glaciers of the highland. +From here, after a four days’ tramp following a large river, the +traveler comes to Midlurieling. From Issortuqdjuaq a narrow isthmus +offering a good sledging road is used in visiting the head of +Qaggilortung. Another route, which is suitable only for foot passengers, +leads by a chain of lakes to the head of Kangertlukdjuaq. It is not +necessary to enumerate the overland routes in this district, as numerous +valleys permit the traveler to pass from the east to the west and from +the south to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page436" id="page436">436</a></span> +north. In the fall the natives resort to Saunirtung or to +Saunirtuqdjuaq, two islands northwest of Imigen, where they stay until +January, when they return to the sea.</p> + +<p>The second settlement of the Qinguamiut is Anarnitung, at the +northern entrance of Qaggilortung. The small island and the neighboring +point of Igdlungajung are, next to Qeqerten, the seat of the most +important settlement of Cumberland Sound. On the southern and eastern +declivity of the low hills which form this island are a number of very +old stone foundations (see <a href="#page549">p. 549</a>), such +as are found everywhere on the Arctic shores of North America +(Baffin-Land, p. 77).</p> + +<p>If the ice in the upper parts of the sound is smooth, families +belonging to this community settle on Kilauting, the largest island of a +group running from northwest to southeast a few miles north of Imigen. +Here they go sealing with the harpoon. If the ice, however, is rough +(as it happened to be during my stay in Cumberland Sound), they +remain in Anarnitung, whence some go to the water holes at the entrance +of Issortuqdjuaq and shoot the blowing seals, while others go hunting on +the ice near Anarnitung.</p> + +<p>During the young sealing season they almost always leave the island. +The favorite resort at this season is Sakiaqdjung, near Manituling, in +Qaggilortung, but heavy snowfalls often compel them to exchange this +region for the open sea. If they insist upon stopping there, snowshoes +are used as the only means of traveling in the deep and soft snow. In +1878, when the Florence wintered in Anarnitung Harbor, the greater part +of the natives remained near the ship; but her presence is accountable +for this exception, as some of the families were in her service and +others staid near her in order to barter seals, skins, &c.</p> + +<p>Of some importance are the passes leading around the numerous water +holes at the head of Cumberland Sound. The narrow island of Nudnirn, +which separates Sarbuqdjuaq from Putukin, offers a good passage by way +of a deep valley. Should the passage be made in a mild winter or in +spring, when the water holes of Sarbuqdjuaq have enlarged, they must +avoid the latter by passing over the inconvenient isthmus of +Itidliaping, west of the steep cliff Naujan.</p> + +<p>In spring the tide holes of Kangidliuta extend over the passage +between that island and Surosirn, preventing sledges from passing to +Issortuqdjuaq or to Tessiujang. Then Qaχodlualung is crossed by the way +of Naqoreang or the more southerly Tappitariaq, which leads into the +sound near Siegtung. Both passes are very inconvenient. From Tessiujang, +Issortuqdjuaq may be reached by the fjords Ugjuktung and Itijareling and +by the adjoining passes.</p> + +<p>Lastly, I have to mention the road formerly used by the natives of +Anarnitung in traveling to Nettilling. They crossed the entrance of +Qaggilortung and ascended Tarrionitung, whence they came by the Lakes +Qamusiojodlang and Irtiujang to Missirtung, in Nettilling +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page437" id="page437">437</a></span> +Fjord, thus avoiding a much longer journey around the large peninsula +projecting to the eastward. A similar pass farther east connects +Tornait and Kangertlukjuaq.</p> + +<p>The ruins of a third settlement of the Qinguamiut are found at +Tulukan on Qeqertelung.</p> + +<p>The next subtribe to be treated is the Kingnaitmiut, who are now +located exclusively upon Qeqerten. Formerly they lived in several +places—for instance, near Pangnirtung and on Miliaqdjuin—but +for a long time they have gathered on Qeqerten, as two whaling stations +are established here, many natives being in the service of the whalers. +The island is the largest settlement of the sound. It is a favorite +resort during the fall and the first part of winter. In November and +December, before the ice of the sound consolidates, the ice east of the +islands is the best hunting ground. Later that west of the islands is +preferred. There is one disadvantage peculiar to Qeqerten which is not +shared by the other settlements, namely, the fohn-like winds which often +blow for many days from Kingnait Fjord with irresistible violence. These +confine the natives to their huts, though a few miles north or south +calm weather prevails. Should fair weather ensue, the snow, which has +been firmly packed by these gales, affords a good hunting ground; but +if, on the other hand, long spells of bad weather follow, want and +hunger may be the result. The young seals are eagerly pursued all about +Qeqerten.</p> + +<p>In Pangnirtung and in the little valley Niutang, in Kingnait, well up +in these fjords, are the ruins of two large, ancient settlements. The +conditions which formerly enabled the natives to live here will be +mentioned later.</p> + +<p>The Kingnaitmiut go deer hunting to Kitingujang, at the head of +Kingnait Fjord; to Nirdlirn, in the bay behind Augpalugtung and +Sednirun; to Pangnirtung; or to the more southern fjords Eχaluaqdjuin +and Kangertlukdjuaq.</p> + +<p>I shall describe the districts occupied by the Kingnaitmiut, +Saumingmiut, and Padlimiut together, as they all bear a uniform +character.</p> + +<p>From Nirdlirn the mountains of Ussualung or the highland near +Ukiuqdjuaq are visited. The same country is traveled over from +Pangnirtung, where the settlement is established either above Qordlubing +or opposite Aulitiving. The deep valley, with its numerous glaciers, +adjoining Pangnirtung and connecting Cumberland Sound and Davis Strait +is rarely visited.</p> + +<p>The favorite place for the settlement is Kitingujang in Kingnait. In +the river which empties here many salmon are caught, and the declivities +of the neighboring highlands, which are less steep than those of +Pangnirtung, afford ample opportunity for long hunting excursions. Deer +are found on the mountains, for here they escape +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page438" id="page438">438</a></span> +the mosquitoes which swarm in the valleys. The natives do not go beyond +Padli, but most of them have been there. They often travel through the +valleys of Nerseqdjuaq and Tunussung to Pangnirtung, of Davis Strait, +down the eastern shore of which they go a considerable distance. +Sometimes they make boat excursions during the summer from Kitingujang, +visiting the brooks which empty into Kingnait Fjord, or they settle in +Tornait, whence Tupirbikdjuin in Pangnirtung is accessible by the wide +valleys surrounding Angiuqaq.</p> + +<p>I may omit the description of the separate summer habitations farther +south, for the head of every fjord and every valley that is a means of +reaching the interior are used for erecting the tents. The interior of +the region, which is covered with ice, remains unvisited, no game being +found there. Therefore it may be said in general that the Eskimo are +limited to the peninsulas formed by the numerous fjords.</p> + +<p>The Saumingmiut visit the southern fjords of Cumberland Peninsula, +where I have marked the settlements on the chart. Here they pursue deer +and polar bears, which frequently come down to Cape Mercy during the +summer.</p> + +<p>An important summer settlement of the Saumingmiut is Touaqdjuaq, from +which place they visit the peninsula limited by Exeter Sound and +Touaqdjuaq. An important summer station of both Saumingmiut and +Padlimiut is Qarmaqdjuin, while Eχaloaping (Durban Harbor of the +whalers), near the entrance of Padli, is visited only by the latter +tribe.</p> + +<p>The number of deer on Cumberland Peninsula is so variable that the +result of the hunt is often unsatisfactory. Although in some seasons +numerous herds are met, in others scarcely enough animals are killed to +afford a sufficient stock of skins for the winter clothing. Early in the +spring the deer pass quite regularly through Itidlirn (the lower part of +Padli Valley, between Ikaroling and Padli), in their migrations from +Narpaing to Qarmaqdjuin. I was told that in both the latter +districts many deer can be found at all times.</p> + +<p>Lastly, I have to describe the winter settlements of the Saumingmiut. +They are in the habit of separating in the fall, part of them staying +during winter on Qeqertaujang, in Ugjuktung, and the remainder at +Ukiadliving, on Davis Strait.</p> + +<p>Strange as it may seem, walrus are not found in the upper part of the +sound, while farther south they are abundant. Akuliaχating, east of +Qeqerten, is the most northern point that they visit. It is said that in +former times they were met with everywhere in the sound, and indeed some +of the local names give evidence of the truth of these traditions; for +instance, the name of Uglirn (which is always applied to walrus +islands), in the fjord Qaggilortung, and that of Anarnitung +(a place having a bad smell from walrus excrement), at the head of +the sound.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page439" id="page439">439</a></span> +<p>Before Cumberland Sound begins to freeze up, the Eskimo of Ugjuktung +take walrus on the islands Uglirn, south of Qeqertaujang, and at +Qeqertaq in Anartuajuin. The animals killed during the fall are buried +under stones, and with this stock of provisions the Saumingmiut do not +suffer want during the winter. In addition, however, they go sealing at +the entrance of Ugjuktung, or travel overland to Kangertloaping, +a branch of Kouaqdjuaq, as Nuvukdjuaq is almost always washed by +water and cannot be passed in winter. The young sealing is here of +little importance, as the bears visit the fjords about this season and +frighten the animals away. In March the natives go bear hunting or move +up the sound to join the Kingnaitmiut during the time of young sealing. +In the spring the settlement is always abandoned, as most of them go to +Davis Strait and join the other part of the tribe. Crossing the country, +they travel over a pass leading from Anartuajuin to +Ujaradjiraaitjung.</p> + +<p>The favorite settlement on the east coast is Ukiadliving. There are +several stone foundations in this place which are frequently +reconstructed and used as dwellings. Here walrus are hunted in the +summer and in the fall and a great stock of provisions is laid up. In +winter the floe offers a good hunting ground for sealing and in the +spring the bears visit the land and the islands to pursue the pupping +(i.e., pregnant or parturient) seals. At the same time the she bear +brings forth her young, the meat and skin of which are highly prized. +Many old bears and cubs are killed at this season and the precious skins +are prepared for sale.</p> + +<p>Besides the beforementioned route another and longer one leads to +Cumberland Sound. In taking this course the sledges start from +Nedluqseaq, west of Ukiadliving, and follow a river which rises in a +small lake whence the inland ice is ascended. Farther on the valley +leading to Eχaluaqdjuin and Kangertlukdjuaq is reached. This is the only +overland route on which the inland ice is crossed. Cape Mercy can be +passed by a number of short isthmuses. In the shelter of the bay formed +by the cape and Muingmang a floe is formed reaching to the foot of +Uibarun (Cape Mercy). The pass Tappitaridjen, which cuts off two +peninsulas, leads into the sound. The bays farther west are frozen up +and the projecting points are avoided by short passes. Unfortunately +this road was unknown to me during my stay in Saumia, else I could have +easily visited Cape Mercy. At last Anartuajuin is reached. The water +rarely extends to Nuvukdjuaraqdjung, the point between Anartuajuin and +Ugjuktung. It may be passed by a difficult road leading across the +peninsula. If the water extends to Iliqimisarbing a pass is used which +is ascended from Eχalualuin, in the bay of Naujaqdjuaq.</p> + +<p>On Davis Strait a few important isthmuses must be mentioned. One is +used by the inhabitants of Ukiadliving in traveling to Exeter Sound. +They leave the sea at the head of Touaqdjuaq and by a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page440" id="page440">440</a></span> +difficult overland route cross to the southern shore of Exeter Sound. +Much of the time the ice and snow near Udlimaulitelling make the route +almost impassable in that direction. If, therefore, this route is +impracticable or that through Touaqdjuaq is too difficult on account of +the absence of snow, the journey is postponed until late in spring, when +the hummocks begin to be leveled off and the snow becomes harder as it +settles; then the rough ice can be passed, and after reaching Ituatukan, +a fjord near Cape Walsingham, the Eskimo ascend it, so as to avoid +the cape, which is always washed by water. If snow and ice are in a +suitable condition the passage by way of Ituatukan is always +preferred.</p> + +<p>From Exeter Sound Kangertlukdjuaq, in Padli Fjord, may be reached by +a pass of short extent; but the snow is always so deep here that the +passage cannot be effected until June. The peninsulas between Padli +Fjord and Exeter Sound, which have no ice foot, can be crossed by narrow +isthmuses near the head of the bays.</p> + +<p>Before leaving Cumberland Sound and its inhabitants, the Oqomiut, +altogether, I wish to add a few remarks on the whale fishery, which +the Eskimo formerly carried on in their bulky skin boats. They pursued +the monstrous animal in all waters with their imperfect weapons, for a +single capture supplied them with food and fuel for a long time. +I do not know with certainty whether the natives used to bring +their boats to the floe edge in the spring in order to await the arrival +of the whales, as the Scotch and American whalers do nowadays, or +whether the animals were caught only in summer. On Davis Strait the +Padlimiut and the Akudnirmiut used to erect their tents in June near the +floe edge, whence they went whaling, sending the meat, blubber, and +whalebone to the main settlement. In Cumberland Sound whales were caught +in all the fjords, particularly in Kingnait, Issortuqdjuaq, and the +narrow channels of the west shore. Therefore the Eskimo could live in +the fjords during the winter, as the provisions laid up in the fall +lasted until spring. If, therefore, there is a perceptible diminution in +the supply of their food it is due to the fact that the whale fishery +has been abandoned by them or rather has been yielded up to Europeans +and Americans. It is not probable, however, that a sufficient number of +whales were ever caught to support the entire population during the +whole of the winter. The whaling is still kept up by the Eskimo of +Hudson Strait and Hudson Bay, though only to a limited extent, owing to +the visits of whaling ships and the establishment of whaling +stations.</p> + +<h5><a name="tribes_baffin_padlimiut" id="tribes_baffin_padlimiut">The Padlimiut and the +Akudnirmiut.—</a></h5> + +<p>The next tribes to be described are the Padlimiut and the +Akudnirmiut, but this may be done very briefly, as the nature of this +region is similar to that of Saumia. A peculiarity of the +Akudnirmiut is their more decided migratory character as compared with +the Oqomiut. They do not spend every winter at the same place, as we +observed that the Oqomiut do, but +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page441" id="page441">441</a></span> +are more inclined to visit, in turn, the different winter stations of +their country.</p> + +<p>In summer the following places are almost always inhabited: +Qarmaqdjuin, Eχaloaping in Padli Fjord, Qivitung, and Niaqonaujang. The +deer hunting season opens here at the same time as farther south, but it +is much facilitated from the fact that the ice breaks up later. The deer +visit the numerous islands scattered along the mainland and thus their +pasturing ground is easily reached. As the islands of Home Bay +constitute a good hunting ground the Eskimo sometimes settle there for a +few weeks.</p> + +<p>The long, low peninsula Pamiujang, near Nedluqseaq, and the head of +Nudlung are the favorite summer settlements of the Padlimiut. Nudlung, +Eχalualuin, Ijelirtung, and Inugsuin are visited by the Akudnirmiut. An +abundance of deer is found along the southern part of Home Bay, where +the plains extend to the sea. It is remarkable that all along this shore +there is no island on which birds build their nests. Though fowls do not +form an important constituent of the food of the Oqomiut and the more +southern tribes, the egg islands are frequently visited. On Davis Strait +it is only by chance that ducks &c. are caught, and eggs can +scarcely be obtained. The only island which is visited by birds is +Avaudjelling, in Home Bay. In July, however, large flocks of eider ducks +descend Itirbilung Fjord and many are caught near its head. From this +fjord an overland route, which is practicable only in summer, leads to +Piling, a district on the shore of Fox Basin, which may be reached +in three days. Though the route is well known, it seems to be passing +into disuse; at least I do not know any natives who have crossed the +land by it. Another interesting road leading overland must be mentioned, +namely, the one which leads from Nudlung and Eχalualuin to Majoraridjen +and Nettilling. The former region is still visited by the Akudnirmiut, +but I know of but one family who went to Nettilling and wintered +there.</p> + +<p>As a rule, about the beginning of August the Akudnirmiut move to +Niaqonanjang in order to have an opportunity of meeting the whalers on +their way south. For the same reason the southern families gather at +Qivitung.</p> + +<p>As soon as the sea is frozen up, part of the natives of Qivitung move +southward and settle on Qeqertuqdjuaq, where they stay until February, +while in spring some stay here or move farther up the bay, where they +establish their huts on Qeqertaq; the rest travel to Padli Fjord and +live with the families who had passed the winter there on Padloping. As +the floe edge approaches the land here, the country is favorable for +bear hunting, which is pursued in March and April. In June the natives +move up Padli Fjord to catch salmon, which are found in enormous numbers +at Padli. A few visit Agpan, where flocks of loons nest. The +natives who intend to return to Qivitung in summer leave about the end +of May or the beginning of June.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page442" id="page442">442</a></span> +<p>Those who remain at Qivitung during the winter go sealing in the bay +east of the peninsula and subsist upon the product of this occupation, +as well as on the walrus meat which was stored up in the summer and +autumn. A few leave Qivitung after the consolidation of the floe +and settle on Nanuqtaqdjung, an island in Home Bay, near the northern +point of Qeqertalukdjuaq.</p> + +<p>In the winter the Akudnirmiut of Niaqonaujang generally remove to +Ipiutelling, on the southern shore of Koukteling, and in May go farther +south, to the island Avaudjelling. In the spring they go bear hunting on +Koukteling and the peninsula of Niaqonaujang, where the she bears dig +holes in the snow banks, in which they whelp.</p> + +<p>Though the isthmuses are of great value in facilitating the +intercourse between the separate settlements of Cumberland Sound and +Davis Strait, as their headlands are washed by water, they are not +indispensable for the tribes of Davis Strait, for the ice is passable at +all points. The low peninsulas are crossed by the natives in their +travels in preference to rounding their headlands. Thus they not only +shorten their journey, but they avoid the rough ice often found off the +points.</p> + +<p>For example, a pass leads from the western bay of Padli Fjord to +Kangertloaping, and another from Tessiujang, near Qivitung, across the +narrow and low isthmus into Home Bay. Similar passes are used in +crossing Koukteling, the peninsulas of Niaqonaujang, Aqojang, and +Aqojartung.</p> + +<p>At Niaqonaujang I reached the limit of my travels and have only to +add reports which I obtained from other tribes and in other settlements. +River Clyde and Aqbirtijung are not always inhabited, but are visited at +irregular intervals by the Akudnirmiut, the same who usually stay at +Niaqonaujang. It is probable that Aqbirtijung and Kangertlualung are +sometimes visited by the Tununirmiut of Pond Bay.</p> + +<h5><a name="tribes_baffin_aggomiut" id="tribes_baffin_aggomiut">The +Aggomiut.—</a></h5> + +<p>I can say but little about the two subtribes of the Aggomiut (the +Tununirmiut and the Tununirusirmiut), as the reports are scanty and the +chart of the region is too incorrect to convey any exact information. +A few statements may be derived from the Eskimo charts published by +Hall (II, pp. 356 and 370). It appears that the natives winter +near the entrance of Navy Board Inlet and in the back of Eclipse Sound. +Settlements of the Tununirusirmiut at the western entrance of Admiralty +Inlet and near its head are mentioned by Hall. Besides seals these +natives also pursue the white whales and narwhals which frequent the +sound. In summer the Tununirmiut live at the entrance of Pond Bay.</p> + +<p>Although I am not informed as to the position of the settlements, and +for this reason am unable to judge of the details of the life of the +Aggomiut, I can give the more general facts of their relations to +the neighboring tribes. Of the greatest importance is their connection +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page443" id="page443">443</a></span> +with the Iglulirmiut, for through them a regular intercourse is kept up +between the continent of America and the eastern shore of Baffin Land. +One road leads through Kangertlukdjuaq, a fjord east of Parry’s +Murray Maxwell Inlet, to the head of Anaulereëling. I received a +detailed description of this road from a native whom I met at +Niaqonaujang. Hall’s statement that this way leads to Pond Bay is very +likely erroneous, as the natives probably said that it led to Tununirn, +which comprises the whole district of Eclipse Sound and the region east +of it. It is possible that another road leads to Eχaluin, a fjord +of Eclipse Sound. Another route which is often used leads from +Kangertlung, Parry’s Gifford River, to Angmang, and farther west to +Tununirusirn. This route has already been described by Parry, who +attempted to reach the north shore of Baffin Land by it +(II, p. 449). Parry’s description was confirmed in 1869 by +Hall (II, p. 356). I am somewhat doubtful whether Fury +and Hecla Strait, which is often filled with rough ice, can be passed +regularly, and whether a route leading to Tununirusirn follows the shore +of the Gulf of Boothia, as stated by some of the natives of Davis +Strait. This uncertainty did not occur to me until after I had read +Parry’s description. Communication between Tununirn and Tununirusirn is +by way of the isthmus between Kangertlung and Navy Board Inlet.</p> + +<p>The journeys of the Aggomiut are not at all confined to Baffin Land. +In favorable winters they cross Lancaster Sound, passing the small +island Uglirn, and winter on the eastern half of Tudjan (North Devon). +While here they keep up some intercourse with the inhabitants of +Umingman Nuna (Ellesmere Land).</p> + +<p>It is said that they cross the ice covered island on sledges. In four +days they reach the northern shore, whence a long, narrow peninsula, +Nedlung, stretches toward Ellesmere Land. Through the narrow passage +which separates Tudjan from Nedlung runs a very swift tide which keeps +open a water hole throughout the winter. All around this place the ice +wastes quickly in the spring and a large basin is formed which abounds +with seals. Only that part of the peninsula which lies nearest North +Devon is high and steep, presenting a bold face. Farther north it is +rather low.</p> + +<p>Having reached Umingman Nuna, the Eskimo who gave me this information +affirm that they fell in with a small tribe who resided on this shore. +Here they lived for some time, as there was an abundance of seals during +the whole year. Farther northwest is a large fjord, Kangertluksiaq, off +which an island is found, Qeqertakadlinang by name. The Eskimo do not +visit the land on the other side of this fjord, as bears are said to be +very numerous and large there. Though these migrations to Jones Sound do +not occur very frequently, they have by no means been discontinued. For +instance, a family which was well known to me has visited Smith +Sound, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page444" id="page444">444</a></span> +the father of some friends of a resident of Cumberland Sound returned +about fifteen years ago from a long stay on Tudjan and Nedlung.</p> + +<h5><a name="tribes_baffin_iglulirmiut" id="tribes_baffin_iglulirmiut">The Iglulirmiut.—</a></h5> + +<p>The last group of natives belonging to Baffin Land are those of +Iglulik. Our knowledge of this tribe is due to Parry and Hall. As soon +as the sea begins to freeze up, the natives gather on Iglulik, where +they hunt the walrus throughout the winter. According to the position of +the floe edge, Iglulik, Pingitkalik, or Uglit Islands are the favorite +settlements. Later in the winter, when new ice is frequently attached to +the floe, part of the families move to the ice northeast of Igluling, +where seals are caught with the harpoon. Another winter settlement seems +to be near Amitoq. In April young seals are hunted in the bays and +fjords, particularly in Hooper Inlet. According to Hall the western +coast of Melville Peninsula is sometimes visited during the winter for +walrusing and bear hunting (II, p. 343). An overland route +leads to this district, crossing the long Grinnell Lake and Brevoort +River, thus named by Hall (II, p. 342). As soon as the warm +season approaches the natives go deer hunting on Melville Peninsula or +more frequently on Baffin Land. From the reports of Parry and Hall and +from my own inquiries, there can be no doubt that they visit the eastern +shore of Fox Basin.</p> + +<h5><a name="tribes_baffin_pilingmiut" id="tribes_baffin_pilingmiut">The Pilingmiut.—</a></h5> + +<p>Two tribes were settled on the eastern coast of Fox Basin, the +Pilingmiut and the Sagdlirmiut, who had but slight intercourse with the +Iglulirmiut. I heard both mentioned at times when traveling along +Davis Strait. According to my information I should say that Piling is +about 74° west and 69° north. From Parry’s reports it appears that the +intercourse between these tribes and Iglulik was not very active; for, +although he had staid two years at Aivillik and Iglulik, the Pilingmiut +when visiting the latter tribe did not know anything about this fact, +which was one of the greatest importance to all the natives +(II, p. 430). Sometimes the Talirpingmiut of Cumberland Sound +meet the Pilingmiut, for both tribes go deer hunting northwest of +Nettilling. I heard of one such meeting between hunting parties in +that district.</p> + +<h5><a name="tribes_baffin_sagdlirmiut" id="tribes_baffin_sagdlirmiut">The Sagdlirmiut.—</a></h5> + +<p>The information as to the Sagdlirmiut is yet more scanty than that +relating to the inhabitants of Piling. Parry learned that Sagdlirn is +about east-northeast of Iglulik (II, p. 549). The description +which I received on Davis Strait confirms this opinion, for the +direction was denoted as qaningnang, i.e., east-northeast; besides, +Sagdlirn was described as a long and narrow island.</p> + + +<h4><a name="tribes_hudson" id="tribes_hudson">WESTERN SHORE OF +HUDSON BAY.</a></h4> + +<p>A remarkable difference exists between the customs of the western +tribes who live on the continent of America and those of the tribes that +inhabit Baffin Land and Melville Peninsula. This is chiefly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page445" id="page445">445</a></span> +due to the difference in the nature of their territorial surroundings +and to the presence of the musk ox, which they frequently hunt. In +addition, the tribes of the continent do not hunt the seal in the +winter, laying up instead their supply of meat and blubber in the fall. +The information in regard to two of these tribes is quite complete, as +they have been visited by explorers frequently and at all seasons. The +two tribes referred to are the Aivillirmiut, of the northwestern part of +Hudson Bay, and the Netchillirmiut of Boothia Felix. Unfortunately the +information in respect to the others, the Kinipetu or Agutit, the +Sinimiut, Ugjulirmiut, and Ukusiksalirmiut, is less complete.</p> + +<h5><a name="tribes_hudson_aivillirmiut" id="tribes_hudson_aivillirmiut">The Aivillirmiut.—</a></h5> + +<p>In order to describe the mode of life of the Aivillirmiut I shall +give an abstract of Dr. John Rae’s observations in 1846-’47 and +1854-’55, of C. F. Hall’s life with these natives from 1864 to +1869, and of Lieut. F. Schwatka’s residence among them from 1877 to +1879. A pretty correct idea of the migrations and favorite resorts +of this tribe at the different seasons may be obtained from the journals +of these travelers.</p> + +<p>When Rae arrived in Repulse Bay in the latter part of July, 1846, he +met with twenty-six natives who were deer hunting among the numerous +lakes of Rae Isthmus (I, pp. 35, 40, 48). Another part of +the tribe had resorted to Akugdlit, where they hunted the musk ox near +Point Hargrave (I, p. 49). Committee Bay (Akugdlit) was filled +with a heavy pack about that time, and the natives hunted walrus in +their kayaks (I, p. 58). Wherever they killed a deer or musk +ox they made deposits of the meat and carefully put up the walrus +blubber in sealskin bags for use during the winter. When, about the end +of September, the deer were migrating southward and new ice was forming +on the lakes, the natives settled in the center of that part of the +country which had been their hunting ground during the summer, in order +to be near their depots. For this reason they were well scattered all +over the country, some establishing their tents on the lakes of the +isthmus, others staying on the shore of Repulse Bay, where large +deposits of deer meat and blubber had been made. During the winter most +of the natives gathered in one settlement east of Fort Hope (near +Aivillik), whence they started to bring in their deposits. About the +20th of February they scattered all over the bay (I, p. 91), +but it is doubtful whether they did this in order to be nearer their +depots or to go sealing. In March the first deer of the season were +seen. (I, p. 93), but it was not until April that larger herds +passed Repulse Bay on their migration northward (I, p. 99). At +this time a small supply of trout was procured from Christie Lake, but +it was not sufficient for the support of the natives +(I, p. 99). Caches of venison were made and frequently visited +until late in June (p. 166). The sealing had begun in the beginning +of May (p. 135), when the first animals were seen basking on the +ice. But +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page446" id="page446">446</a></span> +the Eskimo were now almost independent of their old food supply. When +the salmon left the lakes and the deer were roaming among the hills the +time of plenty was at hand. The salmon creeks were visited, deer were +caught, and seals pursued on the ice (p. 170). Although the first +deer were caught in traps in May, the principal season for deer hunting +opened after the breaking up of the ice, when they were easily taken +while crossing the lakes.</p> + +<p>When Rae wintered the second time in Repulse Bay (1854-’55) he was +much surprised to find no natives there. They had wintered farther +south, and did not come to the bay until May, 1855, when they could +catch seals on the land ice. In 1864, when Hall arrived at Wager River, +Repulse Bay was again deserted. This year of Hall’s stay in Hudson Bay +is very instructive, as we learn from his account the particulars of the +migration of the Aivillirmiut from Nuvung to Repulse Bay. The following +facts are taken from his journal:</p> + +<p>In June, 1865, a traveling party arrived in Repulse Bay (Hall II, +p. 177), where numerous deer were met with. Their tents were +erected on Uglariaq, whence seals were pursued, and they began at once +to make blubber deposits (p. 179). They were very eager to store as +much provision as possible, as there was no chance of obtaining a fresh +stock at Repulse Bay during the winter. Some of the party brought their +boats to the floe edge in order to follow the seal and walrus, which +were swimming in the water or lying on the drifting ice in great +numbers, while others preferred sledging on the land floe and shooting +the basking seals (p. 181). After the breaking up of the ice, +whales were seen, and kayaks and boats were made ready for their +pursuit. In September most of the natives returned to North Pole Lake to +hunt deer at the lower narrows (p. 202), where the meat was +deposited for winter use (p. 204).</p> + +<p>On the 19th of October the last deer was killed (p. 205), and most of +the natives returned to the bay. They located at Naujan, the men in the +party numbering 43 (p. 216). During the winter no kind of hunt was +kept up, only a few salmon and trout being caught in the lakes +(p. 210). Towards the latter part of March the settlement was +broken up and its members scattered for the purpose of hunting and +fishing (p. 227). Salmon were caught in North Pole Lake and deer +shot in the narrow passes (p. 227). The sealing did not begin until +the first of April (p. 239). In the summer, deer, seal, walrus, and +salmon were caught in great abundance. In the following years the mode +of life was about the same, but it maybe remarked that in August the +natives lived at Pitiktaujang and afterwards went to Lyon Inlet +(Maluksilaq) to hunt deer (p. 323). Part of them returned to +Repulse Bay, where walrus were caught on the drifting ice during +September. In the ensuing winter (1867-’68) 55 natives had gathered in a +village about twenty miles east of Fort Hope (p. 333), where they +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page447" id="page447">447</a></span> +lived on the stores deposited during the preceding summer. After the +breaking up of the ice they succeeded in killing several whales, which +afforded an ample supply of meat and blubber (p. 363). +Subsequently, they hunted deer west of Repulse Bay (p. 364) and +near Lyon Inlet, where probably the greater part of the families had +staid since the previous year.</p> + +<p>In November, Hall found near the head of this inlet a number of +natives who came to Repulse Bay towards the end of the year, having +heard that a whale had been taken there. By this addition the village of +Repulse Bay suddenly increased in population to 120 inhabitants +(p. 369). This was the only winter in which the natives, began +sealing in January (p. 371). In March they built their huts upon +the ice and scattered early in the spring for sealing and catching +salmon.</p> + +<p>From these reports and some more general accounts of these travelers, +an idea can be formed of the mode of life of this part of the +Aivillirmiut during the different seasons. In the spring, when the seals +commence to bask upon the ice, the tents are established on the floe of +Repulse Bay, the large winter settlements being broken up into a number +of smaller ones. During this season they begin to store away blubber, +which is carefully put into sealskin bags. Besides, reindeer are killed +in the deer passes. In July a great number of the natives leave the ice +and resort to the salmon rivers, where an abundant supply of food is +secured, but the sealing is also continued until the breaking up of the +ice. At this time of the year (i.e., in August), walrus and seal are +taken in large numbers, and thus an ample stock of provisions for winter +use is collected. In some seasons a few whales are caught and stored +away at once. In September, most of the natives move to the lakes or +rivers, particularly North Pole Lake, to hunt deer as well as the musk +ox on the hills. Other favorite localities for deer hunting are west of +Repulse Bay or near Lyon Inlet. Large deposits of venison are made, and +when the deer go south the natives settle in the center of their +summer’s hunting ground, building their snow houses on the lakes in +order to have a supply of water near at hand. About January most of them +gather in one settlement, which is established at Uglariaq, Naujan, or +Inugsulik. Those who come from Lyon Inlet do not always join the Repulse +Bay tribe, but may be identical with Parry’s Winter Island Eskimo, who +move to the bay south of Lyon Inlet in winter. They go sealing in winter +only in case of need, for the hunt seems to be unproductive, and they +subsist on the stores deposited during the preceding summer. Towards the +latter half of March the settlements are broken up and some of the +natives go to the lakes to fish for trout and salmon, while others begin +the sealing.</p> + +<p>Another winter station of the Aivillirmiut is Akugdlit, which, +however, has never been as important as Aivillik itself. Rae found +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page448" id="page448">448</a></span> +some families here in August, 1846. They hunted the musk ox on the +western shore of the bay, and later in the season, upon the pack ice +which filled the sea, they hunted the walrus (Rae I, p. 58). They +reported that the bay was very unfavorable for any kind of chase, as it +is usually filled with closely packed ice, which prevents the visits of +animals and endangers the boats of the natives (p. 49). In July the +salmon creeks of Akugdlit (Committee Bay) were visited by these +families, who extended their hunting ground from Colville Bay to the +most northern parts of Melville Peninsula (p. 145). According to +Hall a number of families live here at times. They were in the habit of +staying at Repulse Bay during the early part of the summer and went to +Akugdlit in the autumn to hunt the musk ox and deer. In the winter they +transferred their deposits of blubber from Aivillik across the lakes to +their settlement. Probably these families returned to Repulse Bay about +the first of March, at which time their deposits were always exhausted +(Hall II, p. 383). In some seasons the natives journey much farther +south, that is, to the country between Cape Fullerton and Wager River. +Klutschak’s report upon this subject, which is extracted from his +observations during Schwatka’s search for the Franklin records, will be +found tolerably correct (Deutsche Rundschau für Geographie und +Statistik, III, 1881, p. 422). The report contains the following +statement:</p> + +<p class="quote"> +In the spring of every year these Eskimo live on the land floe of Hudson +Bay, at some distance from the point where the tides and winds carry the +pack ice past the shore. Here is the favorite feeding place of the +walrus, and the Eskimo confine themselves to the pursuit of this animal. +They settle near one of the numerous islands situated near the +shore.</p> + +<p>Later in the season they live in tents, and the hunting of seals and +walrus is continued as long as the presence of ice permits. The greater +part of the Aivillirmiut live near Depot Island (Pikiulaq). Here, on +Cape Fullerton, and near the northern entrance of Chesterfield Inlet, +the natives deposit their stores for winter use. As soon as the ice is +gone they resort to the mainland, where deer, which descend to the shore +at this season, are hunted. When the snow begins to cover the country +they move inland, where they continue the deer hunt. In October they +settle near a deer pass or a lake which is crossed by the herds +migrating southward. In December all the deer have left the country and +the natives live upon the stores deposited in the fall. Towards the +beginning of the new year part of them return to the sea and live upon +the deposits of walrus meat or disperse over the land floe, where seals +are killed in their breathing holes. Another part take to the hills near +Chesterfield Inlet and Wager River, a favorite feeding ground for +the musk ox. They only return to the bay in March or April, to hunt +seals until the breaking up of the ice. If the supplies of walrus meat +are very abundant the Eskimo gather in one large settlement.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page449" id="page449">449</a></span> +<p>It appears from Klutschak’s own journal that this report is not quite +complete, and I shall therefore add those of his own observations which +seem to be important:</p> + +<p>The natives who had hunted deer in the fall returned in December to +Depot Island, where ten inhabitants lived at that time. They hunted +walrus at the edge of the floe during the whole winter, but did not +exclusively use their old stores (Klutschak, p. 32). In summer +whales were hunted by means of kayaks, the blubber and meat being +immediately stored for future use <ins class="correction" title="opening ( missing">(p.</ins> 269). It is interesting to learn that +a single family spent a whole year in the interior of the country, about +two or three days’ journey west of Depot Island, living on the flesh of +the musk ox most of the time (p. 196). He does not say what kind of +fuel they used.</p> + +<p>In Klutschak’s chart of Hudson Bay, which is published with his +essay, a winter settlement is marked on Wager River, where the +natives probably lived on seals caught in the breathing holes.</p> + +<p>The mode of life of this tribe, as observed by Hall during his stay +among them in 1864, differs in some material points from Klutschak’s +account. It is particularly important that Hall found them at Wager +River.</p> + +<p>About forty Eskimo are said to have lived in Nuvung during that year, +while others were at Depot Island. Large depots of deer meat were +scattered over the country around the settlement (Hall II, p. 76) +and were brought in by the natives one by one. In the middle of +November, after having finished the work of currying their deerskins, +they commenced the walrus hunt, but meantime they frequently fed on deer +meat from their depots (Hall II, pp. 102, 128, 132, 133). Towards +the end of February they commenced to disperse, at first moving +southward in order to be nearer the floe edge (p. 144). In the +beginning of March an advance party of natives moved to Wager River, +where they intended to catch salmon through the ice and to visit depots +in that part of the country (p. 149). In April all the former +inhabitants of Nuvung had settled on the ice of Wager River, where +salmon in moderate numbers were caught (p. 164), but the main +subsistence was the seals, which were at first watched for at the +breathing holes, while later on they were killed when basking on the +ice.</p> + +<p>As a summary of the foregoing statements, we may say that the five +principal settlements of the Aivillirmiut are Pikiulaq (Depot Island), +Nuvung and Ukusiksalik (Wager River), Aivillik (Repulse Bay), Akugdlit +(Committee Bay), and Maluksilaq (Lyon Inlet). They may be divided into +two groups, the former comprising the southern settlements, the latter +the northern ones. Every one of these settlements has certain well known +sites, which are frequented at the proper seasons.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page450" id="page450">450</a></span> +<p>It yet remains to describe the roads which are used in the +intercourse between these settlements. From Pikiulaq to Nuvung the +natives travel by means of sledges. In the winter of 1864-’65 two +journeys were made, the first in December, the latter in January. +Besides, boats are used in traveling along the shore in summer. Sledge +journeys from Nuvung to Ukusiksalik cannot be accomplished on the ice, +as in the entrance of the bay large water holes are formed. The sledges +follow a chain of long, narrow lakes beginning near Nuvung and running +almost parallel with the coast through a deep gorge. The bay is but a +short distance beyond this gorge. I am not acquainted with the +sledge road from Nuvung to Aivillik. Rae was visited at Fort Hope by a +number of Eskimo, who came by sledges from Nuvung in June +(I, p. 169). Hall traveled with the natives in boats, passing +the narrows and following the edge of the land ice, while the rest of +the families sledged on the shore or on the land ice +(II, p. 177). The principal road across Rae Isthmus leads over +North Pole Lake and is described by Rae and Hall. The latter accompanied +the natives on two sledge roads, the one leading from Sagdlua, in +Haviland Bay, to Qariaq, in Lyon Inlet, the other crossing the land +farther south. I am not sure whether a road leading from Nebarvik +to Committee Bay connects Maluksilaq with Akugdlit. It is doubtful +whether the coast between Aivillik and Gore Bay is visited by the +natives.</p> + +<p>It is remarkable that the Aivillirmiut very rarely go to Southampton +Island, though they are sometimes carried across Frozen Strait or Rowe’s +Welcome by drifting ice. Scarcely ever of their own accord do they visit +the island, which they call Sagdlirn. They know that it is inhabited, +but have very little intercourse with its people.</p> + +<h5><a name="tribes_hudson_kinipetu" id="tribes_hudson_kinipetu">The +Kinipetu or Agutit.—</a></h5> + +<p>The reports upon the Kinipetu or Agutit of Chesterfield Inlet are +very scanty as compared with those of the beforementioned tribe. All +authors agree that they differ materially in their habits from the +Aivillirmiut, and it has often been affirmed that they scarcely ever +descend to the sea. As there is, however, no other tribe mentioned south +of the Aivillirmiut besides this one and as in every voyage to these +shores, even far south of Chesterfield Inlet, Eskimo are met with who +frequently visit Fort Churchill, the most northern station of the Hudson +Bay Company, there can be no doubt that they also visit the shore and +the islands and hunt seals. Probably the greater part of the tribe live +inland from July to March, hunting deer and the musk ox, and in winter +only descend to the sea in order to procure blubber and sealskins during +the season in which these are most easily obtained. It may be that +another part stay near the head of Chesterfield Inlet all the year round +or remain in the hilly country between the deep gulf and Back River +hunting the musk ox. According to all reports, they are rather +independent of the hunt of sea animals, and they do not even use their +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page451" id="page451">451</a></span> +skins for garments (Klutschak, Deutsche Rundschau für Geographie und +Statistik, III, p. 419). For this reason they would afford +interesting material for investigation, and it is unfortunate that no +trustworthy accounts of the tribe exist. Back, on his journey to the +shores of the Arctic Ocean, found traces of the Eskimo on the lakes of +Back River, ample proof that they were in the habit of visiting this +region every summer. He found the first traces near 107° west longitude, +and farther down, at the mouth of Baillie River. He did not see the +natives whom Anderson and Stewart met in the summer of 1855 near +McKinley River and later between Pelly and Garry Lakes. Their clothing +and even the covers of their kayaks were made of deer and musk ox skins. +They observed among these natives such articles of European make as the +Hudson Bay Company used for barter and which were traded to the most +southern Eskimo tribes of Hudson Bay. Therefore it is likely that these +natives belonged to Chesterfield Inlet. This opinion is supported by +Klutschak’s remark that a native of the mouth of Back River knew an +overland route leading from the lakes at its upper course to +Chesterfield Inlet.</p> + +<h5><a name="tribes_hudson_sagdlirmiut" id="tribes_hudson_sagdlirmiut">The Sagdlirmiut of Southampton +Island.—</a></h5> + +<p>Before leaving the subject of the Hudson Bay Eskimo I may mention the +inhabitants of Southampton Island, a tribe which is almost unknown +and the only record of which was obtained by Captain Lyon during the few +hours which he passed among them in 1824 (Attempt to reach Repulse Bay, +p. 54). In August he found a few families on the island south of +Cape Pembroke, who were living upon salmon which had been deposited in +stone caches and who had tents made of sealskins. A winter house +was found at the same point. About 1865 an American whaling vessel found +some natives on Manico Point living in five tents. Even then they had +scarcely any iron, but used the old stone implements; this proves the +want of all communication with the natives of the mainland. Parry found +traces of Eskimo in York Bay and they have been seen on many other parts +of the island. The Hudson Bay tribes call this tribe the Sagdlirmiut, +i.e., the inhabitants of Sagdlirn, and their knowledge about them is +very scanty, as they meet very rarely and by chance only.</p> + +<h5><a name="tribes_hudson_sinimiut" id="tribes_hudson_sinimiut">The +Sinimiut.—</a></h5> + +<p>Northwest of Hudson Bay we find a tribe in Pelly Bay. The reports +upon it are very scanty and it is difficult to find out the extent of +the district which is occupied by it. Ross did not fall in with the +tribe, and in the accounts of the Netchillirmiut on their journey to +Repulse Bay no mention is made of an intervening tribe +(II, p. 263). In April, 1847, Rae found signs of the tribe +near Helen Island, in Pelly Bay (I, p. 113). There was an +abundance of seals on the ice all around the islands (p. 111), but +besides these they had large stocks of dried musk ox and salmon +(p. 124). On his second journey he found their winter habitation on +Barrow and Cameroon +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page452" id="page452">452</a></span> +Lakes (II, p. 938), and on the 20th of April he met with seventeen +natives on the mainland west of Augustus Island, among whom were five +women. In traveling farther west he fell in with a native who had been +hunting the musk ox. On the 17th of May he found twelve natives settled +in the same place and living on seal (II, p. 842).</p> + +<p>Hall met with this tribe twice, in 1866 and in 1869. On the 28th of +April, in his first attempt to reach King William Land, he found the +Sinimiut settled near Cape Beaufort, in Committee Bay, where they were +probably sealing (II, p. 255). No further account of this +meeting is found except the remark that these natives were on their way +to Repulse Bay (p. 259). Therefore it is rather doubtful whether +the eastern shore of Simpson Peninsula belongs to their customary +district. In April, 1869, on his second visit to Pelly Bay, Hall found +their deserted winter huts on Cameroon Lake (p. 386). In the early +part of the spring they had lived on the ice south of Augustus Island, +the only place where seals could be caught, as the rest of the bay was +filled with heavy floes which had been carried south by the northerly +winds prevailing during the preceding fall. The natives themselves were +met with on the mainland west of Augustus Island, where they were +hunting the musk ox. When Hall crossed the bay in the first days of June +the natives had changed neither their place nor their mode of +subsistence.</p> + +<p>There is a discrepancy in Nourse’s extract from Hall’s journal, for +he sometimes refers to the Pelly Bay natives as different from the +Sinimiut, while in other passages all the inhabitants of the bay are +comprised in the latter term. I think this discrepancy is +occasioned by the fact that a number of Aivillirmiut had settled in +Pelly Bay and some others were related to natives of that locality; the +latter Nourse calls the Pelly Bay men, the rest the Sinimiut. The place +Sini itself, according to a statement of Hall, is near Cape Behrens, on +the northwestern shore of the bay.</p> + +<p>As the winter huts of the Sinimiut have been found four times on the +lakes of the isthmus of Simpson Peninsula, we may suppose that they +generally spend the winter there, living on the stores deposited in the +preceding season and occasionally angling for trout and salmon (Rae I, +p. 110) or killing a musk ox. In March they leave for the sea in +order to hunt seals and to secure a fresh supply of blubber for their +lamps. Their chief subsistence is the musk ox; besides, salmon are +caught in great numbers, for they live on dried fish until spring (Rae +I, p. 124).</p> + + +<h4><a name="tribes_boothia" id="tribes_boothia">BOOTHIA FELIX AND +BACK RIVER.</a></h4> + +<h5><a name="tribes_boothia_netchillirmiut" id="tribes_boothia_netchillirmiut">The Netchillirmiut.—</a></h5> + +<p>Following the shore westward we find the interesting tribes that +inhabit Boothia Felix, King William Land, and the mouth of Back River. +Among them the Netchillirmiut are the most important. Their favorite +hunting grounds seem to have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page453" id="page453">453</a></span> +undergone a remarkable change since they were first visited by Ross in +1829. At that period their district occupied the southern part of +Boothia Felix, particularly the narrow isthmus and the adjoining parts +of both coasts. They were acquainted with Bellot Strait (Ikerasaq), +which they described as the way the Victory had to take in order to +effect a passage to the western sea. A part of the tribe was in the +habit of wintering on Owutta Island; they also probably visited the +eastern part of King William Land. The southwestern termination of their +district cannot be exactly defined, but from their description of the +land south of Lake Willerstedt it appears that they visited Shepherd +Bay; besides, I find that in June, 1831, a number of families +lived south of Netchillik, i.e., probably in Rae Strait or on Shepherd +Bay (Ross II, p. 537).</p> + +<p>So far as can be gathered from Ross’s account the tribe had three +winter settlements, one on the eastern shore of the Isthmus of Boothia, +another at Lake Netchillik, and the third on Owutta Island.<a class="tag" name="tag3" id="tag3" href="#note3">3</a> As to the first +meeting of the natives with the Victory two contradictory accounts are +found. At first it is related (p. 252) that they came from +Akugdlit, having been on the road ten days. Later, and this is more +probable, it is said that two natives had descried the ship in +September, 1829, when passing near Victoria Harbor (p. 309). Being +in great fear, they had immediately traveled to Netchillik to +communicate with their countrymen. There they met with a woman who had +been on board of Parry’s ships, and she had induced all the natives, by +her stories, to be on the lookout for the Europeans. At the first +meeting, on the 9th of January, 1830, 31 men approached the ship. This +would answer to a population of about one hundred and twenty persons, +and it is quite unprecedented that such a party should travel for any +distance and even beyond the limitations of their own territory and of +their customary migrations. Probably a traveling party had joined the +Netchillirmiut, who had lived somewhere in Lord Mayor’s Bay, and they +all went to meet the ship.</p> + +<p>From Ross we also learn that during January and February these +natives lived on seals, which were killed with harpoons (pp. 250, +255, 259), but, in addition, they had deposits of venison, seal blubber, +and fish (pp. 251, 262). Sometimes they went hunting the musk ox on +the mainland farther north, and a small party may have staid there +throughout the winter (p. 265). In the first days of March they +began to scatter all over the ice (p. 290), in order to have a +better chance of sealing and of catching young seals in the white coat +(pp. 293, 295). The young sealing commenced about the 10th of +March. It is worth remarking that this is the only tribe on the +continent of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page454" id="page454">454</a></span> +America which pursues the young seal; they are enabled to do this by the +extent of the land floe in the large bays. In the last days of March +some of the natives started for Sarvaq and Netchillik to fetch their +kayaks (p. 315), which they had left there the preceding season. As +they intended to hunt deer at the lakes farther north, they were obliged +to have their boats at hand at the breaking up of the ice. The further +the season advanced the more the settlements were broken up +(p. 338), and towards the end of April the first families left for +Netchillik to join the other part of the tribe (p. 323). At this +season the musk ox and the returning reindeer were frequently hunted +(pp. 252, 335, 349). In the first days of May some of the natives +went to Netchillik (p. 337), and another party followed a month +later (p. 383). They stopped on Middle Lake for a short time to +fish for trout (p. 384). A number of families remained near +the ship, sealing, catching salmon, and hunting the musk ox +(pp. 436, 441, 450, 453) until the beginning of July, when the +fishing season ended and they went to the inland lakes to hunt deer and +fish for trout in the rapids between the lakes (p. 450). In the +summer their principal fishing stations were Lindsay River and +Sarvaq.</p> + +<p>The other part of the tribe which had lived at Lake Netchillik were +even more numerous than that of the coast, as 21 snow houses were found +which had been inhabited by them during the winter (p. 389). The +number of inhabitants of this village was about one hundred and seventy, +and, since there were a few who lived on Owutta Island and yet others +who may have been scattered in different parts of the country, it is +probable that the whole tribe numbered 350 persons.</p> + +<p>As they were seen only a few times by the expedition the reports are +rather incomplete. In the winter they lived on a plain, which was called +Okavit, on the eastern shore of Lake Netchillik (p. 315). The exact +position cannot be learned from Ross’s journal. As some mention is made +of blubber deposits at Netchillik (p. 388), it is probable that +they lived on stores deposited in summer. Toward the end of May and in +the beginning of June they were met with at Spence Bay and Josephine +Bay. One of their stations was on the island Inugsulik, near Padliaq, +the head of Spence Bay. Here their principal food was codfish, which +they caught in holes cut through the ice, while the sealing was there a +less important interest (pp. 391, 426). The kayaks which were found +deposited on the west shore of Boothia as far as Josephine Bay proved +that they resorted to this region in the deer hunting season +(pp. 406, 407). The families who had been at Owutta during the +winter of 1829-’30 were found in June, 1831, in Padliaq, whence they +crossed the isthmus and visited Tarionitjoq (p. 431).</p> + +<p>In 1830 no natives were seen after the usual time of their departure +for the interior of the country, and it was not until April, 1831, that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page455" id="page455">455</a></span> +they were found again. They had wintered at Lake Avatutiaq, on the +eastern shore of Boothia (p. 511), where they had lived on a large +stock of salmon caught in the fall (p. 531) and on musk oxen which +were hunted during the entire year in the hilly country near the lakes. +Others had wintered farther south, on Lake Owen (p. 524). +A portion of these Eskimo set out for Netchillik in April +(p. 522), while the others remained in Tom’s Bay and subsisted upon +codfish, salmon, and seals (p. 546).</p> + +<p>In June another party left for Netchillik, whence some of the +natives, who had not seen the ship before, arrived at Victoria Harbor in +July, probably having heard of her new station at this place through the +returning families (p. 577). In August the last of them left, going +west (p. 592).</p> + +<p>Though these reports are rather imperfect, they enable us to get a +fair idea of the mode of life of this tribe.</p> + +<p>In the large bays on the eastern side of the isthmus the natives live +just as do the southern tribes of Baffin Land, pursuing the seal at its +breathing hole during the winter. Here, as everywhere else, the +settlements were broken up early in the spring. The fishing is commenced +remarkably early, while in the east scarcely any salmon are caught +before the breaking up of the lakes. West of Melville Peninsula the +fishing is commenced in March or even earlier. On Boothia the most +important means of subsistence for the natives is the codfish, on which +they live during the spring and probably during a part of the winter. It +is also an important article of food for the other tribes of this +region, while farther east it is of no importance. The salmon fisheries +of Boothia are very productive, of which Netchillik and Padliaq in +Josephine Bay, Stanley and Lord Lindsay Rivers, Qogulortung, +Angmalortuq, and Sarvaq may be considered the most important. Deer are +hunted while swimming across the numerous lakes of Boothia, and the musk +ox in the granite hills of its northern part. Here is also another +winter resort of the tribe, from which the island Tukia, north of Lake +Avatutiaq, is visited in summer, to collect pyrite or native iron +(p. 362), which is used for kindling fire. The life of the western +part of the tribe, as far as we are acquainted with it, was described in +the foregoing paragraph.</p> + +<p>Neither Dease and Simpson, who visited Castor and Pollux River in +1839, nor Rae, on his second voyage to Boothia, met the natives +themselves; the latter, however, saw their marks on the islands of +Acland Bay (II, p. 840).</p> + +<p>The next traveler who fell in with the tribe was M’Clintock, who +visited King William Land in search of the Franklin records. In +February, 1859, he met several families near Cape Adelaide +(p. 230). They traveled during the spring all along the shore and +had been near Tasmania Islands in March and April. They were seen by him +on their return journey to Netchillik, near Cape Nicholas. They +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page456" id="page456">456</a></span> +traveled slowly south, hunting seals. They knew the coast as far as +Bellot Strait and were able to name every cape of this district. +A few families who had wintered in company with this party at Cape +Victoria had returned to Netchillik when the other parties started north +(p. 253). On the 4th of May, twenty deserted snow huts were found +on the southwest point of Matty Island (p. 257). From the direction +of the sledge tracks, M’Clintock concluded that the natives who had +formerly lived here had gone to Netchillik. On the 7th of May a +settlement of 30 or 40 individuals was found on the eastern coast of +King William Land (p. 260). This party had not communicated with +the villages on the mainland of Boothia since the preceding fall <ins +class="correction" title="text reads ‘(p. 260.)’">(p. 260).</ins></p> + +<p>An interesting change in the territory which is inhabited by this +tribe has occurred since Ross’s visit to this country. In order to +describe it more fully, I must refer to the relations of the +Netchillirmiut to the Ugjulirmiut. At this early period the intercourse +between the tribes of Ugjulik and Netchillik was of little consequence. +No European had ever been in their districts, which included Adelaide +Peninsula and the southern shore of King William Land (Ross II, +p. 317), but quite a number of persons were known to the +Netchillirmiut (p. 357), who had met them in their trading +excursions. In addition to this, a young single man of Ugjulik had +been adopted by a Netchillirmio who lived on the eastern coast of King +William Land and on Owutta Island (p. 355). When the Franklin +expedition perished on King William Land, in 1848, the Netchillirmiut +had not yet visited that part of the country. From Schwatka’s inquiries +we learn that the tribe that found Crozier and his fellow sufferers did +not extend its migrations beyond Adelaide Peninsula and the southern +shore of King William Land. In the summer of 1848 they attempted in vain +to cross Simpson Strait, and were compelled to stay on the island. They +traveled all over the country as far as Peel Inlet, opposite to Matty +Island (Gilder, p. 91). Hence it is obvious that the +Netchillirmiut, up to the time of the Franklin catastrophe, lived in +their old territory, as the inhabitants of Boothia in 1859 had only +indirect news of the shipwreck.</p> + +<p>When the Ugjulirmiut obtained an enormous stock of metals and wood by +the destruction of Franklin’s ships, the Netchillirmiut commenced to +visit King William Land, in order to partake also of these riches. Thus +they began, by degrees, to move westward, and became intermingled with +the Ugjulirmiut. Hall mentions quite a number of Boothians who had met +Ross on the eastern shore of the isthmus, though they were living on +King William Land at that time (Hall II, p. 405). Besides, +according to all accounts, the number of women is much smaller among the +Netchillirmiut than that of men, and these are obliged to look for wives +among the neighboring tribes, particularly among the Ugjulirmiut. As +these do not differ in the fashion +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page457" id="page457">457</a></span> +of their clothing and tattooing from the Netchillirmiut, it is scarcely +possible at the present time to separate the tribes. It is worth +remarking, however, that Gilder and Klutschak use both terms, and +therefore I conclude that the natives themselves are conscious of +belonging to different tribes.</p> + +<p>Schwatka describes the limits of their territory as he learned them +from his observations in the summer of 1879 (Science, December 19, 1884, +p. 543). He found them on the mainland opposite King William Land +and along the islands in the vicinity of Simpson Strait. They were most +numerous along the northern shores of Adelaide Peninsula, their villages +being scattered every few miles along the coast from Montreal Island to +Smith Point. On the chart accompanying this account the eastern shore of +the Back River estuary is included in the district inhabited by the +Netchillirmiut.</p> + +<p>It is important to compare this description with the observations +which were made by Hall in 1869. He found the first traces of natives at +the very head of Shepherd Bay, where a sledge track was observed +(p. 395). Near Point Acland several snow huts and a number of +natives were met with on the 30th of April (p. 396). Farther west +he found a village on Point Booth (p. 397), but the most +interesting fact is that in May, 1869, the party had fresh salmon from +Netchillik (p. 400). This statement is decisive of the question +whether the Netchillirmiut still continued their visits to the isthmus +from which they take their name.</p> + +<p>From Klutschak’s journal a few more details may be gathered. From it +we learn that in summer the Netchillirmiut scatter, and, while some go +sealing near Montreal Island (p. 75), many others go inland to hunt +deer in the lakes of the peninsula and farther south (p. 119). +A third party resort to King William Land, the southern shore of +which they frequent until September, while the more northern parts are +seldom visited (p. 79). At this season they leave the island and +all return to Adelaide Peninsula (p. 126). I suppose, however, +that this report does not refer to the whole tribe, but that another +party visited Shepherd Bay in winter. It seems to me very improbable +that in the interval between 1869 and 1879 a total change should have +occurred. In the spring they catch salmon, which are dried and stored to +be used in winter. Their stock of blubber and deer meat is sufficient to +last them during the greater part of the winter. At this season they +fish only in holes made through the ice. Important winter settlements +are at Point Richardson and at the outlet of Qimuqsuq (Sherman Inlet), +where all the deer needed are caught in the fall while they are crossing +the bay.</p> + +<p>Although these statements do not altogether harmonize, it appears, +notwithstanding, that King William Land and Adelaide Peninsula, which +were not visited by the tribe in the early part of our century, became +its favorite hunting ground after the loss of the Franklin +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page458" id="page458">458</a></span> +expedition. Since that period the more northern parts of Boothia may +have been abandoned by the natives, though no certain proof of this can +be offered. Netchillik itself and the more southern parts were visited +up to 1869, and probably they are yet inhabited by the Eskimo. This +cannot be said with positiveness, however, for this part of the country +has not been visited since the times of Ross and M’Clintock. The +migration of the natives was caused, without doubt and as we have +already remarked, by the profusion of metals and wood obtained from the +wrecks and the starved traveling parties.</p> + +<h5><a name="tribes_boothia_ugjulirmiut" id="tribes_boothia_ugjulirmiut">The Ugjulirmiut.—</a></h5> + +<p>Several important facts regarding the Ugjulirmiut are mentioned +above. Dease and Simpson found their first traces on the western shore +of Adelaide Peninsula. From Ross’s account (I, p. 427) it +appears that their territory was the same at that period as it is now, +and M’Clintock’s meeting with them on the shore of King William Land may +be adduced as a proof of this. Their old country is now inhabited by +both Ugjulirmiut and Netchillirmiut. Therefore their mode of life is +identical and requires no comment. Visits to the northern parts of King +William Land have been very rare, but it was on one of these that +Franklin’s ships were discovered (Klutschak). They rarely went hunting +beyond Cape Herschel, but looked for driftwood on the northern shore of +the island.</p> + +<h5><a name="tribes_boothia_ukusiksalirmiut" id="tribes_boothia_ukusiksalirmiut">The Ukusiksalirmiut.—</a></h5> + +<p>The last tribe of the Central Eskimo, the Ukusiksalirmiut, inhabit +the estuary of Back River. They were met by Back and by Anderson and +Stewart. Recently Schwatka and his party communicated with them on their +visit to King William Land. Klutschak affirms that they are the remains +of a strong tribe which formerly inhabited Adelaide Peninsula but was +supplanted by the Netchillirmiut and the Ugjulirmiut. Klutschak calls +them Ukusiksalik; Gilder, sometimes Ukusiksalik, sometimes Ugjulik. The +latter author relates that a single family living on Hayes River +(Kugnuaq) had formerly had its station on Adelaide Peninsula, but had +retired to this country when the warlike Netchillirmiut began to visit +King William Land and Adelaide Peninsula. Schwatka could identify the +same man with one of those whom Back had seen in the estuary of the +river in 1833 (Gilder, p. 78). Therefore they must have lived in +this district a long time before the Netchillirmiut began to move +westward. According to Back the party with which he fell in did not know +the land beyond the estuary of Back River, which indicates that they +were neither from Ugjulik nor Netchillik. As the Ugjulirmiut lived on +Adelaide Peninsula when Ross wintered in Boothia, I do not consider +it probable that the Ukusiksalirmiut ever lived in that part of the +country, and I cannot agree with Klutschak. I may add Parry’s +remark, that beyond Ukusiksalik (Wager River) another Ukusiksalik (Back +River) was known to the natives of Winter Island.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page459" id="page459">459</a></span> +<p>The reports on their mode of life are very deficient. They were met +by Schwatka a little above the great bend of Hayes River in May, 1879; +he also met another party in December at the Dangerous Rapids of Back +River. Schwatka counted seven families at the former and nine at the +latter place. Their principal food consisted of fish, which are caught +in abundance in Back River (Klutschak, p. 164). It is said that +they have no fuel during the winter. Undoubtedly they use some kind of +fuel, and I rather doubt the implication that they do not hunt seals at +all. The musk ox and fish, however, are their main food, according to +both Klutschak and Gilder. It is very remarkable that all the natives +west of Boothia depend much more on fish than do any other tribes of the +Central Eskimo.</p> + +<p>A word in regard to the roads used in the intercourse between the +tribes. From Akugdlit a road leads over the lakes of Simpson Peninsula +to Pelly Bay. Rae and Hall traveled over it on their journeys to the +northwest and it was used by the Sinimiut when they visited Repulse Bay +in 1866. From Pelly Bay two roads lead to Netchillik and the estuary of +Back River, the one following the east shore of the Boothia, the other +running to Lake Simpson, whence the valley of Murchison River +facilitates the access to Inglis Bay. The Isthmus of Boothia is crossed +by the two chains of lakes discovered by Ross. In visiting the +northeastern part of the peninsula the natives ascend Stanley River and +cross the lakes farther north. Between Netchillik and Ugjulik the Eskimo +pass by Owutta Island to Peel Inlet, whence they travel overland to the +south shore of King William Land and cross Simpson Strait. Another road +leads from Cape Colville to Matheson Point, following the south shore of +King William Land. In traveling from Ugjulik to Back River they use +Sherman Inlet and the adjoining isthmus. It is probable that Back River +is visited by natives belonging to Wager River. The existence of a +communication between Back River and Chesterfield Inlet is proved by +Anderson and Stewart, who found Eskimo at Lake Garry, and by a remark of +Klutschak (p. 170), who learned from a native of Back River that +Chesterfield Inlet could be reached from the upper part of that river. +It is quite probable that thus an immediate though limited intercourse +is kept up between the Kinipetu and the Ukusiksalirmiut.</p> + + +<h4><a name="tribes_smith" id="tribes_smith">SMITH SOUND.</a></h4> + +<h5><a name="tribes_smith_ellesmere" id="tribes_smith_ellesmere">The +natives of Ellesmere Land.—</a></h5> + +<p>Last of all I have to mention the natives of Ellesmere Land and those +of North Greenland. Although the latter are not generally considered as +belonging to the central tribes, I find that their habits and their +implements resemble those of the Central Eskimo rather than those of the +Greenlanders, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page460" id="page460">460</a></span> +and therefore a brief mention of them will not be inappropriate. The +inhabitants of Umingman Nuna (Ellesmere Land) probably live on the +southern shore, near the western part of Jones Sound, and, according to +Bessel’s and my own inquiries, they travel all around this island, +passing by Hayes Sound.</p> + +<h5><a name="tribes_smith_greenland" id="tribes_smith_greenland">The +North Greenlanders.—</a></h5> + +<p>The North Greenlanders live in the sounds of the peninsula between +Melville Bay and Kane Basin, hunting seals on the smooth floes of the +bays and pursuing walrus at the floe edges. They make large deposits of +the blubber and meat obtained in the fall, on which they live during the +winter. They also pursue seals in winter with the harpoon. In summer +they hunt reindeer on the mountains adjoining the inland ice.</p> + +</div> +<!-- end div tribes --> + +<h3><a name="geog" id="geog">INFLUENCE OF GEOGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS +UPON THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE SETTLEMENTS.</a></h3> + +<p>In considering the distribution of the tribes it is evident that they +are settled wherever extensive floes afford a good sealing ground during +the winter. The Sikosuilarmiut live on the large bay east of King Cape, +which is sheltered by numerous islands. The Akuliarmiut are settled near +Lesseps and North Bays. I am unable to say whether there is a floe +near the winter settlement of the Qaumauangmiut, as there are no reports +upon the subject. Probably ice is formed in the sound, which is +protected by the Middle Savage Islands, and besides it may be that the +natives move to North Bay. The important tribe of Nugumiut lives on +Frobisher Bay and the adjoining Grinnell and Field Bays. On the largest +floe of this part of the country, in Cumberland Sound, including Lake +Nettilling, the largest tribe is settled: the Oqomiut. On Davis Strait +ice floes are formed between Cape Mickleham and Cape Mercy, in Exeter +Sound, and between Okan and Bylot Island. The tribes are distributed +accordingly: the Saumingmiut of Ukiadliving, the inhabitants of +Qarmaqdjuin with their winter settlement in Exeter Sound, and the +Padlimiut and the Akudnirmiut farther north. The immense land floe of +Davis Strait is not so valuable a hunting ground for the Eskimo as +Cumberland Sound, the ice being very rough a few miles from the coast +and at some places even close inshore. When the sea begins to freeze in +the fall the newly formed ice is broken up by severe gales and by the +currents and is piled up into high hummocks before it consolidates. The +sealing on rough ice during the winter is very difficult and +unsuccessful, as it is hard to find the breathing holes and the +traveling is very laborious. It is only in the northern parts of Home +Bay and in the large fjords that smooth ice is formed. The settlements +of the natives are manifestly distributed in accordance with these +facts. In every place where smooth ice is formed we find that natives +either are settled or have been settled. Aqbirtijung, River Clyde, +Ijellirtung, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page461" id="page461">461</a></span> +Home Bay, Brodie Bay, Merchant Bay, and Padli are the only places along +the shore of Davis Strait where smooth ice occurs. On the long shores +between them, which are unsheltered from winds and currents, the ice is +always very hummocky, and, therefore, the natives do not settle upon +them in the winter. In the far north, extensive floes of smooth ice are +formed in Eclipse Sound and Admiralty Inlet.</p> + +<p>Concerning the country farther west the reports are rather scanty. +The southwest shore of Baffin Land and the eastern entrance of Fury and +Hecla Strait are always frozen over and afford a good hunting ground. On +the mainland, the large floes of Repulse Bay and Wager River, +Chesterfield Inlet and the bights all around it, Pelly Bay and the +narrow bays adjoining Boothia Peninsula, and the mouth of Back River are +important places for the distribution of the Eskimo.</p> + +<p>There are only a few districts where the proximity of open water +favors walrus hunting during the winter, and all of these have +neighboring floes on which seals may be hunted with the harpoon. These +places are Sikosuilaq, Akuliaq, Frobisher Bay, Iglulik, the west shore +of Hudson Bay, and Smith Sound. As to the remainder the Eskimo live +altogether independent of the open water during the winter.</p> + +<p>Generally speaking, two conditions are required for winter +settlements, viz, the existence of an extensive floe and smooth ice.</p> + +<p>The different mode of hunting in the spring causes a different +distribution of the settlements. During this season those regions which +had been deserted during the winter are most visited by the hunters. On +light dog sledges they travel over the rough ice and along the shores of +the fjords and islands. The natives who lived in large settlements +during the winter are spread over the whole country, in order that every +one may have a better chance of traveling over his own hunting ground. +In a few places the young sealing induces the Eskimo to leave the winter +settlements; in other places the kayaks are prepared for visiting the +floe edge, and bears and the returning birds are hunted.</p> + +<p>Though the greater variety of food which is to be obtained and the +difference in the methods of hunting in the spring require the +dispersion over a wide area of the families which had kept together +during the winter, the selection of places for the new settlements +remains wholly dependent upon the state of the ice.</p> + +<p>After the ice breaks up, the distribution of the deer regulates the +location of the summer settlements. While during the winter the state of +the ice is of decisive importance, the orography of the land comes now +into consideration.</p> + +<p>Wherever deep valleys give access to an extensive area, wherever +practicable roads enable the natives to ascend the plateaus, summer +settlements are established. The heads of the fjords are favorite +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page462" id="page462">462</a></span> +places, as they abound with salmon. The adjoining valleys and the +peninsulas which they form give the best chances for a successful deer +hunt. These facts are most apparent on the coast of the steep highland +of Nugumiut, over which numerous herds of deer roam.</p> + +<p>A great influence is also exerted by the extensive plains of the +western part of Baffin Land, which abound in deer. We observe that a +number of tribes visit these districts, though their winter stations are +at a great distance. The Akuliarmiut of Hudson Strait and the Nugumiut +travel to Lake Amaqdjuaq, the Oqomiut stay on Lake Nettilling, and the +Akudnirmiut visit Majoraridjen. In the same way all the tribes of Hudson +Bay visit the land farther west, which is frequented by herds of the +musk ox, and they go even as far as Back River. This important fact +shows the attraction which is exerted by a rich country on all the +tribes of the neighboring districts.</p> + + +<h3><a name="trade" id="trade">TRADE AND INTERCOURSE BETWEEN THE +TRIBES.</a></h3> + +<p>In treating of the single tribes, the routes were mentioned which are +followed by the natives as they travel from shore to shore and from +settlement to settlement. These routes are established by tradition and +the Eskimo never stray from them. In order to obtain a more thorough +understanding of the migrations of single individuals and of families, +the relations between the tribes and the settlements must be +discussed.</p> + +<p>By the lively intercourse which is always kept up between the +settlements, it cannot fail that marriages between members of different +tribes should be of frequent occurrence and that many ties of affinity +and consanguinity should thus be created. These relations, however, as +distances increase, quickly become less common. For instance, in +Cumberland Sound three people are found belonging to Tununirn, about ten +belonging to Akudnirn, and quite a number coming from Padli. Also, two +Sikosuilarmiut live there, a few natives of Akuliaq and Qaumauang, +and very many Nugumiut. Hall’s accounts concerning the Nugumiut and the +Aivillirmiut prove a similar proportion of strange natives among these +tribes. Every tribe may be said to bring together its immediate +neighbors, as it is closely related to them, while those which are +separated by the tribe itself are strangers to one another. The +importance of this mediate position is regulated by the strength of the +tribe, by the significance of the country in reference to its produce, +and by the routes crossing it.</p> + +<p>Thus, the Sikosuilarmiut and the Nuratamiut are closely connected, +and may be considered as forming one group with the Akuliarmiut. The +Sikosuilarmiut have intercourse with the Igdlumiut, the inhabitants of +the northern shore of Labrador. According to Lucien M. Turner, three +tribes may be distinguished there as inhabiting the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page463" id="page463">463</a></span> +shores of Ungava Bay and the eastern shore of Hudson Bay. This report +differs somewhat from the accounts of the Moravian missionaries who have +intercourse with the inhabitants of Ungava Bay near Cape Chidleigh. From +their reports four tribes may be distinguished: the Kangivamiut of +George River, the Kouksoarmiut of Big River, the Ungavamiut of Hope +Advance Bay (which is properly named Ungava), and the Itivimiut of +Hudson Bay. I am rather undecided whether Ungava is a bay or a +large strait separating Cape Wolstenholme and the adjacent land from the +continent, as the name Ungava is also reported south of Cape +Wolstenholme. The inhabitants of this shore are the Itivimiut of the +Labrador Eskimo and the Igdlumiut of the natives of Baffin Land. +Probably the intercourse between Sikosuilaq and Cape Wolstenholme is of +no great importance. The Sikosuilarmiut visit Trinity Islands +(Nannuragassain) in skin boats to hunt walrus and cross by the three +islands Tudjaraaq´djung, Akugdlirn, and Tudjaqdjuara´lung to the +opposite shore of Hudson Strait. The passage across the strait is +considered very dangerous, and therefore is rarely undertaken. The +natives do not utter a single word during the long passage; they believe +a destructive gale might be conjured up if they did. Only once have +natives been met with on Salisbury Island (Lyon, Attempt to reach +Repulse Bay, p. 128), but it is doubtful whether they belonged to +the northern or to the southern shore of the strait. As for the rest, +the passage is only known to me by reports I received in Cumberland +Sound, which were confirmed by the whalers visiting the northern shore +of Hudson Strait. I do not know whether any intercourse exists +between Sikosuilaq and Southampton Island. It is worth remarking that on +Mansfield Island numerous ruins of Eskimo habitations have been found +(Gordon, Report on the Hudson’s Bay Expedition, 1884, p. 38).</p> + +<p>The Qaumauangmiut are connected with the Nugumiut in the same manner +as with the Akuliarmiut, and many are said to winter near North Bay, +which is also visited by the Akuliarmiut. From Hall’s reports it would +appear that many are settled in Frobisher Bay.</p> + +<p>At present the intercourse between the Nugumiut and the Oqomiut is of +no significance, as many years may pass without a journey being made +from one tribe to the other. Formerly, when many whalers visited +Cumberland Sound and Field Bay, a number of Nugumiut immigrated to +the sound, and consequently almost half of the Eskimo now settled on the +western shore of Cumberland Sound were born in Nugumiut or Ukadliq. At +the same time many Oqomiut settled among the Nugumiut. That period was +doubtless an exceptional one; at any rate, the long stretch of +uninhabited shore between the settlements of the two tribes is not +favorable to intimate intercourse. Indeed, even now the Nugumiut are +considered strangers in the sound, and, notwithstanding the existence of +many intermarriages between the tribes, a number of families are +not at all acquainted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page464" id="page464">464</a></span> +with one another. It is remarkable that the number of natives born in +Nugumiut is much larger on the western shore than on the eastern. They +seem to have joined their nearest neighbors, the southern Talirpingmiut, +perhaps for the reason that in their district the geographic character +of the land is most similar to that of Frobisher Bay. The number of +Nugumiut settled among the inhabitants of Nettilling Fjord and among the +Kingnaitmiut is far less. Among the Saumingmiut there is no one who has +traveled beyond Naujateling, and in Padli or farther north there are +very few individuals who have been south of Cumberland Sound. It is only +by careful consideration of the birthplace of the different individuals +who are members of the settlements of Cumberland Sound that it is +possible at the present time to detect the former division of the +Oqomiut into subtribes. The inhabitants of the eastern shore are related +to the Padlimiut and the Akudnirmiut; those of the western shore, to the +Nugumiut. In 1840 a brisk intercourse existed between Padli and the +sound (Eenoolooapik, p. 81), and probably sledges crossed the +peninsula every winter. Though the intercourse is not so intimate to-day +as it is between the settlements of the sound, it is yet active. The +Kingnaitmiut form the medium of the regular intercourse between Saumia +and Padli, while families removing to Akudnirn travel along the shore of +Davis Strait. Among the subtribes of the Oqomiut the Saumingmiut are +most nearly related to the Padlimiut and extend their migrations +farthest to the north.</p> + +<p>The Akudnirmiut, who are closely connected with the Padlimiut, are +considered strangers by the Oqomiut. The intercourse between the +Akudnirmiut and the Aggomiut is not very frequent, and seems to be +maintained as irregularly as that between the Nugumiut and the +Oqomiut.</p> + +<p>The inhabitants of the northern sounds and of Fury and Hecla Strait +frequently visit one another. Parry mentions a number of journeys in +each direction (II, p. 436). Hall found natives of Tununirn +and Tununirusirn settled in Iglulik (II, p. 356). +I myself found two Iglulirmiut among the Akudnirmiut. The +intercourse seems to have been always very active, and consequently +those tribes may be considered as one group.</p> + +<p>The inhabitants of North Devon belong to the Tununirusirmiut, +a few families of this tribe sometimes settling on the island and +after a few years’ absence returning to their former home.</p> + +<p>From Parry’s, Hall’s, and Schwatka’s reports it appears that the +Aivillirmiut are closely related to the Iglulirmiut, while the Eskimo of +Chesterfield Inlet, the Agutit or Kinipetu, form a separate group.</p> + +<p>It is remarkable that between the tribes of Hudson Bay and the more +western ones a deep distrust exists, which prevents a frequent and +unlimited intercourse. The Sinimiut and Netchillirmiut are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page465" id="page465">465</a></span> +feared by the Aivillirmiut, though intermarriages and removals from one +tribe to the other are not rare. No doubt they are less closely related +than are the neighboring tribes hitherto mentioned. Unfortunately, too +little is known of the western tribes to admit of a decided opinion +whether or not there exists an important difference in customs and +habits. The Sinimiut, the Netchillirmiut, and the Ugjulirmiut may be +comprised in one group, for they all hold frequent intercourse with one +another and the last two even inhabit the same region at the present +time. The change which the relations between these tribes have undergone +since 1833 has already been referred to, as has their intercourse with +the Ukusiksalirmiut. Schwatka (Science, Vol. IV, p. 543) states +that they occasionally meet the Qidneliq of Coronation Bay, but that +both tribes distrust each other. Our knowledge about the migrations from +North Devon to Ellesmere Land and North Greenland is very scanty, but it +is necessary to mention its existence.</p> + +<p>Between tribes that are strangers to one another ceremonies of +greeting are customary which are not adapted to facilitate intercourse. +The ceremonies will be described further on (see <a href="#page609">p. 609</a>). For the present it will be sufficient to +say that duels, with varying details, are common between a stranger and +a man of the tribe, and these sometimes result in the death of the +former.</p> + +<p>Among neighboring tribes these ceremonies are dispensed with, for +instance, between the Padlimiut and Oqomiut, Padlimiut and Akudnirmiut, +while a Nugumio or an Akudnirmio unknown in Oqo has there to go through +the whole of the performance. The exception in favor of the former +tribes is doubtless due to the frequent intermarriages with those +tribes, whereby a constant acquaintance is kept up.</p> + +<p>Real wars or fights between settlements, I believe, have never +happened, but contests have always been confined to single families. The +last instance of a feud which has come to my knowledge occurred about +seventy years ago. At that time a great number of Eskimo lived at +Niutang, in Kingnait Fjord, and many men of this settlement had been +murdered by a Qinguamio of Anarnitung. For this reason the men of +Niutang united in a sledge journey to Anarnitung to revenge the death of +their companions. They hid themselves behind the ground ice and killed +the returning hunter with their arrows. All hostilities have probably +been of a similar character.</p> + +<p>One tradition only refers to a real fight between the tribes. On the +steep island Sagdluaqdjung, near Naujateling, ruins of huts are found on +the level summit. They are said to have been built by Eskimo who lived +by the seashore and were attacked by a hostile tribe of inlanders. The +tradition says that they defended themselves with bows and arrows, and +with bowlders which they rolled down upon the enemy. The occurrence of +huts upon the top of an island is very unusual, and this tradition is +the only one referring to any kind of fights or wars. Even the tradition +of the expulsion of the Tornit a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page466" id="page466">466</a></span> +fabulous tribe said to have lived with the Eskimo on these shores, does +not refer to a combat. The details of this tradition will be found in a +subsequent chapter.</p> + +<p>I wish to state here that my inquiries and my understanding of the +facts as they have been reported by other travelers do not agree with +the opinions given by Klutschak (Deutsche Rundschau für Geographie und +Statistik, III, p. 418), who claims for the Eskimo of the west +shore of Hudson Bay reservations which are limited by precise lines of +demarkation. In comparing this statement with his own and with Gilder’s +narratives I am led to believe that the relations between the tribes are +the same in these regions as they are farther east. This opinion is +strengthened by Dall’s remarks on the Alaska tribes (Science, +p. 228, 1885).</p> + +<p>The reasons for the frequent removals of individual Eskimo to strange +tribes are to be looked for in the customs of the natives. I can +only mention here that intermarriage, adoption, and the fear of blood +vengeance are the principal ones.</p> + +<p>It is peculiar to the migratory habits of the Eskimo that almost +without exception the old man returns to the country of his youth, and +consequently by far the greater part of the old people live in their +native districts.</p> + +<p>During the last decades the most important inducement to removals has +been the presence of the whalers in certain parts of the country. Since +the beginning of our century their fleets have visited the west shore of +Baffin Bay and Davis Strait, and thus European manufactures have found +their way to the inhospitable shores of the Arctic Sea. The most +valuable objects which were bartered were metals and wood. The value of +the former may be seen in its economical application for knives and +harpoon heads. By means of this trade the Akudnirmiut and the +Tununirmiut became far superior to the Oqomiut and the Iglulirmiut, with +whom they traded extensively in dogs, skins, &c. The Akuliarmiut and +the Qaumauangmiut also enjoyed the advantages which accrued from trade +with the ships of the Hudson Bay Company.</p> + +<p>When the whalers became better acquainted with the natives and the +peculiar jargon which is still in use was developed, the traffic became +very active, and reached its height after Cumberland Sound was +rediscovered by Penny. As soon as the whalers began to winter in the +sound and to employ the natives the latter received firearms and +European boats in exchange for their wares, and then their modes of +living became materially changed. The immense quantity of European +manufactured articles which thus came into the possession of the natives +induced the removal of many families to the favored region. Particularly +did the Nugumiut and the Akudnirmiut migrate during that period. When in +the course of time the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page467" id="page467">467</a></span> +Bay of Nugumiut was visited by the whalers removals of members of this +tribe became less frequent.</p> + +<p>After the Eskimo had become acquainted with the advantages of +firearms the natives of Davis Strait also began to trade bearskins for +guns and ammunition, having learned how highly they were prized in +Cumberland Sound. Besides, they received, in exchange for seals and +walrus blubber put up for the whalers, tobacco, pipes, coffee, boxes, +&c. In a similar way the Saumingmiut barter with the whalers of +Cumberland Sound, whom they visit during the winter, carrying heavy +loads of bearskins to the stations.</p> + +<p>A brief sketch of the way in which the whaling and the trade with the +Eskimo in Cumberland Sound are carried on may be of interest at this +point. Two of the whaling stations are still kept up. They are situated +on Qeqerten, the settlement of the Kingnaitmiut. When the Eskimo who +have spent the summer inland return at the beginning of October they +eagerly offer their services at the stations, for they receive in +payment for a half year’s work a gun, a harmonium or something of +that nature, and a ration of provisions for their families, with tobacco +every week. Every Saturday the women come into the house of the station, +at the blowing of the horn, to receive their bread, coffee, sirup, and +the precious tobacco. In return the Eskimo is expected to deliver in the +kitchen of the station a piece of every seal he catches.</p> + +<p>The time for the fall fishing commences as soon as the ice begins to +form. If the weather, which is generally stormy, permits it, the boats +leave the harbor to look out for the whales which pass along the east +shore of the sound toward the north. During the last few years the catch +has been very unprofitable, only a few whales having been seen. As the +ice forms quickly the boats must be brought back about the end of +October or the beginning of November. Since the whale fishery has become +unprofitable the stations have followed the business of collecting seal +blubber and skins, which they buy from the Eskimo. (See Appendix, +<a href="#app1">Note 1</a>.)</p> + +<p>A lively traffic springs up as soon as the ice becomes strong enough +to allow sledges to pass from shore to shore. The sledges of the +stations are sent from one settlement to another to exchange tobacco, +matches, coffee, bread, &c. for skins and the spare blubber which +the Eskimo have carefully saved up. On the other hand, those natives who +require useful articles, such as cooking pots, lamps, &c., collect +quantities of hides and blubber and go to Qeqerten to supply their +wants. The winter passes quickly amid the stir of business, till +everything comes to a stop at the end of March, when the young sealing +season fairly opens.</p> + +<p>When the sun has reached such a height that the snow begins to melt +in favored spots, a new life begins at the stations. The skins +which have been collected in the winter and become frozen are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page468" id="page468">468</a></span> +brought out of the store room and exposed to the sun’s rays. Some of the +women busy themselves, with their crescent shaped knives, in cutting the +blubber from the skins and putting it away in casks. Others clean and +salt the skins, which are likewise packed away. The men also find enough +work to do after the young sealing is over, for the whale boats must be +got ready for the spring fishing. Strangers whose services have been +engaged by the station for the next few months arrive daily with their +families and all their goods to take up their abode on Qeqerten. The +boats are dug out of the deep snow, the oars and sails are looked after, +the harpoons are cleaned up and sharpened, and everything is in busy +preparation. The boats are made as comfortable as possible with awnings +and level floors, for the crews are not to come to the shore for about +six weeks.</p> + +<p>By the beginning of May, the arrangements having been completed, the +boats are put upon the sledges, which, under the direction of native +drivers, are drawn by dog teams, with their crews, to the floe edge. The +sledges being heavily laden and food for the dogs having to be provided +by hunting, each day’s stage is rather short. Arriving at the floe edge +the sledges are unloaded and the boats are launched. Seals and birds of +all kinds are now found in profusion and the chase is opened without +delay upon everything that is useful and can be shot. Sledges are +regularly sent back to Qeqerten with skins and meat for the families of +the Eskimo, while the blubber is packed in casks, which are kept ready +on the spot.</p> + +<p>The most important object of the expedition is the whale. Harpoons +and lines are always in readiness for the contest with the mighty +monster. The boats return to the north with the breaking up of the ice +and the fishing ends in July. The Eskimo are paid off and dismissed and +resume their reindeer hunting, while the whites are glad to enjoy some +rest after the weeks of exhausting labor.</p> + +<p>The constant contact between the Eskimo and the whalers has effected +a perfect revolution in the trade between the Eskimo tribes. As the +whale catch in Cumberland Sound has fallen off during the past fifteen +years, a remigration of the population of Davis Strait has +occurred, ships visiting these shores every fall and a regular traffic +being kept up. Therefore many Oqomiut now travel as far as Qivitung in +order to trade there. As Nugumiut is still frequently visited by +whalers, there is no inducement for the inhabitants to leave their +country.</p> + +<p>Within a few years the Akuliarmiut also have become amply provided +with firearms and European products in general by means of a new whaling +station which has been established in their vicinity.</p> + +<p>As to the Iglulirmiut, the importation of European manufactures at +Pond Bay makes the trade with that region even more important than +formerly.</p> + +<p>The Aivillirmiut and the Kinipetu have immediate intercourse +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page469" id="page469">469</a></span> +with the whalers frequenting the western shore of Hudson Bay. Besides, +the southern tribes trade with the stations of the Hudson Bay +Company.</p> + +<p>The more western tribes of Boothia and its environs are dependent on +the mediation of the Aivillirmiut for their supply of goods, as they +themselves have no chance of communicating with the whites.</p> + +<p>Finally, I shall describe the old trading routes which existed +between these tribes before matters were totally changed by the +influence of the Europeans. Two desiderata formed the principal +inducement to long journeys, which sometimes lasted even several years: +wood and soapstone. The shores of Davis Strait and Cumberland Sound are +almost destitute of driftwood, and consequently the natives were obliged +to visit distant regions to obtain that necessary material. Tudjaqdjuaq +in particular was the objective point of their expeditions. Their boats +took a southerly course, and, as the wood was gathered, a portion +of it was immediately manufactured into boat ribs and sledge runners, +which were carried back on the return journey; another portion was used +for bows, though these were also made of deer’s horns ingeniously lashed +together. A portion of the trade in wood seems to have been in the +hands of the Nugumiut, who collected it on Tudjaqdjuaq and took it +north. Another necessary and important article of trade, soapstone, is +manufactured into lamps and pots. It is found in a few places only, and +very rarely in pieces large enough for the manufacture of the articles +named. Among the places visited by the natives for the purpose of +obtaining it may be mentioned Kautaq, east of Naujateling; Qeqertelung, +near the former place; Qarmaqdjuin (Exeter Bay), and Committee Bay. The +visitors come from every part of the country, the soapstone being dug or +“traded” from the rocks by depositing some trifles in exchange. In +addition to wood and soapstone, metals, which were extremely rare in old +times, have formed an important object of trade. They were brought to +Baffin Bay either by the Aivillirmiut, who had obtained them from the +Hudson Bay Company and the Kinipetu, or by the Akuliarmiut. Even when +Frobisher visited the Nugumiut in 1577 he found them in possession of +some iron (Frobisher).</p> + +<p>The occurrence of flint, which was the material for arrowheads, may +have given some importance to places where it occurs. Formerly an +important trade existed between the Netchillirmiut and the neighboring +tribes. As the district of the former is destitute of driftwood and +potstone they are compelled to buy both articles from their neighbors. +In Ross’s time they got the necessary wood from Ugjulik, the potstone +from Aivillik. They exchanged these articles for native iron +(or pyrite), which they found on the eastern shore of Boothia and +which was used for striking fire. After having collected a sufficient +stock of it during several years, they traveled to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page470" id="page470">470</a></span> +the neighboring tribes. For reasons which have been mentioned this trade +is now essentially changed. According to Schwatka there is a mutual +distrust between the Ugjulirmiut and the Netchillirmiut on one side and +the Qidnelik on the other, for which reason the intercourse between +these tribes is very limited.</p> + + + + +<h3><a name="list" id="list">LIST OF THE CENTRAL ESKIMO +TRIBES.</a></h3> + +<p>The following list gives the tribes of the Central Eskimo and their +geographical distribution:</p> + +<ul class="tribes"> +<li> I. Northern coast of Labrador: + <ul> + <li> (1) Kangivamiut (George River).</li> + <li> (2) Kouksoarmiut (Big River).</li> + <li> (3) Ungavamiut (Hope Advance Bay).</li> + <li> (4) Itivimiut (Cape Wolstenholme).</li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li> II. Northern shore of Hudson Strait: + <ul> + <li> (5) Sikosuilarmiut (King Cape).</li> + <li> (6) Akuliarmiut (North Bluff).</li> + <li> (7) Qaumauangmiut (Middle Savage Islands).</li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li> III. Davis Strait: + <ul> + <li> (8) Nugumiut (Frobisher Bay).</li> + <li> (9) Oqomiut (Cumberland Sound): + <ul> + <li><i>a.</i> Talirpingmiut (west shore of Cumberland Sound and +Nettilling).</li> + <li><i>b.</i> Qinguamiut (head of Cumberland Sound).</li> + <li><i>c.</i> Kingnaitmiut (Qeqerten and environs).</li> + <li><i>d.</i> Saumingmiut (southern part of Cumberland +Peninsula).</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>(10) Akudnirmiut (Davis Strait). + <ul> + <li><i>a.</i> Padlimiut (Padli Fjord).</li> + <li><i>b.</i> Akudnirmiut (Home Bay).</li> + </ul> + </li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li> IV. Northern part of Baffin Land, North Devon, and Ellesmere +Land: + <ul> + <li>(11) Aggomiut. + <ul> + <li><i>a.</i> Tununirmiut (Eclipse Sound).</li> + <li><i>b.</i> Tununirusirmiut (Admiralty Inlet and North +Devon).</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>(12) Inhabitants of Umingman Nuna (Ellesmere Land).</li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li> V. Melville Peninsula, Wager River, and Southampton +Island: + <ul> + <li>(13) <i>a.</i> Iglulirmiut (Fury and Hecla Strait). + <ul> + <li><i>b.</i> Amitormiut (eastern coast of Melville Peninsula).</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>(14) <i>a.</i> Pilingmiut (eastern coast of Fox Basin). + <ul> + <li><i>b.</i> Sagdlirmiut (islands of Fox Basin).</li> + </ul> + </li> + <li>(15) Aivillirmiut (Repulse Bay and Wager River).</li> + <li>(16) Sagdlirmiut (Southampton Island):</li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li> VI. (17) Kinipetu (Chesterfield Inlet).</li> + +<li> VII. Boothia Felix and King William Land: + <ul> + <li>(18) Sinimiut (Pelly Bay).</li> + <li>(19) Netchillirmiut (Boothia Felix and King William Land).</li> + <li>(20) Ugjulirmiut (King William Land and Adelaide Peninsula).</li> + <li>(21) Ukusiksalirmiut (estuary of Back River).</li> + </ul> +</li> + +<li>VIII. Qidnelik (coast west of Adelaide Peninsula).</li> + +<li> IX. Inhabitants of North Greenland.</li> +</ul> + + + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page471" id="page471">471</a></span> + +<h3><a name="hunt" id="hunt">HUNTING AND FISHING.</a><a class="tag" name="tag4" id="tag4" href="#note4">4</a></h3> + + +<h4><a name="hunt_seal" id="hunt_seal">SEAL, WALRUS, AND WHALE +HUNTING.</a></h4> + +<p>The staple food of the Central Eskimo is the seal, particularly +<i>Pagomys fœtidus</i>. The methods of hunting this animal differ +materially at different seasons, as its mode of life depends on the +state of the ice.</p> + +<div class="figfloat"> + +<div class="picture"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig390" id="fig390"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig390.png" width="25" height="573" alt="see caption"></p> +</div> + +<div class="picture"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig391" id="fig391"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig391.png" width="155" height="573" alt="see caption"></p> +</div> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 390.</span> harpoon from Alaska.<br> +(American Museum of Natural History,<br>New York.)<br> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 391.</span> Modern unang or sealing +harpoon.<br> +(Museum für Völkerkunde,<br>Berlin. IV A 6729.)</p> +</div> + +<p>In the winter it takes to the smooth parts of the floe a few miles +from the coast, where it scratches breathing holes through the ice, in +which it rises to blow. It shuns hummocky ice and floes of more than one +year’s age. Wherever the edge of the ice is at a great distance from the +settlements, the only way of procuring seals is by watching for them at +these holes. For the pursuit a light harpoon is used, called unang. The +shape of this weapon has been somewhat changed since the introduction of +rod iron. Formerly it consisted of a shaft having at one end an ivory +point firmly attached by thongs and rivets, the point tapering toward +the end. The point was slanting on one side so as to form almost an +oblique cone. Thus it facilitated the separation of the harpoon head +from the unang. On the opposite end of the shaft another piece of ivory +was attached, generally forming a knob. The material used in making the +shaft was wood, bone, or ivory, according to the region in which it was +manufactured. In Iglulik and in Aggo the narwhal’s horn was the favorite +material for the whole implement, a single horn being sufficient to +make a whole shaft. Wherever wood could be procured small pieces were +ingeniously lashed together. As the shaft is apt to be broken by the +struggles of the animal when struck by the weapon, it was strengthened +by a stout thong running along the whole length of the shaft. In all +other respects the old design corresponds to the modern one. +Unfortunately I have seen no specimen of this description, but a figure +may be seen in Ross II, p. 272, in the hand of one of the natives. +In Alaska a similar harpoon is in use, a specimen of which is +represented in Fig. 390. It consists of a wooden shaft, with a stout +ivory point at the lower end and another at the upper end. Both are +fastened to the shaft by whalebone strings. In the upper end a slanting +ivory point is inserted, which serves for attaching the harpoon head to +it. The whole shaft is strengthened by a seal line, as shown in the +figure.</p> + +<p>The unang now in use in Baffin Land and on the western shore of +Hudson Bay (Fig. 391) consists of a wooden shaft into which an iron rod +(unartenga) is sunk. The latter is pointed at the end (see, also, Fig. +393) in about the same way as the old ivory implement. The socket is +secured by a small ivory ring (unaqiuta) or a string wound around the +end of the shaft. In the socket close to the iron rod +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page472" id="page472">472</a></span> +a bent nail is inserted, forming a narrow eye (tagusiarbing). Near the +center of the whole implement a small piece of ivory (tikagung; see, +also, <a href="#fig418">Fig. 418</a>) is fastened to the shaft, +forming a support for the hand when throwing the weapon. At the lower +end of the shaft a string of deer sinews or a thong is fastened, forming +a loop (nabiring) which passes through a hole drilled through the shaft. +A stout iron point is also attached to the lower end of the shaft +(tounga).</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page473" id="page473">473</a></span> + +<div class="figfloat w200"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig392" id="fig392"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig392.png" width="102" height="204" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 392.</span> Old style naulang or harpoon +head. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6692.) 1/1</p> +</div> + +<p>The natives carry this implement on all their winter excursions, as +it is serviceable for numerous purposes. It is always kept within reach +on the sledge, as the strong iron point is useful for cutting down +hummocks, should any obstruct the passage of the sledges, or for cutting +holes through the ice, or it takes the place of a hatchet in breaking +the frozen meat which is carried along for dogs’ food. The long iron rod +is extremely useful in trying the strength of the ice or the depth of +the snow. By taking precautionary measures of this kind the natives pass +over extensive floes of weak ice.</p> + +<div class="figfloat w150"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig393" id="fig393"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig393.png" width="63" height="463" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 393.</span> Modern naulang or harpoon +head (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6729.) ½</p> +</div> + +<p>The head belonging to the unang is called naulang. Since iron has +been introduced in Baffin Land and Hudson Bay, the natives file their +harpoon heads out of it, but adhere almost exactly to the old pattern. +The old naulang was cut out of bone or more frequently out of ivory +(Fig. 392). It was one inch to two inches long and had a piece of metal +inserted into the slit at the top. Through the middle of the instrument +a hole was drilled parallel to the plane of the blade. The harpoon line +passed through the hole, and as soon as the point struck an animal and a +strain was put upon the line it turned at a right angle to the latter, +thus acting as a toggle. The effect was increased by two points at the +lower end of the naulang, called uming (beard). These pressed into the +flesh or the skin of the animal and prevented the harpoon head from +slipping back.</p> + +<p>The modern naulang (Fig. 393) is about the same length as the old +one, but much more slender. While the back of the old pattern was +straight, the points of the iron one are bent outward and backward in +order to increase its effect.</p> + +<p>The naulang is fastened to the harpoon line (iparang). This part of +the instrument is much longer than the unang, as it must allow for the +struggles of the diving seal. The end of the line passes through the +hole of the naulang and a loop is formed and secured by deer sinew or +arranged as may be seen in Fig. 393. At a distance equal to the length +of the iron rod of the unang a small thong (taguta) is attached to the +line and serves to fasten it to the shaft (see <a href="#fig391">Fig. 391</a>). It is drawn through +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page474" id="page474">474</a></span> +the eye formed by the tagusiarbing. As soon as a strain is put upon the +naulang the line parts from the shaft, as the taguta is only squeezed +into the eye and is easily detached. The harpoon line passes through the +nabiring or is fastened by a slipping hitch to the shaft of the +unang.</p> + +<p>If the unang has a nabiring the line passes through this loop. +A few feet below it a small piece of ivory (akparaiktung) is +attached to the line, acting as a hook after it has run out. It catches +the nabiring and drags the harpoon along, thus impeding the movements of +the animal (see <a href="#fig391">Fig. 391</a>).</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig394" id="fig394"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig394.png" width="429" height="195" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 394.</span> Qilertuang or leather strap +and clasps for holding coiled up harpoon lines.<br> +<i>a</i>, <i>c</i> (National Museum, Washington. <i>a</i>, 34128; +<i>c</i>, 34132.)<br> +<i>b</i> (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.) 1/1</p> + +<p>The rest of the line is coiled up and held by the hunter. The end is +doubled so as to form a loop which serves as a handle when the line runs +out with the diving seal. Generally, a small piece of leather (Fig. +394) with two slits at one end and an ivory clasp (qilertuang) at the +other is fastened to this loop; it serves to hold the bights together +when the line is detached from the harpoon and rolled up. Some art is +bestowed on the manufacture of this clasp (Fig. 394). Usually it +represents a seal, the head of which forms a hook on which the slits can +be fastened. The clasp is either tied or otherwise secured to the +leather strap. Some specimens in the British Museum, which are about one +hundred and fifty years old, show that these implements have not +undergone any change during that time.</p> + +<p>Parry describes another harpoon head used by the Iglulirmiut for the +unang. He calls it a siatko (Fig. 395). I myself have not seen any +of a similar pattern, but Kumlien gives a sketch of one found in a grave +at Exeter Sound (Fig. 396). The principal difference between the naulang +and the siatko is that the edge of the former is parallel to the hole +through which the line passes, while in the latter their directions are +vertical to each other. The head of the whaling harpoon (see <a href="#fig436">Fig. 436</a>) acts on the same principle.</p> + +<div class="picblock"> +<div class="picture half"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig395" id="fig395"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig395.png" width="119" height="298" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 395.</span> Siatko or harpoon head of the +Iglulirmiut. (From Parry II, p. 550.)</p> +</div> + +<div class="picture half"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig396" id="fig396"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig396.png" width="76" height="283" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 396.</span> Siatko found at Exeter Sound. +(From a drawing by L. Kumlien.)</p> +</div> +</div> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page475" id="page475">475</a></span> +<p>When the day begins to dawn the Eskimo prepares for the hunt. The +dogs are harnessed to the sledge and the hunting implements are fitted +up. The harpoon line and the snow knife are hung over the deer’s +antlers, which are attached to the hind part of the sledge, a seal +or bear skin is lashed upon the bottom, and the spear secured under the +lashing. The hunter takes up the whip and the dogs set off for the +hunting ground. When near the place where he expects to find seals, the +hunter stops the team and takes the implements from the sledge, which is +then turned upside down. The points of the runners and the short brow +antler are pressed into the snow in order to prevent the dogs from +running away. A dog with a good scent is then taken from the team +and the Eskimo follows his guidance until a seal’s hole is found. In +winter it is entirely covered with snow, but generally a very small +elevation indicates the situation. The dog is led back to the sledge and +the hunter examines the hole to make sure that it is still visited by +the seal. Cautiously he cuts a hole through the snow covering and peeps +into the excavation. If the water is covered with a new coat of ice the +seal has left the hole and it would be in vain to expect its return. The +hunter must look for a new hole promising better results.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig397" id="fig397"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig397.png" width="279" height="519" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 397.</span> Eskimo in the act of striking +a seal. (From a photograph.)</p> + +<p>If he is sure that the seal has recently visited a hole he marks its +exact center on the top of the snow and then fills up his peep hole with +small blocks of snow. All these preparations must be made with the +utmost precaution, as any change in the appearance of the snow would +frighten away the seal. The Eskimo take particular +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page476" id="page476">476</a></span> +care that no hairs from their clothing fall into the hole or remain +sticking in the snow, for they believe that the smell would scare away +the animal. The center of the breathing hole must be marked, as the game +remains invisible and only a stroke into the center will be likely to +hit it. If the snow covering is very thick and strong it is cut down, +but is replaced with loose snow, which is heaped around the end of the +harpoon, the latter being placed upon the central point. After the +harpoon has been extracted a hole remains which forms the mark for the +harpooner. If the Eskimo expects the early return of the seal, he +spreads a small piece of skin, generally that of a young seal, close to +the hole and places his feet upon it, thus keeping them warm. He fastens +the naulang to the harpoon shaft, while the lower +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page477" id="page477">477</a></span> +end of the line is folded up in a coil, which he holds in the left hand. +The unang is held in both hands, and thus the hunter sometimes remains +for hours, occasionally stooping and listening, until he hears the +blowing of the seal. Then, all of a sudden, he stands upright, and, with +all his strength, sends the harpoon straight downward into the hole, +paying out the line at the same time, but keeping a firm hold of the +loop at its end (Fig. 397). Generally the seal is struck near the head. +If the line is fastened to the shaft by a slipping hitch it is at once +detached and the harpoon either remains sticking in the snow or falls +down by the hole. If the line runs through the nabiring, the harpoon is +dragged into the water and impedes the movements of the animal. The +hunter then begins at once to cut down the snow covering with his knife, +which has been left within easy reach, and hauls in the line. As soon as +the seal comes to the surface to breathe it is easily dispatched and +drawn up on the ice.</p> + +<div class="figfloat w200"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig398" id="fig398"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig398.png" width="75" height="120" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 398.</span> Tutareang or buckle. (Museum +für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6710.) 1/1</p> +</div> + +<p>The arrangements at the seal hole are more elaborate if the sealer +expects to wait a long time. If only a few men go out hunting and famine +is impending, he sometimes waits for a whole day or even longer, though +it be cold and the wind rage over the icy fields. He builds up a +semicircular wall of snow blocks to keep off the piercing wind and makes +a seat in the center of it. A skin is spread under his feet and his +legs are tied together with a thong, which is fastened by a peculiar +kind of buckle (tutareang) with two holes (Fig. 398). One end of the +thong is firmly tied to the buckle, passing through one of the holes, +while the opposite end passes tightly through the second hole. The thong +may be quickly opened by a strong effort on the part of the hunter, +while it helps to keep him quiet. At his right hand (Fig. 399; in this +drawing it appears on the left) the snow knife is stuck into the snow, +while to the left the unang is placed upon two pegs. The coil of the +line lies in his lap. His left arm is drawn out of his sleeve, that he +may more easily keep warm. Both sleeves are generally held together by a +piece of deer’s horn with a branch on each side which serves as a hook. +Thus the hunter waits until he hears the breathing of the seal. As it +usually stays for several minutes he is in no hurry to get ready. +Cautiously he places his left arm into the sleeve, having first +disengaged it from the hook. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page478" id="page478">478</a></span> +He then takes hold of the coil, picks up his unang, and, having risen, +strikes the center of the hole.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig399" id="fig399"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig399.png" width="385" height="493" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 399.</span> Eskimo awaiting return of +seal to blowhole. (From a photograph.)</p> + +<p>Ross (II, p. 268) and Rae (I, p. 123) state that the sealing at the +hole is more difficult in daylight than in the dark. I suppose, +however, that when the snow is deep there is no difference; at least the +Eskimo of Davis Strait never complain about being annoyed by the +daylight.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig400" id="fig400"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig400.png" width="385" height="547" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 400.</span> Tuputang or ivory plugs for +closing wounds. <i>e</i> (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6706.) +<i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i> (National Museum, Washington. <i>b</i>, +10192; <i>c</i>, 10390; <i>d</i>, 9836.) 1/1</p> + +<p>Sometimes a small instrument is used in the hunt to indicate the +approach of the seal. It is called qipekutang and consists of a very +thin rod with a knob or a knot at one end (Parry II, p. 550, +Fig. 20). It is stuck through the snow, the end passing into the +water, the knob resting on the snow. As soon as the seal rises to blow, +it strikes the rod, which, by its movements, warns the Eskimo. Generally +it is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page479" id="page479">479</a></span> +made of whalebone. Sometimes a string is attached to the knob and +fastened by a pin to the snow, as its movements are more easily detected +than those of the knob. The natives are somewhat averse to using this +implement, as it frequently scares the seals.</p> + +<div class="picblock"> +<div class="picture half"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig401" id="fig401"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig401.png" width="132" height="311" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 401.</span> Wooden case for plugs. +(Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.) 1/1</p> +</div> + +<div class="picture half"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig402" id="fig402"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig402.png" width="84" height="200" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 402.</span> Another form of plug. (Museum +für Völkerkunde, Berlin.) ⅔</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig403" id="fig403"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig403.png" width="422" height="200" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 403.</span> Qanging for fastening thong +to jaw of seal. <i>a</i> (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6825.) +<i>b</i>, <i>c</i> (National Museum, Washington. <i>b</i>, 34126; +<i>c</i>, 34129.) 1/1</p> + +<div class="figfloat w200"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig405" id="fig405"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig405.png" width="71" height="85" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 405.</span> Qanging in form of a button. +(National Museum, Washington. 34130.) 1/1</p> +</div> + +<p>After the carcass of the animal has been drawn out of the water, the +wounds are closed with ivory plugs (tuputang) (Fig. 400), which are +carried in a wooden or leathern case (Fig. 401) and are either +triangular or square. The plug is pushed under the skin, which is +closely tied to its head. Another form of plug which, however, is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page480" id="page480">480</a></span> +rarely used, is represented in Fig. 402. The skin is drawn over the plug +and tied over one of the threads of the screw cut into the wood. After +the dead animal’s wounds are closed, a hole is cut through the +flesh beneath the lower jaw and a thong is passed through this hole and +the mouth. A small implement called qanging is used for fastening +it to the seal. It usually forms a toggle and prevents the line from +slipping through the hole. The patterns represented in Fig. 403 are very +effective. The hole drilled through the center of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page481" id="page481">481</a></span> +instrument is wider at the lower end than elsewhere, thus furnishing a +rest for a knot at the end of the thong. The points are pressed into the +flesh of the seal, and thus a firm hold is secured for the whole +implement. The Eskimo display some art in the manufacture of this +implement, and frequently give it the shape of seals and the like (Fig. +404). Fig. 405 represents a small button, which is much less effective +than the other patterns. A very few specimens consist merely of +rude pieces of ivory with holes drilled through them. Fig. 406 shows one +of these attachments serving for both toggle and handle.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig404" id="fig404"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig404.png" width="403" height="73" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 404.</span> Qanging in form of a seal. +(Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6825.) 1/1</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig406" id="fig406"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig406.png" width="328" height="173" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 406.</span> Qanging serving for both +toggle and handle. (National Museum, Washington. 10400.) ⅔</p> + +<p>In order to prevent the line from getting out of order, a whirl +(qidjarung) is sometimes used. Fig. 407 represents one brought +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page482" id="page482">482</a></span> +from Cumberland Sound by Kumlien, and is described by him (p. 38). +There was a ball in the hollow body of this instrument, which could not +be pulled through any of the openings. One line was fastened to this +ball, passing through the central hole, and another one to the top of +the whirl. A simpler pattern is represented in Fig. 408.</p> + +<div class="picblock"> +<div class="picture w300"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig407" id="fig407"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig407.png" width="240" height="149" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 407.</span> Qidjarung or whirl for +harpoon line. (National Museum, Washington. 34121.) 1/1</p> +</div> + +<div class="picture w200"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig408" id="fig408"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig408.png" width="65" height="61" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 408.</span> Simpler form of whirl. +(Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.) 1/1</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>On its capture, the seal is dragged to the sledge and after being +covered with the bearskin is firmly secured by the lashing. It freezes +quickly and the hunter sits down on top of it. If the seal happens to +blow soon after the arrival of the hunter, a second one may be +procured, but generally the day is far spent when the first seal is +killed.</p> + +<p>Wherever water holes are found they are frequently visited during the +winter by the Eskimo, especially by those who have firearms. They lie in +wait at the lower side of the hole, i.e., the side to which the tide +sets, and when the seal blows they shoot him, securing him with the +harpoon after he has drifted to the edge of the ice. These holes can +only be visited at spring tides, as in the intervals a treacherous floe +partly covers the opening and is not destroyed until the next spring +tide.</p> + +<p>In March, when the seal brings forth its young, the same way of +hunting is continued, besides which young seals are eagerly pursued. The +pregnant females make an excavation from five to ten feet in length +under the snow, the diving hole being at one end. They prefer snowbanks +and rough ice or the cracks and cavities of grounded ice for this +purpose, and pup in these holes. The Eskimo set out on light sledges +dragged by a few dogs, which quickly take up the scent of the seals. The +dogs hurry at the utmost speed to the place of the hole, where they stop +at once. The hunter jumps from the sledge and breaks down the roof of +the excavation as quickly as possible, cutting off the retreat of the +seal through its hole if he can. Generally the mother escapes, but the +awkward pup is taken by surprise, or, if very young, cannot get into the +water. The Eskimo draws it out by means of a hook (niksiang) and kills +it by firmly stepping on the poor beast’s breast. An old pattern of the +hook used is represented according to Kumlien’s drawing in Fig. 409; +another, made from a bear’s claw, in Fig. 410; the modern pattern, in +Fig. 411.</p> + +<p>Sometimes the natives try to catch the old seal in a most cruel way, +by using the love of the dam for her pup to lure her to the surface of +the hole. They tie a thong to the hind flipper of the pup and throw it +into the hole. It dives at once, crying pitifully. When it comes up to +breathe the hunter pushes it back, and frequently the dam returns to her +young and attempts to draw it away. As soon as she is seen the harpoon +is plunged into her body and she is quickly drawn out of the water and +killed.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page483" id="page483">483</a></span> +<p>The young seal is also pursued by foxes, which drag it from the +excavation and leave nothing but the skin, which becomes a welcome find +for the Eskimo.</p> + +<div class="picblock"> +<div class="picture w100"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig409" id="fig409"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig409.png" width="53" height="536" alt="see caption"></p> +</div> + +<div class="picture w100"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig410" id="fig410"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig410.png" width="43" height="546" alt="see caption"></p> +</div> + +<div class="picture w100"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig411" id="fig411"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig411.png" width="42" height="514" alt="see caption"></p> +</div> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 409.</span> Old pattern of hook for +drawing out captured seal.</p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 410.</span> Seal hook of bear’s claw. +Actual size, 3 feet. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A +6728.)</p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 411.</span> Modern form of seal hook. +(From a drawing by Kumlien.)</p> +</div> + +<p>As the season advances and the rays of the sun become warmer the +seals break down the snow roofs and are seen basking beside their holes. +The young ones remain with their dams until late in June.</p> + +<p>At this season a new method of hunting is practiced, by which seals +are caught with greater ease than in winter. The hunter approaches +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page484" id="page484">484</a></span> +the animal from the windward side until he is within seventy or eighty +yards of it. He then lies down, after having fastened a piece of skin +under his left arm, upon which he reclines. The skin protects him from +the melting snow, facilitates speed, and diminishes the noise as he +creeps. He moves on toward the seal, resting on his left arm and side +and pushing himself forward with his right foot and left arm (Fig. 412). +The seal frequently raises his head and gazes around to make sure that +no danger threatens. As long as the seal is looking around the hunter +lies flat and keeps perfectly still, or, if he is somewhat close to the +animal, imitates its movements by raising his head and rolling and +playing with his hands and feet as a seal does with its flippers. Some +natives will utter sounds similar to those of a blowing seal or use a +small sledge with a white screen to conceal themselves from view. The +sealskin clothing makes man and seal look so extremely alike that it is +difficult to distinguish one from the other at some distance. If the +hunter succeeds in deceiving the animal it lies down again to sleep and +he pushes himself on. As the naps of the seal last but a few moments, +the Eskimo approaches very slowly. At last he is near enough. He levels +his gun and tries to hit the animal’s head, as it must be killed by the +first shot, else it jumps into the hole and escapes. If the snow is hard +and water has not yet appeared on the top of the ice, a seal may be +killed in this way in twenty or thirty minutes. If the snow is very soft +and deep it is almost impossible to get near enough, as it is extremely +difficult to push one’s self along. The approach is rather easy through +rough ice, which conceals the hunter, but the seals seldom frequent such +places. Sometimes they are found at the edges of rough ice or near the +shore and are easily caught when in this position.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig412" id="fig412"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig412.png" width="347" height="152" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 412.</span> Eskimo approaching seal. +(From a photograph.)</p> + +<p>Formerly, the harpoon was used instead of the gun, and is even now +preferred by some hunters. The hunter gets near enough to reach the seal +with the harpoon, and having struck his prey has a better chance of +securing it, as the weapon prevents its escape.</p> + +<p>After the shot has been fired or the harpoon thrown, the Eskimo at +once jumps to his feet in order to prevent the escape of the animal +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page485" id="page485">485</a></span> +to its hole, to which it takes if only wounded. An expert hunter can +kill from ten to fifteen seals in one day.</p> + +<p>Rae, in describing the method of hunting, states (I, p. 170) that the +women at Repulse Bay are very skillful, and when they have no harpoon +frequently use a small wooden club, with which they strike the seal on +the nose, killing it.</p> + +<p>Generally two men go sealing together. They set out early in the +morning on one sledge, and while one creeps toward the seals the other +keeps the dogs quiet. A single hunter cannot hunt successfully at +this season with a sledge, for when he leaves it the dogs will either +follow him or, if made fast to the ice, raise such a howling that the +seal is put upon its guard. Therefore it is necessary that a continuous +watch be kept on the dogs. When the shot is fired and they perceive that +the seal is killed, no amount of whipping will restrain them; they rush +forward until they have reached the victim, which is then lashed on the +sledge.</p> + +<p>The hunters go on in search of a second seal, at the sight of which +the dogs are again stopped. When the Eskimo intend to remain out only a +few hours they leave the dead animals at their holes and load them on +the sledge on the return journey. A single hunter cannot leave the +settlement for a long distance, but is limited to sealing near the +village and killing no more animals than he can drag to it himself. +Sometimes it happens that the seals are fast asleep. Then the hunter can +go up to them without any precaution and kill them immediately, and even +a dog team running at full speed can take them by surprise. In winter a +similar method of hunting is followed whenever the edge of the floe is +close to the land. In such places all kinds of seals lie on the ice, +even in the midst of winter, and are pursued in the way which has been +already described.</p> + +<p>A strange method of hunting is reported by Ross (II, p. 451) as +practiced by the Netchillirmiut. Eight men slowly approached the basking +seal until it raised its head, when those in front stopped and shouted +as loud as they could; on which three others ran up with incredible +swiftness and the leader struck it with the spear.</p> + +<p>Still later in the season, when the snow is all gone, a very +successful method of hunting is practiced. All the inhabitants of the +settlements set out at once, men, women, and children, and occupy every +seal hole over a large area. The men keep their harpoons ready to strike +the animal when it comes up to blow, while the women and children are +provided with sticks only, with which they frighten away the seals +whenever they rise where they are standing. The animals are compelled to +rise somewhere, as otherwise they would be drowned, and thus an ample +supply is secured in a short time.</p> + +<p>After the breaking up of the ice the natives take to their kayaks and +the summer hunt is started. As at this season the methods of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page486" id="page486">486</a></span> +catching all kinds of seal and walrus are almost identical, I shall +describe them together; and, first, the most important part of the +hunting gear, the kayak and its belongings.</p> + +<p>The kayak (qajaq) is almost exclusively used for hunting by all +Eskimo tribes from Greenland to Alaska. According to Bessels the Ita +natives do not know its use, though they have retained the word. As a +connection exists between this tribe and those of Baffin Land, +I have no doubt that they are acquainted with the use of the boat, +though it may be of little avail in that ice encumbered region. When I +first visited the tribes of Davis Strait no kayak was to be found +between Cape Mercy and Cape Raper, nor had there been any for several +years. In the summer of 1884, however, two boats were built by these +natives.</p> + +<p>The general principles of their construction are well known. The +kayak of the Nugumiut, Oqomiut, and Akudnirmiut is bulky as compared +with that of Greenland and Hudson Bay. It is from twenty-five to +twenty-seven feet long and weighs from eighty to one hundred pounds, +while the Iglulik boats, according to Lyon (p. 322), range from +fifty to sixty pounds in weight. It may be that the Repulse Bay boats +are even lighter still. According to Hall they are not heavier than +twenty-five pounds (II, p. 216).</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig413" id="fig413"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig413.png" width="404" height="47" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 413.</span> Frame of a kayak or hunting +boat. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.)</p> + +<p>The frame of the kayak (Fig. 413) consists, first, of two flat pieces +of wood which form the gunwale (apumang). From ten to twenty beams +(ajang) keep this frame on a stretch above. The greatest width between +them is a little behind the cock pit (p. 487). A strong piece +of wood runs from the cross piece before the hole (masing) to the stem, +and another from the cross piece abaft the hole (itirbing) to the stern +(tuniqdjung). The proportion of the bow end to the stern end, measured +from the center of the hole, is 4 to 3. The former has a projection +measuring one-fourth of its whole length. Setting aside the projection, +the hole lies in the very center of the body of the kayak. A large +number of ribs (tikping), from thirty to sixty, are fastened to the +gunwales and kept steady by a keel (kujang), which runs from stem to +stern, and by two lateral strips of wood (siadnit), which are fastened +between gunwale and keel. The stem projection (usujang), which rises +gradually, begins at a strong beam (niutang) and its rib (qaning). The +extreme end of the stern (aqojang) is bent upward. The bottom of the +boat is partly formed by the keel, partly by the side supports. The +stern projection has a keel, but in the body of the boat the side +supports are bent down to the depth of the keel, thus forming a flat +bottom. Rising again gradually they terminate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page487" id="page487">487</a></span> +close to the stern. Between the masing and the itirbing is the hole (pa) +of the kayak, the rim of which is formed by a flat piece of wood or +whalebone bent into a hoop. It is flattened abaft and sharply bent at +the fore part. The masing sometimes rests upon a stud.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig414" id="fig414"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig414.png" width="408" height="49" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 414.</span> Kayak with covering of skin. +(Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.)</p> + +<p>The whole frame is covered with skins (aming) tightly sewed together +and almost waterproof (Fig. 414). Usually the cover consists of three or +four skins of <i>Pagomys fœtidus</i>. When put upon the frame it is +thoroughly wetted and stretched as much as possible so as to fit +tightly. It is tied by thongs to the rim of the hole. A small piece +of ivory is attached to each side of the niutang and serves to fasten a +thong which holds the kayak implements. Two more thongs are sewed to the +skin just before the hole, another one behind it, and two smaller ones +near the stern.</p> + +<p>The differences between this boat and that of the Iglulirmiut may be +seen from Lyon’s description (page 320). Their kayak has a long peak at +the stern, which turns somewhat upward. The rim round the hole is higher +in front than at the back, whereas that of the former has the rim of an +equal height all around. At Savage Islands Lyon saw the rims very neatly +edged with ivory. The bow and the stern of the Iglulik kayaks were +equally sharp and they had from sixty to seventy ribs. While the kayaks +of the Oqomiut have only in exceptional cases two lateral supports +between keel and gunwale, Lyon found in the boats of these natives seven +siadnit, but no keel at all. These boats are well represented in Parry’s +engravings (II, pp. 271 and 508). Instead of the thongs, ivory +or wooden holders are fastened abaft to prevent the weapons from +slipping down.</p> + +<p>If the drawing in Lyon’s book (p. 14) be correct, the kayak of the +Qaumauangmiut (Savage Islands) has a very long prow ending in a sharp +peak, the proportion to the stern being 2 to 1. Its stern is much +shorter and steeper than that of the northern boats and carries the same +holders as that of the Iglulirmiut.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig415" id="fig415"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig415.png" width="407" height="36" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 415.</span> Model of a Repulse Bay kayak. +(National Museum, Washington. 68126.)</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig416" id="fig416"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig416.png" width="389" height="63" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 416.</span> Sirmijaung or scraper for +kayak. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.) ½</p> + +<div class="figfloat w150"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig417" id="fig417"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig417.png" width="63" height="526" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 417.</span> Large kayak harpoon for <ins +class="correction" title="l invisible">seal</ins> and walrus. Actual +length, 6½ feet. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.)</p> +</div> + +<p>The model of a Repulse Bay kayak is represented in Fig. 415. The rim +of the hole is in the same position as in the Iglulik kayak, the fore +part resting on a rib bent like a hoop, whereas in the others +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page488" id="page488">488</a></span> +it rests on a beam. The stern resembles closely that of the Cumberland +Sound boats, while the head is less peaked, the keel having a sharper +bend at the beginning of the projection, which does not turn upward. +Early in the spring and in the autumn, when ice is still forming, +a scraper (sirmijaung) (Fig. 416) is always carried in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page489" id="page489">489</a></span> +kayak for removing the sleet which forms on the skin. When the boat has +been pulled on shore, it is turned upside down and the whole bottom is +cleaned with this implement. A double bladed paddle (pauting) is +used with the boat. It has a narrow handle (akudnang), which fits the +hand of the boatman and widens to about four inches at the thin blades +(maling), which are edged with ivory. Between each blade and the handle +there is a ring (qudluqsiuta).</p> + +<p>The kayak gear consists of the large harpoon and its line +(to which the sealskin float is attached), the receptacle for this +line, the bird spear (with its throwing board), and two lances.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig418" id="fig418"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig418.png" width="424" height="248" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 418.</span> Tikagung or support for the +hand. <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i> (National Museum, Washington. +<i>a</i>, 30000; <i>b</i>, 30005; <i>c</i>, 30004.) <i>d</i> (Museum für +Völkerkunde, Berlin.)</p> + +<p>The large harpoon (Fig. 417) is used for hunting seals and walrus +from the kayak. The shaft (qijuqtenga) consists of a stout pole from +four and a half to five feet in length, to which an ivory knob is +fastened at the lower end. At its center of gravity a small piece of +ivory (tikagung) is attached, which serves to support the hand in +throwing the weapon. A remarkable pattern of this tikagung, which +nicely fits the hand of the hunter, is represented in the first of the +series of Fig. 418, and another one, which differs only in size from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page490" id="page490">490</a></span> +that of the unang, in the second. At right angles to the tikagung a +small ivory knob is inserted in the shaft and serves to hold the harpoon +line. At this part the shaft is greatly flattened and the cross section +becomes oblong or rhombic. At the top it is tenoned, to be inserted into +the mortice of the ivory head (qatirn). The latter fits so closely on +the tenon that it sticks without being either riveted or tied together. +The qatirn is represented in Fig. 419. Into the cavity at its top a +walrus tusk is inserted and forms with it a ball and socket joint +(igimang).</p> + +<div class="picblock"> +<div class="picture half"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig419" id="fig419"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig419.png" width="141" height="185" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 419.</span> Qatirn or ivory head of +harpoon shaft. (National Museum, Washington. 34101.) ⅔</p> +</div> + +<div class="picture half"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig420" id="fig420"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig420.png" width="67" height="261" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 420.</span> Manner of attaching the two +principal parts of the harpoon.</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>The tusk and the qatirn are fastened to each other in a most +ingenious way, which may be readily made out from the engraving (Fig. +420). The principal effect of this arrangement of the holes and the +thong is that the tusk is kept steady by two parallel thongs that +prevent it from tipping over and only allow a movement in the plane of +the flattening of the shaft as soon as any considerable force is applied +to the tusk.</p> + +<p>The harpoon head used in connection with this weapon is the tokang. +To prevent it from being injured, it is carried in a wooden sheath (Fig. +421). The iron point is secured by a string of whalebone or sealskin; +the lower part is fastened to the sheath as indicated in the figure. The +tokang differs from the naulang in that it is larger and stouter. In +some cases great care is bestowed upon the finishing of this important +weapon.</p> + +<div class="picblock"> +<div class="picture half"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig421" id="fig421"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig421.png" width="163" height="380" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 421.</span> Tokang or harpoon point in +sheath. (In the possession of Captain John O. Spicer, Groton. +Conn.) ⅔</p> +</div> + +<div class="picture half"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig422" id="fig422"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig422.png" width="117" height="270" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 422.</span> Tokang or harpoon head taken +from a whale in Cumberland Sound. (National Museum, Washington. +34069.) ⅔</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>An interesting specimen of this variety of harpoon head was found by +Kumlien in Cumberland Sound (Fig. 422). It was taken from a whale and +differs from the device of that country. The back is bent similar to +that of the iron naulang and the barbs have two points each instead of +one. The front part is sharply ridged. The specimen is very nicely +finished. A few very old harpoon heads of the same pattern are +deposited in the British Museum and were of Hudson Strait manufacture; +therefore I conclude that Kumlien’s specimen is from the same part of +the country.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig423" id="fig423"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig423.png" width="228" height="411" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 423.</span> Ancient tokang or harpoon +head. (In A. Sturgis’s collection, New York.)</p> + +<p>Fig. 423 represents an ancient harpoon head of the same style, the +locality of which is unfortunately unknown. The specimen is of +particular interest, as it shows the method of fastening the stone to +the ivory part. A similar specimen is in the collections of the +British Museum; it formed part of the Sloane collection. Both these +specimens show perforations at the lower end of the harpoon head which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page491" id="page491">491</a></span> +are not found in the modern ones. Probably these served for holding the +harpoon head to the shaft by means of a thin line, in order to prevent +the head from coming off before the seal or walrus was struck. These +holes are similar to the ones shown in <a href="#fig395">Figs. 395</a> +and <a href="#fig436">436</a>.</p> + +<p>The harpoon line (alirn) is attached to the tokang in the same way as +the iparang is to the naulang. When it is fastened to the igimang, the +bend of the tusk facilitates the disengagement of the harpoon head, +which turns its back to that of the tusk. Attached to the line at the +level of the ivory knob which has been mentioned is the teliqbing (Fig. +424), into the hole of which the knob fits closely. As the line from the +tokang to the teliqbing is just long enough to allow it to be pulled +down far enough to reach the knob, it holds shaft and head firmly +together so long as the tusk remains in its position. As soon as a +lateral strain is put upon the tusk the distance between the head and +the knob is diminished and the teliqbing slips off, thus disengaging the +line with the harpoon head from the shaft. Sometimes the teliqbing has +two holes, one being used when the line is wet and longer, the other +when it is dry and shorter.</p> + +<div class="picblock"> +<div class="picture half"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig424" id="fig424"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig424.png" width="247" height="99" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 424.</span> Teliqbing, which is fastened +to harpoon line. (National Museum, Washington. 34123.) 1/1</p> +</div> + +<div class="picture half"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig425" id="fig425"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig425.png" width="121" height="259" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 425.</span> Qatilik or spear from Iglulik +(From Parry II, p. 550.)</p> +</div> +</div> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page492" id="page492">492</a></span> +<p>In Iglulik the spear is called qatilik (Fig. 425). In pattern it is +the same as that of Akudnirn and Oqo, the only difference, according to +Parry’s description, being that the toung (the tusk) is straight and has +a notch near its socket (see Fig. 425), while the harpoon head which +belongs to it has only a single point at its lower end.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig426" id="fig426"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig426.png" width="351" height="107" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 426.</span> Avautang or sealskin float. +(National Museum, Washington. 30009.)</p> + +<p>This harpoon is placed on the right side of the prow of the kayak, +with the point directed towards its head. The harpoon line, with the +tokang, lies just before the hunter in a flat receptacle (asedlun), +which consists of a wooden ring with a handle, held by thongs before the +hole of the kayak. The receptacle rests on the skin cover, having no +feet, as has the Greenland one. In Hudson Strait it is secured upon +holders. The harpoon line is rolled up in a coil, but its end is +fastened to the seal float, which lies behind the hunter and is held in +place by a thong. The line passes along the right side of the kayak +hole. The float (avautang) (Fig. 426) consists of a whole sealskin which +had been removed from the animal dexterously, its +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page493" id="page493">493</a></span> +entire body being pulled through the mouth, which is enlarged by means +of a cut along the throat. The nails of the flippers are frequently +extracted and the openings sewed up, the hind flippers and the tail +being cut off and firmly tied together by a thong, thus forming a neck +(atauta), to which the harpoon line is attached. At the head a pipe for +blowing up the skin (poviutang) is inserted (Fig. 427); the skin is +firmly tied to the ring of the pipe, on which the stopper is secured as +soon as the skin is sufficiently inflated. This device is a very +convenient one, for it is difficult to inflate the skin without some +kind of mouthpiece. If there are any holes in the float they are closed +by a button similar to the one shown in Fig. 427 <i>a</i>, which, +however, is without a hole.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig427" id="fig427"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig427.png" width="444" height="287" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 427.</span> Different styles of poviutang +or pipe for inflating the float. (National Museum, Washington. <i>a</i>, +29986; <i>b</i>, 34118; <i>c</i>, 34119; <i>d</i>, 34120.)</p> + +<p>If the harpoon is to be used for hunting large animals, such as +walrus or whales, a very ingenious contrivance is sometimes +inserted between the line and the float in the shape of a wooden hoop +with a seal or deer skin stretched over it (niutang) (see <a href="#fig437">Fig. 437</a>). Three or four thongs of equal length are +fastened to the hoop at equal distances and bound together. At their +point of union they are attached to the line. As soon as a walrus is +struck and starts to swim away, the hoop is thrown at right angles to +the stretched line and exerts a strong resistance when dragged along, +thus diminishing the speed of the animal and quickly exhausting its +strength. The float prevents its escape, as it is too buoyant to be +drawn under water. The animal cannot dive, and thus the hunter does not +lose sight of his prey.</p> + +<div class="picblock"> +<div class="picture w150"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig428" id="fig428"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig428.png" width="83" height="261" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 428.</span> Agdliaq or spear for small +seals. (From Parry II, p. 550.)</p> +</div> + +<div class="picture w300"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig429" id="fig429"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig429.png" width="249" height="422" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 429.</span> Agdliaq points. (National +Museum, Washington. <i>a</i>, 90165; <i>b</i>, 2991; <i>c</i>, 34098; +<i>d</i>, 34063.)</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>For small seals a similar weapon is used, the agdliaq (Fig. 428), +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page494" id="page494">494</a></span> +the main difference being that it is much smaller and has a seal bladder +for a float attached to the shaft. I have not seen this weapon +myself, but Kumlien has brought away parts of it. Fig. 429 shows that +its point differs only in size from the large igimang. The head +(probably the naulang) is tied to the shaft, which acts as a drag.</p> + +<p>The points are fastened to the shaft in almost the same way as the +former, the only difference being that they are straight; the drill +holes do not cross one another. Fig. 430 represents the heads belonging +to this spear; Fig. 431, a large one which is used with the large +harpoon. As the lines in all these run as is represented in Fig. +429 <i>b</i>, they cannot act as harpoons. I had no +opportunity of seeing any of these weapons myself.</p> + +<div class="picblock"> +<div class="picture half"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig430" id="fig430"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig430.png" width="225" height="324" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 430.</span> Spear heads. (National +Museum, Washington. <i>a</i>, 34076: <i>b</i>, 34068.)</p> +</div> + +<div class="picture half"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig431" id="fig431"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig431.png" width="133" height="291" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 431.</span> Large spear head. (National +Museum, Washington. 10136.) ½</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>In hunting walrus a lance (anguvigang) (Fig. 432) is used which is +similar to the igimang. The shaft and the joint are alike in both, only +the knob for the teliqbing being absent. The head is made of bone or the +straight part of a walrus tusk and has an iron +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page495" id="page495">495</a></span> +blade on the top. The lance serves to dispatch the animal after it has +been harpooned with the igimang.</p> + +<div class="figfloat"> +<div class="picture w100"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig432" id="fig432"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig432.png" width="35" height="533" alt="see caption"></p> +</div> + +<div class="picture w100"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig433" id="fig433"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig433.png" width="35" height="437" alt="see caption"></p> +</div> + +<div class="w250"> +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 433.</span> Nuirn or bird spear. (Museum +für Völkerkunde, Berlin.)</p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 432.</span> Anguvigang or lance. Museum +für Völkerkunde Berlin.</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>The joint prevents the shaft from being broken by the struggles of +the animal. Its place is behind the hunter on the right side of the +kayak, the point being directed toward the stern. Generally a second +lance is carried on the left side of the boat parallel with the other. +It is either of the same kind or a slender shaft with a long point +firmly inserted in it (kapun, ipun). The point is about one and +one-third of a foot to one and one-half feet long. This weapon, however, +is more particularly in use for hunting deer in the lakes and ponds.</p> + +<div class="figfloat w250"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig434" id="fig434"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig434.png" width="212" height="409" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 434.</span> Nuqsang or throwing board, +<ins class="correction" title="printed as shown">(<i>a</i> front and (<i>b</i></ins> back view. National +Museum, Washington. 30013.</p> +</div> + +<p>The last implement in the kayak gear to be described is the bird +spear, nuirn (Fig. 433), with its throwing board, nuqsang (Fig. 434). It +has a shaft of about four feet in length, flattened at the lower end. +Among the natives on the east and southeast of Baffin Land it has an +iron prong at its point, whereas in Iglulik it has two points of unequal +length, with double barbs. Three double barbed prongs are attached to +the center of the shaft. They have a sharp bend at their lower part, the +points running parallel to the shaft. The prongs of the Greenland dart +are straight and diverge from the shaft. The lower end of the bird spear +fits into the groove of the throwing board. Therefore the end of the +shaft is squared. The ivory knob at the end of the spear contains a +small hole for the insertion of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page496" id="page496">496</a></span> +spike which is in the end of the groove. When the board is used it is +held firmly in the right hand, the first finger passing through the hole +by the side of the groove, the thumb clasping the notch on the left side +(Fig. 434 <i>b</i>), the other fingers those on the right side. The +shaft is held by the points of the fingers. When the spear is hurled the +posterior point of the groove describes a wide circle, and the fingers +let go the shaft, which, remaining in its first position, is driven +forward by the spike with great violence, and thus it attains +considerable velocity.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page497" id="page497">497</a></span> +<p>I will now give a description of the methods of hunting seals and +walrus during the summer. As long as ice cakes are drifting in the bays +the natives do not use their seal floats, which would be severed from +the line and easily torn to pieces. They paddle to a small cake, on +which they lift their kayaks, and cautiously move the cake towards +another one on which a seal or walrus is asleep. After they have come +within range of their game they shoot it. As an abundance of all kinds +of seals and walrus are basking on the ice plenty of food can be +obtained.</p> + +<p>An ingenious way of walrusing during this season is described by Lyon +(p. 330):</p> + +<p class="quote"> +When the hunters, in their canoes, perceive a large herd sleeping on the +floating ice, as is their custom, they paddle to some other piece near +them, which is small enough to be moved. On this they lift their canoes, +and then bore several holes, through which they fasten their tough +lines, and when everything is ready, they silently paddle the hummock +towards their prey, each man sitting by his own line and spear. In this +manner they, reach the ice on which the walruses are lying snoring; and +if they please, each man may strike an animal, though, in general, two +persons attack the same beast. The wounded and startled walrus rolls +instantly to the water, but the siatko, or harpoon, being well fixed, he +cannot escape from the hummock on which the Eskimo have fastened the +line. When the animal becomes a little weary, the hunter launches his +canoe, and lying out of his reach, spears him to death.</p> + +<p>When the ice is gone seals are shot or harpooned with the igimang and +the agdliaq. The float prevents their escape and they are killed with +the anguvigang or the qapun. Later in summer, when they begin to shed +their fur, they lose almost all their blubber and sink when shot; +therefore they must be hunted with the harpoon and the float. As the +walrus is a dangerous foe should it turn upon the hunters in their light +boats, the harpoon is thrown from a great distance, and the animal is +not attacked at close quarters until it is well nigh exhausted by +dragging the float and the niutang and by loss of blood. A great +number of walrus are shot or harpooned while basking on the low islands +and rocks.</p> + +<p>There are a few shoals and narrow inlets in Frobisher Bay and +Cumberland Sound in which great numbers of seals are caught during the +summer. In hunting them at those places some of the Eskimo in kayaks +occupy the shallow entrance of the inlet, while others scare the seals +from its head. As the seals approach its outlet they are speared by +those who are lying in wait for them. Since the natives have procured +firearms seals are shot from the boats, and in whale boats they even +attack the walrus, though they prefer to have drifting ice near at hand +in case the fierce animal should turn upon them and tear the boat with +its powerful tusks. This method of hunting is very successful in +openings which intersect the land floe in spring. To these places an +enormous number of seals and walrus +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page498" id="page498">498</a></span> +resort, and they are shot either when basking at the edge of the water +or when blowing.</p> + +<p>In the fall, when the small bays are covered with ice and newly +formed floes drift to and fro in the open sea, the natives go sealing at +the edge of the land ice (Fig. 435). The seals are shot on the drifting +ice or in the water and are secured by means of the unang, in the +following manner: The hunter jumps upon a small cake, which he pushes on +with his spear until he is near the body of the animal, and then drags +it upon the land floe with the harpoon line. This method is almost the +same as the one used in sealing and walrusing during the winter wherever +the open water is close to the shore.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig435" id="fig435"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig435.png" width="320" height="441" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 435.</span> Sealing at the edge of the +ice. (From a photograph.)</p> + +<p>This hunt is described by Gilder in the following words +(pp. 182–184):</p> + +<div class="quote"> +<p>Usually there are two hunters who approach the walrus, one hiding +behind the other, so that the two appear but as one. When the spear is +thrown, both hold on to the line, which is wound around their arms so as +to cause as much friction as possible, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page499" id="page499">499</a></span> +in order to exhaust the animal speedily. <span class="emspace">***</span>When the line is nearly run out the end of the spear +shaft is passed through a loop in the end of the line and held firmly by +digging a little hole in the ice for the end of the spear to rest in, +the foot resting upon the line and against the spear to steady it. This +gives the hunter an immense advantage over his powerful game, and if he +is fortunate enough to secure this hold there is no escape for the +walrus except that the line may cut on the edge of the sharp ice, or the +thin ice break off, and hunter, line, and all be precipitated into the +water—a not unusual experience in walrus hunting. Another cause of +misfortune is for the line to become entangled around the arm of the +hunter so that he cannot cast it off, in which case he is most assuredly +drawn into the sea, and in nine cases out of ten drowned, for his knife +is seldom at hand for an emergency and no amount of experience will ever +induce an Inung [Eskimo] to provide against danger.</p> + +<p>Sometimes the hunter is alone when he strikes a walrus, and in that +case it requires considerable dexterity to secure the spear hold in the +ice; or if he fails to get that he may sit down and brace his feet +against a small hummock, when it comes to a sheer contest of muscle +between the hunter and the walrus. In these contests victory generally +perches upon the banner of the walrus, though the Inung [Eskimo] will +never give up until the last extremity is reached. Often he is dragged +to the very edge of the ice before he finds a protuberance against which +to brace his feet, and often he is drawn down under the ice before he +will relinquish his hold. He is very tenacious under such circumstances, +for he knows that when he loses the walrus he loses his line and harpoon +also.</p> +</div> + +<p>Hall (I, p. 459) describes the hunt, according to his observations in +Frobisher Bay, as follows:</p> + +<p class="quote"> +The line is coiled, and hung about the neck of the hunter; thus prepared +he hides himself among the broken drifting ice, and awaits the moment +for striking his game. The spear is then thrown and the hunter at once +slips the coil of line off his head, fastens the end to the ice by +driving a spear through a loop in it, and waits till the walrus comes to +the surface of the water, into which he has plunged on feeling the +stroke of the harpoon; then the animal is quickly despatched by the use +of a long lance.</p> + +<p>Sometimes the walrus when swimming under an extensive floe of new ice +are drowned by being frightened down every time they try to come up to +blow.</p> + +<p>Formerly whaling was one of the favorite hunts of the Central Eskimo +and in some places it is even continued to this day. Whales are either +pursued in kayaks or in skin boats. If the kayak is used, they are +harpooned in the same way as the walrus, a very large float +(avautapāq´) being attached to the harpoon head. The whale is pursued by +a great number of kayaks and every boatman endeavors to drive his +harpoon into the animal, which, by the loss of blood and the resistance +of the niutang and floats, is tired out and killed with lances.</p> + +<p>More frequently it is pursued in skin boats (<a href="#page527">p. 527</a>), which for the purpose are propelled by +means of paddles (angun). In this case the crew consists entirely of +men, although on other occasions the rowing falls to the women’s share; +a skillful boatman steers the boat and the harpooner stands in the +bow watching his opportunity to strike the whale. The implement used in +this pursuit is represented in Fig. 436. I could not procure the +weapon itself (sakurpāng´, i.e., the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page500" id="page500">500</a></span> +largest weapon), but had a model made by an Akudnirmio, of which the +figure is a drawing. The shaft is said to be very long and heavy, +measuring from ten to twelve feet. To this shaft a bone point tapering +towards the end is firmly attached. The harpoon head consists of two +pieces similar to the siatko of the Iglulirmiut (see <a href="#fig395">Fig. 395</a>). The iron edge is inserted into a flat +piece of bone, which fits into the slit of a large head. The latter is +made from the jawbone of a whale and is extremely heavy. When the whale +is struck, both parts, the head and the edge, are disengaged from the +shaft and separated from each other, but both enter the flesh of the +whale and work in the same way as the tokang.</p> + +<div class="picblock"> +<div class="picture half"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig436" id="fig436"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig436.png" width="79" height="381" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 436.</span> Model of sakurpāng´ or +whaling harpoon.</p> +</div> + +<div class="picture half"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig437" id="fig437"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig437.png" width="289" height="205" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 437.</span> Niutang, with floats.</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>The long harpoon line is coiled up on the first thwart of the boat. +On the second one the niutang and five large floats (Fig. 437), which +were fastened to the line, are kept ready and heaved overboard as soon +as the harpoon is fast to a whale. The buoys and the niutang tire it out +quickly and the boat can easily follow it up. It is lanced with the +kalugiang whenever it comes up to blow. This lance consists of a heavy +handle with a long point of rod iron; formerly bone or narwhal ivory, +with an iron edge inserted into its point, was used for this +purpose.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page501" id="page501">501</a></span> +<p>The narwhal and the white whale are hunted in the same way as the +walrus and the right whale. There are a few shallow bays to which the +white whale resorts in the summer. If a shoal of them has entered such a +bay, the Eskimo take to their boats and kayaks, and by throwing stones +frighten them into the shallowest part, where they are easily +harpooned.</p> + + +<h4><a name="hunt_deer" id="hunt_deer">DEER, MUSK OX, AND BEAR +HUNTING<ins class="correction" title=". missing">. </ins></a></h4> + +<p>When the snow has melted and the short summer is at hand the Eskimo +start for the deer hunt. The tribes possessed of firearms can easily +procure deer all the year round, particularly where uneven land +facilitates their approach toward the herd; but in summer the hunt is +most important, as it is the only season in which deerskins are fit for +clothing.</p> + +<p>The favorite method of hunting is to attack the deer in the ponds +when swimming from one side to the other. In many places the deer in +their migrations are in the habit of crossing the narrow parts of lakes, +and here the natives lie in ambush with their kayaks. In other places +they are driven into the water by the Eskimo and attacked by the drivers +or by hunters stationed on the lake. Favorite places for such a chase +are narrow peninsulas, generally called nedlung. The Eskimo deploy into +a skirmish line and slowly drive the herd to the point of the peninsula, +whence the deer, the retreat being cut off, take to the water.</p> + +<p>If the shore be too straight to permit this method of hunting, they +drive the deer to a hill stretching to the lake. A line of cairns +(inugsung) is erected on the top, intended to deceive the deer, which +believe them a new line of hunters approaching from the opposite side. +They take to the water, as they see no retreat. If there are no hills a +line of cairns is erected in some part of the plain. Such monuments are +found all over the country, most of them having the appearance of being +very old.</p> + +<p>As soon as the deer are in the water the natives pursue them in their +kayaks, and as their boats are propelled much more swiftly than the +animals can swim they are quickly overtaken and killed with the spear +(kapun). Sometimes the wounded deer will turn upon the boat, in which +cases the hunter must make his escape with the utmost speed, else he +will be capsized or the skin of the boat will be torn to pieces by the +animal’s antlers.</p> + +<p>In some of the narrow valleys with steep faces on both sides the deer +are driven toward the hunters. As there is no chance for escape on +either side they are killed by the men who lie in ambush. +A remarkable tradition referring to the deer hunts of a fabulous +tribe in these passes is frequently told by the Eskimo (see <a href="#page635">p. 635</a>).</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig438" id="fig438"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig438.png" width="391" height="46" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 438.</span> Wooden bow from Iglulik. +(From Parry II, p. 550.)</p> + +<p>Some places are particularly favorable to these methods of hunting. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page502" id="page502">502</a></span> +The herds when traveling north in spring and south in autumn take the +same course every year, passing rivers, lakes, and valleys at the deer +passes. Here the Eskimo stay during the migrations of the deer, as they +are sure to fall in with them and to secure plenty of meat and skins +during the season. In spring the rivers and lakes are not yet freed from +their icy fetters and the pursuit is more difficult; in the autumn, +however, they are easily captured in the water. Some important stations +of this kind are the island Qeqertome itoq tudlirn, south of Lake +Nettilling; the outlet of this lake, Koukdjuaq, particularly the +peninsula formed by the river and the south shore of the lake; the +country about Qudjitariaq, farther north, and the narrow valley between +Piling and Itirbilung: on the continent, the lakes of Rae Isthmus, +particularly North Pole Lake; some passes in the hills north of +Chesterfield Inlet; the isthmus of Boothia; the entrance of Qimuqsuq, on +Adelaide Peninsula; and Simpson Strait.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig439" id="fig439"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig439.png" width="377" height="55" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 439.</span> Wooden bow from Cumberland +Sound. (National Museum, Washington.)</p> + +<p>Referring to the last, Klutschak describes an interesting method of +hunting deer which is in vogue in that locality (p. 130). The +narrow strait which separates Ita Island from King William Land freezes +up early in the season, and the reindeer in trying to cross the strait +frequently gather on this island. The Eskimo deploy over the icy bridge +and make a terrible noise, frightening the reindeer, which are gradually +driven toward a place the ice of which is treacherous at this time of +the year. Here they break through and, being able to move only with +great difficulty, are easily killed.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig440" id="fig440"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig440.png" width="397" height="87" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 440.</span> Bows of reindeer antlers. +(National Museum, Washington. <i>a</i>, 34053; <i>b</i>, 34055.)</p> + +<p>When the deer have scattered over the country they must be stalked, +and, wherever the natives have no firearms, bows and arrows are +used.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig441" id="fig441"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig441.png" width="403" height="32" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 441.</span> Bow of antlers, with central +part cut off straight, from Pelly Bay. (National Museum, Washington. +10270.)</p> + +<p>They have two kinds of bows (pitiqse): a wooden one (Figs. 438 and +439) and another made of reindeer antlers (Figs. 440 and 441). Parry +gives a very good description of the former (II, p. 510):</p> + +<p class="quote"> +One of the best of their bows was made of a single piece of fir, four +feet eight inches in length, flat on the inner side and rounded on the +outer, being five inches in girth about the middle where, however, it is +strengthened on the concave side, when strung, by a piece of bone ten +inches long, firmly secured by tree-nails of the same material. At each +end of the bow is a knob of bone, or sometimes of wood covered with +leather, with a deep notch for the reception of the string. The only +wood which they can procure, not possessing sufficient elasticity +combined with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page503" id="page503">503</a></span> +strength, they ingeniously remedy the defect by securing to the back of +the bow, and to the knobs at each end, a quantity of small lines, +each composed of a plat or “sinnet” of three sinews. The number of lines +thus reaching from end to end is generally about thirty; but besides +these, several others are fastened with hitches round the bow, in pairs, +commencing eight inches from one end, and again united at the same +distance from the other, making the whole number of strings in the +middle of the bow sometimes amount to sixty. These being put on with the +bow somewhat bent the contrary way, produce a spring so strong as to +require considerable force as well as knack in stringing it, and giving +the requisite velocity to the arrow. The bow is completed by a woolding +round the middle and a wedge or two here and there, driven in to tighten +it.</p> + +<div class="picblock"> +<div class="picture w200"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig442" id="fig442"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig442.png" width="140" height="679" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 442.</span> Arrows with bone heads. +(National Museum, Washington. <i>a</i>, 34054; <i>b</i>, 10270.)</p> +</div> + +<div class="picture w300"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig443" id="fig443"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig443.png" width="233" height="575" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 443.</span> Arrows with metal heads.<br> +<i>a</i>, <i>b</i> (National Museum, Washington. <i>a</i>, 30056; +<i>b</i>, 34056.) <i>c</i> (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A +6707.)</p> + +<p class="mynote">442<i>b</i>, 443<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>: 1/4</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>The bow represented in <a href="#fig439">Fig. 439</a> is from +Cumberland Sound and resembles the Iglulik pattern. The fastening of the +sinew lines is different and the piece of bone giving additional +strength to the central part is wanting. In Cumberland Sound and farther +south wooden bows each made of a single piece were not very rare; the +wood necessary for their manufacture was found in abundance on Tudjan +(Resolution Island), whence it was brought to the more northern +districts.</p> + +<div class="picblock"> +<div class="picture w150"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig444" id="fig444"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig444.png" width="30" height="417" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 444.</span> Arrowhead from Boothia. +(National Museum, Washington. 10205.) ½</p> +</div> + +<div class="picture w200"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig445" id="fig445"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig445.png" width="125" height="468" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 445.</span> Showing attachment of +arrowhead vertically and parallel to shank. (National Museum, +Washington. <i>b</i>, 10137.) ½</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>The bows which are made of antlers generally consist of three pieces, +a stout central one slanted on both sides and two side pieces +riveted to it. The central part is either below or above the side ones, +as represented in <a href="#fig440">Fig. 440</a>. These bows are +strengthened by plaited sinews in the same way as the wooden ones and +generally the joints are secured by strong strings wound around them. +A remarkable bow made of antlers is represented in Fig. 441. The +central part is not slanted, but cut off straight. The joint is effected +by two additional pieces on each side, a short stout one outside, +a long thin one inside. These are firmly tied together with sinews. +The short piece prevents the parts from breaking apart, the long one +gives a powerful spring. The specimen here represented was brought home +by Hall from the Sinimiut of Pelly Bay, and a similar one was brought by +Collinson from Victoria Land and has been deposited in the British +Museum. The strings are attached to these bows in the same way as to the +wooden ones.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig446" id="fig446"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig446.png" width="431" height="401" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 446.</span> Various forms of arrowhead. +(National Museum, Washington. <i>a</i>, 29993; <i>e</i>, +10213.) ½</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page504" id="page504">504</a></span> +<p>The arrows (qaqdjung) are made of round pieces of wood generally +tapering a little towards the lower end, to which two feathers of an owl +or some other bird are attached. The bone heads of these +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page505" id="page505">505</a></span> +arrows are joined to the shaft as represented in <a href="#fig442">Fig. 442</a>, while metal heads are inserted as shown in +Fig. 443. The difference in the methods used by the Mackenzie and the +central tribes in fastening the point to the shaft is very striking. The +arrow point of the former and of the western tribes is pointed and +inserted in the shaft (Fig. 444),<a class="tag" name="tag5" id="tag5" href="#note5">5</a> while that of the latter is always slanted +and lashed to it (Figs. 442 and 443). The direction of the slant is +either parallel or vertical to the edge (Fig. 445). Other forms of +arrows are shown in Fig. 446. A similar difference between the +fastenings of the socket to the spear handle exists in the two +localities. The western tribes give its base the form of a wedge (Fig. +447), which is inserted in the shaft, while the Central Eskimo use a +mortise.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page506" id="page506">506</a></span> + +<div class="picblock"> +<div class="picture w150"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig447" id="fig447"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig447.png" width="46" height="237" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 447.</span> Socket of spear handle from +Alaska. (National Museum, Washington. 36060.) ¼</p> +</div> + +<div class="picture w200"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig448" id="fig448"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig448.png" width="95" height="173" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 448.</span> Slate arrowhead. (National +Museum, Washington. 10403.) 1/1</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Formerly slate heads were in general use (Fig. 448); now the heads +are almost everywhere made of iron or tin, riveted or tied to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page508" id="page508">508</a></span> +point (Fig. 446). In ancient graves flint heads are frequently found, +some of which are represented in Fig. 449. On Southampton Island stone +heads are in use even at the present time. <a href="#fig423">Fig. 423</a> probably shows how they were attached to the +shank.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page507" id="page507">507</a></span> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig449" id="fig449"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig449.png" width="439" height="197" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 449.</span> Flint arrowheads from old +graves. (National Museum, Washington. <i>c</i>, 30109; <i>d</i>, 34138.) +1/1</p> + +<p>The quiver (Fig. 450) is made of sealskin, the hair of which is +removed. It comprises three divisions, a larger one containing the +bow and a smaller one containing four or six arrows, the head directed +toward the lower end of the case. When extracted from the quiver they +are ready for use. Between the two compartments there is also a small +pouch, in which tools and extra arrowheads are carried.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig450" id="fig450"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig450.png" width="442" height="473" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 450.</span> Various styles of quiver. +<i>a</i>, <i>b</i> Two views of a quiver from Cumberland Sound. +(National Museum, Washington. 30015.) <i>c</i> Quiver from Iglulik (from +Parry II, p. 550).</p> + +<p>When traveling the Eskimo carry the quiver by an ivory handle; when +in use it is hung over the left shoulder. Fig. 451 represents quiver +handles, the first being fashioned in imitation of an ermine.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig451" id="fig451"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig451.png" width="293" height="127" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 451.</span> Quiver handles. (Museum für +Völkerkunde, Berlin. <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, IV A 6843.)</p> + +<p>If the deer cannot be driven into the water the Eskimo either stalk +them or shoot them from a stand. In a plain where the hunter cannot hide +himself it is easier to approach the herd if two men hunt together. They +advance, the second man hiding behind the first one by stooping a +little. The bows or the guns are carried on the shoulders so as to +resemble the antlers of a deer. The men imitate their grunting and +approach slowly, now stopping and stooping, now advancing. If the deer +look about suspiciously they sit down, the second man lying almost flat +on the ground, and both, at some distance off, greatly resemble the +animals themselves. Ross (II, p. 252) states that the +inhabitants of Boothia imitate the appearance of the deer, the foremost +of two men stalking a herd bearing a deer’s head upon his own.</p> + +<p>It is somewhat difficult to approach the deer near enough to get +within range, especially if they are hunted with bow and arrow. +Generally it is not necessary to get quite near them, for when feeding +the herd moves on in the same direction for some time, and the hunter +can hide behind a stone lying in that direction and wait until they are +within range. After the first shot has been fired they do not take to +flight at once, but stand for a few seconds, struck with surprise, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page509" id="page509">509</a></span> +and a clever hunter may kill two or three before they run away. If the +country is very level the Eskimo raise heaps of stones or build circular +or semicircular walls to conceal themselves and allure the animals by +grunting. As the deer possess a very fine scent they must always be +approached from the lee side.</p> + +<p>An interesting method of hunting is described by Parry (II, +p. 512) and confirmed by Hall (II, p. 178). Parry +writes:</p> + +<p class="quote"> +Two men walk directly from the deer they wish to kill, when the animal +almost always follows them. As soon as they arrive at a large stone, one +of the men hides behind it with his bow, while the other continuing to +walk on soon leads the deer within range of his companion’s arrows.</p> + +<p>Hall says that one hunter hides himself behind a stone while the +other utters grunting sounds to attract it.</p> + +<p>In winter deer are sometimes caught in traps made by digging holes in +the snow and covering them with slabs of the same material. Sometimes +urine is poured upon and around the trap or salt water ice is placed +upon it, in order to allure the deer (Klutschak, p. 131). Having +been attracted to the trap they fall through the roof and are speared in +the hole.</p> + +<p>Wherever the musk ox is found it is eagerly pursued by the Eskimo. +Though dogs are of no use in the chase of the nimble deer, they are of +great help in hunting this animal. When a track is found the dogs are +let loose and soon overtake the herd. The latter form a circle of +defense in which they are kept at bay until the hunter approaches. While +the dogs continue attacking and dodging, the musk oxen try to hit them +with their horns and do not heed the Eskimo, who assails them at close +quarters with a lance to which a thong is frequently attached. When an +ox is wounded it makes an impetuous attack on the hunter, who dodges to +one side. The dogs being at hand again immediately keep it at bay, thus +enabling the hunter to let fly another arrow or throw his lance again. +Thus the struggle continues until the greater part of the herd is +killed. In rare instances an ox dashes out of the circle and escapes +from the pack.</p> + +<p>Polar bears are hunted in about the same manner as the musk ox. The +Eskimo pursue them in light sledges, and when they are near the pursued +animal the traces of the most reliable dogs in the team are cut, when +they dash forward and bring the bear to bay. As the hunter gets +sufficiently near, the last dogs are let loose and the bear is killed +with a spear or with bow and arrow. The best season for bear hunting is +in March and April, when the bears come up the fjords and bays in +pursuit of the young seals. At this season the she bear is accompanied +by the cub which was born in February or March. Its skin and flesh are +highly prized by the Eskimo. At some places, for instance at Cape Raper +and at Cape Kater on Davis Strait, the she bears dig holes in the snow +banks, in which they sleep during +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page510" id="page510">510</a></span> +the winter. The natives seek these holes and kill the bear before it +awakes.</p> + +<p>The chase of the musk ox and that of the bear have become much easier +since the introduction of firearms in Arctic America, and the Eskimo can +kill their game without encountering the same dangers as formerly.</p> + + +<h4><a name="hunt_small" id="hunt_small">HUNTING OF SMALL +GAME.</a></h4> + +<p>Lastly, I mention the methods used in catching smaller animals, such +as wolves, foxes, and hares. Wolves are only pursued when they become +too troublesome. Frequently they linger about the villages in winter, +and when everybody is asleep they attack the store rooms or the dogs, +which have the greatest fear of this voracious animal; for, although +dogs will brave the bear, they do not venture to resist a single wolf. +If a pack of these beasts linger about the village for weeks preying +upon the native stores, traps are finally built or the Eskimo lie in +ambush near a bait to kill them. The wolf trap is similar to the one +used to catch deer. The hole dug in the snow is about eight or nine feet +deep and is covered with a slab of snow, on the center of which a bait +is laid. A wall is built around it which compels the wolf to leap +across it before he can reach the bait. By so doing he breaks through +the roof and, as the bottom of the pit is too narrow to afford him +jumping room, he is caught and killed there (Rae I, p. 135).</p> + +<p>A remarkable method of killing wolves has been described by Klutschak +(p. 192) and confirmed by the Eskimo of Cumberland Sound. +A sharp knife is smeared with deer’s blood and sunk into the snow, +the edge only protruding. The wolves lick the knife and cut their +tongues so severely as to bleed to death. Another method is to roll a +strip of whalebone, about two feet long, in a coil, which is tied up +with sinews. At each end a small metal edge is attached to the +whalebone. This strip, wrapped in a piece of blubber or meat, is gulped +down by the hungry wolf. As it is digested the sinews are dissolved and +the elastic strap is opened and tears the stomach of the animal. +A very ingenious trap is described by Parry +(II, p. 514):</p> + +<p class="quote"> +It consists of a small house built of ice, at one end of which a door, +made of the same plentiful material, is fitted to slide up and down in a +groove; to the upper part of this a line is attached and, passing over +the roof, is led down into the trap at the inner end, and there held by +slipping an eye in the end of it over a peg of ice left for the purpose. +Over the peg, however, is previously placed a loose grummet, to which +the bait is fastened, and a false roof placed over all to hide the line. +The moment the animal drags at the bait the grummet slips off the peg, +bringing with it the line that held up the door, and this falling down +closes the trap and secures him.</p> + +<p>Foxes are usually caught in traps. An ice house about six feet high +is built of hummocks, which are cut down with the point of the spear. It +is covered with ice slabs, only a hole in the center +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page511" id="page511">511</a></span> +being left. Blocks of snow and slabs of ice are piled up around the +building so as to permit easy access to the roof. Some blood is +sprinkled round the hole to attract the fox and a larger bait is placed +upon the floor of the house. The fox jumps down and, as the only exit is +in the center of the roof, cannot escape. Another trap has a slab of ice +erected in such a manner as to fall and kill the fox when he touches the +bait.</p> + +<p>A third trap, similar to the one above mentioned, has been described +by Lyon, p. 339:</p> + +<p class="quote"> +It is like a small lime kiln in form, having a hole near the top, within +which the bait is placed, and the foxes (for these animals alone are +thus taken) are obliged to advance to it over a piece of whalebone, +which, bending beneath their weight, lets them into prison, and then +resumes its former position: thus a great number of them are sometimes +caught in a night. In the summer they are but rarely taken, and it is +then by means of a trap of stones, formed like the ice trap, with a +falling door.</p> + +<p>Hares are either killed with small shot or with arrows or caught in +whalebone snares, as are ermines and lemmings.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig452" id="fig452"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig452.png" width="273" height="253" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 452.</span> Whalebone nooses for catching +waterfowl. (In the possession of Captain Spicer, of Groton, +Conn.)</p> + +<p>Waterfowl of all descriptions are caught in abundance in whalebone +nooses (Fig. 452) fastened to a long whalebone line or to a thong. The +line is set along the edge of a lake, particularly near nesting places. +In shallow lakes these lines are placed across the water to catch the +diving and swimming birds, which are drawn to the shore with the line. +On the low egg islands, which are inhabited by innumerable ducks, snares +are set on the nests, and great numbers are caught in a short time. +Swans and geese are procured in the same way. Other birds, and +particularly partridges, are killed with arrows and with small shot.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page512" id="page512">512</a></span> +<p>Large flocks of ducks and other kinds of birds fly through certain +valleys in the fall and in spring when migrating. Great numbers are +caught here without any difficulty, as they can be killed with +sticks.</p> + +<p>A favorite method of catching gulls is by building a flat snow house. +One block of the roof is translucent and so thin as to permit the +hunter, who is hidden in the house, to push his hand through it. +A bait is placed on this block, and as soon as a bird alights to +feed it is pulled through the roof into the hut.</p> + +<p>By far the greater number of birds are caught during the molting +season. Partridges can be caught with the hand and waterfowl are pursued +with the kayak. The waterfowl dive as soon as the boat comes near them +and being frightened down again as soon as they rise they are eventually +drowned. One species of goose (kango) +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page513" id="page513">513</a></span> +which frequents the lakes of the country is caught in a remarkable way. +A circular wall of stones is raised, with a single entrance. The +Eskimo drive a flock of these birds towards the building, one man, whom +the stupid creatures follow, leading the way. As soon as they have +entered the wall the entrance is shut up and they are slaughtered. If +they happen to be met with on the water they are encircled by kayaks and +driven towards the shore, one boat leading. Then they are driven within +the stone wall as already described.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig454" id="fig454"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig454.png" width="345" height="475" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 454.</span> Ivory fish used as bait in +spearing salmon.<br> +<i>a</i> From Repulse Bay. <i>a</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i> (National +Museum, Washington. <i>a</i>, 10400; <i>c</i>, 34109; <i>d</i>, 34134.) +1/1<br> +<i>b</i> (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6830.) 1/1</p> + + +<h4><a name="hunt_fish" id="hunt_fish">FISHING.</a></h4> + +<p>The most important fish is the salmon, which is caught in abundance +during the summer. When the lakes begin to break up the salmon descend +to the sea, following the narrow lead between the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page514" id="page514">514</a></span> +land floe and the water. In some places they are so plentiful as to fill +the water completely. Here they are speared with the kakivang (Fig. +453). This instrument consists of a handle which widens towards the end; +in the center it has a prong of bone or iron, and two larger ones at the +sides, made of deer antlers or musk ox horn. These latter diverge and +are furnished with a bone or iron nail on the inner side. The elasticity +of these side prongs is increased by thongs or strings holding them +tightly together. If the salmon are very plentiful no bait is needed and +the natives cannot spear them as quickly as they swim along. When the +ice is gone they are caught in the shallow rivers falling from the lakes +into the sea. The natives stand on the bank or step into the water. +A small ivory fish (Fig. 454) (eχalujang), tied by two or three +holes in the back to a plaited string of deer sinews, is used as a bait. +Frequently bear’s teeth are used for bait. They are attached to a +separate line which the hunter continually moves up and down to attract +the attention of the fish. When the salmon comes near the bait it is +speared with the kakivang. In the left hand the fisherman holds an +instrument for stringing the fish (quqartaun), some illustrations of +which are given in Fig. 455. It is made of ivory. A thong fastened +to the hole of the instrument has a thick knot at the opposite end. As +soon as a salmon is caught it is taken out of the nippers (kakivang) and +the point of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page515" id="page515">515</a></span> +quqartaun is pushed into the gills and brought out again at the mouth; +thus the fish remains sticking until it is dead. Sometimes it is killed +by pushing the ivory point of the instrument into its neck. When dead it +is pushed on the thong.</p> + +<div class="picblock"> +<div class="picture w250"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig453" id="fig453"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig453.png" width="198" height="473" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 453.</span> Kakivang or salmon spear. +(National Museum, Washington, <i>a</i>, 34087; <i>b</i>, +34086.) ¼</p> +</div> + +<div class="picture w200"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig455" id="fig455"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig455.png" width="144" height="325" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 455.</span> Quqartaun for stringing fish. +<i>c</i> (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6831.)</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>At some places <ins class="correction" title="spelling unchanged">wears</ins> are built, above which the fish are caught. These +consist of dikes of stones about one and a half or two feet high, which +are piled across a creek some distance below high water mark. The salmon +cross the wall at high water, but are cut off from the sea at half tide +and are speared while there. In other places the forks of rivers are +shut off by dikes, above which the salmon gather.</p> + +<p>In autumn salmon are caught when ascending the rivers. Sometimes they +linger too long in small ponds and, as the rivers quickly dry up at this +season, are prevented from getting out of the pools. Here they are +caught until late in the season. Some of these ponds freeze to the +bottom in winter, and the natives, when visiting them in the spring, cut +holes in the ice and take out the frozen fish.</p> + +<div class="picblock"> +<div class="picture w150"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig456" id="fig456"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig456.png" width="97" height="275" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 456.</span> Salmon hook. (National +Museum, Washington. 10142.) 1/1</p> +</div> + +<div class="picture w200"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig457" id="fig457"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig457.png" width="133" height="199" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 457.</span> Salmon hook. (Museum für +Völkerkunde, Berlin. 6847.) 1/1</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>In the early part of the spring salmon are caught with hooks +(kakliokia, Iglulik; niksiartaung, Oqo), holes being cut through the ice +of the lake. Formerly the hooks were made of deer antlers. Another +device consists of a nail, crooked and pointed at one end, the other +being let into a piece of ivory or bone (Fig. 456). A third one is +represented in Fig. 457.</p> + +<p>The fishing line is made of plaited deer sinews and is either held in +the hand or tied to a short rod. Along with these hooks baits are used +similar to those mentioned in the foregoing description. If the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page516" id="page516">516</a></span> +carving represented in Fig. 458 is used, the hook is tied to it by means +of two holes on the lower side of the fish, while the line passes +through its back. The fish, in coming near the bait, is generally caught +by the hook in the back or side. In this manner salmon, trout, and all +kinds of sea fish are caught.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig458" id="fig458"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig458.png" width="323" height="103" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 458.</span> Bait used in fishing with +hooks. (National Museum, Washington. 34108.) 1/1</p> + +<p>I myself have never seen any nets for fishing, but Klutschak found +them in use among the Utkusiksalik tribe, and Petitot (Les grands +Esquimaux, p. 278), among the natives of Anderson River. The +Labrador Eskimo also use nets.</p> + + + + +<h4><a name="manufacture" id="manufacture">MANUFACTURES.</a></h4> + +<h4><a name="manufacture_leather" id="manufacture_leather">MAKING +LEATHER AND PREPARING SKINS.</a></h4> + +<p>Most of the implements of the Eskimo are made of some part of the +animals which they pursue. The skins are used for clothing, for building +purposes, and for covering the frames of boats. Many implements are made +of bone, others of walrus tusks or narwhal horn. As wood is extremely +scarce, bone or other parts of animals must make up the deficiency. +I shall here describe the methods of preparing these materials.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig459" id="fig459"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig459.png" width="291" height="30" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 459.</span> Butcher’s knife with bone +handle. (National Museum, Washington. 34080.) ¼</p> + +<div class="figfloat w200"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig460" id="fig460"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig460.png" width="187" height="427" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 460.</span> Pana or knife for dissecting +game, <i>a</i> (From Parry II, p. 548.) <i>b</i> (American Museum +of Natural History.)</p> +</div> + +<p>The skin of the seal (<i>Pagomys fœtidus</i>) is dressed in different +ways, according to the purpose for which it is intended. In skinning the +animal a longitudinal cut is made across the belly with a common +butcher’s knife (saving). Most natives have procured this useful +instrument and even in olden times a considerable number had found their +way from Hudson Bay territory to their countries. The large knives of +their own manufacture (pilaut) are of similar form, a metal edge +being inserted into an ivory blade. Figure 459 is a more modern knife, +an iron blade being fastened to a bone handle.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page517" id="page517">517</a></span> +<p>The skin, with the blubber, is cut from the flesh with the same +knife, or still more easily with the pana, the old device of which is +represented in Fig. 460 <i>a</i> (Parry II, p. 550). This +knife is about one foot and a half long (Parry II, p. 503). The use +of the small prongs near the blade was not explained by Parry. In Fig. +460 <i>b</i> is presented a pana from the eastern coast of Hudson +Bay, collected by Dr. R. Bell; the handle is made of bone, the +blade of iron. The flippers are cut off at the joints, and thus the +whole skin is drawn off in a single piece. In dressing the animal the +natives open the belly and first scoop out the blood, then the entrails +are taken out, the ribs are separated from the breast bone and from the +vertebrae, the fore flippers (with the shoulders and the hind flippers) +are taken out, the only part remaining being the head, the spinal +column, and the rump bone. Generally these are not eaten, but are used +for dogs’ food.</p> + +<p>The knife (ulo) used by the women serves to clean and prepare the +skins. This implement, with which almost all the cutting is done, is +shaped like a crescent, the handle being attached to the center, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page518" id="page518">518</a></span> +greatly resembles a mincing knife. Fig. 461 represents the form which is +now in use. Fig. 462 is a very old ulo handle from a stone circle on +Qeqertuqdjuaq (Cape Broughton). It is made of bone and has a slit for +the slate blade. It is worth remarking that this blade had not been +riveted to the handle, but fastened with a kind of glue (see <a href="#page526">p. 526</a>). There are a few arrow and harpoon heads the +blades of which are inserted in the same manner; the bone is heated and +the blade is inserted while it is hot. As it is cooling the slit becomes +narrower and the blade is firmly squeezed into the bone handle. Part of +a slate blade, which had been riveted to the handle, is shown in Fig. +463. Fig. 464 represents a handle from a recent grave.</p> + +<div class="picblock"> +<div class="picture half"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig461" id="fig461"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig461.png" width="209" height="211" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 461.</span> Form of ulo now in use. +(Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6733.) ⅔</p> +</div> + +<div class="picture half"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig462" id="fig462"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig462.png" width="128" height="176" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 462.</span> Old ulo with top of handle +broken off from Cape Broughton, Davis Strait. (Museum für Völkerkunde, +Berlin.) 1/1</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>In preparing the skin the women spread it over a piece of whalebone +(asimautang), a small board, or a flat stone, and sit down before +it, resting on their knees, the feet bent under the thighs. They hold +the skin at the nearest edge and, pushing the ulo forward, remove the +blubber from it and deposit the latter in a small tub which stands near +the board. As they proceed to the opposite end of the skin, the finished +part is rolled up and held in the left hand.</p> + +<div class="picblock"> +<div class="picture half"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig463" id="fig463"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig463.png" width="123" height="113" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 463.</span> Fragment of an ulo blade of +slate. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6714.) 1/1</p> +</div> + +<div class="picture half"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig464" id="fig464"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig464.png" width="187" height="161" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 464.</span> Ulo handle from recent grave. +(National Museum, Washington. 34137.)</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>If the skin is to be used with the hair on it, the tough membrane +(mami) which covers the inner side is removed in the same way as the +blubber and, after it has been carefully patched up and holes have been +cut all around the edge, is stretched over a gravelly place or on snow +by means of long pegs (pauktun), which hold it a few inches above the +ground, thus allowing the air to circulate underneath it. The skin +itself is washed and rubbed with gravel, snow, or ice and every hole +made by the bullet or by the spear or in preparing it is sewed up. It +very seldom happens that the women in preparing it damage the skin or +even the thin mami. It is particularly difficult to split the skin near +a hole. First they finish the work all around it and then carefully +sever the membrane at its edge. The skin is dried in the same way as the +membrane. In the early part of spring, though it may still be very cold, +a few choice young sealskins are dried on snow walls which face to +the south. In order thoroughly to dry a sealskin one fine warm spring +day is needed. If the Eskimo are greatly in need of skins they dry them +in winter over the lamps. A frame is made of four poles, lashed +together, according to the size of the skin. A thong passes through +the slits along its edge and around the frame, keeping the skin well +stretched. Thus it is placed over the lamps or near the roof of the hut. +However, it is disagreeable work to dry the skins inside the huts, and, +as they are much inferior to those which are dried on the ground, the +Eskimo avoid it if they can. When so prepared the sealskins are only fit +for covering tents, making bags, &c.; they are far too hard to be +used for clothing, for which purpose the skin of yearlings is almost +exclusively used. The young seals, having shed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page520" id="page520">520</a></span> +for the first time, have a very handsome coat, the hair being of a fine +texture and much longer than in older animals. From the middle of May +until late in summer their skins are most suitable for the manufacture +of summer clothing, but it is necessary to protect the carcasses of the +killed animals from the burning rays of the sun as soon as possible or +the skin would be quickly spoiled.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page519" id="page519">519</a></span> +<div class="picblock"> +<div class="picture half"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig465" id="fig465"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig465.png" width="97" height="236" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 465.</span> Modern tesirqun or scraper. +(Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6734.)</p> +</div> + +<div class="picture half"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig466" id="fig466"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig466.png" width="142" height="254" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 466.</span> Old style of tesirqun or +scraper. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.)</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>After being dried they are cleaned with the sharp scraper (tesirqun), +the modern device of which is represented in Fig. 465. It consists of a +handle having a round back and a flat front, with two grooves for the +knuckles of the first and second fingers, while the thumb and the other +fingers clasp the handle. The scraper itself consists of a rounded piece +of tin riveted to the handle. The old scraper (Fig. 466) was made of a +deer’s shoulder or of some other bone. I have never seen any that +were made of a thigh bone, similar to those found by Lucien M. Turner in +Ungava Bay.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig467" id="fig467"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig467.png" width="258" height="67" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 467.</span> Seligoung or scraper used for +softening skins.<br> +(Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6697.)</p> + +<p>After being scraped the skin is soaked in salt water and washed +again. As soon as it is dry it is softened with the straight scraper +(seligoung) (Fig. 467).</p> + +<p>Fig. 468 shows some very old stone scrapers found in graves. As the +stones are sharpened it is probable that they were used for cleaning the +skins. The hole in the right side of the handle is used for the second +finger, the grooves on the back for the third and fourth. The bone is +fastened to the handle by whalebone straps or thongs.</p> + +<div class="picblock"> +<a name="fig468" id="fig468"> </a><br> +<div class="picture w150"> +<img src="images/fig468a.png" width="107" height="309" alt="see caption"></div> +<div class="picture w100"> +<img src="images/fig468b.png" width="59" height="307" alt="see caption"></div> +<div class="picture w150"> +<img src="images/fig468c.png" width="117" height="293" alt="see caption"></div> +<div class="picture w150"> +<img src="images/fig468d.png" width="135" height="281" alt="see caption"></div> +</div> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 468.</span> Old stone scrapers found in +graves.<br> +(National Museum, Washington, <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, 34083; <i>c</i>, +34084; <i>d</i>, 34085.) ⅔</p> + +<p>Skins of <i>Phoca annellata</i>, <i>Phoca cristata</i>, <i>and Phoca +grœnlandica</i> are prepared in the same way.</p> + +<p>Those which are intended for kayak covers, boots, mittens, quivers, +&c. are prepared in a different way. They are either put into hot +water or laid in a brook for a few days until the hair begins to loosen. +Then both sides are worked with the ulo, in order to clean and shave +them. When the hair is removed they are dried and made pliable in the +same way as has been described. If it is intended to make the skin as +soft as possible it is allowed to become putrid before it is cleansed. +Then the hair and the blubber are removed, and afterwards it is left to +hang in the sun for a few days until it acquires a light color.</p> + +<p>The large ground seal (<i>Phoca barbata</i>) is skinned in a +different manner. Its skin is very thick, thicker even than sole +leather, and therefore extremely durable and suitable for all sorts of +lines, particularly traces, lashings, and harpoon lines, and for soles, +drinking +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page521" id="page521">521</a></span> +cups, and boat covers. This seal is very large, sometimes attaining a +length of ten feet. The skin of the back and of the breast dries +unequally, and therefore a piece covering the throat and breast is taken +out before the rest is skinned, and the parts are dried separately. If +it is to be used for lines it is cut by making girdles about six inches +in width around the body. The hair and the blubber are removed from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page522" id="page522">522</a></span> +these cylindrical rings, from which lines are made by cutting spirally, +a strip seventy or eighty feet long being thus obtained. This line +is stretched as taut as possible between two rocks, and while drying it +undergoes an enormous tension. Before being taken from the rocks the +edges are rounded and cleaned with a knife.</p> + +<p>Walrus hide is always cut up before being prepared. As soon as the +walrus is killed it is cut into as many parts as there are partners in +the hunt, every part being rolled up in a piece of skin and carried home +in it. Sometimes the skin is used for making boats, but generally it is +cut into lines. Both kinds of hide, that of the walrus and that of the +ground seal, are as stiff as a board when dried and require much work +before being fit for use. They are chewed by the natives until they +become thin and pliable. The whole skin must be chewed in this way +before it can be used for soles and boat covers. Afterwards it is +scraped with the tesirqun and softened with the straight scraper. The +new thongs, after being dried between the rocks, must also be chewed +until they become sufficiently pliable, after which they are +straightened by a stretcher that is held with the feet (Fig. 469). +Frequently they are only pulled over the sole of the boot for this +purpose, the man taking hold of the line at two points and pulling the +intermediate part by turns to the right and to the left over the sole of +the foot.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig469" id="fig469"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig469.png" width="229" height="109" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 469.</span> Stretcher for lines. +(National Museum, Washington. 9836.) 1/1</p> + +<p>Another kind of line is cut from the hide of the white whale, which +is skinned in the same way as the ground seal, but, as it must be slit +on the spinal column, the single pieces of line are much shorter, and +they cannot be used to the same extent as seal lines. Some lines are cut +from the skins of <i>Pagomys fœtidus</i>, but these are weak and greatly +inferior to lines of ground seal hide.</p> + +<p>Deerskins are dried in summer and dressed after the ice has formed. +Like all other kinds of skins they are not tanned, but curried. They are +hung up among the rafters of the hut, and the workers—in Oqo and +Akudnirn the women, in Hudson Bay the men—take off their jackets +and begin preparing them with the sharp scraper. After being cleaned in +this way they are thoroughly dried, either by hanging them near the roof +of the hut or, according to Gilder, by wrapping them around the upper +part of the body next to the skin, after +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page523" id="page523">523</a></span> +which they are again scraped with the tesirqun. This done, the flesh +side is wetted, the skin is wrapped up for half a day or a day, and +afterwards undergoes a new scraping. Then it is chewed, rubbed, and +scraped all over, thus acquiring its pliability, softness, and light +color.</p> + +<p>In the spring the skins of bears and of seals are sometimes dried on +large frames which are exposed to the sun, the skins being tied to the +frames with thongs. Smaller quadrupeds, as foxes and ermines, are +skinned by stripping the entire animal through its mouth without making +a single cut in the skin. Birds are opened at the breast and the body is +taken out through this small hole, the head, wings, and legs being cut +off at the neck and the other joints. Ducks are frequently skinned by +cutting the skin around the head and the outer joints of the wings and +legs and stripping it off. The skins are cleaned by sucking out the fat +and chewing them.</p> + +<p>Skins of salmon are used for water proof bags; intestines of seals, +particularly those of ground seals, are carefully dried and after being +sewed together are used for sails, windows, and kayak jackets.</p> + +<div class="picblock"> +<div class="picture third"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig470" id="fig470"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig470.png" width="89" height="257" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 470.</span> Ivory needle. (National +Museum, Washington. 34135.) 1/1</p> +</div> + +<div class="picture third"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig471" id="fig471"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig471.png" width="89" height="233" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 471.</span> Ivory needle case from +Cumberland Sound. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. 6832.) 1/1</p> +</div> + +<div class="picture third"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig472" id="fig472"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig472.png" width="243" height="334" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 472.</span> Common pattern of needle +case. Iglulik. (From Parry II, p. 548.)</p> +</div> +</div> + +<h4><a name="manufacture_sundry" id="manufacture_sundry">SUNDRY +IMPLEMENTS.</a></h4> + +<p>The sewing is done with thread made of deer or white whale sinews. +Particularly are those sinews at the back dried and when intended for +use they can easily be split as thin as required. At present steel +needles are in general use. Wherever they are wanting ivory ones of the +same pattern are used (Fig. 470). The thread is fastened +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page524" id="page524">524</a></span> +to the eyehole by a kind of loop, the short end being twisted around the +longer one. Kumlien described a needle of a very different device +(p. 25):</p> + +<p class="quote"> +This tool was almost exactly like an awl in shape, but had an eye near +the point. They must have had to thread this instrument for each stitch. +The needle part was apparently of deer horn and the handle of walrus +ivory.</p> + +<p>Probably it was used like a packing needle for sewing tent covers, +&c. The needles (mirqun) are kept in ivory needle cases (umī´ujang). +The case represented in Fig. 471 is from a grave in Cumberland Sound. +The grooves on both sides are evidently intended for a leather strap +which is to be tied around it. This specimen is closed at the bottom and +had a stopper for closing the mouth. Fig. 472 is a more common pattern. +The ivory piece forms a tube through which a leather strap passes. The +needles are stuck into the leather and drawn into the tube. Small ivory +implements and ornaments are attached to both ends of the strap.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig473" id="fig473"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig473.png" width="321" height="99" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 473.</span> Tikiq or thimble. (National +Museum, Washington. 10181.) 1/1</p> + +<p>Thimbles (tikiq) (Fig. 473) are made of an oblong piece of ground +sealskin, fitting to the point of the first finger. A rim is cut +around half of its circumference and thus it can be drawn over the +finger. The women sew by pulling the thread toward them and making an +overcast seam.</p> + +<p>Whalebone is used for making elastic thongs and in the place of wood; +for example, for kayak ribs, for the rim of the kayak hole, boxes, +&c. It requires no particular preparation, being easily split and +shaped so as to fit any purpose. If wood is to be bent into hoops or +deer horn is to be straightened, it is made pliable by being put into +boiling water for some time. Bones of whales and other large animals and +the penis bone of the walrus are used instead of poles. In olden times, +when iron was extremely rare and an effective saw could not be procured, +they split the bone by drilling many holes, one close to the other, +afterwards breaking the pieces asunder.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig474" id="fig474"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig474.png" width="298" height="97" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 474.</span> Instrument for straightening +bones.</p> + +<p>Small pieces of bone, used for arrows &c., were straightened, +after being steamed, with the implement represented in Fig. 474.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig475" id="fig475"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig475.png" width="275" height="394" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 475.</span> Drill for working in ivory +and bone. (National Museum, Washington. 34114.) ⅔</p> + +<p>The drill (Fig. 475) is the most important implement for working in +ivory and bone. It consists of three parts: the bow with its string +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page525" id="page525">525</a></span> +(niuqtung), the drill (qaivun), and the mouthpiece (qingmiaq). The +string of the bow is twisted around the shaft of the drill, the +mouthpiece (which is made of wood or of bone) is taken into the mouth, +and the rounded end of the drill is placed in its hole. Then the whole +implement is put firmly against the place to be perforated and is set in +motion by moving the bow. Instead of the latter, a string is +sometimes used with a handle at each end. For one man, however, the +first device is handier. The string of the second form is usually pulled +by one man while the other holds the mouthpiece.</p> + +<p>The same instrument is sometimes used for making fire. Instead of the +iron, a piece of hard wood (ground willow) is put into the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page526" id="page526">526</a></span> +mouthpiece and placed upon a piece of driftwood cut to the shape +represented in Fig. 476. The wooden drill turns rapidly in a hole of the +driftwood until it begins to glow. A little moss is applied to the +glowing wood and gently blown until it begins to burn. Wherever flint +and pyrite are to be had these are used for striking fire. Moss or the +wool-like hair of <i>Eryophorum</i> serves for tinder.</p> + +<div class="picblock"> +<div class="picture half"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig476" id="fig476"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig476.png" width="226" height="40" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 476.</span> Driftwood used in kindling +fire from Nugumiut. (National Museum, Washington. 10258.) ¼</p> +</div> + +<div class="picture half"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig477" id="fig477"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig477.png" width="217" height="49" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 477.</span> Eskimo graver’s tool. +(National Museum, Washington. 34105.) ½</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>Ivory implements are cut out of the tusks with strong knives and are +shaped by chipping pieces from the blocks until they acquire the desired +forms. In olden times it must have been an extremely troublesome work to +cut them out, the old knives being very poor and ineffective. They are +finished with the file, which on this account is an important tool for +the natives; it is also used for sharpening knives and harpoons. The +women’s knives are cut, by means of files, from old saw blades; the seal +harpoons, from Scotch whale harpoons. If files are not obtainable, +whetstones are used for sharpening the iron and stone implements.</p> + +<p>Engravings in bone and ivory are made with the implement represented +in Fig. 477. An iron point is inserted in a wooden handle; formerly a +quartz point was used. The notch which separates the head from the +handle serves as a hold for the points of the fingers. The designs are +scratched into the ivory with the iron pin.</p> + +<p>Stone implements were made of flint, slate, or soapstone. Flint was +worked with a squeezing tool, generally made of bone. Small pieces were +thus split off until the stone acquired the desired form. Slate was +first roughly formed and then finished with the drill and the whetstone. +The soft soapstone is now chiseled out with iron tools. If large blocks +of soapstone cannot be obtained, fragments are cemented together by +means of a mixture of seal’s blood, a kind of clay, and dog’s hair. +This is applied to the joint, the vessel being heated over a lamp until +the cement is dry. According to Lyon (p. 320) it is fancied that +the hair of a bitch would spoil the composition and prevent it from +sticking.</p> + + + + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page527" id="page527">527</a></span> +<h3><a name="transport" id="transport">TRANSPORTATION BY BOATS AND +SLEDGES.</a></h3> + +<h4><a name="transport_boat" id="transport_boat">THE BOAT +(UMIAQ).</a></h4> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig478" id="fig478"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig478.png" width="441" height="135" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 478.</span> Framework of Eskimo boat.</p> + +<div class="figfloat"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig479" id="fig479"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig479.png" width="112" height="119" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 479.</span> Kiglo or post.</p> +</div> + +<p>The main part of the frame of a boat is a timber which runs from stem +to stern (Fig. 478). It is the most solid part and is made of driftwood, +which is procured in Hudson Strait, Hudson Bay, and on the northern +shore of King William Land. In Iglulik, and probably in Pond Bay, boats +are rarely used and never made, as wood is wanting. The central part of +this timber is made a little narrower than the ends, which form stout +heads. A mortise is cut into each of the latter, into which posts +(kiglo) are tenoned for the bow and for the stern. The shape of this +part will best be seen from the engraving (Fig. 479). A strong +piece of wood is fitted to the top of these uprights and the gunwales +are fastened to them with heavy thongs. The gunwales and two curved +strips of wood (akuk), which run along each side of the bottom of the +boat from stem to stern, determine its form. These strips are steadied +by from seven to ten cross pieces, which are firmly tied to them and to +the central piece. From this pair of strips to the gunwales run a number +of ribs, which stand somewhat close together at the bow and the stern, +but are separated by intervals of greater distance in the center of the +boat. The cross pieces along the bottom are arranged similarly to the +ribs. Between the gunwale and the bottom two or three pairs of strips +also run along the sides of the boat and steady its whole frame. The +uppermost pair (which is called tuving) lies near the gunwale and serves +as a fastening for the cover of the boat. The thwarts, three +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page528" id="page528">528</a></span> +or four in number, are fastened between the gunwale and these lateral +strips. All these pieces are tied together with thongs, rivets not being +used at all.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig480" id="fig480"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig480.png" width="433" height="131" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 480.</span> Umiaq or skin boat.</p> + +<p>The frame is covered with skins of ground seals (Figs. 480, 481). It +requires three of these skins to cover a medium sized boat; five to +cover a large one. If ground seals cannot be procured, skins of harp or +small seals are used, as many as twelve of the latter being required. +The cover is drawn tightly over the gunwale and, after being wetted, is +secured by thongs to the lateral strip which is close to the gunwale. +The wooden pieces at both ends are perforated and the thongs for +fastening the cover are pulled through these holes.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig481" id="fig481"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig481.png" width="445" height="365" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 481.</span> Umiaq or skin boat.</p> + +<p>The boat is propelled by two large oars. The rowlocks are a very +ingenious device. A piece of bone is tied upon the skin in order +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page529" id="page529">529</a></span> +to protect it from the friction of the oar, which would quickly wear it +through (Fig. 481 <i>a</i>). On each side of the bone a thong is +fastened to the tuving, forming a loop. Both loops cross each other like +two rings of a chain. The oar is drawn through both loops, which are +twisted by toggles until they become tight. Then the toggles are secured +between the gunwale and the tuving.</p> + +<p>The oar (ipun) consists of a long shaft and an oval or round blade +fastened to the shaft by thongs. Two grooves and the tapering end serve +for handles in pulling. Generally three or four women work at each +oar.</p> + +<p>For steering, a paddle is used of the same kind as that used in +whaling (see <a href="#page499">p. 499</a>). A rudder is +rarely found (Fig. 480), and when used most probably is made in +imitation of European devices.</p> + +<p>If the wind permits, a sail is set; but the bulky vessel can only run +with the wind. The mast is set in the stem, a mortise being cut in +the forehead of the main timber, with a notch in the wooden piece above +it to steady it. A stout thong, which passes through two holes on +each side of the notch, secures the mast to the wooden head piece. The +sail, which is made of seal intestines carefully sewed together, is +squared and fastened by loops to a yard (sadniriaq) which is trimmed +with straps of deerskin. It is hoisted by a rope made of sealskin and +passing over a sheave in the top of the mast. This rope is tied to the +thwart farthest abaft, while the sheets are fastened to the foremost +one.</p> + + +<h4><a name="transport_sledge" id="transport_sledge">THE SLEDGE AND +DOGS.</a></h4> + +<p>During the greater part of the year the only passable road is that +afforded by the ice and snow; therefore sledges (qamuting) of different +constructions are used in traveling.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig482" id="fig482"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig482.png" width="430" height="196" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 482.</span> Qamuting or sledge.</p> + +<p>The best model is made by the tribes of Hudson Strait and Davis +Strait, for the driftwood which they can obtain in abundance admits the +use of long wooden runners. Their sledges (Fig. 482) have two runners, +from five to fifteen feet long and from twenty inches to two +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page530" id="page530">530</a></span> +and a half feet apart. They are connected by cross bars of wood or bone +and the back is formed by deer’s antlers with the skull attached. The +bottom of the runners (qamun) is curved at the head (uinirn) and cut off +at right angles behind. It is shod with whalebone, ivory, or the +jawbones of a whale. In long sledges the shoeing (pirqang) is broadest +near the head and narrowest behind. This device is very well adapted for +sledging in soft snow; for, while the weight of the load is distributed +over the entire length of the sledge, the fore part, which is most apt +to break through, has a broad face, which presses down the snow and +enables the hind part to glide over it without sinking in too +deeply.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig483" id="fig483"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig483.png" width="331" height="33" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 483.</span> Sledge shoe. (National +Museum, Washington. 34096.) ¼</p> + +<p>The shoe (Fig. 483) is either tied or riveted to the runner. If tied, +the lashing passes through sunken drill holes to avoid any friction in +moving over the snow. The right and left sides of a whale’s jaw are +frequently used for shoes, as they are of the proper size and permit the +shoe to be of a single piece. Ivory is cut into flat pieces and riveted +to the runner with long treenails. The points are frequently covered +with bone on both the lower and upper sides, as they are easily injured +by striking hard against hummocks or snowdrifts. Sometimes whalebone is +used for the shoes.</p> + +<p>The cross bars (napun) project over the runners on each side and have +notches which form a kind of neck. These necks serve to fasten the +thongs when a load is lashed on the sledge. The bars are fastened to the +runners by thongs which pass through two pairs of holes in the bars and +through corresponding ones in the runners. If these fastenings should +become loose, they are tightened by winding a small thong round them and +thus drawing the opposite parts of the thong tightly together. If this +proves insufficient, a small wedge is driven between the thong and +the runner.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig484" id="fig484"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig484.png" width="277" height="54" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 484.</span> Clasp for fastening traces to +sledge. (National Museum, Washington. 34110.) ½</p> + +<p>The antlers attached to the back of the sledge have the branches +removed and the points slanted so as to fit to the runners. Only the +brow antlers are left, the right one being cut down to about three +inches in length, the left one to one and a half inches. This back forms +a very convenient handle for steering the sledge past hummocks or rocks, +for drawing it back when the points have struck a snowdrift, &c. +Besides, the lashing for holding the load is tied to the right brow +antler and the snow knife and the harpoon line are hung +upon it.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig485" id="fig485"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig485.png" width="416" height="295" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 485.</span> Artistic form of clasp for +fastening traces to sledge. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.) 1/1</p> + +<p>Under the foremost cross bar a hole is drilled through each runner. +A very stout thong (pitu) consisting of two separate parts passes +through the holes and serves to fasten the dogs’ traces to the sledge. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page531" id="page531">531</a></span> +A button at each end of this thong prevents it from slipping through the +hole of the runner. The thong consists of two parts, the one ending in a +loop, the other in a peculiar kind of clasp (partirang). Fig. 484 +represents the form commonly used. The end of one part of the thong is +fastened to the hole of the clasp, which, when closed, is stuck through +the loop of the opposite end (see <a href="#fig482">Fig. 482</a>). A more artistic design is shown in +Fig. 485. One end of the line is tied to the hole in the under side of +this implement. When it is in use the loop of the other end is stuck +through another hole in the center and hung over the nozzle. The whole +represents the head of an animal with a gaping mouth. The dogs’ traces +are strung upon this line by means of the uqsirn, an ivory implement +with a large and a small eyelet (Fig. 486). The trace is tied to the +former, while the latter is strung upon the pitu.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig486" id="fig486"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig486.png" width="357" height="126" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 486.</span> Uqsirn, for fastening traces +to pitu.<br> +<i>a</i> (National Museum, Washington. 34122.) 1/1<br> +<i>b</i> (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.) ½</p> + +<p>The dogs have harnesses (ano) made of sealskin (Fig. 487) or +sometimes of deerskin, consisting of two bights passing under the fore +legs. They are joined by two straps, one passing over the breast, the +other over the neck. The ends are tied together on the back, whence the +trace runs to the sledge. According to Parry (II, p. 517), +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page532" id="page532">532</a></span> +the Iglulik harnesses consisted of three bights, one passing over the +breast and shoulder and two under the fore legs.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig487" id="fig487"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig487.png" width="425" height="345" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 487.</span> Ano or dog harness. (Museum +für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6730.)</p> + +<p>It was mentioned at another place (<a href="#page475">p. 475</a>) that in sealing a dog is taken out of the +sledge to lead the hunter to the breathing hole. For this purpose the +traces of some harnesses are made of two pieces, which are united by the +sadniriaq, a clasp similar to that of the pitu (Figs. 487, 488). If +the dog is to be taken from the sledge the fore part of the trace is +unbuttoned.</p> + +<div class="figfloat w200"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig488" id="fig488"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig488.png" width="151" height="41" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 488.</span> Sadniriaq or clasp. (National +Museum, Washington.) ⅔</p> +</div> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page533" id="page533">533</a></span> +<p>Besides this form of sledge a great number of others are in use. +Whenever whales are caught their bone is sawed or cut into large pieces, +which are shod with the same material. If large bones are not to be had, +a substitute is found in walrus skins or rolls of sealskins, which +are wetted and sewed up in a bag. This bag is given the desired form and +after being frozen to a solid mass is as serviceable as the best plank. +In Boothia frozen salmon are used in the same way and after having +served this purpose in winter are eaten in the spring. Other sledges are +made of slabs of fresh water ice, which are cut and allowed to freeze +together, or of a large ice block hollowed out in the center. All these +are clumsy and heavy and much inferior to the large sledge just +described.</p> + +<p>Parry (II, p. 515) states that at Igiulik the antlers are detached +from the sledge in winter when the natives go sealing. The tribes of +Davis Strait do not practice this custom, but use scarcely any sledge +without a pair of antlers.</p> + +<p>As to the appearance of the dogs I would refer to Parry (II, +p. 515) and other writers and confine my remarks to a description +of their use by the Eskimo.</p> + +<p>As the traces are strung upon a thong, as just described, the dogs +all pull at one point; for that reason they may seem, at first sight, to +be harnessed together without order or regularity; but they are arranged +with great care. The strongest and most spirited dog has the longest +trace and is allowed to run a few feet in advance of the rest as a +leader; its sex is indifferent, the choice being made chiefly with +regard to strength. Next to the leader follow two or three strong dogs +with traces of equal length, and the weaker and less manageable the dogs +the nearer they run to the sledge. A team is almost unmanageable if +the dogs are not accustomed to one another. They must know their leader, +who brings them to terms whenever there is a quarrel. In a good team the +leader must be the acknowledged chief, else the rest will fall into +disorder and refuse to follow him. His authority is almost unlimited. +When the dogs are fed, he takes the choice morsels; when two of them +quarrel, he bites both and thus brings them to terms.</p> + +<p>Generally there is a second dog which is inferior only to the leader, +but is feared by all the others. Though the authority of the leader is +not disputed by his own team, dogs of another team will not submit to +him. But when two teams are accustomed to travel in company the dogs in +each will have some regard for the leader of the other, though +continuous rivalry and quarrels go on between the two leaders. Almost +any dog which is harnessed into a strange team will at first be +unwilling to draw, and it is only when he is thoroughly accustomed to +all his neighbors and has found out his friends and his enemies that he +will do his work satisfactorily. Some dogs when put into a strange team +will throw themselves down and struggle and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page534" id="page534">534</a></span> +howl. They will endure the severest lashing and allow themselves to be +dragged along over rough ice without being induced to rise and run along +with the others. Particularly if their own team is in sight will they +turn back and try to get to it. Others, again, are quite willing to work +with strange dogs.</p> + +<p>Partly on this account and partly from attachment to their masters, +dogs sold out of one team frequently return to their old homes, and I +know of instances in which they even ran from thirty to sixty miles to +reach it. Sometimes they do so when a sledge is traveling for a few days +from one settlement to another, the dogs not having left home for a long +time before. In such cases when the Eskimo go to harness their team in +the morning they find that some of them have run away, particularly +those which were lent from another team for the journey. In order to +prevent this the left fore leg is sometimes tied up by a loop which +passes over the neck. When one is on a journey it is well to do so every +night, as some of the dogs are rather unwilling to be harnessed in the +morning, thus causing a great loss of time before they are caught. In +fact such animals are customarily tied up at night, while the others are +allowed to run loose.</p> + +<p>Sometimes the harnesses are not taken off at night. As some dogs are +in the habit of stripping off their harness, it is fastened by tying the +trace around the body. Though all these peculiarities of the dogs give a +great deal of trouble to the driver, he must take care not to punish +them too severely, as they will then become frightened and for fear of +the whip will not work at all.</p> + +<p>Before putting the dogs to the sledge it must be prepared and loaded. +In winter the shoes of the runners are covered with a thick coat of ice, +which diminishes the friction on the snow. If the shoes are of good +bone, ivory, or whalebone, the icing is done with water only, the driver +taking a mouthful and carefully letting it run over the shoe until a +smooth cover of about one third of an inch in thickness is produced. The +icicles made by the water which runs down the side of the runner are +carefully removed with the snow knife, and the bottom is smoothed with +the same implement and afterward somewhat polished with the mitten. Skin +runners and others which have poor shoes are first covered with a +mixture of moss and water or clay and water. This being frozen, the +whole is iced, as has been described. Instead of pure water, +a mixture of blood and water or of urine and water is frequently +used, as this sticks better to the bone shoe than the former.</p> + +<p>This done, the sledge is turned right side up and loaded. In winter, +when the snow is hard, small sledges with narrow shoes are the best. In +loading, the bulk of the weight is placed behind. When the snow is soft +or there are wide cracks in the floe, long sledges with broad shoes are +by far the best. In such cases the heaviest part of the load is placed +on the middle of the sledge or even nearer the head. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page535" id="page535">535</a></span> +Particularly in crossing cracks the weight must be as near the head as +possible, for if the jump should be unsuccessful a heavy weight at the +hind part would draw the sledge and the dogs into the water.</p> + +<p>The load is fastened to the sledge by a long lashing (naqetarun). +This is tied to the first cross bar and after passing over the load is +drawn over the notch of the next bar, and so on from one notch, over the +load, to a notch on the opposite side. After having been fastened in +this way it is tightened. Two men are required for the work, one pulling +the lashing over the notch, the other pressing down the load and lifting +and lowering the thong in order to diminish the friction, thus making +the pulling of the other man more effective. The end is fastened to the +brow antler. Implements which are used in traveling are hung upon the +antlers at the back of the sledge. In spring, when the snow is melting +and water is found under it, the travelers frequently carry in their +pouch a tube for drinking (Fig. 489).</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig489" id="fig489"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig489.png" width="293" height="33" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 489.</span> Tube for drinking. (National +Museum, Washington. 10383.) ¼</p> + +<p>When the sledge has been loaded the dogs are hitched to it and the +driver takes up the whip and is ready for starting. The handle of the +whip is about a foot or a foot and a half in length. It is made of wood, +bone, or whalebone and has a lash of from twenty to twenty-five feet in +length. The lash is made of walrus or ground seal hide, the lower end +being broad and stiff, thus giving it greater weight and a slight +springiness near the handle, which facilitates its use. A broad +piece of skin clasps the handle, to which it is tied with seal thongs. +Another way of making the lower part heavy is by plaiting ground seal +lines for a length of a foot or a foot and a half.</p> + +<p>When starting the driver utters a whistling guttural sound which +sounds like h!h!, but cannot exactly be expressed by letters, as there +is no vowel in it, and yet on account of the whistling noise in the +throat it is audible at a considerable distance. The dogs, if well +rested and strong, jump to their feet and start at once. If they are +lazy it requires a great deal of stimulating and lashing before they +make a start. If the load is heavy it is difficult to start it and the +Eskimo must use some strategy to get them all to pull at once. The +sledge is moved backward and forward for about a foot, so as to make a +short track in which it moves easily. Then the driver sings out to the +dogs, at the same time drawing the traces tight with his hands and +pulling at the sledge. The dogs, feeling a weight at the traces, begin +to draw, and when the driver suddenly lets go the traces the sledge +receives a sudden pull and begins to move. If assistance is at hand the +sledge may be pushed forward until it gets under way.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page536" id="page536">536</a></span> +<p>It is extremely hard work to travel with a heavy load, particularly +in rough ice or on soft snow. The dogs require constant stimulating; for +this purpose a great number of exclamations are in use and almost every +Eskimo has his own favorite words for driving. The general exclamation, +used for stimulating is the above mentioned h! h! or aq! aq! which is +pressed out from the depths of the breast and the palate, the vowel +being very indistinct. Others are: djua! the a being drawn very long and +almost sung in a high key, or ah! pronounced in the same way; iatit! or +jauksa koksa! and smacking with the tongue. If a seal is seen basking on +the ice or if the sledge happens to pass a deserted snow hut, the driver +says, Ha! Do you see the seal? Ai! A seal! a seal! +(Ha! Takuviuk? Ai! Uto! uto!) and Ai! There is a house; +a small house! (Ai! Iglu; igluaqdjung!) or, Now we go home! +(Sarpoq! Sarpoq!) The latter, however, are only used when the dogs are +going at a good rate.</p> + +<p>For directing the sledge the following words are used: Aua, aua! Aua! +ja aua! for turning to the right; χoiaχoi! ja χoia! for turning to the +left. In addition the whip lash is thrown to the opposite side of the +dogs. The leader is the first to obey the order, but a turn is made very +slowly and by a long curve. If the driver wants to make a sharper turn +he must jump up and run to the opposite side of the sledge, throwing the +whip lash at the same time toward the team. For stopping the dogs the +word Ohoha! pronounced in a deep key, is used.</p> + +<p>If the traveling is difficult the driver must walk along at the right +side of the sledge and wherever hummocks obstruct the passage he must +direct it around them either by pushing its head aside or by pulling at +the deer’s skull at the back. But notwithstanding all this stimulating +and all the pulling the sledge is frequently stopped by striking a piece +of ice or by sinking into soft snow. As soon as it sinks down to the +cross bars it must be lifted out, and when the load is heavy the only +means of getting on is by unloading and afterwards reloading. In the +same way it must be lifted across hummocks through which a road is cut +with the end of the spear, which, for this purpose, is always lashed in +a place where it is handy for use, generally on the right side of the +bottom of the sledge. The difficulties of traveling across heavy ice +which has been subjected to heavy pressures have frequently been +described. When the sledge stops the dogs immediately lie down, and if +they cannot start again, though pulling with all their strength, the +leader frequently looks around pitifully, as if to say, We cannot do +more!</p> + +<p>Traveling with a light sledge and strong dogs is quite different. +Then the team is almost unmanageable and as soon as it is hitched up it +is off at full speed. The driver sits down on the fore part and lets the +whip trail along, always ready for use. Now the dogs have time enough +for playing and quarreling with one another. Though +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page537" id="page537">537</a></span> +they generally keep their proper place in the team, some will +occasionally jump over the traces of their neighbors or crawl underneath +them; thus the lines become quickly entangled, and it is necessary to +clear them almost every hour.</p> + +<p>If any dog of the team is lazy the driver calls out his name and he +is lashed, but it is necessary to hit the dog called, for if another is +struck he feels wronged and will turn upon the dog whose name has been +called; the leader enters into the quarrel, and soon the whole pack is +huddled up in one howling and biting mass, and no amount of lashing and +beating will separate the fighting team. The only thing one can do is to +wait until their wrath has abated and to clear the traces. It is +necessary, however, to lay the mittens and the whip carefully upon the +sledge, for the leader, being on the lookout for the traces to be +strung, may give a start when the driver is scarcely ready, and off the +team will go again before the driver can fairly get hold of the sledge. +If anything has dropped from it he must drive in a wide circle to the +same place before he can stop the team and pick it up. On an old track +it is very difficult to stop them at all. When attempting to do so the +driver digs his heels into the snow to obstruct their progress and +eventually comes to a stop. Then he stands in front of the sled and +makes the dogs lie down by lashing their heads gently. Should the dogs +start off he would be thrown upon the sledge instead of being left +behind, which might easily happen should he stand alongside.</p> + +<p>The sledge is steered with the legs, usually with the right foot of +the driver, or, if it must be pulled aside from a large hummock, by +pulling the head aside or by means of the deer’s antlers. If two persons +are on the sledge—and usually two join for a long drive—they +must not speak to each other, for as soon as the dogs hear them they +will stop, turn around, sit down, and listen to the conversation. It has +frequently been said that the method of harnessing is inconvenient, as +the dogs cannot use their strength to the best advantage; but whoever +has driven a sledge himself will understand that any other method would +be even more troublesome and less effective. On smooth ice and hard snow +any method of harnessing could be used; but, on rough ice, by any other +method every cross piece would quickly break on attempting to cross the +hummocks. Frequently the traces catch a projecting point and the dogs +are then pulled back and thrown against the ice or under the sledge if +the trace does not break. If for any reason a dog should hang back and +the trace should trail over the snow the driver must lift it up to +prevent it from being caught by the sledge runner, else the dog will be +dragged in the same way as if the trace were caught by a hummock. Many +dogs are able in such cases to strip off their harnesses and thus escape +being dragged along, as the team cannot be stopped quickly enough to +prevent this. Besides the driver must see to it that the dogs do +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page538" id="page538">538</a></span> +not step across their traces, which in such cases would run between +their hind legs, for should this happen the skin might be severely +chafed. If the driver sees a trace in this position he runs forward and +puts it back without stopping the team. Particular attention must be +paid to this matter when the dogs rise just before starting.</p> + +<p>The sledges are not used until the ice is well covered with snow, as +the salt crystals formed on the top of the ice in the autumn hurt the +dogs’ feet and cause sores that heal slowly. Late in the spring, when +the snow has melted and sharp ice needles project everywhere, the feet +of the dogs are covered with small pieces of leather, with holes for the +nails, which are tied to the leg. As they are frequently lost and the +putting on of these shoes takes a long time, their use is very +inconvenient.</p> + +<p>At this season numerous cracks run through the floe. They are either +crossed on narrow snow bridges which join the edges at convenient places +or on a drifting piece of ice by floating across.</p> + +<p>A few more words in conclusion concerning the training of the dogs. +The Eskimo rarely brings up more than three or four dogs at the same +time. If the litter is larger than this number the rest are sold or +given away. The young dogs are carefully nursed and in winter they are +even allowed to lie on the couch or are hung up over the lamp in a piece +of skin. When about four months old they are first put to the sledge and +gradually become accustomed to pull along with the others. They undergo +a good deal of lashing and whipping before they are as useful as the old +ones.</p> + +<p>If food is plentiful the dogs are fed every other day, and then their +share is by no means a large one. In winter they are fed with the heads, +entrails, bones, and skins of seals, and they are so voracious at this +time of the year that nothing is secure from their appetite. Any kind of +leather, particularly boots, harnesses, and thongs, is eaten whenever +they can get at it. In the spring they are better fed and in the early +part of summer they grow quite fat. In traveling, however, it sometimes +happens at this time of the year, as well as in winter, that they have +no food for five or six days. In Cumberland Sound, Hudson Strait, and +Hudson Bay, where the rise and fall of the tide are considerable, they +are carried in summer to small islands where they live upon what they +can find upon the beach, clams, codfish, &c. If at liberty they are +entirely able to provide for themselves. I remember two runaway +dogs which had lived on their own account from April until August and +then returned quite fat.</p> + +<p>The Eskimo of all these regions are very much troubled with the well +known dog’s disease of the Arctic regions. The only places where it +seems to be unknown are Davis Strait and Aggo. Here every man has a team +of from six to twelve dogs, while in Cumberland Sound, in some winters, +scarcely any have been left. (See Appendix, <a href="#app2">Note 2</a>.)</p> + + + + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page539" id="page539">539</a></span> +<h4><a name="habit" id="habit">HABITATIONS AND DRESS.</a></h4> + + +<h4><a name="habit_house" id="habit_house">THE HOUSE.</a></h4> + +<p>The houses of the Eskimo differ according to the season. All the +tribes from Smith Sound to Labrador and from Davis Strait to Victoria +Land are in the habit of building snow houses in winter. Though they +erect another more durable kind of winter house, these are more +frequently in use. The principles of construction are the same +everywhere. A level place is selected for erecting the snow house. +To be suitable for cutting into blocks the snowbank must have been +formed by a single storm, for blocks which are cut from drifts composed +of several layers break when cut. It must be very fine grained, but not +so hard that it cannot be readily cut with the saw or the snow knife. +The whole building is constructed of blocks of about three feet or four +feet in length, two feet in height, and from six inches to eight inches +in thickness. They are cut with snow knives or dovetail saws, which for +this reason are much in demand. The old snow knife (sulung) was made of +ivory and had a slight curve (Fig. 490). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page540" id="page540">540</a></span> +The blocks are cut either vertically or horizontally, the former way +being more convenient if the snowdrift is deep. Two parallel cuts of the +breadth and the depth of the blocks are made through the drift, and +after having removed a small block the Eskimo go on cutting or sawing +parallel to the surface. A cross cut is then made and the block is +loosened with the point of the foot and lifted out of the bank. Vertical +blocks are more easily detached from the snowdrift than horizontal +ones.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig490" id="fig490"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig490.png" width="355" height="398" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 490.</span> Various styles of snow knife. +(National Museum, Washington. <i>a</i>, 10386; <i>b</i>, 10385.)</p> + +<p>Two men unite in building a house, the one cutting the blocks, the +other building. At first a row of blocks is put up in a circle, the +single pieces being slanted so as to fit closely together. Then the +first block is cut down to the ground and the top of the row is slanted +so as to form one thread of a spiral line. The builder places the first +block of the second row with its narrow side upon the first block and +pushes it with his left hand to the right so that it touches the last +block of the first row. Thus the snow block, which is inclined a little +inward, has a support on two sides. The vertical joint is slanted with +the snow knife and tightly pressed together, the new block resting on +the oblique side of the former. In building on in this way the blocks +receive the shape of almost regular trapezoids. Every block is inclined +a little more inward than the previous one, and as the angle to the +vertical becomes greater the blocks are only kept in their places by the +neighboring ones. In order to give them a good support the edges are the +more slanted as their angle is greater.</p> + +<p>This method of building is very ingenious, as it affords the +possibility of building a vault without a scaffold. If the blocks were +placed in parallel rows, the first block of a new row would have no +support, while by this method each reclines on the previous one. When +the house has reached a considerable height the man who cuts the blocks +outside must place them upon the last row. The builder supports them +with his head and pushes them to their proper places. The key block and +those which are next to it are either cut inside or pushed into the +house through a small door cut for the purpose. The key block is +generally shaped irregularly, as it is fitted into the hole which +remains; usually the last two blocks are triangular. When the vault is +finished the joints between the blocks are closed up by cutting down the +edges and pressing the scraps into the joints. Larger openings are +closed with snow blocks and filled up with loose snow pressed into the +fissures. Thus the whole building becomes a tight vault, without any +holes through which the warm air inside may escape. Such a snow house, +about five feet high and seven feet in diameter, is used as a camp in +winter journeys. It takes about two hours for two skilled men to build +and finish it. For winter quarters the vaults are built from ten to +twelve feet high and twelve to fifteen feet in diameter. In order to +reach this height the builder +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page541" id="page541">541</a></span> +makes a bench on which he steps while finishing the upper part of the +building.</p> + +<p>The plan of a snow house of the Davis Strait tribes is a little +different from that of the Hudson Bay and the Iglulik tribes.</p> + +<p>I shall first describe the former according to my own observations +(Figs. 491 and 492).</p> + +<div class="figfloat w250"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig491" id="fig491"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig491.png" width="188" height="435" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 491.</span> Ground plan of snow house of +Davis Strait tribes.</p> +</div> + +<p>The entrance to the main building is formed by two, or less +frequently by three, small vaults. The first one (uadling) is a small +dome about six feet in height, with a door two and a half feet in +height; the second one is a long passage of equal height formed by an +elliptical vault (igdluling). Its roof is generally arched, but +sometimes the top is cut off evenly and covered with slabs of snow. Both +vaults together form the entrance and are called toqsung. A door +about three feet high leads into the main room, the floor of which is +about nine inches above that of the former. Two very small vaults are +always attached to the whole building (Fig. 491). One is situated +alongside of the uadling and the igdluling, and serves as a storeroom +for clothing and harness (sirdloang). It is not connected with the +interior of the hut, but one of the blocks of the vault can be taken out +and is made to serve as a lid. On the left side of the entrance of the +main building is another small vault (igdluarn), which is accessible +from the main building. It serves for keeping spare meat and blubber. +Frequently there is a second igdluarn on the opposite side, and +sometimes even a third one in the igdluling. Another appendix of the +main building is frequently used, the audlitiving (Fig. 491 and Fig. +492 <i>c</i>). It is a vault similar to the sirdloang and is +attached to the back of the main room. It serves for storing up meat for +future use.</p> + +<p>Directly over the entrance a window is cut through the wall, either +square or more frequently forming an arch, which is generally covered +with the intestines of ground seals, neatly sewed together, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page542" id="page542">542</a></span> +seams standing vertically (Fig. 493). In the center there is a hole +(qingang) through which one can look out. In some instances a piece of +fresh water ice is inserted in the hole. According to Ross it is always +used by the Netchillirmiut (II, p. 250), who make the slab by +letting water freeze in a sealskin.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig492" id="fig492"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig492.png" width="427" height="496" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 492.</span> Snow house of Davis Strait, +sections.</p> + +<p>In the rear half and on both sides of the door a bank of snow two and +a half feet high is raised and cut off straight, a passage trench +five feet wide and six feet long remaining. The rear half forms the bed, +the adjoining parts of the side benches are the place for the lamps, +while on both sides of the entrance meat and refuse are heaped up. +Frequently the snowbank on which the hut is built is deep +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page543" id="page543">543</a></span> +enough so that the bed needs very little raising, and the passage is cut +into the bank. As this is much more convenient in building, the huts are +generally erected on a sloping face, the entrance lying on the lower +part, which faces the beach.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig493" id="fig493"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig493.png" width="321" height="225" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 493.</span> Section and interior of snow +house.</p> + +<p>Before the bed is arranged and the hut furnished the vault is lined +with skins, frequently with the cover of the summer hut. The lining +(ilupiqang) is fastened to the roof by small ropes (nirtsun), which are +fastened by a toggle on the outside of the wall (Fig. 493). In the lower +part of the building the lining lies close to the wall; in the upper +part it forms a flat roof about two or three feet below the top of the +vault. The effect of this arrangement is to prevent the warm air inside +from melting the snow roof, as above the skins there is always a layer +of colder air. Close to the top of the building a small hole (qangirn) +is cut through the wall for ventilation. The lamps require a good +draught, which is secured by this hole. The cold air enters through the +door, slowly filling the passage, and after being warmed rises to the +lamps and escapes through the skin cover and the hole. The moisture of +the air forms long ice needles on the inside of the roof. Sometimes they +fall down upon the skins, and must be immediately removed by shaking it +until they glide down at the sides, else they melt and wet the room +thoroughly. Frequently a high ice funnel forms around the hole from the +freezing moisture of the escaping air.</p> + +<p>The southern and western tribes rarely line the snow house. The +continuous dropping from the roof, however, causes great inconvenience, +and, besides, the temperature cannot be raised higher than two or three +degrees centigrade above the freezing point, while in the lined houses +it is frequently from ten to twenty degrees centigrade, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page544" id="page544">544</a></span> +so that the latter are much more comfortable. To avoid the dropping the +natives apply a cold piece of snow to the roof before the drop falls +down, which at once freezes to it, the roof acquiring by this repeated +process a stalactitic appearance. The eastern tribes use the lining in +their permanent houses without any exception. The western and southern +tribes, who leave the walls bare, heap a thick layer of loose snow over +the whole building, almost covering it up, the window and the +ventilating hole alone excepted. For this purpose snow shovels are +used.</p> + +<p>The edge of the bed is formed by a long pole. The surface of the +snowbank which forms the foundation for the bed is covered with pieces +of wood, oars, paddles, tent poles, &c. These are covered with a +thick layer of shrubs, particularly <i>Andromeda tetragona</i>. Over +these numerous heavy deerskins are spread, and thus a very comfortable +bed is made.</p> + +<p>According to Parry the arrangement in Iglulik is as follows +(II, p. 501):</p> + +<p class="quote"> +The beds are arranged by first covering the snow with a quantity of +small stones, over which are laid their paddles, tent poles, and some +blades of whalebone; above these they place a number of little pieces of +network made of thin slips of whalebone, and lastly a quantity of twigs +of birch and of the <i>Andromeda tetragona</i>. <span class="emspace">***</span>The birch, they say, had been procured from the +southward by way of Nuvuk. <span class="emspace">***</span>There +deerskins, which are very numerous, can now be spread without risk of +their touching the snow.</p> + +<p>At night, when the Eskimo go to bed, they put their clothing, their +boots excepted, on the edge of the platform under the deerskins, thus +forming a pillow, and lie down with the head toward the entrance. The +blankets (qipiq) for their beds are made of heavy deerskins, which are +sewed together, one blanket serving for a whole family. The edge of the +blanket is trimmed with leather straps.</p> + +<p>On the side benches in front of the bed is the fireplace, which +consists of a stone lamp and a framework from which the pots are +suspended (see <a href="#fig493">Fig. 493</a>). The lamp +(qudlirn), which is made of soapstone, is a shallow vessel in the shape +of a small segment of a circle. Sometimes a small space is divided off +at the back for gathering in the scraps of blubber. The wick consists of +hair of <i>Eryophorum</i> or of dried moss rubbed down with a little +blubber so as to be inflammable. It is always carried by the women in a +small bag. The whole vessel is filled with blubber as high as the wick, +which is spread along the straight side of the vessel. It requires +constant attention to keep the desired length burning without smoking, +the length kindled being in accordance with the heat or light required. +The trimming of the wick is done with a bit of bone, <ins class="correction" title="spelling unchanged">asbestus</ins>, or wood, with +which the burning moss is spread along the edge of the lamp and +extinguished or pressed down if the fire is not wanted or if it smokes. +At the same time this stick serves to light other lamps (or pipes), +the burnt point +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page545" id="page545">545</a></span> +being put into the blubber and then kindled. Sometimes a long, narrow +vessel stands below the lamp, in which the oil that drops from the edge +is collected.</p> + +<p>In winter the blubber before being used is frozen, after which it is +thoroughly beaten. This bursts the vesicles of fat and the oil comes out +as soon as it is melted. The pieces of blubber are either put into the +lamp or placed over a piece of bone or wood, which hangs from the +framework a little behind the wick. In summer the oil must be chewed +out. It is a disgusting sight to see the women and children sitting +around a large vessel all chewing blubber and spitting the oil into +it.</p> + +<div class="figfloat"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig494" id="fig494"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig494.png" width="212" height="116" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 494.</span> Ukusik or soapstone +kettle.</p> +</div> + +<p>The frame of the fireplace consists of four poles stuck in the snow +in a square around the lamp and four crossbars connecting the poles at +the top. From those which run from the front to the back the kettle +(ukusik) is suspended by two pairs of strings or thongs. It is made of +soapstone and has a hole in each corner for the string. The kettle which +is in use among the eastern tribes has a narrow rim and a wide bottom +(Fig. 494), while that of the western ones is just the opposite. Parry, +however, found one of this description in River Clyde +(I, p. 286). When not in use it is shoved back by means of the +strings. Since whalers began to visit the country a great number of tin +pots have been introduced, which are much more serviceable, the process +of cooking being quickened.</p> + +<p>On the top of the frame there is always a wood or bone hoop with a +net of thongs stretched across it (inetang). It serves to dry clothing, +particularly boots, stockings, and mittens, over the fire. In the +passage near the entrance to the hut there is frequently a small lamp +(adlirn), which is very effective for warming the cold air entering +through the door, and in the remotest corner in the back of the hut +there is sometimes another (kidlulirn). When all the lamps are lighted +the house becomes warm and comfortable.</p> + +<p>Two small holes are frequently cut in the snowbank which forms the +ledge, at about the middle of its height (see <a href="#fig492">Fig. 492 <i>a</i></a>). They are closed with small +snow blocks, each of which has a groove for a handle, and serve to store +away anything that must be kept dry. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page546" id="page546">546</a></span> +At night the entrance of the inner room is closed with a large snow +block, which stands in the passage during the day.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig495" id="fig495"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig495.png" width="294" height="400" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 495.</span> Plan of double snow +house.</p> + +<p>These huts are always occupied by two families, each woman having her +own lamp and sitting on the ledge in front of it, the one on the right +side, the other on the left side of the house. If more families join in +building a common snow house, they make two main rooms with one +entrance. The plan of such a building is seen in Fig. 495.</p> + +<div class="picblock"> +<div class="picture w300"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig496" id="fig496"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig496.png" width="259" height="193" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 496.</span> Plan of Iglulik house. (From +Parry II, p. 500.)</p> +</div> + +<div class="picture w300"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig497" id="fig497"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig497.png" width="265" height="226" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 497.</span> Plan of Hudson Bay house. +(From Hall II, p. 128.)</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>The plans of the Iglulik and Hudson Bay houses are different from the +one described here. The difference will best be seen by comparing the +plans represented in Fig. 496 and Fig. 497, which have been +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page547" id="page547">547</a></span> +reprinted from Hall and Parry, respectively, with the former ones. Among +the eastern tribes I have never seen the beds on the side of the +passage, but always at the rear of the house.</p> + +<p>Besides these snow houses a more solid building is in use, called +qarmang. On the islands of the American Archipelago and in the +neighboring parts of the mainland numerous old stone foundations are +found, which prove that all these islands were once inhabited by the +Eskimo. It has often been said that the central tribes have forgotten +the art of building stone houses and always live in snow huts. At the +present time they do not build houses, but cover the walls of an old hut +with a new roof whenever they take possession of it. There is no need of +any new buildings, as the Eskimo always locate in the old settlements +and the old buildings are quite sufficient to satisfy all their +wants.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page548" id="page548">548</a></span> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig498" id="fig498"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig498.png" width="432" height="338" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 498.</span> Plan and sections of qarmang +or stone house.</p> + +<p>Those in good condition have a long stone entrance (ka´teng) (Fig. +498), sometimes from fifteen to twenty feet long. This is made by +cutting an excavation into the slope of a hill. Its walls are covered +with large slabs of stone about two and a half feet high and three feet +wide, the space between the stone and the sides of the excavation being +afterwards filled up with earth. The floor of the passage slopes upward +toward the hut. The last four feet of the entrance are covered with a +very large slab and are a little higher than the other parts of the roof +of the passageway. The slab is at the same height as the benches of the +dwelling room, which is also dug out, the walls being formed of stones +and whale ribs. The plan of the interior is the same as that of the snow +house, the bed being in the rear end of the room and the lamps on both +sides of the entrance. The floor of the hut is about eight inches higher +than that of the passage. The roof and the window, however, differ from +those of the snow house. In the front part of the hut the rib of a whale +is put up, forming an arch. A great number of poles are lashed to +it and run toward the back of the house, where they rest on the top of +the wall, forming, as it were, the rafters. The whole curve formed by +the rib is covered with a window of seal intestines, while the poles are +covered with sealskins, which are fastened in front to the whale rib. At +the other end they are either fastened +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page549" id="page549">549</a></span> +to the ribs in the wall or, more frequently, are steadied by <ins class="correction" title=". missing">stones.</ins> The roof is covered +with a thick layer of <i>Andromeda</i>, and another skin, which is +fastened in the same way, is spread over both covers. This kind of hut +is very warm, light, and comfortable. The stone banks forming the bed +are covered as already described.</p> + +<p>If three families occupy one house the whale’s rib which forms the +window is placed a few feet farther forward than in the previous case, +at the end of the large slab which forms the roof of the last part of +the passage.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig499" id="fig499"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig499.png" width="225" height="199" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 499.</span> Plan of large qarmang or +stone house for three families.</p> + +<p>By means of poles and bones a small side room is built (qareang), the +ceiling of which is sewed to that of the main room (Fig. 499). The large +slab which is in front of the window (at the end of the passage) is +utilized as a storeroom for both families living on that side of the +house, a place being left open only in the middle, where the spy +hole is. In some instances this side room is inclosed in the stone walls +of the hut.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig500" id="fig500"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig500.png" width="319" height="206" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 500.</span> Plan of stone house in +Anarnitung, Cumberland Sound. (From a drawing by L. Kumlien.)</p> + +<p>Fig. 500 and Fig. 501 present sketches of plans of some of these +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page550" id="page550">550</a></span> +houses. From such sketches it appears that several houses might have a +common entrance.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig501" id="fig501"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig501.png" width="425" height="137" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 501.</span> Plan of group of stone houses +in Pangnirtung, Cumberland Sound.</p> + +<p>In Anarnitung I observed no passage at all for the houses, the walls +being entirely above the ground and piled up with bowlders and sod. They +are, however, covered in the same way as the others and the entrance is +made of snow.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig502" id="fig502"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig502.png" width="425" height="119" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 502.</span> Plan and sections of qarmang +or house made of whale ribs.</p> + +<p>A winter house built on the same plan is represented in Fig. 502. The +wall is made entirely of whale ribs, placed so that their ends cross one +another. The poles are tied over the top of the ribs and the whole frame +is covered with the double roof described above. A few narrow snow +vaults form the entrance. The front rib forms the door, and thus the hut +becomes quite dark. Huts of this kind are also called qarmang or +qarmaujang, i.e., similar to a qarmang.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig503" id="fig503"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig503.png" width="280" height="267" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 503.</span> Storehouse in Ukiadliving. +(From a sketch by the author.)</p> + +<p>In Ukiadliving I found, along with a great number of fine qarmat, +some very remarkable storehouses, such as are represented in Fig. 503. +Structures of this kind (ikan´) consist of heavy granite pillars, on the +top of which flat slabs are piled to a height of from nine to ten feet. +In winter, blubber and meat are put away upon these pillars, which are +sufficiently high to keep them from the dogs. Sometimes two pillars, +about ten feet apart, are found near the huts. In winter the kayak is +placed upon them in order to prevent it from being covered by snowdrifts +or from being torn and destroyed by the dogs. In snow villages these +pillars are made of snow.</p> + +<p>The purpose of the long, kayak-like building figured by Kumlien (see +<a href="#fig500">Fig. 500</a>) is unknown to me. I found a +similar one, consisting of two rows of stones, scarcely one foot high +but twenty feet long, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page551" id="page551">551</a></span> +in Pangnirtung, Cumberland Sound, but nobody could explain its use.</p> + +<p>In the spring, when the rays of the sun become warmer, the roofs of +the snow houses fall down. At this season the natives build only the +lower half of a snow vault, which is covered with skins.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig504" id="fig504"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig504.png" width="439" height="275" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 504.</span> Plan and sections of tupiq or +tent of Cumberland Sound.</p> + +<p>Still later they live in their tents (tupiq) (Fig. 504). The +framework consists of poles, which are frequently made of many pieces of +wood ingeniously lashed together. The plan (Fig. 504 <i>a</i>) is +the same +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page552" id="page552">552</a></span> +as that of the winter houses. At the edge of the bed and at the entrance +two pairs of converging poles are erected. A little below the +crossing points two cross strips are firmly attached, forming the ridge. +Behind the poles, at the edge of the bed, six or eight others are +arranged in a semicircle resting on the ground and on the crossing point +of those poles. The frame is covered with a large skin roof fitting +tightly. The back part, covering the bed, is made of sealskins; the fore +part, between the two pairs of poles, of the thin membrane which is +split from the skins (see <a href="#page519">p. 519</a>), and +admits the light. The door is formed by the front part of the cover, the +left side (in entering) ending in the middle of the entrance, the +right one overlapping it, so as to prevent the wind from blowing into +the hut. The cover is steadied with heavy stones (Fig. +504 <i>c</i>). In Cumberland Sound and the more southern parts of +Baffin Land the back of the hut is inclined at an angle of 45°; in Davis +Strait it is as steep as 60°, or even more. In the summer tent the bed +and the side platforms are not raised, but only separated from the +passage by means of poles.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig505" id="fig505"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig505.png" width="370" height="217" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 505.</span> Plan and sections of tupiq or +tent of Pond Bay.</p> + +<p>Farther north and west, in Pond Bay, Admiralty Inlet, and Iglulik, +where wood is scarce, the Eskimo have a different plan of construction +(Fig. 505). A strong pole is set up vertically at the end of the +passage, a small cross piece being lashed to its top. The entrance +is formed by an oblique pole, the end of which lies in the ridge of the +roof. The latter is formed by a stout thong which runs over the top of +both poles and is fastened to heavy stones on both sides. If wood is +wanting, then poles are made from the penis bones of the walrus. Parry +found one of these tents at River Clyde, on his first expedition, and +describes it as follows (I, p. 283):</p> + +<p class="quote"> +The tents which compose their summer habitations, are principally +supported by a long pole of whalebone, 14 feet high, standing +perpendicularly, with 4 or 5 feet of it projecting above the skins which +form the roof and sides. The length of the tent is 17, and its breadth +from 7 to 9 feet, the narrowest part being next the door, and widening +towards the inner part, where the bed, composed of a quantity of the +small shrubby plant, the <i>Andromeda tetragona</i>, occupies about +one-third of the whole apartment. The pole of the tent is fixed where +the bed commences, and the latter is kept separate by some pieces of +bone laid across the tent from side to side. The door which faces the +southwest, is also formed of two pieces of bone, with the upper ends +fastened together, and the skins are made to overlap in that part of the +tent, which is much lower than the inner end. The covering is fastened +to the ground by curved pieces of bone, being generally parts of the +whale.</p> + +<p>This kind of tent differs from the one described by me only in the +construction of its door.</p> + +<p>I could not find a description of the tent of the Hudson Bay Eskimo. +There is only one illustration in Klutschak (p. 137) and one in +Ross (II, p. 581) representing tents of the Netchillirmiut. In +the former there are a few conical tents, such as are used by the +eastern tribes before a sufficient number of skins for a large tent can +be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page553" id="page553">553</a></span> +procured. The same kind is represented in Ross’s book. The other tent +drawn by Klutschak is similar to the Iglulik one, but the arrangement of +the poles in the back part is invisible. The entrance is formed by two +converging poles and a rope runs over the ridge and is tied to a +rock.</p> + +<p>The small tents which are used in the spring are made of a few +converging poles forming a cone. They are covered with a skin roof.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig506" id="fig506"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig506.png" width="441" height="194" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 506.</span> Plan and sections of double +winter tent, Cumberland Sound.</p> + +<p>Some families, instead of building snow houses or stone houses in +winter, cover the summer tent with shrubs and spread over them a second +skin cover. In front of the tent snow vaults are built to protect the +interior from the cold. In some instances several families join their +tents (Fig. 506). In the front part where the tents adjoin each other +the covers are taken away and replaced by a whale rib which affords a +passage from one room to the other.</p> + +<p>The plans of the feasting houses, will be found in another place (<a +href="#page600">p. 600</a>).</p> + + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page554" id="page554">554</a></span> +<h4><a name="habit_dress" id="habit_dress">CLOTHING, DRESSING OF THE +HAIR, AND TATTOOING.</a></h4> + +<p>The styles of clothing differ among the tribes of the Central Eskimo. +In summer the outer garment is always made of sealskins, though the +women wear deerskins almost the entire year. The sealskin clothing is +made from the skins of <i>Pagomys fœtidus</i>, yearlings being used, and +also from those of <i>Callocephalus</i>, if they can be obtained. The +latter particularly are highly valued by the natives. The inner garment +is made either of the skin of the young seal in the white coat or of a +light deerskin. It is cut entirely with the woman’s knife and is sewed +with deer sinews.</p> + +<p>The prettiest clothing is made by the tribes of Davis Strait. Both +men and women wear boots, trousers, and jackets. The style of the men’s +clothing may be seen from Figs. <a href="#fig397">397</a> and <a href="#fig399">399</a>, which represent men in the winter clothing, and +<a href="#fig412">412</a> and <a href="#fig435">435</a>, which show +them in summer clothing. The summer boots are made from the hairless +skin of <i>Pagomys fœtidus</i>, the soles from that of <i>Phoca</i>, the +sole reaching to the top of the foot. The leg of the boot is kept up by +a string passing through its rim and firmly tied around the leg. At the +ankle a string passes over the instep and around the foot to prevent the +heel from slipping down. On the top of the foot a knob (qaturang) is +sometimes attached to the string as an ornament (Fig. 507). The stocking +is made of light deerskin. It reaches above the knee, where it has a +trimming made from the white parts of a deerskin, whereas the boot ends +below the knee. Next to the stocking is a slipper, which is made of +birdskin, the feathers being worn next to the foot. This is covered with +a slipper of sealskin, the hair side worn outward and the hair pointing +toward the heel. The boot finishes the footgear. In the huts the +birdskin slippers are frequently laid aside.</p> + +<p>The breeches of the men consist of an outside and an inside pair, the +former being worn with the hair outside; the latter, which are made of +the skins of young seals or of deer, with the hair inside. They are +fastened round the body by means of a string and reach a little below +the knee. Their make will best be seen from the figures. Only the +southern tribes trim the lower end of the trousers by sewing a piece to +them, the hair of which runs around the leg, while above it runs +downward. This pattern looks very pretty.</p> + +<div class="picblock"> +<div class="picture w200"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig508" id="fig508"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig508.png" width="134" height="346" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 508.</span> Woman’s jacket. (National +Museum, Washington.)</p> +</div> + +<div class="picture w300"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig507" id="fig507"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig507.png" width="64" height="57" alt="see caption"></p> +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 507.</span> Qaturang or boot ornament. +(Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6850<ins class="correction" +title="closing parenthesis missing">.) </ins></p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig509" id="fig509"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig509.png" width="231" height="139" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 509.</span> Ivory beads for women’s +jackets, <i>a</i> (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6841) <i>b</i>, +<i>c</i> (National Museum, Washington. 34134.) 1/1</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>The jacket does not open in front, but is drawn over the head. It +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page555" id="page555">555</a></span> +has a hood fitting closely to the head. The back and the front are made +of a sealskin each. The hood of the Oqomiut is sharply pointed, while +that of the Akudnirmiut is more rounded. The jackets are cut straight +and have a slit in front. Some have a short tail behind, particularly +the winter jackets. The cut of the winter clothing, which is made of +deerskin, is the same as the former, and it is frequently trimmed with +straps of deerskin. The jacket is rarely worn with the hood down, as it +is only used while hunting and traveling. It is never brought into the +huts, but after being cleaned from the adhering snow with the snowbeater +(tiluqtung, as named by the eastern +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page556" id="page556">556</a></span> +tribes; arautaq, as called by Hudson Bay tribes) is kept in the +storeroom outside the house.</p> + +<p>The women’s trousers are composed of two pieces. The upper one fits +tightly and covers the upper half of the thigh. It is made of the skin +of a deer’s belly. The other parts are, as it were, leggings, which +reach from a little below the knee to the middle of the thigh and are +kept in place by a string running to the upper part of the trousers. The +women’s jacket (Fig. 508) is much more neatly trimmed than that of the +men. It is frequently adorned with ivory or brass beads running round +the edge (Fig. 509). It has a wide and large hood reaching down almost +to the middle of the body. In front the jacket has a short appendage; +behind, a very long tail which trails along the ground (see Fig. +508). If a child is carried in the hood, a leather girdle fastened +with a buckle (Fig. 510) is tied around the waist and serves to prevent +the child from slipping down. The first specimen given in Fig. 510 is +remarkable for its artistic design.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig510" id="fig510"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig510.png" width="384" height="223" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 510.</span> Girdle buckles.<br> +<i>a</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i> (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.)<br> +<i>b</i> (National Museum, Washington. 34125.) 1/1</p> + +<p>Among the Akudnirmiut of Davis Strait another fashion is more +frequently in use much resembling that of Iglulik. The women have a +wider jacket with a broader hood, enormous boots with a flap reaching up +to the hip, and breeches consisting of one piece and reaching to the +knees. Unfortunately I have no drawing of this clothing and must +therefore refer to Parry’s engravings, which, however, are not very well +executed, and to the figures representing dolls in this costume (see +<a href="#fig528">Fig. 528</a>).</p> + +<p>When children are about a month old they are put into a jacket made +from the skin of a deer fawn and a cap of the same material, their legs +remaining bare, as they are always carried in their mother’s +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page557" id="page557">557</a></span> +hood. In some places, where large boots are in use, they are said to be +carried in these. The cap is separate and is always made of the head of +a fawn, the ears standing upright on each side of the head. The jacket +is either quite open in front or has a short slit. Children of more than +two years of age wear the same clothing, with trousers and boots (Fig. +511). When they are about eight years old they are clothed like men +(Fig. 512). Girls frequently wear the same kind of dress for some time, +until they are from nine to ten years old, when they assume the clothing +of the women.</p> + +<div class="picblock"> +<div class="picture"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig511" id="fig511"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig511.png" width="174" height="338" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 511.</span> Infant’s clothing.<br> +(Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.)</p> +</div> + +<div class="picture"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig512" id="fig512"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig512.png" width="189" height="309" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 512.</span> Child’s clothing.</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>As to the mode of clothing of the other tribes I give the +descriptions of the authors.</p> + +<p>Parry describes the dress of the Iglulirmiut as follows (II, +p. 495):</p> + +<p class="quote"> +In the jacket of the women, the tail or flap behind is very broad, and +so long as almost to touch the ground; while a shorter and narrower one +before reaches halfway down the thigh. The men have also a tail in the +hind part of their jacket, but of smaller dimensions; but before, it is +generally straight or ornamented by a single scollop. The hood of the +jacket <span class="emspace">***</span>is much the largest in +that of the women, for the purpose of holding a child. The back of the +jacket also bulges out in the middle to give the child a footing, and a +strap or girdle below this, and secured round the waist by two large +wooden buttons in front, prevents the infant from falling through when, +the hood being in use, it is necessary thus to deposit it. <span +class="emspace">***</span>The upper (winter) garment of the females, +besides being cut according to a regular +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page558" id="page558">558</a></span> +and uniform pattern, and sewed with exceeding neatness, which is the +case with all the dresses of these people, has also the flaps ornamented +in a very becoming manner by a neat border of deerskin, so arranged as +to display alternate breadths of white and dark fur. This is, moreover, +usually beautified by a handsome fringe, consisting of innumerable long, +narrow threads of leather hanging down from it.<a class="tag" name="endtagA" id="endtagA" href="#endnoteA">A</a> This ornament is not +uncommon also in the outer jackets of the men. When seal-hunting,<a +class="tag" href="#endnoteA">A</a> they fasten up the tails of their +jackets with a button behind.</p> + +<p>The breeches and the foot gear of the men are described as being much +the same as those of the Akudnirmiut. Parry remarks (loc. cit.) that +several serpentine pieces of hide are sewed across the soles to prevent +them from wearing out:</p> + +<p class="quote"> +The inner boot of the women, unlike that of the men, is loose around the +leg, coming as high as the knee joint behind, and in front carried up by +a long, pointed flap nearly to the waist and there fastened to the +breeches. The upper boot, with the hair as usual outside, corresponds +with the other in shape, except that it is much more full, especially on +the outer side, where it bulges out so preposterously as to give the +women the most awkward, bow-legged appearance imaginable. <span +class="emspace">***</span>Here, also, as in the jacket, considerable +taste is displayed in the selection of different parts of the deerskin, +alternate strips of dark and white being placed up and down the sides +and front by way of ornament. The women also wear a moccasin (itigega) +overall in the winter-time.</p> + +<p>The dress of the Aivillirmiut is similar to that of the Igiulirmiut +(Gilder, p. 139).</p> + +<p>Traces of clothing found in old graves of Cumberland Sound and +Frobisher’s description of the dress of the Nugumiut show that the style +of clothing now used by the Igiulirmiut formerly obtained in all parts +of Baffin Land.</p> + +<p>All the Eskimo wear mittens. Those used in winter are made of the +skin of young seals or of deerskin. In summer they use hairless +sealskin, and sometimes make them with two thumbs, so as to turn the +mitten round if one side should become wet.</p> + +<p>The manner of dressing the hair practiced by the tribes of +Northeastern Baffin Land differs from that of other tribes. On Davis +Strait and in Hudson Bay the men allow it to grow to a considerable +length, but frequently cut it short on the forehead. If all the hair is +long it is kept back by a band made of the skin of deer antlers taken in +the velvet. Sometimes these ties are very neatly finished. Frobisher +states that the Nugumiut shaved part of their heads. The Kinipetu shave +the top of the head; the Netchillirmiut wear their hair short.</p> + +<p>The women have two styles of dressing their hair. They always part it +on the top of the head. The back hair is wound into a bunch protruding +from the back of the head or nicely arranged in a knot. The hair at the +sides is plaited and folded over the ears, joining the knot behind. The +other way is to arrange these parts in small pigtails reaching a little +below the ears. They are kept in order by an ivory or brass ring (see +<a href="#fig515">Fig. 515</a>).</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page559" id="page559">559</a></span> +<p>The manner in which the Iglulirmiut dress their hair is thus +described by Parry (II, p. 493):</p> + +<p class="quote"> +They separate their locks into two equal parts, one of which hangs on +each side of their heads and in front of their shoulders. To stiffen and +bind these they use a narrow strap of deerskin, attached at one end to a +round piece of bone, fourteen inches long, tapered to a point, and +covered over with leather. This looks like a little whip, the handle of +which is placed up and down the hair and the strap wound round it in a +number of spiral turns, making the tail, thus equipped, very much +resemble one of those formerly worn by our seamen. The strap of this +article of dress, which is altogether called a tugliga, is so made from +the deerskin as to show when bound round the hair, alternate turns of +white and dark fur, which give it a very neat and ornamental appearance. + <span class="emspace">***</span>Those who are less nice dispose + <span class="emspace">***</span>their hair into a loose plait on +each side or have one tugliga and one plait.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig513" id="fig513"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig513.png" width="351" height="403" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 513.</span> Ivory combs. (National +Museum, Washington. 10195.) 1/1</p> + +<p>The natives of Southampton Island arrange their hair in a bunch +protruding from the forehead (sulubaut). The same dress is worn at +certain feasts on Davis Strait (<a href="#page608">p. 608</a>).</p> + +<p>For dressing the hair ivory combs are in use, two specimens of which +are represented in. Fig. 513.</p> + +<p>The clothing is frequently trimmed with straps of white deerskin, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page560" id="page560">560</a></span> +giving it a pleasing appearance. The edge of the women’s jacket is +adorned with ivory beads. Instead of these, teeth, deer’s ears, foxes’ +noses, or brass bells are sometimes used.</p> + +<p>The inner jackets of the men are sometimes trimmed with beads, +feathers, or leather straps, forming a collar and figures of different +kinds on the back and on the breast. An amulet is worn in the middle of +the back (<a href="#page592">p. 592</a>). These ornaments and the +amulet are only visible when the outer garment is taken off in the +hut.</p> + +<div class="picblock"> +<a name="fig514" id="fig514"> </a><br> +<div class="picture w450"> +<img src="images/fig514a.png" width="406" height="365" alt="see caption"></div> +<div class="picture w450"> +<img src="images/fig514b.png" width="440" height="241" alt="see caption"></div> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 514.</span> Buckles. <i>c</i> (From +Tununirnusirn.)<br> +(National Museum, Washington, <i>a</i>, 10196; <i>b</i>, 10400; +<i>c</i>, 10177; <i>d</i>, 10196; <i>e</i>, 10195; <i>f</i>, 10207.) +1/1</p> +</div> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page561" id="page561">561</a></span> +<p>Fig. 514 represents a number of buckles serving to carry needlecases +or similar implements at the girdle, to which the eye is tied, the +button being fastened to the implement. Head ornaments are in frequent +use and are sometimes beautifully finished.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig515" id="fig515"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig515.png" width="441" height="197" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 515.</span> Manner of tattooing face and +wearing hair.</p> + +<p>The women are in the habit of adorning their faces by tattooing. It +is done, when they are about twelve years of age, by passing needle and +thread covered with soot under the skin, or by puncture, the points of +the tattooing instruments being rubbed with the same substance in both +cases, which is a mixture of the juice of <i>Fucus</i> and soot, or with +gunpowder, by which process they obtain a blue color. The face, arms, +hands, thighs, and breasts are the parts of the body which are generally +tattooed. The patterns will be seen in Figs. 515 and 516.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig516" id="fig516"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig516.png" width="216" height="157" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 516.</span> Manner of tattooing legs and +hands.</p> + + + + +<h3><a name="social" id="social">SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS LIFE.</a></h3> + +<h4><a name="social_domestic" id="social_domestic">DOMESTIC +OCCUPATIONS AND AMUSEMENTS.</a></h4> + +<p>It is winter and the natives are established in their warm snow +houses. At this time of the year it is necessary to make use of the +short daylight and twilight for hunting. Long before the day begins to +dawn the Eskimo prepares for hunting. He rouses his housemates; his wife +supplies the lamp with a new wick and fresh blubber +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page562" id="page562">562</a></span> +and the dim light which has been kept burning during the night quickly +brightens up and warms the hut. While the woman is busy preparing +breakfast the man fits up his sledge for hunting. He takes the snow +block which closes the entrance of the dwelling room during the night +out of the doorway and passes through the low passages. Within the +passage the dogs are sleeping, tired by the fatigues of the day before. +Though their long, heavy hair protects them from the severe cold of the +Arctic winter, they like to seek shelter from the piercing winds in the +entrance of the hut.</p> + +<p>The sledge is iced, the harnesses are taken out of the storeroom by +the door, and the dogs are harnessed to the sledge. Breakfast is now +ready and after having taken a hearty meal of seal soup and frozen and +cooked seal meat the hunter lashes the spear that stands outside of the +hut upon the sledge, hangs the harpoon line, some toggles, and his knife +over the antlers, and starts for the hunting ground. Here he waits +patiently for the blowing seal, sometimes until late in the evening.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the women, who stay at home, are engaged in their domestic +occupations, mending boots and making new clothing, or they visit one +another, taking some work with them, or pass their time with games or in +playing with the children. While sitting at their sewing and at the same +time watching their lamps and cooking the meat, they incessantly hum +their favorite tunes. About noon they cook their dinner and usually +prepare at the same time the meal for the returning hunters. As soon as +the first sledge is heard approaching, the pots, which have been pushed +back during the afternoon, are placed over the fire, and when the hungry +men enter the hut their dinner is ready. While hunting they usually open +the seals caught early in the morning, to take out a piece of the flesh +or liver, which they eat raw, for lunch. The cut is then temporarily +fastened until the final dressing of the animal at home.</p> + +<p>In the western regions particularly the hunters frequently visit the +depots of venison made in the fall, and the return is always followed by +a great feast.</p> + +<p>After the hunters reach home they first unharness their dogs and +unstring the traces, which are carefully arranged, coiled up, and put +away in the storeroom. Then the sledge is unloaded and the spoils are +dragged through the entrance into the hut. A religious custom +commands the women to leave off working, and not until the seal is cut +up are they allowed to resume their sewing and the preparing of skins. +This custom is founded on the tradition that all kinds of sea animals +have risen from the fingers of their supreme goddess, who must be +propitiated after being offended by the murder of her offspring (see +<a href="#page583">p. 583</a>). The spear is stuck into the snow at +the entrance of the house, the sledge is turned upside down, and the ice +coating is removed from the runners. Then it is leaned against the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page563" id="page563">563</a></span> +wall of the house, and at last the hunter is ready to enter. He strips +off his deerskin jacket and slips into his sealskin coat. The former is +carefully cleaned of the adhering ice and snow with the snowbeater and +put into the storeroom outside the house.</p> + +<p>This done, the men are ready for their dinner, of which the women do +not partake. In winter the staple food of the Eskimo is boiled seal and +walrus meat, though in some parts of the western districts it is musk ox +and venison, a rich and nourishing soup being obtained by cooking +the meat. The natives are particularly fond of seal and walrus soup, +which is made by mixing and boiling water, blood, and blubber with large +pieces of meat.</p> + +<p>The food is not always salted, but sometimes melted sea water ice, +which contains a sufficient quantity of salt, is used for cooking. Liver +is generally eaten raw and is considered a tidbit. I have seen the +intestines eaten only when there was no meat.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig517" id="fig517"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig517.png" width="443" height="151" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 517.</span> Forks. <i>a</i>, <i>b</i> +(From Iglulik.) (National Museum, Washington, <i>a</i>, 10395; <i>b</i>, +10393.)</p> + +<p>Forks (Fig. 517)<a class="tag" name="tag6" id="tag6" href="#note6">6</a> are used to take the meat out of the kettle and the soup +is generally poured out into a large cup. Before the introduction of +European manufactures these vessels and dishes generally consisted of +whalebone. One of these has been described by Parry +(I, p. 286). It was circular in form, one piece of whalebone +being bent into the proper shape for the sides and another flat piece of +the same material sewed to it for a bottom, so closely as to make it +perfectly watertight. A ladle or spoon (Fig. 518) is sometimes used +in drinking it, but usually the cup is passed around, each taking a sip +in turn. In the same way large pieces of meat are passed round, each +taking as large a mouthful as possible and then cutting +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page564" id="page564">564</a></span> +off the bit close to the lips. They all smack their lips in eating. The +Eskimo drink a great deal of water, which is generally kept in vessels +standing near the lamps. When the men have finished their meal the women +take their share, and then all attack the frozen meat which is kept in +the storerooms. The women are allowed to participate in this part of the +meal. An enormous quantity of meat is devoured every night, and +sometimes they only suspend eating when they go to bed, keeping a piece +of meat within reach in case they awake.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig518" id="fig518"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig518.png" width="443" height="61" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 518.</span> Ladle of musk ox horn. +(National Museum. Washington. 10382.) ½</p> + +<p>After dinner the seals, which have been placed behind the lamps to +thaw, are thrown upon the floor, cut up, and the spare meat and skins +are taken into the storerooms. If a scarcity of food prevails in the +village and a hunter has caught a few seals, every inhabitant of the +settlement receives a piece of meat and blubber, which he takes to his +hut, and the successful hunter invites all hands to a feast.</p> + +<p>The dogs are fed every second day after dinner. For this purpose two +men go to a place at a short distance from the hut, taking the frozen +food with them, which they split with a hatchet or the point of the +spear. While one is breaking the solid mass the other keeps the dogs off +by means of the whip, but as soon as the food is ready they make a rush +at it, and in less than half a minute have swallowed their meal. No dog +of a strange team is allowed to steal anything, but is kept at a +distance by the dogs themselves and by the whip. If the dogs are very +hungry they are harnessed to the sledge in order to prevent an attack +before the men are ready. They are unharnessed after the food is +prepared, the weakest first, in order to give him the best chance of +picking out some good pieces. Sometimes they are fed in the house; in +such a case, the food being first prepared, they are led into the hut +singly; thus each receives his share.</p> + +<p>All the work being finished, boots and stockings are changed, as they +must be dried and mended. The men visit one another and spend the night +in talking, singing, gambling, and telling stories. The events of the +day are talked over, success in hunting is compared, the hunting tools +requiring mending are set in order, and the lines are dried and +softened. Some busy themselves in cutting new ivory implements and seal +lines or in carving. They never spend the nights quite alone, but meet +for social entertainment. During these visits the host places a large +lump of frozen meat and a knife on the side bench behind the lamp and +every one is welcome to help himself to as much as he likes.</p> + +<p>The first comers sit down on the ledge, while those entering later +stand or squat in the passage. When any one addresses the whole assembly +he always turns his face to the wall and avoids facing the listeners. +Most of the men take off their outer jacket in the house and they sit +chatting until very late. Even the young children do not go to bed +early.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page565" id="page565">565</a></span> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig519" id="fig519"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig519.png" width="368" height="298" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 519.</span> Skull used in the game +ajegaung, from Ungava Bay. (From L. M. Turner’s collection.) +(National Museum, Washington. 90227.) 1/1</p> + +<p>The women sit on the bed in front of their lamps, with their legs +under them, working continually on their own clothing or on that of the +men, drying the wet footgear and mittens, and softening the leather by +chewing and rubbing. If a bitch has a litter of pups it is their +business to look after them, to keep them warm, and to feed them +regularly. Generally the pups are put into a small harness and are +allowed to crawl about the side of the bed, where they are tied to the +wall by a trace. Young children are always carried in their mothers’ +hoods, but when about a year and a half old they are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page566" id="page566">566</a></span> +allowed to play on the bed, and are only carried by their mothers when +they get too mischievous. When the mother is engaged in any hard work +they are carried by the young girls. They are weaned when about two +years old, but women suckle them occasionally until they are three or +four years of age. During this time they are frequently fed from their +mothers’ mouths. When about twelve years old they begin to help their +parents, the girls sewing and preparing skins, the boys accompanying +their fathers in hunting expeditions. The parents are very fond of their +children and treat them kindly. They are never beaten and rarely +scolded, and in turn they are very dutiful, obeying the wishes of their +parents and taking care of them in their old age.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig520" id="fig520"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig520.png" width="375" height="245" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 520.</span> Ivory carving representing +head of fox, used in the game ajegaung.<br> +(Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6820.) 1/1</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page567" id="page567">567</a></span> +<p>In winter gambling is one of the favorite amusements of the Eskimo. +Figs. 519–521 represent the ajegaung, used in a game somewhat +similar to our cup and ball. The most primitive device is Fig. 519, +a hare’s skull with a number of holes drilled through it. +A specimen was kindly lent to me by Lucien M. Turner, who brought +it from Ungava Bay; but in Baffin Land exactly the same device is in +use. Fig. 520 represents the head of a fox, in ivory; Fig. 521, +a polar bear. The specimen shown in Fig. 521 <i>b</i> was +brought from Cumberland Sound by Kumlien. The neck of the bear is more +elaborate than the one shown in <i>a</i>. The attachment of the part +representing the hind legs is of some interest. The game is played as +follows: First, the skull or the piece of ivory must be thrown up and +caught ten times upon the stick in any one of the holes. Then, beginning +with the hole in front (the mouth), those of the middle line must be +caught. The three holes on the neck of the bear are double, one crossing +vertically, the other slanting backward, but both ending in one hole on +the neck. After the mouth has been caught upon the stick the vertical +hole in the neck is the next, then the oblique one, and so on down the +middle line of the animal’s body. If, in the first part of the game, the +player misses twice he must give up the pieces to his neighbor, who then +takes his turn. In the second part he is allowed to play on as long as +he catches in any hole, even if it be not the right one, but as soon as +he misses he must give it up. After having caught one hole he proceeds +to the next, and the player who first finishes all the holes has won the +game.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig521" id="fig521"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig521.png" width="420" height="487" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 521.</span> Ivory carvings representing +polar bear, used in the game ajegaung.<br> +<i>a</i> (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6819.) <i>b</i> (National +Museum, Washington. 34078.) ⅔</p> + +<p>A game similar to dice, called tingmiujang, i.e., images of birds, is +frequently played. A set of about fifteen figures like those +represented in Fig. 522 belong to this game, some representing birds, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page568" id="page568">568</a></span> +others men or women. The players sit around a board or a piece of +leather and the figures are shaken in the hand and thrown upward. On +falling, some stand upright, others lie flat on the back or on the side. +Those standing upright belong to that player whom they face; sometimes +they are so thrown that they all belong to the one who tossed them up. +The players throw by turns until the last figure is taken up, the one +getting the greatest number of the figures being the winner.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig522" id="fig522"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig522.png" width="295" height="239" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 522.</span> Figures used in playing +tingmiujang, a game similar to dice.<br> +(Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6823.) 1/1</p> + +<p>A favorite game is the nuglutang (Fig. 523). A small, rhomboidal +plate of ivory with a hole in the center is hung from the roof and +steadied by a heavy stone or a piece of ivory hanging from its lower +end. The Eskimo stand around it and when the winner of the last game +gives a signal every one tries to hit the hole with a stick. The one who +succeeds has won. This game is always played amid great excitement.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig523" id="fig523"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig523.png" width="322" height="455" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 523.</span> Game of nuglutang. (Museum +für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6821.)</p> + +<p>The sāketān resembles a roulette. A leather cup with a rounded +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page569" id="page569">569</a></span> +bottom and a nozzle is placed on a board and turned round. When it stops +the nozzle points to the winner. At present a tin cup fastened with a +nail to a board is used for the same purpose (Fig. 524).</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig524" id="fig524"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig524.png" width="261" height="139" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 524.</span> The sāketān or roulette. +(Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6854.)</p> + +<p>Their way of managing the gain and loss is very curious. The first +winner in the game must go to his hut and fetch anything he likes as a +stake for the next winner, who in turn receives it, but has to bring a +new stake, in place of this, from his hut. Thus the only one who loses +anything is the first winner of the game, while the only one who wins +anything is the last winner.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig525" id="fig525"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig525.png" width="255" height="347" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 525.</span> The ajarorpoq or cat’s +cradle. <i>a</i> representing deer; <i>b</i>, hare; <i>c</i>, hill and +ponds.</p> + +<p>The women are particularly fond of making figures out of a loop, +a game similar to our cat’s cradle (ajarorpoq). They are, however, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page570" id="page570">570</a></span> +much more clever than we in handling the thong and have a great variety +of forms, some of which are represented in Fig. 525.</p> + +<p>As an example I shall describe the method of making the device +representing a deer (Fig. 525 <i>a</i>): Wind the loop over both +hands, passing it over the back of the thumbs inside the palms and +outside the fourth fingers. Take the string from the palm of the right +hand with the first finger of the left and vice versa. The first finger +of the right hand moves over all the parts of the thong lying on the +first and fourth fingers of the right hand and passes through the loop +formed by the thongs on the thumb of the right hand; then it moves back +over the foremost thong and takes it up, while the thumb lets go the +loop. The first finger moves downward before the thongs lying on the +fourth finger and comes up in front of all the thongs. The thumb is +placed into the loops hanging on the first finger and the loop hanging +on the first finger of the left hand is drawn through both and hung +again over the same finger. The thumb and first finger of the right and +the thumb of the left hand let go their loops. The whole is then drawn +tight. A few other devices from Hudson Bay are represented by +Klutschak (p. 139).</p> + +<div class="figfloat w200"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig526" id="fig526"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig526.png" width="171" height="221" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 526.</span> Ball. (Museum für +Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6822.)</p> +</div> + +<p>The ball (Fig. 526) is most frequently used in summer. It is made of +sealskin stuffed with moss and neatly trimmed with skin straps. One man +throws the ball among the players, whose object it is to keep it always +in motion without allowing it to touch the ground. Another game of ball +I have seen played by men only. A leather ball filled with hard +clay is propelled with a whip, the lash of which is tied up in a coil. +Every man has his whip and is to hit the ball and so prevent his fellow +players from getting at it.</p> + +<p>A third game at ball called igdlukitaqtung is played with small balls +tossed up alternately from the right to the left, one always being in +the air. Songs used in the game will be found in the last pages of this +paper.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page571" id="page571">571</a></span> +<p>An amusement of women and children is to point successively on the +forehead, the cheek, and the chin and to pronounce as rapidly as +possible sulubautiχu´tika, tudliχu´tika, tadliχu´tika, tudliχú´tika, +i.e., the forehead, the cheek, the chin, the cheek.</p> + +<p>Young children play with toy sledges, kayaks, boats, bows and arrows, +and dolls. The last are made in the same way by all the tribes, +a wooden body being clothed with scraps of deerskin cut in the same +way as the clothing of men. Fig. 527 shows dolls in the dress of the +Oqomiut; Fig. 528, in that of the Akudnirmiut.</p> + +<div class="picblock"> +<div class="picture half"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig527" id="fig527"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig527.png" width="199" height="241" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 527.</span> Dolls in dress of the +Oqomiut. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6702.) 1/1</p> +</div> + +<div class="picture half"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig528" id="fig528"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig528.png" width="217" height="305" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 528.</span> Dolls in dress of the +Akudnirmiut. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6702.) 1/1</p> +</div> +</div> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page572" id="page572">572</a></span> +<p>In summer children and grown up people exercise by sitting down on +their knees in a large circle and simultaneously jumping up and down, by +kneeling and holding their toes in their hands and trying to outdo one +another in running in this position, &c.</p> + +<p>A favorite amusement during the long winter nights is telling tales +and composing songs. Old traditions are always related in a highly +ceremonious manner. The narrator takes off his outer jacket, pulls the +hood over his head, and sits down in the rear part of the hut, turning +his face toward the wall, and then tells the story slowly and solemnly. +All the stories are related in a very abridged form, the substance being +supposed to be known. The form is always the same, and should the +narrator happen to say one word otherwise than is customary he will be +corrected by the listeners.</p> + +<p>Children tell one another fables and sing short songs. Comic songs +making fun of any person are great favorites. Details on the poetry and +music of the Eskimo will be found further on.</p> + +<p>Parry’s description of the games and sports practiced by the +Iglulirmiut is so interesting that I insert it here +(II, p. 538):</p> + +<p class="quote"> +On an occasion when most of the men were absent from the huts on a +sealing excursion, the women joined in playing, one of them being the +chief performer. Being requested to amuse the rest, she suddenly unbound +her hair, platted it, tied both ends together to keep it out of her way, +and then stepping out into the middle of the hut, began to make the most +hideous faces that can be conceived, by drawing both lips into her +mouth, poking forward her chin, squinting frightfully, occasionally +shutting one eye, and moving her head from side to side as if her neck +had been dislocated. This exhibition, which they call ajokitarpoq, and +which is evidently considered an accomplishment that few of them possess +in perfection, distorts every feature in the most horrible manner +imaginable, and would, I think, put our most skillful horse-collar +grinners quite out of countenance.</p> + +<p>This performance is identical with one described later (<a href="#page578">p. 578</a>) as practiced during the meals in summer.</p> + +<div class="quote"> +<p>The next performance consists in looking steadfastly and gravely +forward and repeating the words tăbā’-tăbā’; kjaibo, kjaibo; kebang +inutovik, kebang inutovik; amatama, amatama, in the order in which they +are here placed, but each at least four times, and always by a peculiar +modulation of the voice speaking them in pairs as they are coupled +above. The sound is made to proceed from the throat in a way much +resembling ventriloquism, to which art it is indeed an approach. After +the last amatama she always pointed with her finger toward her body, and +pronounced the word angakoq, steadily retaining her gravity for five or +six seconds, and then bursting into a loud laugh, in which she was +joined by all the rest. The women sometimes produce a much more guttural +and unnatural sound, repeating principally the word ikeri-ikeri, +coupling them as before, and staring in such a manner as to make their +eyes appear ready to burst out of their sockets with the exertion. Two +or more of them will sometimes stand up face to face, and with great +quickness and regularity respond to each other, keeping such exact time +that the sound appears to come from one throat instead of several. Very +few of the females are possessed of this accomplishment, which is called +pitkusiraqpoq, and it is not uncommon to see several of the younger +females practising it. A third part of the game, distinguished by +the word kaitikpoq, consists only in falling on each knee alternately, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page573" id="page573">573</a></span> +a piece of agility which they perform with tolerable quickness, +considering the bulky and awkward nature of their dress. <span +class="emspace">***</span>Then the same woman came forward, and +letting her arms hang down loosely and bending her body very much +forward, shook herself with extreme violence, as if her whole frame had +been strongly convulsed, uttering at the same time, in a wild tone of +voice, some of the unnatural sounds before mentioned.</p> + +<p>This being at an end, a new exhibition was commenced in which ten or +twelve women took a part, and which our gentlemen compared to blind +man’s buff. A circle being formed, and a boy dispatched to look out +at the door of the hut, a woman placed herself in the center, and, +after making a variety of guttural noises for about half a minute, shut +her eyes, and ran about till she had taken hold of one of the others, +whose business it then became to take her station in the center, so that +almost every woman in her turn occupied this post, and in her own +peculiar way, either by distortion of countenance or other gestures, +performed her part in the game. This continued three-quarters of an +hour, and, from the precaution of placing a lookout who was withdrawn +when it was over, as well as from some very expressive signs which need +not here be mentioned, there is reason to believe that it is usually +followed by certain indecencies, with which their husbands are not to be +acquainted. <span class="emspace">***</span></p> + +<p>The most common amusement however, and to which their husbands made +no objection, they performed at Winter Island expressly for our +gratification. The females, being collected to the number of ten or +twelve, stood in as large a circle as the hut would admit, with a man in +the center. He began by a sort of half howling, half singing noise, +which appeared as if designed to call the attention of the women, the +latter soon commencing the Amna Aya song. This they continued without +variety, remaining quite still while the man walked round within the +circle; his body was rather bent forward, his eyes sometimes closed, his +arms constantly moving up and down, and now and then hoarsely +vociferating a word or two as if to increase the animation of the +singers, who, whenever he did this, quitted the chorus and rose into the +words of the song. At the end of ten minutes they all left off at once, +and after one minute’s interval commenced a second act precisely similar +and of equal duration, the man continuing to invoke their muse as +before. A third act which followed this, varied frequently towards +the close only in his throwing his feet up before and clapping his hands +together, by which exertion he was thrown into a violent perspiration. +He then retired, desiring a young man (who as we were informed was the +only individual of several then present thus qualified) to take his +place in the center as master of the ceremonies, when the same antics as +before were again gone through. After this description it will scarcely +be necessary to remark that nothing can be poorer in its way than this +tedious singing recreation, which, as well as in everything in which +dancing is concerned, they express by the word mumipoq. They seem, +however, to take great delight in it; and even a number of the men as +well as all the children crept into the hut by degrees to peep at the +performance.</p> + +<p>The Eskimo women and children often amuse themselves with a game not +unlike our “skip-rope.” This is performed by two women holding the ends +of a line and whirling it regularly round and round, while a third jumps +over it in the middle according to the following order. She commences by +jumping twice on both feet, then alternately with the right and left, +and next four times with the feet slipped one behind the other, the rope +passing once round at each jump. After this she performs a circle on the +ground, jumping about half a dozen times in the course of it, which +bringing her to her original position, the same thing is repeated as +often as it can be done without entangling the line. One or two of the +women performed this with considerable agility and adroitness, +considering the clumsiness of their boots and jackets, and seemed to +pride themselves in some degree on the qualification. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page574" id="page574">574</a></span> +A second kind of this game consists in two women holding a long +rope by its ends and whirling it round in such a manner over the heads +of two others standing close together near the middle of the bight, that +each of these shall jump over it alternately. The art therefore, which +is indeed considerable, depends more on those whirling the rope than on +the jumpers, who are, however, obliged to keep exact time in order to be +ready for the rope passing under their feet.</p> +</div> + +<p>Of all these games I observed only the one called pitkusiraqpoq by +Parry, which I saw played several times at Cumberland Sound. (See +Appendix, <a href="#app3">Note 3</a>.)</p> + +<p class="space"> +While in times of plenty the home life is quite cheerful, the house +presents a sad and gloomy appearance if stormy weather prevents the men +from hunting. The stores are quickly consumed, one lamp after another is +extinguished, and everybody sits motionless in the dark hut. +Nevertheless the women and men do not stop humming their monotonous amna +aya and their stoicism in enduring the pangs of hunger is really +wonderful. At last, when starvation is menacing the sufferers, the most +daring of the men resolves to try his luck. Though the storm may rage +over the icy plain he sets out to go sealing. For hours he braves the +cold and stands waiting and watching at the breathing hole until he +hears the blowing of the seal and succeeds in killing it.</p> + +<p>When those who have remained at home hear the sound of the returning +sledge, they rush out of the houses to meet it. Quickly they help the +bold hunter to get on shore. The sledge is unloaded, the seal dragged +into the house, and every one joyfully awaits his share. The animal is +cut up, every household receiving a piece of meat and blubber. The +gloomy huts are again lighted up and the pots, which had been out of use +for some days, are again hung up over the lamps.</p> + +<p>If the hunter, however, has tried in vain to procure food, if the +storm does not subside, the terrors of famine visit the settlement. The +dogs are the first to fall victims to the pressing hunger, and if the +worst comes cannibalism is resorted to. But all these occurrences are +spoken of with the utmost horror. In such cases children particularly +are killed and eaten. Fortunately, however, such occurrences are very +rare.</p> + + +<h4><a name="social_visit" id="social_visit">VISITING.</a></h4> + +<p>As soon as the ice has consolidated in winter a lively intercourse +springs up between the settlements. Friends visit one another, trading +excursions are undertaken, and almost every few days visitors arrive at +the village. They are welcomed with great hospitality. The sledge is +unloaded and the dogs are fed by the host. The visitor is led into the +hut, served with the choicest pieces of meat, and the hostess puts his +clothing in order. In the winter these visits are generally short, +rarely lasting more than a few days.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page575" id="page575">575</a></span> +<p>Longer journeys are postponed until spring, when food can be procured +more easily. These journeys are planned a long time before they are +made. While the families generally leave what they can spare of their +household goods in winter at their summer settlement, they bring away +everything they possess to the winter village if they intend to visit a +neighboring tribe in the spring. In April or May they leave their snow +houses; the tent poles and the whole of their goods are loaded upon the +sledge, only the boats being left behind in charge of some friend, and +then they start upon their long, lonely journey. On the first day they +do not travel far, but make the first halt after about a twelve-mile +journey. As the load is heavy the men and women sit on the top of the +sledges only to rest. The driver walks alongside and the women lead the +way, the dogs pulling more willingly if they see somebody ahead of the +sledge. At night it is not unloaded, only those things being taken out +which are necessary for building a small tent and for cooking. In order +to protect the sledge from the attacks of the dogs, the pitu (see +<a href="#page530">p. 530</a>) is taken out and fastened to an eye +cut into the ice with the end of the spear. After having traveled about +three days a longer halt is made; the sledge is unloaded, the dogs are +unharnessed, and the men go out hunting in order to procure food for the +dogs and for themselves. Thus they slowly proceed until they at last +reach the end of their journey. Here they settle down with the friends +whom they have come to visit, establish a hut of their own, and spend a +whole year with them. In the following spring they retrace their journey +to their own homes. Journeys of four to five hundred miles in one spring +are not of rare occurrence; longer journeys, however, frequently last +for years.</p> + +<p>A journey of two hundred miles, going and coming, is sometimes +accomplished in one season. For such a journey they would set out in +March or April, leaving all their goods behind, and live with the +friends whom they visit for a month or two, returning about June. While +on the visit the visitors help their friends to provide for their +families.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig529" id="fig529"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig529.png" width="350" height="291" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 529.</span> Modern snow goggles, of wood. +(National Museum, Washington. 29978.) ½</p> + +<p>In traveling in the spring the Eskimo always use snow goggles to +protect themselves from snow blindness. The modern ones (Fig. 529), +which are made of wood and have a shade and a narrow slit for each eye, +are very effective. The old design is represented in Fig. 530, the +specimen being made of ivory.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig530" id="fig530"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig530.png" width="233" height="89" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 530.</span> Old form of snow goggles, of +ivory, found in Idjorituaqtuin, Cumberland Sound.<br> +(Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. IV A 6833.)</p> + +<p>Long journeys are sometimes made in summer, several families +traveling together in their boats. As, however, the open season is very +short in many parts of Northeastern America, spring journeys are more +frequently made.</p> + +<p>When traveling by boat the tent poles, skin covers, and all the +household goods are stowed away in the bottom. The women do the pulling, +three or four working at each oar, while a man sits on the stern board +steering with a paddle. They move on at their leisure, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page576" id="page576">576</a></span> +stopping whenever they are tired or when a seal is seen blowing near the +boat. The kayaks are tied to the stern and towed along. Children and +dogs lie about in the bottom of the boat. In the center there is a tub +containing all kinds of provisions, and every now and then they take +some refreshment from it. During the nights the tents are erected at +suitable points. The natives are well acquainted with these, and, if +they are not compelled by severe weather to seek shelter at the nearest +point, always visit the same places. These have a smooth, sloping beach, +fresh water, and dry, gravelly places in which the tents are built.</p> + + +<h4><a name="social_summer" id="social_summer">SOCIAL CUSTOMS IN +SUMMER.</a></h4> + +<p>When the rays of the sun begin to be warmer and the roofs of the snow +houses tumble down the natives live in a very uncomfortable way until a +sufficient number of sealskins are procured to build a tent. Sometimes a +family live under a roof too small to cover them +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page577" id="page577">577</a></span> +all, though they sit as close as possible, and too low to permit them to +sit upright; but, as seals are basking everywhere on the ice, this state +of affairs does not last long. The women split a number of large skins +and dry them on the snow, and by the middle of May they can build a +pretty large tent; but it is not until they settle permanently at the +place of the summer village that the large tent is sewed and put up.</p> + +<p>At this season salmon and venison form the staple food of the Eskimo. +The old men, women, and children, who stay at the lakes or at the salmon +rivers, depend almost entirely upon this food. They fish and eat the +salmon in a raw as well as in a cooked state. Birds are caught and eaten +raw. The surplus salmon are split and dried on poles erected for the +purpose. Deer shoulders, legs, and backs are also cut into thin pieces +and dried. Sometimes the dried fish and venison are deposited in stone +caches for later use, but most of it is eaten in summer, especially when +the Eskimo go traveling. When the men go deer hunting they take a supply +of dried salmon with them, and thus can stay out for a week or even +longer. When a deer is killed it is skinned at once, the legs being slit +and the belly opened. The paunch is carefully tied up, as the contents +are a favorite dish of the Eskimo. The head, the legs, and the ribs are +cut off and after being piled up the whole is covered with heavy stones, +only the horns protruding from the top of the depot. The hams and the +skin are generally carried to the hut at once, and, if the distance is +not too great or the carcass can be reached with sledges or boats, the +whole animal is brought home. Large depots are only made in the fall, +when there is no danger of the meat spoiling.</p> + +<p>At this season the natives visit deer passes and lakes, near which +they establish their huts. The tents and all the household goods are +packed up in heavy bundles, some of which are carried by the dogs, the +load hanging on both sides of the back; others, by men and women, being +secured by one strap which passes over the forehead and by another which +passes over the breast. Their strength and their perseverance in +carrying heavy loads over long distances are remarkable.</p> + +<p>The social life in the summer settlements is rather different from +that in winter. At this season the families do not cook their own meals, +but a single one provides for the whole settlement. The day before it is +her turn to cook, the woman goes to the hills to fetch shrubs for the +fire. Three stones are put up near the hut as a fireplace, the opening +facing the wind. The kettle is placed on the top of it and the fire is +fed with shrubs and blubber. When the meal is ready the master of the +house stands beside it, crying Ujo! Ujo! (boiled meat) and everybody +comes out of the hut provided with a knife. The dish is carried to a +level place and the men sit down around it in one circle, while the +women form another. Then large +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page578" id="page578">578</a></span> +lumps of meat are passed around, everybody cutting off a piece and +taking a swallow of the soup, which is passed around in a large leather +cup. These dinners, which are held in the evening after the return from +the hunt, are almost always enlivened by a mimic performance. A man +or an old woman sits down in the center of the circle and amuses the +assembly by singing and dancing or by making faces. A favorite +performance is one in which a man, with blackened face and with a thong +tied around his head, writhes and makes odd grimaces.</p> + +<p>After dinner the men sit chatting or gambling before the huts, while +the women and children amuse themselves by running about, playing at +ball, or dancing.</p> + +<p>A strict religious custom forbids the Eskimo to work on the deerskins +which are obtained in summer before the ice has formed; they are only +dried and tied up in large bundles. In the fall, when on their way to +the winter settlements, the Eskimo travel rather quickly. The boats are +piled up with the spoils of the summer hunt and the place of destination +is generally reached before the stormy weather sets in.</p> + +<p>When it gets colder short excursions are made by boat in order to +collect shrubs for covering the tents. Several families join in building +a common hut, and on a fine day the old tents are torn down and the tent +poles are converted into a strong frame, which is covered with a double +roof. The bed and the platforms for the lamps are raised and henceforth +all the cooking is done inside.</p> + +<p>As soon as the first seals are caught with the harpoon the deer skins +are prepared. If they were deposited under stones in summer, sledges set +out to bring them to the settlements, and then they are distributed for +winter clothing. According to Hall the western tribes are in the habit +of spreading all the skins on one place and distributing them among the +inhabitants of the settlement. I did not observe the same custom +among the eastern tribes. Then they devote themselves to dressing the +skins. On Davis Strait this work falls to the share of the women, while +among the Hudson Bay tribes it is done by the men. At this season the +great religious feasts of the natives are celebrated, which announce, as +it were, the commencement of winter.</p> + + +<h4><a name="social_laws" id="social_laws">SOCIAL ORDER AND +LAWS.</a></h4> + +<p>The social order of the Eskimo is entirely founded on the family and +on the ties of consanguinity and affinity between the individual +families. Generally children are betrothed when very young, but these +engagements, not being strictly binding, may be broken off at any time. +When the children reach maturity the girl learns the duties of a woman +and the boy those of a man. As soon as he is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page579" id="page579">579</a></span> +able to provide for a family and she can do the work falling to her +share, they are allowed to marry. It happens frequently that the young +man’s parents are unwilling to allow him to provide for his +parents-in-law, and then <i>he</i> may be rejected at any moment. +Usually the young couple must begin housekeeping with the young wife’s +family and the young man, if belonging to a strange tribe, must join +that of his wife. It is not until after his parents-in-law are dead that +he is entirely master of his own actions. Though the betrothal be +entered into in the days of childhood the bride must be bought from the +parents by some present. In other instances the men choose their wives +when grown up and sometimes a long wooing precedes the marriage. The +consent of the bride’s parents, or, if they are dead, that of her +brothers, is always necessary. Marriages between relatives are +forbidden: cousins, nephew and niece, aunt and uncle, are not allowed to +intermarry. There is, however, no law to prevent a man from marrying two +sisters. It is remarkable that Lyon states just the reverse +(p. 353). I am sure, however, that my statements are correct +in reference to the Davis Strait tribes.</p> + +<p>Should the newly married couple join the wife’s family this would +serve as a check to polygamy, which, however, is quite allowable. It is +only when the new family settles on its own account that a man is at +full liberty to take additional wives, among whom one is always +considered the chief wife. Monogamy is everywhere more frequent than +polygamy, only a very few men having two or more wives. According to +Ross polyandry occurs with the Netchillirmiut (II, pp. 356, +373). As long as the mother-in-law lives with the young family the wives +are subordinate to her, while the mothers of both parties are +independent of each other. No example came to my notice of both parents +living with the newly married couple. Sometimes the man and wife do not +set up a new household at once, but each remains at home. The property +necessary for establishing a new family is the hunting gear of the man +and the knife, scraper, lamp, and cooking pot of the women.</p> + +<p>A strange custom permits a man to lend his wife to a friend for a +whole season or even longer and to exchange wives as a sign of +friendship. On certain occasions it is even commanded by a religious law +(see <a href="#page605">p. 605</a>). Nevertheless I know of some +instances of quarrels arising from jealousy. Lyon states, however, that +this passion is unknown among the Iglulirmiut (p. 355). The husband +is not allowed to maltreat or punish his wife; if he does she may leave +him at any time, and the wife’s mother can always command a divorce. +Both are allowed to remarry as soon as they like, even the slightest +pretext being sufficient for a separation.</p> + +<p>I may be allowed to refer once more to the division of labor between +the man and woman. The principal part of the man’s work is to provide +for his family by hunting, i.e., for his wife and children and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page580" id="page580">580</a></span> +for his relatives who have no provider. He must drive the sledge in +traveling, feed the dogs, build the house, and make and keep in order +his hunting implements, the boat cover and seal floats excepted. The +woman has to do the household work, the sewing, and the cooking. She +must look after the lamps, make and mend the tent and boat covers, +prepare the skins, and bring up young dogs. It falls to her share to +make the inner outfit of the hut, to smooth the platforms, line the snow +house, &c. On Davis Strait the men cut up all kinds of animals which +they have caught; on Hudson Bay, however, the women cut up the seals. +There the men prepare the deerskins, which is done by the women among +the eastern tribes. Everywhere the women have to do the rowing in the +large boats while the man steers. Cripples who are unable to hunt do the +same kind of work as women.</p> + +<p>Children are treated very kindly and are not scolded, whipped, or +subjected to any corporal punishment. Among all the tribes infanticide +has been practiced to some extent, but probably only females or children +of widows or widowers have been murdered in this way, the latter on +account of the difficulty of providing for them. It is very remarkable +that this practice seems to be quite allowable among them, while in +Greenland it is believed that the spirit of the murdered child is turned +into an evil spirit, called angiaq, and revenges the crime (Rink, +p. 45).</p> + +<p>Besides the children properly belonging to the family, adopted +children, widows, and old people are considered part of it. Adoption is +carried on among this people to a great extent.</p> + +<p>If for any reason a man is unable to provide for his family or if a +woman cannot do her household work, the children are adopted by a +relative or a friend, who considers them as his own children. In the +same way widows with their children are adopted by their nearest +relative or by a friend and belong to the family, though the woman +retains her own fireplace.</p> + +<p>It is difficult to decide which relative is considered the nearest, +but the ties of consanguinity appear to be much closer than those of +affinity. If a woman dies the husband leaves his children with his +parents-in-law and returns to his own family, and if a man dies his wife +returns to her parents or her brothers, who are the nearest relatives +next to parents or children. When a woman dies, however, after the +children are grown up the widower will stay with them. In case of a +divorce the children generally remain with the mother.</p> + +<p>As a great part of the personal property of a man is destroyed at his +death or placed by his grave, the objects which may be acquired by +inheritance are few. These are the gun, harpoon, sledge, dogs, kayak, +boat, and tent poles of the man and the lamp and pots of the woman. The +first inheritor of these articles is the eldest son living +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page581" id="page581">581</a></span> +with the parents. Sons and daughters having households of their own do +not participate in the inheritance. An elder adopted son has a +preference over a younger son born of the marriage. Details of the laws +which relate to inheritance are unknown to me.</p> + +<p>Sometimes men are adopted who may almost be considered servants. +Particularly bachelors without any relations, cripples who are not able +to provide for themselves, or men who have lost their sledges and dogs +are found in this position. They fulfill minor occupations, mend the +hunting implements, fit out the sledges, feed the dogs, &c.; +sometimes, however, they join the hunters. They follow the master of the +house when he removes from one place to another, make journeys in order +to do his commissions, and so on. The position, however, is a voluntary +one, and therefore these men are not less esteemed than the self +dependent providers.</p> + +<p>Strangers visiting their friends for a season are generally in a +similar position, though they receive a wife if the host happens to have +more than one; if the friend has hunting gear, a sledge, and dogs +of his own, he can arrange a separate fireplace in the hut.</p> + +<p>In summer most families have each their own tent, but in the fall +from two to four join in building a house. Frequently the parents live +on one side, the family of the son-in-law on the other, and a friend or +relative in a small recess. Sometimes two houses have a common entrance +or the passages communicate with one another. The inhabitants of both +parts usually live quite independently of one another, while the oldest +man of every house has some influence over his housemates.</p> + +<p>If the distance between the winter and the summer settlement is very +great or when any particular knowledge is required to find out the +haunts of game, there is a kind of chief in the settlement, whose +acknowledged authority is, however, very limited. He is called the +pimain (i.e., he who knows everything best) or the issumautang. His +authority is virtually limited to the right of deciding on the proper +time to shift the huts from one place to the other, but the families are +not obliged to follow him. At some places it seems to be considered +proper to ask the pimain before moving to another settlement and leaving +the rest of the tribe. He may ask some men to go deer hunting, others to +go sealing, but there is not the slightest obligation to obey his +orders.</p> + +<p>Every family is allowed to settle wherever it likes, visiting a +strange tribe being the only exception. In such a case the newcomer has +to undergo a ceremony which consists chiefly in a duel between a native +of the place and himself. If he is defeated he runs the risk of being +killed, by those among whom he has come (see pp. <a href="#page465">465</a>, <a href="#page609">609</a>).</p> + +<p>There are numerous regulations governing hunting, determining to whom +the game belongs, the obligations of the successful hunter towards the +inhabitants of the village, &c.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page582" id="page582">582</a></span> +<p>When a seal is brought to the huts everybody is entitled to a share +of the meat and blubber, which is distributed by the hunter himself or +carried to the individual huts by his wife. This custom is only +practiced when food is scarce. In time of plenty only the housemates +receive a share of the animal.</p> + +<p>A ground seal belongs to all the men who take part in the hunt, the +skin especially being divided among them. A walrus is cut up at +once into as many parts as there are hunters, the one who first struck +it having the choice of the parts and receiving the head. A whale +belongs to the whole settlement and its capture is celebrated by a feast +(<a href="#page603">p. 603</a>).</p> + +<p>A bear or a young seal belongs to the man who first saw it, no matter +who kills it.</p> + +<p>Lost objects must be restored to the owner if he is known, game, +however, excepted; for example, if a harpoon line breaks and the animal +escapes, but is found later by another man, the game belongs to the +latter. In Hudson Bay he is also allowed to keep the harpoon and +line.</p> + +<p>There is no way of enforcing these unwritten laws and no punishment +for transgressors except the blood vengeance. It is not a rare +occurrence that a man who is offended by another man takes revenge by +killing the offender. It is then the right and the duty of the nearest +relative of the victim to kill the murderer. In certain quarrels between +the Netchillirmiut and the Aivillirmiut, in which the murderer himself +could not be apprehended, the family of the murdered man has killed one +of the murderer’s relations in his stead. Such a feud sometimes lasts +for a long time and is even handed down to a succeeding generation. It +is sometimes settled by mutual agreement. As a sign of reconciliation +both parties touch each other’s breasts, saying, Ilaga (my friend) +(Klutschak, p. 70).</p> + +<p>If a man has committed a murder or made himself odious by other +outrages he may be killed by any one simply as a matter of justice. The +man who intends to take revenge on him must ask his countrymen singly if +each agrees in the opinion that the offender is a bad man deserving +death. If all answer in the affirmative he may kill the man thus +condemned and no one is allowed to revenge the murder. (See Appendix, +<a href="#app4">Note 4</a>.)</p> + +<p>Their method of carrying on such a feud is quite foreign to our +feelings. Strange as it may seem, a murderer will come to visit the +relatives of his victim (though he knows that they are allowed to kill +him in revenge) and will settle with them. He is kindly welcomed and +sometimes lives quietly for weeks and months. Then he is suddenly +challenged to a wrestling match (see <a href="#page609">p. 609</a>), and if defeated is killed, or if victorious +he may kill one of the opposite party, or when hunting he is suddenly +attacked by his companions and slain.</p> + + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page583" id="page583">583</a></span> +<h4><a name="social_religion" id="social_religion">RELIGIOUS IDEAS +AND THE ANGAKUNIRN (PRIESTHOOD).</a></h4> + +<p>Although the principal religious ideas of the Central Eskimo and +those of the Greenlanders are identical, their mythologies differ in +many material points. I will only mention here that they believe in +the Tornait of the old Greenlanders, while the Tornarsuk (i.e., the +great Tornaq of the latter) is unknown to them. Their Supreme Being is a +woman whose name is Sedna.</p> + +<p>The first report on this tradition is found in Warmow’s journal of +his visit to Cumberland Sound (Missionsblatt aus der Brüdergemeinde, +1859, No. I, p. 19). The editor says:</p> + +<p class="quote"> +The name of the good spirit is Sanaq or Sana, and he seems to be +worshiped as the unknown deity. Nobody could give a definite answer to +Brother Warmow’s frequent questions as to what they believed he was. +They only said they invoked his help if they were in need. “Then we ask +him,” one of the men said, “and Takaq (the moon) gives us what we want, +seals and deer.” Another one said that Sanaq had lived on the earth and +afterwards ascended to the moon.</p> + +<p>In Hall’s account of his explorations in Frobisher Bay it is +mentioned that the tribes of that country, the Nugumiut, believe in a +Supreme Being, and the following statement is given (Hall I, +p. 524):</p> + +<p class="quote"> +There is one Supreme Being, called by them Anguta, who created the +earth, sea, and heavenly bodies. There is also a secondary divinity, +a woman, the daughter of Anguta, who is called Sidne. She is +supposed to have created all things having life, animal and vegetable. +She is regarded also as the protecting divinity of the Inuit people. To +her their supplications are addressed; to her their offerings are made; +while most of their religious rites and superstitious observances have +reference to her.</p> + +<p>It is of great importance that in the journals of Hall’s second +journey Sedna is mentioned a few times (spelled Sydney), this being the +only proof that she is known among the tribes of Hudson Bay.</p> + +<p>The statements of the whalers visiting the Sikosuilarmiut and the +Akuliarmiut of Hudson Strait correspond with my own observations. Before +entering into a comparison of this tradition with similar ones belonging +to other tribes, I will give the particulars of the myth as I +received it from the Oqomiut and the Akudnirmiut.</p> + + +<h5><a name="social_religion_sedna" id="social_religion_sedna">SEDNA +AND THE FULMAR.</a></h5> + +<p>Once upon a time there lived on a solitary shore an Inung with his +daughter Sedna. His wife had been dead for some time and the two led a +quiet life. Sedna grew up to be a handsome girl and the youths came from +all around to sue for her hand, but none of them could touch her proud +heart. Finally, at the breaking up of the ice in the spring a fulmar +flew from over the ice and wooed Sedna with enticing song. “Come to me,” +it said; “come into the land of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page584" id="page584">584</a></span> +birds, where there is never hunger, where my tent is made of the most +beautiful skins. You shall rest on soft bearskins. My fellows, the +fulmars, shall bring you all your heart may desire; their feathers shall +clothe you; your lamp shall always be filled with oil, your pot with +meat.” Sedna could not long resist such wooing and they went together +over the vast sea. When at last they reached the country of the fulmar, +after a long and hard journey, Sedna discovered that her spouse had +shamefully deceived her. Her new home was not built of beautiful pelts, +but was covered with wretched fishskins, full of holes, that gave free +entrance to wind and snow. Instead of soft reindeer skins her bed was +made of hard walrus hides and she had to live on miserable fish, which +the birds brought her. Too soon she discovered that she had thrown away +her opportunities when in her foolish pride she had rejected the Inuit +youth. In her woe she sang: “Aja. O father, if you knew how +wretched I am you would come to me and we would hurry away in your boat +over the waters. The birds look unkindly upon me the stranger; cold +winds roar about my bed; they give me but miserable food. O come +and take me back home. Aja.”</p> + +<p>When a year had passed and the sea was again stirred by warmer winds, +the father left his country to visit Sedna. His daughter greeted him +joyfully and besought him to take her back home. The father hearing of +the outrages wrought upon his daughter determined upon revenge. He +killed the fulmar, took Sedna into his boat, and they quickly left the +country which had brought so much sorrow to Sedna. When the other +fulmars came home and found their companion dead and his wife gone, they +all flew away in search of the fugitives. They were very sad over the +death of their poor murdered comrade and continue to mourn and cry until +this day.</p> + +<p>Having flown a short distance they discerned the boat and stirred up +a heavy storm. The sea rose in immense waves that threatened the pair +with destruction. In this mortal peril the father determined to offer +Sedna to the birds and flung her overboard. She clung to the edge of the +boat with a death grip. The cruel father then took a knife and cut off +the first joints of her fingers. Falling into the sea they were +transformed into whales, the nails turning into whalebone. Sedna holding +on to the boat more tightly, the second finger joints fell under the +sharp knife and swam away as seals (<i>Pagomys fœtidus</i>); when the +father cut off the stumps of the fingers they became ground seals +(<i>Phoca barbata</i>). Meantime the storm subsided, for the fulmars +thought Sedna was drowned. The father then allowed her to come into the +boat again. But from that time she cherished a deadly hatred against him +and swore bitter revenge. After they got ashore, she called her dogs and +let them gnaw off the feet and hands of her father while he was asleep. +Upon this he cursed himself, his daughter, and the dogs which had maimed +him; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page585" id="page585">585</a></span> +whereupon the earth opened and swallowed the hut, the father, the +daughter, and the dogs. They have since lived in the land of Adlivun, of +which Sedna is the mistress.</p> + +<p class="space"> +This tradition is handed down in an old song. I shall give the substance +of it here, as it differs in some points from the above myth.</p> + +<p>The story begins when the fulmar carries Sedna to his home and she +discovers that he has brought her to a very wretched tent. The next year +the father and a brother, whom I find mentioned nowhere else, came to +visit her and take her home. The fulmar follows their boat and causes a +heavy gale to rise which almost upsets it. The father cuts off her +fingers, which are transformed into whales, seals, and ground seals. +Besides, he pierces her eye and thus kills her. Then he takes the body +into the boat and carries it to the shore. There he lays it on the beach +and covers it with a dogskin. When the flood comes in it covers +Sedna.</p> + +<p>Sedna and her father are described by the angakut (see <a href="#page591">p. 591</a>), who sometimes visit her house or see them +when both dwell among the natives, as follows: She is very large and +much taller than the Inuit. In accordance with the second form of the +tradition she has only one eye and is scarcely able to move. Her father +is also a cripple and appears to the dying, whom he grasps with his +right hand, which has only three fingers.</p> + +<p>There is a remarkable resemblance between this tradition and one +related by Lyon (p. 362), who describes the religious ideas of the +Iglulirmiut, more particularly the genii of one of their angakut. He +says that the principal spirits are Aiviliajoq (Ay-willi-ay-oo) or +Nuliajoq (Noo-le-ay-oo), a female spirit, and her father, Napajoq +(Nap-payok) or Anautalik (An-now-ta-lig). Then he continues:</p> + +<div class="quote"> +<p>The former is in the first place the mother, protectress, and not +unfrequently the monopolist of sea animals, which she sometimes very +wantonly confines below, and by that means causes a general scarcity in +the upper world. When this is the case, the angakok is persuaded to pay +her a visit, and attempt the release of the animals on which his tribe +subsist. I know not what ceremonies he performs at the first part +of the interview; but as the spell by which the animals are held lies in +the hand of the enchantress, the conjuror makes some bold attempts to +cut it off, and, according to his success, plenty, more or less, is +obtained. If deprived of her nails, the bears obtain their freedom; +amputation of the first joint liberates the netsiq (<i>Pagomys</i>); +while that of the second loosens the ugjuq (<i>Phoca</i>). Should the +knuckles be detached whole herds of walrus rise to the surface; and +should the adventurous angakoq succeed in cutting through the lower part +of the metacarpal bones, the monstrous whales are disenthralled and +delightedly join the other creatures of the deep. <span class="emspace">***</span>Her house is exceedingly fine, and very like a +Kabluna (European) looking-glass(?); and, what is still more attractive +to an Eskimo, it contains plenty of food. Immediately within the door of +the dwelling, which has a long passage of entrance, is stationed a very +large and fierce dog, which has no tail, and whose hinder quarters are +black. <span class="emspace">***</span>Aiviliajoq is described +as being equally wonderful in her personal appearance as in her actions. +She is very tall and has but one eye, which is the left, the place of +the other being covered by a profusion of black +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page586" id="page586">586</a></span> +hair. She has one pigtail only, contrary to the established fashion in +the upper Eskimo world, which is to wear one on each side of the face, +and this is of such immense magnitude, that a man can scarcely grasp it +with both hands. Its length is exactly twice that of her arm, and it +descends to her knee. The hood of her jacket is always worn up. + <span class="emspace">***</span></p> + +<p>Her father has but one arm, the hand of which is covered by a very +large mitten of bearskin. <span class="emspace">***</span>He is +not larger than a boy of ten years of age. He bears the character of a +good, quiet sort of person and is master of a very nice house, which, +however, is not approachable, on account of the vast herds of walrus +lying round it, which, with numerous bears, make a terrific howling. + <span class="emspace">***</span>He has nothing to eat, and does +not even require it; in which particular he differs widely from his +daughter, who has a most voracious appetite. I know not if he is +the father of all terrestrial animals, but he is certainly their patron, +and withholds them at times from the Eskimo.</p> +</div> + +<p>The name of the father, Anautalik (An-now-ta-lig), i.e., the man with +something to cut (with a knife), is very remarkable. Besides, it is +interesting that the angakoq who visits the dwelling of Nuliajoq has to +cut off her hand in order to liberate the sea animals. In the tradition +related in the foregoing, Sedna has another name, to wit, +Uinigumisuitung, i.e., she who would not have a husband; her father, +Savirqong, i.e., the man with the knife. Often he is only called Anguta, +her father.</p> + +<p>It is evident that Nuliajoq is identical with Sedna, though some +peculiarities exist in the tradition as related by Lyon which it is +rather difficult to reconcile with the myth as it is related among the +Oqomiut. It seems to me that this difficulty arises from the mixing up +of the angakoq’s visit to Sedna with the tradition itself. Indeed Lyon +only refers to the angakoq’s visit to Nuliajoq, whom he considers a +genius of a great angakoq, though he remarks in another place +(p. 363) that she “has a boundless command over the lives and +destinies of mankind.”</p> + +<p>The tale of the angakoq’s visit makes the tradition very similar to +the Greenland myth of Arnaquagsaq, i.e., the old woman. According to +Cranz (p. 264) and to Rink (p. 40) this spirit has her abode +in the depth of the ocean. She represents the source of nourishment, +supplying the physical wants of mankind. She sits in her dwelling in +front of a lamp, beneath which is placed a vessel which receives the oil +that keeps flowing down from the lamp. From this vessel, as well as from +the dark interior of her hut, she sends out all the animals which serve +for food, but in certain cases withholds the supply, thus causing want +and famine. The reason for thus withholding the supply was that certain +filthy and noxious parasites fastened themselves upon her head, of which +she could only be relieved by an angakoq. Then she could be induced +again to send out the animals for the benefit of man. In going to her he +(the angakoq) had first to pass the Arsissut and then to cross an abyss, +in which, according to the earliest authors, a wheel as slippery as +ice was constantly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page587" id="page587">587</a></span> +turning around; then, having safely passed a boiling kettle with seals +in it, he arrived at the house, in front of which watch was kept by +terrible animals, sometimes described as seals, sometimes as dogs; and, +lastly, within the house passage itself, he had to cross an abyss by +means of a bridge as narrow as a knife edge.</p> + +<p>About the same tale is found among the Baffin Land tribes; according +to Captain Spicer, of Groton, Conn., she is called Nanoquagsaq by the +Akuliarmiut. She is visited by the angakut, who liberate the sea animals +by subduing her or rather by depriving her of a charm by which she +restrains the animals.</p> + +<p>I am inclined to think that the form in which Lyon gives this +tradition is not quite correct, but is a mixture of the Sedna myth and +that of the angakoq’s visit to Arnaquagsaq. This seems the more probable +from a Greenland tale which Dr. Rink kindly communicated to me, in which +it is related that the grandfather of Arnaquagsaq cut off her fingers, +which were changed into sea animals.</p> + +<p>For this reason it is most probable that Arnaquagsaq, Sedna, and +Nuliajoq proceed from the same myth, though the traditions differ from +one another as they are related by the travelers. In the mythology of +the central tribes this character has a much more decided influence upon +their religious belief than the Arnaquagsaq of the Greenlanders seems to +have had.</p> + +<p>The myth of Sedna is confused with another which treats of the origin +of the Europeans and of the Adlet (see <a href="#page637">p. 637</a>). The legends are in part almost identical. +Sedna orders her dog to gnaw off her father’s feet; Uinigumisuitung’s +children maim their grandfather in the same way; and, besides, Sedna’s +second name is also Uinigumisuitung. In both tales the father is called +Savirqong. In Lyon’s Private Journal (p. 363) an important +statement is found to the effect that the dog which protects Nuliajoq’s +dwelling is by some natives called her husband, by others merely her +dog, but that he is generally considered the father of Erqigdlit +(identical with Adlet, p. 637) and Qadlunait (Europeans).</p> + +<p>Finally, I must record the legend of the origin of the walrus and the +reindeer, which is closely related to the Sedna tradition. I could +never learn any other reason why the use of sea animals and reindeer at +the same period should be forbidden, except the fear of offending Sedna. +She is represented as disliking the deer, which accordingly are not +found in her house. Any reason for this dislike is not given. The +Akuliarmiut, however, have a tradition that a woman, most probably Sedna +herself, created the walrus and the reindeer during a famine. She opened +her belly and took out a small piece of fat which she carried up the +hills where it was transformed by a magic spell into a reindeer. As soon +as she saw the animal she became frightened and ordered it to run away, +but the deer turned upon her and would not go; then she became angry and +knocked out its teeth. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page588" id="page588">588</a></span> +It turned round at once, but before it could leave she gave it a kick +which lopped off its tail. Thus it happened that the deer is deficient +as to certain teeth and has scarcely any tail. The woman, however, +continued to hate the deer. Afterward she descended to the beach and +threw another piece of fat into the water. It was transformed into a +walrus, which swam away at once. (According to a communication of +Captain Spicer.)</p> + +<p>The form of this tradition as related by the Akudnirmiut is somewhat +different. During a famine a woman (I could not learn whether she +was identical with Sedna or not) carried her boots to the hills and +transformed them by magic into deer, which spread all over the country. +Then she carried her breeches to the sea, where they were changed into +walrus. The first deer, however, had large tusks and no horns, while the +walrus had horns and no tusks. The Eskimo soon found that this was very +dangerous for the hunter, as the deer killed pursuers with their tusks, +while the walrus upset the boats. Therefore an old man transferred the +horns to the deer and the tusks to the walrus.</p> + +<p>It is very probable that this woman was Sedna, as the Eskimo affirm +that the observances referring to walrus and deer are commanded by Sedna +and as the first tradition accounts for her dislike of the deer.</p> + +<p>I could not find any trace of the tradition reported by Lyon, that +Anautalik, Nuliajoq’s father, is the protector of land animals, nor of +that of a being to whom he refers by the name of Pukimna (derived from +pukiq, the white parts of a deerskin), who lives in a fine country far +to the west and who is the immediate protectress of deer, which animals +roam in immense herds around her dwelling.</p> + +<p>Sedna is the mistress of one of the countries to which the souls go +after death. It has been related in the foregoing tradition of Sedna and +the fulmar that she descended to Adlivun; since that time she has been +the mistress of the country, and when invoked as such has the name of +Idliragijenget. She has a large house, in which no deerskins are found. +There she lives with her father, each occupying one side of it. The +father, who is unable to move, lies on the ledge and is covered with old +skins. In the entrance across the threshold lies Sedna’s dog watching +her house. Like her, the father has only one eye, and he never moves +from his place while in the house.</p> + +<p>The dead, who are seized by Sedna’s father, Anguta, are carried to +this dwelling. The dog moves aside only a little, just enough to allow +the souls to pass. They have to stay in this dismal abode during a whole +year, lying by the side of Anguta, who pinches them.</p> + +<p>The happy land is heaven and is called Qudlivun (the uppermost ones). +It abounds with deer, which are easily caught, and no ice or snow ever +visits it.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page589" id="page589">589</a></span> +<p>The Oqomiut and the Akudnirmiut make a distinction between Adlivun +and Adliparmiut. Adlivun means “those who live beneath us;” Adliparmiut, +“the inhabitants of the country farthest below us;” and the same +difference exists between Qudlivun and Qudliparmiut. Though these names +intimate the probability that the Eskimo believe in a series of places, +located in a descending scale, each below the other, I could not +find any more detailed description of the conception.</p> + +<p>Hall’s observations agree fairly with my own. He says (I, +p. 524):</p> + +<div class="quote"> +<p>Qudliparmiut (heaven) is upward. Everybody happy there. All the time +light; no snow, no ice, no storms; always pleasant; no trouble; never +tired; sing and play all the time—all this to continue without +end.</p> + +<p>Adliparmiut (hell) is downward. Always dark there. No sun; trouble +there continually; snow flying all the time, terrible storms; cold, very +cold; and a great deal of ice there. All who go there must always +remain.</p> + +<p>All Inuit who have been good go to Qudliparmiut; that is, who have +been kind to the poor and hungry, all who have been happy while living +on this earth. Any one who has been killed by accident, or who has +committed suicide, certainly goes to the happy place.</p> + +<p>All Inuit who have been bad—that is, unkind one to +another—all who have been unhappy while on this earth, will go to +Adliparmiut. If an Inung kills another because he is mad at him, he will +certainly go to Adliparmiut.</p> +</div> + +<p>Kumlien’s remarks on this subject, as well as on other ethnographic +subjects, are not trustworthy. He has transferred Greenland tales to +Cumberland Sound, though the traditions of these tribes differ +materially one from the other. I tried hard to corroborate his +statements concerning the amaroq and the tornarsuq, concerning certain +customs, &c., and am convinced that they are totally unknown to all +the natives of Baffin Land from Nugumiut to Tununirn.</p> + +<p>Kumlien states that the better land is below the surface of the earth +and that those who are killed by violence descend after death. According +to Hall and to replies to my own inquiries, it is quite the reverse. +Lyon’s report is extremely interesting, particularly his description of +the stages of the nether world, of which I could only find a scanty hint +in the names. He says (p. 372):</p> + +<div class="quote"> +<p>There are two places appointed to receive the souls of the good: one +of these is in the center of the earth, the other in qilaq, or heaven. +To the latter place, such as are drowned at sea, starved to death, +murdered, or killed by walruses or bears, are instantly wafted, and +dwell in a charming country, which, however, has never been seen by any +angakoq. <span class="emspace">***</span></p> + +<p>The place of souls in the world below is called Adli generally; but +there are, properly, four distinct states of blessedness, and each rank +has a world to itself, the lowest land being the last and best, which +all hope to reach. The day on which a good person dies and is buried, +the soul goes to a land immediately under the visible world; and, still +descending, it arrives the second day at one yet lower; the third day it +goes farther yet; and on the fourth it finds, “below the lowest deep, +a deeper still.” This is the “good land,” and the soul which +reaches it is for ever happy. The three first stages are bad +uncomfortable places for in each the sky is so close to the earth, that +a man cannot walk erect: yet these regions are inhabited; and the good +soul, in passing through them, sees multitudes of the dead, who, having +lost +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page590" id="page590">590</a></span> +their way, or, not being entitled to the “good land,” are always +wandering about and in great distress. Whether these unhappy souls are +in purgatory or not, I was unable to learn; but they suffer no +other pain than what we would call the “fidgets.” In the lowest Adli a +perpetual and delightful summer prevails.</p> +</div> + +<p>The belief of these tribes undoubtedly is that all who die by +accident or by violence and women who die in childbirth are taken to the +upper world. I never heard a different opinion expressed by any +native. I do not know whether they believe in a series of upper +worlds similar to the nether worlds of the Iglulirmiut, but it is +probable, from the names Qudlivun and Qudliparmiut. In the Greenland +tradition the upper world is represented as a country with hills and +valleys, over which the solid blue sky is expanded. Sedna of the Oqomiut +lives in Adlivun, and here the souls must stay one year after death. +Everybody who dies from disease or who has offended Sedna by infringing +her orders is taken to her. The Eskimo are in great fear of the terrors +of her abode. Murderers and offenders against human laws, after they +have entered Sedna’s house, will never leave it; the other souls, +however, are taken to the Adliparmiut, where they live comparatively at +their ease, although they are not nearly so blessed as the Qudliparmiut. +They hunt whales and walrus and are almost always troubled by ice and +snow.</p> + +<p>The older authors on Greenland mythology state that the conceptions +of the natives do not coincide (Cranz). According to one tradition the +good land is below, and tornarsuq, the supreme tornaq, is master of it. +Here continuous summer prevails and there is plenty of fresh water, with +a profusion of game. Only those people are allowed to come here who have +been good hunters and workers, who have accomplished great exploits, +caught many seals, who have suffered much, or have died by violence or +in childbirth. The souls of the deceased must slide for five days, or +even longer, down a steep rock, which has become quite slippery from the +blood which has been sprinkled over it. Those who have been lazy and +unfit for working go to the upper world, where they suffer from scarcity +of food. Particularly the bad and witches are taken to this country, +where they are tormented by ravens.</p> + +<p>Another tradition places the good land in heaven. The souls travel on +the rainbow to the moon, near which they find a large lake abounding +with fowls and fish. Rink gives the following statement on this subject +(p. 37):</p> + +<p class="quote"> +After death, human souls either go to the upper or to the under world. +The latter is decidedly to be preferred, as being warm and rich in food. +There are the dwellings of the happy dead called arsissut,—viz, +those who live in abundance. On the contrary, those who go to the upper +world will suffer from cold and famine; and these are called the +arssartut, or ball players, on account of their playing at ball with a +walrus head, which gives rise to the aurora borealis.</p> + +<p>While the Iglulirmiut believe that the soul leaves the body +immediately after death and descends to Adli, the tribes of Davis Strait +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page591" id="page591">591</a></span> +suppose that it lingers three days around the body, unable to leave it. +Then it descends to Sedna’s house. During its stay in Adlivun the soul +is called tupilaq, which is represented by the figure of a man with +wide, loose, shabby clothing. It is looked upon as a malevolent spirit, +frequently roaming around the villages. The tupilaq is not allowed to +enter the houses, and if the angakoq perceives and announces his +presence no one would dare to leave the houses. His touch kills men at +once, the sight of him causes sickness and mischief. As soon as the soul +has become an adliparmio, it is at rest and ceases to be feared as a +tupilaq.</p> + +<p>It is worth remarking that the Greenlanders designate with the name +of tupilaq a supernatural being made by men for the purpose of +destroying their enemies (Rink, p. 53). It is composed of various +parts of different animals and is enabled to act in the shape of any of +them at will. I have not found any trace of this idea among the +Central Eskimo.</p> + + +<h5><a name="social_religion_tornait" id="social_religion_tornait">THE TORNAIT AND THE ANGAKUT.</a></h5> + +<p>A consideration of the religious ideas of the Eskimo shows that the +tornait, the invisible rulers of every object, are the most remarkable +beings next to Sedna. Everything has its inua (owner), which may become +the genius of man who thus obtains the qualities of angakunirn. +I am not quite sure that every inua can become the tornaq of a man, +though with the Greenlanders this was possible. I learned of three +kinds of spirits only, who are protectors of angakut: those in the shape +of men, of stones, and of bears. These spirits enable the angakut to +have intercourse with the others who are considered malevolent to +mankind, and though those three species are kind to their angakut they +would hurt strangers who might happen to see them. The bear seems to be +the most powerful among these spirits. The tornait of the stones live in +the large bowlders scattered over the country. The Eskimo believe that +these rocks are hollow and form a nice house, the entrance of which is +only visible to the angakoq whose genius lives in the stone. The tornaq +is a woman with only one eye, in the middle of the brow. Another kind of +tornaq lives in the stones that roll down the hills in spring when the +snow begins to melt. If a native happens to meet such a stone, which is +about to become his tornaq, the latter addresses him: “I jumped +down in long leaps from my place on the cliff. As the snow melts, as +water is formed on the hills, I jump down.” Then it asks the native +whether he is willing to have it for his tornaq, and if he answers in +the affirmative it accompanies him, wabbling along, as it has no +legs.</p> + +<p>The bear tornaq is represented as a huge animal without any hair +except on the points of the ears and of the tail and at the mouth. If a +man wishes to obtain a bear for his tornaq he must travel all alone +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page592" id="page592">592</a></span> +to the edge of the land floe and summon the bears. Then a large herd +will approach and frighten him almost to death. He falls down at once. +Should he fall backward he would die at once. If he falls upon his face, +however, one bear out of the herd steps forward and asks him if he +wishes him to become his tornaq. He then recovers and takes the bear for +his spirit and is accompanied by him on the return journey. On the way +home, they pass a seal hole and the bear captures the animal for his +master. The Eskimo is now a great angakoq, and whenever he wants help he +is sure to get it from his bear.</p> + +<p>The Eskimo do not make images of the tornait or other supernatural +beings in whom they believe, but use to a great extent amulets (<ins +class="correction" title="text reads ‘armgoaq’">arngoaq</ins>), some +of which are given by the tornait, while others are inherited. The most +common varieties of amulets are the feather of an owl, a bear’s +tooth, and the like, which are always worn on the middle of the back of +the inner jacket. Rare minerals (e.g., iron) sewed up in a piece of skin +are sometimes used for the same purpose. A small part of the first +gown worn by a child is considered a powerful amulet and is preserved +for this reason. It is worn at the point of the hood at a great feast +celebrated every fall (see pp. <a href="#page604">604</a>, <a href="#page611">611</a>) and is called koukparmiutang.</p> + +<p>Lyon (p. 367) gives the following account of the use of amulets in +Iglulik:</p> + +<div class="quote"> +<p>Bones and teeth of animals, hanging as solitary pendants, or strung +in great numbers, have peculiar virtues, and the bones of the feet of +the kabliaqdjuq, which I imagine to be the wolverine, are the most in +request. The front teeth of musk oxen are considered as jewels, while +the grinders, one or two together, are much esteemed as tassels for the +strings used to tie up the breeches of the women. Eye teeth of foxes are +sometimes seen to the number of hundreds, neatly perforated and arranged +as a kind of fringe round caps or dresses, and even the bones and teeth +of fish have their value.</p> + +<p>Leather cases of the size of a quill, and containing small pieces of +deer’s or other flesh, are frequently attached to the caps or hoods of +children, but whether to render them expert hunters, or to preserve +their health, I could not discover. I was assured that broken +spear heads, and other equally cumbrous pendants, worn round the necks +of young girls, were spells for the preservation of their chastity, +while the same ornaments caused the women to be prolific.</p> +</div> + +<p>The principal office of the angakut is to find out the reason of +sickness and death or of any other misfortune visiting the natives.</p> + +<p>The Eskimo believes that he is obliged to answer the angakoq’s +questions truthfully. The lamps being lowered, the angakoq strips off +his outer jacket, pulls the hood over his head, and sits down in the +back part of the hut facing the wall. He claps his hands, which are +covered with mittens, and, shaking his whole body, utters sounds which +one would hardly recognize as human.</p> + +<p>Thus he invokes his tornaq, singing and shouting alternately, the +listeners, who sit on the edge of the bed, joining the chorus and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page593" id="page593">593</a></span> +answering his questions. Then he asks the sick person: “Did you work +when it was forbidden?” “Did you eat when you were not allowed to eat?” +And if the poor fellow happens to remember any transgression of such +laws, he cries: “Yes, I have worked.” “Yes, I have eaten.” And +the angakoq rejoins “I thought so” and issues his commands as to +the manner of atonement.</p> + +<p>These are manifold. Exchange of wives between two men or adoption of +a sick child by another family in order to save its life are frequently +demanded. The inhabitants of a village are forbidden to wash themselves +for a number of days, to scrape the ice from the windows, and to clean +their urine pots before sunrise. Sometimes the angakoq commands that the +clothing be thrown away or gives regulations for diet, particularly +forbidding the eating of venison, working on deerskins, filing iron, +&c.</p> + +<p>Disorders of women are considered as a punishment for the neglect to +observe the regulations referring to their behavior at certain periods, +which regulations were established by Sedna. The same is stated by Lyon +(p. 363).</p> + +<p>A method of finding out the reason of a disease is by “head lifting.” +A thong is tied round the head of the sick person or of a relative, +who must lie down on the bed, the angakoq holding the thong. Then he +asks his tornaq the reason of the sickness and the remedy. If the tornaq +answers a question of the angakoq in the affirmative the head is easily +lifted. In the other case it feels so heavy that he is unable to move +it. Another method is by lifting a boot or a stone, which has been +placed under the pillow of the patient. The angakut believe that the +boot or stone becomes heavy and cannot be lifted when the tornaq answers +their incantations.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of some of their performances I have observed the +angakoq crawling about in the passage of the hut, howling and shouting, +while those inside kept on singing. Then he entered the hut and +continued the incantations on the back part of the bed.</p> + +<p>Sometimes their cure for sickness is laying a piece of burning wick +upon the diseased part of the body and blowing it up into the air or +merely blowing upon it.</p> + +<p>Storm and bad weather, when lasting a long time and causing want of +food, are conjured by making a large whip of seaweed, stepping to the +beach, and striking out in the direction whence the wind blows, at the +same time crying Taba (It is enough).</p> + +<p>A great number of the performances of the angakut require much skill +and expertness. Thus in invoking a tornaq or flying to a distant place +they can imitate a distant voice by a sort of ventriloquism. In these +performances they always have the lamps extinguished and hide themselves +behind a screen hung up in the back part of the hut. The tornaq, being +invoked, is heard approaching and shaking the hut. The angakoq believes +that it is unroofed and flies with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page594" id="page594">594</a></span> +his spirit to their place of destination, to propitiate the wrath of a +hostile tornaq, to visit the moon or Sedna’s dismal abode.</p> + +<p>Part of their performances might almost be called juggling. Hall +(II, p. 101) describes one of these performances:</p> + +<p class="quote"> +The angakoq (Ar-too-a) now made use of three walrus spears. One of these +he thrust into the wall of the snow house, and <span class="emspace">***</span>ran with it outside of the igdlu [house] where his +ejaculations were responded to by the party inside with the cries of +“Atte! Atte!” [Go on! Go on!]. Returning with his spear to the door, he +had a severe wrestling match with four of the men, who overcame him. But +coming again into the central igdlu, and having the lights which had +been at the first patted down, relit, he showed the points of two spears +apparently covered with fresh blood, which he held up in the presence of +all.</p> + +<p>The performance of the angakut in the Sedna feast, which will be +described hereafter (<a href="#page604">p. 604</a>) is quite +astonishing. Some pierce their bodies with harpoons, evidently having +bladders filled with blood fastened under their jackets beforehand, and +bleed profusely as they enter the hut. (See Appendix, <a href="#app5">Note 5</a>.)</p> + +<p>A memorable ceremony has been described by Hall (I, p. 469):</p> + +<p class="quote"> +I heard a loud shout just outside [the hut]. As quick as thought, the +Eskimo sprang for the long knives lying around, and hid them wherever +they could find places. <span class="emspace">***</span>Immediately there came crawling into the low +entrance to the hut a man with long hair completely covering his face +and eyes. He remained on his knees on the floor of the hut, feeling +round like a blind man at each side of the entrance, back of the +firelight, the place where meat is usually kept, and where knives may +generally be found. Not finding any, the angakoq slowly withdrew. + <span class="emspace">***</span>If he had found a knife he would +have stabbed himself in the breast.</p> + +<p>It is one of their favorite tricks to have their hands tied up and a +thong fastened around their knees and neck. Then they begin invoking +their tornaq, and all of a sudden the body lies motionless while the +soul flies to any place which they wish to visit. After returning, the +thongs are found untied, though they had been fastened by firm knots. +The resemblance of this performance to the experiments of modern +spiritualists is striking.</p> + +<p>The angakut use a sacred language in their songs and incantations. +A great number of words have a symbolic meaning, but others are old +roots, which have been lost from common use in the lapse of time. These +archaic words are very interesting from a linguistic point of view. +Indeed, some are found which are still in use in Greenland, though lost +in the other dialects, and others which are only used in Alaska.</p> + +<p>I ought to add here that most of the angakut themselves believe in +their performances, as by continued shouting and invoking they fall into +an ecstasy and really imagine they accomplish the flights and see the +spirits.</p> + +<p>The angakoq, who must be paid at once for curing a sick person, +receives pretty large fees for services of this kind.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page595" id="page595">595</a></span> +<p>Although witchcraft occupied a prominent place in the belief of the +Greenlanders I could only find very faint traces of it in Baffin Land, +to wit, the opinion that a man has the power of injuring a distant enemy +by some means the details of which I did not learn.</p> + +<p>I shall add here the numerous regulations referring to eating and +working, many of which are connected with the Sedna tradition, and the +observance of which is watched by the angakut. As all sea animals have +originated from her fingers the Eskimo must make an atonement for every +animal he kills. When a seal is brought into the hut the women must stop +working until it is cut up. After the capture of a ground seal, walrus, +or whale they must rest for three days. Not all kinds of work, however, +are forbidden, for they are allowed to mend articles made of sealskin, +but they must not make anything new. For instance, an old tent cover may +be enlarged in order to build a larger hut, but it is not permitted to +make a new one. Working on new deerskins is strictly forbidden. No skins +of this kind obtained in summer may be prepared before the ice has +formed and the first seal is caught with the harpoon. Later, as soon as +the first walrus is caught, the work must stop again until the next +fall. For this reason all families are eager to finish the work on +deerskins as quickly as possible, as the walrusing season is not +commenced until that is done.</p> + +<p>The laws prohibiting contact with deer and sea animals at the same +time are very strict. According to the Eskimo themselves Sedna dislikes +the deer (probably for some reason connected with the tradition of its +origin,) and therefore they are not allowed to bring it in contact with +her favorites. The meat of the whale, seal, or walrus must not be eaten +on the same day with venison. It is not permitted that both sorts of +meat lie on the floor of the hut or behind the lamps at the same time. +If a man who has eaten venison in the morning happens to enter a hut in +which seal meat is being cooked he is allowed to eat venison on the bed, +but it must be wrapped up before being carried into the hut and he must +take care to keep clear of the floor. Before changing from one food to +the other the Eskimo must wash themselves. For the same reason walrus +hide must not be carried to Lake Nettilling, which is considered the +domain of deer.</p> + +<p>A similar custom requires that the Ukusiksalirmiut carry salmon into +a hut by a separate entrance, for it must not pass through the same one +as seal oil. Besides, the fish must only be cooked at the distance of a +day’s journey from the place where they have been caught. If eaten on +the spot they must be eaten raw (Klutschak, p. 158).</p> + +<p>Their customs referring to hunting are manifold. When skinning a deer +they must not break a single bone; then, they cut off bits of different +parts of the animal and bury them in the ground or under stones (Hall I, +p. 386). I have never noticed this custom myself. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page596" id="page596">596</a></span> +On the west shore of Hudson Bay dogs are not allowed to gnaw deer bones +during the deer hunting season or seal bones during the sealing season +(Klutschak, p. 123). Deer bones must not be broken while walrus are +hunted (Hall II, p. 155).</p> + +<p>When the men go out hunting in their kayaks the women of the +Aivillirmiut take a cup down to the shore and leave it there, believing +that it will bring luck (Hall II, p. 103). On Davis Strait they +throw a piece of seal’s blubber on their husband’s kayak when he is +about to go hunting (Kumlien, p. 45). After the capture of a whale +the Aivillirmiut are not allowed to burn shrubs, but use bones of the +whale instead, which are mixed with blubber (Hall II, p. 364). If +an animal that is with young is killed the fetus must not be taken and +used for food (Hall II, p. 253). When a bear is caught the Nugumiut +and the Oqomiut are accustomed to fasten its bladder to a stick which is +placed upright near the hut or encampment for three days.</p> + +<p>When a house is deserted the Aivillirmiut are in the habit of +carrying all the bones lying inside to some distance and putting them +upon the ice (Hall II, p. 175). If they intend to move to a place +some distance away they are in the habit of burying some of their +clothing. Klutschak observed this custom among the Netchillirmiut; +I myself, among the Akudnirmiut. If a great number of families +leave a village those who remain build new houses, as they believe that +they would otherwise have bad luck in hunting.</p> + +<p>A great number of regulations refer to the behavior of women during +menstruation. They are not allowed to eat raw meat, they must cook in +separate pots, and are not permitted to join in festivals, being looked +upon as unclean during this period. Customs referring to childbirth and +sickness will be found further on (see <a href="#page609">p. 609</a>).</p> + +<p>When a traveling party visits a neighboring tribe it is obliged to +adopt the customs and regulations of the latter.</p> + +<p>This account does not by any means include all the peculiar customs +of these people, for they are so numerous and the difficulty of finding +out anything pertaining to this subject is so great that it is probable +that the greater part of them have escaped notice.</p> + +<p>I shall also mention a few customs that are peculiar to certain +places. At Qeqertelung, east of Naujateling, in Cumberland Sound, the +Eskimo dig potstone, but must buy it from the rock: that is, having dug +out a piece, they must give the rock something in exchange; for example, +ivory carvings, beads, food, or the like.</p> + +<p>At Arligaulik, near Wager River, the Eskimo address a large rock and +bid it farewell when passing (Hall II, p. 174).</p> + +<p>In Cumberland Sound there is a cape called Iliqimisarbing, i.e., the +place of headshaking. The place is very dangerous, as heavy squalls +sweep down the steep rocks and slides frequently occur. Therefore the +natives never pass it without shaking their heads, at the same time +uttering a deep murmur.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page597" id="page597">597</a></span> +<p>Besides the tornait already mentioned, a number of others are known +which cannot become genii of men. A spirit of the sea, Kalopaling +or Mitiling, is described in a tradition (see <a href="#page620">p. 620</a>). In Erdmann’s Wörterbuch des +Labradordialectes “Mitiling” is translated Gespenst, i.e., ghost. No +doubt it is the name of the same spirit or at least of a similar one +which is recognized among the northern tribes, the literal translation +being “with eider ducks.” Another spirit of which the natives are in +great fear is Qiqirn, a phantom in the shape of a huge dog almost +without hair. Like the bear which has been alluded to, it has hair only +at the mouth, the feet, and the points of the ears and the tail. If it +comes near dogs or men they fall into fits and only recover when Qiqirn +has left. It is exceedingly afraid of men and runs away as soon as an +angakoq descries it.</p> + +<p>A very remarkable tornaq is the qaggim inua, i.e., master of the +dancing house. The natives build large houses for feasting, singing, and +dancing, which are devoted to spirits. This tornaq has the shape of a +bandy legged man, his knees being bent outward and forward. He has not a +single hair upon his entire body and no bones at the back of his head. +To touch him would result in immediate death (see <a href="#page636">p. 636</a>).</p> + +<p>Besides these tornait, more powerful supernatural beings are known, +who are “owners” (inua) of the stars and constellations and of +meteorologic processes. Moon and sun are considered brother and sister, +and in this the tradition of the Central Eskimo exactly corresponds with +that of the Greenlanders. It is even known among the Eskimo of Point +Barrow (Simpson, p. 940). From Repulse Bay (Aivillirmiut) +a few scanty traces of this tradition are recorded by Rae +(I, p. 79). He relates as follows:</p> + +<p class="quote"> +It is said that many years ago, not long after the creation of the +world, there was a mighty conjurer, who gained so much power that at +last he raised himself up into the heavens, taking with him his sister +(a beautiful girl) and a fire. To the latter he added great +quantities of fuel, which thus formed the sun. For some time he and his +sister lived in great harmony, but at last they disagreed, and he, in +addition to maltreating the lady in many ways, at last scorched the side +of her face. She had suffered patiently all sorts of indignities, but +the spoiling of her beauty was not to be borne; she therefore ran away +from him and formed the moon, and continues so until this day. Her +brother is still in chase of her, but although he gets near, he will +never overtake her. When it is new moon, the burnt side of the face is +towards us; when full moon, the reverse is the case.</p> + +<p>The following form of the legend, which I received from some +Akudnirmiut and Oqomiut, is almost identical with the Greenland one:</p> + +<p>In olden times a brother and his sister lived in a large village in +which there was a singing house, and every night the sister with her +playfellows enjoyed themselves in this house. Once upon a time, when all +the lamps in the singing house were extinguished, somebody came in and +outraged her. She was unable to recognize him; but +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page598" id="page598">598</a></span> +she blackened her hands with soot and when the same again happened +besmeared the man’s back with it. When the lamps were relighted she saw +that the violator was her brother. In great anger she sharpened a knife +and cut off her breasts, which she offered to him, saying: “Since you +seem to relish me, eat this.” Her brother fell into a passion and she +fled from him, running about the room. She seized a piece of wood (with +which the lamps are kept in order) which was burning brightly and rushed +out of the house. The brother took another one, but in his pursuit he +fell down and extinguished his light, which continued to glow only +faintly. Gradually both were lifted up and continued their course in the +sky, the sister being transformed into the sun, the brother into the +moon. Whenever the new moon first appears she sings:</p> + +<div class="song"> +<p class="indent">Aningaga tapika, takirn tapika qaumidjatedlirpoq; +qaumatitaudle.</p> +<p class="indent">Aningaga tapika, tikipoq tapika.</p> +</div> + +<div class="song"> +<p>(My brother up there, the moon up there begins to shine; he will be +bright.</p> +<p>My brother up there, he is coming up there.)</p> +</div> + + +<h5><a name="social_religion_moon" id="social_religion_moon">THE +FLIGHT TO THE MOON.</a></h5> + +<p>There exists another tradition in regard to the spirit of the moon, +which is also known to the Greenlanders. While in the first tradition +the moon is a man carrying a glowing light, in the other she is the moon +man’s house (Rink, p. 440). The legend, as told by the Oqomiut and +Akudnirmiut, is the narrative of the flight of an angakoq to the moon +and is as follows:</p> + +<p>A mighty angakoq, who had a bear for his tornaq, resolved to pay a +visit to the moon. He sat down in the rear of his hut, turning his back +toward the lamps, which had been extinguished. He had his hands tied up +and a thong fastened around his knees and neck. Then he summoned his +tornaq, which carried him rapidly through the air and brought him to the +moon. He observed that the moon was a house, nicely covered with white +deerskins, which the man in the moon used to dry near it. On each side +of the entrance was the upper portion of the body of an enormous walrus, +which threatened to tear in pieces the bold intruder. Though it was +dangerous to pass by the fierce animals, the angakoq, by help of his +tornaq, succeeded in entering the house.</p> + +<p>In the passage he saw the only dog of the man of the moon, which is +called Tirie´tiang and is dappled white and red. On entering the main +room he perceived, to the left, a small additional building, in +which a beautiful woman, the sun, sat before her lamp. As soon as she +saw the angakoq entering she blew her fire, behind the blaze of which +she hid herself. The man in the moon came to meet him kindly, stepping +from the seat on the ledge and bidding the stranger welcome. Behind the +lamps great heaps of venison and seal meat were piled up, but the man of +the moon did not yet offer him anything. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page599" id="page599">599</a></span> +He said: “My wife, Ululiernang, will soon enter and we will perform a +dance. Mind that you do not laugh, else she will slit open your belly +with her knife, take out your intestines, and give them to my ermine +which lives in yon little house outside.”</p> + +<p>Before long a woman entered carrying an oblong vessel in which her +ulo (see <a href="#page518">p. 518</a>) lay. She put it on the +floor and stooped forward, turning the vessel like a whirligig. Then she +commenced dancing, and when she turned her back toward the angakoq it +was made manifest that she was hollow. She had no back, backbone, or +entrails, but only lungs and heart.</p> + +<p>The man joined her dance and their attitudes and grimaces looked so +funny that the angakoq could scarcely keep from laughing. But just at +the right moment he called to mind the warnings of the man in the moon +and rushed out of the house. The man cried after him, +“Uqsureliktaleqdjuin” (“Provide yourself with your large white bear +tornaq”).<a class="tag" name="tag7" id="tag7" href="#note7">7</a> Thus he escaped unhurt.</p> + +<p>Upon another visit he succeeded in mastering his inclination to laugh +and was hospitably received by the man after the performance was +finished. He showed him all around the house and let him look into a +small additional building near the entrance. There he saw large herds of +deer apparently roaming over vast plains, and the man of the moon +allowed him to choose one animal, which fell immediately through a hole +upon the earth. In another building he saw a profusion of seals swimming +in an ocean and was allowed to pick out one of these also. At last the +man in the moon sent him away, when his tornaq carried him back to his +hut as quickly as he had left it.</p> + +<p>During his visit to the moon his body had lain motionless and +soulless, but now it revived. The thongs with which his hands had been +fastened had fallen down, though they had been tied in firm knots. The +angakoq felt almost exhausted, and when the lamps were relighted he +related to the eagerly listening men his adventures during his flight to +the moon.</p> + +<p>It is related in the course of this tradition that the man in the +moon has a qaumat, some kind of light or fire, but I could not reach a +satisfactory understanding of the meaning of this word. It is derived +from qauq (daylight) and is used in Greenland for the moon herself. +Among the Eskimo of Baffin Land it is only employed in the angakoq +language, in which the moon is called qaumavun, the sun qaumativun. +Another name of the moon is aninga (her brother), in reference to the +first legend. The natives also believe that the man in the moon makes +the snow. He is generally considered a protector of orphans and of the +poor, and sometimes descends from his house on a sledge drawn by his +dog, Tirie´tiang, in order to help them (see the tradition of +Qaudjaqdjuq, <a href="#page630">p. 630</a>).</p> + + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page600" id="page600">600</a></span> +<h5><a name="social_religion_kadlu" id="social_religion_kadlu">KADLU +THE THUNDERER.</a></h5> + +<p>It is said that three sisters make the lightning, the thunder, and +the rain. The names of two of them are Ingnirtung (the one who strikes +the fire) and Udluqtung (the one who rubs the skins), whose second name +is Kadlu (thunder), while that of the third I could not ascertain. They +live in a large house the walls of which are supported by whale ribs. It +stands in the far west, at a great distance from the sea, as Kadlu and +her sisters do not like to go near it. If an Eskimo should happen to +enter the house he must hasten away or Ingnirtung will immediately kill +him with her lightning. Even the stones are afraid of her and jump down +the hills whenever they see the lightning and hear the thunder. The +faces of the sisters are entirely black and they wear no clothes at +all.(?) Ingnirtung makes the lightning by striking two red stones +together (flint). Kadlu makes the thunder by rubbing sealskins and +singing. The third sister makes the rain by urinating. They procure food +by striking reindeer with the lightning, which singes their skins and +roasts their flesh. The Akudnirmiut say that beyond Iglulik, on the +continent of America, a large tribe of Eskimo live whom they call +Kakī´joq. The women of the tribe are said to have rings tattooed round +their eyes. These natives offer the dried skins of a species of small +seals to Kadlu, who uses them for making the thunder.</p> + + +<h4><a name="social_feasts" id="social_feasts">FEASTS, RELIGIOUS AND +SECULAR.</a></h4> + +<p>The Eskimo have some very interesting feasts, most of which are +closely connected with their religious notions. In summer feasts are +celebrated in the open air, but in winter a house, called qaggi, or, as +we may call it, singing house, is built for that purpose.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig531" id="fig531"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig531.png" width="322" height="242" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 531.</span> Diagram showing interior of +qaggi or singing house among eastern tribes.</p> + +<p>The plan of the house which is used by the eastern tribes is +represented in Fig. 531. It is a large snow dome about fifteen feet in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page601" id="page601">601</a></span> +height and twenty feet in diameter, without any lining. In the center +there is a snow pillar five feet high, on which the lamps stand. When +the inhabitants of a village assemble in this building for singing and +dancing the married women stand in a row next the wall. The unmarried +women form a circle inside the former, while the men sit in the +innermost row. The children stand in two groups, one at each side of the +door. When the feast begins, a man takes up the drum (kilaut), +which will be described presently, steps into the open space next the +door, and begins singing and dancing. Among the stone foundations of +Niutang, in Kingnait (Cumberland Sound), there is a qaggi built on the +same plan as the snow structure. Probably it was covered with a snow +roof when in use.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig532" id="fig532"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig532.png" width="396" height="278" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 532.</span> Plan of Hudson Bay qaggi or +singing house. (From Hall II, p. 220.)</p> + +<p>Hall gives the plan of the Hudson Bay qaggi (Fig. 532), a copy of +which is here introduced, as well as his description of the drum (Fig. +533), which I have never seen made (Hall II, p. 96):</p> + +<div class="figfloat"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig533" id="fig533"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig533.png" width="55" height="230" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 533.</span> Kilaut or drum.</p> +</div> + +<div class="quote"> +<p>The drum is made from the skin of the deer [or seal], which is +stretched over a hoop made of wood, or of bone from the fin of a whale, +by the use of a strong, braided cord of sinew passed around a groove on +the outside. The hoop is about 2½ inches wide, 1½ inches thick, and 3 +feet in diameter, the whole instrument weighing about 4 pounds. The +wooden drumstick, 10 inches in length and 3 inches in diameter, is +called a kentun. <span class="emspace">***</span></p> + +<p>The deerskin which is to be the head of the instrument is kept frozen +when not in use. It is then thoroughly saturated with water, drawn over +the hoop, and temporarily fastened in its place by a piece of sinew. +A line of heavy, twisted sinew, about 50 feet long, is now wound +tightly on the groove on the outside of the hoop, binding down the skin. +This cord is fastened to the handle of the kilaut [drum], which is made +to turn by the force of several men (while its other end is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page602" id="page602">602</a></span> +held firmly), and the line eased out as required. To do this a man sits +on the bed-<ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘platorm’">platform</ins>, “having one or two turns of the line about +his body, which is encased in furred deerskins, and empaled by four +upright pieces of wood.” Tension is secured by using a round stick of +wood as a lever on the edge of the skin, drawing it from beneath the +cord. When any whirring sound is heard, little whisps of reindeer hair +are tucked in between the skin and the hoop, until the head is as tight +as a drum.</p> + +<p>performer, who strikes the edge of the rim opposite that over which +the skin is stretched. He holds the drum in different positions, but +keeps it in a constant fan-like motion by his hand and by the blows of +the kentun struck alternately on the opposite sides of the edge. +Skillfully keeping the drum vibrating on the handle, he accompanies this +with grotesque motions of the body, and at intervals with a song, while +the women keep up their own Inuit songs, one after another, through the +whole performance.</p> +</div> + +<p>The feast is described as follows:</p> + +<p class="quote"> +As usual the women sat on the platform Turk fashion; the men, behind +them with extended legs. The women were gayly dressed. They wore on each +side of the face an enormous pigtail, made by wrapping their hair on a +small wooden roller a foot in length; strips of reindeer-fur being +wrapped with the hair [see <a href="#page559">p. 559</a>]. These +were black and white for those who had sons and black only for those who +had none. Shining ornaments were worn on the head and on the breast they +had masonic-like aprons, the groundwork of which was of a flaming red +color, ornamented with glass beads of many colors.</p> + +<p>In Cumberland Sound the women also wear pigtails at the celebration +of these feasts. The drum is sometimes played with the wrist of the +right hand instead of the beater.</p> + +<p>Every singing house is dedicated to a tornaq, the qaggim inua, as +mentioned above. For this reason all these performances may be +considered religious feasts.</p> + +<p>The songs are always composed by the singer himself. Satiric songs +are great favorites on these occasions. While the men listen in silence +the women join in the chorus, amna aya, the never failing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page603" id="page603">603</a></span> +end of each verse. The dancer remains on one spot only, stamping <ins +class="correction" title="text reads ‘rythmically’">rhythmically</ins> with the feet, swinging the upper part +of his body, and at the same time playing the kilaut. While dancing he +always strips the upper part of the body, keeping on only trousers and +boots. Singing and dancing are alternated with wrestling matches and +playing at hook and crook. Almost every great success in hunting is +celebrated in the qaggi, and especially the capture of a whale. Such a +feast has been described by Parry.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig534" id="fig534"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig534.png" width="369" height="147" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 534.</span> Plans of remains of supposed +qaggin or singing houses. (From Parry II, p. 362.)</p> + +<p>The stone foundations observed by Parry and copied here (Fig. 534) +are probably the remains of singing houses. Parry’s description is as +follows (II, p. 362):</p> + +<p class="quote"> +It appears that the whole whale or a principal part of it is dragged +into the enclosure, where some of the men are employed in cutting it up +and throwing the pieces over the wall to the rest, who stand ready to +receive them outside; while within the women range themselves in a +circle around the whale and continue singing during the operation. +* * * Each of these structures * * * was the +distinct property of a particular individual; and had probably, in its +turn, been the seat of feasting and merriment either to the present +owner, or those from whom he had inherited it.</p> + +<p>Great feasts closely connected with the Sedna tradition are +celebrated every fall.</p> + +<p>When late in the fall storms rage over the land and release the sea +from the icy fetters by which it is as yet but slightly bound, when the +loosened floes are driven one against the other and break up with loud +crashes, when the cakes of ice are piled in wild disorder one upon +another, the Eskimo believes he hears the voices of spirits which +inhabit the mischief laden air.</p> + +<p>The spirits of the dead, the tupilaq, knock wildly at the huts, which +they cannot enter, and woe to the unhappy person whom they can lay hold +of. He immediately sickens and a speedy death is regarded as sure to +come. The wicked qiqirn pursues the dogs, which die with convulsions and +cramps as soon as they see him. All the countless spirits of evil are +aroused, striving to bring sickness and death, bad weather, and failure +in hunting. The worst visitors are Sedna, mistress of the under world, +and her father, to whose share the dead +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page604" id="page604">604</a></span> +Inuit fall. While the other spirits fill the air and the water, she +rises from under the ground.</p> + +<p>It is then a busy season for the wizards. In every hut we may hear +them singing and praying; conjuring of the spirits is going on in every +house. The lamps burn low. The wizard sits in a mystic gloom in the rear +of the hut. He has thrown off his outer coat and drawn the hood of his +inner garment over his head, while he mutters indescribable sounds, +unnatural to a human voice. At last the guardian spirit responds to the +invocation. The angakoq lies in a trance and when he comes to himself he +promises in incoherent phrases the help of the good spirit against the +tupilaq and informs the credulous, affrighted Inuit how they can escape +from the dreaded ghosts.</p> + +<p>The hardest task, that of driving away Sedna, is reserved for the +most powerful angakoq. A rope is coiled on the floor of a large hut +in such a manner as to leave a small opening at the top, which +represents the breathing hole of a seal. Two angakut stand by the side +of it, one of them holding the seal spear in his left hand, as if he +were watching at the seal hole in the winter, the other holding the +harpoon line. Another angakoq, whose office it is to lure Sedna up with +a magic song, sits at the back of the hut. At last she comes up through +the hard rocks and the wizard hears her heavy breathing; now she emerges +from the ground and meets the angakoq waiting at the hole. She is +harpooned and sinks away in angry haste, drawing after her the harpoon, +to which the two men hold with all their strength. Only by a desperate +effort does she tear herself away from it and return to her dwelling in +Adlivun. Nothing is left with the two men but the blood sprinkled +harpoon, which they proudly show to the Inuit.</p> + +<p>Sedna and the other evil spirits are at last driven away, and on the +following day a great festival for young and old is celebrated in honor +of the event. But they must still be careful, for the wounded Sedna is +greatly enraged and will seize any one whom she can find out of his hut; +so on this day they all wear protecting amulets (koukparmiutang) on the +tops of their hoods. Parts of the first garment which they wore after +birth are used for this purpose.</p> + +<p>The men assemble early in the morning in the middle of the +settlement. As soon as they have all got together they run screaming and +jumping around the houses, following the course of the sun +(nunajisartung or kaivitijung). A few, dressed in women’s jackets, +run in the opposite direction. These are those who were born in abnormal +presentations. The circuit made, they visit every hut, and the woman of +the house must always be in waiting for them. When she hears the noise +of the band she comes out and throws a dish containing little gifts of +meat, ivory trinkets, and articles of sealskin into the yelling crowd, +of which each one helps himself to what he can get. No hut is omitted in +this round (irqatatung).</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page605" id="page605">605</a></span> +<p>The crowd next divides itself into two parties, the ptarmigans +(aχigirn), those who were born in the winter, and the ducks (aggirn), or +the children of summer. A large rope of sealskin is stretched out. +One party takes one end of it and tries with all its might to drag the +opposite party over to its side. The others hold fast to the rope and +try as hard to make ground for themselves. If the ptarmigans give way +the summer has won the game and fine weather may be expected to prevail +through the winter (nussueraqtung).</p> + +<p>The contest of the seasons having been decided, the women bring out +of a hut a large kettle of water and each person takes his drinking cup. +They all stand as near the kettle as possible, while the oldest man +among them steps out first. He dips a cup of water from the vessel, +sprinkles a few drops on the ground, turns his face toward the home of +his youth, and tells his name and the place of his birth +(oχsoaχsavepunga——me, I was born in ——). He +is followed by an aged woman, who announces her name and home, and then +all the others do the same, down to the young children, who are +represented by their mothers. Only the parents of children born during +the last year are forbidden to partake in this ceremony. As the words of +the old are listened to respectfully, so those of the distinguished +hunters are received with demonstrative applause and those of the others +with varying degrees of attention, in some cases even with joking and +raillery (imitijung).</p> + +<p>Now arises a cry of surprise and all eyes are turned toward a hut out +of which stalk two gigantic figures. They wear heavy boots; their legs +are swelled out to a wonderful thickness with several pairs of breeches; +the shoulders of each are covered by a woman’s over-jacket and the faces +by tattooed masks of sealskins. In the right hand each carries the seal +spear, on the back of each is an inflated buoy of sealskin, and in the +left hand the scraper. Silently, with long strides, the qailertetang +(Fig. 535) approach the assembly, who, screaming, press back from them. +The pair solemnly lead the men to a suitable spot and set them in a row, +and the women in another opposite them. They match the men and women in +pairs and these pairs run, pursued by the qailertetang, to the hut of +the woman, where they are for the following day and night man and wife +(nulianititijung). Having performed this duty, the qailertetang stride +down to the shore and invoke the good north wind, which brings fair +weather, while they warn off the unfavorable south wind.</p> + +<p>As soon as the incantation is over, all the men attack the +qailertetang with great noise. They act as if they had weapons in their +hands and would kill both spirits. One pretends to probe them with a +spear, another to stab them with a knife, one to cut off their arms and +legs, another to beat them unmercifully on the head. The buoys which +they carry on their backs are ripped open and collapse and soon they +both lie as if dead beside their broken weapons (pilektung). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page606" id="page606">606</a></span> +The Eskimo leave them to get their drinking cups and the qailertetang +awake to new life. Each man fills his sealskin with water, passes a cup +to them, and inquires about the future, about the fortunes of the hunt +and the events of life. The qailertetang answer in murmurs which the +questioner must interpret for himself.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig535" id="fig535"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig535.png" width="249" height="479" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 535.</span> Qailertetang, a masked +figure. (From a sketch by the author.)</p> + +<p>The evening is spent in playing ball, which is whipped all around the +settlement (ajuktaqtung). (See Appendix, <a href="#app6">Note 6</a>.)</p> + +<p>This feast is celebrated as here described in Cumberland Sound and +Nugumiut. Hall and Kumlien make a few observations in regard to it, but +the latter has evidently misunderstood its meaning. His description is +as follows (p. 43):</p> + +<p class="quote"> +An angakoq dresses himself up in the most hideous manner, having several +pairs of pants on among the rest, and a horrid looking mask of skins. +The men and women now range themselves in separate and opposite ranks, +and the angakoq takes +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page607" id="page607">607</a></span> +his place between them. He then picks out a man and conducts him to a +woman in the opposite ranks. This couple then go to the woman’s hut and +have a grand spree for a day or two. This manner of proceeding is kept +up till all the women but one are disposed of. This one is always the +angakoq’s choice, and her he reserves for himself.</p> + +<p>Another description by Kumlien (p. 19) evidently refers to the same +feast:</p> + +<div class="quote"> +<p>They have an interesting custom or superstition, namely, the killing +of the evil spirit of the deer; sometime during the winter or early in +spring, at any rate before they can go deer hunting, they congregate +together and dispose of this imaginary evil. The chief ancut [angakoq], +or medicine man, is the main performer. He goes through a number of +gyrations and contortions, constantly hallooing and calling, till +suddenly the imaginary deer is among them. Now begins a lively time. +Every one is screaming, <ins class="correction" title="‘i’ invisible">running</ins>, jumping, spearing, and stabbing at the +imaginary deer, till one would think a whole madhouse was let loose. +Often this deer proves very agile, and must be hard to kill, for I have +known them to keep this performance up for days; in fact, till they were +completely exhausted.</p> + +<p>During one of these performances an old man speared the deer, another +knocked out an eye, a third stabbed him, and so on till he was +dead. Those who are able or fortunate enough to inflict some injury on +this bad deer, especially he who inflicts the death blow, is considered +extremely lucky, as he will have no difficulty in procuring as many deer +as he wants, for there is no longer an evil spirit to turn his bullets +or arrows from their course.</p> +</div> + +<p>I could not learn anything about this ceremony, though I asked all +the persons with whom Kumlien had had intercourse. Probably there was +some misunderstanding as to the meaning of their feast during the autumn +which induced him to give this report.</p> + +<p>Hall describes the feast as celebrated by the Nugumiut (I, +p. 528), as follows:</p> + +<div class="quote"> +<p>At a time of the year apparently answering to our Christmas, they +have a general meeting in a large igdlu [snow house] on a certain +evening. There the angakoq prays on behalf of the people for the public +prosperity through the subsequent year. Then follows something like a +feast. The next day all go out into the open air and form in a circle; +in the centre is placed a vessel of water, and each member of the +company brings a piece of meat, the kind being immaterial. The circle +being formed, each person eats his or her meat in silence, thinking of +Sedna, and wishing for good things. Then one in the circle takes a cup, +dips up some of the water, all the time thinking of Sedna, and drinks +it; and then, before passing the cup to another, states audibly the time +and the place of his or her birth. This ceremony is performed by all in +succession. Finally, presents of various articles are thrown from one to +another, with the idea that each will receive of Sedna good things in +proportion to the liberality here shown.</p> + +<p>Soon after this occasion, at a time which answers to our New Year’s +day, two men start out, one of them being dressed to represent a woman, +and go to every house in the village, blowing out the light in each. The +lights are afterwards rekindled from a fresh fire. When Taqulitu [Hall’s +well known companion in his journeys] was asked the meaning of this, she +replied, “New sun—new light,” implying a belief that the sun was +at that time renewed for the year.</p> +</div> + +<p>Inasmuch as Hall did not see the feast himself, but had only a +description by an Eskimo, into which he introduced points of similarity +with Christian feasts, it may be looked upon as fairly agreeing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page608" id="page608">608</a></span> +with the feast of the Oqomiut. The latter part corresponds to the +celebration of the feast as it is celebrated in Akudnirn.<a class="tag" name="tag8" id="tag8" href="#note8">8</a></p> + +<p>According to a statement in the journal of Hall’s second expedition +(II, p. 219) masks are also used on the western shore of +Hudson Bay, where it seems that all the natives disguise themselves on +this occasion.</p> + +<p>The Akudnirmiut celebrate the feast in the following way: The +qailertetang do not act a part there, but other masks take their place. +They are called mirqussang and represent a man and his wife. They wear +masks of the skin of the ground seal, only that of the woman being +tattooed. The hair of the man is arranged in a bunch protruding from the +forehead (sulubaut), that of the woman in a pigtail on each side and a +large knot at the back of the head. Their left legs are tied up by a +thong running around the neck and the knee, compelling them to hobble. +They have neither seal float and spear nor inflated legs, but carry the +skin scraper. They must try to enter the huts while the Inuit hold a +long sealskin thong before them to keep them off. If they fall down in +the attempt to cross it they are thoroughly beaten with a short whip or +with sticks. After having succeeded in entering the huts they blow out +all the fires.</p> + +<p>The parts of the feast already described as celebrated in Cumberland +Sound seem not to be customary in Akudnirn, the conjuration of Sedna and +the exchanges of wives excepted, which are also practiced here. +Sometimes the latter ceremony takes place the night before the feast. It +is called suluiting or quvietung.</p> + +<p>When it is quite dark a number of Inuit come out of their huts and +run crying all round their settlements. Wherever anybody is asleep they +climb upon the roof of his hut and rouse him by screaming and shouting +until all have assembled outside. Then a woman and a man (the +mirqussang) sit down in the snow. The man holds a knife (sulung) in his +hand, from which the feast takes its name, and sings:</p> + +<div class="song"> +<p>Oangaja jaja jajaja aja.</p> +<p>Pissiungmipadlo panginejernago</p> +<p>Qodlungutaokpan panginejerlugping</p> +<p>Pissiungmipadlo panginejernago.</p> +</div> + +<p>To this song the woman keeps time by moving her body and her arms, at +the same time flinging snow on the bystanders. Then the whole company +goes into the singing house and joins in dancing and singing. This done, +the men must leave the house and stand outside while the mirqussang +watch the entrance. The women continue singing and leave the house one +by one. They are awaited by the mirqussang, who lead every one to one of +the men standing about. The pair must re-enter the singing house and +walk around the lamp, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page609" id="page609">609</a></span> +all the men and women crying, “Hrr! hrr!” from both corners of the +mouth. Then they go to the woman’s hut, where they stay during the +ensuing night. The feast is frequently celebrated by all the tribes of +Davis and Hudson Strait, and even independently of the great feast +described above.</p> + +<p>The day after, the men frequently join in a shooting match. +A target is set up, at which they shoot their arrows. As soon as a +man hits, the women, who stand looking on, rush forward and rub noses +with him.</p> + +<p>If a stranger unknown to the inhabitants of a settlement arrives on a +visit he is welcomed by the celebration of a great feast. Among the +southeastern tribes the natives arrange themselves in a row, one man +standing in front of it. The stranger approaches slowly, his arms folded +and his head inclined toward the right side. Then the native strikes him +with all his strength on the right cheek and in his turn inclines his +head awaiting the stranger’s blow (tigluiqdjung). While this is going on +the other men are playing at ball and singing (igdlukitaqtung). Thus +they continue until one of the combatants is vanquished.</p> + +<p>The ceremonies of greeting among the western tribes are similar to +those of the eastern, but in addition “boxing, wrestling, and knife +testing” are mentioned by travelers who have visited them. In Davis +Strait and probably in all the other countries the game of “hook and +crook” is always played on the arrival of a stranger (pakijumijartung). +Two men sit down on a large skin, after having stripped the upper part +of their bodies, and each tries to stretch out the bent arm of the +other. These games are sometimes dangerous, as the victor has the right +to kill his adversary; but generally the feast ends peaceably. The +ceremonies of the western tribes in greeting a stranger are much feared +by their eastern neighbors and therefore intercourse is somewhat +restricted. The meaning of the duel, according to the natives +themselves, is “that the two men in meeting wish to know which of them +is the better man.” The similarity of these ceremonies with those of +Greenland, where the game of hook and crook and wrestling matches have +been customary, is quite striking, as is that of the explanation of +these ceremonies.</p> + +<p>The word for greeting on Davis Strait and Hudson Strait, is +Assojutidlin? (Are you quite well?) and the answer, Tabaujuradlu (Very +well). The word Taima! which is used in Hudson Strait, and Mane taima! +of the Netchillirmiut seem to be similar to our Halloo! The +Ukusiksalirmiut say Ilaga! (My friend!)</p> + + +<h4><a name="social_birth" id="social_birth">CUSTOMS AND REGULATIONS +CONCERNING BIRTH, SICKNESS, AND DEATH.</a></h4> + +<p>I have mentioned that it is extremely difficult to find out the +innumerable regulations connected with the religious ideas and customs +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page610" id="page610">610</a></span> +of the Eskimo. The difficulty is even greater in regard to the customs +which refer to birth, sickness, and death, and it is no wonder that, +while some of the accounts of different writers coincide tolerably well, +there are great discrepancies in others, particularly as the customs +vary to a great extent among the different tribes.</p> + +<p>Before the child is born a small hut or snow house is built for the +mother, in which she awaits her delivery. Sick persons are isolated in +the same way, the reason being that in case of death everything that had +been in contact with the deceased must be destroyed. According to +Kumlien (p. 28) the woman is left with only one attendant, +a young girl appointed by the head ancut (angakoq) of the +encampment; but this, no doubt, is an error. She may be visited by her +friends, who, however, must leave her when parturition takes place. She +must cut the navel string herself, and in Davis Strait this is done by +tying it through with deer sinews; in Iglulik (Lyon, p. 370), by +cutting it with a stone spear head. The child is cleaned with a birdskin +and clothed in a small gown of the same material. According to Lyon the +Iglulirmiut swathe it with the dried intestines of some animal.</p> + +<p>Kumlien describes a remarkable custom of which I could find no trace, +not even upon direct inquiry (p. 281):</p> + +<p class="quote"> +As soon as the mother with her new born babe is able to get up and go +out, usually but a few hours, they are taken in charge by an aged female +angakoq, who seems to have some particular mission to perform in such +cases. She conducts them to some level spot on the ice, if near the sea, +and begins a sort of march in circles on the ice, the mother following +with the child on her back; this manœuvre is kept up for some time, the +old woman going through a number of performances the nature of which we +could not learn and continually muttering something equally +unintelligible to us. The next act is to wade through snowdrifts, the +aged angakoq leading the way. We have been informed that it is customary +for the mother to wade thus bare-legged.</p> + +<p>Lyon says (p. 370):</p> + +<p class="quote"> +After a few days, or according to the fancy of the parents, an angakoq, +who by relationship or long acquaintance is a friend of the family, +makes use of some vessel, and with the urine the mother washes the +infant, while all the gossips around pour forth their good wishes for +the little one to prove an active man, if a boy, or, if a girl, the +mother of plenty of children. This ceremony, I believe, is never +omitted, and is called qoqsiuariva.</p> + +<p>Though I heard about the washing with urine, I did not learn anything +about the rest of the ceremony in Cumberland Sound and Davis Strait.</p> + +<p>A few days after birth the first dress of the child is exchanged for +another. A small hood made from the skin of a hare’s head is fitted +snugly upon the head, a jacket for the upper part of the body is +made of the skin of a fawn, and two small boots, made of the same kind +of a skin, the left one being wreathed with seaweed (<i>Fucus</i>), +cover the legs. While the child wears this clothing that which was first +worn is fastened to a pole which is secured to the roof of the hut. In +two +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page611" id="page611">611</a></span> +months the child gets a third suit of clothes the same as formerly +described (<a href="#page557">p. 557</a>). Then the second gown +is exposed for some time on the top of the hut, the first one being +taken down, and both are carefully preserved for a year. After this time +has expired both are once more exposed on the top of a pole and then +sunk into the sea, a portion of the birdskin dress alone being +kept, for this is considered a powerful amulet and is held in high +esteem and worn every fall at the Sedna feast on the point of the hood +(see <a href="#page604">p. 604</a>). I have stated that +those who were born in abnormal presentations wear women’s dresses at +this feast and must make their round in a direction opposite to the +movement of the sun. Captain Spicer, of Groton, Conn., affirms that the +bird used for the first clothing is chosen according to a strict law, +every month having its own bird. So far as I know, waterfowl are used in +summer and the ptarmigan in winter, and accordingly the men are called +at the great autumn feast the ducks and ptarmigans, the former including +those who were born in summer, the latter those born in winter.</p> + +<p>As long as any portion of the navel string remains a strip of +sealskin is worn around the belly.</p> + +<p>After the birth of her child the mother must observe a great number +of regulations, referring particularly to food and work. She is not +allowed for a whole year to eat raw meat or a part of any animal killed +by being shot through the heart. In Cumberland Sound she must not eat +for five days anything except meat of an animal killed by her husband or +by a boy on his first hunting expedition. This custom seems to be +observed more strictly, however, and for a longer period if the new born +child dies. Two months after delivery she must make a call at every hut, +while before that time she is not allowed to enter any but her own. At +the end of this period she must also throw away her old clothing. The +same custom was observed by Hall among the Nugumiut +(I, p. 426). On the western shore of Hudson Bay she is +permitted to re-enter the hut a few days after delivery, but must pass +in by a separate entrance. An opening is cut for the purpose through the +snow wall. She must keep a little skin bag hung up near her, into which +she must put a little of her food after each meal, having first put it +up to her mouth. This is called laying up food for the infant, although +none is given to it (Hall II, p. 173). I have already +mentioned that the parents are not allowed in the first year after the +birth of a child to take part in the Sedna feast.</p> + +<p>The customs which are associated with the death of an infant are very +complicated. For a whole year, when outside the hut, the mother must +have her head covered with a cap, or at least with a piece of skin. If a +ground seal is caught she must throw away the old cap and have a new one +made. The boots of the deceased are always carried about by the parents +when traveling, and whenever they stop +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page612" id="page612">612</a></span> +these are buried in the snow or under stones. Neither parent is allowed +to eat raw flesh during the following year. The woman must cook her food +in a small pot which is exclusively used by her. If she is about to +enter a hut the men who may be sitting inside must come out first, and +not until they have come out is she allowed to enter. If she wants to go +out of the hut she must walk around all the men who may happen to be +there.</p> + +<p>The child is sometimes named before it is born. Lyon says upon this +subject (p. 369):</p> + +<p class="quote"> +Some relative or friend lays her hand on the mother’s stomach, and +decides what the infant is to be called, and, as the names serve for +either sex, it is of no consequence whether it proves a girl or a +boy.</p> + +<p>On Davis Strait it is always named after the persons who have died +since the last birth took place, and therefore the number of names of an +Eskimo is sometimes rather large. If a relative dies while the child is +younger than four years or so, his name is added to the old ones and +becomes the proper name by which it is called. It is possible that +children receive the names of all the persons in the settlement who die +while the children are quite young, but of this I am not absolutely +certain. When a person falls sick the angakut change his name in order +to ward off the disease or they consecrate him as a dog to Sedna. In the +latter event he gets a dog’s name and must wear throughout life a +harness over the inner jacket. Thus it may happen that Eskimo are known +in different tribes by different names. It may also be mentioned here +that friends sometimes exchange names and dogs are called by the name of +a friend as a token of regard.</p> + +<p>The treatment of the sick is the task of the angakoq, whose +manipulations have been described.</p> + +<p>If it is feared that a disease will prove fatal, a small snow house +or a hut is built, according to the season, into which the patient is +carried through an opening at the back. This opening is then closed, and +subsequently a door is cut out. A small quantity of food is placed +in the hut, but the patient is left without attendants. As long as there +is no fear of sudden death the relatives and friends may come to visit +him, but when death is impending the house is shut up and he is left +alone to die. If it should happen that a person dies in a hut among its +inmates, everything belonging to the hut must be destroyed or thrown +away, even the tools &c. lying inside becoming useless to the +survivors, but the tent poles may be used again after a year has +elapsed. No doubt this custom explains the isolation of the sick. If a +child dies in a hut and the mother immediately rushes out with it, the +contents of the hut may be saved.</p> + +<p>Though the Eskimo feel the greatest awe in touching a dead body, the +sick await their death with admirable coolness and without the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page613" id="page613">613</a></span> +least sign of fear or unwillingness to die. I remember a young girl +who sent for me a few hours before her death and asked me to give her +some tobacco and bread, which she wanted to take to her mother, who had +died a few weeks before.</p> + +<p>Only the relatives are allowed to touch the body of the deceased. +They clothe it or wrap it in deerskins and bury it at once. In former +times they always built a tomb, at least when death occurred in the +summer. From its usual dimensions one would suppose that the body was +buried with the legs doubled up, for all of them are too short for grown +persons. If the person to be buried is young, his feet are placed in the +direction of the rising sun, those of the aged in the opposite +direction. According to Lyon the Iglulirmiut bury half grown children +with the feet towards the southeast, young men and women with the feet +towards the south, and middle aged persons with the feet towards the +southwest. This agrees with the fact that the graves in Cumberland Sound +do not all lie east and west. The tomb is always vaulted, as any stone +or piece of snow resting upon the body is believed to be a burden to the +soul of the deceased. The man’s hunting implements and other utensils +are placed by the side of his grave; the pots, the lamps, knives, +&c., by the side of that of the woman; toys, by that of a child. +Hall (I, p. 103) observed in a grave a small kettle hung up +over a lamp. These objects are held in great respect and are never +removed, at least as long as it is known to whose grave they belong. +Sometimes models of implements are used for this purpose instead of the +objects themselves. Figure 536 represents a model of a lamp found in a +grave of Cumberland Sound. Nowadays the Eskimo place the body in a box, +if they can procure one, or cover it very slightly with stones or snow. +It is strange that, though the ceremonies of burying are very strictly +attended to and though they take care to give the dead their belongings, +they do not heed the opening of the graves by dogs or wolves and the +devouring of the bodies and do not attempt to recover them when the +graves are invaded by animals.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig536" id="fig536"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig536.png" width="121" height="48" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 536.</span> Model of lamp from a grave in +Cumberland Sound. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.)</p> + +<p>The body must be carried to the place of burial by the nearest +relatives, a few others only accompanying it. For this purpose they +rarely avail themselves of a sledge, as it cannot be used afterward, but +must be left with the deceased. Dogs are never allowed to drag the +sledge on such an occasion. After returning from the burial the +relatives must lock themselves up in the old hut for three days, during +which they mourn the loss of the deceased. During this time +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page614" id="page614">614</a></span> +they do not dress their hair and they have their nostrils closed with a +piece of deerskin. After this they leave the hut forever. The dogs are +thrown into it through the window and allowed to devour whatever they +can get at. For some time afterward the mourners must cook their meals +in a separate pot. A strange custom was observed by Hall in Hudson +Bay (II, p. 186). The mourners did not smoke. They kept their +hoods on from morning till night. To the hood the skin and feathers of +the head of <i>Uria grylle</i> were fastened and a feather of the same +waterfowl to each arm just above the elbow. All male relatives of the +deceased wore a belt around the waist, besides which they constantly +wore mittens. It is probable that at the present time all Eskimo when in +mourning avoid using implements of European manufacture and suspend the +use of tobacco. It has already been stated that women who have lost a +child must keep their heads covered.</p> + +<p>Parry, Lyon (p. 369), and Klutschak (p. 201) state that when the +Eskimo first hear of the death of a relative they throw themselves upon +the ground and cry, not for grief, but as a mourning ceremony.</p> + +<p>For three or sometimes even four days after a death the inhabitants +of a village must not use their dogs, but must walk to the hunting +ground, and for one day at least they are not allowed to go hunting at +all. The women must stop all kinds of work.</p> + +<p>On the third day after death the relatives visit the tomb and travel +around it three times in the same direction as the sun is moving, at the +same time talking to the deceased and promising that they will bring him +something to eat. According to Lyon the Iglulirmiut chant forth +inquiries as to the welfare of the departed soul, whether it has reached +the land Adli, if it has plenty of food, &c., at each question +stopping at the head of the grave and repeating some ceremonial words +(p. 371).</p> + +<p>These visits to the grave are repeated a year after death and +whenever they pass it in traveling. Sometimes they carry food to the +deceased, which he is expected to return greatly increased. Hall +describes this custom as practiced by the Nugumiut +(I, p. 426). He says:</p> + +<p class="quote"> +They took down small pieces of [deer] skin with the fur on, and of +[fat]. When there they stood around [the] grave [of the woman] upon +which they placed the articles they had brought. Then one of them +stepped up, took a piece of the [deer meat], cut a slice and ate it, at +the same time cutting off another slice and placing it under a stone by +the grave. Then the knife was passed from one hand to the other, both +hands being thrown behind the person. This form of shifting the +implement was continued for perhaps a minute, the motions being +accompanied by constant talk with the dead. Then a piece of [deer] fur +and some [fat] were placed under the stone with an exclamation +signifying, “Here is something to eat and something to keep you warm.” +Each of the [natives] also went through the same forms. They never visit +the grave of a departed friend until some months after +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page615" id="page615">615</a></span> +death, and even then only when all the surviving members of the family +have removed to another place. Whenever they return to the vicinity of +their kindred’s grave, a visit is made to it with the best of food +as a present for the departed one. Neither seal, polar bear, nor walrus, +however, is taken.</p> + +<p>According to Klutschak (p. 154), the natives of Hudson Bay avoid +staying a long time on the salt water ice near the grave of a +relative.</p> + +<p>On the fourth day after death the relatives may go for the first time +upon the ice, but the men are not allowed to hunt; on the next day they +must go sealing, but without dogs and sledge, walking to the hunting +ground and dragging the seal home. On the sixth day they are at liberty +to use their dogs again. For a whole year they must not join in any +festival and are not allowed to sing certain songs.</p> + +<p>If a married woman dies the widower is not permitted to keep any part +of the first seal he catches after her death except the flesh. Skin, +blubber, bones, and entrails must be sunk in the sea.</p> + +<p>All the relatives must have new suits of clothes made and before the +others are cast away they are not allowed to enter a hut without having +asked and obtained permission. (See Appendix, <a href="#app7">Note 7</a>.)</p> + +<p>Lyon (p. 368) makes the following statement on the mourning +ceremonies in Iglulik:</p> + +<p class="quote"> +Widows are forbidden for six months to taste of unboiled flesh; they +wear no <span class="emspace">***</span>pigtails, and cut off a +portion of their long hair in token of grief, while the remaining locks +hang in loose disorder about their shoulders. <span class="emspace">***</span>After six months, the disconsolate ladies are at +liberty to eat raw meat, to dress their pigtails and to marry as fast as +they please; while in the meantime they either cohabit with their future +husbands, if they have one, or distribute their favors more generally. +A widower and his children remain during three days within the hut +where his wife died, after which it is customary to remove to another. +He is not allowed to fish or hunt for a whole season, or in that period +to marry again. During the three days of lamentation all the relatives +of the deceased are quite careless of their dress; their hair hangs +wildly about, and, if possible, they are more than usually dirty in +their persons. All visitors to a mourning family consider it as +indispensably necessary to howl at their first entry.</p> + +<p>I may add here that suicide is not of rare occurrence, as according +to the religious ideas of the Eskimo the souls of those who die by +violence go to Qudlivun, the happy land. For the same reason it is +considered lawful for a man to kill his aged parents. In suicide death +is generally brought about by hanging.</p> + + + + +<h3><a name="tales" id="tales">TALES AND TRADITIONS.</a></h3> + + +<h4><a name="tales_ititaujang" id="tales_ititaujang">ITITAUJANG.</a></h4> + +<p>A long, long time ago, a young man, whose name was Ititaujang, lived +in a village with many of his friends. When he became grown he wished to +take a wife and went to a hut in which he knew an orphan girl was +living. However, as he was bashful and was afraid to speak to the young +girl himself, he called her little +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page616" id="page616">616</a></span> +brother, who was playing before the hut, and said, “Go to your sister +and ask her if she will marry me.” The boy ran to his sister and +delivered the message. The young girl sent him back and bade him ask the +name of her suitor. When she heard that his name was Ititaujang she told +him to go away and look for another wife, as she was not willing to +marry a man with such an ugly name.<a class="tag" name="tag9" id="tag9" href="#note9">9</a> But Ititaujang did not submit and sent the +boy once more to his sister. “Tell her that Nettirsuaqdjung is my other +name,” said he. The boy, however, said upon entering, “Ititaujang is +standing before the doorway and wants to marry you.” Again the sister +said “I will not have a man with that ugly name.” When the boy +returned to Ititaujang and repeated his sister’s speech, he sent him +back once more and said, “Tell her that Nettirsuaqdjung is my other +name.” Again the boy entered and said, “Ititaujang is standing before +the doorway and wants to marry you.” The sister answered, “I will +not have a man with that ugly name.” When the boy returned to Ititaujang +and told him to go away, he was sent in the third time on the same +commission, but to no better effect. Again the young girl declined his +offer, and upon that Ititaujang went away in great anger. He did not +care for any other girl of his tribe, but left the country altogether +and wandered over hills and through valleys up the country many days and +many nights.</p> + +<p>At last he arrived in the land of the birds and saw a lakelet in +which many geese were swimming. On the shore he saw a great number of +boots; cautiously he crept nearer and stole as many as he could get hold +of. A short time after the birds left the water and finding the +boots gone became greatly alarmed and flew away. Only one of the flock +remained behind, crying, “I want to have my boots; I want to +have my boots.” Ititaujang came forth now and answered, “I will +give you your boots if you will become my wife.” She objected, but when +Ititaujang turned round to go away with the boots she agreed, though +rather reluctantly.</p> + +<p>Having put on the boots she was transformed into a woman and they +wandered down to the seaside, where they settled in a large village. +Here they lived together for some years and had a son. In time +Ititaujang became a highly respected man, as he was by far the best +whaler among the Inuit.</p> + +<p>Once upon a time the Inuit had killed a whale and were busy cutting +it up and carrying the meat and the blubber to their huts. Though +Ititaujang was hard at work his wife stood lazily by. When he called her +and asked her to help as the other women did she objected, crying, “My +food is not from the sea; my food is from the land; I will not eat +the meat of a whale; I will not help.”</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page617" id="page617">617</a></span> +<p>Ititaujang answered, “You must eat of the whale; that will fill your +stomach.” Then she began crying and exclaimed, “I will not eat it; +I will not soil my nice white clothing.”</p> + +<p>She descended to the beach, eagerly looking for birds’ feathers. +Having found a few she put them between her fingers and between those of +her child; both were transformed into geese and flew away.</p> + +<p>When the Inuit saw this they called out, “Ititaujang, your wife is +flying away.” Ititaujang became very sad; he cried for his wife and did +not care for the abundance of meat and blubber, nor for the whales +spouting near the shore. He followed his wife and ascended the land in +search of her.</p> + +<p>After having traveled for many weary months he came to a river. There +he saw a man who was busy chopping chips from a piece of wood with a +large hatchet. As soon as the chips fell off he polished them neatly and +they were transformed into salmon, becoming so slippery that they glided +from his hands and fell into the river, which they descended to a large +lake near by. The name of the man was Eχaluqdjung (the little +salmon).</p> + +<p>On approaching, Ititaujang was frightened almost to death, for he saw +that the back of this man was altogether hollow and that he could look +from behind right through his mouth. Cautiously he crept back and by a +circuitous way approached him from the opposite direction.</p> + +<p>When Eχaluqdjung saw him coming he stopped chopping and asked, “Which +way did you approach me?” Ititaujang, pointing in the direction he had +come last and from which he could not see the hollow back of +Eχaluqdjung, answered, “It is there I have come from.” Eχaluqdjung, on +hearing this, said, “That is lucky for you. If you had come from the +other side and had seen my back I should have immediately killed you +with my hatchet.” Ititaujang was very glad that he had turned back and +thus deceived the salmon maker. He asked him, “Have you not seen my +wife, who has left me, coming this way?” Eχaluqdjung had seen her and +said, “Do you see yon little island in the large lake? There she lives +now and has taken another husband.”</p> + +<p>When Ititaujang heard this report he almost despaired, as he did not +know how to reach the island; but Eχaluqdjung kindly promised to help +him. They descended to the beach; Eχaluqdjung gave him the backbone of a +salmon and said, “Now shut your eyes. The backbone will turn into a +kayak and carry you safely to the island. But mind you do not open your +eyes, else the boat will upset.”</p> + +<p>Ititaujang promised to obey. He shut his eyes, the backbone became a +kayak, and away he went over the lake. As he did not hear any splashing +of water, he was anxious to see whether the boat moved on, and opened +his eyes just a little. But he had scarcely taken a short glimpse when +the kayak began to swing violently and he felt +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page618" id="page618">618</a></span> +that it became a backbone again. He quickly shut his eyes, the boat went +steadily on, and a short time after he was landed on the island.</p> + +<p>There he saw the hut and his son playing on the beach near it. The +boy on looking up saw Ititaujang and ran to his mother crying, “Mother, +father is here and is coming to our hut.” The mother answered, “Go, play +on; your father is far away and cannot find us.” The child obeyed; but +as he saw Ititaujang approaching he re-entered the hut and said, +“Mother, father is here and is coming to our hut.” Again the mother sent +him away, but he returned very soon, saying that Ititaujang was quite +near.</p> + +<p>Scarcely had the boy said so when Ititaujang opened the door. When +the new husband saw him he told his wife to open a box which was in a +corner of the hut. She did so, and many feathers flew out of it and +stuck to them. The woman, her new husband, and the child were thus again +transformed into geese. The hut disappeared; but when Ititaujang saw +them about to fly away he got furious and cut open the belly of his wife +before she could escape. Then many eggs fell down.</p> + + +<h4><a name="tales_sagdlirmiut" id="tales_sagdlirmiut">THE +EMIGRATION OF THE SAGDLIRMIUT.</a></h4> + +<p>In the beginning all the Inuit lived near Ussualung, in +Tiniqdjuarbing (Cumberland Sound). The Igdlumiut, the Nugumiut, and the +Talirpingmiut in the south, the Aggomiut in the far north, and the +Inuit, who tattoo rings round their eyes, in the far west, all once +lived together. There is a tradition concerning the emigration of the +Sagdlirmiut (see <a href="#page451">p. 451</a>) who live east of +Iglulik. The Akudnirmiut say that the following events did not happen in +Tiniqdjuarbing, but in Aggo, a country where nobody lives nowadays. +Ikeraping, an Akudnirmio, heard the story related by a Tununirmio, who +had seen the place himself, but all the Oqomiut assert that Ussualung is +the place where the events in the story happened.</p> + +<p>An old woman, the sister of Mitiq, the angakoq, told the story as +follows:</p> + +<p>Near Ussualung there are two places, Qerniqdjuaq and Eχaluqdjuaq. In +each of these was a large house, in which many families lived together. +They used to keep company during the summer when they went deer hunting, +but returned to their separate houses in the fall.</p> + +<p>Once upon a time it happened that the men of Qerniqdjuaq had been +very successful, while those of Eχaluqdjuaq had caught scarcely any +deer. Therefore the latter got very angry and resolved to kill the other +party, but they preferred to wait until the winter. Later in the season +many deer were caught and put up in depots. They were to be carried down +to the winter settlements by means of sledges.</p> + +<p>One day both parties agreed upon a journey to these depots and the +men of Eχaluqdjuaq resolved to kill their enemies on this occasion. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page619" id="page619">619</a></span> +They set out with their dogs and sledges, and when they were fairly +inland they suddenly attacked their unsuspecting companions and killed +them. For fear that the wives and children of the murdered men might be +suspicious if the dogs returned without their masters, they killed them +too. After a short time they returned and said they had lost the other +party and did not know what had happened to them.</p> + +<p>A young man of Eχaluqdjuaq was the suitor of a girl of Qerniqdjuaq +and used to visit her every night. He did not stop his visits now. He +was kindly received by the woman and lay down to sleep with his young +wife.</p> + +<p>Under the snow bench there was a little boy who had seen the young +man of Eχaluqdjuaq coming. When everybody was sleeping he heard somebody +calling and soon recognized the spirits of the murdered men, who told +him what had happened and asked him to kill the young man in revenge. +The boy crept from his place under the bed, took a knife, and put it +into the young man’s breast. As he was a small boy and very weak, the +knife glided from the ribs and entered deep into the heart, thus killing +the young man.</p> + +<p>Then he roused the other inhabitants of the hut and told them that +the spirits of the dead men had come to him, that they had told him of +their murder, and had ordered him to kill the young man. The women and +children got very much frightened and did not know what to do. At last +they resolved to follow the advice of an old woman and to flee from +their cruel neighbors. As their dogs were killed, the sledges were of no +use, but by chance a bitch with pups was in the hut and the old woman, +who was a great angakoq, ordered them to go and whip the young dogs, +which would thus grow up quickly. They did so and in a short time the +pups were large and strong. They harnessed them and set off as quickly +as possible. In order to deceive their neighbors they left everything +behind and did not even extinguish their lamps, that they might not +excite suspicion.</p> + +<p>The next morning the men of Eχaluqdjuaq wondered why their companion +had not returned and went to the hut in Qernirtung. They peeped through +the spy hole in the window and saw the lamps burning, but nobody inside. +At last they discovered the body of the young man, and, finding the +tracks of the sledges, they hurriedly put their sledges in order and +pursued the fugitives.</p> + +<p>Though the latter had journeyed rapidly their pursuers followed still +more rapidly and seemed likely to overtake them in a short time. They +therefore became very much frightened, fearing the revenge of their +pursuers.</p> + +<p>When the sledge of the men drew near and the women saw that they were +unable to escape, a young woman asked the old angakoq: “Don’t you +know how to cut the ice?” The matron answered in the affirmative and +slowly drew a line over the ice with her first finger +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page620" id="page620">620</a></span> +across the path of their pursuers. The ice gave a loud crack. Once more +she drew the line, when a crack opened and quickly widened as she passed +on. The floe began moving and when the men arrived they could not cross +over the wide space of water. Thus the party were saved by the art of +their angakoq.</p> + +<p>For many days they drifted to and fro, but finally they landed on the +island of Sagdlirn, where they took up their abode and became the +mothers of the Sagdlirmiut.</p> + + +<h4><a name="tales_kalopaling" id="tales_kalopaling">KALOPALING.</a></h4> + +<p>Kalopaling is a fabulous being that lives in the sea. His body is +like that of a human being and he wears clothing made of eider ducks’ +skins. Therefore he is sometimes called Mitiling (with eider ducks). As +these birds have a black back and a white belly, his gown looked +speckled all over. His jacket has an enormous hood, which is an object +of fear to the Inuit. If a kayak capsizes and the boatman is drowned +Kalopaling puts him into this hood. He cannot speak, but can only cry, +“Be, be! Be, be!” His feet are very large and look like inflated +sealskin floats.</p> + +<p>The Inuit believe that in olden times there were a great number of +Kalopalit, but gradually their number diminished and there are now very +few left. They may be seen from the land swimming very rapidly under the +water and sometimes rising to the surface. While swimming they make a +great noise by splashing with arms and legs. In summer they like to bask +on rocks and in winter they sometimes sit on the ice near cracks or at +the edge of drifting floes. As they pursue the hunters the most daring +men try to kill them whenever they can get near them. Cautiously they +approach the sleeping Kalopaling, and as soon as they come near enough +they throw the walrus harpoon at him. They must shut their eyes +immediately until the Kalopaling is dead, else he will capsize the boat +and kill the hunters. The flesh of the Kalopaling is said to be +poisonous, but good enough for dog’s food.</p> + +<p>An old tradition is handed down which refers to a Kalopaling:</p> + +<p>An old woman lived with her grandson in a small hut. As they had no +kinsmen they were very poor. A few Inuit only took pity on them and +brought them seal’s meat and blubber for their lamps. Once upon a time +they were very hungry and the boy cried. The grandmother told him to be +quiet, but as he did not obey she became angry and called Kalopaling to +come and take him away. He entered at once and the woman put the boy +into the large hood, in which he disappeared almost immediately.</p> + +<p>Later on the Inuit were more successful in sealing and they had an +abundance of meat. Then the grandmother was sorry that she had so rashly +given the boy to Kalopaling and wished to see him back +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page621" id="page621">621</a></span> +again. She lamented about it to the Inuit, and at length a man and his +wife promised to help her.</p> + +<p>When the ice had consolidated and deep cracks were formed near the +shore by the rise and fall of the tide, the boy used to rise and sit +alongside the cracks, playing with a whip of seaweed. Kalopaling, +however, was afraid that somebody might carry the boy away and had +fastened him to a string of seaweed, which he held in his hands. The +Inuit who had seen the boy went toward him, but as soon as he saw them +coming he sang, “Two men are coming, one with a double jacket, the other +with a foxskin jacket” (Inung maqong tikitong, aipa mirqosailing, aipa +kapiteling). Then Kalopaling pulled on the rope and the boy disappeared. +He did not want to return to his grandmother, who had abused him.</p> + +<p>Some time afterward the Inuit saw him again sitting near a crack. +They took the utmost caution that he should not hear them when +approaching, tying pieces of deerskin under the soles of their boots. +But when they could almost lay hold of the boy he sang, “Two men are +coming, one with a double jacket, the other with a foxskin jacket.” +Again Kalopaling pulled on the seaweed rope and the boy disappeared.</p> + +<p>The man and his wife, however, did not give up trying. They resolved +to wait near the crack, and on one occasion when the boy had just come +out of the water they jumped forward from a piece of ice behind which +they had been hidden and before he could give the alarm they had cut the +rope and away they went with him to their huts.</p> + +<p>The boy lived with them and became a great hunter.</p> + + +<h4><a name="tales_uissuit" id="tales_uissuit">THE UISSUIT.</a></h4> + +<p>Besides the Kalopalit there are the Uissuit, a strange people that +live in the sea. They are dwarfs and are frequently seen between Iglulik +and Netchillik, where the Anganidjen live, an Inuit tribe whose women +are in the habit of tattooing rings around their eyes. There are men and +women among the Uissuit and they live in deep water, never coming up to +the surface. When the Inuit wish to see them, they go in their boats to +a place where they cannot see the bottom and try to catch them by hooks +which they slowly move up and down. As soon as they get a bite they draw +in the line. The Uissuit are thus drawn up; but no sooner do they +approach the surface than they dive down headlong again, only their legs +having emerged from the water. The Inuit have never succeeded in getting +one out of the water.</p> + + +<h4><a name="tales_kiviung" id="tales_kiviung">KIVIUNG.</a></h4> + +<p>An old woman lived with her grandson in a small hut. As she had no +husband and no son to take care of her and the boy, they were very poor, +the boy’s clothing being made of skins of birds which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page622" id="page622">622</a></span> +they caught in snares. When the boy would come out of the hut and join +his playfellows, the men would laugh at him and tear his outer garment. +Only one man, whose name was Kiviung, was kind to the young boy; but he +could not protect him from the others. Often the lad came to his +grandmother crying and weeping, and she always consoled him and each +time made him a new garment. She entreated the men to stop teasing the +boy and tearing his clothing, but they would not listen to her prayer. +At last she got angry and swore she would take revenge upon his abusers, +and she could easily do so, as she was a great angakoq.</p> + +<p>She commanded her grandson to step into a puddle which was on the +floor of the hut, telling him what would happen and how he should +behave. As soon as he stood in the water the earth opened and he sank +out of sight, but the next moment he rose near the beach as a yearling +seal with a beautiful skin and swam about lustily.</p> + +<p>The men had barely seen the seal when they took to their kayaks, +eager to secure the pretty animal. But the transformed boy quickly swam +away, as his grandmother had told him, and the men continued in pursuit. +Whenever he rose to breathe he took care to come up behind the kayaks, +where the men could not get at him with their harpoons; there, however, +he splashed and dabbled in order to attract their attention and lure +them on. But before any one could turn his kayak he had dived again and +swam away. The men were so interested in the pursuit that they did not +observe that they were being led far from the coast and that the land +was now altogether invisible.</p> + +<p>Suddenly a gale arose; the sea foamed and roared and the waves +destroyed or upset their frail vessels. After all seemed to be drowned +the seal was again transformed into the lad, who went home without +wetting his feet. There was nobody now to tear his clothing, all his +abusers being dead.</p> + +<p>Only Kiviung, who was a great angakoq and had never abused the boy, +had escaped the wind and waves. Bravely he strove against the wild sea, +but the storm did not abate. After he had drifted for many days on the +wide sea, a dark mass loomed up through the mist. His hope revived +and he worked hard to reach the supposed land. The nearer he came, +however, the more agitated did the sea become, and he saw that he had +mistaken a wild, black sea, with raging whirlpools, for land. Barely +escaping he drifted again for many days, but the storm did not abate and +he did not see any land. Again he saw a dark mass looming up through the +mist, but he was once more deceived, for it was another whirlpool which +made the sea rise in gigantic waves.</p> + +<p>At last the storm moderated, the sea subsided, and at a great +distance he saw the land. Gradually he came nearer and following the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page623" id="page623">623</a></span> +coast he at length spied a stone house in which a light was burning. He +landed and entered the house. Nobody was inside but an old woman whose +name was Arnaitiang. She received him kindly and at his request pulled +off his boots, slippers, and stockings and dried them on the frame +hanging over the lamp. Then she went out to light a fire and cook a good +meal.</p> + +<p>When the stockings were dry, Kiviung tried to take them from the +frame in order to put them on, but as soon as he extended his hand to +touch them the frame rose out of his reach. Having tried several times +in vain, he called Arnaitiang and asked her to give him back the +stockings. She answered: “Take them yourself; there they are; there they +are” and went out again. The fact is she was a very bad woman and wanted +to eat Kiviung.</p> + +<p>Then he tried once more to take hold of his stockings, but with no +better result. He called again for Arnaitiang and asked her to give him +the boots and stockings, whereupon she said: “Sit down where I sat when +you entered my house; then you can get them.” After that she left him +again. Kiviung tried it once more, but the frame rose as before and he +could not reach it.</p> + +<p>Now he understood that Arnaitiang meditated mischief; so he summoned +his tornaq, a huge white bear, who arose roaring from under the +floor of the house. At first Arnaitiang did not hear him, but as Kiviung +kept on conjuring the spirit came nearer and nearer to the surface, and +when she heard his loud roar she rushed in trembling with fear and gave +Kiviung what he had asked for. “Here are your boots,” she cried; “here +are your slippers; here are your stockings. I’ll help you put them on.” +But Kiviung would not stay any longer with this horrid witch and did not +even dare to put on his boots, but took them from Arnaitiang and rushed +out of the door. He had barely escaped when it clapped violently +together and just caught the tail of his jacket, which was torn off. He +hastened to his kayak without once stopping to look behind and paddled +away. He had only gone a short distance before Arnaitiang, who had +recovered from her fear, came out swinging her glittering woman’s knife +and threatening to kill him. He was nearly frightened to death and +almost upset his kayak. However, he managed to balance it again and +cried in answer, lifting up his spear: “I shall kill you with my +spear.” When Arnaitiang heard these words she fell down terror stricken +and broke her knife. Kiviung then observed that it was made of a thin +slab of fresh water ice.</p> + +<p>He traveled on for many days and nights, following the shore. At last +he came to a hut, and again a lamp was burning inside. As his clothing +was wet and he was hungry, he landed and entered the house. There he +found a woman who lived all alone with her daughter. Her son-in-law was +a log of driftwood which had four boughs. Every day about the time of +low water they carried it to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page624" id="page624">624</a></span> +the beach and when the tide came in it swam away. When night came again +it returned with eight large seals, two being fastened to every bough. +Thus the timber provided its wife, her mother, and Kiviung with an +abundance of food. One day, however, after they had launched it as they +had always done, it left and never returned.</p> + +<p>After a short interval Kiviung married the young widow. Now he went +sealing every day himself and was very successful. As he thought of +leaving some day, he was anxious to get a good stock of mittens (that +his hands might keep dry during the long journey?). Every night after +returning from hunting he pretended to have lost his mittens. In reality +he had concealed them in the hood of his jacket.</p> + +<p>After <ins class="correction" title="printed as shown (one word)">awhile</ins> the old woman became jealous of her daughter, for +the new husband of the latter was a splendid hunter and she wished to +marry him herself. One day when he was away hunting, she murdered her +daughter, and in order to deceive him she removed her daughter’s skin +and crept into it, thus changing her shape into that of the young woman. +When Kiviung returned, she went to meet him, as it had been her +daughter’s custom, and without exciting any suspicion. But when he +entered the hut and saw the bones of his wife he at once became aware of +the cruel deed and of the deception that had been practiced and fled +away.</p> + +<p>He traveled on for many days and nights, always following the shore. +At last he again came to a hut where a lamp was burning. As his clothing +was wet and he was hungry, he landed and went up to the house. Before +entering it occurred to him that it would be best to find out first who +was inside. He therefore climbed up to the window and looked through the +peep hole. On the bed sat an old woman, whose name was Aissivang +(spider). When she saw the dark figure before the window she believed it +was a cloud passing the sun, and as the light was insufficient to enable +her to go on with her work she got angry. With her knife she cut away +her eyebrows, ate them, and did not mind the dripping blood, but sewed +on. When Kiviung saw this he thought that she must be a very bad woman +and turned away.</p> + +<p>Still he traveled on days and nights. At last he came to a land which +seemed familiar to him and soon he recognized his own country. He was +very glad when he saw some boats coming to meet him. They had been on a +whaling excursion and were towing a great carcass to the village. In the +bow of one of them stood a stout young man who had killed the whale. He +was Kiviung’s son, whom he had left a small boy and who was now grown up +and had become a great hunter. His wife had taken a new husband, but now +she returned to Kiviung.</p> + + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page625" id="page625">625</a></span> +<h4><a name="tales_narwhal" id="tales_narwhal">ORIGIN OF THE +NARWHAL.</a></h4> + +<p>A long, long time ago a widow lived with her daughter and her son in +a hut. When the boy was quite young he made a bow and arrows of walrus +tusks and shot birds, which they ate. Before he was grown up he +accidentally became blind. From that moment his mother maltreated him in +every way. She never gave him enough to eat, though he had formerly +added a great deal to their sustenance, and did not allow her daughter, +who loved her brother tenderly, to give him anything. Thus they lived +many years and the poor boy was very unhappy.</p> + +<p>Once upon a time a polar bear came to the hut and thrust his head +right through the window. They were all very much frightened and the +mother gave the boy his bow and arrows that he might kill the animal. +But he said, “I cannot see the window and I shall miss him.” Then +the sister leveled the bow and the boy shot and killed the bear. The +mother and sister went out and took the carcass down and skinned it.</p> + +<p>After they had returned into the hut they told the boy that he had +missed the bear, which had run away when it had seen him taking his bow +and arrows. The bad mother had strictly ordered her daughter not to tell +that the bear was dead, and she did not dare to disobey. The mother and +the daughter ate the bear and had an ample supply of food, while the boy +was almost starving. Sometimes, when the mother had gone away, the girl +gave her brother something to eat, as she loved him dearly.</p> + +<p>One day a loon flew over the hut and observing the poor blind boy it +resolved to restore his eyesight. It sat down on the top of the roof and +cried, “Come out, boy, and follow me.” When he heard this he crept out +and followed the bird, which flew along to a lake. There it took the boy +and dived with him to the bottom. When they had risen again to the +surface it asked, “Can you see anything?” The boy answered, “No, +I cannot yet see.” They dived again and staid a long time in the +water. When they emerged, the bird asked, “Can you see now?” The boy +answered, “I see a dim shimmer.” Then they dived the third time and +staid very long under water. When they had risen to the surface the boy +had recovered his eyesight altogether.</p> + +<p>He was very glad and thankful to the bird, which told him to return +to the hut. Then he found the skin of the bear he had killed drying in +the warm rays of the sun. He got very angry and cut it into small +pieces. He entered the hut and asked his mother: “From whom did you get +the bearskin I saw outside of the hut?” The mother was frightened when +she found that her son had recovered his eyesight, and prevaricated. She +said, “Come here, I will give +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page626" id="page626">626</a></span> +you the best I have; but I am very poor; I have no supporter; come +here, eat this, it is very good.” The boy, however, did not comply and +asked again, “From whom did you get yon bearskin I saw outside the hut?” +Again she prevaricated; but when she could no longer evade the question +she said, “A boat came here with many men in it, who left it for +me.”</p> + +<p>The boy did not believe the story, but was sure that it was the skin +of the bear he had killed during the winter. However, he did not say a +word. His mother, who was anxious to conciliate him, tried to +accommodate him with food and clothing, but he did not accept +anything.</p> + +<p>He went to the other Inuit who lived in the same village, made a +spear and a harpoon of the same pattern he saw in use with them, and +began to catch white whales. In a short time he had become an expert +hunter.</p> + +<p>By and by he thought of taking revenge on his mother. He said to his +sister, “Mother abused me when I was blind and has maltreated you for +pitying me; we will revenge ourselves on her.” The sister agreed and he +planned a scheme for killing the mother.</p> + +<p>When he went to hunt white whales he used to wind the harpoon line +round his body and, taking a firm footing, hold the animal until it was +dead. Sometimes his sister accompanied him and helped him to hold the +line.</p> + +<p>One day he told his mother to go with him and hold his line. When +they came to the beach he tied the rope round her body and asked her to +keep a firm footing. She was rather anxious, as she had never done this +before, and told him to harpoon a small dolphin, else she might not be +able to resist the strong pull. After a short time a young animal came +up to breathe and the mother shouted, “Kill it, I can hold it;” but +the boy answered, “No, it is too large.” Again a small dolphin came near +and the mother shouted to him to spear it; but he said, “No, it is too +large.” At last a huge animal rose quite near. Immediately he threw his +harpoon, taking care not to kill it, and tossing his mother forward into +the water cried out, “That is because you maltreated me; that is because +you abused me.”</p> + +<p>The white whale dragged the mother into the sea, and whenever she +rose to the surface she cried, “Louk! Louk!” and gradually she became +transformed into a narwhal.</p> + +<p>After the young man had taken revenge he began to realize that it was +his mother whom he had murdered and he was haunted by remorse, and so +was his sister, as she had agreed to the bad plans of her brother. They +did not dare to stay any longer in their hut, but left the country and +traveled many days and many nights overland. At last they came to a +place where they saw a hut in which a man lived whose name was +Qitua´jung. He was very bad and had horribly long nails on his fingers. +The young man, being very thirsty, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page627" id="page627">627</a></span> +sent his sister into the hut to ask for some water. She entered and said +to Qitua´jung, who sat on the bed place, “My brother asks for some +water;” to which Qitua´jung responded, “There it stands behind the lamp. +Take as much as you like.” She stooped to the bucket, when he jumped up +and tore her back with his long nails. Then she called to her brother +for help, crying, “Brother, brother, that man is going to kill me.” The +young man ran to the hut immediately, broke down the roof, and killed +the bad man with his spear.</p> + +<p>Cautiously he wrapped up his sister in hares’ skins, put her on his +back, and traveled on. He wandered over the land for many days, until he +came to a hut in which a man lived whose name was Iqignang. As the young +man was very hungry, he asked him if he might eat a morsel from the +stock of deer meat put up in the entrance of the hut. Iqignang answered, +“Don’t eat it, don’t eat it.” Though he had already taken a little bit, +he immediately stopped. Iqignang was very kind to the brother and +sister, however, and after a short time he married the girl, who had +recovered from her wounds, and gave his former wife to the young man.<a +class="tag" name="tag10" id="tag10" href="#note10">10</a></p> + + +<h4><a name="tales_visitor" id="tales_visitor">THE VISITOR.</a></h4> + +<p>An old hag lived in a house with her grandson. She was a very bad +woman who thought of nothing but playing mischief. She was a witch and +tried to harm everybody by witchcraft. Once upon a time a stranger came +to visit some friends who lived in a hut near that of the old woman. As +the visitor was a good hunter and procured plenty of food for his hosts, +she envied them and resolved to kill the new comer. She made a soup of +wolf’s and man’s brains, which was the most poisonous meal she could +prepare, and sent her grandson to invite the stranger. She cautioned him +not to say what she had cooked, as she knew that the visitor was a great +angakoq, who was by far her superior in wisdom.</p> + +<p>The boy went to the neighboring hut and said: “Stranger, my +grandmother invites you to come to her hut and to have there a good +feast on a supper she has cooked. She told me not to say that it is a +man’s and a wolf’s brains and I do not say it.”</p> + +<p>Though the angakoq understood the schemes of the old hag he followed +the boy and sat down with her. She feigned to be very glad to see him +and gave him a dish full of soup, which he began to eat. But by help of +his tornaq the food fell right through him into a vessel which he had +put between his feet on the floor of the hut. This he gave to the old +witch and compelled her to eat it. She died as soon as she had brought +the first spoonful to her mouth.</p> + + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page628" id="page628">628</a></span> +<h4><a name="tales_fugitive" id="tales_fugitive">THE FUGITIVE +WOMEN.</a></h4> + +<p>Once upon a time two women who were with child quarreled with their +husbands and fled from their families and friends to live by themselves. +After having traveled a long distance they came to a place called +Igdluqdjuaq, where they resolved to stay. It was summer when they +arrived. They found plenty of sod and turf and large whale ribs +bleaching on the beach. They erected a firm structure of bones and +filled the interstices with sod and turf. Thus they had a good house to +live in. In order to obtain skins they made traps, in which they caught +foxes in sufficient numbers for their dresses. Sometimes they found +carcasses of ground seals or of whales which had drifted to the shore, +of which they ate the meat and burnt the blubber. There was also a deep +and narrow deer pass near the hut. Across this they stretched a rope and +when the deer passed by they became entangled in it and strangled +themselves. Besides, there was a salmon creek near the house and this +likewise furnished them with an abundance of food.</p> + +<p>In winter their fathers came in search of their lost daughters. When +they saw the sledge coming they began to cry, as they were unwilling to +return to their husbands. The men, however, were glad to find them +comfortable, and having staid two nights at their daughters’ house they +returned home, where they told the strange story that two women without +the company of any men lived all by themselves and were never in +want.</p> + +<p>Though this happened a long time ago the house may still be seen and +therefore the place is called Igdluqdjuaq (The Large House).</p> + + +<h4><a name="tales_qaudjaqdjuq" id="tales_qaudjaqdjuq">QAUDJAQDJUQ.</a></h4> + +<h5><a name="tales_qau_brothers" id="tales_qau_brothers">I. STORY OF +THE THREE BROTHERS.</a></h5> + +<p>A long time ago there lived three brothers. Two of them were grown +up, but the third was a young lad whose name was Qaudjaqdjuq. The elder +brothers had left their country and traveled about many years, while the +youngest lived with his mother in their native village. As they had no +supporter, the poor youth was abused by all the men of the village and +there was nobody to protect him.</p> + +<p>At last the elder brothers, being tired of roaming about, returned +home. When they heard that the boy had been badly used by all the Inuit +they became angry and thought of revenge. At first, however, they did +not say anything, but built a boat, in which they intended to escape +after having accomplished their designs. They were skillful boat +builders and finished their work very soon. They tried the boat and +found that it passed over the water as swiftly as an eider duck flies. +As they were not content with their work they destroyed it again and +built a new boat, which proved as swift as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page629" id="page629">629</a></span> +an ice duck. They were not yet content, destroyed this, and built a +third one that was good. After having finished the boat they lived +quietly with the other men. In the village there was a large singing +house, which was used at every festival. One day the three brothers +entered it and shut it up. Then they began dancing and singing and +continued until they were exhausted. As there was no seat in the house +they asked their mother to bring one, and when they opened the door to +let her pass in, an ermine, which had been hidden in the house, +escaped.</p> + +<p>Near the singing house the other Inuit of the village were playing. +When they saw the ermine, which ran right through the crowd, they +endeavored to catch it. In the eagerness of pursuit one man, who had +almost caught the little animal, stumbled over a bowlder and fell in +such a manner that he was instantly killed. The ermine was sprinkled +with blood, particularly about its mouth. During the ensuing confusion +it escaped into the singing house, where it concealed itself again in +the same corner.</p> + +<p>The brothers, who were inside, had recommenced singing and dancing. +When they were exhausted they called for their mother (to bring +something to eat). When they opened the door the ermine again escaped +and ran about among the Inuit, who were still playing outside.</p> + +<p>When they saw it they believed that the brothers would induce them to +pursue it again, and thus make them perish one by one. Therefore the +whole crowd stormed the singing house with the intention of killing the +brothers. As the door was shut they climbed on the roof and pulled it +down, but when they took up their spears to pierce the three men they +opened the door and rushed down to the beach. Their boat was quite near +at hand and ready to be launched, while those of the other Inuit were a +long distance off.</p> + +<p>They embarked with their mother, but, when they were at a short +distance and saw that the other men had not yet reached their boats, +they pretended that they were unable to move theirs, though they pulled +with the utmost effort. In reality, they played with the oars on the +water. A few young women and girls were on the shore looking at the +brothers, who seemed to exert themselves to the utmost of their +strength. The eldest brother cried to the women: “Will you help us? We +cannot get along alone.” Two girls consented, but as soon as they had +come into the boat the brothers commenced pulling as hard as possible, +the boat flying along quicker than a duck, while the girls cried with +fright. The other Inuit hastened up desirous to reach the fugitives, and +soon their boats were manned.</p> + +<p>The brothers were not afraid, however, as their boat was by far the +swiftest. When they had almost lost sight of the pursuers they were +suddenly stopped by a high, bold land rising before the boat and +shutting up their way. They were quite puzzled, as they had to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page630" id="page630">630</a></span> +retrace their way for a long distance and feared they would be overtaken +by the other boats. But one of the brothers, who was a great angakoq, +saved them by his art. He said: “Shut your eyes and do not open them +before I tell you, and then pull on.” They did as they were bade, and +when he told them to look up they saw that they had sailed right through +the land, which rose just as high and formidable behind them as it had +formerly obstructed their way. It had opened and let them pass.</p> + +<p>After having sailed some time they saw a long black line in the sea. +On coming nearer they discovered that it was an impenetrable mass of +seaweed, so compact that they could leave the boat and stand upon it. +There was no chance of pushing the boat through, though it was swifter +than a duck. The eldest brother, however, thought of his angakoq art and +said to his mother, “Take your hair lace and whip the seaweed.” As soon +as she did so it sank and opened the way.</p> + +<p>After having overcome these obstacles they were troubled no more and +accomplished their journey in safety. When they arrived in their country +they went ashore and erected a hut. The two women whom they had taken +from their enemies they gave to their young brother Qaudjaqdjuq.</p> + +<p>They wanted to make him a very strong man, such as they were +themselves. For this reason they led him to a huge stone and said, “Try +to lift that stone.” As Qaudjaqdjuq was unable to do so, they whipped +him and said, “Try it again.” Now Qaudjaqdjuq could move it a little +from its place. The brothers were not yet content and whipped him once +more. By the last whipping he became very strong and lifted the bowlder +and cast it over the hut.</p> + +<p>Then the brothers gave him the whip and told him to beat his wives if +they disobeyed him.</p> + + +<h5><a name="tales_qau_orphan" id="tales_qau_orphan">II. +QAUDJAQDJUQ.</a></h5> + +<p>A long time ago there was a poor little orphan boy who had no +protector and was maltreated by all the inhabitants of the village. He +was not even allowed to sleep in the hut, but lay outside in the cold +passage among the dogs, who were his pillows and his quilt. Neither did +they give him any meat, but flung old, tough walrus hide at him, which +he was compelled to eat without a knife. A young girl was the only +one who pitied him. She gave him a very small piece of iron for a knife, +but bade him conceal it well or the men would take it from him. He did +so, putting it into his urethra. Thus he led a miserable life and did +not grow at all, but remained poor little Qaudjaqdjuq. He did not even +dare to join the plays of the other children, as they also maltreated +and abused him on account of his weakness.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page631" id="page631">631</a></span> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig537" id="fig537"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig537.png" width="365" height="327" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 537.</span> Qaudjaqdjuq is maltreated by +his enemies. Drawn by Qeqertuqdjuaq, an Oqomio.</p> + +<p>When the inhabitants assembled in the singing house Qaudjaqdjuq used +to lie in the passage and peep over the threshold. Now and then a man +would lift him by the nostrils into the hut and give him the large urine +vessel to carry out (Fig. 537). It was so large and heavy +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page632" id="page632">632</a></span> +that he was obliged to take hold of it with both hands and his teeth. As +he was frequently lifted by the nostrils they grew to be very large, +though he remained small and weak.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig538" id="fig538"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig538.png" width="443" height="325" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 538.</span> The man in the moon comes +down to help Qaudjaqdjuq.</p> + +<p>At last the man in the moon,<a class="tag" name="tag11" id="tag11" href="#note11">11</a> who had seen how badly the men behaved +towards Qaudjaqdjuq, came down to help him. He harnessed his dog<a class="tag" name="tag12" id="tag12" href="#note12">12</a> (Fig. 538) +Tirie´tiang to his sledge and drove down. When near the hut he stopped +and cried, “Qaudjaqdjuq, come out.” Qaudjaqdjuq answered, “I will +not come out. Go away!” But when he had asked him a second and a third +time to come out, he complied, though he was very much frightened. Then +the man in the moon went with him to a place where some large bowlders +were lying about and, having whipped him (Fig. 539), asked, “Do you feel +stronger now?” Qaudjaqdjuq answered: “Yes, I feel stronger.” “Then +lift yon bowlder,” said he. As Qaudjaqdjuq was not yet able to lift it, +he gave him another whipping, and now all of a sudden he began to grow, +the feet first becoming of an extraordinary size (Fig. 540). Again the +man in the moon asked him: “Do you feel stronger now?” Qaudjaqdjuq +answered: “Yes, I feel stronger;” but as he could not yet lift the +stone he was whipped once more, after which he had attained a very great +strength and lifted the bowlder as if it were a small pebble. The man in +the moon said: “That will do. To-morrow morning I shall send three +bears; then you may show your strength.”</p> + +<div class="picblock"> +<div class="picture"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig539" id="fig539"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig539.png" width="185" height="133" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 539.</span> The man in the moon<br> +whipping Qaudjaqdjuq.</p> +</div> + +<div class="picture"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig540" id="fig540"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig540.png" width="41" height="61" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 540.</span> Qaudjaqdjuq<br> +has become Qaudjuqdjuaq.</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>He returned to the moon, but Qaudjaqdjuq, who had now become +Qaudjuqdjuaq (the big Qaudjaqdjuq), returned home tossing the stones +with his feet and making them fly to the right and to the left. At night +he lay down again among the dogs to sleep. Next morning he awaited the +bears, and, indeed, three large animals soon made their appearance, +frightening all the men, who did not dare to leave the huts.</p> + +<p>Then Qaudjuqdjuaq put on his boots and ran down to the ice. The men +who looked out of the window hole said, “Look here, is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page633" id="page633">633</a></span> +not that Qaudjaqdjuq? The bears will soon make way with him.” But he +seized the first by its hind legs and smashed its head on an iceberg, +near which it happened to stand. The other one fared no better; the +third, however, he carried up to the village and slew some of his +persecutors with it. Others he pressed to death with his hands or tore +off their heads (Fig. 541), crying: “That is for abusing me; that is for +your maltreating me.” Those whom he did not kill ran away, never to +return. Only a few who had been kind to him while he had been poor +little Qaudjaqdjuq were spared, among them the girl who had given him +the knife. Qaudjuqdjuaq lived to be a great hunter and traveled all over +the country, accomplishing many exploits.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig541" id="fig541"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig541.png" width="513" height="327" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 541.</span> Qaudjuqdjuaq killing his +enemies.</p> + + +<h4><a name="tales_cannibal" id="tales_cannibal">IGIMARASUGDJUQDJUAQ +THE CANNIBAL.</a></h4> + +<p>Igimarasugdjuqdjuaq was a very huge and bad man, who had committed +many murders and eaten the victims after he had cut them up with his +knife. Once upon a time his sister-in-law came to visit his wife, but +scarcely had she entered the hut before Igimarasugdjuqdjuaq killed her +and commanded his wife to cook her.</p> + +<p>His wife was very much frightened, fearing that she herself would be +the next victim, and resolved to make her escape. When +Igimarasugdjuqdjuaq had left to go hunting she gathered heather, stuffed +her jacket with it, and placed the figure in a sitting position upon the +bed. Then she ran away as fast as she could and suc-ceeded +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page634" id="page634">634</a></span> +in reaching a village. When her husband came home and saw the jacket he +believed that it was a stranger who had come to visit him and stabbed +him through the body. When he discovered, however, that his wife had +deceived and left him, he fell into a passion and pursued her.</p> + +<p>He came to the village and said: “Have you seen my wife? She has run +away.” The Inuit did not tell him that she was staying with them, but +concealed her from his wrath. At last Igimarasugdjuqdjuaq gave her up +for lost and returned home.</p> + +<p>The Inuit, however, resolved to revenge the many outrages which he +had wrought upon them. They went to visit him and met him on the ice +just below the hut. When he told them he was going bear hunting they +said: “Let us see your spear.” This spear had a stout and sharp walrus +tusk for a point. “Ah,” said they; “that is good for bear hunting; how +sharp it is. You must hit him just this way.” And so saying they struck +his brow, the point of the spear entering his brain, and then cut the +body up with their knives.</p> + + +<h4><a name="tales_tornit" id="tales_tornit">THE TORNIT.</a><a class="tag" name="tag13" id="tag13" href="#note13">13</a></h4> + +<p>In olden times the Inuit were not the only inhabitants of the country +in which they live at the present time. Another tribe similar to them +shared their hunting ground. But they were on good terms, both tribes +living in harmony in the villages. The Tornit were much taller than the +Inuit and had very long legs and arms. Almost all of them were blear +eyed. They were extremely strong and could lift large bowlders, which +were by far too heavy for the Inuit. But even the Inuit of that time +were much stronger than those of to-day, and some large stones are shown +on the plain of Miliaqdjuin, in Cumberland Sound, with which the ancient +Inuit used to play, throwing them great distances. Even the strongest +men of the present generations are scarcely able to lift them, much less +to swing them or throw them any distance.</p> + +<div class="figfloat"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig542" id="fig542"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig542.png" width="98" height="128" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 542.</span> Tumiujang<br> +or lamp of the Tornit.<br> +(Museum für Volkerkunde,<br> +Berlin IV, A 6848.)</p> +</div> + +<p>The Tornit lived on walrus, seals, and deer, just as the Eskimo do +nowadays, but their methods of hunting were different. The principal +part of their winter dress was a long and wide coat of deerskins, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page635" id="page635">635</a></span> +similar to the jumper of the Eskimo, but reaching down to the knees and +trimmed with leather straps. When sealing in winter they wore this +garment, the lower edge of which was fastened on the snow by means of +pegs. Under the jacket they carried a small lamp, called tumiujang +(literally, resembling a footprint) or quming (Fig. 542), over which +they melted snow in a small pot. Some Eskimo say that they opened the +seals as soon as they were caught and cooked some meat over these lamps. +When the seal blew in the hole they whispered, “Kapatipara” +(I shall stab it) and, when they had hit it, “Igdluiliq.” +Frequently they forgot about the lamp and in throwing the harpoon upset +it and burned their skin.</p> + +<p>All their weapons were made of stone. For the blades of their knives +they used green slate (uluqsaq, literally material for women’s knives), +which was fastened by ivory pins to a bone or ivory handle.</p> + +<p>The points of their harpoons were made of bone, ivory, or slate; +those of their lances, of flint or quartz, which was also used for +drillheads; and they made neither kayaks nor bows.</p> + +<p>Their method of hunting deer was remarkable. In a deer pass, where +the game could not escape, they erected a file of cairns across the +valley and connected them by ropes. Some of the hunters hid behind the +cairns, while others drove the deer toward them. As the animals were +unable to pass the rope they fled along it, looking for an exit, and +while attempting to pass a cairn were lanced by the waiting hunter, who +seized the body by the hind legs and drew it behind the line.</p> + +<p>This tale is related as a proof of their enormous strength and it is +said that they were able to hold a harpooned walrus as the Eskimo hold a +seal.</p> + +<p>The Tornit could not clean the sealskins so well as the Inuit, but +worked them up with part of the blubber attached. Their way of preparing +meat was disgusting, since they let it become putrid and placed it +between the thigh and the belly to warm it.</p> + +<p>The old stone houses of the Tornit can be seen everywhere. Generally +they did not build snow houses, but lived the whole winter in stone +buildings, the roofs of which were frequently supported by whale ribs. +Though the Eskimo built similar structures they can be easily +distinguished from one another, the bed of their huts being much larger +than that of the Tornit.</p> + +<p>Though both tribes lived on very good terms, the Inuit did not like +to play at ball with the Tornit, as they were too strong and used large +balls, with which they hurt their playfellows severely.</p> + +<p>A remarkable tradition is told referring to the emigration of this +people.</p> + +<p>The Tornit did not build any kayaks, but as they were aware of the +advantages afforded by their use in hunting they stole the boats from +the Inuit, who did not dare to defend their property, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page636" id="page636">636</a></span> +Tornit being by far their superiors in strength. Once upon a time a +young Tuniq had taken the kayak of a young Inung without asking him and +had injured it by knocking in the bottom. The Inung got very angry and +ran a knife into the nape of the Tuniq’s neck while he was sleeping. +(According to another tradition he drilled a hole into his head; this +form is also recorded in Labrador.) The Tornit then became afraid that +the Inuit would kill them all and preferred to leave the country for +good. They assembled at Qernirtung (a place in Cumberland Sound), +and in order to deceive any pursuers they cut off the tails of their +jumpers and tied their hair into a bunch protruding from the crown of +the head.</p> + +<p>In another form of the tradition it is said that while playing with +the Tornit a young Inung fell down and broke his neck. The Tornit feared +that the Inuit might take revenge upon them and left the country.</p> + +<p>Many old ditties are sung which either treat of the Tornit or are +reported to have been sung by them. Some of them will be found in the +linguistic account connected with my journey.</p> + + +<h4><a name="tales_singing" id="tales_singing">THE WOMAN AND THE +SPIRIT OF THE SINGING HOUSE.</a></h4> + +<p>Once upon a time a woman entered the singing house when it was quite +dark. For a long time she had wished to see the spirit of the house, and +though the Inuit had warned her of the impending danger she had insisted +upon her undertaking.</p> + +<p>She summoned the spirit, saying, “If you are in the house, come +here.” As she could not see him, she cried, “No spirit is here; he will +not come.” But the spirit, though yet invisible, said, “Here I am; there +I am.” Then the woman asked, “Where are your feet; where are your shins; +where are your thighs; where are your hips; where are your loins?” Every +time the spirit answered, “Here they are; there they are.” And she asked +further, “Where is your belly?” “Here it is,” answered the spirit. +“Where is your breast; where are your shoulders; where is your neck; +where is your head?” “Here it is; there it is;” but in touching the head +the woman all of a sudden fell dead. It had no bones and no hair (<a +href="#page597">p. 597</a>).</p> + + +<h4><a name="tales_udleqdjun" id="tales_udleqdjun">THE CONSTELLATION +UDLEQDJUN.</a></h4> + +<p>Three men went bear hunting with a sledge and took a young boy with +them. When they approached the edge of the floe they saw a bear and went +in pursuit. Though the dogs ran fast they could not get nearer and all +of a sudden they observed that the bear was lifted up and their sledge +followed. At this moment the boy lost one of his mittens and in the +attempt to pick it up fell from the sledge. There he saw the men +ascending higher and higher, finally being transformed into stars. The +bear became the star Nanuqdjung +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page637" id="page637">637</a></span> +(Betelgeuse); the pursuers, Udleqdjun (Orion’s belt); and the sledge, +Kamutiqdjung (Orion’s sword). The men continue the pursuit up to this +day; the boy, however, returned to the village and told how the men were +lost.</p> + + +<h4><a name="tales_origin" id="tales_origin">ORIGIN OF THE ADLET AND +OF THE QADLUNAIT.</a></h4> + +<p>Savirqong, an old man, lived alone with his daughter. Her name was +Niviarsiang (i.e., the girl), but as she would not take a husband she +was also called Uinigumissuitung (she who would not take a husband). She +refused all her suitors, but at last a dog, spotted white and red, whose +name was Ijirqang, won her affection and she took him for a husband. +They had ten children, five of whom were Adlet and five dogs. The lower +part of the body of the Adlet was that of a dog and hairy all over, the +soles excepted, while the upper part was that of a man. When the +children grew up they became very voracious, and as the dog Ijirqang did +not go out hunting at all, but let his father in law provide for the +whole family, it was difficult for Savirqong to feed them. Moreover, the +children were awfully clamorous and noisy; so at last the grandfather +got tired of it, put the whole family into his boat, and carried them to +a small island. He told the dog Ijirqang to come every day and fetch +meat.</p> + +<p>Niviarsiang hung a pair of boots round his neck and he swam across +the narrow channel. But Savirqong, instead of giving him meat, filled +the boots with heavy stones, which drowned Ijirqang when he attempted to +return to the island.</p> + +<p>The daughter thought of revenging the death of her husband. She sent +the young dogs to her father’s hut and let them gnaw off his feet and +hands. In return Savirqong, when Niviarsiang happened to be in his boat, +threw her overboard and cut off her fingers when she held to the +gunwale. As they fell into the sea they were transformed into seals and +whales. At last he allowed her to climb into the boat.</p> + +<p>As she feared that her father might think of killing or maiming her +children, she ordered the Adlet to go inland, where they became the +ancestors of a numerous people. She made a boat for the young dogs, +setting up two sticks for masts in the soles of her boots, and sent the +puppies across the ocean. She sang: “Angnaijaja. When you arrive there +across the ocean you will make many things giving you joy. Angnaija.” +They arrived in the land beyond the sea and became the ancestors of the +Europeans.</p> + + +<h4><a name="tales_flood" id="tales_flood">THE GREAT FLOOD.</a></h4> + +<p>A long time ago the ocean suddenly began to rise, until it covered +the whole land. The water even rose to the top of the mountains and the +ice drifted over them. When the flood had subsided the ice +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page638" id="page638">638</a></span> +stranded and ever since forms an ice cap on the top of the mountains. +Many shellfish, fish, seal, and whales were left high and dry and their +shells and bones may be seen to this day. A great number of Inuit +died during this period, but many others, who had taken to their kayaks +when the water commenced to rise, were saved.</p> + + +<h4><a name="tales_inugpaq" id="tales_inugpaq">INUGPAQDJUQDJUALUNG.</a><a class="tag" name="tag14" +id="tag14" href="#note14">14</a></h4> + +<p>In days of yore, an enormous man, whose name was Inugpaqdjuqdjualung, +lived in company with many other Inuit in a village on a large fjord. He +was so tall that he could straddle the fjord. He used to stand thus +every morning and wait for whales to pass beneath him. As soon as one +came along he stooped and caught it, just as another man would scoop up +some little thing that had fallen into the water, and he ate it as other +men eat a small piece of meat.</p> + +<p>One day all the natives had manned their boats to hunt a whale. +Inugpaqdjuqdjualung at the time was sitting lazily near his hut, but +when he saw the efforts of the men he scooped both whale and boats from +the water and placed them upon the beach.</p> + +<p>At another time, being tired from running about, he lay down on a +high hill to take a nap. The Inuit told him that a couple of huge bears +had been seen near the village, but he said he didn’t care, and told his +friends to rouse him by throwing large stones upon him if they should +see the bears coming. They did so and Inugpaqdjuqdjualung, suddenly +starting up, cried: “Where are they? Where are they?” When the Inuit +pointed them out he said: “What! those little things? Those are not +worth the bustle; they are small foxes, not bears,” and he crushed one +between his fingers, while he put the other into the eyelet of his boot +and strangled it there.</p> + + +<h4><a name="tales_bear" id="tales_bear">THE BEAR STORY.</a></h4> + +<p>This story is reprinted from Hall (II, p. 240):</p> + +<div class="quote"> +<p>Many moons ago, a woman obtained a polar bear cub but two or three +days old. Having long desired just such a pet, she gave it her closest +attention, as though it were a son, nursing it, making for it a soft +warm bed alongside her own, and talking to it as a mother does to her +child. She had no living relative, and she and the bear occupied the +house alone. Kunikdjuaq, as he grew up, proved that the woman had not +taught him in vain, for he early began to hunt seals and salmon, +bringing them to his mother before eating any himself, and receiving his +share from her hands. She always watched from the hilltop for his +return, and if she saw that he had been unsuccessful, she begged from +her neighbors blubber for his food. She learned how this was from her +lookout, for if successful, he came back in the tracks made on going +out, but if unsuccessful always by a different route. Learning to excel +the Inuit in hunting, he excited their envy, and, after long years of +faithful service, his death was resolved upon. On hearing this, the old +woman, overwhelmed with grief, offered to give up her own life if they +would but spare him who had so long supported her. Her offer was sternly +refused. Upon this, when all his enemies +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page639" id="page639">639</a></span> +had retired to their houses, the woman had a long talk with her +son—now well grown in years—telling him that wicked men were +about to kill him, and that the only way to save his life and hers was +for him to go off and not return. At the same time she begged him not to +go so far that she could not wander off and meet him, and get from him a +seal or something else which she might need. The bear, after listening +to what she said with tears streaming down her furrowed cheeks, gently +placed one huge paw on her head, and then throwing both around her neck, +said, “Good mother, Kunikdjuaq will always be on the lookout for you and +serve you as best he can.” Saying this, he took her advice and departed, +almost as much to the grief of the children of the village as to the +mother.</p> + +<p>Not long after this, being in need of food, she walked out on the sea +ice to see if she could not meet her son, and soon recognized him as one +of two bears who were lying down together. He ran to her, and she patted +him on the head in her old familiar way, told him her wants, and begged +him to hurry away and get something for her. Away ran the bear, and in a +few moments the woman looked upon a terrible fight going on between him +and his late companion, which, however, to her great relief, was soon +ended by her son’s dragging a lifeless body to her feet. With her knife +she quickly skinned the dead bear, giving her son large slices of the +blubber, and telling him that she would soon return for the meat, which +she could not at first carry to her house, and when her supply should +again fail she would comeback for his help. This she continued to do for +“a long, long time,” the faithful bear always serving her and +receiving the same unbroken love of his youth.</p> +</div> + + +<h4><a name="tales_sundry" id="tales_sundry">SUNDRY TALES.</a></h4> + +<p>(1) Two little girls, while playing about a cliff near Aivillik, with +infants in the hoods on their backs, went into an opening between the +rocks, which closed upon them before escape was possible. All attempts +at rescue were unsuccessful, and the poor children, to whom for a time +meat and water were passed, perished in the cliffs (Hall II, +p. 222).</p> + +<p>(2) Opposite to Niutang, a village in Kingnait, Cumberland Sound, +there is a vein of diorite resembling a boot, and therefore called +Kamingujang. A long time ago two enemies lived in the village. One +day they stood on the beach ready to go hunting. Suddenly the one +exclaimed, pointing to Kamingujang, “There he blows,” making his enemy +believe that a whale was passing up the fjord and inducing him to look +out for it. Then he killed him from behind, piercing him with the +spear.</p> + +<p>(3) At Qognung, near the head of Nettilling Fjord, there is a large +white stone on each side of the fjord, somewhat resembling a bear. It is +said that these stones have been bears which, being pursued by an Eskimo +in the water, escaped to the land, but were transformed into these +stones.</p> + +<p>(4) A long time ago a dead boy was buried under a large stone. Before +his relatives had returned to their hut the body was transformed into a +hare, which jumped forth from the tomb. All hares come from this +animal.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page640" id="page640">640</a></span> +<p>(5) It is said that albinos of seals and deer spring from an egg of +about half a foot in length, which forms itself in the earth. The seal +digs an underground passage to the sea, the deer a similar one to a +distant part of the country, and there they rise. The albinos are said +to be very quick.</p> + +<p class="space"> +I will add here an enumeration of the fabulous tribes of which I gained +intelligence, but of some of them I only know the names.</p> + +<p>(1) The Tornit, or, as they are called by the Akudnirmiut, the +Tuniqdjuait (<a href="#page634">p. 634</a>). It is remarkable +that this people is considered here, as well as in Labrador, +a tribe similar to the Eskimo, with whom they formerly lived in +company, but who were subsequently expelled by the latter. In Greenland +they are entirely a fabulous tribe, each individual being of enormous +size, living inland and seldom hunting in the upper parts of the fjords. +While in the western parts of the Eskimo country a more historical form +of the tradition is preserved, it is entirely mythical in Greenland.</p> + +<p>(2) The Adlet or Erqigdlit. In the tradition treating of this tribe a +similar change occurs. The Labrador Eskimo call the Indians of the +interior Adlet, the tribes west of Hudson Bay call them Erqigdlit. The +Baffin Land Eskimo and the Greenlanders have forgotten this relation +altogether, but denote with the term a fabulous tribe with dogs’ legs +and a human body. The name Adla is used as far north as Cumberland +Peninsula, the Akudnirmiut and the more northern tribes using the term +Erqigdlit. It is difficult to account for the use of these different +terms in both senses.</p> + +<p>(3) The Ardnainiq, a tribe living in the extreme northwest. The men +of this people are small, tiny, like children, but entirely covered with +hair. They are carried about in the hoods of their wives, just like +children. The women are of normal size. They do all the work, going out +hunting in the kayaks and providing for the men.</p> + +<p>(4) The Inuarudligang, dwarfs living in the cliffs near the +shore.</p> + +<p>(5) The Igdlungajung, a bandy legged people living inland.</p> + +<p>(6) The Uissuit, dwarfs living in the depth of the sea (<a href="#page621">p. 621</a>).</p> + +<p>(7) The Ijirang.</p> + +<p>(8) The Qailerte´tang, a people consisting of women only (<a href="#page605">p. 605</a>).</p> + +<p class="space"> +Finally, I will mention the animals which are only known to the natives +by reports of foreign tribes and are described as fabulous creatures. +These are the umingmang (the musk ox), which is represented as a +fierce animal with black and red streaks and larger than a bear, and the +agdlaq (the black bear), which, according to their belief, is also of +enormous size. It is said to live inland and to devour everything that +comes near it. I am unable to decide whether the report of an +enormous fish, the idluk, which is said to live in the lakes, is +altogether fabulous. The natives say that if they want to catch the fish +they build a snow house on the lake and cut a hole through the ice, into +which they sink the hook with a deer’s ham for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page641" id="page641">641</a></span> +a bait and a stout thong for a fishing line. Six men hold the line by +turns, and as soon as they feel the fish has nibbled they pull it up +with all their strength.</p> + +<p>The fabulous amaroq and avignaq of the Greenlanders are unknown, but +the terms denote real animals, the wolf and the lemming.</p> + +<p class="space"> +Besides traditions of this kind the Eskimo have a great number of +fables. Following is an example.</p> + + +<h4><a name="tales_sundry_owl" id="tales_sundry_owl">THE OWL AND THE +RAVEN.</a></h4> + +<p>The owl and the raven were fast friends. One day the raven made a new +dress, dappled white and black, for the owl, who in return made a pair +of boots of whalebone for the raven and then began to make a white +dress. But when he was about to try it on, the raven kept hopping about +and would not sit still. The owl got angry and said: “Now sit still or I +shall pour out the lamp over you.” As the raven continued hopping about, +the owl fell into a passion and poured the oil upon it. Then the raven +cried “Qaq! Qaq!” and since that day has been black all over.</p> + + +<h4><a name="tales_compare" id="tales_compare">COMPARISON BETWEEN +BAFFIN LAND TRADITIONS AND THOSE OF OTHER TRIBES.</a></h4> + +<p>The similarity of the language and traditions of the Eskimo from +Behring Strait to Greenland is remarkable, considering the distance +which separates the tribes. Unfortunately the material from other +tribes, except the Greenlanders, is very scanty, but it is probable that +the same traditions or elements of traditions are known to all the +tribes. In the following table the above traditions are compared with +Rink’s Tales and Traditions of the Greenlanders and with those of other +tribes:</p> + +<table class="parallel"> +<tr> +<th>Traditions of Greenlanders and other tribes:</th> +<th>Traditions of the Central Eskimo:</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Qagsaqsuq, Rink, p. 93.</td> +<td><p>Qaudjaqdjuq, <a href="#page630">p. 630</a>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>The man who recovered his sight, Rink, p. 99.</p></td> +<td><p>The origin of the narwhal, <a href="#page625">p. 625</a>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Igimarasugsuq, Rink, p. 106.</td> +<td><p>Igimarasugdjuqdjuaq, <a href="#page633">p. 633</a>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>The man who mated himself with a sea fowl, Rink, +p. 145.</p></td> +<td><p>Ititaujang, <a href="#page615">p. 615</a>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>Givioq, Rink, pp. 157 and 429.</p></td> +<td><p>Kiviung, <a href="#page621">p. 621</a>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Tiggaq, Rink, p. 162.</td> +<td><p>The visitor, <a href="#page627">p. 627</a>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>A lamentable story, Rink, p. 239.</p></td> +<td><p>No. 1, sundry tales, <a href="#page639">p. 639</a>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>The sun and the moon, Rink, p. 236. (L’homme lunaire, Petitot, +Traditions indiennes du Canada Nord-Ouest, p. 7. Also found by +Simpson at Point Barrow.)</p></td> +<td><p>The sun and the moon, <a href="#page597">p. 597</a>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><span class="pagenum"><a name="page642" id="page642">642</a></span> +The moon, Rink, p. 440.</td> +<td><p>The angakoq’s flight to the moon, <a href="#page598">p. 598</a>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>The Tornit (from Labrador), Rink, p. 469.</p></td> +<td><p>The Tornit, <a href="#page634">p. 634</a>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>A woman who was mated with a dog, Rink, p. 471.</p> +<p>(Fragmentary in J. Murdoch: “A few legendary fragments from the Point +Barrow Eskimos,” American Naturalist, p. 594, July, 1886.)</p> +</td> +<td><p>Origin of the Adlet and the white men, <a href="#page637">p. 637</a>.</p></td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<p>Some of these stories are almost identical in both countries, for +instance, Qaudjaqdjuq, the origin of the narwhal, &c., and it is of +great interest to learn that some passages, particularly speeches and +songs, occur literally in both countries, for instance, the interesting +song of Niviarsiang (<a href="#page637">page 637</a>) and the +conclusion of the Kiviung tradition. The tradition of the Tornit and the +form of the second tale (origin of the narwhal) resemble much more those +of Labrador than those of Greenland. The elements of which the +traditions are composed are combined differently in the tales of Baffin +Land and Greenland, but most of these elements are identical. +I give here a comparative table.</p> + +<table class="parallel three"> +<tr> +<td></td> +<th>Greenland.</th> +<th>Baffin Land.</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>Transformation of a man into a seal.</p></td> +<td>Rink, pp. 222, 224, 469.</td> +<td><p>Kiviung, <a href="#page621">p. 621</a>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>Men walking on the surface of the water.</p></td> +<td>Rink, pp. 123, 407.</td> +<td><p>Kiviung, <a href="#page622">p. 622</a>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Harpooning a witch.</td> +<td>Rink, p. 372.</td> +<td><p>Sedna, <a href="#page604">p. 604</a>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Erqigdlit.</td> +<td>Rink, pp. 401 et seq.</td> +<td><p>Adlet, <a href="#page637">p. 637</a>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>Sledge of the man of the moon drawn by one dog.</p></td> +<td>Rink, pp. 401, 442.</td> +<td><p>Qaudjaqdjuq, <a href="#page631">p. 631</a>, and The flight +to the moon, <a href="#page598">p. 598</a>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Origin of the salmon.</td> +<td>Cranz, p. 262.</td> +<td><p>Ititaujang, <a href="#page617">p. 617</a>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Arnaquagsaq.</td> +<td>Rink, pp. 150, 326, 466.</td> +<td><p>Sedna, <a href="#page583">p. 583</a>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Origin of the thunder.</td> +<td>Cranz, p. 233; Egede, p. 207.</td> +<td><p>Kadlu, <a href="#page600">p. 600</a>.</p></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>The following is a comparison between traditions from Alaska and the +Mackenzie and those of the Central Eskimo:</p> + +<table class="parallel"> +<tr> +<th><p>Traditions from Alaska and the Mackenzie:</p></th> +<th><p>Traditions of the Central Eskimo:</p></th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>Men as descendants of a dog, Murdoch, op. cit., 594.</p></td> +<td><p>Origin of the Adlet and white men, <a href="#page637">p. 637</a>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>The origin of reindeer, Murdoch, op. cit., p. 595.</p></td> +<td><p>Origin of the reindeer and walrus, <a href="#page587">p. 587</a>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>The origin of the fishes, Murdoch, op. cit., +p. 595.</p></td> +<td><p>Ititaujang, <a href="#page617">p. 617</a>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>Thunder and lightning, Murdoch, op. cit., p. s595.</p></td> +<td><p>Kadlu the thunderer, <a href="#page600">p. 600</a>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td><p>Sun and moon, Petitot, op. cit., p. 7.</p></td> +<td><p>Sun and moon, <a href="#page597">p. 597</a>.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>Orion, Simpson, p. 940.</td> +<td><p>Orion, <a href="#page636">p. 636</a>.</p></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page643" id="page643">643</a></span> +<p>The table shows that the following ideas are known to all tribes from +Alaska to Greenland: The sun myth, representing the sun as the brother +of the moon; the legend of the descent of man from a dog; the origin of +thunder by rubbing a deerskin; the origin of fish from chips of wood; +and the story of the origin of deer.</p> + +<p>It must be regretted that very few traditions have as yet been +collected in Alaska, as the study of such material would best enable us +to decide upon the question of the origin of the Eskimo.</p> + + + + +<h3><a name="arts" id="arts">SCIENCE AND THE ARTS.</a></h3> + + +<h4><a name="arts_geog" id="arts_geog">GEOGRAPHY AND +NAVIGATION.</a></h4> + +<p>The Eskimo exhibit a thorough knowledge of the geography of their +country. I have already treated of their migrations and mentioned +that the area they travel over is of considerable extent. They have a +very clear conception of all the countries they have seen or heard of, +knowing the distances by day’s journeys, or, as they say, by sleeps, and +the directions by the cardinal points. So far as I know, all these +tribes call true south piningnang, while the other points are called +according to the weather prevailing while the wind blows from the +different quarters. In Cumberland Sound uangnang is west-northwest; +qaningnang (that is, snow wind), east-northeast; nigirn, southeast; and +aqsardnirn, the fohn-like wind blowing from the fjords of the east +coast. On Nettilling these names are the same, the east-northeast only +being called qanara (that is, is it snow?) In Akudnirn uangnang is +west-southwest; ikirtsuq (i.e., the wind of the open sea), +east-northeast; oqurtsuq (i.e., the wind of the land Oqo or of the lee +side, southeast; and avangnanirn (i.e., from the north side along the +shore), the northwestern gales. According to Parry the same names as in +Cumberland Sound are used in Iglulik.</p> + +<p>If the weather is clear the Eskimo use the positions of the sun, of +the dawn, or of the moon and stars for steering, and find their way +pretty well, as they know the direction of their point of destination +exactly. If the weather is thick they steer by the wind, or, if it is +calm, they do not travel at all. After a gale they feel their way by +observing the direction of the snowdrifts.</p> + +<p>They distinguish quite a number of constellations, the most important +of which are Tuktuqdjung (the deer), our Ursa Major; the Pleiades, +Sakietaun; and the belt of Orion, Udleqdjun.</p> + +<div class="plate"> +<p class="caption plate"><a name="plateIV" id="plateIV"> +BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. IV</a></p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a href="images/plateIV_large.png" target="_blank"> +<img src="images/plateIV.png" width="215" height="458" +alt="see caption"></a></p> + +<p class="caption"> +CUMBERLAND PENINSULA, DRAWN BY ARANIN, A SAUMINGNIO.</p> + +<p class="caption label"> +ESKIMO DRAWINGS.</p> +</div> + +<p>As their knowledge of all the directions is very detailed and they +are skillful draftsmen they can draw very good charts. If a man intends +to visit a country little known to him, he has a map drawn in the snow +by some one well acquainted there and these maps are so good that every +point can be recognized. Their way of drawing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page644" id="page644">644</a></span> +is first to mark some points the relative positions of which are well +known. They like to stand on a hill and to look around in order to place +these correctly. This done, the details are inserted. It is remarkable +that their ideas of the relative position and direction of coasts far +distant one from another are so very clear. Copies of some charts drawn +by Eskimo of Cumberland Sound and Davis Strait are here introduced +(Plate IV, p. 643, and Figs. 543–546). A comparison +between the maps and these charts will prove their correctness. +Frequently the draftsman makes his own country, with which he is best +acquainted, too large; if some principal points are marked first, he +will avoid this mistake. The distance between the extreme points +represented in the first chart (Fig. 543) is about five hundred +miles.</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig543" id="fig543"> </a><br> +<img src="images/fig543.png" width="399" height="441" alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 543.</span> Cumberland Sound and +Frobisher Bay, drawn by Itu, a Nugumio.<br> +(Original in the Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.)</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page645" id="page645">645</a></span> + +<div class="picblock"> +<div class="picture w250"> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig544" id="fig544" href="images/fig544_large.png" target="_blank"><br> +<img src="images/fig544.png" width="203" height="411" alt="see caption"></a></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 544.</span> Cumberland Sound and +Frobisher Bay, drawn by Sunapignang, an Oqomio.</p> +</div> + +<div class="picture w250"> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page646" id="page646">646</a></span> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig545" id="fig545" href="images/fig545_large.png" target="_blank"><br> +<img src="images/fig545.png" width="210" height="349" alt="see caption"></a></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 545.</span> Cumberland Sound, drawn by +Itu, a Nugumio.</p> +</div> + +<div class="picture w250"> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page647" id="page647">647</a></span> +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="fig546" id="fig546" href="images/fig546_large.png" target="_blank"><br> +<img src="images/fig546.png" width="216" height="282" alt="see caption"></a></p> + +<p class="caption"> +<span class="smallcaps">Fig. 546.</span> Peninsula of Qivitung, drawn +by Angutuqdjuaq, a Padlimio.</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p>The Eskimo have a sort of calendar. They divide the year into +thirteen months, the names of which vary a great deal, according to the +tribes and according to the latitude of the place. The surplus is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page648" id="page648">648</a></span> +balanced by leaving out a month every few years, to wit, the month +siringilang (without sun), which is of indefinite duration, the name +covering the whole time of the year when the sun does not rise and there +is scarcely any dawn. Thus every few years this month is totally +omitted, when the new moon and the winter solstice coincide. The name +qaumartenga is applied only to the days without sun but with dawn, while +the rest of the same moon is called siriniktenga. The days of the month +are very exactly designated by the age of the moon. Years are not +reckoned for a longer space than two, backward and forward.</p> + +<div class="plate"> +<p class="caption plate"><a name="plateV" id="plateV"> +BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. V</a></p> + +<div class="picblock"> +<div class="picture w200"> +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/plateVa.png" width="151" height="376" +alt="see caption"></p> +</div> + +<div class="picture w150"> +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/plateVc.png" width="136" height="260" +alt="see caption"></p> +</div> + +<div class="picture w300"> +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/plateVb.png" width="265" height="373" +alt="see caption"></p> +</div> + +<div class="picture w150"> +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/plateVe.png" width="116" height="256" +alt="see caption"></p> +</div> + +<p class="caption"> +<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>e</i> Drawn by Aisē´ang, a native of +Nuvujen.</p> +</div> + +<div class="picblock"> +<div class="picture w300"> +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/plateVd.png" width="275" height="259" +alt="see caption"></p> +</div> + +<div class="picture w200"> +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/plateVf.png" width="167" height="141" +alt="see caption"></p> +</div> + +<div class="picture w150"> +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/plateVg.png" width="129" height="77" +alt="see caption"></p> +</div> + +<p class="caption"><i>d</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>g</i> Drawn by Maleki, a +native of Imigen.</p> +</div> + +<p class="caption label"> +ESKIMO DRAWINGS.</p> +</div> + +<div class="picblock w250"> +<p class="mynote"> +Original layout of Plate V:</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/plateVthumb.png" width="219" height="367" +alt="thumbnail of Plate V"></p> +</div> + +<div class="plate"> +<p class="caption plate"><a name="plateVI" id="plateVI"> +BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. VI</a></p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/plateVIa.png" width="421" height="364" +alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/plateVIb.png" width="435" height="416" +alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +Drawn by Aisē´ang, a native of Nuvujen.</p> + +<p class="caption label"> +ESKIMO DRAWINGS.</p> +</div> + +<p class="space"> +The Eskimo are excellent draftsmen and carvers. Most of the drawings are +similar to the bear and deer shown on Plate V (Figs. <i>d</i> and +<i>g</i>) or to the illustrations of the Qaudjaqdjuq tale (see Figs. +<a href="#fig537">537</a>–<a href="#fig541">541</a>, +pp. 631–633.) The rest, on Plates VI and VII, are excellently +made, and by far superior to any I have seen made by other Eskimo of +these regions. A number of carvings are represented on Plates VIII +and IX. The narwhal and the whale are particularly admirable. Among the +implements represented in this paper there are many of beautiful and +artistic design.</p> + +<div class="plate"> +<p class="caption plate"><a name="plateVII" id="plateVII"> +BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. VII</a></p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/plateVII.png" width="369" height="438" +alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +Drawn by Aise´ang, a native of Nuvujen.</p> + +<p class="caption label"> +ESKIMO DRAWING.</p> +</div> + +<div class="plate"> +<p class="caption plate"><a name="plateVIII" id="plateVIII"> +BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. VIII</a></p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/plateVIIIa.png" width="478" height="354" +alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +Carving representing whale. (In the possession of Mrs. Adams, +Washington.) 1/1</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/plateVIIIb.png" width="473" height="333" +alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +Carving representing whale. (National Museum, Washington. 29998.) +1/1</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/plateVIIIc.png" width="561" height="310" +alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +Carving representing seal. (National Museum, Washington. 29991.) 1/1</p> + +<p class="caption label"> +ESKIMO CARVINGS.</p> +</div> + +<p>I also add a number of engravings of implements plainly showing the +influence of European patterns (Plate X).</p> + +<div class="plate"> +<p class="caption plate"><a name="plateIX" id="plateIX"> +BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. IX</a></p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/plateIXab.png" width="408" height="194" +alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +Carving representing narwhal. (In the possession of Capt. John O. +Spicer, Groton. Conn.). ½</p> + +<div class="picblock"> +<div class="picture w200"> +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/plateIXc.png" width="150" height="51" +alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +Seal. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.) 1/1</p> +</div> + +<div class="picture w200"> +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/plateIXd.png" width="71" height="93" +alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +Walrus head. (National Museum, Washington. 10414.) 1/1</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/plateIXe.png" width="182" height="79" +alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +Polar bear. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.) 1/1</p> + +<div class="picblock"> +<div class="picture w200"> +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/plateIXf.png" width="97" height="42" +alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +Sealskin float. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.) 1/1</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/plateIXh.png" width="150" height="19" +alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +Knife. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.) 1/1</p> +</div> + +<div class="picture w200"> +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/plateIXg.png" width="93" height="28" +alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +Seal. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.) 1/1</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/plateIXi.png" width="137" height="19" +alt="see caption"></p> + +<p class="caption"> +Spyglass. (Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.) 1/1</p> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="caption label"> +ESKIMO CARVINGS.</p> +</div> + +<div class="plate"> +<p class="caption plate"><a name="plateX" id="plateX"> +BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. X</a></p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/plateXa.png" width="422" height="58" +alt="see caption"></p> +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/plateXb.png" width="202" height="52" +alt="see caption"></p> +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/plateXc.png" width="444" height="49" +alt="see caption"></p> +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/plateXd.png" width="385" height="78" +alt="see caption"></p> +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/plateXe.png" width="445" height="63" +alt="see caption"></p> + + +<p class="caption"> +(National Museum, Washington. <i>a</i>, 10395; <i>b</i>, 68146; +<i>c</i>, 10396; <i>e</i>, 10394.)</p> + +<p class="caption label"> +MODERN IMPLEMENTS</p> +</div> + + +<h4><a name="arts_music" id="arts_music">POETRY AND MUSIC.</a></h4> + +<p>Among the arts of the Eskimo poetry and music are by far the most +prominent. The tales which have been related are only a small part of +their stock of traditions. Besides the contents their form also is very +interesting, as most of them have been handed down in unchanged form and +their narration demands a great deal of art. Many traditions are told in +a very abridged form, the substance being supposed to be known. +A specimen of this kind is the Sedna tradition (<a href="#page604">p. 604</a>). All these tales must be considered +recitatives, many of them beginning with a musical phrase and continuing +as a rhythmic recitation, others being recited in rhythmic phrases +throughout. Other traditions are told in a more detailed and prosaic +manner, songs or recitations, however, being sometimes included. +Ititaujang, for instance, in traveling into the country looking for his +wife, sings the song No. XIII, and in the Kalopaling tradition the boy, +on seeing the two Inuit coming, sings:</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/music1.png" width="652" height="156" +alt="Inung-- maqong-- tikitong-- aipa-- kapiteling aipa-- mirqosailing"></p> + +<div class="song"> +<p>Inung maqong tikitong aipa kapiteling aipa mirqosailing</p> +</div> + +<p class="musiclink"> +[<a href="music/central648.mp4">Music</a>] +</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page649" id="page649">649</a></span> +<p>Some Eskimo are very good narrators and understand how to express the +feelings of the different persons by modulations of the voice. In +addition, as a number of tales are really onomatopoetic, an artistic +effect is produced. The way of reciting is always similar to the one +above described by <a href="#arts_music">notes</a> (p. 648).</p> + +<p>Besides these tales, which may be called poetic prose, there are real +poems of a very marked rhythm, which are not sung but recited. The +following are examples:</p> + +<h5><a name="song_merry" id="song_merry">MERRYMAKING AMONG THE +TORNIT.</a></h5> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/music2.png" width="641" height="59" +alt="Pika pikagning mingepignirming qijepignirming sukadla. aq! aq!"></p> + +<div class="song"> +<p>Pika pikagning mingepignirming qijepignirming sukadla. aq! aq!</p> +</div> + +<p class="musiclink"> +[<a href="music/central649a.mp4">Music</a>] +</p> + +<p>The Eskimo reciting this song jump up and down and to the right and +left with their legs bent and their hands hanging down, the palms +touching each other. In crying aq! aq! they jump as high as +possible.</p> + +<h5><a name="song_lemming" id="song_lemming">THE LEMMING’S +SONG.</a></h5> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/music3.png" width="658" height="256" +alt="music"></p> + +<div class="song"> +<p>Ikergnapigen, ikergnapigen sirdnaturenain</p> +<p>aχe-eroqturenain nakusungming aukturenain</p> +<p>pijungmadjangilatit qialungnuaralungnan</p> +</div> + +<p class="musiclink"> +[<a href="music/central649b.mp4">Music</a>] +</p> + +<p>Besides these old songs and tales there are a great number of new +ones, and, indeed, almost every man has his own tune and his own song. +A few of these become great favorites among the Eskimo and are sung +like our popular songs. The summer song (<a href="#songI">No. I</a>) and “The returning hunter” (<a href="#songII">No. II</a>) may be most frequently heard. As to the +contents of the songs, they treat of almost everything imaginable: of +the beauty of summer; of thoughts and feelings of the composer on any +occasion, for instance, when watching a seal, when angry with somebody, +&c.; or they tell of an important event, as of a long journey. +Satiric songs are great favorites.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page650" id="page650">650</a></span> +<p>The form of both old and new songs is very strict, they being divided +into verses of different length, alternating regularly. I give here +some examples:</p> + +<h5><a name="song_killer" id="song_killer">ARLUM PISSINGA (the +killer’s song).</a></h5> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/music4.png" width="653" height="281" +alt="music"></p> + +<div class="song"> +<p>Qiangalo taitoχalunga qolaralo taitoχalunga</p> +<p>Qiangalogalo qolaralogalo aisinaiisi</p> +<p>senilearaluqdjuara maliksiaqtuaqtugo</p> +<p>uvanaleunen audlatsiapiata kingodnidlaqdjuagung</p> +<p>qangatirgakulung uaijuvara.</p> +</div> + +<p class="musiclink"> +[<a href="music/central650.mp4">Music</a>] +</p> + +<p class="mynote"> +The “killer” of the song title is a killer whale (<i>arluk</i>, gen. +<i>arluup</i> or <i>arlum</i>).</p> + +<div class="song"> +<h5>I. The killer’s song:</h5> + +<p class="stanza"> +(1) Qiangalo taitoχalunga,</p> +<p>Qolaralo taitoχalunga</p> +<p>Qiangalogalo</p> +<p><ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘Qolarologalo’: corrected from music, above">Qolaralogalo</ins></p> +<p>Aisinaisi.<a class="tag" name="tag15" id="tag15" href="#note15">15</a></p> + +<p class="stanza"> +(2) Senilearaluqdjuara</p> +<p>Maliksiaqtuaqtugo.</p> +<p>Uvanaleunen</p> +<p>Audlatsiapiata</p> +<p>Kingodnidlaqdjuagung</p> +<p class="stanza"> +(3) <ins class="correction" title="printed without space between words">Qangatirgakulung uaijuvara.</ins></p> +</div> + +<div class="song"> +<h5>II. Summer song:</h5> + +<p>Aja.</p> +<p class="stanza"> +(1) Ajaja adlenaipa.</p> +<p>Adlenaitariva silekdjua una aujaratarame</p> +<p>Ajaja, Ajaja!</p> +<p>Aja!</p> +<p class="stanza"> +(2) Ajaja adlenaipa</p> +<p>Adlenaitariva silekdjua una tektorotikelektlune.</p> +<p>Ajaja, Ajaja.</p> +<p>Aja!</p> +<p class="stanza"> +(3) Ajaja nipituovokpan!</p> +<p>Nipituovokpan kouvodlalimokoa nunatine aujadle</p> +<p>Ajaja, Ajaja</p> +<p>Aja!</p> +<p>&c.</p> + +<h5>III. Utitiaq’s song:</h5> + +<p>Aja!</p> +<p class="stanza"> +(1) Adlenaipunganema adlenait.</p> +<p>Adlenaipunganema</p> +<p>Adlenaipunganema adlenait,</p> +<p>Aja!</p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page651" id="page651">651</a></span> +<p class="stanza"> +(2) Sikuqdjualimena adlenait.</p> +<p>Atoqpoqtaromena</p> +<p>Tanerangitu adlenait.</p> +<p>Aja!</p> +<p>&c.</p> + +<h5>IV. Kadlu’s song:</h5> + +<p class="stanza"> +(1) Odlaqē´, odlaqē´, odlaqē´.</p> +<p>Odlaqē´ saranga tutaranga atujang una ajajaja.</p> +<p>Odlaqē´ atedlirlungai aχigirn qodlusuaning aχiatungitunga ajaja.</p> +<p>Nettiulunga iχatijetingirn pinassousirdlunirn +pinasuatautlirpadlirunirn.</p> + +<p class="stanza"> +(2) Odlaqē´, odlaqē´, odlaqē´.</p> +<p>Odlaqē´ saranga tutaranga atujang una ajajaja.</p> +<p>Odlaqē´ atedlirlungai aχigirn qodlusuaning aχiatungitunga ajaja.</p> +<p>Ugjurutlarunirn iχatijitingirn pinassousirdlunirn +pinasuatautlirpadlirnunirn.</p> +<p></p> +<p class="stanza"> +(3) <span class="emspace">....</span>&c.</p> +</div> + +<p>Some of these verses contain only a single word, the rhythm being +brought about by the chorus aja, amna aja, &c. I add two +examples of this kind:</p> + +<div class="song"> +<h5>V. Song in the language of the Angakut:</h5> + +<p>Ajarpaija taitlaniqdjuaq ajarpe aitarpik ajijaija.</p> +<p>Ajarpaija ataqdjuaq ajarpe aitarpik ajijaija.</p> +<p>Ajarpaija mingeriaqdjuaq ajarpe aitarpik ajijaija.</p> + +<h5>VI. Oχaitoq’s song:</h5> + +<p>Aja.</p> +<p class="stanza"> +(1) Tavunga tavunga tavunga tavunga</p> +<p>Tavunga tavunga tavunga tavunga tavungadlo tavunga</p> +<p>Aja.</p> + +<p class="stanza"> +(2) Pissutaramaima tavunga tavunga.</p> +<p>Pissutaramaima tavunga tavunga tavungadlo tavunga, &c.</p> +</div> + +<p>The rhythm of the songs will best be understood by examining the +melodies. Every long syllable may be replaced by two or even three short +ones; other short syllables appear as unaccented parts before the +accented part of a measure; in short, the rhythmic adaptation of the +words to the melody is very arbitrary and interchanges frequently occur, +so that it is impossible to speak of metric feet. At the same time this +furnishes distinct proof that the musical rhythm is the decisive element +in determining the form. The rhythmic arrangement of the words is +regulated with considerable exactness by the quantity of the syllables, +and not by the accent. While, for instance, in speaking, it would be +“palirtu´gun,” in song No. IV it is “palir´tugun´,” and in +No. I “tekto´roti´kelek´tlune,” instead of “tektorotikelektlu´ne,” +&c. Such displacements of the accent, however, are avoided if +possible, and in the best and most popular songs they hardly appear at +all.</p> + +<p class="mynote"> +The numbers refer to the songs printed below, so “No. I” is the +Summer Song, No. II above. But the quoted word +“tektorotikelektlune” +occurs only in the first version.</p> + +<p>The construction of the songs corresponds entirely with that of the +music, inasmuch as every melody and every rhythmically spoken song is +made up of musical, that is, rhythmic, phrases which are divided by +cæsuræ. Repetitions of the same phrases are very frequent. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page652" id="page652">652</a></span> +The adaptation of the melodies to our divisions of time and measure is +also somewhat arbitrary, as they frequently consist of a mixture of +three and four part phrases. It is for this reason that I have noted +down some songs without any division into bars or measures and in those +cases have only marked the accented syllables.</p> + +<p>Among the twenty melodies and rhythmic poems we find ten of binary +measures, five of triple measures, and six of mixed ones. Of the whole +number, nine begin on the full bar, eleven on the arsis.</p> + +<p>The melodies move within the following range: In a fifth +(No. III), one; in a minor sixth (Nos. VII, IX, X), three; in +a major sixth (Nos. II, IV, XVII), three; in a seventh (Nos. XII, XIV), +two; in an octave, (Nos. I, II, V, VIII, XI, XVI), six; in a minor ninth +(No. VI), one; in a major ninth <ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘No. (V)’">(No. V)</ins>, one; in a tenth +(No. XIII), one.</p> + +<p>These may be divided into two very characteristic and distinct +groups. The first, which would coincide with our major key, contains the +following essential tones:</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/music5.png" width="223" height="55" alt="music notation: c d e g a"></p> + +<p class="musiclink"> +[<a href="music/central652a.mp4">Music</a>] +</p> + +<p>The fourth and the sixth occur seldom, and then only as subordinate +tones. This key is identical with the Chinese and many of the Indian +ones.</p> + +<p>In the second group, which corresponds to our minor key, we +frequently find the fourth, while the sixth only appears twice and then +as a subordinate tone (in No. XV). We furthermore find the +major seventh in the lower position leading back to the beginning, i.e., +the key note. The essential components of this key are:</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/music6.png" width="260" height="52" alt="music notation: g# a b c d e"></p> + +<p class="musiclink"> +[<a href="music/central652b.mp4">Music</a>] +</p> + +<p>Professor R. Succo calls attention to the fact that the relation of +the melodies to their key note resembles that of the Gregorian chants, +especially the psalmodic ones among them.</p> + +<p>If we, in accordance with our ideas, suppose the melody—No. +XIII, for example—to begin in C major, it nevertheless does not +conclude in the same key, but in E. We would say that No. XIV is +written in A minor; still it ends in E. We find the same in the +Gregorian chants. They also resemble the songs of the Eskimo in the +retention of the same note during a large number of consecutive +syllables.</p> + +<p>On the whole the melodies, even to our musical sense, can be traced +to a key note. However, changes often occur as well (see No. VI). +A very striking construction appears in No. XIII, where the +oft-repeated E forms a new key note, while at the conclusion the melody +leaps back without any modulation to C through the peculiar interval, +ḇ, c.</p> + + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page653" id="page653">653</a></span> +<h5><a name="songI" id="songI">I. SUMMER SONG.</a></h5> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/songI.png" width="656" height="175" +alt="music"></p> + +<div class="song"> +<p>Aja.</p> +<p>Ajaja, adlenaipa, adlenaitariva silekdjua una aujaratarame.</p> +<p>Ajaja, Ajaja, Aja.</p> +</div> + +<p class="musiclink"> +[<a href="music/eskimo1.mp4">Music</a>] +</p> + +<h5><a name="songII" id="songII">II. THE RETURNING HUNTER.</a></h5> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/songIIa.png" width="658" height="176" +alt="music"></p> + +<div class="song"> +<p><b>a.</b></p> +<p>Angutivun taina taunane taina,</p> +<p>auvasimameta avavasimameta neriopaluktunga,</p> +<p>hanga anga;</p> +<p>hanga anga agaga.</p> +</div> + +<p class="musiclink"> +[<a href="music/eskimo2a.mp4">Music (a)</a>] +</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/songIIb.png" width="658" height="172" +alt="music"></p> + +<div class="song"> +<p><b>b.</b></p> +<p>Angutivun taina taunane taina,</p> +<p>auvasimameta avavasimameta neriopaluktunga;</p> +<p>hanga anga agaga.</p> +</div> + +<p class="musiclink"> +[<a href="music/eskimo2b.mp4">Music (b)</a>] +</p> + +<h5><a name="songIII" id="songIII">III. SONG OF THE TORNIT.</a></h5> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/songIII.png" width="657" height="176" +alt="music"></p> + +<div class="song"> +<p>Savu saujaqdjuin tetetlirpavun, aqtungan.</p> +<p>Surqarmun pilaktutu aχi lurpa, aqtungan.</p> +</div> + +<p class="musiclink"> +[<a href="music/eskimo3.mp4">Music</a>] +</p> + +<h5><a name="songIV" id="songIV">IV. SONG OF THE INUIT TRAVELING TO +NETTILLING.</a></h5> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/songIV.png" width="656" height="163" +alt="music"></p> + +<div class="song"> +<p>Aja.</p> +<p>Aχagodlo palirtugun;</p> +<p>uangnangmun tipavunga,</p> +<p>ija jija ajaja.</p> +<p>Aja.</p> +</div> + +<p class="musiclink"> +[<a href="music/eskimo4.mp4">Music</a>] +</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page654" id="page654">654</a></span> +<h5><a name="songV" id="songV">V. OXAITOQ’S SONG.</a></h5> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/songV.png" width="652" height="170" +alt="music"></p> + +<div class="song"> +<p>Aja.</p> +<p>Tavunga tavunga tavunga tavunga.</p> +<p>Tavunga tavunga tavunga tavunga tavungadlo tavunga.</p> +<p>Aja.</p> +</div> + +<p class="musiclink"> +[<a href="music/eskimo5.mp4">Music</a>] +</p> + +<h5><a name="songVI" id="songVI">VI. UTITIAQ’S SONG.</a></h5> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/songVI.png" width="652" height="162" +alt="music"></p> + +<div class="song"> +<p>Aja.</p> +<p>Adlenaipunganema adlenait.</p> +<p>Adlenaipunganema adlenaipunganema adlenait.</p> +<p>Aja.</p> +</div> + +<p class="musiclink"> +[<a href="music/eskimo6.mp4">Music</a>] +</p> + +<h5><a name="songVII" id="songVII">VII. SONG.</a></h5> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/songVII.png" width="653" height="164" +alt="song: A-ja. A-ja-ja-ja a-ja-ja-ja ..."></p> + +<p class="musiclink"> +[<a href="music/eskimo7.mp4">Music</a>] +</p> + +<h5><a name="songVIII" id="songVIII">VIII. SONG.</a></h5> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/songVIII.png" width="653" height="85" +alt="music"></p> + +<div class="song"> +<p>Hajajaja hajaja hajajaja hajaja</p> +<p>hajajaja hajaja hajajaja hajaja.</p> +</div> + +<p class="musiclink"> +[<a href="music/eskimo8.mp4">Music</a>] +</p> + +<h5><a name="songIX" id="songIX">IX. SONG OF THE TORNIT.</a></h5> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/songIX.png" width="653" height="178" +alt="music"></p> + +<div class="song"> +<p>Savungaja aja aja</p> +<p>Sama ajaja aja.</p> +<p>Nunataχatoq sedna,</p> +<p>sersertaχatoq sedna.</p> +</div> + +<p class="musiclink"> +[<a href="music/eskimo9.mp4">Music</a>] +</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page655" id="page655">655</a></span> +<h5><a name="songX" id="songX">X. THE FOX AND THE WOMAN.</a></h5> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/songX.png" width="659" height="243" +alt="music"></p> + +<div class="song"> +<p>Sourme oχomejame, kangedlirpiuk tajajajaja.</p> +<p>Irdning nuχingnaq ujarqamoma satuaitiem</p> +<p>aqbiranga pirietukilaunga.</p> +</div> + +<p class="musiclink"> +[Music: <a href="music/eskimo10.mp4">melody</a>, <a href="music/eskimo10b.mp4">recitative</a>] +</p> + +<h5><a name="songXI" id="songXI">XI. THE RAVEN SINGS.</a></h5> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/songXI.png" width="658" height="118" +alt="music"></p> + +<div class="song"> +<p>Aaja aja aja ajaja aja aja ajaja.</p> +<p>Aaja aja aja aja qilirsiutarata taunane.</p> +<p>Arnaqdjuqpun una qiavoqtung qitungnaqdjuago nutingmen.</p> +</div> + +<p class="musiclink"> +[<a href="music/eskimo11.mp4">Music</a>] +</p> + +<h5><a name="songXII" id="songXII">XII. SONG OF A PADLIMIO.</a></h5> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/songXII.png" width="660" height="239" +alt="music"></p> + +<div class="song"> +<p>Ananema Padli unguatane naunirpunga</p> +<p>ananega oqsomiksema qijanurpomena kijutaidle</p> +<p>noutlarputin kungesiening qaqoamudle</p> +<p>noutlarputidle aja.</p> +</div> + +<p class="musiclink"> +[<a href="music/eskimo12.mp4">Music</a>] +</p> + +<h5><a name="songXIII" id="songXIII">XIII. ITITAUJANG’S +SONG.</a></h5> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/songXIII.png" width="660" height="426" +alt="music"></p> + +<div class="song"> +<p>Tavungavunga pisupagasupunga pisupagasupunga</p> +<p>silapotuadnun tigmidjen nunanun tavungaja ijaaja.</p> +<p>Nutitavun okoa</p> +<p>quliqdjuaq una</p> +<p>niguviksao adjirdjangirtun</p> +<p>qangiqsao adjirdjangirtun</p> +<p>kissieni okoa oχomeangitigun</p> +<p> majoardlunga tavunga</p> +<p>imma pisutalupurmalirmijunga.</p> +</div> + +<p class="musiclink"> +[<a href="music/eskimo13.mp4">Music</a>] +</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page656" id="page656">656</a></span> +<h5><a name="songXIV" id="songXIV">XIV. PLAYING AT BALL.</a></h5> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/songXIV.png" width="656" height="847" +alt="music"></p> + +<div class="song"> +<p>Sake-etan sungmunpingmeta naumunpingmeta</p> +<p>qaujarajuva udlujarajuva</p> +<p>amutai qimutai idlo-oma una qagiela una</p> +<p>idnir sorivara inung ikoa oaitiangikoa audlertouqikoa</p> +<p>togitjugitjuge togitjugitjuge setidle sinadle</p> +<p>arnarisaigneman tigmidjen arnaining tunigo</p> +<p>anejuidla qausirtuming ita itjamuna</p> +<p>majaoadlelatit ikuseka avasituko</p> +<p>oqsukena taotugnite akataotuktara</p> +<p>sugavikana kananepa iluqio gnariputit</p> +<p>aaiqtodlutidlo nesertodlutidlo</p> +<p>avatirtunggiengodlutidlo</p> +</div> + +<p class="musiclink"> +[<a href="music/eskimo14.mp4">Music</a>] +</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page657" id="page657">657</a></span> +<h5><a name="songXV" id="songXV">XV. PLAYING AT BALL.</a></h5> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/songXV.png" width="661" height="456" +alt="music"></p> + +<div class="song"> +<p>χolurpajause χolupirpajause</p> +<p>surivanga pangmane majoriva pangmane.</p> +</div> + +<p class="musiclink"> +[<a href="music/eskimo15.mp4">Music</a>] +</p> + +<h5><a name="songXVI" id="songXVI">XVI. From Parry, Second Voyage, +p. 542, Iglulik.</a></h5> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/songXVI.png" width="659" height="266" +alt="music"></p> + +<div class="song"> +<p>Amna aya aya amna ah</p> +<p>amna aya aya amna ah ah</p> +<p>etc.</p> +</div> + +<p>The sixteenth bar is probably <img src="images/songXVIa.png" width="96" height="51" alt="b flat" title="b flat"></p> + +<p class="musiclink"> +[<a href="music/eskimo16.mp4">Music</a>] +</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page658" id="page658">658</a></span> +<h5><a name="songXVII" id="songXVII">XVII. From Lyon, Private +Journal, p. 135, Iglulik.</a></h5> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/songXVII.png" width="652" height="213" +alt="music"></p> + +<div class="song"> +<p>Pilitai, avata vat . . .</p> +<p>ah! hooi! ah! hooi!</p> +</div> + +<p class="musiclink"> +[Music: <a href="music/eskimo17a.mp4">as printed</a>] +</p> + +<p>According to Parry, p. 542, the fourth bar of XVII is written: <img +src="images/songXVIIa.png" width="124" height="35" alt="music">;<br> +the eighth, <img src="images/songXVIIb.png" width="124" height="40" +alt="music">;<br> +Lyon bar after the twelfth bar <img src="images/songXVIIc.png" width="124" height="40" alt="music"> inserted.</p> + +<p class="musiclink"> +[Music: <a href="music/eskimo17b.mp4">with all changes</a>] +</p> + +<h5><a name="songXVIII" id="songXVIII">XVIII. From Kane, Arctic +Explorations. The Second Grinnell Expedition, I, p. 383.<br> +From Ita, Smith Sound.</a></h5> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/songXVIII.png" width="653" height="78" +alt="music"></p> + +<div class="song"> +<p>Amna gat amnaya amna ja amnayet.</p> +</div> + +<p class="musiclink"> +[<a href="music/eskimo18.mp4">Music</a>] +</p> + +<h5><a name="songXIX" id="songXIX">XIX. From Bessels’s Amerikanische +Nordpol-Expedition, p. 372.</a></h5> +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/songXIX.png" width="654" height="253" +alt="music"></p> + +<div class="song"> +<p>Ahjajajajajajajajaja</p> +<p>ahjajajajajajajajaja</p> +<p>ahjajajajajajajajaja ah.</p> +</div> + +<p class="musiclink"> +[Music: <a href="music/eskimo19a.mp4">line 1</a>, +<a href="music/eskimo19b.mp4">line 2</a>, +<a href="music/eskimo19c.mp4">line 3</a>, +<a href="music/eskimo19d.mp4">line 4</a>.] +</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page659" id="page659">659</a></span> +<h3><a name="glossary" id="glossary">GLOSSARY.</a></h3> + +<p class="mynote"> +As in the original text, χ in Glossary entries is shown in ordinary (not +small-capped) type: Eχ<span class="smallcaps">aluq, E</span>χ<span +class="smallcaps">aluit</span>.</p> + +<h4><a name="glossary_words" id="glossary_words">ESKIMO WORDS USED, +WITH DERIVATIONS AND SIGNIFICATIONS.</a></h4> + +<p class="mynote center"> +<a href="#gloss_word_A"> A </a> +<a href="#gloss_word_E"> E </a> +<a href="#gloss_word_I"> I </a> +<a href="#gloss_word_K"> K </a> +<a href="#gloss_word_M"> M </a> +<a href="#gloss_word_N"> N </a> +<a href="#gloss_word_O"> O </a> +<a href="#gloss_word_P"> P </a> +<a href="#gloss_word_Q"> Q </a> +<a href="#gloss_word_S"> S </a> +<a href="#gloss_word_T"> T </a> +<a href="#gloss_word_U"> U </a></p> + +<div class="glossary"> +<p class="letterhead"><a name="gloss_word_A" id="gloss_word_A" +href="#glossary_words">A.</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Adlipar´miut</span>, the inhabitants of the +country farthest below; from <i>at</i>, below; <i>-lirn</i>, being in a +certain direction; <i>-pāng</i>, superlative; <i>-mio</i> (plural, +<i>-miut</i>), inhabitant of.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">A´dlirn</span>, a small lamp on the floor +of the hut; from <i>at</i>, below; <i>-lirn</i>, being in a certain +direction.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Adli´vun</span>, those beneath us; from +<i>at</i>, below; <i>-lirn</i>, being in a certain direction; +<i>-vun</i>, possessive first person plural.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">A´gdlag</span>, black bear.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Agdliaq</span>, a small spear; from +<i>ake-</i>, across; <i>-dlivoq</i>, he provides with; <i>-aq</i>, past +participle.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ag´girn</span>, a species of duck (<i>Anas +glacialis</i>).</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Aiss´ivang</span>, spider.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">A´jang</span>, beam of kayak; from +<i>ajaq-</i>, to support.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Aja´rorpoq</span>, he plays the game cat’s +cradle.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Aje´gaung</span>, a game.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ajokitarpoq</span>, a game.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ajuktaq´tung</span>, batting the ball.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Akparaik´tung</span>, hook for preventing +the loss of harpoon.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Akud´nang</span>, paddle handle; from +<i>ako</i>, middle.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">A´kuk</span>, lateral strips of wood used +in boat; from <i>ako</i>, middle.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">A´lirn</span>, harpoon line.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">A´maroq</span>, wolf.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">A´ming</span>, skin of land animals, cover +of boat and kayak.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ang´akoq</span>, a magician, conjurer.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Angakunirn</span>, the art of the +angakoq.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ang´akut</span>, plural of angakoq.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Angiaq</span>, spirit of a murdered child +(Greenland).</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ang´un</span>, paddle.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Anguta´</span>, his father.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Angu´vigang</span>, lance; from +<i>anguvoq</i>, he goes sealing with the harpoon.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Aning´a</span>, her brother (the moon).</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">A´no</span>, dog harness.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">A´pumang</span>, gunwale.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Aqo´jang</span>, stern of kayak.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Aqsar´dnirn</span>, wind blowing down a +valley.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Arau´taq</span>, snow beater (Aivillik +dialect).</p> + +<p><ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘Arm´goaq’"><span class="smallcaps">Arng´oaq</span></ins>, amulet.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ase´dlun</span>, flat receptacle for the +harpoon line on kayak.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Asimau´tang</span>, piece of board or +whalebone on which skins are cleaned.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Atau´ta</span>, neck of sealskin float; +from <i>atav-</i>, to be connected.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Audliti´ving</span>, vault back of snow +house.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Avangna´nirn</span>, northwestern gales +along the coast of Baffin Land.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Avau´tang</span>, sealskin float.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Avautapāq´</span>, large sealskin float; +from <i>avautang</i>, sealskin float; <i>-pāq</i>, superlative.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">A´vignaq</span>, lemming.</p> + +<p>Aχ<span class="smallcaps">i´girn</span>, ptarmigan.</p> + + +<p class="letterhead"><a name="gloss_word_E" id="gloss_word_E" +href="#glossary_words">E.</a></p> + +<p>Eχ<span class="smallcaps">alū´jang</span>, carved ivory fish, used +as bait; from <i>eχaluq</i>, salmon; <i>-ujang</i>, similar to.</p> + +<p>Eχ<span class="smallcaps">aluq</span>, salmon.</p> + + +<p class="letterhead"><a name="gloss_word_I" id="gloss_word_I" +href="#glossary_words">I.</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Idluk´</span>, a fabulous fish.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Igdl´u</span>, snow house.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Igdl´uarn</span>, a vault attached to snow +hut; from <i>igdlu</i>, snow house; <i>-arn</i>, small.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Igdlukitaq´tung</span>, playing with two +balls, tossing them up alternately; from <i>igdlung</i>, both; +<i>-kitarpoq</i>, he uses at the same time.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Igdlu´ling</span>, second vault of snow +house; from <i>igdlu</i>, snow house; <i>-ling</i>, with.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page660" id="page660">660</a></span> +<p><span class="smallcaps">I´gimang</span>, ball-and-socket joint of +harpoon and lance; from <i>igipā´</i>, he throws it off.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ikan´</span>, store room supported by stone +pillars; from <i>ikarpoq</i>, it stretches from one support to +another.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ikirt´suq</span>, wind blowing from the +open sea.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ilaga</span>, my friend (Netchillik).</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ilupi´qang</span>, lining of snow house; +from <i>ilo</i>, inner.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Imiti´jung</span>, drinking water; from +<i>imiq</i>, fresh water.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Inetang</span>, hoop with net of thongs to +dry clothing etc. in snow house; from <i>inivā´</i>, he hangs it up.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">In´ua</span>, its man, owner; possessive +third person of <i>inung</i>, man.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Inug´sung</span>, cairn; from <i>inung</i>, +man.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ipar´ang</span>, harpoon line.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ip´un</span>, oar, a spear.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Irqata´tung</span>, a certain circuit among +the huts.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Issumau´tang</span>, a chief; from +<i>issu´mavoq</i>, he thinks.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Itigega</span>, boot (Iglulik).</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Itir´bing</span>, cross piece abaft the +hole in kayak; from <i>itiq</i>.</p> + + +<p class="letterhead"><a name="gloss_word_K" id="gloss_word_K" +href="#glossary_words">K.</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kabliaqdjuq</span>, wolverine +(Iglulik).</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kaitikpoq</span>, a game.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kaiviti´jung</span>, a game.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kaki´vang</span>, fish spear.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kaklio´kia</span>, hook (Iglulik).</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kalu´giang</span>, a heavy lance +(<i>qalugiang?</i>).</p> + +<p><ins class="correction" title="text reads ‘Kan´go’"><span class="smallcaps">Kang´o</span></ins>, a species of goose.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ka´pun, Spear</span>; from <i>kapivā´</i>, +he stabs him.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ka´teng</span>, entrance to stone hut.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kentun</span>, drumstick.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kidlu´lirn</span>, lamp standing in the +rear of the hut.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ki´glo</span>, boat post.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kilaut</span>, drum.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Koukparmiu´tang</span>, a certain amulet at +point of hood.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ku´jang</span>, keel of kayak.</p> + + +<p class="letterhead"><a name="gloss_word_M" id="gloss_word_M" +href="#glossary_words">M.</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ma´ling</span>, paddle blade.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ma´mi</span>, membrane or inner side of +skin.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ma´sing</span>, cross piece before hole in +kayak.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Mir´qun</span>, needle.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Mirquss´ang</span>, two masked persons.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Mumipoq</span>, he dances.</p> + + +<p class="letterhead"><a name="gloss_word_N" id="gloss_word_N" +href="#glossary_words">N.</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nabi´ring</span>, a loop; from +<i>nā´poq</i>, he hinders a motion.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Na´po</span> (plural <i>napun</i>), cross +bar of sledge.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Naqeta´run</span>, lashing for the sledge; +from <i>naqigpoq</i>, it is pressed down.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nau´lang</span>, harpoon head.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ne´tivang</span>, <i>Phoca +cristata</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ni´girn</span>, southeast.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Niksiang</span>, hook.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Niksiar´taung</span>, fish hook.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nirt´sun</span>, small ropes used in sledge +and house.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Niuq´tung</span>, drill bow with string; +from <i>niorpoq</i>, he drills.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Niu´tang</span>, hoop with skin stretched +over it; beam of kayak.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nuglu´tang</span>, a certain game.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nu´irn</span>, bird spear.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nulianititi´jung</span>, exchange of +wives.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nunajisar´tung</span>, a certain +festival.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nuqsang</span>, throwing board.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nussueraqtung</span>, a certain +festival.</p> + + +<p class="letterhead"><a name="gloss_word_O" id="gloss_word_O" +href="#glossary_words">O.</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Oqur´tsuq</span> (Akudnirn), southeast, +blowing from Oqo; from <i>oqo</i>, weather side.</p> + + +<p class="letterhead"><a name="gloss_word_P" id="gloss_word_P" +href="#glossary_words">P.</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Pa</span>, hole of kayak.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Pakijumijar´tung</span>, game of hook and +crook.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Pa´na</span>, double edged knife.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Parti´rang</span>, button for closing the +<i>pitu</i>; from <i>pārpa</i>, he meets him.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Pauk´tun</span>, pegs.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Pau´ting</span>, double bladed kayak +paddle.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Pi´laut</span>, large knife.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Pilek´tung</span>, cutting something.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Pi´main</span>, chief, he who knows +everything best by practice.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Pi´ningnang</span>, true south.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Pir´qang</span>, shoeing of runners of +sledge.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Pitiq´se</span>, bow.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Pitkusi´rarpoq</span>, a certain game.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Pi´tu</span>, a stout thong, consisting of +two parts to fasten traces to sledge.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Poviu´tang</span>, pipe for inflating +skins; from <i>pō-</i>, to blow.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Pukiq</span>, the white part of a +deerskin.</p> + + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page661" id="page661">661</a></span> +<p class="letterhead"><a name="gloss_word_Q" id="gloss_word_Q" +href="#glossary_words">Q.</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qadlunait</span>, Europeans.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qag´gi</span>, singing house.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qailerte´tang</span>, a certain masked +figure.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qai´vun</span>, drill.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qa´jaq</span>, kayak.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qa´mun</span>, sledge runner.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qa´muting</span> (dual of <i>qamun</i>), +sledge.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qana´ra</span>, east-northeast +(Nettilling); from <i>qaning</i>, falling snow.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qang´ing</span>, a toggle.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qang´irn</span>, a ventilating hole in snow +house; from <i>qa</i>, above.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qa´ning</span>, a certain rib of kayak.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qa´ningnang</span>, east-northeast; from +<i>qaning</i>, falling snow.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qaq´djung</span>, arrow.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qa´reang</span>, annex of house for an +additional family.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qar´mang</span> (plural <i>qarmat</i>), +stone or bone house.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qarmau´jang</span>, similar to a +<i>qarmang</i>; suffix, <i>-ujang</i>, similar to.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qasi´giaq</span>, <i>Phoca +annellata</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qatilik</span>, a spear (Iglulik); from +<i>qatirn</i>, ivory head of harpoon shaft; <i>-lik</i>, with.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qa´tirn</span>, ivory head of harpoon +shaft.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qatu´rang</span>, a boot ornament.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qaumarteng´a</span>, days without sun, but +with dawn.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qau´mat</span>, a kind of fire (?); from +<i>qauq</i>, daylight.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qaumati´vun</span>, sun (in the sacred +language of the angakut).</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qauma´vun</span>, moon (in the sacred +language of the angakut).</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qauq</span>, daylight.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qidja´rung</span>, whirl; from +<i>qipivā´</i>, he twists it.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qijuqteng´a</span>, harpoon shaft; from +<i>qijuq</i>, wood.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qilaq</span>, sky.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qiler´tuang</span>, clasp for holding the +coils of the harpoon line; from <i>qilerpā´</i>, he ties it with a +knot.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qing´ang</span>, a hole to look out of snow +house.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qing´miaq</span>, mouth piece of drill.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qipeku´tang</span>, rod to indicate +approach of seal to his hole.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qi´piq</span>, blanket.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qi´qirn</span>, phantom in the shape of a +huge, hairless dog.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qoqsiuariva</span>, the ceremony of washing +children with urine.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qudlipar´miut</span>, the inhabitants of +the country farthest above; from <i>qu</i>, above; <i>-lirn</i>, being +in a certain direction; <i>-pāng</i>, superlative; <i>-mio</i> (plural, +<i>-miut</i>), inhabitant of.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qudlirn</span>, a lamp; from <i>qu</i>, +above; <i>-lirn</i>, being in a certain direction.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qudli´vun</span>, the uppermost ones; from +<i>qu</i>, above; <i>-lirn</i>, being in a certain direction; +<i>-vun</i>, possessive first person plural.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qudluqsiu´ta</span>, ring on a paddle.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qu´ming</span>, a certain lamp.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Quqar´taun</span>, an implement to string +fish.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Quvie´tung</span>, a festival.</p> + + +<p class="letterhead"><a name="gloss_word_S" id="gloss_word_S" +href="#glossary_words">S.</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sadni´riaq</span>, cross piece, a certain +button, from <i>sadne</i>, side, across.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sadni´run</span>, a yard.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sāketān´</span>, roulette; from +<i>sakagpā´</i>, he pushes it.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sakie´taun</span>, the Pleiades.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sakurpāng´</span>, whale harpoon; from +<i>sako</i>, weapon; <i>-pāng</i>, the largest.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sa´ving</span>, knife.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Seligo´ung</span>, scraper; from +<i>selivā´</i>, he cleans a skin.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Siad´nirn</span> (plural, <i>siadnit</i>), +lateral strip in kayak; from <i>siaq-</i>, to place in a row; +<i>-nirn</i>, being.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Siat´ko</span>, harpoon head (Iglulik).</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Siek´tung</span>, the three stars in +Orion’s belt: those standing in a row.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sir´dloang</span>, store room of snow +house.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Siring´ilang</span>, the excepted month in +balancing Eskimo calendars, the month without sun; from <i>sirinirn</i>, +sun; <i>-ngilang</i>, he has not.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sirinikteng´a</span>, the first days with +sunlight; from <i>sirinirn</i>, sun; <i>-tang</i>, new; <i>-a</i>, +possessive third person singular.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sirmi´jaung</span>, scraper for kayak; from +<i>sirming</i>, thin ice.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sulubaut´</span>, bunch of hair projecting +from forehead.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sului´tung</span>, festival in which a +knife (<i>sulung</i>) is used.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Su’lung</span>, wing; knife shaped like a +wing.</p> + + +<p class="letterhead"><a name="gloss_word_T" id="gloss_word_T" +href="#glossary_words">T.</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tagusiar´bing</span>, eye (of harpoon).</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Taguta´</span>, a thong (of harpoon).</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page662" id="page662">662</a></span> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Teliq´bing</span>, certain piece on harpoon +line.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tesir´qun</span>, scraper; from +<i>tesivā´</i>, he stretches it.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tigdluiq´djung</span>, blow with the fist +(of a stranger); from <i>tigdlugpā´</i>, he strikes him with the +fist.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tika´gung</span>, support of hand in +throwing harpoon.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ti´kiq</span>, thimble.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tik´ping</span>, rib of kayak.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tiluq´tung</span>, snow beater; from +<i>tiluqpā´</i>, he strikes it, in order to shake something off.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tingmi´ujang</span>, images of birds (used +for dice); from <i>tingmiang</i>, bird; <i>-ujang</i>, similar to.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">To´kang</span>, harpoon head.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Toq´sung</span>, vaulted entrance to snow +house.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tor´naq</span>, a guardian spirit.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tornarsuq</span>, the great +<i>tornaq</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">To´ung</span>, tusk, point.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Toung´a</span>, point of spear.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tugliga</span>, a tress.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tuktuq´djung</span>, the constellation of +the Reindeer, or the Great Bear, Ursa Major; from <i>tukto</i>, caribou +(deer).</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tumi´ujang</span>, a certain lamp +resembling a footprint; from <i>tume</i>, footprint; <i>-ujang</i>, +similar to.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tuniq´djung</span>, stern of kayak.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tu´pilaq</span>, spirit of a deceased +person.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tu´piq</span>, tent.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tupu´tang</span>, plugs for closing +wounds.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tuta´reang</span>, a certain buckle.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tu´ving</span>, strip in the boat nearest +the gunwale; from <i>tuk-</i>, to stop a motion; <i>tupā´</i>, he makes +it fast.</p> + + +<p class="letterhead"><a name="gloss_word_U" id="gloss_word_U" +href="#glossary_words">U.</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ua´dling</span>, first vault of snow +house.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Uang´nang</span>, west-northwest, +Cumberland Sound; west-southwest in Akudnirn.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Udleq´djung</span>, Sword of Orion: +following one another.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ui´nirn</span>, head of sledge runner.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">U´kusik</span>, soapstone kettle.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">U´lo</span>, woman’s knife.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Uluq´saq</span>, green slate, material for +women’s knives; from <i>ulo</i> and <i>-saq</i>, material for.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">U´miaq</span>, large skin boat.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Uming</span>, beard.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">U´mingmang</span>, musk ox.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Umī´ujang</span>, needle case.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">U´nang</span>, sealing harpoon.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Unaqiu´ta</span>, ring on shaft of sealing +harpoon; from <i>unang</i>; <i>-iarpā´</i>, he fastens it; <i>-ta</i>, +past participle.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Unarteng´a</span>, iron rod of sealing +harpoon; from <i>unang</i>; <i>-tang</i>, belonging to; <i>-a</i>, +possessive.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Uqsirn</span>, implement for fastening +traces to sledge.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Usujang</span>, stern projection of kayak; +from <i>usung</i>, penis; <i>-ujang</i>, similar to.</p> +</div> + + +<h4><a name="glossary_geog" id="glossary_geog">ESKIMO GEOGRAPHICAL +NAMES USED, WITH ENGLISH SIGNIFICATIONS.</a></h4> + +<p class="mynote center"> +<a href="#gloss_geog_A"> A </a> +<a href="#gloss_geog_E"> E </a> +<a href="#gloss_geog_I"> I </a> +<a href="#gloss_geog_K"> K </a> +<a href="#gloss_geog_M"> M </a> +<a href="#gloss_geog_N"> N </a> +<a href="#gloss_geog_O"> O </a> +<a href="#gloss_geog_P"> P </a> +<a href="#gloss_geog_Q"> Q </a> +<a href="#gloss_geog_S"> S </a> +<a href="#gloss_geog_T"> T </a> +<a href="#gloss_geog_U"> U </a></p> + +<div class="glossary"> +<p class="letterhead"><a name="gloss_geog_A" id="gloss_geog_A" +href="#glossary_geog">A.</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Agdlinartung.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Aggirtijung</span>, abounding with +ducks.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Aggo</span>, the weather side.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Aggomiut</span>, the inhabitants of +Aggo.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Agpan</span>, loons.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Agutit.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Aivillik</span>, with walrus.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Aivillirmiut</span>, the inhabitants of +Aivillik (the walrus country).</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Akudnirmiut</span>, the inhabitants of +Akudnirn.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Akudnirn</span>, the intervening +country.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Akugdlirn</span>, the central one.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Akugdlit</span>, the central ones.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Akulia</span>χ<span class="smallcaps">ating.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Akuliaq.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Akuliarmiut</span>, the inhabitants of +Akuliaq.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Amaqdjuaq</span>, the large place where +children are carried in the hood.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Amartung</span>, a woman carrying a child +in the hood.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Amitoq</span>, the narrow one.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Anarnitung</span>, smelling of +excrements.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Anartuajuin</span>, the excrements.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Anaulereë´ling.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Angiuqaq</span>; from <i>angivoq</i>, it is +large.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Angmalortuq</span>, the round one.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Angmang</span>, jasper.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Angmartung</span>, the open one (not frozen +over).</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Aqbeniling</span>, six; so called because +reached after six days’ travel.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page663" id="page663">663</a></span> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Aqbirsiarbing</span>, a lookout for +whales.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Aqbirtijung</span>, abounding with +whales.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Aqojang</span>; from <i>aqo</i>, stern.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Aqojartung</span>; from <i>aqo</i>, +stern.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Arligaulik.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Audnerbing</span>, place where seals are +approached by the crawling hunter.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Augpalugtijung</span>, with many red +places.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Augpalugtung</span>, the red one.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Aulitiving</span>, an annex of the snow +house; hills lying at the foot of steep cliffs.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Auqardneling</span>, with many places where +the ice melts early in spring.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Avatutiaq.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Avaudjeling</span>, with a low saddle.</p> + + +<p class="letterhead"><a name="gloss_geog_E" id="gloss_geog_E" +href="#glossary_geog">E.</a></p> + +<p>Eχ<span class="smallcaps">aloaping</span>, with common salmon.</p> + +<p>Eχ<span class="smallcaps">alualuin</span>, the large salmon +(plur.).</p> + +<p>Eχ<span class="smallcaps">aluaqdjuin</span>, the small salmon +(plur.).</p> + +<p>Eχ<span class="smallcaps">aluin</span>, the salmon (plur.).</p> + +<p>Eχ<span class="smallcaps">aluqdjuaq</span>, the shark.</p> + +<p>Eχ<span class="smallcaps">oleaqdjuin.</span></p> + + +<p class="letterhead"><a name="gloss_geog_I" id="gloss_geog_I" +href="#glossary_geog">I.</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Idjorituaqtuin</span>, the only places with +an abundance of grass.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Idjuk</span>, the testicles.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Igdlumiut</span>, the inhabitants of the +other side.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Igdlungajung</span>, the bandy legged man; +so called from a fabulous tribe.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Igdluqdjuaq</span>, the large house.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Iglulik</span>, with houses.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Iglulirmiut</span>, the inhabitants of the +place with houses.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Igpirto</span>, with many hills.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Igpirtousirn</span>, the smaller place with +many hills.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ijelirtung.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ikaroling</span>, with a ford.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ikerassaq</span>, the narrow strait.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ikerassaqdjuaq</span>, the large narrow +strait.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Iliqimisarbing</span>, where one shakes +one’s head.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Imeraqdjuaq.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Imigen</span>, with fresh water.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ingnirn</span>, flint.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Inugsuin</span>, the cairns.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Inugsulik</span>, with cairns.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ipiuteling</span>, with an isthmus.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ipiuting</span>, the isthmus; literally, +the traces of a dog.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Irtiujang.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Isiritung.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Isoa</span>, its cover.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Issortuqdjuaq</span>, the large one with +muddy water.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ita</span>, food.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Itidliaping</span>, the common pass.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Itidlirn</span>, the pass.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Itijareling</span>, with a small pass.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Itirbilung</span>, the anus.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Itivimiut</span>, the inhabitants of the +coast beyond the land.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ituatukan.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Itutonik</span> (Etotoniq).</p> + + +<p class="letterhead"><a name="gloss_geog_K" id="gloss_geog_K" +href="#glossary_geog">K.</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kaming´ujang</span>, similar to a boot.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kangertloa´ping</span>, the common bay.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kangertlua´lung</span>, the large bay.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kangertlukdjuaq</span>, the large bay.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kangertluk´siaq.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kangertlung</span>, the bay.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kangia</span>, its head, its upper part (of +a bay).</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kangianga</span>, its upper part.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kangidliuta</span>, nearest to the +land.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kangivamiut</span>, inhabitants of +Kangia.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kautaq</span>, diorite.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kilauting</span>, the drum.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kingnait</span>, the high land.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kingnaitmiut</span>, the inhabitants of +Kingnait.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kinipetu.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kitigtung</span>, the island lying farthest +out toward the sea.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kitingujang</span>, the gorge.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kouaqdjuaq.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Koukdjuaq</span>, the large river.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kouksoarmiut</span>, the inhabitants of +Kouksoaq.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Koukteling</span>, with a river.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Kugnuaq</span>, the small nice river.</p> + + +<p class="letterhead"><a name="gloss_geog_M" id="gloss_geog_M" +href="#glossary_geog">M.</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Majoraridjen</span>, the places where one +has to climb up.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Maktartudjennaq</span>, where one eats +whale’s hide.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Maluksilaq.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Manirigtung</span>, with many eggs.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page664" id="page664">664</a></span> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Manituling</span>, with uneven places.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Metja</span>, the lid.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Midlurieling</span>, where stones are +thrown (for catching white whales).</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Miliaqdjuin</span>, the small ones, which +shut it up(?).</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Miliqdjuaq</span>, the large one, which +shuts up(?).</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Mingong</span>, the beetle.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Misiqtung.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Muingmang.</span></p> + + +<p class="letterhead"><a name="gloss_geog_N" id="gloss_geog_N" +href="#glossary_geog">N.</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nanuqtuaqdjung</span>, the little bear.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nanuragassain</span>, abounding in young +bears.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Naqoreang.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Narpaing.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Naujan</span>, the gulls.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Naujaqdjuaq</span>, the large gull.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Naujateling</span>, with gulls.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nebarvik.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nedlung</span>, peninsula from the point of +which deer are driven into the water; from <i>nedlugpoq</i>, he +swims.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nedluqseaq</span>; from <i>nedlugpoq</i>, +he swims.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Neqemiarbing</span>, where something is +carried in the hand.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nerseqdjuaq</span>, the large valley.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Netchillik</span>, with seals.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Netchillirmiut</span>, the inhabitants of +Netchillik (the seal country).</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nettilling</span>, with seals.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Niaqonaujang</span>, similar to a head.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nikosiving</span>; from <i>nikuipoq</i>, it +stands erect.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nirdlirn</span>, the goose.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Niutang</span>, hoop used in whaling.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nudlung</span>, the posteriors.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nudnirn</span>, the point.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nugumiut</span>, the inhabitants of the +point.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nurata.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nuratamiut</span>, the inhabitants of +Nurata.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nuvujalung</span>, the large cape or +point.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nuvujen</span>, the points.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nuvukdjuaq</span>, the great point.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nuvukdjuaraqdjung</span>, the little +Nuvukdjuaq.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nuvuktirpāng´</span>, the greatest +point.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nuvuktualung</span>, the only great +point.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Nuvung</span>, the point.</p> + + +<p class="letterhead"><a name="gloss_geog_O" id="gloss_geog_O" +href="#glossary_geog">O.</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Okan</span>, the codfish (plural).</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Okavit.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Operdniving</span>, place where one lives +in spring.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Oqo</span>, the weather side.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Oqomiut</span>, the inhabitants of Oqo.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Owutta.</span></p> + + +<p class="letterhead"><a name="gloss_geog_P" id="gloss_geog_P" +href="#glossary_geog">P.</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Padli</span>, with the mouth of a +river.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Padliaq</span>, the little mouth of the +river.(?)</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Padlimiut</span>, the inhabitants of +Padli.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Padloping</span>; from <i>padlorpoq</i> +(lying on the face?).</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Pamiujang</span>, similar to a tail.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Pangnirtung</span>, with many bucks.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Pikiulaq</span>, <i>Uria grylle</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Piling</span>, with many things (i.e., +game).</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Pilingmiut</span>, the inhabitants of +Piling.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Pingitkalik.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Pitiktaujang.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Pujetung</span>, with plenty of +blubber.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Putukin.</span></p> + + +<p class="letterhead"><a name="gloss_geog_Q" id="gloss_geog_Q" +href="#glossary_geog">Q.</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qaggilortung</span>; from <i>qaggi</i>, +singing house.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qairoliktung</span>, with plenty of seals +(<i>Phoca grœnlandica</i>).</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qamusiojodlang.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qariaq.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qarmang</span>, walls.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qarmaqdjuin</span>, the large walls.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qarussuit</span>, the caves.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qasigidjen</span>, <i>Callocephali</i>.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qaumauang</span>; from <i>qauq</i>, +daylight.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qaumauangmiut</span>, the inhabitants of +Qaumauang.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qa</span>χ<span class="smallcaps">odlualung</span>, the large fulmar.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qa</span>χ<span class="smallcaps">odluin</span>, the fulmars.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qeqertakadlinang</span>; from +<i>qeqertaq</i>, island.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qeqertalukdjuaq</span>, the large +island.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qeqertaq</span>, the island.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qeqertaujang</span>, similar to an +island.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qeqertelung</span>, the large island.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qeqerten</span>, the islands.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qeqertome itoq tudlirn</span>, next to the +island.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qeqertuqdjuaq</span>, the large island.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qerniqdjuaq</span>, the great black +place.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page665" id="page665">665</a></span> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qidnelik.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qimissung</span>, the snow drift.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qimuqsuq</span>; from <i>qimuqpoq</i>, he +draws the sledge.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qingaseareang.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qingua</span>, its head.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qinguamiut</span>, the inhabitants of +Qingua.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qivitung</span>, the hermit.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qognung</span>, the narrow place.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qogulortung</span> (Qaggilortung?).</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qordluving</span>, where the water runs in +a solid stream.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Quaiirnang.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Qudjitariaq.</span></p> + + +<p class="letterhead"><a name="gloss_geog_S" id="gloss_geog_S" +href="#glossary_geog">S.</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sagdlirmiut</span>, the inhabitants of +Sagdlirn.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sagdlirn</span>, the island nearest the +sea.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sagdlua</span>, its Sagdlirn.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sakiaqdjung</span>, the little rib.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sarbaq</span> (<i>sarvaq</i>), the +rapids.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sarbaqdjukulu</span>, the small rapids.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sarbaqdualung</span>, the large rapids.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sarbausirn</span>, the smaller rapids.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sarbuqdjuaq</span>, the large rapids.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Saumia</span>, its left side.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Saumingmiut</span>, the inhabitants of +Saumia.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Saunirtung</span>, with many bones.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Saunirtuqdjuaq</span>, the great one with +many bones.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sednirun</span>, the yard.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Siegtung</span>, the scattered ones.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sikosuilaq</span>, the coast without +ice.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sikosuilarmiut</span>, the inhabitants of +Sikosuilaq.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sini</span>, the edge.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sinimiut</span>, the inhabitants of +Sini.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sioreling</span>, with sand.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sirmiling</span>, with a glacier.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Sulung</span>, the valley through which the +wind blows howling.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Surosirn</span>, the boy.</p> + + +<p class="letterhead"><a name="gloss_geog_T" id="gloss_geog_T" +href="#glossary_geog">T.</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Talirpia</span>, its right side.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Talirpingmiut</span>, the inhabitants of +Talirpia.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tappitariaq</span>, the pass crossing two +isthmuses.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tappitaridjen</span>, the passes crossing +two isthmuses.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Taquirbing.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tarionitjoq</span>, the salt water +basin.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tarrionitung</span>, the salt water +basin.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ta</span>χ<span class="smallcaps">olidjuin.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tessiujang</span>, similar to a pond.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tikeraqdjuaq</span>, the great point.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tikeraqdjuausirn</span>, the smaller great +point.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tikeraqdjung</span>, the small point.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tikeraqdjuq</span>, the small point.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tininiqdjuaq</span>, the large beach.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tiniqdjuaurbing</span>, the great place +with a high tide.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tiniqdjuarbiusirn</span>, the smaller great +place with a high tide.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tornait</span>, Spirits.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Touaqdjuaq.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tuarpuqdjuaq.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tudjan.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tudjaqdjuaq.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tudjaqdjuaralung.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tudjaraaqdjung.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tukia</span>, its farthest corner.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tulukan</span>, the ravens.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tuniqten</span>, those lying behind it.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tunukutang.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tununirmiut</span>, the inhabitants of +Tununirn.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tununirn</span>, the country lying back of +something.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tununirusirmiut</span>, the inhabitants of +Tununirusirn.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tununirusirn</span>, the smaller +Tununirn.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tunussung</span>, the nape.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Tupirbikdjuin</span>, the tent sites.</p> + + +<p class="letterhead"><a name="gloss_geog_U" id="gloss_geog_U" +href="#glossary_geog">U.</a></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Udlimauliteling</span>, with a hatchet.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ugjuktung</span>, with many ground +seals.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ugjulik</span>, with ground seals.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ugjulirmiut</span>, the inhabitants of +Ugjulik (the ground seal country).</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Uglariaq.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Uglirn</span>, walrus island.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Uglit</span>, the walrus islands.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Uibarun</span>, the cape.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ujaraqdjuin</span>, the large stones.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ujaradjiraaitjung</span>; from +<i>ujaraq</i>, stone.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ukadliq</span>, the hare.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ukiadliving</span>, the place where one +lives in the fall.</p> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page666" id="page666">666</a></span> +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ukiukdjuaq</span>, the great winter.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ukusiksalik</span>, the place with pot +stone.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ukusiksalirmiut</span>, inhabitant of +Ukusiksalik.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Umanaq</span>, the heart-like island.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Umanaqtuaq</span>, the great heart-like +island.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Umingman Nuna</span>, the land of the musk +ox.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ungava.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ungavamiut.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Ussualung</span>, the large penis.</p> + +<p><span class="smallcaps">Utiqimitung.</span></p> +</div> + + + + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page667" id="page667">667</a></span> +<h3><a name="appendix" id="appendix">APPENDIX.</a></h3> + + +<p>After the preceding paper was in type some additional information was +received from whalers who returned from Cumberland Sound in the autumn +of 1887. In the following notes I give the substance of these +reports:</p> + + +<h4 class="smallcaps"><a name="app1" id="app1">Note 1.</a></h4> + +<p><a href="#page467">Page 467</a>. Since 1883 the whalers have been +more successful, and consequently more ships visit the sound. In the +present winter—1887-’88—one American and two Scottish +whaling stations are in operation in Cumberland Sound; a new +station was established in Nugumiut two years ago, and the Scottish +steamers which used to fish in Baffin Bay and the northern parts of +Davis Strait are beginning to visit Cumberland Sound and Hudson Strait. +The whaling in Baffin Bay shows a sudden falling off and it seems that +the number of ships will be greatly reduced. This cannot be without +influence upon the Eskimo, who will probably begin again to flock to +Cumberland Sound and Nugumiut.</p> + + +<h4 class="smallcaps"><a name="app2" id="app2">Note 2.</a></h4> + +<p><a href="#page538">Page 538</a>. In 1884 and 1885 a lively +intercourse existed between Padli and Cumberland Sound, and in the +spring of the latter year the dog’s disease broke out for the first time +on the coast of Davis Strait, and spread, so far as is known, to the +northern part of Home Bay.</p> + + +<h4 class="smallcaps"><a name="app3" id="app3">Note 3.</a></h4> + +<p><a href="#page574">Page 574</a>. A peculiar game is sometimes +played on the ice in spring. The men stand in a circle on the ice, and +one of them walks, the toes turned inward, in a devious track. It is +said that only a few are able to do this in the right way. Then the rest +of the men have to follow him in exactly the same track.</p> + +<p>One of their gymnastic exercises requires considerable knack and +strength. A pole is tied with one end to a stone or to a piece of +wood that is firmly secured in the snow. A man then lies down on +his back, embracing the pole, his feet turned toward the place where the +pole is tied to the rock. Then he must rise without bending his +body.</p> + +<p>In another of their gymnastic exercises they lie down on their +stomachs, the arms bent so that the hands lie close together on the +breast, palms turned downward. Then they have to jump forward without +bending their body, using only their toes and hands. Some are said to be +able to jump several feet in this manner.</p> + + +<h4 class="smallcaps"><a name="app4" id="app4">Note 4.</a></h4> + +<p><a href="#page582">Page 582</a>. In the Report of the Hudson Bay +Expedition of 1886, p. 16, Lieut. A. Gordon remarks that the +same custom is reported from Port Burwell, near Cape Chidleigh, +Labrador. He says: “There lived between the Cape and Aulatsivik a good +Eskimo hunter whose native name is not given, but who was christened by +our station men ’Old Wicked.’ He was a passionate man and was +continually +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page668" id="page668">668</a></span> +threatening to do some bodily harm to the other more peaceably inclined +natives. <span class="emspace">***</span>His arrogance and petty +annoyances to the other natives became at length unbearable. It appears +that these unfortunates held a meeting and decided that Old Wicked was a +public nuisance which must be abated, and they therefore decreed that he +should be shot, and shot he was accordingly one afternoon when he was +busily engaged in repairing the ravages which a storm had made in his +‘igdlu’ or snow house. The executioner shot him in the back, killing him +instantly. The murderer or executioner (one hardly knows to which title +he is more justly entitled) then takes Old Wicked’s wives and all his +children and agrees to keep them <span class="emspace">***</span>so that they shall be no burden on the company.”</p> + +<p>The fact that the custom is found among tribes so widely separated +will justify a description of those events which came under my own +observation. There was a native of Padli by the name of Padlu. He had +induced the wife of a Cumberland Sound native to desert her husband and +follow him. The deserted husband, meditating revenge, cut off the upper +part of the barrel of his gun so that he could conceal it under his +jacket. He crossed the land and visited his friends in Padli, but before +he could accomplish his intention of killing Padlu the latter shot him. +When this news was reported in Qeqerten, the brother of the murdered man +went to Padli to avenge the death of his brother; but he also was killed +by Padlu. A third native of Cumberland Sound, who wished to avenge +the death of his relatives, was also murdered by him. On account of all +these outrages the natives wanted to get rid of Padlu, but yet they did +not dare to attack him. When the pimain of the Akudnirmiut in +Niaqonaujang learned of these events he started southward and asked +every man in Padli whether Padlu should be killed. All agreed; so he +went with the latter deer hunting in the upper part of Pangnirtung, +northwest of Padli, and near the head of the fjord he shot Padlu in the +back.</p> + +<p>In another instance a man in Qeqerten had made himself odious. After +it was agreed that he was a bad man an old man of Qeqerten, Pakaq, +attacked him on board a Scottish whaler, but was prevented from killing +him.</p> + + +<h4 class="smallcaps"><a name="app5" id="app5">Note 5.</a></h4> + +<p><a href="#page594">Page 594</a>. The following performance was +observed in Umanaqtuaq, on the southwestern coast of Cumberland Sound, +in the winter of 1886-’87: An angakoq began his incantations in a hut +after the lamps were lowered. Suddenly he jumped up and rushed out of +the hut to where a mounted harpoon was standing. He threw himself upon +the harpoon, which penetrated his breast and came out at the back. Three +men followed him and holding the harpoon line led the angakoq, bleeding +profusely, to all the huts of the village. When they arrived again at +the first hut he pulled out the harpoon, lay down on the bed, and was +put to sleep by the songs of another angakoq. When he awoke after a +while he showed to the people that he was not hurt, although his +clothing was torn and they had seen him bleeding.</p> + +<p>Another angakoq performed a similar feat on the island Utussivik in +the summer of 1887. He thrust a harpoon through his body and was led by +about twenty-five men through the village. It is said that he imitated +the movements and voice of a walrus while on the circuit.</p> + +<p>Still another exhibition was witnessed by the whalers in the fall of +1886 in Umanaqtuaq. An angakoq stripped off his outer jacket and began +his incantations while walking about in the village. When the men heard +him, one after the other came out of his hut, each carrying his gun. +After a while the angakoq descended to the beach; the men followed him, +and suddenly fired a volley at him. The angakoq, of course, was not +hurt, and then the women each gave him a cup of water, which he drank. +Then he put on his jacket, and the performance was ended. The similarity +of this performance with part of the festival which is described on +<a href="#page605">pp. 605 et seq.</a> is evident.</p> + + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page669" id="page669">669</a></span> +<h4 class="smallcaps"><a name="app6" id="app6">Note 6.</a></h4> + +<p><a href="#page606">Page 606</a>. The same feast was celebrated in +1886 in Umanaqtuaq, in Cumberland Sound, where all the Talirpingmiut had +gathered. The witnesses of this festival describe it exactly in the same +way as I described it above. One thing ought to be added, which I did +not mention because it seemed to me accidental, but as it was repeated +in the same way in 1886 it must have some meaning. I noticed that +the Qailertetang, after having invoked the wind, hop about, making a +grunting noise and accosting the people. When doing so they are attacked +by the natives and killed. According to the description of the whalers +they imitate sometimes deer, sometimes walrus. Perhaps this fact gave +rise to Kumlien’s description of the “killing of the evil spirit of the +deer.” It is remarkable that in 1883 in Qeqerten and in 1886 in +Umanaqtuaq the festival was celebrated on exactly the same day, the 10th +of November. This can hardly be accidental, and does not agree with the +idea sometimes advanced, that the festival refers to the winter +solstice. Unfortunately Hall (I, p. 528) does not give the +dates of the festival in Nugumiut. On the western coast of Hudson Bay a +festival in which masks were used was celebrated about the end of +January, 1866 (Hall II, p. 219), but it is hardly possible to draw +conclusions from Nourse’s superficial account of Hall’s +observations.</p> + + +<h4 class="smallcaps"><a name="app7" id="app7">Note 7.</a></h4> + +<p><a href="#page615">Page 615</a>. It may be of interest to learn +that in 1885 and 1886 two instances of this kind occurred in Cumberland +Sound. There was a very old woman in Qeqerten by the name of +Qaχodloaping. She was well provided for by her relatives, but it seems +that one of the most influential men in Qeqerten, Pakaq, whom I +mentioned above (<a href="#page668">p. 668</a>) as the +executioner of a murderer, deemed it right that she should die. So, +although she resisted him, he took her out of her hut one day to a hill +and buried her alive under stones. Another case was that of an old woman +whose health had been failing for a number of years. She lived with her +son, whose wife died late in the autumn of 1886. According to the +religious ideas of the Eskimo, the young man had to throw away his +clothing. When, later on, his mother felt as though she could not live +through the winter, she insisted upon being killed, as she did not want +to compel her son to cast away a second set of clothing. At last her son +complied with her request. She stripped off her outside jacket and +breeches, and was conveyed on a sledge to a near island, where she was +left alone to die from cold and hunger. The son who took her there did +not use his own sledge nor any other Eskimo sledge for this purpose, but +borrowed that of the Scottish whaling station.</p> + + +<h3 class="smallcaps"><a name="footnotes" id="footnotes">Footnotes</a></h3> + +<div class="footnote"> + +<p class="mynote"> +The “foot-note on p. 616” is note 9, ending “.... The full text will be +found in the Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, +Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, Berlin, 1888.”</p> + +<p><a name="note1" id="note1" href="#tag1">1</a> +Baffin-Land. Geographische Ergebnisse einer in den Jahren 1883 und 1884 +ausgeführten Forschungsreise. Von Dr. Franz Boas. (Ergänzungsheft No. 80 +zu »Petermanns Mitteilungen«.) Gotha: 1885.</p> + +<p><a name="note2" id="note2" href="#tag2">2</a> +A glossary of Eskimo geographic terms will be found on <a href="#glossary_geog">p. 662</a>.</p> + +<p><a name="note3" id="note3" href="#tag3">3</a> +From a rather ambiguous statement (p. 355) it would seem that Owutta +belongs to the territory of the Ugjulirmiut; but in later passages ample +proof is found that it is inhabited by the Netchillirmiut (pp. 423, +427). I myself was formerly misled by the above passage (Zeitschr. +Gesell. Erdk., p. 171, Berlin, 1883).</p> + +<p><a name="note4" id="note4" href="#tag4">4</a> +A glossary of the Eskimo words used throughout this paper will be found +on <a href="#glossary_words">p. 659</a>.</p> + +<p><a name="note5" id="note5" href="#tag5">5</a> +According to the Museum catalogue, the point represented in this figure +is from Victoria Island, Boothia, from Hall’s collection; however, it is +a typical western arrow.</p> + +<p><a name="note6" id="note6" href="#tag6">6</a> +The fork first represented in this figure is evidently broken, +a series of knobs having originally formed the handle.</p> + +<p><a name="note7" id="note7" href="#tag7">7</a> +Uqsurelik, with blubber, signifies in the language of the angakut the +white bear; lauk, large; -leqdjorpoq, he provides himself with.</p> + +<p><a name="note8" id="note8" href="#tag8">8</a> +Since the above was written I learn from a paper by Mr. Lucien M. Turner +that a similar feast is celebrated in Ungava Bay. (American Naturalist, +August, 1887.)</p> + +<p><a name="note9" id="note9" href="#tag9">9</a> +Ititaujang means “similar to the anus.” This tradition is curtailed, as +some parts were considered inappropriate for this publication. The full +text will be found in the Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für +Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, Berlin, 1888.</p> + +<p><a name="note10" id="note10" href="#tag10">10</a> +See foot-note on p. 616.</p> + +<p><a name="note11" id="note11" href="#tag11">11</a> +The man in the moon is the protector of orphans.</p> + +<p><a name="note12" id="note12" href="#tag12">12</a> +By a mistake of the Eskimo who made the drawings, four dogs are +harnessed to the sledge. According to his own explanation the dappled +one ought to be the only dog.</p> + +<p><a name="note13" id="note13" href="#tag13">13</a> +See foot-note on p. 616.</p> + +<p><a name="note14" id="note14" href="#tag14">14</a> +See foot-note on p. 616.</p> + +<p><a name="note15" id="note15" href="#tag15">15</a> +The stanza is scanned thus:</p> + +<p><img src="images/music4scan.png" width="276" height="242" +alt="rhythm of song"></p> + +</div> + + +<h2><a name="index" id="index">INDEX</a></h2> + +<div class="mynote"> +<p>Except for footnote references (“<i>note</i>”), all links lead to the +top of the page.</p> + +<p class="center"> +<a href="#index_A">A</a> +<a href="#index_B">B</a> +<a href="#index_C">C</a> +<a href="#index_D">D</a> +<a href="#index_E">E</a> +<a href="#index_F">F</a> +<a href="#index_G">G</a> +<a href="#index_H">H</a> +<a href="#index_I">I</a> +<a href="#index_K">K</a> +<a href="#index_L">L</a> +<a href="#index_M">M</a> +<a href="#index_N">N</a> +<a href="#index_O">O</a> +<a href="#index_P">P</a> +<a href="#index_Q">Q</a> +<a href="#index_R">R</a> +<a href="#index_S">S</a> +<a href="#index_T">T</a> +<a href="#index_U">U</a> +<a href="#index_W">W</a> </p> +</div> + +<div class="index"> +<p class="letterhead"><a name="index_A" id="index_A" href="#index">A</a></p> + +<p>Adlet, and Qadlunait, origin of the <a href="#page637">637</a></p> +<p>Adlet or Erqigdlit <a href="#page640">640</a></p> +<p>Aggomiut Eskimo tribe, situation and subdivisions of <a href="#page442">442</a>-<a href="#page444">444</a></p> +<p>Agutit Eskimo tribe, situation of <a href="#page450">450</a>, +<a href="#page451">451</a></p> +<p>Aivillirmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of <a href="#page445">445</a>-<a href="#page450">450</a></p> +<p>Akudnirmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of <a href="#page440">440</a>-<a href="#page442">442</a></p> +<p>Akuliarmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of <a href="#page421">421</a></p> +<p>American Museum of Natural History, acknowledgments to <a href="#page409">409</a></p> +<p class="inset">figured specimens from <a href="#page472">472</a>, +<a href="#page517">517</a></p> +<p>Anderson and Stewart, cited <a href="#page458">458</a>, +<a href="#page459">459</a></p> +<p>Ardnainiq, fabulous tribe in Eskimo tradition <a href="#page640">640</a></p> + +<p class="letterhead"> +<a name="index_B" id="index_B" href="#index">B</a></p> + +<p>Back, cited <a href="#page485">485</a></p> +<p>Baffin Land, description of <a href="#page415">415</a>, +<a href="#page416">416</a></p> +<p class="inset">distribution of tribes in <a href="#page421">421</a>-<a href="#page444">444</a></p> +<p class="inset">traditions of, with comparisons <a href="#page641">641</a>-<a href="#page643">643</a></p> +<p>Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie etc., Verhandlungen der, +cited <a href="#page409">409</a>, +<a href="#page616">616</a></p> +<p>Bessels, Emil, cited <a href="#page412">412</a>, +<a href="#page460">460</a>, +<a href="#page486">486</a></p> +<p>Boothia Felix and Back River, tribes of <a href="#page452">452</a>-<a href="#page459">459</a></p> + +<p class="letterhead"> +<a name="index_C" id="index_C" href="#index">C</a></p> + +<p>Collinson, cited <a href="#page503">503</a></p> +<p>Cranz, D., cited <a href="#page412">412</a>, +<a href="#page586">586</a>, +<a href="#page590">590</a></p> +<p>Cumberland Sound, description of settlements of <a href="#page428">428</a>-<a href="#page440">440</a></p> + +<p class="letterhead"> +<a name="index_D" id="index_D" href="#index">D</a></p> + +<p>Davis Strait Indian tribes, snow houses of <a href="#page541">541</a>-<a href="#page544">544</a></p> +<p>Dease and Simpson, cited <a href="#page458">458</a></p> +<p>Dogs and sledges of Eskimo <a href="#page529">529</a>-<a href="#page538">538</a></p> + +<p class="letterhead"> +<a name="index_E" id="index_E" href="#index">E</a></p> + +<p>Eenoolooapik, cited <a href="#page410">410</a>, +<a href="#page425">425</a>, +<a href="#page464">464</a></p> +<p>Egede, H., cited <a href="#page412">412</a></p> +<p>Ellesmere Land, natives of <a href="#page459">459</a>, +<a href="#page460">460</a></p> +<p>Emigration of the Sagdlirmiut <a href="#page616">616</a>-<a href="#page620">620</a></p> +<p>Erdmann, F., cited <a href="#page412">412</a>, +<a href="#page597">597</a></p> + +<p class="letterhead"> +<a name="index_F" id="index_F" href="#index">F</a></p> + +<p>Fishing, Eskimo methods of <a href="#page513">513</a>-<a href="#page516">516</a></p> +<p>Flight to the moon <a href="#page598">598</a>, +<a href="#page599">599</a></p> +<p>Frobisher, M., cited <a href="#page410">410</a>, +<a href="#page469">469</a>, +<a href="#page558">558</a></p> +<p>Frobisher Bay, use of, by Eskimo <a href="#page423">423</a></p> + +<p class="letterhead"> +<a name="index_G" id="index_G" href="#index">G</a></p> + +<p>Geography, Eskimo knowledge of <a href="#page643">643</a>-<a href="#page647">647</a></p> +<p>Gilder, W. H., cited <a href="#page411">411</a>, +<a href="#page456">456</a>, +<a href="#page457">457</a>, +<a href="#page458">458</a>, +<a href="#page459">459</a>, +<a href="#page466">466</a>, +<a href="#page498">498</a>, +<a href="#page522">522</a></p> +<p>Glossary of Eskimo terms <a href="#page663">663</a>-<a href="#page669">669</a></p> +<p>Gordon, A. R., cited <a href="#page412">412</a>, +<a href="#page463">463</a></p> + +<p class="letterhead"> +<a name="index_H" id="index_H" href="#index">H</a></p> + +<p>Hall, C. F., acknowledgments to <a href="#page409">409</a></p> +<p class="inset">cited <a href="#page411">411</a>, +<a href="#page422">422</a>, +<a href="#page432">432</a>, +<a href="#page442">442</a>, +<a href="#page443">443</a>, +<a href="#page444">444</a>, +<a href="#page445">445</a>, +<a href="#page446">446</a>, +<a href="#page447">447</a>, +<a href="#page448">448</a>, +<a href="#page449">449</a>, +<a href="#page450">450</a>, +<a href="#page452">452</a>, +<a href="#page456">456</a>, +<a href="#page457">457</a>, +<a href="#page459">459</a>, +<a href="#page462">462</a>, +<a href="#page463">463</a>, +<a href="#page464">464</a>, +<a href="#page486">486</a>, +<a href="#page499">499</a>, +<a href="#page503">503</a>, +<a href="#page509">509</a>, +<a href="#page547">547</a>, +<a href="#page578">578</a>, +<a href="#page583">583</a>, +<a href="#page589">589</a>, +<a href="#page594">594</a>, +<a href="#page595">595</a>, +<a href="#page596">596</a>, +<a href="#page601">601</a>, +<a href="#page602">602</a>, +<a href="#page606">606</a>, +<a href="#page607">607</a>, +<a href="#page608">608</a>, +<a href="#page611">611</a>, +<a href="#page614">614</a>, +<a href="#page615">615</a>, +<a href="#page639">639</a></p> +<p>Harpoons of Eskimo, mode of constructing <a href="#page489">489</a>-<a href="#page494">494</a></p> +<p>Hudson Bay, tribes of western shore of <a href="#page444">444</a>-<a href="#page452">452</a></p> +<p>Hudson Bay district, geographic description of <a href="#page414">414</a>-<a href="#page418">418</a></p> +<p>Hudson Bay Indians, snow houses of <a href="#page547">547</a></p> +<p>Hunting, Eskimo methods of <a href="#page471">471</a>-<a href="#page513">513</a></p> + +<p class="letterhead"> +<a name="index_I" id="index_I" href="#index">I</a></p> + +<p>Igdlumiut Eskimo tribe, situation of <a href="#page463">463</a></p> +<p>Igdlungajung, fabulous tribe in Eskimo tradition <a href="#page640">640</a></p> +<p>Igimarasugdjuqdjuaq the cannibal <a href="#page633">633</a>, +<a href="#page634">634</a></p> +<p>Iglulik Eskimo tribe, snow houses of <a href="#page546">546</a>, +<a href="#page547">547</a></p> +<p>Iglulirmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of <a href="#page444">444</a></p> +<p>Ijirang, fabulous people in Eskimo tradition <a href="#page640">640</a></p> +<p>Inuarudligang, fabulous tribe in Eskimo tradition <a href="#page640">640</a></p> +<p>Inugpaqdjuqdjualung <a href="#page638">638</a></p> +<p>Inuit race, divisions of <a href="#page420">420</a></p> +<p>Ititaujang <a href="#page615">615</a>-<a href="#page618">618</a></p> +<p>Itivimiut Eskimo tribe, situation of <a href="#page463">463</a></p> + +<p class="letterhead"> +<a name="index_K" id="index_K" href="#index">K</a></p> + +<p>Kadlu the thunderer <a href="#page600">600</a></p> +<p>Kalopaling <a href="#page620">620</a>, +<a href="#page621">621</a></p> +<p>Kangivamiut Eskimo tribe, situation of <a href="#page463">463</a></p> +<p>Kayak, construction of <a href="#page486">486</a>-<a href="#page489">489</a></p> +<p>Kingnaitmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of <a href="#page424">424</a></p> +<p>Kinipetu or Agutit Eskimo tribe, situation of <a href="#page450">450</a>, +<a href="#page451">451</a></p> +<p>Kiviung <a href="#page621">621</a></p> +<p>Kleinschmidt, Eskimo orthography of <a href="#page413">413</a></p> +<p>Klutschak, H. W., cited <a href="#page411">411</a>, +<a href="#page448">448</a>, +<a href="#page449">449</a>, +<a href="#page451">451</a>, +<a href="#page457">457</a>, +<a href="#page458">458</a>, +<a href="#page459">459</a>, +<a href="#page466">466</a>, +<a href="#page502">502</a>, +<a href="#page509">509</a>, +<a href="#page510">510</a>, +<a href="#page516">516</a>, +<a href="#page552">552</a>, +<a href="#page553">553</a>, +<a href="#page570">570</a>, +<a href="#page582">582</a>, +<a href="#page595">595</a>, +<a href="#page596">596</a>, +<a href="#page614">614</a>, +<a href="#page615">615</a></p> +<p>Kouksoarmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of <a href="#page463">463</a></p> +<p>Kumlien, L., acknowledgments to <a href="#page409">409</a></p> +<p class="inset">cited <a href="#page412">412</a>, +<a href="#page471">471</a>, +<a href="#page474">474</a>, +<a href="#page475">475</a>, +<a href="#page482">482</a>, +<a href="#page483">483</a>, +<a href="#page524">524</a>, +<a href="#page549">549</a>, +<a href="#page550">550</a>, +<a href="#page567">567</a>, +<a href="#page589">589</a>, +<a href="#page596">596</a>, +<a href="#page606">606</a>, +<a href="#page607">607</a>, +<a href="#page610">610</a></p> + +<p class="letterhead"> +<a name="index_L" id="index_L" href="#index">L</a></p> + +<p>Lepsius, cited <a href="#page413">413</a></p> +<p>Lyon, G. F., cited <a href="#page410">410</a>, +<a href="#page451">451</a>, +<a href="#page463">463</a>, +<a href="#page487">487</a>, +<a href="#page497">497</a>, +<a href="#page511">511</a>, +<a href="#page579">579</a>, +<a href="#page585">585</a>, +<a href="#page586">586</a>, +<a href="#page587">587</a>, +<a href="#page588">588</a>, +<a href="#page589">589</a>, +<a href="#page590">590</a>, +<a href="#page592">592</a>, +<a href="#page593">593</a>, +<a href="#page610">610</a>, +<a href="#page612">612</a>, +<a href="#page613">613</a>, +<a href="#page614">614</a>, +<a href="#page615">615</a></p> + +<p class="letterhead"> +<a name="index_M" id="index_M" href="#index">M</a></p> + +<p>M’Donald, A., cited <a href="#page410">410</a></p> +<p>M’Clintock, Captain, cited <a href="#page411">411</a>, +<a href="#page455">455</a>, +<a href="#page456">456</a>, +<a href="#page458">458</a></p> +<p>Manufactures, Eskimo <a href="#page516">516</a>-<a href="#page526">526</a></p> +<p>Mason, O. T., acknowledgments to <a href="#page409">409</a></p> +<p>Mintzer, W., acknowledgments to <a href="#page409">409</a></p> +<p>Moravian missionaries, cited <a href="#page463">463</a></p> +<p>Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin, acknowledgments to <a href="#page409">409</a></p> +<p class="inset">figured specimens from <a href="#page472">472</a>, +<a href="#page473">473</a>, +<a href="#page474">474</a>, +<a href="#page477">477</a>, +<a href="#page479">479</a>, +<a href="#page480">480</a>, +<a href="#page481">481</a>, +<a href="#page483">483</a>, +<a href="#page486">486</a>, +<a href="#page487">487</a>, +<a href="#page488">488</a>, +<a href="#page496">496</a>, +<a href="#page508">508</a>, +<a href="#page513">513</a>, +<a href="#page514">514</a>, +<a href="#page515">515</a>, +<a href="#page518">518</a>, +<a href="#page519">519</a>, +<a href="#page520">520</a>, +<a href="#page523">523</a>, +<a href="#page531">531</a>, +<a href="#page532">532</a>, +<a href="#page554">554</a>, +<a href="#page555">555</a>, +<a href="#page556">556</a>, +<a href="#page557">557</a>, +<a href="#page565">565</a>, +<a href="#page566">566</a>, +<a href="#page567">567</a>, +<a href="#page568">568</a>, +<a href="#page569">569</a>, +<a href="#page570">570</a>, +<a href="#page571">571</a>, +<a href="#page576">576</a>, +<a href="#page613">613</a>, +<a href="#page634">634</a>, +<a href="#page644">644</a></p> +<p>Music and poetry of the Eskimo <a href="#page648">648</a>-<a href="#page658">658</a></p> + +<p class="letterhead"> +<a name="index_N" id="index_N" href="#index">N</a></p> + +<p>Narwhal, origin of the <a href="#page625">625</a>-<a href="#page627">627</a></p> +<p>National Museum, acknowledgments to <a href="#page409">409</a></p> +<p class="inset">figured specimens from <a href="#page474">474</a>, +<a href="#page479">479</a>, +<a href="#page480">480</a>, +<a href="#page481">481</a>, +<a href="#page487">487</a>, +<a href="#page488">488</a>, +<a href="#page489">489</a>, +<a href="#page490">490</a>, +<a href="#page492">492</a>, +<a href="#page493">493</a>, +<a href="#page494">494</a>, +<a href="#page495">495</a>, +<a href="#page496">496</a>, +<a href="#page502">502</a>, +<a href="#page503">503</a>, +<a href="#page504">504</a>, +<a href="#page505">505</a>, +<a href="#page506">506</a>, +<a href="#page507">507</a>, +<a href="#page512">512</a>, +<a href="#page513">513</a>, +<a href="#page515">515</a>, +<a href="#page516">516</a>, +<a href="#page518">518</a>, +<a href="#page521">521</a>, +<a href="#page522">522</a>, +<a href="#page523">523</a>, +<a href="#page524">524</a>, +<a href="#page525">525</a>, +<a href="#page526">526</a>, +<a href="#page530">530</a>, +<a href="#page531">531</a>, +<a href="#page532">532</a>, +<a href="#page535">535</a>, +<a href="#page539">539</a>, +<a href="#page555">555</a>, +<a href="#page556">556</a>, +<a href="#page559">559</a>, +<a href="#page560">560</a>, +<a href="#page563">563</a>, +<a href="#page565">565</a>, +<a href="#page566">566</a>, +<a href="#page576">576</a></p> +<p>Navigation, Eskimo proficiency in <a href="#page643">643</a></p> +<p>Netchillirmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of <a href="#page452">452</a>-<a href="#page458">458</a></p> +<p>Northeastern America, geography of <a href="#page414">414</a>-<a +href="#page418">418</a></p> +<p>North Greenlanders <a href="#page460">460</a></p> +<p>Nourse, cited <a href="#page452">452</a></p> +<p>Nugumiut Eskimo tribe, situation of <a href="#page424">424</a></p> + +<p class="letterhead"> +<a name="index_O" id="index_O" href="#index">O</a></p> + +<p>Oqomiut Eskimo tribe, situation and subdivisions of <a href="#page424">424</a>-<a href="#page440">440</a></p> +<p>Origin of the Adlet and the Qadlunait <a href="#page637">637</a></p> +<p>Origin of the narwhal <a href="#page625">625</a>-<a href="#page627">627</a></p> + +<p class="letterhead"> +<a name="index_P" id="index_P" href="#index">P</a></p> + +<p>Padlimiut Eskimo tribe, situation of <a href="#page440">440</a>-<a +href="#page442">442</a></p> +<p>Parry, W. E., cited <a href="#page410">410</a>, +<a href="#page443">443</a>, +<a href="#page444">444</a>, +<a href="#page447">447</a>, +<a href="#page451">451</a>, +<a href="#page458">458</a>, +<a href="#page464">464</a>, +<a href="#page474">474</a>, +<a href="#page475">475</a>, +<a href="#page478">478</a>, +<a href="#page487">487</a>, +<a href="#page492">492</a>, +<a href="#page494">494</a>, +<a href="#page502">502</a>, +<a href="#page509">509</a>, +<a href="#page510">510</a>, +<a href="#page517">517</a>, +<a href="#page523">523</a>, +<a href="#page533">533</a>, +<a href="#page544">544</a>, +<a href="#page545">545</a>, +<a href="#page547">547</a>, +<a href="#page552">552</a>, +<a href="#page556">556</a>, +<a href="#page557">557</a>, +<a href="#page558">558</a>, +<a href="#page559">559</a>, +<a href="#page572">572</a>, +<a href="#page574">574</a>, +<a href="#page603">603</a>, +<a href="#page614">614</a></p> +<p>Penny, cited <a href="#page425">425</a></p> +<p>Petermanns Mitteilungen, cited <a href="#note1">409 +<i>note</i></a></p> +<p>Petitot, É., cited <a href="#page412">412</a>, +<a href="#page516">516</a></p> +<p>Pilingmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of <a href="#page444">444</a></p> +<p>Poetry and music of the Eskimo <a href="#page648">648</a>-<a href="#page658">658</a></p> + +<p class="letterhead"> +<a name="index_Q" id="index_Q" href="#index">Q</a></p> + +<p>Qailertétang, fabulous people in Eskimo tradition <a href="#page640">640</a></p> +<p>Qaudjaqdjuq <a href="#page628">628</a>-<a href="#page633">633</a></p> +<p>Qaumauangmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of <a href="#page421">421</a>, +<a href="#page422">422</a></p> +<p>Qingnamlut Eskimo tribe, situation of <a href="#page424">424</a></p> + +<p class="letterhead"> +<a name="index_R" id="index_R" href="#index">R</a></p> + +<p>Rae, John, cited <a href="#page411">411</a>, +<a href="#page445">445</a>, +<a href="#page446">446</a>, +<a href="#page448">448</a>, +<a href="#page450">450</a>, +<a href="#page451">451</a>, +<a href="#page452">452</a>, +<a href="#page455">455</a>, +<a href="#page459">459</a>, +<a href="#page478">478</a>, +<a href="#page485">485</a>, +<a href="#page510">510</a>, +<a href="#page597">597</a></p> +<p>Religious ideas of the Eskimo <a href="#page583">583</a>-<a href="#page609">609</a></p> +<p>Rink, H., cited <a href="#page411">411</a>, +<a href="#page420">420</a>, +<a href="#page580">580</a>, +<a href="#page586">586</a>, +<a href="#page587">587</a>, +<a href="#page590">590</a>, +<a href="#page591">591</a>, +<a href="#page598">598</a>, +<a href="#page599">599</a></p> +<p class="inset">acknowledgments to <a href="#page412">412</a></p> +<p>Ross, J., cited <a href="#page410">410</a>, +<a href="#page451">451</a>, +<a href="#page453">453</a>, +<a href="#page454">454</a>, +<a href="#page455">455</a>, +<a href="#page456">456</a>, +<a href="#page458">458</a>, +<a href="#page469">469</a>, +<a href="#page471">471</a>, +<a href="#page478">478</a>, +<a href="#page485">485</a>, +<a href="#page508">508</a>, +<a href="#page552">552</a>, +<a href="#page553">553</a>, +<a href="#page579">579</a></p> + +<p class="letterhead"> +<a name="index_S" id="index_S" href="#index">S</a></p> + +<p>Sagdlirmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of <a href="#page444">444</a></p> +<p>Sagdlirmiut of Southampton Island <a href="#page451">451</a></p> +<p>Saumingmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of <a href="#page424">424</a></p> +<p>Schwatka, F., cited <a href="#page445">445</a>, +<a href="#page457">457</a>, +<a href="#page458">458</a>, +<a href="#page459">459</a>, +<a href="#page464">464</a>, +<a href="#page465">465</a>, +<a href="#page470">470</a></p> +<p>Science and the arts among the Eskimo <a href="#page643">643</a>-<a +href="#page658">658</a></p> +<p>Seal hunting, Eskimo method of <a href="#page471">471</a>-<a href="#page501">501</a></p> +<p>Sedna and the fulmar <a href="#page583">583</a>-<a href="#page587">587</a></p> +<p>Sedna feast <a href="#page594">594</a></p> +<p>Sikosuilarmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of <a href="#page421">421</a>, +<a href="#page463">463</a></p> +<p>Simpson, J., cited <a href="#page411">411</a>, +<a href="#page597">597</a></p> +<p>Simpson, T., cited <a href="#page410">410</a>, +<a href="#page458">458</a></p> +<p>Singing house of Eskimo <a href="#page600">600</a>-<a href="#page602">602</a></p> +<p>Sinimiut Eskimo tribe, situation of <a href="#page451">451</a></p> +<p>Sledges and boats, description of Eskimo <a href="#page527">527</a>-<a href="#page538">538</a></p> +<p>Smith Sound, Eskimo tribes of <a href="#page459">459</a>, +<a href="#page460">460</a></p> +<p>Snow houses, of Davis Strait Eskimo <a href="#page541">541</a>-<a +href="#page544">544</a></p> +<p class="inset">of Iglulik Eskimo tribe <a href="#page544">544</a></p> +<p class="inset">of Hudson Bay Indians <a href="#page547">547</a></p> +<p>Social life and customs of Eskimo <a href="#page574">574</a>-<a +href="#page578">578</a></p> +<p>Spicer, J. O., acknowledgments to <a href="#page409">409</a></p> +<p class="inset">cited <a href="#page489">489</a>, +<a href="#page511">511</a>, +<a href="#page587">587</a>, +<a href="#page588">588</a>, +<a href="#page611">611</a></p> +<p>Sturgis, A., acknowledgments to <a href="#page409">409</a></p> +<p class="inset">cited <a href="#page491">491</a></p> + +<p class="letterhead"> +<a name="index_T" id="index_T" href="#index">T</a></p> + +<p>Talirpingmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of <a href="#page424">424</a></p> +<p>Tents of Eskimo, mode of construction of <a href="#page551">551</a>-<a href="#page553">553</a></p> +<p>Tornait and angakut <a href="#page591">591</a>-<a href="#page598">598</a></p> +<p>Tornit, the <a href="#page634">634</a>-<a href="#page636">636</a>, +<a href="#page640">640</a></p> +<p>Trade and intercourse between Eskimo tribes <a href="#page462">462</a>-<a href="#page470">470</a></p> +<p>Tununirmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of <a href="#page442">442</a>-<a href="#page444">444</a></p> +<p>Tununirusirmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of <a href="#page442">442</a>-<a href="#page444">444</a></p> +<p>Turner, L. M., cited <a href="#page420">420</a>, +<a href="#page462">462</a>, +<a href="#page520">520</a>, +<a href="#page565">565</a>, +<a href="#page567">567</a>, +<a href="#note8">608 <i>note</i></a></p> + +<p class="letterhead"> +<a name="index_U" id="index_U" href="#index">U</a></p> + +<p>Udleqdjun <a href="#page636">636</a>, +<a href="#page637">637</a></p> +<p>Ugjulirmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of <a href="#page458">458</a></p> +<p>Uissuit <a href="#page621">621</a></p> +<p class="inset">fabulous people in Eskimo tradition <a href="#page640">640</a></p> +<p>Ukusiksalirmiut Eskimo tribe, situation of <a href="#page458">458</a></p> +<p>Ungavimiut Eskimo tribe, situation of <a href="#page463">463</a></p> + +<p class="letterhead"> +<a name="index_W" id="index_W" href="#index">W</a></p> + +<p>Warmow, cited <a href="#page425">425</a>, +<a href="#page583">583</a></p> +</div> + + +<p class="caption plate"> +BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. III</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<a name="plateIII" id="plateIII"> </a> +<img src="images/plateIII.jpg" width="533" height="608" +alt="map" usemap="#plateIIImap"></p> + +<map name="plateIIImap"> +<area shape="rect" coords="400,0,533,113" href="images/map2legend.jpg" alt="map legend" target="_blank"> +<area shape="poly" coords="0,0, 400,0, 400,113, 533,113, 533,608, +0,608, 0,0" href="images/map2_large.jpg" alt="map legend" target="_blank"> +</map> + + +<a name="page670" id="page670"> </a> + +<div class="endnote"> +<h4><a name="endnote" id="endnote">Transcriber’s Notes</a></h4> + +<p><a name="endnoteA" id="endnoteA" href="#endtagA">A.</a> +The end of this paragraph was misprinted with “it-” and “seal.” at +consecutive line ends:</p> + +<p class="illustration"> +<img src="images/page558.png" width="659" height="82" +alt="page image"></p> + +<p><a name="endnoteB" id="endnoteB" href="#endtagB">B.</a> +Printed as shown. The correct subtitle of the cited book is:</p> + +<p class="inset"> +‘Grönland geographisk og statistisk beskrevet,’ etc.</p> + +</div> +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CENTRAL ESKIMO ***</div> +<div style='text-align:left'> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will +be renamed. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United +States without permission and without paying copyright +royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part +of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project +Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ +concept and trademark. 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