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diff --git a/42080-8.txt b/42080-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index ffc8335..0000000 --- a/42080-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4627 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Voice in Singing, by Emma Seiler - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Voice in Singing - -Author: Emma Seiler - -Translator: William Henry Furness - -Release Date: February 12, 2013 [EBook #42080] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE VOICE IN SINGING *** - - - - -Produced by David Newman, Daniel Emerson Griffith and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This file was produced from images generously made -available by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE. - - The original print of this book uses Helmholtz pitch notation, - where middle-C is represented by a lowercase c with one over-line, - the C above with two over-lines, etc. For accessibility, I have - used the alternative convention of using numbers after the note - name, thus: - - C1 ... C ... c d e f g a b c1 d1 e1 f1 g1 a1 b1 c2 ... c3 ... c4 - - (C1 = 3 octaves below middle-C, c4 = 3 octaves above middle-C) - - A few corrections have been made to spelling and punctuation. - A list of these amendments can be found at the end of the text. - - - - -THE VOICE IN SINGING - - - TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN OF - - EMMA SEILER - - Member of the American Philosophical Society - - - A NEW EDITION - REVISED AND ENLARGED - - - PHILADELPHIA - J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO - 1879 - - - - - Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1872, by - J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO., - In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. - - - Lippincott's Press, - Philadelphia. - - - - -CONTENTS - - PAGE - Translator's Preface 7 - - Introduction 11 - - I Vocal Music 15 - - II Physiological 36 - - III Physical 85 - - IV Æsthetic 143 - - Appendix 185 - - - - -TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE - - -The translator of this book, desirous, in common with other -friends of its author, that her claims as a lady of rare -scientific attainments should be recognized in this country, -where she has recently taken up her abode, has obtained her -consent to the publication of the following testimonials to -her position in her own country from gentlemen of the highest -eminence in science: - - [TRANSLATED] - - Mad. Emma Seiler has dwelt for a long time here in Heidelberg, - and given instruction in singing. She has won the reputation - of a very careful, skilled and learned teacher, possessing - a fine ear and cultivated taste. While engaged on my book, - "Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen, &c.," I had the honor of - becoming acquainted with Mad. Seiler, and of being assisted by - her in my essay upon the formation of the vowel tones and the - registers of the female voice. I have thus had an opportunity - of knowing the delicacy of her musical ear and her ability to - master the more difficult and abstract parts of the theory of - music. - - I have pleasure in bearing this testimony to her worth, in the - hope of securing for her the confidence and the encouragement - of those who are interested in the scientific culture of music, - and who know how desirable it is that an instructress in the - art of singing should be possessed of scientific knowledge, - a fine ear, and a cultivated taste. - - (Signed) Dr. H. Helmholtz, - - Prof. of Physiology, Member of the Academies and - Royal Societies of London, Edinburgh, Amsterdam, - Stockholm, Berlin, Vienna, Munich, Göttingen. - - Heidelberg, Aug. 5, 1866 - - - [TRANSLATED] - - Mad. E. Seiler has made for herself an honorable name in Germany, - not only as a practical teacher of singing, but also by her - valuable investigations in regard to the culture of the musical - voice. By her own anatomical studies she has acquired a thorough - knowledge of the vocal organs, and by means of the laryngoscope has - advanced, in the way first trodden by Garcia, to the establishment - of the conditions of the formation of the voice. We owe to her - a more exact knowledge of the position of the larynx, and of its - parts in the production of the several registers of the human - voice; and she appears especially to have brought to a final and - satisfactory decision the much-vexed question respecting the - formation of the so-called _fistel tones_ (head tones). She has - been associated with the best powers possessed by Germany in the - department of the theory of music and physiological acoustics, - standing by the side of the celebrated physiologist, Helmholtz, - while he was engaged in his physiologico-acoustic work upon the - generation of the vowels and the nature of harmony. - - (Signed) E. du Bois-Reymond, - - Professor of Physiology in the Royal University of Berlin. - - Berlin, July 17, 1866 - -In a letter, written in English, addressed to the President and -Members of the American Philosophical Society, Professor du -Bois-Reymond introduces Mrs. Seiler (italicizing the words) "_as -a lady of truly remarkable scientific attainments_." "Prompted," -he states, "by a spirit of philosophical inquiry, not frequently -met with in her sex, she has made herself entirely acquainted -with all the facts and theories concerning the production of the -human voice. She has entered, deeper probably than any one else -before her, into the study of the problem of the different -registers of the human voice. Most of her results she has -published in a pamphlet under the title: Altes und Neues über -die Ausbildung des Gesangorganes (Leipzig, 1861), which has -received the approbation of both the physiologists and the -singing masters of this country." - - * * * * * - -The translator takes the opportunity to state that, as he -makes no pretensions to any knowledge either of the science -or of the art of music, his translation has been carefully -revised by persons entirely competent to correct its musical -phraseology. - - W. H. F. - -Philadelphia, December, 1867. - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -In giving to the public these fruits of years of earnest labor, -and in attempting to bring into harmony things which have always -been treated separately, the Science and the Art of Singing, it -seems necessary that I should state the reasons that prompted me -to this study. - -As I had for many years the advantage of the best tuition, both -German and Italian, in the Art of Singing, and had often sung -with favor in concerts, I was led to believe myself qualified to -become a teacher of this art. But hardly had I undertaken the -office before I felt that, while I was able to teach my pupils to -execute pieces of music with tolerable accuracy and with the -appropriate expression, I was wanting in the knowledge of any -sure starting-point, any sound principle, from which to proceed -in the special culture of any individual voice. In order to -obtain the knowledge which thus appeared to be requisite in -a teacher of vocal music, I examined the best schools of singing; -and when I learned nothing from them that I did not already know, -I sought the most celebrated teachers of singing to learn what -was wanting. But what one teacher announced to me as a rule was -usually rejected by another. Every teacher had his own peculiar -system of instruction. No one could give me any definite reasons -therefor, and the best assured me that so exact a method as -I sought did not exist, and that every teacher must find his own -way through his own experience. In such a state of darkness and -uncertainty, to undertake to instruct others appeared to me -a manifest wrong, for in no branch of instruction can the -ignorance of the teacher do greater injury than in the teaching -of vocal music. This I unhappily learned from my own personal -experience, when, under the tuition of a most eminent teacher, -I entirely lost my voice, whereby the embarrassment I was under, -so far from being diminished, was only increased. After this -misfortune I studied under _Frederick Wiek_, in Dresden (the -father and instructor of Clara Schumann), in order to become -a teacher on the piano. But while I thus devoted myself to this -branch of teaching exclusively, it became from that time the aim -and effort of my life to obtain such a knowledge of the human -voice as is indispensable to a natural and healthy development -of its beautiful powers. - -I availed myself of every opportunity to hear Jenny Lind, who -was then dwelling in Dresden, and to learn all that I could from -her. I likewise hoped, by a protracted abode in Italy, the land -of song, to attain the fulfilment of my wishes; but, beyond -certain practical advantages, I gathered there no sure and -radical knowledge. In the French method of instruction, now so -popular, I found the same superficiality and uncertainty that -existed everywhere else. But the more deeply I was impressed -with this state of things, and the more fully I became aware of -the injurious and trying consequences of the method of teaching -followed at the present day, the more earnestly was I impelled -to press onward in search of light and clearness in this dim -domain. - -Convinced that only by the way of scientific investigation the -desired end could be reached, I sought the counsel of Prof. -_Helmholtz_, in Heidelberg. This distinguished man was then -engaged in a scientific inquiry into the natural laws lying at -the basis of musical sounds. Prof. Helmholtz permitted me to -take part in his investigations, and at his kind suggestion -I attempted by myself, by means of the laryngoscope, to -observe the physiological processes that go on in the larynx -during the production of different tones. My special thanks -are due to him that now, with a more thorough knowledge of the -human voice, I can give instruction in singing without the -fear of doing any injury. My thanks are due in a like manner -to Prof. _du Bois-Reymond_, in Berlin, who, at a later period, -also gave me his friendly help in my studies. - -In 1861 I published a part of my investigations in Germany, -where they found acknowledgment and favor. That little work is -contained in the following pages, together with some account of -the discoveries of Professor _Helmholtz_ relating to the human -voice, and of their practical application to the education of -the voice in singing. - -The practical sense of the American people enables them, above -all others, to appreciate the worth of every discovery and of -every advance. And therefore it is my earnest hope that the -publication of these investigations in this country may help -to elevate and improve the Art of Singing. - - - - -THE VOICE IN SINGING - - - - -I - -VOCAL MUSIC - -ITS RISE, DEVELOPMENT AND DECLINE - - -It is a matter of complaint among all persons of good taste, who take -an intelligent interest in art, and especially in music, that fine -singers are becoming more and more rare, while formerly there appears -never to have been any lack of men and women eminent in this art. The -complaint seems not altogether without reason, when we revert to that -rich summer-time of song, not yet lying very far behind us, in the -last half of the last century, and compare it with the present. The -retrospect shows us plainly that the art of singing has descended -from its former high estate, and is now in a condition of decline. -When we consider what is told us in the historical works of _Forkel_, -_Burney_, _Kiesewetter_, _Brendel_ and others, and compare it with -our present poverty in good voices and skilful artists, we are struck -with the multitude of fine voices then heard, with their remarkable -fulness of tone, as well as with the considerable number of -singers--male and female--appearing at the same time. - -We first recall to mind the last great artists of that time, -whose names are familiar to us because they appeared in public -after the beginning of the present century:--_Catalani_, who -preserved to extreme old age the melody and enormous power of -her voice; _Malibran_, _Sontag_, _Vespermann_, &c.; the men -singers, _Rubini_, _Tamburini_, _Lablache_, and others; and, -still farther back, _Mara_, whose voice had a compass, with -equal fulness of tone, of three octaves, and who possessed such -a power of musical utterance that she imitated within the -compass of her voice the most difficult passages of the violin -and flute with perfect facility. Then comes the artiste -_Ajugara Bastardella_, in Parma, who executed with purity and -distinctness the most difficult passages from si (b) to si -(b3), and roulades with successive trills, with enchanting -harmony; and the old Italian singing-masters, who sang and -taught with an art which we should scarcely hold possible, were -it not for the unanimous testimony of their contemporaries. -There were _Porpora_ and his pupil _Perugia_, who sang two full -octaves, with successive trills up and down in one breath, and -executed with perfect exactness all the tones of the chromatic -scale without an accompaniment; and _Farinelli_, who to his -latest age preserved his wonderfully beautiful voice. Of him -it is related, among other things, that on one occasion he -competed with a trumpeter, who accompanied him in an aria. -After both had several times dwelt on notes in which each -sought to excel the other in power and duration, they prolonged -a note with a double trill in thirds, which they continued -until both seemed to be exhausted. At last the trumpeter gave -up, entirely out of breath, while Farinelli, without taking -breath, prolonged the note with renewed volume of sound, -trilling and ending, finally, with the most difficult of -roulades. _Pistochi_ and _Bernucchi_ rivalled Farinelli. The -latter, although he had received from nature a refractory voice -of little excellence, nevertheless succeeded in cultivating it -so highly that he became one of the most distinguished artists -of his day, called by Händel and Graun, "The King of Singers." - -It is impossible to mention by name all the many singers, male -and female, who won applause and renown in the beginning and in -the middle of the last century. Almost every European state was -furnished with most excellent operas, and troops of artists, -men and women, with voices of the highest cultivation, flocked -thither. Even in the streets and inns and other places in -Italy, where elsewhere we are accustomed to seek only music of -the lowest kind, one could then hear the most artistic vocal -music, such as was found in the churches, concert-saloons and -theatres of Germany and France. - -It appears that far greater demands were made upon singers then -than now-a-days. At least, history celebrates, together with -the great vocal flexibility of the earlier singers, the measured -beauty of their singing, the noble tone, the thoroughly cultivated -delivery, by which they showed themselves true artists, and -produced upon their hearers effects almost miraculous. - -On the other hand, how sad is the condition of vocal music in -our time! How few artistically cultivated voices are there! -And the few that there are, how soon are they used up and -lost! Artists like _Lind_, and more recently _Trebelli_, -are exceptions to be made. - -Mediocre talent is now often sought, and rewarded far beyond its -desert. One is often tempted to think that the public at large has -wellnigh lost all capacity of judgment, when he witnesses the -representation of one of our operas. Let a singer, male or female, -only drawl the notes sentimentally one into another, execute -a tremulo upon prolonged notes, introduce very often the softest -piano and just where it is entirely out of place, growl out the -lowest notes in the roughest timbre, and scream out the high notes -lustily, and he or she may reckon with certainty upon the greatest -applause. In fact, we have become so easily pleased that even an -impure execution is suffered to pass without comment. Let the -personal appearance of the singer only be handsome and prepossessing, -he need trouble himself little about his art in order to win the -favor of the public. This decline of the art of singing is usually -ascribed to the want of good voices, and this poverty of voices -to our altered modes of living. To me it appears as the natural -consequence of the whole manner and way in which the art of singing -has been historically developed since its earlier high state of -perfection. - -The human voice is, of all instruments, the most natural, the -most perfect, the most intimate in its relation to us, as, -for the use of it, we have a talent or faculty innate, which, -in the case of other instruments, can only be laboriously -acquired, to say nothing of the fact that these instruments -are first to be invented and put together. Hence vocal music -appears to have been almost the only music among the Greeks, -and the rude instruments then in use served merely for an -accompaniment. The history of our so-called _Western_ music, -which dates no farther back than the fourth century after -Christ, tells us hardly anything else than of vocal musicians -and of their compositions for concerted and chorus singing. - -Our art, only slowly developing itself from those earliest -times, was cherished, mainly in Italy, for the sole purpose of -exalting divine worship. We have, at least, no account of any -secular art of music in those days. As yet unacquainted with -harmony, the only singing was _in unison_, as was the custom, -at an earlier period, among the Greeks; for not until the tenth -century of the Christian era was it attempted, and then by a -Flemish monk (_Hukbaldus_), to harmonize several and different -notes; thus was invented and founded our harmony, whose exponent -was the organ.[1] - -From that time forward, history makes mention of many persons who -labored worthily, now more and now less, to create a theory of music, -seeking to found a system of harmony upon that rude beginning, and by -degrees to improve it. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries music -burst forth into blossom in the Netherlands, and thenceforth rose -steadily in excellence, when also it began to branch out into the -excesses of counterpoint. The fame of the Netherlands soon spread over -all the civilized countries of Europe. The artists of the Netherlands -were invited upon the most favorable terms to Italy, France, Spain, -and Germany, and thus the progress of music spread over all these -countries almost _pari passu_. For two hundred years the Netherlands -maintained the reputation of the best and highest culture in vocal -music, and not until the middle of the sixteenth century did there -appear in Italy and Germany artists who attained to a like renown. Up -to that time prejudice denied to the Italians _all talent for music_, -as it has ever since exaggerated their claims in this respect. -_Kiesewetter_ remarks, in his History of Music, that, although the -Netherlands in Italy no longer had the monopoly, they nevertheless -always maintained the supremacy in music. Climate and language were, -however, so favorable to vocal music in Italy that it soon found there -its peculiar home, and though theoretical knowledge of music was -advanced by the earlier singers, now richness and power of voice were -also attained. As it had previously been with the Netherlanders, so it -now became with the Italians. They were drawn to all countries in -which there was any love of art; and they soon won that supremacy in -music which they maintained until the last century. Until the latter -part of the sixteenth century, good musicians were devoted almost -exclusively to church music, and held it beneath their dignity to take -part in music of any other kind. All but church music they left to the -minstrels and strolling singers, who traveled over the country from -place to place, and in different lands were styled _minstrels_, -_minnesänger_ and _trovatori_. They mostly sung love-songs, which they -often extemporized in word and tune, finding place and popularity on -all festive occasions. But under the impulse which music began to -feel, the desire among the educated class to revive the old Greek -drama, which just at that period had come to be well known, became -more and more urgent. Imbued with the spirit of that age, the whole -tendency of which was to exalt the ancient classic poets, a circle of -men of science and culture from the higher classes gave themselves to -the task of producing a style of music such as the Greeks must have -had in the representation of their dramas. In the mansion of Count -_Bardi_, in Florence, then the centre of union for all who had any -claims to cultivation, music was first arranged for a _single_ voice -by a dilettante, the father of the renowned Galileo. - -This attempt met with applause and imitation among the most -distinguished singers of the time, who thenceforth turned -their attention also to secular music. It thus came about -that, towards the end of the sixteenth century, on festal -occasions in Italy, and even earlier in France, theatrical -representations were given with vocal music. This music was, -however, always composed in the form of the chorus, and the -leading voice alone was represented by a singer; the other -voices were represented by instruments. - -Such was the beginning of solo singing, which, growing ever -more in public favor, soon came to be introduced into the most -solemn church music; dramatic representations, religious and -secular, grew very popular, and were the forerunners of the -opera and oratorio, the richest inventions of the sixteenth -century. - -Up to this time, a singer of sound musical culture sufficed for -chorus singing, but by the introduction of solo singing a more -complete education of the organ of singing became a necessity. -Indeed, as early as the middle of the fifteenth century there -existed in Rome and Milan schools of music and professorships for -the education of singers; but with the introduction and diffusion -of solo singing similar conservatories were established in nearly -all the more considerable cities of Italy, and all the energies -of the musician were devoted to the highest possible culture of -the voice. - -But, with solo singing, greater attention was paid to instruments, -which were already in those days constructed with the greatest -care and skill. With the higher cultivation of single voices, -chorus singing also became richer in harmony and embellishment, -but as, in vocal music, words accompany the music, the expression -of the music becomes more definite and intelligible for the -hearer, and thus with the higher cultivation of vocal music, -and by means of it, even our whole modern system of harmony -has been developed. - -Women were, by ecclesiastical law, excluded from participation -in church music, and as the voices of boys could be used only -for a few years, they did not suffice to meet the ever-increasing -demands of church music. At first it was attempted to supply -the place of the sopranists and contraltists with so-called -falsettists. As, however, these substitutes proved insufficient, -the soprano and contralto of boys were sought to be preserved in -men. And so, in 1625, appeared the first male sopranist in the -Papal chapel in Rome. Such sopranists and contraltists soon -appeared in great numbers, and as their organs of singing -continued soft and tender as those of women, and their compass -was the same, to them the education of female voices was given -over exclusively. Thenceforth women became the richest ornament -of the opera, then blooming into beauty. But only when the -ecclesiastical law forbidding women to take part in church music -was annulled, did women begin, in the middle of the last century, -to take the place of those male sopranists and contraltists. - -It thus became unnecessary to secure longer duration to the -voices of boys, especially as these were never able to attain -to the peculiar grace of the female voice, and so this class -of singers gradually died out. But still in the first half of -the present century there were many of them living and sought -for as teachers of singing. _To the disappearance of this -kind of singers, Rossini thinks the decline of vocal art is -to be mainly ascribed._ - -The art of singing rose in the course of the seventeenth century to -an extraordinary height of cultivation, and was diffused more and -more by means of the opera, then blooming, as we have said, into -beauty. But in that brilliant springtime of vocal art, it was not -mere externals, such as beauty of tone, flexibility, etc., that were -striven for, but, above all, the correct expression of the feeling -intended in the composition. This rendered necessary to the singer -the most thorough æsthetic culture, going hand in hand with the -culture of the vocal organ. For only thus could he succeed in acting -upon the souls of his hearers, in moving them and carrying them along -with him in the emotions which the music awakened in his own mind. -The dramatic singer was now strongly tempted to neglect the externals -of his art for the æsthetic, purely inward conception of the music. -Certain, at least, it is that to the neglect of the training of the -voice (_Tonbildung_), and to the style of writing of our modern -composers--a style unsuited to the art of singing, and looking only -to its spiritual element--the decline of this art is in part to be -traced. _Mannstein_ says that, with the disappearance of those great -masters, power and beauty of tone have fallen more and more into -contempt, and at the present day it is scarcely known what is meant -by them. True it is, that a beautiful tone of voice (_Gesangston_), -which must be considered the foundation and first requisition of fine -singing, is more and more rare among our singers, male and female, -and yet it is just as important in music as perfect form in the -creations of the sculptor. - -But the complete technical education of the earlier singers -misled many of them into various unnatural artifices, in order -to obtain notice and distinction. The applause of the public -caused such trickeries to become the fashion among artists. The -multitude, accustomed to such effects, began to mistake them -for art. By the gradual disappearance of the male sopranists, -instruction in singing fell into the hands of tenor singers, -who usually cultivated the female voice in accordance with -their own voices, which could not be otherwise than injurious -in the uncertainty existing as to the limits in compass and the -difference between the male and female organs of voice. - -Thus it has come to pass that people are now apt to imagine that -they know all that is to be known; and as teaching in singing is -generally best paid, the office has been undertaken, without the -slightest apparent self-distrust, by many persons who have not the -slightest idea what thorough acquaintance with the organs of -singing, what comprehensive knowledge of all the departments of -music and what æsthetic and general culture, the teacher of singing -requires. Very few persons indeed clearly understand what is meant -by the education of a voice, and what high qualifications both -teacher and pupil always require. The idea, for instance, is very -prevalent that every musician, whatever may be the branch of music -to which he is devoted, and especially every singer, is qualified to -give instruction in singing. And therefore a dilettanteism without -precedent has taken the place of all real artistic endeavors. Be -this, however, as it may, such is the wide diffusion and popularity -of music beyond all the other arts, that the want of singers -artistically educated, and consequently also of a recognized sound -method of instruction, becomes more and more urgent; and although we -have in these times distinguished singers, male and female, as well -as skilful teachers, yet the number is very small and by no means -equal to the demand. - -But now, as every evil, as soon as it is felt to be such, calls -forth the means of its removal, already in various ways attempts -are making in the department of the Art of Singing to restore it as -perfectly as possible to its former high position, and if possible -to elevate it to a yet higher state. It was natural that the attempt -should, first of all, be made to revive the old Italian method of -instruction, and that, by strict adherence in everything to what has -come down to us by tradition, we should hope for deliverance and -salvation; for to the Italians mainly vocal music was indebted for -its chief glory. Without considering in what a sadly superficial way -music--and vocal music especially--is now treated in Italy, many -have given in to the erroneous idea that any Italian who can sing -anything must know how to educate a voice. Thus many incompetent -Italians have become popular teachers in other countries. - -The old Italian method of instruction, to which vocal music -owed its high condition, was purely _empirical_, i.e., the -old singing masters taught only according to a sound and just -feeling for the beautiful, guided by that faculty of acute -observation, which enabled them to distinguish what belongs to -nature. Their pupils learned by imitation, as children learn -their mother tongue, without troubling themselves about rules. -But after the true and natural way has once been forsaken, and -for so long a period only the false and the unnatural has been -heard and taught, it seems almost impossible by empiricism -alone to restore the old and proper method of teaching. With -our higher degree of culture, men and things have greatly -changed. Our feeling is no longer sufficiently simple and -natural to distinguish the true without the help of scientific -principles. - -But science has already done much to assist the formation of musical -forms of art. Mathematics and physics have established the principal -laws of sound and the processes of sound, in accordance with which -our musical instruments are now constructed. Philosophical inquirers -have succeeded also in discovering the eternal and impregnable laws -of Nature upon which the mutual influences of melody, harmony and -rhythm depend, and in thus giving to composition fixed forms and -laws which no one ventures to question. And more recently Professor -Helmholtz, in his great work, "Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen," -has given to music of all kinds a scientific ground and basis. -But for the culture of the human voice in singing science has as -yet furnished only a few lights. The well-known experiments of -_Johannes Müller_ upon the larynx gave us all that was known, -until very recently, respecting the functions of the organ of -singing. Many singing masters have sought to found their methods -of instruction upon these observations on the larynx, at the same -time putting forth the boldest conjectures in regard to the functions -of the organ of singing in the living subject. But they have thus -ruined more fine voices than those teachers who, without reference -to the formation of the voice, only correct the musical faults of -their pupils, and for the rest let them sing as they please. - -This superficial treatment of science, and the unfortunate results -of its application, have injured the art of singing more than -benefited it, and created a prejudice against all scientific -investigations in this direction among the most distinguished -artists and teachers, as well as among those who take an intelligent -interest in this department of music. It is a pretty common opinion -that science can do little for the improvement of music, and nothing -for the culture and preservation of the voice in singing. And the -habit of regarding science and art as opposed to each other renders -it extremely difficult to secure a hearing for the results of -thorough scientific inquiry in this direction. - -Science itself admits that it can neither create artistic -talent, nor supply the place of it, but only furnish it with -aids. Besides, with the whole inner nature of music, no forms -of thought (_reflection_) have anything to do. It has "a -reason above reason." This art transmits to us in sound the -expression of emotions as they rise in the human soul and -connect themselves one with another. It is the revelation of -our inmost life in its tenderest and finest processes, and is -therefore the most ideal of the arts. It appeals directly to -our consciousness. As a sense of the divine dwells in every -nation, in every human being, and is impelled to form for -itself a religious cultus, so we find among all nations the -need of music dwelling as deeply in human nature. The most -uncivilized tribes celebrate their festivals with songs as -the expression of their devotion or joy, and the cultivated -nations of ancient times, like the Greeks, cherished music as -the ethereal vehicle of their poetry, and regarded it as the -chief aid in the culture of the soul. - -But together with its purely internal character, music has yet -another and formal side, for if our art consisted only in the -æsthetic feeling, and in representing this feeling, every person -of culture, possessing the right feeling, would be able to sing, -just as he understands how to read intelligibly. - -Everything spiritual, everything ideal, as soon as it is to -be made present to the perceptions of others, requires a form -which, in its material as well as in its structure, may be -more or less perfect, but it can never otherwise than submit -to those eternal laws to which all that lives, all that comes -within the sphere of our perceptions, is subject. To discover -and establish the natural laws which lie at the basis of all -our forms of art is the office of science; to fashion and -control these forms and animate them with a soul is the task -of art. In singing, the art consists in tones beautiful and -sonorous, and fitted for the expression of every variation of -feeling. To set forth the natural laws by which these tones -are produced is the business of physiology and physics. - -Thus is there not only an _æsthetical_ side to the art of singing, -but a _physiological_ and a _physical_ side also, without an exact -knowledge, appreciation, observance, and study of which, what is -hurtful cannot be discerned and avoided; and no true culture of -art, and consequently no progress in singing, is possible. - -In the _physiological_ view of vocal art, we have to do with -the quality and strength of the organ of singing in the act -of uttering sound, and under the variations of sound that -take place in certain tones (the register being transcended). - -By the _physical_ side is to be understood the correct use and -skilful management of the air flowing from the lungs through -the windpipe, and brought into vibration by the vocal chords -in the larynx. - -But the _æsthetics_ of vocal art, and the spiritual inspiration -of the form (of the sound), comprise the whole domain of music -and poetic beauty. - - [1] Those who are interested in the history of music are - referred to the historical works already mentioned for - a fuller account of what is only alluded to above. - - - - -II - -PHYSIOLOGICAL VIEW - -FORMATION OF SOUND BY THE ORGAN OF THE HUMAN VOICE - - -The great physiologist, Johannes Müller, fastened a larynx, which he -had cut out with the whole trachea belonging to it, to a board, and, -stretching the vocal chords by a weight that could be increased or -diminished at pleasure, caused vibrations in it by blowing through -the trachea with a pair of bellows, or through a tube with his own -breath. In this way he succeeded in producing almost all the tones -of the human voice, and even some which are beyond the compass of -this organ. - -He distinguished two different kinds of tones, to which he gave -the names of the chest register and the falsetto register. The -chest tones were produced when the vocal ligaments, slackly -stretched, were made to vibrate easily in their whole breadth; -the falsetto tones came merely through the vibration of the fine -inner edges of the vocal chords when they were more tightly -stretched. At a moderate stretching of the vocal chords, it -depended upon the manner of blowing whether a sound corresponding -to the chest voice or to the falsetto were produced, or whether -it were higher or lower for several tones, often for a whole -octave. A series of tones of more than two octaves could thus be -produced in the same larynx, with, however, gaps and places at -which the vocal chords, instead of being stretched gradually, -have to be _stretched at once very strongly, in order that the -succeeding higher half tone may be reached_. Such a place Müller -indicates from c2 to c-sharp2, or d2 to d-sharp2, with the remark -that it differs in different larynxes, being in some higher and -in some lower. But in order to render practicable the proper -stretching of the exsected larynx, muscles and membranes have to -be cut, which sufficiently proves that the functions of the organ -of singing in the living must be differently carried on. - -_Dr. Merkel_, in Leipzig, has continued these experiments, and -by means of a peculiar contrivance has succeeded in producing -all the tones in the exsected larynx, without mutilating it. -But these investigations, interesting as they are, throw no -certain light upon the formation of sound by the vocal organ -in the living. - -The celebrated singing master, _Manuel Garcia_, now living in -London, was the first to adopt the right mode of scientific -inquiry in this department, with favorable results. He undertook -to apply the laryngoscope (previously invented by the Englishman, -_Liston_) to the larynx in the act of singing. The interesting -results of these observations were published by him in the -Philosophical Mag. and Journal of Science, vol. x. p. 218. While -men of science immediately repeated Garcia's experiments and -applied them with the greatest advantage to pathological purposes, -they were received with distrust, scarcely noticed, and in many -instances entirely rejected, by teachers of vocal music. The few -who attempted to follow the path thus opened soon gave it up, -because they lacked either patience or the anatomical knowledge -necessary to such investigations. - -The laryngoscope is well known among medical men. It is a small -plane mirror of glass or metal, having a long handle. Before it -is introduced into the throat, it is first warmed, to prevent -its becoming dimmed. The reflecting surface of this instrument -is directed downwards and forwards, so that it receives the -reflection caught from a concave mirror, and presents to the -eye of the observer a picture of the illuminated larynx. In -using it upon oneself, there is need of a second mirror, which -must be so held that the image may be seen in the laryngoscope. - -The use of the laryngoscope requires in the observer a certain -adroitness and long-continued practice--almost more in the -observer than in the subject of observation. In self-observation -one must first learn to overcome the irritation always caused -at the first by the contact of the mirror with the back of the -throat. Once accustomed to the contact, one soon succeeds in -obtaining a sight of the larynx, sufficient for the most part -for pathological purposes. But it requires long practice before -one can control those organs, usually not immediately submissive -to the will, and raise the epiglottis, so as to be able to see -into the whole larynx. But this is absolutely indispensable, in -the observation of the formation of sound, to the attainment of -any substantial results. Garcia says himself that _one-third -of the glottis_ was always _hidden_ from him by the epiglottis, -and to this circumstance is the unsatisfactory character of his -observations to be ascribed. But even when, after long practice, -one is able at last to bring the whole glottis into view, this -is not by any means enough. Not until observation has been so -long continued that all the movements of the vocal organ are -normal, notwithstanding the unnatural drawing back of the -epiglottis, and not until the process that goes on is found -again and again to be always the same, can it be recognized -as fact. - -As Garcia is the most eminent of singing masters now living, -and as he has sought, solely in the interest of vocal music, -to ascertain the mechanism by which sound is formed, and as -his observations have been confirmed by men of science, I -give them here in his own words. - -In order that what follows may be better understood by those -unacquainted with anatomy, a brief anatomical description of -the vocal organ will be found in an Appendix to the present -work. - - -OBSERVATIONS WITH THE LARYNGOSCOPE - -BY MANUEL GARCIA - -"At the moment when the person draws a deep breath, the -epiglottis being raised, we are able to see the following -series of movements: the arytenoid cartilages become separated -by a very free lateral movement; the superior ligaments are -placed against the ventricles; the inferior ligaments are also -drawn back, though in a less degree, into the same cavities; -and the glottis, large and wide open, is exhibited, so as to -show in part the rings of the trachea. But, unfortunately, -however dexterous we may be in disposing these organs, and even -when we are most successful, at least _the third part of the -anterior of the glottis remains concealed by the epiglottis_. - -"As soon as we prepare to produce a sound, the arytenoid -cartilages approach each other, and press together by their -interior surfaces, and by their anterior apophyses, without -leaving any space, or inter-cartilaginous glottis; sometimes, -even, they come in contact so closely as to cross each other by -the tubercles of Santorini. To this movement of the anterior -apophyses that of the ligaments of the glottis corresponds, -which detach themselves from the ventricles, come in contact -with different degrees of energy, and show themselves at -the bottom of the larynx, under the form of an ellipse of -a yellowish color. The superior ligaments, together with the -aryteno-epiglottidean folds, assist to form the tube which -surmounts the glottis; and being the lower and free extremity -of that tube, enframe the ellipse, the surface of which they -enlarge or diminish according as they enter more or less into -the ventricles. These last scarcely retain a trace of their -opening. By anticipation, we might say of these cavities that, -as will afterwards appear clearly enough in these pages, they -only afford to the two pair of ligaments a space in which they -may easily range themselves. When the aryteno-epiglottidean -folds contract, they lower the epiglottis and make the superior -orifice of the larynx considerably narrower. - -"The meeting of the lips of the glottis, naturally proceeding -from the front towards the back, if this movement is well -managed, will allow, between the apophyses, _of the formation -of a triangular space or inter-cartilaginous glottis_, but one -which, however, is closed as soon as the sounds are produced. - -"After some essays we perceive that this internal disposition -of the larynx is only visible when the epiglottis remains -raised. But neither all the registers of the voice, nor all the -degrees of intensity, are equally fitted for its taking this -position. We soon discover that the brilliant and powerful -sounds of the chest register contract the cavity of the larynx, -and close still more its orifice; and, on the contrary, that -veiled notes, and notes of moderate power, open both, so as to -render any observation easy. The falsetto register especially -possesses this prerogative, as well as the first notes of the -head voice. So as to render these facts more precise, we will -study in the voice of the tenor the ascending progression of -the chest register, and in the soprano that of the falsetto and -head registers. - - -EMISSION OF THE CHEST VOICE - -"If we emit veiled and feeble sounds, the larynx opens at the -notes do re me (c d e), and we see the glottis agitated by -large and loose vibrations throughout its entire extent. Its -lips comprehend in their length the anterior apophyses of the -arytenoid cartilages and the vocal chords; but, I repeat it, -there remains no triangular space. - -"As the sounds ascend, the apophyses, which are slightly -rounded on their internal side, by a gradual apposition -commencing at the back encroach on the length of the glottis, -and as soon as we reach the sounds si do (b c1) they finish by -touching each other throughout their whole extent; but their -summits are only solidly fixed one against the other at the -notes do re (c-sharp1 d1). In some organs these summits are -a little vacillating when they form the posterior end of the -glottis, and two or three half-tones which are formed show -a certain want of purity and strength, which is very well -known to singers. From do re (c-sharp1 d1) the vibrations, -having become rounder and purer, are accomplished by _the -vocal ligaments alone_, up to the end of the register. - -"The glottis at this moment presents the aspect of a line -slightly swelled towards its middle, the length of which -diminishes still more as the voice ascends. We also see that -the cavity of the larynx has become very small, and that the -superior ligaments have contracted the extent of the ellipse -to less than one-half. - -"Thus the organs act with a double difference: 1. The cavity of -the larynx contracts itself more when the voice is intense than -when it is feeble. 2. The superior ligaments are contracted, so -as to reduce the small diameter of the ellipse to a width of two -or three lines. But however powerful these contractions may be, -neither the cartilages of Wrisberg, nor the superior ligaments -themselves, ever close sufficiently to prevent the passage of -the air, or even to render it difficult. This fact, which is -verified also with regard to the falsetto and head registers, -suffices to prove that the superior ligaments do not fill a -generative part in the formation of the voice. We may draw the -same conclusion by considering the position occupied by the -somewhat feeble muscles which correspond to these ligaments; -they cover externally the extremity of the diverging fibres of -the thyro-arytenoid muscles, and take part especially in the -contractions of the cavity of the larynx during the formation -of the high notes of the chest and head registers. - - -PRODUCTION OF THE FALSETTO - -"The low notes of the falsetto show the glottis infinitely -better than the unisons of the chest voice, and produce -vibrations more extended and more distinct. Its vibrating -sides, formed by the anterior apophyses of the arytenoid -cartilages and by the ligaments, become gradually shorter as -the voice ascends; at the notes la si (a1 b1) the apophyses -take part only at their summits; and in these notes there -results a weakness similar to that which we have remarked in -the chest notes an octave below. At the notes do re (c-sharp2 -d2), the ligaments alone continue to act; then begins the -series of notes called the _head voice_. The moment in which -the action of the apophyses ceases exhibits in the female -voice a very sensible difference to the ear and in the organ -itself. Lastly, we verify that up to the highest sounds of -the register the glottis continues to diminish in length and -in width. - -"If we compare the two registers in these movements, we shall -find some analogies in them; the sides of the glottis formed -at first by the apophyses and the ligaments become shorter -by degrees, and end by consisting only of the ligaments. The -chest register is divided into two parts, corresponding to -these two states of the glottis. The register of falsetto-head -presents a complete similarity, and in a still more striking -manner. - -"On other points, on the contrary, these same registers are -very unlike. The length of the glottis necessary to form -a falsetto note always exceeds that which produces the unison -of the chest. The movements which agitate the sides of the -glottis are also augmented, and keep the vibrating orifice -continually half opened, which naturally produces a great -waste of air. A last trait of difference is in the increased -extent of that elliptic surface. - -"All these circumstances show in the mechanism of the falsetto -a state of relaxation which we do not find in the same degree -in the chest register. - - -MANNER IN WHICH THE SOUNDS ARE FORMED - -"As we have just seen--and what we have seen proves it--the -inferior ligaments at the bottom of the larynx form exclusively -the voice, whatever may be its register or its intensity; for -they alone vibrate at the bottom of the larynx.... By the -compressions and expansions of the air, or the successive -and regular explosions which it produces in passing through -the glottis, sound is produced." (The London, Edinburgh and -Dublin Phil. Mag. and Journal of Science, vol. x. 4th Series, -pp. 218-221, 1855.) - - * * * * * - -Garcia proceeds, in the same paper, to give an elaborate account -of his theory of the compression, expansion and explosion of -the air in expiration, together with his conjectures as to the -action of the muscles of the larynx in relation to the different -registers. I omit both here, for, since this publication of -Garcia's, the movements of the breath generating sound in -expiration have been thoroughly investigated and determined by -Prof. Helmholtz; and in the physical section of the present work -all may be found that is of value in the culture of the singing -voice. Whatever can be definitely communicated in regard to the -working of the muscles of the larynx may likewise be found in -any anatomical work. An acquaintance, however, with the action -of these muscles is not directly necessary to our purpose, and -is of interest only to the physiologist. - -It is not to be denied that Garcia's observations do not, by -any means, lead to satisfactory conclusions as to the functions -of the vocal organ. He has, as we shall see in the sequel, -attached special importance to much that is unessential and -abnormal, and the main facts, the elucidation of which is -particularly needed, he has scarcely mentioned. Thus he tells -us nothing of that series of tones which he calls the head -register. The transition also of the registers he has not -carefully examined and observed in different voices: the chest -register in the male and the falsetto of the female voice. - -Nevertheless, these investigations possess much that is valuable, -and are of special value to the art of singing, because they teach -a method hitherto unknown of observing the larynx, by which sure -and satisfactory results are reached. And when an acquaintance -with these results comes to be universally diffused, and the art -of singing is thereby led into the right direction, we shall owe -it most especially to the excellent experimental observations of -Garcia. - -Garcia has accepted the division made by Müller, and universally -adopted in science, of the chest, falsetto and head registers. -I employ the same distinctions--a fact which it seems worth -while to mention, simply because every teacher and school have -their own terminology, and instead of falsetto we have _fistel_, -_throat_, and _middle_ or _neck_ voice, &c. These denominations -of the same registers have thus far only increased the obscurity -prevailing in the art of singing. - - -MY OWN OBSERVATIONS WITH THE LARYNGOSCOPE - -In giving an account of my own observations with the laryngoscope, -I premise that laryngoscopy has of late attracted much attention -among the learned, and that _Czermak_, _Turk_, _Merkel_, _Lewin_, -_Bataille_, &c., have published a series of valuable observations, -all of which, however, with the exception of Bataille's, were made -in the interest of science, for pathological purposes especially. -My aim, in the employment of the laryngoscope, has been directed -exclusively to the discovery of the natural limits of the different -registers of the human voice; and although I have thus been able -to observe many other interesting processes, it would not at all -accord with the design of this book to communicate observations -which have no direct relation to the culture of the voice in -singing, and which come better from men of science than from -a teacher of vocal music. - -In using the laryngoscope while the breath is quietly drawn, -I saw, as Garcia did, the whole larynx wide open, so that one -could easily introduce a finger into it, and the rings of the -trachea were plainly visible. - - [Illustration of the above.] - - a. Arytenoid cartilages. - b. Epiglottis. - c. Trachea.[2] - d. Vocal chords. - -When those who had become accustomed to the introduction of -the instrument sang, at my request, _a_, as pronounced in the -English word _man_, in a deep tone, the epiglottis rose, the -tongue formed a cavity from within forwards, and thus rendered -it easy to see into the larynx. So soon as the _a_, as in -_father_, was sung, the cover quickly fell, the tongue rose, -and prevented all observation of the organ of singing. The -other vowels are still less favorable to observation, because -they do not admit of any such wide opening of the mouth. -Strong tones also are unfavorable to observation, as Garcia -also remarked; and this is very natural, because strong and -sonorous tones require greater exertions of the singing organ, -and, above all things, the right position of those parts of -the larynx and mouth which serve as a resonance apparatus in -the formation of sound. In order to be able to see perfectly -the whole glottis, all this resonance apparatus must be drawn -back as far as possible, and the rim of the larynx must be -tolerably flat. Thus only faint and weak sounds are favorable -to observation. - - -THE CHEST REGISTER - -When the vowel _a_, as in _man_, was sung, I could, after -long-continued practice, plainly see how the arytenoid cartilages -quickly rose with their summits in their mucous membranous case -and approached to mutual contact. In like manner, the _chordæ -vocales_, or inferior vocal chords, approached each other so -closely that scarcely any space between them was observable. -The superior or false vocal ligaments formed the ellipse -described by Garcia in the upper part of the glottis. - - [Representation in the mirror of the vocal organ - in giving out sound.] - - a. Superior or false vocal ligaments, or chords. - b. Epiglottis. - c. Inferior or true vocal ligaments. - d. Arytenoid cartilages. - e. Capitula Santorini. - -When, in using the laryngoscope upon myself, I slowly sang the -ascending scale, this movement of the vocal chords and arytenoid -cartilages was repeated at every tone. They separated and appeared -to retreat, in order to close again anew, and to rise somewhat -more than before. This movement of the arytenoid cartilages may -best be compared to that of a pair of scissors. With every higher -tone the vocal ligaments seemed more stretched and the glottis -somewhat shorter.--[The glottis is a term applied to the space -occupied by the vocal chords (the lips of the glottis): when -separated, we say the glottis is open, when they touch, that -it is closed.]--At the same time, when I sang the scale upward, -beginning with the lowest tones, the vocal ligaments seemed to be -moved in their whole length and breadth by large, loose vibrations, -which extended even to all the rest of the interior of the larynx. - -The place at which the arytenoid cartilages, almost closed -together, cease their action and leave the formation of the -sound to the vocal ligaments alone, I found in the entire -vibration of the glottis, or in the chest register of the female -voice, at do do-sharp (c1 c-sharp1), more rarely at si (b). In -the chest register of the male voice this change occurs at la -si-flat (a b-flat). With some effort the above-mentioned action -of the arytenoid cartilages may be continued several tones -higher. But such tones, especially in the female voice, have -that rough and common timbre which we are too often compelled to -hear in our female singers. The glottis also, in this case, as -well as the parts of the larynx near the glottis, betrays the -effort very plainly; as the tones ascend, they grow more and -more red. _Thus, as at this place in the chest register there -occurs a visible and sensible straining of the organs, so also -is it in all the remaining transitions, as soon as the attempt -is made to extend the action by which the lower tones are formed -beyond the given limits of the same._ These transitions, which -cannot be extended without effort, coincide perfectly with the -places where _J. Müller_ had to _stretch_ the ligaments of his -exsected larynx so powerfully in order to reach the succeeding -half-tone. Garcia likewise finds tones thus formed disagreeable -and imperfect in sound (_klanglos_). - -Usually, therefore, at the note do-sharp (c-sharp1) in the -female voice, and la si-flat (a b-flat) in the male voice, -the vocal ligaments alone act in forming the sound, and -throughout the register are moved by large, loose, full -vibrations (_Totalschwingungen_). But the instant the vocal -ligaments are deprived of the assistance of the arytenoid -cartilages, they relax and appear longer than at the last -tone produced by that aid. But with every higher tone they -appear again to be stretched shorter and more powerfully up -to fa fa-sharp (f1 f-sharp1), the natural transition of both -the chest and falsetto registers, as well in the _male_ as in -the _female_. The larynx is perceptibly lower in all the -tones of the chest register than in quiet breathing. - - -THE FALSETTO REGISTER - -All the tones of the falsetto register are produced by vibrations -only of the fine, inner, slender edges of the vocal ligaments. -In this action the vocal ligaments are not so near together, -but allow of a fine linear space between them, and the superior -ligaments are pressed farther back than in the production of -the tones of the chest register. The rest of the action of the -glottis is, however, entirely the same. With the beginning of -the falsetto register at fa-sharp (f-sharp1), the whole glottis -appears again longer, and the vocal ligaments are much looser -than in the highest tones of the chest register. The united -action, already described, of the arytenoid cartilages and the -ligaments in forming the deeper tones of the chest register, -extends to do do-sharp (c2 c-sharp2) in the female voice, and -in the male voice to mi-flat mi (e-flat2 e2) commonly written -thus: mi-flat mi (e-flat3 e3) but which only rarely occurs in -composition, and then is sung by tenorists as I have given it; -that is, one octave lower. - -With the do-sharp (c-sharp2) in the female voice and the mi-flat -mi (e-flat2 e2) in the male voice, the arytenoid cartilages cease -again to act, and as before, at the second higher series of tones -of the chest register, leave the formation of the sounds to the -vocal ligaments alone, which at this change appear again longer -and looser, but with every higher tone tighten up to fa fa-sharp -(f2 f-sharp2) in the female voice, and in the male voice to sol -(g2), or as it is commonly written: g3. In the falsetto register -the larynx preserves its natural position, as in quiet breathing. - - -THE HEAD REGISTER - -When in the observation of the falsetto register I had sung -upwards to its highest tones, and then sang still higher, I -became aware with the fa-sharp (f-sharp2) of a change in the -motions of the organ of singing, and the tones thus produced had -a different timbre from the falsetto tones. It required long and -patient practice before I finally succeeded in drawing back the -epiglottis so that I could see the glottis in its whole length. -Not until then was I able to observe the following: - -With the fa-sharp (f-sharp2), the vocal ligaments suddenly -closed firmly together to their middle, with their fine edges -one over the other. - - [Representation in the mirror of the organ of singing - in the formation of head tones.] - - a. The closing together of the vocal ligaments. - b. Open part of the glottis. - - The oval opening of the anterior portion of the glottis is - imperfectly shown, because it is hidden from view by the - epiglottis at the extreme end. - -This closing appeared as a fine red line extending from the -arytenoid cartilages at the back forward to the middle of the -vocal ligaments, and leaving free only a third part of the -whole glottis, immediately under the epiglottis, to the front -wall of the larynx. - -The foremost part of the glottis formed an oval orifice, -which, with each higher tone, seemed to contract more and -more, and so became smaller and rounder. The fine edges of -the vocal ligaments which formed this orifice were alone -vibrating, and the vibrations seemed at first looser, but, -with every higher tone, the ligaments were more stretched. -The larynx remained in its natural state. - -Only after I had frequently repeated this observation of the -head tones in myself and in others, and had always arrived at -the same results, did I venture to publish it. The most various -conjectures respecting the formation of the head voice had been -previously proposed by the learned, and the existence, even, of -the head voice had been denied by _Bataille_. It would lead us -too far away to make mention here of all these different views, -which, with the exception of those of _Dr. Merkel of Leipzig_, -showed themselves to be really without a sound foundation. - -It was objected to the results of my observations, that such an -action of the glottis "was only possible by means of cartilages -and muscles, but that such cartilages and muscles as could render -an action of that kind possible were not known, nor was there any -reference to them to be found in any manual of anatomy." While -I fully admitted the soundness of this objection, I was, after -repeated observations, more and more convinced of the correctness -of my own statements. But as I found nothing to support them in -any anatomical work, either German or French, I began anew to -study the anatomy of the larynx in dissected subjects. - -My renewed efforts were rewarded by the discovery, within the -membranes of the vocal ligaments, of those filaments or fibres -of muscle which in the anatomical Appendix to this book I -mention as _arytenoid-thyroid interna_, and which have also -been found by other observers. They are found in all larynxes, -and consist of muscular fibres, sometimes finer, sometimes -thicker.[3] - -At the same time I satisfied myself of the existence of a -pair of cartilages--the cuneiform cartilages described in the -Appendix. I found these always in the female larynx, but only -now and then in the male. As these cartilages, also found -within the membranes of the vocal ligaments and reaching from -their junction with the arytenoid cartilages to the middle of -the ligaments, are only now and then fully formed in the male -larynx, but undeniably work the shutting part of the glottis, -it follows plainly that only a few male voices are capable of -producing the head tones. - -But observation with the microscope revealed in those larynxes -in which the cuneiform cartilages were wanting, parts of a -cartilaginous mass, or the rudiments of a cartilage, in the -place indicated. - -For anatomical investigations the male larynx is commonly used, -its muscles being more powerful and its cartilages firmer than in -the female larynx, and this explains why anatomists in Germany -have been reluctant to admit the existence of the cuneiform -cartilages. It was, therefore, a great satisfaction to me to find -them described under the name of cuneiform cartilages in Wilson's -Human Anatomy, with the remark that they are sometimes wanting.[4] - -The head register possesses a very great capacity of expansion, -which, without the slightest straining, may be gradually extended, -with some practice, a whole octave, and often even still farther -upwards. When the transition is made from the highest tones of the -falsetto register to the head register, there is experienced the -same sense of relief in the organs of singing as in passing from -the chest to the falsetto register. And this is very easy to be -understood, because the ligaments by this repeated partial closure -of the glottis are much less stretched than in the highest tones -of the preceding lower register. The difference in sound between -the highest tones of the falsetto and head registers is often -slight, on which account these two registers, so different in -their mechanism, are easily confounded. Only in entirely healthy -vocal organs can the head tones be observed. A too great secretion -of mucus, or any inflammation of the mucous membrane, embarrasses -the formation of head and falsetto tones, while the vibrations of -the fine edges of the vocal ligaments are thereby obstructed. The -character of the vocal organ fully explains why in the case of -sick or of worn-out voices it is always the high tones that are -first lost. When I have observed, in the sick, irritation of the -mucous membrane, I have often found the oval orifice which is -formed in the production of the head tones entirely covered with -mucus. In my own case, when by repeated effort this bubble of -mucus broke, instead of the a2, which I meant to be sounded, -there came the a3, an octave higher, which in perfect health -it was never possible for me to reach. I have observed the -same phenomenon sometimes in my pupils. - -When one sings the scale, note by note downwards, one can -sing with the action of the higher register many of the tones -of the lower, without any observable straining of the organ; -indeed, there is a perceptible feeling of relief; only these -tones are not so full as when sung in their natural register. - - -ABNORMAL MOVEMENTS OF THE GLOTTIS - -_Garcia_ states, in his observations, that sometimes when the -rims of the vocal ligaments have come together, there remains -between the arytenoid cartilages a triangular space, which -does not close until the tone is produced. _Czermak_ likewise -describes this process in his pathological investigations, -and also a similar one with the laryngoscope. While, namely, -the arytenoid cartilages seem to be wholly closed, one sees -just before the beginning of the tone the vocal ligaments -standing apart in a square-shaped form, and only closing -together with the tone. At first, before I had attained to -much practice in observation, I often saw these processes -in myself, and later often in others. - -That these accidental forms of the glottis bear no relation to -the generation of sounds, as _Funke_ truly says, is made evident -by an irregularity in the combined action of the muscles of the -larynx, by which the coming together of the arytenoid cartilages -takes place later than that of the ligaments, or that of the -ligaments later than that of the arytenoid cartilages. - -As recently great importance has often been ascribed to these -abnormal movements of the glottis in the generation of sound, -I have felt bound to mention them. - - -RESULTS OF THE FOREGOING OBSERVATIONS - -In consequence of the observations above described, the -following facts may be established: - -I. We have found five different actions of the vocal organ: - -1. _The first series of tones of the chest register_, in -which the whole glottis is moved by large, loose vibrations, -and the arytenoid cartilages with the vocal ligaments are in -action. - -2. _The second series of the chest register_, when the vocal -ligaments alone act, and are likewise moved by large, loose -vibrations. - -3. _The first series of the falsetto register_, where again -the whole glottis, consisting of the arytenoid cartilages and -vocal ligaments, is in action, the very fine interior edges -of the ligaments, however, being alone in vibrating motion. - -4. _The second series of the falsetto register_, the tones -of which are generated by the vibrations of the edges alone -of the vocal ligaments. - -5. _The head register_, in the same manner and by the same -vibrations, and with a partial closing of the vocal ligaments. - -II. We have learned the transitions of the registers, i.e., -those tones where a different action of the vocal organ takes -place; and observation has further taught us that these -_natural limits of the registers cannot be exceeded without -a straining that may be both seen and felt_; that is, that we -may not preserve the action of a lower series for the tones -of a higher. On the other hand, the vocal organs show _no -straining_ when the action of a higher series of tones is -kept for a lower, only the fulness of the tones is thereby -diminished. - -III. We have further seen that _only the transition from the -chest register to the falsetto is in all voices at the same -tones_, the fa fa-sharp (f1 f-sharp1); but, both in men's and -women's voices, the other _transitions of the registers are -different_. As the male larynx is about a third larger than the -female, it is plain that the registers in the male voice have -a greater expansion. The transitions, however, in the tenor, as -in the bass, are at the same tones, and only sometimes a half -tone higher or lower in one voice than in another. The organs of -the man are stronger and harder than those of the woman, and they -are not often capable of producing tones with the vibrations of -the edges of the vocal ligaments (falsetto tones), but the lower -series of tones of the chest register has, in such voices, a much -greater extension downwards. _The difference between the bass and -tenor voices lies in the greater or less ease with which the -tones of the higher or lower registers are sung, and in the -greater fulness and beauty, always connected therewith, of the -higher or lower register, that is, in the timbre of the voice_; -not, as is commonly thought, in the difference of the transitions -of the registers. - -The same is also the case with the female voice; _as well in -the contralto as in the soprano voice the transitions of the -registers are at the same tones_, and the difference of the -voices lies only in the timbre, and in the greater facility -with which the higher or lower tones are produced, and not -in the different compass of the voice. - -The transitions of the registers are: - - - IN THE MALE VOICE - - BASS VOICE - - First series of the chest register: - - C D E F G A B c d e f g a - - Second series: - - b c1 d1 e1 f1 - - TENOR VOICE - - First series of the chest register: - - G A B c d e f g a - - Second series: - - b c1 d1 e1 f1 - - First series of the falsetto: - - g1 a1, &c. - - - IN THE FEMALE VOICE - - First series of the chest register: - - e f g a b c1 - - Second series of the chest register: - - d1 e1 f1 - - First series of the falsetto register: - - g1 a1 b1 c2 - - Second series of the falsetto register: - - d2 e2 f2 - - Head register: - - g2 a2 b2 c3 d3 e3 f3 - -The investigation and discovery of the facts here stated have -been made with the utmost conscientiousness, repeated by men -of science in Germany, and acknowledged as correct. - - -PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THESE OBSERVATIONS TO THE CULTIVATION -OF THE SINGING VOICE - -In teaching the art of singing, it is now-a-days very generally -the custom to endeavor to raise the lower registers as far as -possible toward the higher. This is especially the case with -the tenor voice. It is considered a special advantage in a -tenor voice when it can sing the a1 on the first leger line -(commonly written a2) with the chest register. - -Upwards of a hundred and fifty years ago, when every good -tenor was required to sing a1 with a clear, full chest tone, -this note, according to the orchestra pitch then, was not -higher than a note between f and f-sharp, according to the -present orchestra pitch in England and America. Since that -time the orchestra pitch has everywhere gradually risen so -imperceptibly that this important fact remained unknown to -many singers and teachers, and until recently has been only -rarely noticed. And yet it is precisely this much higher -pitch and the consequent unnatural extension of the limits -of the registers, which is the chief cause why most voices -now-a-days last so little while. - -That the registers may be forced up beyond their limits is -possible, we have seen. But observation teaches us that it cannot -be done without a straining of the organs which may be both seen -and felt, and no organ will bear continued over-straining. It -will gradually be weakened thereby, and become at last wholly -useless. - -This is a simple fact, scientifically established, universally -known. It admits, therefore, of no doubt that the common -custom of forcing the registers beyond their natural bounds -injures voices, and seriously affects their durability. Even -when the organs are so strong that they can bear the unnatural -effort for a considerable length of time, they gain nothing in -grace and timbre. Like every thing else unnatural, it carries -with it its own punishment. Our tenor singers are, for the -most part, only for a few years in full possession of their -voices, while the earlier singers knew how to keep their -voices fine and full to their latest age. - -Not until 1858, when the orchestra pitch in Paris had risen for -a1 to 448 vibrations in a second, and tenors were no longer able -to reach it with the chest register, was general attention turned -to this evil. The Academy at that time fixed the orchestra pitch -at 435 vibrations a second for a1. This pitch is now introduced -almost universally in Germany, and it is a full half note lower -than our usual orchestra pitch in America. The introduction of -the Paris pitch is, however, of no great advantage so long as -singers and teachers keep to the same limits of the registers -that they had at the beginning of the seventeenth century, when -a1 had 404 vibrations in a second, and was about a third lower -than our present a1. Musicians are averse to the introduction of -this old low pitch, as the instruments are no longer accommodated -to it. And besides, it is not at all necessary, if only singers -and teachers would observe it better, and either set their pieces -a third lower, or sing the notes that are difficult to be reached -with a lower register in a natural way and with a higher register. - -The old Italian masters were proud of being able so to educate -the falsetto register of a tenor voice that it was difficult to -distinguish chest tones and falsetto tones from one another, even -for an ear accustomed to observe the finest distinctions of sound. -And this art is by no means so difficult as is supposed, and is -not dependent on the natural strength of the first falsetto tones. -When in the male organ there exists the power of bringing the -edges of the vocal ligaments into vibratory motion, and when these -tones at the beginning, compared with the chest tones of the same -voice, are weak and thin, then they may, with skill and perseverance, -be trained to quite similar fulness. - -That the male voice requires far more time and practice than the -female to effect an imperceptible transition from the chest -register to the falsetto, is unquestionable. And while this -transition is always so very apparent in the man's voice, it is -often scarcely observable to a practiced ear even in uncultivated -female voices. Women, in speaking, always use the second chest and -the first falsetto register, continually passing from one to the -other of these registers without any change in the position of the -mouth or of the resonance apparatus of the voice. They are thus -all their lives long unconsciously practicing this transition, -and because of this equal physical use of the chest and falsetto -notes, the great physiological difference of these two registers -almost entirely disappears. Although men do not use the falsetto -register in speaking, it is not yet proved to be impossible for -the male voice to attain the same results as the female. - -When in the beginning the falsetto tones are sung always -_piano_ and very _staccato_, by long-continued, careful -practice, with entirely the same physical treatment of both -registers, a smooth and natural transition from one to the -other is most easily obtained. Thus the falsetto tones gain -more and more in fulness and strength, and sound far more -agreeably than the forced-up chest tones of our tenorists, -sung with swollen-out throats and blood-red faces. - -The education of men's voices involves many difficulties which -do not exist in the case of the voices of women. Almost all men -speak and sing in one register--tenors mostly in the second -chest register, bassos mostly in the first, and oftentimes -indeed not even in a correct natural manner. With this one -register they sing as high and as low as they can, and this -they consider the whole compass of their voices. The low chest -register is rarely found good and natural (as regards the -beauty of sound). In order for the production of these low -chest tones, to set the vocal chords vibrating in their whole -length and breadth, it is necessary that a fuller column of -air from the lungs should press upon the glottis through the -windpipe, which is readily of itself enlarged thereby. The -easier and the more naturally this takes place, the more -beautifully and naturally do these tones sound. Under the -delusion that only strong singing is beautiful, and that this -can be achieved only by extraordinary exertion, most of our -basso singers have a peculiar way of pressing out the windpipe, -which is not only very fatiguing, but gives to the low tones -a rough, disagreeable sound. Among public speakers also this -exhausting, faulty way of bringing out the chest tones is not -uncommon, frequently rendering their voices quite incapable of -use. _Merkel_ represents this way of forming the low tones as -a peculiar register, which he calls the _Strohbassregister_, -and through him a quite prevalent bad habit has found in other -scientific works a right to existence which by no means belongs -to it. - -The female voice is treated in the same unnatural way. Many -teachers teach their pupils to sing with the lower series of -the chest register as high up as possible, often to the e1 f1, -as far as the organs permit, and then let them begin the -falsetto register. In this way the second series of the chest -register is entirely omitted; but the made tones, as the -expression is, thus obtained, sound very disagreeable and -coarse, and the falsetto tones, which in this way begin lower -than necessary, are on the contrary faint and weak. Of the -falsetto register these teachers commonly require only the -first series, up to d2 e-flat2, to be sung, and then directly -begin the head tones. Thus the second series of the falsetto -is not used; but the tones belonging to it, which are sung -with the first series of the falsetto register, are for the -most part hard and sharp and seldom pure, while the tones of -the head voice, coming in too soon, are thin and unmusical, -and the whole voice thus receives an irregular formation. Many -teachers, again, allow the lower tones of the chest register -to be sung with the higher series of the same, whereby these -tones are naturally never as sweet and strong. Then, too, they -press the first series of the falsetto up to d2 e-flat2, and -thence, as far as it is possible, the voice is to ascend with -the second series of the falsetto, without admitting the head -tones, even in voices with the high soprano timbre. But the -tones thus forced up are for the most part sharp and destitute -of all grace. And it is just this that is one of the commonest -faults of our present mode of singing. - -As it has been customary to cultivate, in the male voice only, -the three lower series, because both of the highest sound sweet -and graceful only from the soft, delicate organs of the female -voice, and as the male voice is rarely capable of compassing -the highest series, the erroneous idea has gradually obtained -prevalence among teachers of singing, that there are only three -different series of tones, and that the female voice has only -two transitions. - -In voices fresh and unvitiated the different series are very -easily distinguished by their different timbre. One hears -this difference of timbre most clearly in the transition of -the second series of the chest register into the falsetto in -the male voice, and in the female voice at the transition of -the first series of the falsetto register into the second. - -As has been observed, the larynx stands lower with the tones of -the chest register than with the tones of the other registers, -or during quiet breathing. - -In order, in the low chest tones, to bring the whole glottis -into full vibration, the air, as it is expired, must press -upon it with a larger volume. From all parts of the lungs -the air, when expired, presses into the windpipe, the rings -of which, widening as much as possible, come somewhat nearer -to each other and draw down the larynx. - -One has thus the sensation as if the whole body took part -in this formation of sound, and as if the lower tones of the -chest register were drawn from the lowest part of the lungs. - -In producing the second series of the chest register, the -sensation is as if the tones came from the upper part of the -chest, midway between the pit of the stomach and the larynx. - -With regard to the tones of the first series of the falsetto, -the feeling is as if they had their origin in the throat. - -In the tones of the second series of the falsetto, we feel as if -the throat had nothing to do with them--as if they were formed -above, in the mouth. - -With the head tones, one has the feeling that they come from -the forehead. - -It is these _physical sensations_ that have given occasion -to many erroneous conjectures in regard to the formation of -tones, but we are satisfied that they have no direct relation -to the generation of sound, and appear so only through the -nerves active in the process. - -By directing the attention of one's pupils to these different -sensations, it is very easy to make them acquainted with the -different registers of the voice--always a very necessary -proceeding in the first training of a voice, although it -seems to be so only in the case of such voices as have been -previously misdirected. - -The culture of the female voice is best begun with the two -series of the falsetto register and the second of the chest -register; the tones of these three middle registers must be -pretty well cultivated before the lowest chest tones and the -head voice are begun to be formed. The voice in this way best -attains to an equal fulness. It is self-evident also that the -teaching should be such that the transitions of the registers -should be not at all or scarcely perceptible, consequently -that all the tones should sound proportionally strong and -full. - -In the soprano voice the falsetto, and in the contralto voice -the chest register, have more fulness and grace, and thus we -may distinguish to which kind of voice a voice belongs, for -the compass of the voice is not always confined within certain -limits. There are contraltos that can sing the high head tones -with ease, and sopranos that can sing the low chest tones with -equal facility--a fact which has often given occasion to an -incorrect treatment of a voice. So also with the male voice. -A bass voice sings the lower series of the chest register with -more ease and sweetness and with more obscure timbre. A tenor -voice sings the second series of the chest register in a -clearer timbre. - -The baritone and mezzo-soprano voices, so called--that is, -such voices as have a limited compass, and cannot sing either -the highest or the lowest tones--are by no means so numerous -as they are thought to be. The best tenor voices, which cannot -naturally reach the lowest bass tones, and whose organs do not -allow of an unnatural forcing up beyond the higher limits of -the chest register, are commonly pronounced baritone voices, -for no one now-a-days thinks of cultivating the falsetto -register of the male voice. - -Few teachers, likewise, understand how to teach correctly the -tones of the head register. If a soprano voice cannot readily -and agreeably sing the low contralto tones, and extend the -falsetto scale far enough upwards beyond its limit, it is -reckoned among the mezzo-soprano voices. The celebrated singing -master _Thomaselli_, of _Padua_, maintained that baritone and -mezzo-soprano voices "had no existence in nature, but were only -the products of our false methods of instruction." - -I have sometimes found mezzo-soprano and baritone voices, -but not in so great number by far as the four chief kinds -of voices--bass, tenor, contralto, and soprano. - -Although an exact knowledge of the vocal organ and its various -actions must be required of a teacher before the education of -a voice can be committed to him, yet it would be unwise to -undertake to teach singing by means of scientific explanations -without sufficient previous knowledge; the pupil would, in -this case, understand as little of what he was about and be as -little helped as a child learning to read would be assisted by -one who merely sought to make intelligible to him the mechanism -by which sound is formed. The most natural and the simplest way -in singing, as in all things else, is the best. Let the teacher -sing correctly every tone to his pupil until the latter knows -how to imitate it, and his ear has learned how to distinguish -the different timbres.[5] - -The discovery of the natural transitions of the registers has -brought to light one of the greatest evils of our present mode -of singing, and shown at the same time how wanting in durability -are the voices of those of our artists whose aim and endeavor it -is to force the registers upward beyond their natural limits. -Although the concert pitch is so very much higher now than it -was in the most flourishing period of the singing art, yet no -regard is paid to this fact in the education of a voice, and our -tenorists try to reach the a1 with the chest register, just as -they did one hundred and fifty years ago. - -In the _ignorance existing concerning the natural transitions -of the registers, and in the unnatural forcing of the voice, is -found a chief cause of the decline of the art of singing. And -the present inability to preserve the voice is the consequence -of a method of teaching unnatural, and therefore imposing too -great a strain upon the voice._[6] - -No one who has not made the art of singing a special study, can -form any idea of the obscure and conflicting views in regard to -the transitions of the registers which prevail among singing -teachers and artists. Almost every teacher has a peculiar theory -of his own in regard to the formation of the voice; every one has -his own views, sometimes extremely fanciful, of the formation of -tones and of the registers--views to which he tenaciously adheres, -summarily rejecting all others. Almost as at the building of the -tower of Babel, one teacher scarcely understands any longer what -another means, and instead of harmonious endeavors to improve the -art, teachers of singing are commonly found disputing among -themselves. - -To bring light and order into such a chaos can only be accomplished -by the most thorough scientific study, and even then it is an -undertaking of the greatest difficulty. Custom stands in the way -as an antagonist, and there must be a conflict with long-cherished -and wide-spread errors and prejudices. It lies also in the nature -of the case that teachers of singing are the most determined -opponents to be encountered. It is very hard for this class, and -it demands of them no common self-denial to acknowledge and renounce -as errors what they have taught for years and held to be truths. -Those teachers, however, who have made the necessary sacrifice, -have been compensated with the richest success; and such, we trust, -will in all cases be the result, and so the path be broken for the -true and the natural. - -It will be perhaps comparatively easy to advance the art of singing -in America; for, as Humboldt says, not entirely without truth, the -Germans require for every improvement two centuries--one to find -out the need of it, and another to make it. - - [2] It must be remarked that the diagrams here given are copies - of _reflected_ images, and therefore the upper side of the - representation shows the front of the larynx, and the lower - the farther side of the larynx. - - [3] In recent works on laryngoscopy they are often described - as continuations or parts of one of the principal muscles - of the larynx. - - [4] In recent French and English works upon laryngoscopy, - the cuneiform cartilages are frequently mentioned, and - sometimes confounded with the cartilages Wrisbergi. - - [5] On this account the male voice should be trained by men - and the female voice by women. For, as it is impossible - for a man to give to a female pupil a correct perception - of the tones of the head register and of the second series - of the falsetto, with its peculiar female timbre, so is it - impossible for a woman to sing and teach correctly the - deep, sonorous chest tones of the male voice. _Frederick - Wiek_, that admirable teacher, who perceives intuitively - what is natural and true in instruction, has an excellent - expedient. In his hours of instruction he avails himself - of the aid of young women with practised voices, who sing - every exercise to his female pupils until the latter are - able to imitate them correctly. - - [6] Voices which by this overstrained and unnatural way of - singing have become worn-out and useless may by correct, - proper treatment recover, even at an advanced age, their - former grace and power; and even those chronic inflammations - of the larynx which are so difficult of treatment may be - cured by a natural and moderate exercise of the voice in - singing. - - - - -III - -PHYSICAL VIEW - -FORMATION OF SOUNDS BY THE VOCAL ORGAN - - -For the artistic culture of the singing voice the knowledge of -the physiological processes during the formation of tones does -not suffice. This knowledge brings us acquainted only with the -instrument, the artistic treatment of which is to be learned. -Having, therefore, in the preceding pages stated the most -important points in the formation of tones, physiologically -considered, we are now to consider more nearly the physical -laws relating to the same, especially as the physical view of -the subject, through the latest investigations and discoveries -of Prof. Helmholtz, in Heidelberg, has so much importance for -music in general. In order, however, to present a clear view -of this branch of our subject, in so far as the recent advances -of science can be practically applied to the improvement of the -art of singing, we must recur to those natural laws which are -doubtless well known to most of our readers. - -In order to bring the external world to our consciousness, we are -provided with various organs of sense; and as the eye is sensible -to the light, the ear is sensible to sound, which comes to our -consciousness either as noise (_Geräusch_) or as tone (_Klang_). -The whistling of the wind, the plashing of water, the rattling of -a wagon are noises, but musical instruments give us tones. When, -however, many untuned instruments sound together, or when all the -keys within an octave are struck on the same time, then it is -a noise that we hear. Tones are therefore more simple and regular -than noises. The ear perceives both by means of the agitation of -the air that surrounds us. In the case of noise the agitation of -the air is an irregularly changing motion. In musical sounds, on -the other hand, there is a movement of the air in a continuously -regular manner, which must be caused by a similar movement in the -body which gives the sound. These so-called periodical movements -of the sound in the body, rising, falling and repeated at equal -intervals, are called vibrations. The length of the interval -elapsing between one movement and the next succeeding repetition -of the same movement is called the duration of vibration -(_Schwingungsdauer_), or period of motion. - - -TONE, AND ITS LAWS OF VIBRATION - -A _tone_ is produced by a periodical motion of the sounding -body--a _noise_ by motions _not_ periodical. We can see and -feel the sounding vibrations of stationary bodies. The eye can -perceive the vibrations of a string, and a person playing on -a clarionet, oboe, or any similar instrument, feels the vibration -of the reed of the mouthpiece. How the movements of the air, -agitated by the vibrations of the stationary body, are felt by -the ear as tone (_Klang_), Helmholtz illustrates by the motion of -waves of water in the following way: Imagine a stone thrown into -perfectly smooth water. Around the point of the surface struck by -the stone there is instantly formed a little ring, which, moving -outwards equally in all directions, spreads to an ever-enlarging -circle. Corresponding to this ring, sound goes out in the air -from an agitated point, and enlarges in all directions as far as -the limits of the atmosphere permit. What goes on in the air is -essentially the same that takes place on the surface of the water; -the chief difference only is that sound spreads out in the spacious -sea of air like a sphere, while the waves on the surface of the -water can extend only like a circle. At the surface the mass -of the water is free to rise upward, where it is compressed and -forms billows, or crests. In the interior of the aerial ocean -the air must be condensed, because it cannot rise. For, "in fact, -the condensation of the sound-wave corresponds to the crest, -while the rarefaction of the sound-wave corresponds to the sinus -of the water-wave."[7] - -The water-waves press continually onwards into the distance, but -the particles of the water move to and fro periodically within -narrow limits. One may easily see these two movements by observing -a small piece of wood floating on water; the wood moves just as the -particles of water in contact with it move. It is not carried along -with the rings of the wave, but is tossed up and down, and at last -remains in the same place where it was at the first. In a similar -way, as the particles of water around the wood are moved by the -ring only in passing, so the waves of sound spread onwards through -new strata of air, while the particles of air, tossed to and fro by -these waves as they pass, are never really moved by them from their -first place. A drop falling upon the surface of the water creates -in it only a single agitation; but when a regular series of drops -falls upon it, every drop produces a ring on the water. Every ring -passes over the surface just like its predecessor, and is followed -by other rings in the same way. In this way there is produced on -the water a regular series of rings ever expanding. As many drops -as fall into the water in a second, so many waves will in a second -strike a floating piece of wood, which will be just so many times -tossed up and down, and thus have a periodical motion, the period -of which corresponds with the interval at which the drops fall. In -like manner a sounding body, periodically moved, produces a similar -periodic movement, first of the air, and then of the drum in the -ear; the duration of the vibrations constituting the movement must -be the same in the ear as in the sounding body. - - -THE PROPERTIES OF TONE (KLANG) - -The sounds produced by such periodic agitations of the air have -three peculiar properties: 1. STRENGTH, 2. PITCH, 3. TIMBRE. - -The strength of the tone depends on the greater or less breadth -of its vibrations, that is, of the waves of sound, the higher or -lower pitch of the tones upon the number of the vibrations; that -is, the tones are always higher the greater the number of the -vibrations, or lower the less the number of the vibrations. -A second is used as the unit of time, and by number of vibrations -is understood the number of vibrations which the sounding body -gives forth in a second of time. The tones used in music lie -between 40 and 4000 vibrations per second, in the extent of seven -octaves. The tones which we can perceive lie between 16 and 38,000 -vibrations to the second, within the compass of eleven octaves. -The later pianos usually go as low as C1 with 33, or even to A2 -with 27-1/2 vibrations; mostly as high as a4 or c5, with 3520 -and 4224 vibrations. The one lined a1, from which all instruments -are tuned, has now usually 440 to 450 vibrations to the second -in England and America. The French Academy, however, has recently -established for the same note 435 vibrations, and this lower -tuning has already been universally introduced in Germany.[8] - -The high octave of a tone has in the same time exactly double -the number of vibrations of the tone itself. Suppose, therefore, -that a tone has 50 vibrations in a second, its octave has 100 -in the same time; i.e., twice as many. The octave above this has -200 vibrations, &c. The Pythagoreans knew this acoustic law of -the ascending tones, and that the octave of a tone had twice as -many vibrations in a second as the tone itself, and that the -fifth above the first octave had three times as many; the second -octave, four times; the major third above the second octave, -five times as many; the fifth of the same octave, six times; the -small seventh of the same octave, seven times. In notation it -would be thus, if we take as the lowest note C, for example: - - 1:C 2:c 3:g 4:c1 5:e1 6:g1 7:b-flat1 8:c2 9:d2 16:c3 32:c4 - -The figures below the lines denote how many times greater the -number of vibrations is than that of the first tone. In the -first octave we find only one tone; in the second, two; in the -third, all the tones of the major chord with the minor seventh. -In the fourth octave we find sixteen tones (which, however, we -divide in our system of music into twelve). Likewise, we find -in the fifth octave thirty-two tones, which number is doubled in -the sixth. Hence, the Greeks had quarter and eighth tones, which -we in our equal-tempered tuning have done away with.[9] - -The production of a higher pitch in a tone rests in all sounding -bodies upon the uniform law which we may observe in the strings -of musical instruments, whose tones ascend either by greater -tension, by shortening, or through a diminution of the density -of the strings. - - -THE TIMBRE (KLANGFARBE) OF TONES - -Strength and pitch were the first two distinctions of different -tones. The third is the timbre. When we hear one and the same -tone sounded successively upon a violin, trumpet, clarionet, -oboe, upon a piano, or by a human voice, &c., although it is of -the same strength and of the same pitch, yet the tone of all -these instruments is different, and we very easily distinguish -the instrument from which it comes. The changes of the timbre -seem to be infinitely manifold; for, not to mention the fact -that we have a multitude of different musical instruments, all -which can give the same tone, letting alone also that different -instruments of the same kind as well as different voices show -certain differences of timbre, the very same tone can be given -upon one and the same instrument, or by one and the same voice, -with manifold differences of timbre.[10] - -As now the strength of the tone is determined by the breadth of the -vibrations, and the pitch by their number, so the varieties of timbre -are ascribed to the different forms of the waves of vibration. For as -the surface of the water is stirred differently by the falling into -it of a stone, by the blowing over it of the wind, or the passing -through it of a ship, &c., so the movements of the air take different -shapes from sounding bodies. The movement proceeding from the string -of a violin over which the bow is drawn, is different from those -movements caused by the hammer of a piano or by a clarionet. - - -OVER-TONES (OBERTÖNE) - -That timbre is dependent on the form of the vibrations is -confirmed by Helmholtz, and acknowledged as so far correct that -every different timbre requires a different vibratory form, but -different forms sometimes correspond to nearly the same timbre. -But how far the different forms of vibration correspond with -different timbres, Helmholtz shows by a fact which has hitherto -escaped the notice of physicists, although it forms the foundation -of all music. We have learned by the stereoscope that we have two -different views of every object, and compose a third view from -those two. _Just so the ear perceives different musical tones -which come to our consciousness only as one tone._ - -It is in general, and especially in the case of the human -voice, very difficult to distinguish these single parts of -tone, because we are accustomed to take the impressions of -the external world without analyzing them, and only with -a view to their use. - -But when we are once convinced of the existence of partial tones -(_Partialtöne_), if we concentrate our attention, we can also -distinguish them. The ear hears, then, not only that tone, the -pitch of which is determined, as we have shown, by the duration -of its vibrations, but a whole series of tones besides, which -Helmholtz names "_the harmonic over-tones_" of the tone, in -opposition to that first tone (fundamental tone) which is the -lowest among them all, generally the strongest also, and according -to the pitch of which we decide the pitch of the tone. The series -of these over-tones is for each musical tone precisely the same; -they are, namely, the tones of the so-called acoustic series, -arising, as already described, from the doubling of the vibrations. -First, the fundamental tone, then its octave with twice as many -vibrations, then the fifth of this octave, &c. - -The different timbre of tones thus depends upon the different -forms of the vibrations, whence arise various relations of the -fundamental tone to the over-tones as they vary in strength. The -most thorough inquiries have led to the following results, of the -first importance in every formation of tone: _that the appropriate -form of the vibratory waves which is the most agreeable to the ear, -as well as the fullest, softest and most beautiful timbre which -corresponds to that form, is produced when the fundamental tone, -and the over-tones following it, so sound that the fundamental tone -and the over-tones sound together, the former most strongly, while -the latter are heard fainter and fainter in the intervals of the -major chord with the minor seventh, so that, with the fundamental -tone, still further sound seven over-tones_. If the higher harmonic -over-tones grow stronger, and even overpower the fundamental tone, -the sound grows shriller, but when the discordant over-tones lying -close together, higher than the tones just named, overpower the -fundamental tone, the timbre becomes sharp and disagreeable. - -But these over-tones are not to be confounded with the earlier -known combination-tones (_Combinationstöne_), which arise from -the sounding together of two consonant intervals, and likewise -have their own over-tones. - -Prof. Helmholtz has by means of his Resonance and Electrical -apparatus invented aids by which the forms of the vibrations can -be perceived as well as the over-tones, and the different degrees -of strength of the latter in relation to one another and to the -fundamental tone can be exactly measured. In attempting by means of -the above-mentioned apparatus to cause the several over-tones to -sound more or less strongly with the fundamental tone, and again -entirely to veil others, it became possible to Prof. Helmholtz to -produce artificially most opposite timbres, as well as all the -vowels of speech. - -Even when, in the culture of a voice, we have advanced so far -that none of the inharmonic but only the harmonic over-tones -sound with the fundamental tone, we shall always find that -every voice has its own peculiar _Klangfarbe_--i.e., its own -characteristic timbre; and it is not possible so to form the -tones of a voice that the over-tones sounding with them shall -diminish proportionally according to their height. Every voice -has one, mostly two, over-tones, which always predominate in -every tone, every register, and give the voice its peculiar -quality. When, with the first octave, the fifth above it -sounds, the voice is full and mellow. A clear, sympathetic, -silvery ring is produced by the sounding of the seventh with -the octave immediately above it. One of the most beautiful -timbres is a result of the prominence of the third with the -seventh, etc. This peculiarity appears to be connected with the -particular form and structure of the cavity of the mouth. That -parts of the cavity of the mouth serve as a sounding-board in -the formation of sound, has already been mentioned.[11] - -The perfection of a tone at a certain pitch depends, in the -resonance of the cavity of the mouth, upon the utterance of -some vowel, to which the parts of the mouth are adjusted; and -this perfection is considerably affected by even a slight -variation in the timbre of the vowel, as it occurs in different -dialects of the same language. On the other hand, the peculiar -tones of the cavity of the mouth are almost wholly independent -of age and sex. The peculiar pitch of the resonance apparatus -has also an influence upon the tone. Every one who knows how -to play on any instrument knows that some of its tones sound -sweeter and are more easily given than others; these are the -tones in which the peculiar tone of the instrument and its -over-tones sound together. To describe more particularly the -natural laws upon which these facts rest would lead us too far -away from our present purpose. - - -THE VOWELS - -Every tone in singing usually takes the sound of some vowel. -By the greater or less distinctness of one or another of the -over-tones, sounding with the fundamental tone, various timbres -of the vowel are produced. But certain vowels in certain parts -of the scale can be sung far more easily and sweetly than -others. The investigation of this fact has taught us that -a tone gains in richness when the tone corresponding to the -vowel belongs to the over-tones of the fundamental tone. In -the human voice, however, the tones favorable to the several -vowels do not admit of being precisely determined. - -In different languages and dialects the vowels have different -shades, and a scarcely perceptible variation, especially in the -clearer vowels, is sufficient to cause the over-tones to be heard -more or less distinctly. After I had learned, with the kind -assistance of Professor Helmholtz, by means of his artificial -apparatus for the sharpening of the ear, to find out over-tones -and to know their peculiarities, I was soon able, without any -artificial help, to discover the vowels favorable to them by the -fuller sound of certain tones. In the female voice all tones below -the c1 take the character of _o_. At the c1, _a_, pronounced as in -the English word _hall_, sounds the best, and at d-sharp1 e1 passes -in to _a_, as in _man_, and at f1 into _a_, as in _may_. With the -g1 the _a_ sounds again as in _man_; a1 b-flat1 b1 c2 are favorable -to all the vowels, while d2 e-flat2 e2 sound best with _e_. After -e2 every tone takes the coloring of _a_, as in _father_, and sounds -well only with this vowel; b-flat2 c3 d3 sound again better with -_e_. As thus, above e2 f2 all the tones take the coloring of _a_ in -_father_, so the tones below c1 take the timbre of _o_, and the -most skilful artists are not able to sing all the vowels in these -tones with equal clearness and purity. The female voice, therefore, -has only a few tones more than an octave, upon which every one of -the vowels can be distinctly sung; and again, all these tones do -not afford an equally sonorous tone with every vowel. - -As unfortunately our Song composers do not always keep this fact -in view, as the old Italians did, and since words with the most -unfavorable vowels often underlie the notes, it as often becomes -necessary to mingle with the unfavorable vowel something of the -sound (_Klang_) of the vowel properly belonging to the note; as, -for example, in the word "ring" upon f2, to sing the _i_ with -a mixture of the sound (_Klang_) of _a_. Artists do this in -a way of which they are for the most part unconscious, and which -is always unobserved by the hearer. That in every voice there -are several tones upon which every vowel sounds well, finds an -explanation in an observation of Professor Helmholtz. The ear is -attuned to a certain tone, designated as e4 f4. To persons with -very susceptible nerves these tones are often insupportable, and -we often see dogs, whose sense of hearing is especially acute, -run howling away when the above e4 is struck upon a violin, -while to other tones they seem wholly insensible. But all the -tones which are accompanied by that tone as an over-tone to -which the ear is attuned, sound harmonious even with unfavorable -vowels. - - -PARTIAL TONES - -But beside the over-tones, which sound with every good, simple -sound, there are other _partial tones_, which, like the long-known -combination tones, do not usually present themselves to our -consciousness. Combination tones were first discovered in 1745 by -the organ-builder, _Sorge_. By an act of concentrated attention -one hears these tones at the accord of two different tones. They -lie always lower than the interval to which they belong, and arise -from the meeting of the nodes of vibration of the tones producing -the interval. The node of vibration is the name of that place -where, after every completed vibration, the sounding body returns -to its former position. When, for instance, we give the third c1 -e1, we hear the c, lying an octave lower than the third, sounding -at the same time as a combination tone. For the tone c1 a string -has two vibrations, while in the same space of time e1 has three. -The vibration node of the c1 will thus, after two vibrations, -coincide with the vibration node of the e1. By the coincidence of -these nodes of vibration is produced the number of vibrations -requisite for the c below. Besides these combination tones there -are summation tones, discovered by Helmholtz, which arise from the -vibrations collectively (_Gesammtzahl_) belonging to the above -interval, and are higher than the interval. Both kinds of partial -tones have again their faint over-tones. - - -BEATS (DIE SCHWEBUNGEN) - -We have explained the movements of the waves of sound by the -movements on the surface of water, and we know that, instead of -the billows and hollows that we have in the water, the air is -condensed and rarefied. We know further that if two different -lines of waves run along with one another, their crests and -hollows fall together, and their crests become as high again and -their hollows as deep again. So two tones from different sources -of sound are twice as strong when they are both equally high, -and a new tone of the same height added to them will still -further increase the sound. But when two agitations of the -surface of the water so move that the crests of one fall into -the hollows of the other, their movements neutralize each other. -The same thing happens in tones when one is not struck until -half the vibrations of the preceding tone are concluded. But if -the sounding bodies vary in only a small part of a vibration -sound, they will be alternately stronger and weaker, and this is -termed beats (_Schwebungen_), which are only produced by tones -_very near to each other_. Those intervals whose combination and -over-tones so fall together that many beats are produced, sound -harsh and disagreeable, and we call them dissonances. - -Those intervals in which few or no beats occur are called -consonances. As the combination or interfering tones, as well -as the beats, have importance and interest only in harmonizing -several voices, in tuning pianos, as well as in composition in -general, and as we have in view in these pages only the culture -of single voices, we cannot further enlarge on these discoveries, -interesting as they are. According to the purpose of this little -work, I introduce only so much of the latest investigations and -discoveries as will help to show the prevailing evils of our mode -of teaching singing, and, by their practical application to the -business of instruction, serve to improve the vocal art. But -whoever has an interest in this branch of science will find in the -invaluable work of Helmholtz, "Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen," -an abundance of most interesting observations and of the most -thoroughly scientific illustrations of the theory of music, and -of those processes in the domain of tone which we have hitherto -always felt, but never understood. - - -APPLICATION OF THE NATURAL LAWS LYING AT THE FOUNDATION OF -MUSICAL SOUNDS TO THE CULTURE OF THE VOICE IN SINGING - -The parts of the human voice that generate tones are the membranous -vocal ligaments or chords, which are subject to the same natural laws -as all sounding bodies; of this we may satisfy ourselves by observing -the different registers of the voice by means of the laryngoscope. The -lower, stronger tones of both series of the chest register show the -ligaments in full vibration, and becoming more strongly stretched with -every higher tone. In the second series the glottis appears, by the -inaction of the arytenoid cartilages, to be shortened. In the falsetto -register the vibrating body is diminished, as only the edges vibrate, -while the same processes are repeated as in the chest register by the -greater stretching of the ligaments and the shortening of the glottis. -The head register, likewise, shows the glottis partly closed, and the -vibrating ligaments gradually stretched more and more. - -The vocal ligaments are made to vibrate by the air coming from -the lungs through the trachea, to which they present resistance. -These vibrations are communicated to the air in the mouth and -outside, and are felt by the ear as sound. - -As the strength of the tone depends upon the amplitude of the -waves of sound, they, in their turn, depend upon the structure -of the organ of singing, and of the parts of the mouth serving -as a sounding-board or resonant apparatus, but, above all, upon -the skilful management of the vibrating air. And although a fine -timbre of the tones and due skill in increasing the amplitude of -the vibrations may cause the voice to appear fuller and stronger, -yet it is not in our power, when once the vocal organs have been -fully developed, to make a strong voice out of a weak one. - -Always to strike the true pitch fully and clearly requires -persevering attention, as well from the teacher as from the -pupil. And long practice is often required before the intonations -become as pure as is indispensably necessary to good singing. For -only upon the basis of a full, pure tone is a beautiful timbre -(_Klangfarbe_) possible. - -But the most important thing in the culture of the voice is -the timbre of the tones, for _here it is in our power to form -out of a sharp, hard and disagreeable voice, a voice sweet -and pleasing_. - -We have seen that the timbre is dependent on the forms of the -vibrating waves, and the different degrees of strength and number -of the over-tones arising from these forms. It has been further -shown that the simple round form of the waves of vibration produces -the softest, fullest timbre. By this form the fundamental tone is -the strongest, and the over-tones are heard ascending to the third -octave with decreasing degrees of strength. Such a tone is natural -to certain voices. In most cases it must be more or less acquired. - -A good tone in singing is formed, - -1. By controlling and correctly dividing the air or breath -as it is expired; - -2. By a correct direction of the vibrating column of air; -this is done by the right touch (_Tonansatz_); - -And, 3. By a very distinct, quick and elastic _touch_. - - -THE CONTROL OF THE BREATH - -By a too great pressure of the breath, the form of the waves of -sound most favorable to a good tone is disturbed. One then hears -the high over-tones sounding strongly up to the sixteenth, while -the lower over-tones with the fundamental tone sound weak or not -at all. Thus the tone takes a shrill, sharp and disagreeable sound -when the form of the vibrating waves is more or less disturbed -by too great a pressure of air. Too little breath deprives the -tone only of its strength, but not of its agreeable sound. - -_Thus every tone requires for its greatest possible perfection -only a certain quantity of breath, which cannot be increased -or diminished without injury to its strength in the one case, -and its agreeable sound in the other._ - -In looking carefully through the histories of music, and studying -the old Italian schools, we find that it was upon this point--the -control and right division of the breathing--that the old masters -in the summer of song laid the greatest stress, and this it was -to which in teaching they gave the most time and labor. The rules -which they followed in this respect, in order to obtain a fine -tone, accord perfectly with the results of the latest scientific -investigations. And it would be far better for the art of singing -if in this respect we had followed the old Italians more faithfully, -and not have forsaken so entirely the right way. - -According to the old Italian method, which must not be confounded -with the modern, the pupil was required at first to breathe just as -he was wont to breathe in speaking, and care was taken, by frequent -resting-points in the exercises, that the breath should always be -renewed at the right time. Accordingly, if the crowding, or pressure, -of his breathing was too great, he was required to learn to hold it -back. Until the organs were sufficiently practised in the formation -of a good tone, and the ear had become familiarized to its sound, -pupils were allowed to sing _only_ _piano_. As soon as the pupil had -a feeling for a pure tone awakened in him, and could of himself -distinguish the finer variations of timbre, he was taught to fill his -lungs more and more. But this was to be done, as much as possible, -imperceptibly, noiselessly, slowly, and soon enough for him to be -able properly to control the quiet breathing in the beginning of -a song. Only the sides of the body were in so doing to expand, and -breathing with raised chest was allowed only in exceptional cases, as -where long passages were to be sung with special passion. For these -places, where breath must be taken, there were certain rules which -were strictly observed. - -After we have learned the natural laws which are applicable in -music, and which lie at the basis of a full, rich tone in singing, -and that a tone is, strictly speaking, only vibrating air, upon -the fine and skilful management of which its beauty and fulness -depend, and have considered the careful way in which the old -Italians taught the control of the breathing, we cannot but be -struck with the rude and negligent manner of using the breath -in our present mode of singing. - -With some distinguished exceptions, it is now almost universally -the practice to require the pupil, as the very first thing, to fill -the lungs as full as possible, whereby the chest must be raised. -Then the tones must be sung in as strong and long-sustained -a manner as possible, in order "to bring out the voice," as the -phrase is. He is next told to begin the tones with a full chest -_piano_, and slowly swell them to the highest _forte_, and then -descend as slowly, in order to learn "to govern the voice." Thus -the pupil is always required to sing as strongly as possible, -without any special regard to the timbre of the tones, because the -timbre is regarded as a peculiarity of different voices, admitting -of no change. According to what has been shown in the preceding -pages, the present way of using the breath, by which it is supposed -that voices are rendered strong and full, only needlessly fatigues -the organs, injures the beauty and weakens even the strength of the -tones. In the same way we find, especially in the case of tenor -voices, that the aim is by greater forcing of the breath to extend -the registers beyond their limits. Another fault is often taught: -the pupil is required to force with the breath to the due pitch -those tones whose pitch is usually struck too low. No voices can -ever endure such treatment, and, although the organs may be strong -enough to remain sound while under instruction, yet the voice will -not continue good, and cannot be of long duration. - -We often hear, even in fresh and unsophisticated voices, -a hoarse breathing accompanying the tones, as in the case of -worn-out voices. This breathing arises when the air, which is -exhaled and which rushes into the cavity of the mouth, is not -all in vibration, and it escapes along with the vibrating -columns of air. It sometimes happens, also, that in the too -great pressure of the exhaled air against the glottis, the -arytenoid cartilages, near their bases, and sometimes the -vocal chords leave a small opening through which the air -escapes with a hoarse noise. By keeping back the breath in -singing these faults may be corrected. Long-continued singing -piano in exercises is, moreover, beneficial in the forming of -the voice.[12] - -A simple expiration does not indeed suffice for the generation -of a full sounding singing tone. There is required a certain -force by which the air is sent through the narrow and stretched -glottis. But so great an expense of force as people are usually -at is not necessary. - -The influence of the same stream of air increases in proportion -as the breadth of the vibrating ligaments decreases. The tones -of the falsetto and head registers, therefore, require far less -breath than those of the chest register. The less the quantity -of breath expended in these tones, and the easier and more -quickly they are produced, the clearer and fuller do they sound. -The mechanism of the head tones especially is, as we have seen, -so delicate that only a slight excess of breath calls forth the -inharmonic over-tones which render the tone sharp and unmusical. -In wind instruments the tone can be forced upwards by a greater -pressure of air; that is, by more powerful blowing, which -appears to be practicable also in those instruments in whose -peculiar timbre the highest inharmonic over-tones overpower the -others.[13] - -Together with the skill and unintermitted attention which this -part of instruction in singing requires of the teacher, there are -here yet other and peculiar difficulties which he has to meet. In -opposition to the earlier and more correct view, it is no longer -beauty of tone, but strength of tone, which is considered the -chief excellence of a voice. Accustomed to seek the beauty of -the voice in its strength, it is attempted, before the time of -instruction begins, to sing as strongly as possible from a full -chest with the greatest expulsion of breath. Thence it follows, -in the superficial way in which the study of the art of singing -is at present conducted, that nothing more is commonly required -of a teacher than that he should be able to drill his pupil in -some pieces of tolerably well conceived vocal music, which the -latter must sing as soon as possible in company. A perfect -culture of the voice is scarcely any longer expected of an -artist. People with a very scanty musical education and voices -very poorly trained are regarded as artists if they execute their -parts with expression, and trick them out with those clap-traps -which never fail to command the applause of the ordinary public. - -A conscientious teacher has, therefore, universal opinion against -him when he demands a longer time for the education of a voice, -and requires of his pupils that they shall practice singing only -piano as long as it is necessary. - - -THE CORRECT TOUCH OF THE VOICE (TONANSATZ)[14] - -Having stated the first condition of a good timbre of the tones, we -come now to the second--the right direction of the vibrating columns of -air. A correct touch of the voice consists in causing the air, brought -into vibration by the vocal ligaments, to rebound from immediately -above the front upper teeth, where it must be concentrated as much as -possible, rebounding thence to form in the mouth continuous vibrations, -which are, at the same time, communicated to the external air. The -quicker and the more easily these movements take place, and the farther -forward in the mouth the vibrating column of air is reflected, the more -beautiful, full and telling is the tone. If the air rebounds farther -back in the mouth from any part of the roof of the mouth, then the high -inharmonic over-tones are prominent, and there arises either one or the -other of those hollow, disagreeable colorings of timbre which are known -as throat and nasal tones. - -That the voice must be brought forward in the mouth--that is, -that the air expired in singing should have the above described -direction--is now acknowledged as necessary and aimed at by the -best teachers. But the reasons why the tones thus sound better -are not known. The Germans and the English, in consequence of -their accustomed modes of forming sounds in speaking, have, as -we shall see hereafter, more rarely than the Italians, a correct -disposition of the tones in singing. It is extremely difficult -for many persons to accustom themselves to such a direction of -the vibrating air-columns. But with the proper means the skilful -teacher always gains his end. These means are to let the pupil -practice those syllables which he is accustomed, _in his own -language_, to form wholly in front of the mouth. - -The old Italian masters considered the management or touch of -the tone as one of the most important requirements in the -perfect cultivation of the voice. Distinctly, lightly, swiftly -and elastically must the column of tone, rightly directed, -strike the forward part of the mouth, which at the same moment -opens widely enough to communicate without delay the quick -agitation to the air external to it. - -_Only by a correct movement of this kind (Ansatz) are those -forms of the vibrations obtained in which all the harmonic -over-tones belonging to a perfect tone sound together._ The -quicker, lighter and more distinct this movement of the tone is, -the more telling it is, and it may be heard quite strongly, even -when it is sung _piano_ with a full chorus and orchestra. Upon -the occasion of the great Musical Festival in Boston (1869), it -was a matter of universal wonder that with the powerful chorus -of many thousands of voices, Mad. Parepa-Rosa's tones were heard -so distinctly that even at a considerable distance the words -were plainly understood. As great artists often find the true -and only beautiful unconsciously, so Mad. Parepa-Rosa has -a perfectly correct touch, whereby she sets the surrounding air -vibrating more rapidly than it is possible for a chorus to do -with so many unschooled voices. The sounding waves of the tones -which this distinguished singer produced with the correct touch, -naturally reached the ear sooner and were earlier felt and taken -into the consciousness of the listener than those of the mighty -chorus, and thus it was that the music of a single voice kept -its significance even with the accompaniment of a multitude of -voices. - -The great influence of the touch upon the fulness, and especially -upon the extent to which tones reach, is again best illustrated -by the movements of water. When we press on the surface of water -slowly, though with the greatest force, and at the same time -touch it in another place quickly and lightly, it is not only -far more strongly moved by the quick, light touch, but the waves -which are produced spread themselves out more rapidly, and run -more swiftly over the surface, than those of the slower and more -powerful pressure. - -As the form of the vibrations necessary to a perfect tone in -singing depends mainly upon a right management of tone, it is -self-evident that here the greatest care should be taken in -teaching vocal music. Here is one of the most difficult tasks for -the teacher, and great perseverance and much practice are required -of the pupil. But when once a right production of tone has become -a habit, so that with every tone all the harmonic over-tones sound, -and more breath is then allowed to stream forth immediately after -the quick, light rebound of the vibrating column of tone, the -vibrations enlarge without changing their form, and so only the -strongest, fullest, most beautiful tone possible is obtained. But -a touch can only be learned by imitation. We can no more describe -the fine shades of tone than of color. And no art, least of all -the art of singing, can be learned from books alone. - - -FORMATION OF VOWELS AND CONSONANTS - -The sound of the vowels depends, as we have seen, upon whether -one or another of the over-tones takes precedence in sound. -But the conditions by which the formation of the vowels is -determined lie in the form of the cavity of the mouth, and -of the contraction of the same in some one place or another -during expiration. These places are different in different -languages and dialects. They are among the English, Germans -and French farthest back in sounding _a_, as in _father_; -farther forward in _a_, as in _may_, _o_, _e_, in the order -in which they are here placed; and farther front in the -German _u_ (_oo_). - -The length of the cavity of the mouth is the greatest in -sounding _oo_, the least in _e_, intermediate in _a_. In the -pure, clear _a_, as in _may_, or _e_ of the Germans, the cavity -is the narrowest. Hence, to form a tone on this vowel is very -difficult, and it is the only vowel whose pure pronunciation -must be sacrificed to the tone. Good tones can be formed on -this vowel when in both series of the chest register there is -mingled with it the sound of the German _ö_, pronounced in -English nearly like the vowel in _bird_, and in the higher -registers the sound of the _e_--that is, of the German _i_. -The cavity of the mouth is thus somewhat broadened, and the -tone gains more room for its development. - -The Swiss form the _o_ and _u_ like the _a_ in _father_, -broadest at the back of the mouth, and the _e_ broadest -towards the front. But the Italians form no vowel as far -front as their clear sounding beautiful _a_, as in _father_; -and probably because the _a_ in the Italian language sounds -broadest and most distinctly, Italian wagoners drive their -beasts with the shout of _a! a!_ while the Germans use for -the same purpose, _hü! huo!_ and the Swiss, _hipp!_ One can -only approximate an imitation of the Italian _a_ by uttering -it in connection with consonants coming rapidly, as in _pfa_, -_bra_, and in as short and rapid a manner as possible. - -The old Italian masters naturally found their beautiful _a_ most -favorable to the formation of a good tone in singing; and thus it -has been adopted by other nations. But here is the very reason -why a tone free from badly sounding colorings is so rarely heard. -We have blindly imitated the Italians, without considering the -different modes of forming the vowels in different languages and -nations, and that the Italian _a_ is a vowel entirely different -from the German and the similarly sounding English _a_. Its -correct sound is learned by those to whom it is not vernacular -only with difficulty. - -As the vowels are differently formed in different languages, -so is it also with the consonants. The North Germans form the -letter _r_ with the soft palate, which is made to vibrate by -the exhalation of the breath. The South Germans, Russians and -Italians form the _r_ by the vibration of the tip of the -tongue. It is only this mode of forming the _r_ which is to -be used in singing, and must be learned by those who do not -usually form it thus. This is sometimes rather difficult, but -it can be done by repeating frequently and rapidly, one after -the other, the syllables _hede_, _hedo_, or _ede_, _edo_. In -this way the tongue gets accustomed to the right position and -motion, which it by-and-by learns rapidly enough for the -formation of the rolling _r_. - -The Italians, likewise, form the _l_ with the tip of the tongue, -the Germans and English mostly with the side edges of the tongue. -With some attention one can, by feeling, find out in his own -organ the place for the formation of the different vowels and -consonants, and an ear accustomed to delicate differences of -tone will perceive the right place in others. - -But in teaching, the example of the wagoners must be followed, -and as these people have found out the most appropriate vowels -and syllables whereby to make themselves understood by their -animals, we must choose what is best fitting to the formation -of tone in singing. - -Long before I found the scientific reason of this mode of -proceeding, my attention was called by Frederic Wiek, in -Dresden, to the fact that a fine tone can be most quickly -attained by practising in the beginning upon the syllables -_sü_, _soo_, or _dü_, _doo_, and by not passing to the other -vowels until one is accustomed to produce tones in the front -of the mouth. These syllables are naturally spoken by the -Germans and the English in the front part of the mouth. The -_s_ is formed with the lips apart, while the air is blown -through the upper teeth; it thus assists one, united with _u_ -(_oo_), to direct the tone forwards. But because in the _u_ -the lips are almost closed, care must be taken that, within -the lips, the teeth are far enough apart. The cavity of the -mouth must be large enough to allow of the largest possible -wave of sound, since upon the size of that, as we know, the -strength of the tone depends. When the pupil, after some -practice, has learned to give the right direction to the -stream of sound, he must be required gradually to form the -other vowels like the _soo_ in the front part of the mouth, -passing from this syllable immediately to the other vowels, -as, for example, _soo-a_, _soo-o_, _soo-e_, _soo-o-e-ah_, &c. -Only care must be taken that the course of the air preserves -its right direction. - -Solmisation, also, i.e., naming the tones, _c_, _d_, _e_, _f_, -_g_, _a_, _b_, by the syllables _do_, _re_, _mi_, _fa_, _sol_, -_la_, _si_, assists a good touch when the pupil employs it in -the more rapid exercises. - -There is no fixed rule that can be laid down in regard to the -necessary opening of the mouth and its position. The structure -of the palate and the form of the jaw, and the position of the -teeth, lips, &c., vary in different persons. The ear of the -teacher must alone determine what position of those several -parts will best secure a good timbre. But in every case, for -the highest tones of the voice the widest possible opening of -the mouth is necessary, and even when, in the formation of the -vowels, the lips have to be brought nearer to each other, yet -the teeth within must be kept apart, that the cavity of the -mouth may remain large enough. - -Wind instruments show the influence which the orifice and breadth -of the bell has upon the strength of the tone. In the human voice -the mouth occupies the place of the bell. - -We have already made the remark, in speaking of the different -registers, that in the chest tones the position of the larynx is -lowered. The cavity of the mouth, then, is naturally lengthened, -and hence a moderate opening of the mouth, so that, in singing the -notes of the low chest register, the teeth are a thumb's breadth -apart, suffices for a good tone. The second chest register requires -the slightest opening of the mouth. It is enough if one can press -a finger between the teeth. With the high falsetto and head tones -the cavity of the mouth is always shorter and narrower towards the -back, but as the tones ascend, it must be always broader in front. -In singing the first falsetto register, the teeth should be about -the breadth of the thumb apart; in the second falsetto register, -two fingers apart; and in the head register, the mouth must be open -as far as possible. But precise rules cannot here be given. I have -observed, however, that in thin voices a too broad opening of the -mouth in the middle tones of the voice favors the high over-tones -more than the fundamental tone, and the tones are thus flat and -wanting in timbre. - -Lips too thick and stiff sometimes injure the timbre of the -tone; they are often the cause of a veiled, muffled timbre, -acting like dampers and rendering a part of the over-tones -inaudible. In such cases, as soon as he has become accustomed -to a correct direction of the column of tone, the pupil should -keep the lips as close to the teeth as possible, and draw back -somewhat the corners of the mouth. - -The tongue also is not infrequently a hindrance to the formation -of a good tone, especially when the pupils have not been taught -early enough to open their mouths sufficiently wide. When the high -tones are to be produced, which require much room in the forward -part of the mouth, the tongue is usually drawn back and raised, -in order to make the necessary room within the lower front teeth. -This, again, is a habit difficult to be broken, and care must be -taken that the lower front teeth are lightly touched by the tip of -the tongue in singing, in order that the tongue may be accustomed -to a natural position. But this is most easily attained when the -tongue is at the first kept occupied as much as possible by quick -exercises with the syllables of solmisation, or by practising -tones in slow time upon syllables beginning with consonants formed -by the tip of the tongue. As in pronouncing the German _Sch_ the -tongue presses the teeth all around with its outer edge, syllables -formed with these consonants serve excellently well to accustom -the tongue to a quiet, correct position. - - -FLEXIBILITY OF VOICE - -We hear it continually said that it requires a special natural -gift to acquire a certain ease and flexibility of voice, and -that this natural gift is peculiar to the Italians. But the -flexibility of the voice depends upon a physiologico-physical -process of the organ of tone, which, among the Italians, goes on -in their common speech, and hence is more easily transferred by -them to their singing. In trills, roulades, turns, and all tones -quickly succeeding one another, the breath must set the vocal -chords vibrating in quick, short pulses. The little time used by -the breath between these rapidly succeeding pulses to retreat, -in order to give another pulse, suffices perfectly to produce -easily and quickly the position of the glottis requisite for -a higher or lower tone. In order, between the pulses, to give -room to the retreating breath, the windpipe expands laterally, -whereby the larynx is always somewhat drawn down, in order, with -the next pulse of the breath, to take again its former place. -This rising and lowering of the larynx can be seen plainly -outside the throat, and it can be seen also whether the movement -goes on rightly. Upon the degree of rapidity with which this -movement goes on depends the greater or less flexibility of the -voice. - -But when the breath in exhaling presses in regularly increasing -strength against the vocal chords, and one wishes to pass quickly -to a higher tone and back again, as is required in trills, while -the aerial stream continues to flow on with unintermitted force, -it is evident that the changed movement of the glottis, even -within the limits of a register, demands more time and muscular -force than a beautiful trill or run admits of. But at the same -time the limits of the tones become, by the uninterrupted stream -of air, obliterated, and embellishments sung in this way, with -unmoved larynx, indistinct. But ornamentation is now practised -only in this latter way, and if pupils do not naturally move -their throats correctly, the gift of flexibility is denied them. - -A quite prevalent and likewise incorrect way of using the throat is -moving the epiglottis with the larynx, which renders the formation -of a clear, pure tone impossible, and _fiorituri_ sung in this way -are limp and indistinct. The only correct movement shows itself very -plainly externally, so that with the tolerably strong movement of -the larynx up and down, there can be seen also a slighter movement -of the windpipe far below in the neck, about the breadth of two -fingers above the breast-bone. The mouth and tongue, however, -must be perfectly quiet. - -But the cultivation of vocal flexibility in singing is the -easiest and most grateful part of the education of the voice, for -with ordinary industry on the part of the pupil results are here -obtained most speedily. In the very first lessons I teach my -pupils the motions of the vocal organ in trills, and if they do -not learn them by imitation, I give them simple exercises on the -syllable _koo_ to practice for a while. The _k_ is produced by -a pulse of the breath, and the _oo_ is, as we have seen, the best -vowel sound with which to direct the breath as it is expired. -Thus, by singing _staccato_ the syllable _koo_, slowly at first -and gradually quicker, with a movement of the larynx and windpipe -that is both seen and felt; and with the tongue and lips at rest -and motionless, the right movement is given to the organ in -trills and all other embellishments, and by continued practice -the movement becomes more rapid. Those who need to be taught this -movement must never practice continuously for any length of time, -for we must avoid fatiguing the organs. When pupils have become -accustomed, by rapidly singing the syllable _koo_ on each tone of -the trill, to the movement of the larynx, then they can practice -upon another syllable, and in the following way: Let the trill be -at first always sung _piano_, with an accenting of the higher -tone every time and a gradual increasing of the rapidity thus: -a1 accented-b1 a1 accented-b1, and repeat this figure, halving the -note lengths every four beats; also in half and whole tones, and -then in minor thirds. But the most beautiful trill will be formed -by practising triplets in the compass of a whole tone, then of -a minor third, major third, fourth, etc., by which first the -upper, then the lower tone is accented: accented-a1 g1 a1 -accented-g1 a1 g1. The mouth, however, in this exercise must -continue immovably open, and the tongue also must lie perfectly -still, touching the lower front teeth, for only in this way can -one be sure of not moving the epiglottis. Although this is -difficult at first, yet the syllable _ku_ (koo) may be sung in -this way. Thus, with sufficient practice, any one may acquire -a perfect flexibility of voice. When the pupils can make the -trill easily upon the middle tones, in which in the beginning -exercises must be practised, let them practice also upon the -higher and lower tones of the voice. If the trill takes place -at the transition of two registers, then both the tones must be -formed upon the higher of the two, as in an exchange of registers -the glottis requires more time than a good trill admits of. - -Rapid runs downwards are easily executed correctly when care is -taken that with every tone the same movement is made as in the -case of trills, and the breath is kept back as much as possible. -Voices wanting in flexibility may soon acquire the desired -quality by singing every tone _piano_ upon the syllable _koo_. - -Ascending runs can properly be taught only when the descending -have been correctly sung, for, in opposition to the former, -every tone of the latter must be formed by a light impulse -with increased breath. The softer the piano in which the pupil -practises, and the more loose the consequent movement of the -larynx, the more distinctly and the more purely will the pupil -gradually execute these embellishments. - -Intelligible as these movements are in practice, it is difficult -to describe them. To be able to make all ornaments in singing -beautifully and easily requires long practice, for in a thoroughly -artistic piece of vocal music it is essential, as the great artist -_Schröder-Devrient_ said, that all the notes of ornamentation -(_Coloratur_) should be like a string of pearls on black velvet, -each distinct in itself, round and beautiful, and yet so connected -with the rest in one whole that no gap is discernible. Carefully -and correctly directed exercises in ornamentation are in the -highest degree necessary to the formation of tone; they tire the -voice far less than sustained notes, and accustom it to an exact -enunciation of the tones. But because persevering practice is -necessary to the cultivation of vocal flexibility, the teaching of -this is to be begun at the very first; and not until later, when -the voice is habituated to a right touch and to a perfectly clear -tone, is the pupil to be given those favorite exercises with -long-sustained notes, which are sung with one continuous breath. -That we so rarely meet with clear vocal fluency is again owing to -our mode of teaching. We do not seek to cultivate formation of -tone and fluency at the same time. Oftentimes it is only after -years spent in singing sustained tones that ornaments are allowed -to be practised, and then, instead of using as little breath as -possible, the flexibility of the larynx is hindered by singing too -powerfully with full chest and unintermitted crowding of the -breath. Without denying that in regard to vocal flexibility -different individuals and nations may be variously gifted, it -is nevertheless certain that _with due practice every one may -acquire more or less of vocal fluency_. - -_Frederick Wiek_ has composed for his pupils a large number of -simple exercises, in which all kinds of ornaments are introduced, -and which at the same time are so melodious that they easily catch -the ear. They mostly comprise only a few tones, at the most an -octave, and are sung in half tones, ascending in different keys. -Next to these exercises come, as highly adapted to the culture of -vocal flexibility, the solfeggi of _Mieksch_, _Mazzoni_, _Rossini_, -_Crescentini_, &c. There is, indeed, no want of excellent exercises -and solfeggi. Their use, however, depends upon the way in which the -teacher requires them to be practised. Notwithstanding the abundance -of these exercises, I have always found it necessary to prepare -special ones for my pupils, as every voice requires peculiar -treatment and guidance.[15] In every pupil peculiar faults are to be -overcome and peculiar qualities come into play, and the vocal organ -shows as many differences as the human face. But the right way is -sure to be found when the irreversible laws of nature, which lie -at the foundation of our art, are once recognized. The practical -advantages of this knowledge the singer, like every other artist, -must endeavor to secure orally, that is, by sound instruction. -Ornamentation, however, can become distinct and clear only by -uniting these with a distinct, pure touch, as we have already -endeavored to describe, when, with the beginning of the tone, the -pitch is struck lightly, quickly, distinctly, elastically, with -certainty and perfect correctness. But as it is by no means easy -to introduce a tone quickly and correctly, so that it will sound -equally pure from the first, this flexibility is extremely rare -among our singers. Instead of it, the most hateful mannerisms have -stolen into practice; the tone is struck too low, and forced up by -an increase of breath, or the tones are so drawled one into another -that one cannot tell where they begin or where they cease. Impure -intonation is much more disagreeable in the high tones than in the -low. This is quite natural; for when, for example, the low _c_ is -sung one-tenth too low or too high, then it will cause an octave -higher twice as many vibrations, and two octaves higher four times -as many, and these in proportion to their number produce a more -intense effect. In the higher registers of the tones little discords -(_Verstimmungen_) call forth a much larger number of beats (which -are not to be confounded with vibrations) than in the lower, and -thus the impurity of the musical intervals is felt much more -strongly. Purity in the art of singing is, however, such a primal -condition of its beauty, that a piece of music purely executed, even -by a weak and slightly-cultivated voice, always sounds agreeably, -while the most sonorous and practised voice offends the hearer when -it is out of tune or forced upwards. The training of our singers by -pianos, as they are now tuned, by equal temperament, is altogether -unsatisfactory. The singer who practises with the piano has no safe -principle by which he can measure the height of his tones with any -exactness. But persons of good musical talent, made aware of this -disadvantage by a competent teacher, and practising accordingly, can -nevertheless overcome this difficulty caused by our present method -of tuning, and learn to sing correctly and purely. - -Until the seventeenth century, singers were drilled by the -monochord, for which _Zarlino_, in the middle of the sixteenth -century, re-introduced the correct, natural tuning. The drilling -of singers was conducted at that time with a care of which we -have now no idea. The church music of the fifteenth and sixteenth -centuries is arranged upon the purest consonant chords, depending -upon this for its whole effect, which would naturally be injured -if not executed with perfect purity. Our opera singers now-a-days -are seldom able to sing without accompaniment a composition for -several voices so purely that its whole beauty is felt; the -accord almost always sounds sharp and somewhat uncertain, and -therefore cannot satisfy a really musical ear. - - -SPEECH - -The vowels and consonants are, in speaking, produced by certain -noises (_Geräusche_), which in singing sound together with the -tone. These sounds are produced by local diminutions of the -cavity of the mouth, or by the opening or closing of the lips -and teeth, as well as by movements of the tip of the tongue, -&c., while a single pulse of the air passes through the -tolerably wide open glottis and through the cavity of the mouth -without regular vibrations. For the air rushes more directly -out of the mouth in speaking than in singing. Of this we may be -easily convinced by holding a feather before the mouth; it will -show far more motion in speaking than in correct singing. If, in -speaking, people would take pains to form the vowels in the -front of the mouth--a habit so necessary in singing, and which -is easily acquired by practice--our common speech would be much -more melodious, far-sounding, and less strained. We see the -truth of this when we hear words called out from a height and -from a distance; the different consonants then mostly disappear, -excepting the _m_ and _n_, which are formed mostly in the front -of the mouth. The vowels, on the other hand, are more or less -plainly heard, according to the places in the mouth where they -are formed. Certain it is that for the beauty of our common -speech, the resonance of the cavity of the mouth peculiar to -each vowel may be rendered available. A singing tone in speaking -is very disagreeable. Every one who is not used to it, finds the -singing dialect of Saxony in the highest degree offensive and -unpleasant. Nevertheless, a more attentive observation soon -teaches us that behind the noise which characterizes the several -sounds in language, a timbre is heard similar to the tone in -singing, and in various instances there occur regular musical -intervals, as at the end of a sentence or in the special -accentuation of single words. Thus, at the conclusion of an -affirmative sentence the voice usually falls about a fourth from -the medium pitch, and at the end of an interrogatory sentence -rises about a fifth above the usual speaking tone. Words -specially accented are usually a tone higher than the rest, -&c. In public speaking and in dramatic representations these -variations of sound are more numerous and complicated, and the -inventor of the modern Recitative, _Jacob Perri_, even declares -that he formed it by imitating in singing these variations of -sound, in order to restore again the declamation of the ancient -tragedians.[16] - -Tedious and intolerable as it is to hear so much sing-song in -common speech, it is equally wearisome when people drone on -always in a dry speaking tone at the same pitch, without ever -letting the voice rise or fall. The most interesting matter -thus delivered will lull the hearer to sleep. It cannot be -denied that a rich field is here offered for farther scientific -observation, and those natural laws which lie at the foundation -of the art of singing may certainly be applied with advantage -to the perfecting of the mode of speaking, especially in those -who have to speak in public.[17] - -To extend these remarks any farther does not come within our -present purpose, which is concerned exclusively with the -voice in singing and its cultivation. For this reason I leave -unnoticed many most interesting phenomena relating to music -in general, but not particularly to the culture of the voice, -although they are of the deepest interest to the educated -musician. - - [7] Tyndall. - - [8] The concert pitch in different places and at different periods - has undergone great changes. The Grand Opera in Paris in the - year 1700 established 404 vibrations to a second as the - concert pitch of a1, which gradually rose higher, as the wind - instruments became more perfect and had a more important part - assigned them in concerted music, until 1858 it had attained - the height of 448 vibrations in a second. In this same year - (1858) at Berlin and St. Petersburg it reached its greatest - height--451-1/2 vibrations in the second. In Mozart's time, - in Vienna, it had only 422 and 428 vibrations. - - [9] As long as melody alone was aimed at in music, and was - accompanied only by octaves, the tones preserved their - natural purity. But with the rise of harmony (the accord - of different tones) there was rendered necessary a more - regular system, to which the purity of the tones was - sacrificed. - - [10] "It is not possible to sound a stretched string as a whole - without at the same time causing to a greater or less extent - its subdivision; that is to say, superposed upon the - vibrations of the string we have always, in a greater or less - degree, the vibrations of its aliquot parts. The higher notes - produced by these latter vibrations are called the _harmonics_ - of the string. And so it is with other sounding bodies; we - have, in all cases, a co-existence of vibrations. Higher tones - mingle with the fundamental tone, and it is their intermixture - which determines what, for want of a better term, we call the - _quality_ of the sound. The French call it _timbre_, and the - Germans call it _Klangfarbe_. It is this union of high and low - tones that enables us to distinguish one musical instrument - from another. A clarionet and a violin, for example, though - tuned to the same fundamental note, are not confounded.... - - "All bodies and instruments, then, employed for producing - musical sounds, emit, besides their fundamental tones, - tones due to higher order of vibrations. The Germans - embrace all such sounds under the general term _Obertöne_. - I think it will be an advantage if we, in England, adopt - the term _over-tones_, as the equivalent of the term - employed in Germany. One has occasion to envy the power of - the German language to adapt itself to requirements of this - nature. The term _Klangfarbe_, for example, employed by - Helmholtz, is exceedingly expressive, and we need its - equivalent also. You know that color depends upon rapidity - of vibrations--that blue light bears to red the same - relation that a high tone does to a low one. A simple color - has but one rate of vibration, and it may be regarded as - the analogue of a simple tone in music. A _tone_, then, may - be defined as the product of a vibration which cannot be - decomposed into more simple ones. A compound color, on the - contrary, is produced by the admixture of two or more - simple ones; and an assemblage of tones, such, as we obtain - when the fundamental tone and the harmonics of a string - sound together, is called by the Germans a _Klang_. May we - not employ the English word _clang_ to denote the same - thing, and thus give the term a precise scientific meaning - akin to its popular one? And may we not, like Helmholtz, - add the word _color_ or _tint_ to denote the character of - the clang, using the term _clang-tint_ as the equivalent of - _Klangfarbe_?" (Sound: A course of Lectures delivered at - the Royal Institution of Great Britain by John Tyndall, - LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Nat. Phil. in the Royal - Institution and in the Royal School of Mines. English - edition, pp. 116-118.)--Tr. - - [11] As to the characteristic sounds of the different keys, the - views of musicians are to the present day divided. Many even - of our most eminent theorists, as Hauptmann, for example, in - Leipsig, have maintained that all keys (_Tonarten_) are only - transpositions of one major and minor key, and that like - musical effects may be produced with one as well as with - the other. The majority of musicians are, however, of the - opinion that each key has its peculiar character, and that - by transposition into another key the musical effect is - changed. My son, Carl Seiler, has discovered that each key - has its own peculiar, prominent over-tones, which determine - its distinctive character. A table of all the keys (_Tonarten_), - in which the prominent over-tones of each are given, shows - also that the mutual relation of the keys (_Tonarten_) is - elucidated by these over-tones. And thus again scientific - investigation confirms what the founders of the theory of - music, with their sound sense for the beautiful, recognized - as correct. - - [12] The position of the body in singing must be such as in no - way to interfere with the easy drawing of the breath. One - sings most easily standing as erect as possible, quiet and - unconstrained, the chest somewhat projected, the body - slightly drawn in, and the hands folded. - - [13] It was instruments of this class--trumpets, horns, bugles, - etc.--in whose timbre the highest inharmonic over-tones - overpower all the rest, that were painfully offensive to - the exquisite musical organization of Mozart from his - earliest childhood. - - [14] It is all but impossible to give an idea of what is meant - by _Tonansatz_, without a practical illustration. It is - that striking of the note or the air corresponding to the - touch in piano-playing. - - [15] A selection of such exercises, prepared by the present - writer, has recently been published by Mr. O. Ditson in - Boston, and also two books of old Italian solfeggi from - Mieksch and Mazzoni, arranged to the present pitch. - - [16] According to _Boethius_, the _lyra_, which was used by the - Greeks to accompany declamation, embraced, in the tuning - of its strings, the principal intervals used in speaking. - - [17] Since the appearance of this book I have often been consulted - by persons whose calling required them to speak in public, - and whose vocal organs were no longer competent thereto. Here - also I have found in most cases that there was an incorrect - use of the registers, and that men especially form the lowest - sounds with that forced enlarging of the windpipe already - mentioned (that is, with the so-called _Strohbassregister_). - Many have probably fallen into this unnatural and exhausting - manner by attempting to speak or to sing loudly. Together - with the incorrect use of the registers, there is also an - incorrect management (_Leitung_) of the vibrating air, which - so often renders speaking so difficult to public speakers. - As, when the voice is not wholly directed to the front of the - mouth, it does not move the external air quickly enough and - so does not reach far, the speaker commonly tries to help - himself by a greater expenditure of force. Misled by false - views, speakers usually attempt by a great waste of breath - and by exertion alone to produce an effect which can be - realized only by skilful management of the most delicate - and easily moved of all things, the air. - - - - -IV - -THE ÆSTHETIC VIEW - -OF THE ART OF SINGING - - -Having treated, in the two preceding divisions of this book, of -the physiological and physical laws lying at the basis of singing -tones, and of their practical application to the formation of the -voice, we come now to the better known--the æsthetic--part of our -task. - -The reader will bear in mind that as, in the preceding sections, -our attention has been confined to what directly relates to the -culture of the voice in singing, notwithstanding the strong -temptation to transcend the limits which our present design -prescribes, so in this section also the same purpose is kept in -view, and it is not to be regarded as treating of the æsthetics -of music in general. - -Hitherto we have had to do with fixed, irreversible laws, which are -to be implicitly followed in order to render singing as perfect as -possible. We have seen how the decline of the art of singing had to -follow as a necessary consequence the non-observance of these laws. -In speaking thus far of the agreeable and the disagreeable, of the -beautiful and its opposite, we have had no reference to artistic -feeling. We have been concerned only with direct sensuous pleasure or -pain, not with æsthetic beauty. We have been occupied thus far with -the _technique_ of our art--the form. But with the animating spirit -of this form, the _æsthetic_, we enter upon a broader field, which, -dependent upon purely psychological reasons (_Motiven_), may undergo -a change, either from the general progress of mankind or from the -culture of the practised artist. Thus, although from Aristotle down -to Lessing and our own times the principles of beauty in all the arts -are the same, yet every period, in which art has nourished, has -produced works, various indeed, and corresponding to the spirit of -the age, works, which, however, notwithstanding all differences, have -still conformed to the demands of the principles of beauty. Thus, in -architecture, sculpture, painting, music, &c., there are different -styles of art, every one of which, however, has its justification and -its peculiar beauty. We are not, therefore, to judge these different -styles of art by the taste and ideas (_Auffassung_) of the present, -but by the character of the times that produced them. Although the -mode of thinking may vary in accordance with the different stages of -culture of individuals and mankind, there are, nevertheless, certain -principles of beauty which all nature announces. - -By beauty we understand the highest perfection of the single parts -in a perfectly represented whole, and the most intimate union of -the ideal with the material, i.e., of the spiritual with the formal, -which must have as its basis a certain proportion and order in the -position of the several parts as well as in their relation to the -whole work. In the perception of the beautiful, everything must -tend to awaken the feeling of repose and pleasure; and the more -susceptible we are of the impression of the beautiful, the more -shall we be disturbed by defects, even the least, in any work of -art. The pleasure which we take in any work of art, which, however -faultless in certain respects, shows any glaring defect, is greatly -abridged. The ugly spot will absorb our attention and destroy the -pure enjoyment of its beauty, and still more disagreeable will be -the effect if the different _parts_, otherwise beautifully shaped, -are thrown out of their due symmetry and proportion. In the -successive arts, as music, the dramatic art, &c., proportion -(_Maassvolle_) is an essential condition of beauty, more than in -the simultaneous arts; and an artist whose _technique_ is altogether -perfect, and who can succeed in reproducing every emotion of the -mind in his work, is a true artist only when he never transgresses -by an excess of passion the fine boundary lines of beauty. - -It is given to only a very few to recognize at once the high -and beautiful in art. In most the sense of the beautiful awakens -only with a riper spiritual development. It is thus the fruit -of a higher stage of culture. To children and persons wholly -uneducated a brightly painted picture-book is more beautiful -than the Dresden Madonna, that great masterpiece of painting. -And most people take greater pleasure in a waltz by _Strauss_ -or _Lanner_ than in a symphony by Beethoven or Mozart. Beauty -depends upon principles, i.e., rules and laws, which are founded -in the nature of the human reason. The appreciation, therefore, -of beauty accompanies the development in man of his reason. - -Music, above all the other arts, finds the earliest and most -universal recognition, and almost every one listens to it with -pleasure. Helmholtz says that music is much more intimately -related to our sensations than all the other arts put together. -Tones touch the ear and are instantly felt to be agreeable or -disagreeable, while the impressions of painting, poetry, &c., -upon our senses must be brought to our consciousness, and be -judged of there by comparison. But it is not only through the -direct effect of tones, as it appears to me, but more through the -life (_Belebung_) which animates it, that music comes so close to -us, and is so natural and near of kin to us. That must needs be -the most interior of the arts whose office it is to express the -various moods of the human soul in their tenderest and most -secret fluctuations. The incorporeal material of tone is far -better fitted to express these different moods (_Stimmungen_) -than it is possible for poetry to do. Peculiar, definite feelings -it cannot, indeed, distinctly denote without the help of poetry. -But it is this very indefiniteness that enables music so to -insinuate itself into the soul of the hearer that the tones heard -seem to be the expression of his own feelings, and not those of -another. Hence it is that music, in its whole nature, acts -beneficently and soothingly, because its ruling principle is -always a striving after repose, after a rest in _consonances_, -just as this is the innermost aim and struggle of our own life. -In the other arts this is much less the case. Aristotle, in his -twenty-seventh and twenty-ninth problems, distinguishes the -influences of music as the expression of tones of feeling -(_Stimmungen_), and not of definite feelings. And _Brendel_, -who, in his history of music, holds to the order among the arts -received by the Greeks, by which architecture takes the lowest -place, then sculpture, painting, music, and, lastly, as the -highest of the arts, poetry, remarks, that "Music, by virtue of -its power to express the most delicate shades of sentiment, would -certainly take the highest rank were it more definite." It has -always been attempted to extend the boundaries of music by -calling in the assistance of painting and poetry. Haydn, Mozart, -Schubert, etc., have imitated in their compositions the singing -of birds, the rippling of water, storms, &c. And now our modern -musicians of the future endeavor to express in tones definite -thoughts and feelings, imagining that here a new epoch in art -is to open. But these new compositions always require elaborate -explanations. Music until now, at least, has not yet given up -its ethereal, indefinite character.[18] - -It is essential to the full effect of a work of art that the -artist should create it, and the hearer or beholder should enjoy -it, without thinking of the rules and laws of beauty. A work of -art must act immediately upon the feelings; it must appear to be -spontaneous, and must be felt without reference to any aim or -plan. What is æsthetically beautiful pleases a cultivated taste -at once without any reflex consideration. But when, by the help -of the understanding, we seek to account for the harmony and -perfection of the several parts, and find by more searching -study that the work is in conformity to the laws of reason, -our enjoyment will naturally be enhanced. But this study must -always come as a consequence of the first effect upon the soul, -otherwise all effect is wanting. The _unconscious_ enjoyment of -the legitimate in art is the first condition of the influence of -the beautiful upon the soul. The happy, elevated feeling which -all works of art immediately awaken in us is thus only an -unconscious recognition of the reasonable, the harmonious, -the symmetrical. But this unconscious impression is instantly -disturbed by any, the least imperfection, before we perceive -where and in what it consists, for the human mind is not able -fully and at once to examine a production of art in its entirety -to its minutest parts. - -An artist must, therefore, be esteemed according as his works -excite and ravish the hearers or beholders without their knowing -why, and he stands all the higher the simpler and the more -naturally--i.e., the more _unconsciously_--this takes place. - -In order to reach such a height, and to be able to act upon the -souls of men with an elevating and informing power, it is first -of all necessary that an artist should cultivate the form, or the -_technique_, of his art to its greatest possible perfection, and -have such perfect command of it, that the practical application -of it is as natural to him as to breathe. _For empty and dead as -all technical knowledge is unless it is animated with a soul, yet -no product of art æsthetically beautiful is possible without -a perfect technique._ - - * * * * * - -But the culture of the _technique_ in the art of singing requires -a special faculty in the teacher, and, together with the finest -power of observation, an ear, which not only perceives the purity -of the tone, whether high or low, but feels also the direction of -the aerial column, the too much or too little of the breath, the -coloring of the timbre, &c. An æsthetically artistic education -demands likewise that the singer should have the highest general -culture. As soon as the technical education has advanced so far -that it no longer makes any demand upon the attention of the -learner, the infusion of life and soul into the singing must be -begun. The teacher must then be so filled with the spirit of his -art that he shall be able so to inspire his pupils that, forgetting -themselves, they may be absorbed in the high ideal work of their -art, and regard their well-trained voices simply as expressing the -noblest and most varied sentiments (_Stimmungen_). And on this -account a teacher should seek to act upon the souls of his pupils, -and awaken in them above all things a feeling for the high and the -noble, that they may be able to find the correct mode of expressing -it in singing. It is a very hard but not impossible work to educate -true artists, who, penetrated with faith in the high worth of their -art, shall fulfil its aim by exercising a refreshing and elevating -influence upon their fellow-men. But, in order to be able to form -true artists, a teacher must be devoted without intermission to his -own culture, scientific and general; must strive with pleasure, and -love, and inspiration to accomplish the high work of his calling, -and make the severest demands upon himself, before he can expect -anything great of his pupils. - -Having spoken of those parts of the _technique_ of the art of -singing which rest upon impregnable natural laws, such as the -registers of the voice, the formation of tones in regard to -strength, pitch, and timbre, &c., let us consider more closely -those other parts of the _technique_ which rest upon psychological, -i.e., æsthetic principles (_Motiven_). To these belong _Rhythm_, -_Correct understanding of the Tempo_, _Composition_, _Execution, -that is, the delivery of the sentiment of the composition, and -the aids thereto_. - - -RHYTHM - -To the principles of beauty belong, above all things, order and -regularity. In music this order consists in measures of time. All -measurement by time, even the scientific, depends upon rhythmic, -regularly returning results, as in the revolutions of the earth, -of the moon, and in the vibrations of the pendulum, &c. Thus, by -the regular interchange of accented and unaccented sounds in -music and poetry, we obtain the rhythm of the work. - -But while in poetry the structure of verse serves only to -reduce to artistic order the external accidents of expression -by language, rhythm is not only the external measure of time in -music, but it belongs to the innermost nature of its power of -expression, giving to music its distinctive character. There -is, therefore, a finer and much more various culture of rhythm -necessary in music than in poetry. Here rhythm determines not -only the time, how long a note is to be maintained, and how -many notes fall within a certain space of time, but it also -distinguishes those notes which are to be sung with more or -less emphasis. - -We know that in a bar of 2/4 time the first beat must be more -accented than the second; in a bar of 4/4 time the rhythmical -accent falls upon the first and third beats; in a bar of 3/4 and -3/8 time only upon the first; and in 6/8 upon the first and -fourth. This rhythmical accentuation must become a second nature -to the learner before he can express any particular sentiment in -a piece of music, and therefore he must be early practised in it. -Rhythmical accentuation can always be employed very differently -according to the character (_Stimmung_) of a composition, and the -most different effects in expression are thus produced. One can, -by a greater or less degree of strength, or by a sudden impulse -of the breath, change the accent, as well as by a slight -retardation of the note. Also, by transferring the accent to -those notes naturally not accented, that is, in the 2/4 time to -the second beat, or to the second half of the first, by so-called -_syncopes_, the whole character of a piece is changed. In musical -passages in which many notes come upon one beat and the character -of which is light and pleasing, a peculiar charm is produced when -several rhythmical accents are made upon the same beat, and -likewise in slow passages the swelling of the tone upon the -accented note is very pleasing. Let the same phrase in a song -be sung with different rhythmical accents, and we may easily -see how such changes will give the passage quite another character. - -The old Italian singers understood to a remarkable degree the -use of rhythm in the execution of vocal music. But the poetical -rhythm of the words accompanying the voice gives to the singer -a guide, reference to which shows him at least how and where -he may employ the nicer shades of musical rhythm. - - -CORRECT UNDERSTANDING OF THE TEMPO - -To give the pupil the feeling for the correct tempo of a -composition is more difficult than to teach him to understand -rhythm. Our best musicians, whose merits deserve the fullest -acknowledgment, often fail here, making the tempo of a piece of -music either too slow or too quick, and so weakening its whole -effect. This happens especially with the old compositions which -preceded the introduction of the metronome. The old Italian -vocal compositions are in this respect treated the worst by our -musicians, who belong to the strictly classical school. The -character of these pieces is prevailingly sentimental, and the -_tempi_ were not so quick then as now. If a piece thus composed -in slow time is set, without reference to its sentiment, to the -quickest possible tempo, it becomes ordinary and vulgar in -character; the most beautiful adagio may in this way be degraded -to a street-ballad. The songs of our modern composers have to be -sung to a quicker tempo than that to which they are set, or they -are tedious and wearisome. This is particularly the case with -the compositions of Schubert, and the whole effect of his -beautiful songs is often ruined by a degree more or less too -rapid. Singing too slowly, or in false tempo, is now-a-days -a very prevalent fault. And yet the singer has in the words -a surer guide than is granted to the instrumental performer. -Therefore, by well considering these and getting them by heart -without the music, as if they were the outpouring of his own -feelings, he will be most likely to strike the correct tempo in -singing them. In this way many of our recent favorite songs gain -a somewhat fresher tempo than that at which they are usually -sung. The choice of the time, being dependent upon the taste -of the artist, requires special attention and study. - -Although the tempo is usually indicated by some designation, as, -for example, allegro, adagio, &c., yet the allegro or adagio may -be given with different degrees of quickness, and the designations -still be perfectly correct. We have no precise designations for -the nicer degrees of tempo, and yet a very slight degree has an -influence upon the character of the piece. The metronome, by which -in instrumental music the tempo is defined, is only occasionally -used as a guide in vocal compositions, because the singer may be -guided by the words and by the sentiment which the words indicate. - -The _tempi_ must be ascertained by a knowledge of the composers, -and by reference to the periods in which their compositions -first appeared. It would be an error to play an andante by -_Bach_ or _Haydn_ like one of _Chopin's_ or _Hiller's_, or sing -the allegro of an aria by _Pergolese_ or _Caraffa_ as quickly as -the allegro of one of _Meyerbeer's_ arias. But whether a piece -of music be light and ornamental in character, or heavy and -labored, weak or powerful, quiet or passionate, depends on -rhythm and tempo. - - -COMPOSITION - -Classic art sought as the only aim in its works to represent -pure beauty. In the compositions of the old masters regard -was had only to the sweetness of melody, and everything was -excluded from them that did not fall agreeably upon the ear. -But in modern music what is even unfavorable to sensuous -pleasure is accepted, and we have accustomed ourselves to -a more vigorous and powerful mode of representation, the -aim being to excite by sudden contrasts. - -In so far as music is to represent the most secret life of the -soul, and as in art everything natural, so far as it admits of -being idealized and represented, is allowable, this tendency of -art in music has its justification. But here, as in everything -in which the principles of beauty are concerned, the true limit -must not be overstepped. The old masters composed only in -consonances, and _Helmholtz_ has shown scientifically that -consonances alone have an independent right to existence. -Dissonances, according to _Helmholtz_, are only permissible -as transition points for consonants, having no right of their -own to be. Down to _Beethoven_ we find dissonances correctly -employed by all the old masters. And greater and nobler effects -were attained than are possible to our modern musicians with -their accumulation of dissonances and sudden contrasts. - -With the two composers in whom our modern classic epoch reached -its zenith, begins the gradual decline of the art of singing. -_Mozart_ held it necessary to his musical education to study -in Italy the vocal compositions of the old masters, and to make -himself thoroughly acquainted with the qualities of the singing -voice. Hence the vocal compositions of Mozart will remain -beautiful and to be held up as models for all time, for they -unite the sweetest and loveliest melody with an appreciation -of sentiment the noblest and most ideal. - -The giant genius of _Beethoven_, inspired and artistic, found -the material developed to perfection by his predecessors, and -with overpowering strength forced it to yield itself to his -service. His masterworks of composition, in the grandeur of -their style, excel everything that had been produced before -him. But he has treated the human voice as a subordinate -instrument. - -Because all that _Beethoven_ produced was grand and beautiful, -he has been blindly imitated, and it has been wholly forgotten -that music has in all times drawn its best nourishment from -song, and only by means of song has it risen to its high -estate, and that instruments can never reach what is possible -to a thoroughly educated human voice. - -A musician, exclusively devoted to the piano, never dreams of -writing a concert piece for the violin, because he knows that -he is not sufficiently acquainted with the peculiarities of -that instrument; but every musician imagines himself able to -compose for the human voice, although its peculiar qualities -are far more numerous and far more difficult to be rightly -dealt with. - -The strictly classical musicians of the present reject all -Italian music as bad. The objection made to it is, that the -music is never adapted to the words, but often expresses -something wholly different and sometimes directly opposite to -their meaning, and that it never gives back to us any high, -poetic sentiment, but aims to bribe us with ornaments only, -and accidents. In regard to modern Italian music this judgment -may be just. These superficial compositions are a product of -Italian music in its decline, and can force for themselves -a certain popularity only by their pleasant and easy melodies. -Even the old Italian music seems at first sight to pay little -or no regard to the sense of the words, especially when the -time, according to the classic German method, is set too -quick. Upon closer study, however, we soon perceive that, -although the music is treated as the chief thing, the meaning -of the words is certainly given when the music is rightly -performed. Were it not so, our music would hardly ever have -been able to form and develop itself upon and through these -old vocal compositions. - -As the pictures of Titian, Rubens, and other great painters of that -time, who were masters of form as well as of color, will always be -considered as works of art and models, so the compositions of the -old Italian singing masters and of those who went from their schools -are to be held up as examples for vocal composition. In their works, -as in all the works of art of that time, form takes precedence of -the spirit, that is, the words and their poetic significance are -treated as secondary matters. But all the peculiar properties of the -human voice find therein due consideration; everything at variance -with them is avoided, and every interval, every vowel, is so -introduced that the voice can flow out with the greatest perfection. -These ornamented compositions can be sung more easily and with less -effort than a simple aria of a modern composer. - -The fine tact and the correct feeling with which in those old -vocal compositions what nature directs was observed, show that -they are the works of singers of the golden age of the art of -singing, of artists who with an exact knowledge of the beauties -and capabilities of the voice possessed, and in those days were -compelled to possess, the most thorough culture in the theory -of music. - -In opposition to this old, classic Italian style of composing -song, which considered and treated music for its own sake alone, -and regarded the words only in so far as they aided the voice -and the expression of the music, stands the classic style of -Germany. In this latter the first attention is paid to the -poetic meaning and expression of the text. Rightly to apprehend -the sense of the words and to give it, by means of the music, -a deeper, nobler expression--to transfigure it, as it were--is, -according to this style, the purpose of the composer, who -commonly has only the slightest reference to the peculiar -qualities of the voice and the fitness of the composition to -be sung. In the classic Italian style the form predominates--in -the German, the inspiration or soul of the composition. In the -Italian the music and the singing capability of the composition -are attended to almost exclusively. In the German, the main -thing is the poetical expression of the signification of the -words. When we now sing the wonderful and exquisite compositions -of _Schubert_, _Schumann_, _Mendelssohn_, etc., we soon feel the -impossibility of giving one or another tone as beautifully as it -should be given according to the quality of the voice, and as we -are able to give it by itself. Or it is hard for us to strike -this or that tone with perfect purity or with the requisite -force, &c. These songs are _not_ adapted to the voice as the old -Italian arias were, but composed without accurate knowledge of -the voice, and therefore cannot develop the voice in its highest -perfection. _Mendelssohn_ often lays the strongest expression in -his soprano songs upon the f-sharp2, the transition tone from -the falsetto register to the head voice. For the expression of -the highest passion, which requires strength, the head voice is -not adapted, at least not in its transition tone. Accordingly, -it is usually sought to sound this tone with the falsetto -register, to which it is not natural, and is therefore hard to -be sung, and also becomes sharp and offensive in the male voice -especially, where this note is formed just upon the transition -from the second chest register into the falsetto. _Schubert_, -again, in his songs commonly so places the words that the -favorable vowels seldom come upon the right tones. _Schumann_ -also very often uses intervals which come upon the boundary -tones of the register, and can hardly be struck with purity. -Thus there are very many hindrances to a fine development of -the voice, oftentimes in the most beautiful compositions of -our times, hindrances, which many of our composers are more -or less chargeable with putting in the way. - -It is evident from what has been said that it is by no means -a matter of indifference how the words of a song are translated -into another language. Compositions easily sung naturally lose -by translation, for it is generally left entirely to chance -whether the appropriate vowels fall upon the right tones. -A teacher must take great care, especially in beginning -instruction, to give his pupils compositions adapted to -singing. All the exercises and solfeggi should be expressly -arranged for the purpose, and also so arranged that the pupil -shall have steadily increasing difficulties to encounter, in -order that the vocal _technique_ may be fully illustrated. -Along with these exercises and solfeggi, arias should be -practised, particularly at the beginning. The older Italian -compositions are the best adapted to vocal culture, because -they were made with special reference to the qualities of the -voice. Arias are preferable to songs, because they usually -require more flexibility of voice, and therefore assist the -_technique_. In arias the music is more prominent than in -ballads, and the sentiment more marked and consequently more -easily apprehended. The same words are commonly more often -repeated, and must, of course, be sung differently, and thus -the pupil is brought acquainted at once with the different -external aids to a fine execution. - - -EXTERNAL AIDS TO A FINE EXECUTION - -A teacher must see to it at first with the utmost attention that -all the tones according to their pitch are struck with purity, -and this can be done only by his repeating them over and over -again to his pupil, because, as we have already remarked, our -pianos, according to the present method of tuning, are never -sufficiently pure to form a singing tone. When the learner -has once become familiarized to the fine sound of pure tones, -he will hear and distinguish them, and learn to strike them -correctly with our pianos. How important to a fine timbre of -the tones the right direction of the breath is and its control, -as well as the best mode of securing these points, we have already -described at some length. The old Italian masters had established -distinct rules by which the breath was to be renewed. - -These were: - -1. Before the beginning of a phrase. - -2. Before trills and passages (_fiorituri_). - -3. After tied notes. - -4. Before syncopes, and especially accented notes. - -5. Between two notes of the same pitch and the same value, -in slow phrases. - -6. After a short (_staccato_) note. - -7. At all pauses and resting-points. - -8. Before a note, which, by being accented, was to be especially -distinguished in the middle of musical passages, usually before -the highest note of a musical phrase, in order to give the music -a light, graceful character. - -In light, airy pieces of music, this last mode of taking breath -had a charming effect, but was mostly left to the taste of the -singer. The earlier singers, moreover, were very skilful in -finding those places where, according to the character of the -composition, an unusual taking of breath was of special effect. -On the other hand, it was considered an advantage in a singer -to take breath as rarely as possible, and, as we have intimated -in the introduction of this book, it was esteemed a great -accomplishment to sing long with one inhalation. - -In the old Italian music, by which the vocal _technique_ is -best illustrated, these rules must be observed. In German -music the breathing is governed by æsthetic principles, and -is regulated by the words of the song. Accordingly, breath -can be taken only at the beginning or end of a sentence, -conformably to the punctuation. But if the sentences are too -long, then the breath is to be taken at some fitting place in -the middle of the sentence, so that a word must not be broken -by the breath, nor the article or adjective separated from -the subject. - -An Italian aria, in which the attention is given chiefly to -the music and its externals, is executed far more easily and -beautifully than a German aria or a German song. Our German -ballads, full of deep sentiment and in which the music should -give a higher and richer expression to the poetic significance -of the words, require in their execution such sterling spiritual -culture as only the most extraordinary talent can supply the -place of. In the execution of these songs it is, above all -things, necessary that the words should be distinctly heard. -It easily happens in singing that the noise (_Geräusch_) of -the consonants partly from the stronger sound of the tones is -entirely covered, and so words are indistinctly heard. The sound -of the consonants must, therefore, be given more prominently in -singing than in common speech, so that they may be heard along -with the tones. It is a good practice to repeat the words, -exaggerating the articulation. Thus, by persevering attention, -a distinct articulation in singing may be attained without -difficulty. Recitative offers an excellent practice for this -purpose, the music here being subordinate to the words, -according to the intervals of which the composition is for -the most part constructed. Although our recitative is formed -after the declamation of the Greeks, yet it is not to be sung -like this, with pathos, but according to our modern taste, as -naturally as possible, just as in a like situation the words -would be spoken.[19] - -To the external aids to expression belongs the swelling of the -tones, one of the easiest, most natural, and most graceful of all -our helps. It consists in giving a tone, whose time permits it, -different degrees of strength. In a contrary way much time is -usually spent in singing the scales, beginning _piano_ and -increasing in strength to the greatest possible _forte_, and -then letting the voice grow weaker and weaker. Instead of these -exercises, which require exertion, the same thing can be attained -far more easily by swelling the tones where it is required in the -composition. In melancholy or mournful compositions, swelling -upon those tones which the rhythm requires to be accented is -very beautiful. But when exaggerated, or where a fresh, cheerful -character is to be preserved in the composition, this aid to -expression easily renders the effect sentimental. Unhappily, -our whole music is vitiated by this sickly sentimentalism, the -perfect horror of every person of cultivated taste. In these -later years the powerful reaction of German æsthetics has had -favorable results in regard to instrumental music, but in the -execution of vocal music this unhealthy fashion of singing still -always commands great applause. This sickly sentimental style has -also naturalized in singing a gross trick unfortunately very -prevalent, the _tremolo_ of the notes. When, in rare cases, the -greatest passion is to be expressed, to endeavor to deepen the -expression by a trembling of the notes is all very well and fully -to be justified, but in songs and arias, in which quiet and -elevated sentiments are to be expressed, to tremble as if the -whole soul were in an uproar, and not at all in a condition for -quiet singing, is unnatural and offensive. - -A very beautiful aid to expression, but now only seldom heard, -is the transition from one register to another on the same -note. A note begins with tolerable strength, for example, _d_, -with the action belonging to it of the chest register, and -while it grows weaker it passes imperceptibly into the action -of the falsetto tones. Or the reverse. A note of the chest -register is begun with the action of the falsetto, and becoming -stronger changes into the chest register to which it naturally -belongs. Correctly employed, the most delightful effects may be -produced in this way, especially by a male voice. - -Ornaments, such as _appoggiaturas_ and _turns_, _roulades_, -_trills_, &c., are to be used only with taste and care. The -old Italian compositions, which were so arranged as to show -the voice in its fullest brilliancy, have their ornaments -commonly in such phrases as were to be first sung several -times in a simpler way. In the frequent repetition of the same -melody and words, those places were designated by so-called -_firmates_, where it was permitted to the artist to introduce -embellishments according to his own taste. In German arias -embellishments are allowed to be introduced according to the -taste of the singer, only, however, with the greatest care; -but in German ballads not at all. And yet we often hear -artists, who have acquired a certain flexibility of voice, -introducing their little trickeries in the most inappropriate -places. - -But none of these aids to expression are to be used so often as -to become mere mannerisms. Only when employed in due measure can -they have an æsthetically fine effect. As so much depends upon -the taste of the singer, it is necessary that he should, above -all things, have a thorough appreciation of the sentiment which -is to find expression in the piece, and seek to make it his own, -and then the ornament is to be introduced only where it accords -with the sentiment, that is, where it is appropriate. The two -greatest artists of the present day, Lind and Stockhausen, -whose expression is perfect, take great pains to understand -the composition thoroughly, and in this way to be fully imbued -with the sentiment. - -Without the animation of a soul, singing fails of all effect upon -the hearer, and is ordinary and wearisome. But this animation -must be with understanding and taste--i.e., æsthetically beautiful. -For the beautiful continues beautiful and true only as long -as it is in proportion and not exaggerated--only while those -fine lines are not transgressed where it begins to be untrue, -that is, affected and ridiculous. - - -TIME OF INSTRUCTION - -The old Italians began with quite young pupils, commonly when they -were in their ninth or tenth year. The great demands which were -then made in regard to the technical culture of the voice required -a long time for instruction, usually five or six years. The -extraordinary fulness and power of tone possessed by the earlier -artists could be acquired only by persevering and adequate practice -of the vocal organ, taken while in the process of growth. Those -singers, men and women, whose voices have been celebrated for their -fulness and strength of tone, such as _Catalani_, _Perini_, &c., -sang in their fifth year, under the careful oversight of persons -musically cultivated. In childhood the impulse to imitation is -strongest, the vocal organs are more tender and pliant than in -adults; and hence, when care is taken to avoid fatiguing and -straining the voice, children learn much easier and better than -grown persons. They are also preserved by early and correct singing -from the many bad habits with which the teacher has to contend in -adults. That special skill and care are required in a teacher who -has in charge the voices of children, there can be no question. But -unhappily, no regard is paid to this consideration in the system of -teaching singing in the schools, universally introduced in France, -Germany, and Switzerland. To any teacher who can sing at all, -or play on any instrument, the tender voices of children are -entrusted, and he allows them to sing together in chorus, satisfied -if the tones are not grossly false and the time is kept, paying no -regard to the formation of the voice. Now it is well known that -even practised singers avoid singing much in chorus, considering it -injurious to the voice. Although schooled and educated voices can -endure a much greater strain than children's voices, yet children -are often, without any understanding, required to sing loud, in -order "to bring out the voice." In such a way of singing it is -simply impossible that every separate voice should be attended to, -even were the teacher competent to attend to it; while it often -happens that at the most critical age, while the vocal organs are -being developed, children sing with all the strength they can -command. Boys, however, in whom the larynx at a certain period -undergoes an entire transformation, reach only with difficulty the -higher soprano or contralto tones, but are not assigned a lower -part until, perceiving themselves the impossibility of singing -in this way, they beg the teacher for the change, often too late, -unhappily, to prevent an irreparable injury. Moderate singing, -without exertion, and, above all things, within the natural limits -of the voice and its registers, would even during the period of -growth be as little hurtful as speaking, laughing, or any other -of the exercises which cannot be forbidden to the vocal organs. -But it is wiser not to allow boys to sing at all while the larynx -is undergoing its change. - -The plan of introducing into schools instruction in singing, so -excellent in itself theoretically, tends, by the way in which -it is carried out in practice, to lessen the number of voices -susceptible of artistic culture, without any compensation in an -awakened feeling and understanding of music. In the palmy days -of the art of singing there was no instruction given in singing -in the schools, but there were instead numerous schools for -singing, where children were trained into artists by the most -skilful teachers, and whence proceeded good singers, male and -female, in great numbers. - -The numerous vocal music Unions and _Männerchöre_, as such, -contribute as little as school singing to the elevation and -improvement of the vocal art, the sole object of which is to -cultivate the individual voice for artistic singing. Considered -as a means of moral culture, the rise and increasing prevalence -of chorus singing among all orders of the people merit commendation -and aid, but not in the interest of the art of song. - -Apart from this school instruction, now becoming so popular, -people commonly venture to entrust their sons and daughters, -but not until they are quite grown, to a singing master to be -educated. But then it is expected that he shall, in the shortest -time possible, often in the space of a few months, advance them -so far that they shall be able to sing with applause before -company. - -Such is the case in Germany, and in a much higher degree in -America, while in the various conservatories of Europe there is -now required a period of from four to seven years for education -in the art of singing. In the Conservatory of Milan, which is -now held to be the best school for our art, pupils are admitted -only upon the condition that they will remain seven years. - -Thus, while every instrument, if anything is to be made out -of it, demands years of practice, to the human voice alone is -time denied, simply because, I suppose, almost every one has -a somewhat natural aptitude for singing. - -The greatest fault, however, is to be found in the present mode of -teaching singing, which is so superficial that people have become -accustomed to overlook the possibility of changing a voice and -rendering it beautiful. For the most part instruction begins where -and with what it should end; the aim is, paying only passing -attention to the timbre and the formation of tone (_Tonbildung_), -to teach the pupil to sing certain favorite pieces with the due -execution, and to see that the breath is taken at the right places -and that the tone is not too impure. But the human voice is -susceptible of much higher culture than any instrument. And it -requires more gifts and far more study to become a true and -distinguished artist in singing than are necessary to the mastery -of other instruments. It would most assuredly contribute to the -advancement and elevation of the vocal art, if gifted children, -as it often happened in former times, were early instructed in -singing with the requisite care and skill. Thus, educated for -their art, and giving to it their best powers, they would be able -to satisfy far higher demands and attain to quite another and -higher artistic perfection than we are wont now-a-days to find -anywhere among our vocal artists. Such children would then, at -the age at which at present instruction in singing begins, have -already mastered all technical difficulties and be able to apply -themselves chiefly to the æsthetic cultivation of their art. With -young girls especially, whose vocal organs do not change so much -as those of boys, the earliest possible beginning of instruction -would be in the highest degree advantageous. It is owing only to -the unnatural, overstrained method of studying the art of singing -now prevalent that a principle recognized and applied in the -learning of all other arts, and even in all the other branches -of music, has universal prejudice against it. - - -CONCLUSION - -An artist can be formed only by his own intelligence and -practice, under the direct guidance of a master. But here, -more than in any other art, the constant watchfulness of -a teacher is a necessity. For, as one gets only an imperfect -idea of his own personal appearance from a mirror, so the -singer and dramatic artist can form but a partial judgment of -his own performances. They are too subjective, and cannot be -viewed as an external whole, like the works of the painter -and sculptor. It is, moreover, as has already been remarked, -simply impossible to obtain even a partial knowledge of any -art from books alone, even if we were able to describe with -precision the fine, delicate differences of tones, colors -and forms. - -These pages, therefore, make no claim whatever to be regarded -as a manual of singing. They aim only to communicate and extend -a knowledge of the latest discoveries and advances in the domain -of vocal art, and to protest against and correct prevailing -prejudices and errors in regard to this art, as well as to -engage the attention of those to whose care the culture of -the voice is entrusted. - - [18] The friends of this style of music (programme music so - called) appeal to the authority of Beethoven, who, it is - claimed, opened the way for it when he introduced into his - Pastoral Symphony interlineations which should suggest the - right sentiment to the hearer. But, although Beethoven - allowed himself to approach the uttermost limits in this - direction, he never overstepped them. It was only in his - Pastoral Symphony that he introduced these interlineations, - and they do not entirely contradict the peculiar character - of the music, as so many of our modern programmes do. - - - PROGRAMME - - To Beethoven's Pastoral Symphony, December 22, 1808. - - I. Agreeable sensations upon visiting the country. - - II. Scene at a brook's side. - - III. Merry gathering of country people. - - IV. Thunder and storm. - - V. Happy and grateful emotions after the storm. - More emotional than descriptive. - Expression rather than representation of feeling. - - - PROGRAMME - - To a Prize Symphony, by Joachim Raff, performed in - Vienna, 1863. - - I. D major. Allegro. - Portrait of the German character,--its capability of - elevation, proneness to Reflection, Gentleness and - Valor, as contrasts that blend with and permeate one - another in manifold ways--overpowering proneness to - meditation. - - II. D minor. Allegro molto vivace. - In the open air, in the German grove, with the sound of - horns, Away to the fields, with the songs of the people. - - III. D major. Larghetto. - Gathering round the domestic hearth, transfigured - by love and the Muses. - - IV. G minor. Allegro-dramatico. - Ineffectual struggle to establish the unity of the - fatherland. - - V. D minor. Lament. D major. Allegro trionfale. - Opening of a new and elevated era. - - [19] Although our recitative is formed after the recitative - of the ancient drama, yet the latter, according to all - accounts, appears to have been very different from our - opera recitative, and to have had greater resemblance - to the monotonous recitation of the Romish Liturgy, - which seems to be a relic of ancient art. - - - - -APPENDIX - - - - -STRUCTURE OF THE VOCAL ORGANS - - -The larynx is a sound-giving organ belonging to that class of -wind instruments called reed instruments, although it differs in -various respects from all artificial arrangements of the kind. -The sound or tone-generating apparatus of the larynx consists of -tense, elastic _membranes_, the so-called _chordæ vocales_, which -are enclosed in a sounding case composed of movable cartilaginous -plates, and may be stretched by a certain apparatus of muscles in -very different and exactly measurable degrees. They are made to -vibrate audibly by a current of air impelled with various degrees -of force and at will by the lungs in expiration through the -narrow chink (glottis) formed by the fine edges of the chords. -Thus the lungs correspond to the bellows of the organ; the -trachea, at the top of which the vocal instrument is placed, -answers to the conduit (_Windrohr_), and the cavity of the throat -in front of the instrument with its two avenues, the mouth and -the nostrils, to the resonance pipe (_Ansatzrohr_). - - -THE LUNGS - -The lungs are two cellular, sponge-like elastic organs, largely -made up of little cavities of conical shape, which, in the -regular alternations of two opposite respiratory movements of -air, are at one time expanded, and then again compressed. The -two lungs are not of equal size; the right lung is one-tenth -larger in volume than the left. - - -THE TRACHEA, OR WINDPIPE, - -Through which the air of the lungs enters and passes out, -consists of from sixteen to twenty-six cartilaginous rings, -posteriorly incomplete, lying horizontally one above the -other. - -These rings are connected by a membrane covering them externally -and internally. As they enter the cavity of the chest, they divide -into two branches, likewise composed of rings, one entering the -right, the other the left lung. Before they join the lungs they -divide again into several smaller branches, which again subdivide -fork-like in the lungs, and terminate in numberless little -grape-like clusters of hollow vesicles. The diameter of the -trachea in adults is from one-half to three-fourths of an -inch when at rest. - - -THE LARYNX - -The larynx may be regarded as the funnel-shaped termination -of the trachea. It enlarges upward and is composed of various -cartilages more or less mobile, connected by ligaments and -moved by muscles. The exterior of the larynx is formed by the - - I. Thyroid cartilage. - II. Cricoid cartilage. - -The cartilages in the interior are: - - I. The Arytenoid cartilages. - II. Cartilages of Wrisberg. - III. Cartilages of Santorini. - IV. Cuneiform cartilages. - -To the cartilages of the larynx must be further added the -Epiglottis, with the little cartilage at the centre of its -inner side. - -1. The _thyroid cartilage_ is the largest cartilage of the larynx, -and consists of two four-cornered cartilaginous plates held together -in front and diverging behind; the anterior borders are convex, and -consequently where the two plates meet in front they form an upper -and a lower notch or slit. The posterior angles of this cartilage -extend into the so-called horns of the _thyroid cartilage_. At -the upper horns are ligaments attached, which form the connection -between the hyoid bone and the larynx, while the lower horns serve -to join the thyroid to the cricoid cartilage. In females and boys -the angle formed by the two plates of the _thyroid cartilage_ is -obtuse. In the male sex at a certain period the larynx changes -its shape, and the plates of the _thyroid cartilage_ then form an -acute angle, which is visible on the outside of the throat, and is -popularly known as the _Adam's apple_. At this time the diameter -of the male larynx becomes a third larger than that of the female -larynx, and in consequence the voice is lower, and its different -registers are more enlarged in compass. - -2. The _cricoid cartilage_ resembles in shape a seal ring; -its broader side is situated posteriorly between the lower -horns of the _thyroid cartilage_, and it is connected by its -lower edges immediately with the upper edge of the first ring -of the trachea. From its side at the back part project two -rounded surfaces, which give attachment to the _arytenoid -cartilages_. - -3. The _arytenoid cartilages_ are two small but very mobile bodies -in the form of three-cornered pyramids. The base of the pyramid -rests upon the before-mentioned rounded surface at the back of the -upper border of the _cricoid cartilage_; one of its sides turns to -the front, the two others to the back and outwards. The surfaces -between the anterior and postero-interior corners are accordingly -turned towards one another. The surface posteriorly is concave, -and affords space for a part of the _arytenoid muscle_; the inner -surface is smooth, and forms, during quiet breathing, a part of -the lateral wall of the larynx; the anterior surface is rough and -irregular, and to it adhere the _vocal chords_, the _thyro-arytenoid -muscle_, the _lateral and posterior crico-arytenoid muscles_, and -upon these the bases of the _cuneiform cartilages_. The _arytenoid -cartilages_ are lengthened at their summits by two little -pear-shaped elevations, the _cartilages of Santorini_ (called -_apophyses_ in Garcia's observations), which are connected with -them by ligamentous fibres, and extend with them some distance -into the larynx. - -4. The _cartilages of Wrisberg_ are described by Hyrtl as slight -elevations upon the front or anterior edge of the _arytenoid -cartilages_, inclining towards the interior, and, like all -parts of the larynx, covered by the mucous membrane. - -5. The _cuneiform cartilages_ (as Wilson names them) are two -long, slender cartilaginous laminæ which become somewhat broader -at both ends. These cartilages, with their base, rest in the -middle of the anterior surface of the _arytenoid cartilages_, -and reach to the middle of the vocal chords, by which they are -enveloped. The action of these cartilages renders possible the -production of the head tones, but they are not found in every -larynx. The fact that they are oftener found in the female -larynx than in that of the male, and that the male larynx is -mostly used in scientific investigations, as it is larger and -more easily dissected, may be the reason why up to the present -time no mention is made of them either in German or French -manuals. They are sometimes referred to as cuneiform cartilages, -or confounded with the cartilages of Wrisberg, probably because -it seemed unaccountable that these important bodies should so -long have escaped the attention of anatomists. - -From the anterior surface of the _arytenoid cartilages_, extending -towards the centre of the inner wall of the _thyroid cartilage_, -running diagonally through the cavity of the larynx, are stretched -the two pairs of chords already more than once mentioned--the vocal -chords, consisting of folds of the mucous membrane which envelopes -the whole larynx. The two lower of these chords, the vocal chords -strictly so called, into which the _cuneiform cartilages_ project -and through which the interior thyro-arytenoid muscles run, have -their points of attachment at the _arytenoid cartilages_, somewhat -lower than the upper pair. Each of these parallel pairs of chords -form between their lips a slit running antero-posteriorly. The slit -of the upper pair is opened in the shape of an ellipse; that of the -lower pair, the glottis, is very narrow. As the upper chords have -their point of attachment posteriorly and higher, they form with -the lower chords two lateral cavities, the ventricles. - -The two pairs of chords, therefore, are the free interior edges -of the membrane, covering the whole larynx and extending into it -to the right and the left. Only the lower vocal chords serve -directly for the generation of tones. More or less stretched and -presenting resistance to the air forcibly expired from the lungs -through the trachea, they are thus made to vibrate. The upper or -false vocal chords do not co-operate with them to generate tone, -but like all the remaining parts of the mouth and throat belong -to the resonance apparatus of the voice, to which also appertains -the back part of the mouth, the _pharynx_, over the oesophagus, -the throat, or gullet. This is separated from the anterior cavity -of the mouth by the palate, which is a curtain formed by the -mucous membranes of the cavity of the mouth, and the centre of -which forms the pendent uvula. - -Above the oesophagus, immediately over the palate, lie close -together, and separated only by a very thin osseous partition, -the two posterior nasal orifices. These serve as passages for -the air during inspiration and expiration; they are likewise -considered as belonging to the resonance apparatus. - -Upon both sides of the cavity of the mouth, between the two -wings of the palate, lie the tonsils, two glandular bodies, -which separate the sides of the cavity of the mouth from the -_pharynx_. The anterior cavity of the mouth, which is separated -from the nasal cavities by the palate, requires no description, -as every one can acquaint himself with its structure in his own -person and in others. Upon its formation, as well as upon the -position of its different parts and upon the character of those -parts of the larynx and of the cavity of the mouth which have -been described as the resonance apparatus, the difference in -the fulness and timbre of tones depends. - -The _epiglottis_ is fixed at the anterior portion of the -larynx, at the root of the tongue, within the angle formed by -the two surfaces of the thyroid cartilage. It is a very elastic -fibro-cartilage, freely moving in a posterior direction. Its -color is yellowish and its general form that of a spoon; its -upper surface is covered with a multitude of little mucous -glands set in shallow cavities. In the downward passage of food -the _epiglottis_ covers the upper orifice of the larynx like -a valve, over which the food passes into the oesophagus or -gullet, without being able to enter the larynx and the trachea. -In the centre of its interior side there is a little rounded -cartilage, movable in every direction, which has as yet no -name. Czermak mentions it first in his observations with the -laryngoscope. In the male larynx, after the voice has altered, -the cartilages become more or less ossified and gradually -harden with increasing age. The cartilages of the female -larynx, with rare exceptions, usually continue with little or -no change. The muscles, by which the movements of the larynx -are effected, are: - - I. The posterior crico-arytenoid. - II. The lateral crico-arytenoid. - III. The crico-arytenoid. - IV. The thyro-arytenoid. - V. The arytenoid. - VI. The internal thyro-arytenoid. - -In late works upon laryngoscopy the different muscles of the -larynx are variously designated and divided. Bataille terms the -first three of the above-named muscles the exterior muscles of -the larynx; the three others he comprehends under the name of -thyro-arytenoid or vocal muscle, which divides into three slips -in the interior of the larynx. This, however, as well as the -description of the character and action of the different muscles, -belongs to the department of science. What I have already stated -seems to me to be sufficient for an understanding of the action -of these organs in the production of sound in the different -registers. The reader is referred to any good manual of anatomy -for a full description of the muscles, ligaments, nerves, vessels -and membranes. - - -THE END. - - - - - TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE. - - The following amendments have been made to the original text: - - Page 24: - "and were the forerunners of the opera and oratorio" - for - "and were the fore-/runners of the opera and oratorio" - - Page 26: - "But in that brilliant springtime of vocal art" - for - "But in that brilliant spring-/time of vocal art" - - Page 30: - "i.e., the old singing masters taught" - No comma in original (added for consistency). - - Page 42: - "by their anterior apophyses, without leaving any space" - Comma missing from original. - - Page 48: - "vol. x. 4th Series, pp. 218-221, 1855." - for - "vol. x. 4th Series, p. 218-221, 1855." - - Page 66: - "i.e., those tones where a different action" - No comma in original (added for consistency). - - Page 79: - "the tones of the head register." - Period missing from original. - - Page 87: - "the reed of the mouthpiece." - for - "the reed of the mouth-/piece." - - Page 108: - "the air coming from the lungs through the trachea," - for - "the air coming from the lungs through the treachea," - - Page 118: - "then the high inharmonic over-tones are prominent," - for - "then the high inharmonic overtones are prominent," - - Page 132: - "a1 accented-b1 a1 accented-b1" - for (compare fourth note) - "a1 accented-b1 a1 accented-a1" - - Footnote 18: - "struggle to establish the unity of the fatherland." - for - "struggle to establish the unity of the father-/land." - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Voice in Singing, by Emma Seiler - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE VOICE IN SINGING *** - -***** This file should be named 42080-8.txt or 42080-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/2/0/8/42080/ - -Produced by David Newman, Daniel Emerson Griffith and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This file was produced from images generously made -available by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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