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diff --git a/42073-0.txt b/42073-0.txt index 01cc4ad..09325cf 100644 --- a/42073-0.txt +++ b/42073-0.txt @@ -1,39 +1,4 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Electric Gas Lighting, by Norman H. Schneider - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Electric Gas Lighting - How to Install Electric Gas Ignition Apparatus - -Author: Norman H. Schneider - -Release Date: February 11, 2013 [EBook #42073] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELECTRIC GAS LIGHTING *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Matthew Wheaton and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42073 *** ELECTRIC GAS LIGHTING @@ -2590,362 +2555,4 @@ etc., etc. End of Project Gutenberg's Electric Gas Lighting, by Norman H. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Electric Gas Lighting - How to Install Electric Gas Ignition Apparatus - -Author: Norman H. Schneider - -Release Date: February 11, 2013 [EBook #42073] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELECTRIC GAS LIGHTING *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Matthew Wheaton and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - ELECTRIC GAS LIGHTING - - - HOW TO INSTALL - - ELECTRIC GAS IGNITING APPARATUS - INCLUDING THE JUMP SPARK - AND MULTIPLE SYSTEMS - - FOR USE IN - - HOUSES, CHURCHES, THEATRES, HALLS, SCHOOLS, - STORES OR ANY LARGE BUILDINGS - - ALSO THE CARE AND SELECTION OF SUITABLE BATTERIES. - WIRING AND REPAIRS - - - By H. S. NORRIE - (NORMAN H. SCHNEIDER) - (_Author of "Induction Coils and Coil Making"_) - - - FIRST EDITION - - - NEW YORK - SPON & CHAMBERLAIN - 12 CORTLANDT STREET - - LONDON - E. & F. N. SPON, LIMITED, - 125 STRAND - - 1901 - - - Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1901 - By SPON & CHAMBERLAIN - in the office of the Librarian of Congress, Washington, D. C. - - - THE BURR PRINTING HOUSE, FRANKFORT AND JACOB STS., N.Y. - - - - -PREFACE - - -The Electric Light possesses the great advantage over gas, in that it -can be turned on or lighted from a distance. The customary means of -igniting gas with a match or taper is both dangerous and often -inconvenient. The inventive genius of modern times has evolved a means -of lighting gas by electricity which is both reliable and easy of -application. It requires no very complicated devices, nor does it -necessitate a deep knowledge of electrical matters for its -installation. The object of the following pages is to enable any one -possessing ordinary mechanical ability to construct much of the -apparatus used, or at least to successfully erect it and keep it in -operation. - -We beg to thank the following firms for the use of illustrations: -Edwards & Co., Mott Haven, New York; A. L. Bogart, New York; Wm. -Roche, New York; The Electric Gas-Lighting Co., Boston, Mass., and The -Manhattan Electrical Supply Co., New York. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I. - - INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. - - Introduction; means of producing sparks; Induction--Simple - induction coils--Ruhmkorff Coils 1 - - - CHAPTER II. - - MULTIPLE GAS LIGHTING. - - Application of induction coils to gas-lighting--Forms of burners - used--Pendant Burners--Ratchet Burners--Stem Burners--Welsbach - Burners--Burners for Acetylene Gas--Burners for - Gasolene--Automatic Burners 7 - - - CHAPTER III. - - CONNECTIONS AND WIRING. - - How to connect up apparatus--Wiring a house--Locating breaks or - short-circuits--Wiring in finished houses--General remarks 26 - - - CHAPTER IV. - - PRIMARY COILS AND SAFETY DEVICES. - - How to make a simple induction coil--Automatic Cut-outs--The - Syracuse Cut-out--Boston Cut-out--Edwards' Cut-out 46 - - - CHAPTER V. - - LIGHTING OF LARGE BUILDINGS. - - Series or Jump Spark System--Burners used--How to Wire--Edwards' - Condenser System--Switches for series lighting--How to make a - 2-inch spark, Ruhmkorff Coil 55 - - - CHAPTER VI. - - HOW TO SELECT BATTERIES FOR GAS LIGHTING. - - Electrical Rules--Electromotive - force--Amperes--Resistance--Selecting a battery--Arrangement of - battery--Series--Multiple--How to get high voltage or large - current--The Leclanche Cell--The Samson Cell--The Dry Cell and - how to make one--The Edison-Lalande Cell--The Fuller Cell--Care - and maintenance of batteries 78 - - - - - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - FRONTISPIECE--COMPLETE WIRING PLAN FOR A HOUSE. - 1 DIAGRAM OF SIMPLE CIRCUIT 2 - 2 DIAGRAM OF SIMPLE CIRCUIT WITH SPIRAL 2 - 3 DIAGRAM OF SIMPLE CIRCUIT WITH SPIRAL AND GALVANOMETER 2 - 4 DIAGRAM OF CIRCUIT WITH IRON CORE 4 - 5 DIAGRAM OF RUHMKORFF COIL 4 - 6 ELEVATION OF RUHMKORFF COIL 6 - 7 PENDANT BURNER 7 - 8 BURNER CIRCUIT 8 - 9 PLAIN BURNER 10 - 10 RATCHET BURNER 11 - 11 STIFF-PULL PENDANT 12 - 12 STEM BURNER 14 - 13 ARGAND BURNER 15 - 14 WELSBACH BURNER 16 - 15 ACETYLENE BURNER 17 - 16 PUSH BUTTON 19 - 17 BARTHOLDI BURNER 21 - 18 BOSTON AUTOMATIC 22 - 19 CONCEALED AUTOMATIC 24 - 20 DIAGRAM WIRING ONE "AUTOMATIC" FROM TWO PUSHES 27 - 21 DIAGRAM WIRING ONE "AUTOMATIC" AND TWO PENDANT BURNERS 28 - 22 SIMPLE SWITCH CONNECTIONS 33 - 23 DETAILS OF AUTOMATIC CONNECTIONS 35 - 24 DETAILS OF CELLAR AUTOMATIC CIRCUITS 35 - 25 NUT WRENCH 40 - 26 AUTOMATIC OPERATED BY DOOR-TRIP 44 - 27 PRIMARY COIL 46 - 28 SYRACUSE CUT-OUT 50 - 29 BOSTON CUT-OUT 51 - 30 DETAILS CUT-OUT ROD--NORMAL 52 - 31 DETAILS CUT-OUT ROD--OPERATING 53 - 32 BULB CUT-OUT 54 - 33 JUMP SPARK BURNER 56 - 34 WELSBACH BURNER FOR SERIES LIGHTING 56 - 35 PILLAR BURNER 56 - 36 CIRCUIT FOR JUMP SPARK GAS LIGHTING 57 - 37 INSULATOR 59 - 38 EDWARDS' CONDENSER 60 - 39 EDWARDS' BURNER 61 - 40 EDWARDS' BURNER 61 - 41 DIAGRAM OF EDWARDS' CONDENSER CIRCUIT 62 - 42 CIRCUIT FOR JUMP SPARK SWITCH 64 - 43 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRAILER 66 - 44 DIAGRAM OF RUHMKORFF COIL CIRCUIT 68 - 45 WINDINGS OF SECTIONS 73 - 46 SECTIONAL DIAGRAM 74 - 47 CONTACT BREAKER 75 - 48 CONTACT KEY 76 - 49 FALL OF POTENTIAL DIAGRAM 79 - 50 SERIES ARRANGEMENT 81 - 51 MULTIPLE ARRANGEMENT 82 - 52 LECLANCHE CELL 84 - 53 SAMSON CELL 87 - 54 NEW STANDARD CELL 90 - 55 EDISON-LALANDE CELL 92 - 56 FULLER CELL 94 - 57 GRENET CELL 95 - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. - - -The enormous number of fires arising from the use of matches, and the -great convenience and freedom from danger of the electric method of -gas lighting, are alone sufficient reasons for the issue of these -pages. - -The veriest tyro in electrical operations knows that electricity will -cause a spark, and most persons are aware that the spark possesses -considerable deflagratory powers, varying with the character of the -spark. In electric gas lighting a spark of the proper character is -passed across a jet of gas and ignites it. Sparks can be produced by -various means: friction, battery current, induction either galvanic or -electro-magnetic, by a Wimshurst or Toepler Holtz machine, or an -induction coil operated by a battery. For our purposes we will -consider only the latter; the former are rarely used, being uncertain -and unwieldy. - -Of batteries there are many kinds, and although all will produce -sparks, yet for electric gas lighting those made for intermittent work -and classed as open circuit cells are to be preferred. Open circuit -batteries, which will be fully described in a subsequent chapter, -include the Leclanche, and most of the so-called "dry" cells. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.] - -If two wires be attached to a cell of battery _B_, one to the carbon -or positive pole and the other to the zinc or negative pole, and their -free ends be tapped together, minute sparks at _C_ will be observed -each time the wires _separate_ (Fig. 1). If now a coil of insulated -wire _S_ be included in the circuit, Fig. 2, upon repeating the make -and break of contact, the sparks will be much increased. This arises -from _induction_, each adjacent turn of wire acting upon its neighbor. -To better understand the action of induction, we will consider the -following examples: Fig. 3. _A_ is a circuit in which is the battery -cell _B_. _C_ is a second circuit lying close to but well insulated -from circuit _A_. _G_ is a galvanometer in which a magnetized needle -swings right or left each time a current is passed through a coil of -wire encircling it. Now, although there is no battery cell in circuit -_C_, yet the needle will swing each time the circuit _A_ is closed or -opened; that is, each time the wire ends are touched together or -separated. This swing of course indicates that a current is passing -through circuit _C_, but as there is no battery or other source of -electrical energy included in it, it is clear that it arises from the -action of the current in circuit _A_. In point of fact, the needle -swings one way when the circuit is closed and the reverse way when it -is opened; but the greater swing on opening the circuit indicates the -greater strength of the _induced_ current at the moment the current -ceases to flow in circuit _A_. Note that these current impulses are -only momentary. In the case of our single coil, Fig. 2, each turn of -wire acted upon itself in a similar manner to the circuit _A_ upon -circuit _C_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.] - -An iron rod or bundle of iron wires, _P_, inserted in the coil, Fig. -4, but carefully insulated from it, will immensely increase the -inductive effects and consequently the spark. This arrangement -constitutes the simple primary coil used in pull-down or pendant and -automatic burners. This spark is often a source of inconvenience; it -appears wherever a circuit including similar coils is made and broken. -In telegraph apparatus at key and relay contacts it is noticeable; in -fact, the writer has used temporarily a pair of electro-magnets from a -telegraph sounder and obtained spark enough to operate a gas lighting -burner. - -To produce a long spark which will jump across an air gap, a more -complicated form of coil is needed, one which more closely corresponds -to the experiment noted in Fig. 3. The simple primary coil has here -another coil of finer wire, _S_, wound on it but carefully insulated -from it (Fig. 5). This second coil, or "secondary," has a vast number -of turns of fine wire as compared with the primary, which has only -comparatively few turns of coarse wire. A primary coil of 40 feet of -No. 14 B. & S. copper wire would be inserted in a secondary coil of -perhaps 16,000 feet of No. 36 B. & S. This secondary coil, in fact all -the apparatus constituting the induction coil, must be most highly -insulated, as the electromotive force of the spark is tremendous, and -it would be liable to pierce its way through and into the internal -winding and so destroy the apparatus. The circuit in the primary is -made and broken either by a hand key or by an automatic -contact-breaker at _C_. With a large coil, the intensity of the spark -at _G_ is such that it will jump an air-gap of from one-eighth of an -inch to over three feet.[1] - - [1] See Norrie, _Induction Coils and Coil-Making_. - -This combination of coils and contact-breaker is generally known as a -Ruhmkorff or intensity coil, and is shown in elevation in Fig. 6. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.] - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -MULTIPLE GAS LIGHTING. - - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.] - -As we have already seen how a spark is exhibited at an interrupted -contact, the means of its application to gas lighting will be -considered. Fig. 7 represents the most generally used kind of electric -gas burner or "pendant burner." Its application is shown in Fig. 8. -The wire _W_ from the coil _C_ is attached to the brass insulated -collar carrying the contact _S_. The other wire from coil _C_ and -battery _B_ is attached to the gas pipe _G_. As the burner is also -screwed into the gas pipe itself, the circuit would be closed were it -not for the gap at _A_ on the burner, caused by the collar carrying -the contact _C_ and wire _W_, being insulated from the burner pillar -_P_. When, however, a pull is given to the burner arm chain so as to -cause the end of the spring _R_ to strike contact _C_ in passing, -contact is made and broken, and a spark passes which ignites the gas -issuing from the burner tip, the gas having previously been turned on. -A piece of chain with a metal ball is attached to the burner arm in -order to pull it down. In this class of burner there are many -different makes differing only in minor details. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.] - -Fig. 9 shows a form of pendant burner which has no platinum contact, -but has a broad lug on the insulated collar which is scraped against -by the spiral spring when the arm is pulled down. It will be seen that -the lug is not held by an insulated collar on the burner top, but is -on the extension of an arm attached to the burner pillar by a large -screw and insulating washers. The circuit wire goes under the smaller -screw seen on the lower part of the contact arm, this forming a -strong and neat form of attachment. - -[Illustration: FIG. 9.] - -Now it has heretofore been necessary to turn on the gas before pulling -the chain of a pendant burner, but as this is not always desirable the -ratchet burner is made. Fig. 10 shows burner carrying a toothed wheel, -which is partly rotated when the arm is pulled down. This wheel is -mounted on the stem of a valve which opens or shuts according to the -point of rotation, and thus shuts off or admits the gas to flow up to -the burner. One pull of the arm turns the gas on; at the same time the -wipe spring touches the contact on burner collar, and the gas lights. -A second pull and the wheel, rotating, turns off the gas. In all -burners of this class a spring is provided to carry the arm up and -back into its original position ready for another pull. Some burners -do not make contact when the arm flies back, thus saving battery -current. - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.] - -Fig. 11 is an improved form of burner wherein the movable electrode -does not pass through the gas flame, neither do the electrodes come in -contact with each other when the gas is being turned off. Reference -to the cut will show a pin protruding from the base of the coiled -spring electrodes, which pin is so arranged as to come in contact with -the short end of the pull-arm. When this pull-arm is pulled down it -pushes up this pin, elongating the spiral spring electrode -sufficiently to make and break contact at the fixed electrode on the -burner collar. This burner can be fitted with a porcelain candle slip -if desired to match the imitation candle burners. - - -STEM BURNERS. - -Objection is sometimes made to the ordinary chain pulls from the fact -that they jar the fixtures, and also are liable to bend the fixture -branches from the strain used in operating the arm. To overcome these -objections the stem style of burner is manufactured (see Fig. 12). -This stem, it will be seen, carries a convenient key at the end, which -is turned either right or left as in an ordinary gas-cock. The moving -contact only makes contact when the gas is being turned on and -lighted. When turning it off, the arm is retracted so as not to touch -the fixed electrode, thus saving battery current. - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.] - -Fig. 13 is a simple lighting attachment for an Argand burner. The -moving lever which carries the pull has a German silver spiral spring -on its top end. This strikes against the lug projecting from the -circuit-wire arm and makes a spark. The lower part of the circuit-wire -arm has a screw and washers for ready attachment, and is strongly and -substantially made. - -[Illustration: FIG. 13.] - -A means of igniting the gas from a Welsbach burner is shown in Fig. -14, and is so simple as to need no further explanation. - - -ACETYLENE BURNERS. - -Owing to the deposits of carbon, it is necessary to construct burners -for acetylene gas in a different and more substantial manner than -those designed for coal gas. - -[Illustration: FIG. 14.] - -The best arrangement is depicted in Fig. 15, which has a pilot-tube -burner as well as the two main tips. On turning the key, gas is -admitted to both main and pilot burners, but the electrode in -breaking contact only ignites the gas at pilot burner, which, in its -turn, acts as a lighter for the main burner. Turning the main burner -out, the pilot light can be left burning if desired, giving a small -light, it being not feasible to turn _down_ the main burner owing to -the before-mentioned carbonization. - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.] - -The orifice of an acetylene burner is much smaller than that of a coal -gas burner, the former burning about one-half foot per hour, against -six or seven feet of the latter. - - -BURNERS FOR GASOLENE. - -The flame from this gas is hotter than that of coal gas, and deposits -so much more carbon that a slight modification is necessary in the -construction of burners for it. The details can be readily seen on -observation of a burner, being simply in the adjustment of the -contacts and their operation. It is better, however, to use a larger -coil and a stronger battery for gasolene gas lighting than would be -needed for coal gas--say, 6 cells of Samson, or large-size New -Standard dry battery and a 10-inch coil having about 4 pounds or more -of wire on it. - - -AUTOMATIC BURNERS. - -[Illustration: FIG. 16.] - -There are several forms of these burners, but the principle of all is -the same. A gas burner protrudes from the top of a brass case which -encloses the actuating mechanism. This mechanism consists generally of -two electro-magnets, the armature of one opening the valve and -allowing the gas to flow, at the same time vibrating a platinum-tipped -rod against an electrode upon the burner collar. This produces a -series of sparks at the burner tip which ignites the gas. A second -magnet is provided which shuts the valve and extinguishes the gas. -Some devices use one electro-magnet to both open and close the valve, -but the majority have double electro-magnets. The circuit is worked -from a push button, Fig. 16, situated wherever desired; pressure on a -white button lights the gas and on a black one shuts it off. - - -BARTHOLDI AUTOMATIC BURNER. - -Instead of a rotating stop-cock, as in other automatics, a gravity -valve is employed in the Bartholdi, which is held to its seat by the -weight of the armature and connecting stem, as shown in figure 17. -When the gas is turned off the valve rests upon its seat, as indicated -in the cut. By a closure of the electric circuit at the turn-on -button, two of the helices _M P_ are energized, causing the armature -_J_ to be lifted, thus, by means of the stem _H_, raising the valve -_G_ from its seat into the dotted position, and opening the gas way so -that the gas may issue to the tip, as shown by the arrows. At the same -time, the top of the valve strikes against the end of the lever _W_, -causing the circuit to be broken at the spark points _T U_, -resulting in a continuous sparking as long as the finger presses the -button. The magnet when raising the armature has also twisted or -partially revolved it, so as to bring the notch _d_ in the armature -over the end of the hook _e_, as shown in the dotted lines. When the -circuit is broken by lifting the finger from the button, the notch -falls into the hook and the valve is locked open. - -[Illustration: FIG. 17.] - -To extinguish the flame, the turn-off button is pressed, when a second -magnet (not shown in cut) lifts the armature and twists it in the -opposite direction, so that when the circuit is broken the armature -falls free to its normal position, closing the valve. - -[Illustration: FIG. 18.] - - -THE ADVANCE AUTOMATIC. - -This automatic burner, Fig. 18, is typical of the class having two -magnets, one to open valve and light gas, and another to close valve -and extinguish the light. It embodies an improvement over the older -types of burners in that the binding posts are mounted on a rubber -strip held by two screws, thus preventing the twisting and loosening -so common heretofore. It also allows of the valve being opened and gas -lighted by means of a match should the battery fail. - - -VIBRATOR BURNER. - -This is an automatic burner which has no valve mechanism, but ignites -the gas only. It is generally placed in a cluster or ring where the -burners are close enough to light by contagion. It is much smaller in -diameter than the regular automatic burners, being but one and -three-quarter inches in diameter. - - -ARGAND AUTOMATIC BURNERS. - -Automatic burners are also made for Argand, but present no radical -difference in construction over the regular type. - - -THE CONCEALED AUTOMATIC BURNER. - -[Illustration: FIG. 19.] - -This automatic, Fig. 19, consists of two iron-clad magnets, placed one -above the other, between which is located a gas valve. Through an -extension of the latter a pin is driven, one end acted upon by the -upper armature to open the valve and ignite the gas, the other by the -lower armature which serves to close the valve and extinguish the -flame. Around the burner is placed a porcelain candle slip of 3/4-inch -diameter and from 4-3/4 inches in length upwards. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -CONNECTIONS AND WIRING. - - -Fig. 20 shows how to connect up an automatic burner with two pushes; -thus one can be downstairs in the hall and the other upstairs, -allowing one to either extinguish or light the gas from either place. -The value of this arrangement is obvious; it allows one to light up -the hall before descending at night, or to put out the gas after one -is safely upstairs. Again, an automatic burner can be put in the -cellar and lighted and extinguished from the head of the -cellar-stairs, saving matches and danger of fire. - -Fig. 21 shows the connections of one automatic burner and two pendant -or rachet burners. _P P_ are the pendent burners, _A_ the automatic -burner, _C_ the primary coil, _S_ the buttons which control the -automatic burner, _M M M_ the cells of battery, of which there -should be at least four, if not six. A low-resistance cell must be -used here, as before mentioned, one that gives not _less_ than 5 -amperes on short circuit. It will be seen here that one side of the -battery is connected to ground (or gas pipe), the circuit being -completed owing to the burners being themselves screwed into the gas -pipe. Care must be taken, however, to first see that no insulating -bushings have been used at the gas fixtures, as is done in wiring for -electric light. In this case a double circuit will have to be run. - -[Illustration: FIG. 20.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 21.] - -In wiring up an automatic burner with two electro-magnets, two wires -are run, one from the black button and one from the white button on -push-plate. Most burners have binding posts inside the case, the wires -running through a rubber-bushed hole in the base. One of the greatest -defects in the old style automatics arose from the two binding posts -being fixed on a hard rubber block, which was held by one screw to the -burner top. This screw got loose at times and the block used to twist, -making it hard to tighten the wires. But improvements have been made -in this direction, the later burners having a block with a projection -which engages in a hole in the cover, and is held by two screws. - -If the push has been set in place, and all wiring done, connect up the -burner, first ascertaining to which binding post the two wires run. -This is done by having one button pressed, the lighting (white) one, -for example, and then touching the binding post with either wire. The -lighting armature will buzz violently when touched, whereas the -extinguishing one only strikes once when contact is made. When only -one person is working, a pin can be wedged in the push so as to keep -the circuit closed. - -In setting up these burners care must be taken not to bend contacts or -alter adjustments, and absolute precaution is necessary that no wires -touch where uninsulated. A cause of trouble is a dirty burner which -does not allow the gas to strike the contact spark. The collar -carrying the second contact may shift, or perhaps become -short-circuited in a pendant or ratchet burner; a strip of asbestos -will remedy this. - - -BURNER DISTRIBUTION. - -In fitting a house with electric lighting burners, the question of -selection is best solved as follows: For the main hall and foot of the -cellar-stairs, use the automatic burner. For other hallways, -dining-room, drawing-room, and bathroom use ratchet burners which turn -on and light gas when chain is pulled. For bedrooms use plain pendant -burners; automatics and ratchets add an element of danger, in that -they may not turn off gas, or may leak. Most of this type on the -market are as reliable as it is possible to make them, but still -accidents will happen. - -The frontispiece shows a diagram of the wiring in a dwelling house of -medium size, dividing it into three sections, each section being -controlled by a switch--either a hand switch or one of the automatic -cut-out switches elsewhere described. The burners are distributed as -follows: - -No. 1 in the front cellar, pendant or ratchet. - -No. 2 in the rear cellar at foot of stairway is an automatic burner -controlled from kitchen above. - -Nos. 3 and 4 ratchet burners on chandeliers in drawing-room and -dining-room. - -No. 5 ratchet or pendant in kitchen. - -No. 6 pendant in bedroom. - -No. 7 ratchet or pendant in bathroom. - -No. 8 pendant in bedroom. - -No. 9 pendant in bedroom. - -Nos. 10, 11, and 12 pendants in bedroom. - -No. 13 automatic burner in hallway operated from pushes in lower and -in upper hallways. - -The articles required for this job are as follows: - -Two automatic burners. - -Three gas lighting push-buttons and bases. Pendant and ratchet burners -according to number of lights in rooms. - -Six cells--open circuit battery. - -One three-lever switch. - -One 8 or 10 inch spark coil. - -Three pounds No. 16 patent finish office wire. - -Two ounces No. 24 gas-fixture wire. - -One pound tinned 3/8" staples. - -Few square inches tinfoil. - -Small roll insulating tape. - -Tools: 4-inch screwdriver, pocket knife, 4-1/2-inch side-cutting -pliers, hammer, piece of sandpaper. - -The simple section switch is shown enlarged in Fig. 22. The wires 1, -2, and 3 are from their respective circuits and terminate at the -switch arms _A A A_. The wire from the battery _B_ and coil _C_ -runs to _each_ switch-stud _S S S_. If trouble shows on the line, -each circuit can be thrown off by moving its switch arm until the -fault is located. If it is not found at once, and the battery is weak, -(test each cell with an ordinary electric bell), open all the circuits -until the battery is recuperated, and disconnect the battery wire -from the switch. Then attach the battery wire to the bell and touch -each switch lever with a wire from the other binding post of the bell. -If there is a short circuit on any section, the bell will ring or -tremble when the arm is touched. - -[Illustration: FIG. 22.] - -On the contrary, if the burners fail to work and no sign of a short -circuit can be thus obtained, it is evident that a wire is broken or -a screw is loose. - -To locate a break, connect up the bell as just described and attach -the testing wire to the switch with all levers closed; this is -actually putting the bell in series with the battery, coil, and -ground. Then hunt for the break. Take a long piece of wire and fasten -one end to a ground pipe. Then touch the other end to the circuit wire -in the cellar as far as you can go, baring the insulation in spots, -but carefully re-insulating it again. If there is no break in the -cellar, the bell will ring loudly at each contact. Next, proceed to -the next floor and repeat the operation, gradually working _away_ from -the battery. As soon as you pass the break, the bell will fail to -respond. Two persons here are better than one, as it may be necessary -to go quite a distance from the bell before finding the trouble. - -Fig. 23 shows details of the wiring from the hall light to the two -push-buttons. A wire is run right down from the top push _T_, middle -connection, past the lower push _L_, where a similar branch joins it, -until it reaches the section switch. The lighting and extinguishing -wires from the lower push run up and are joined on to the similar -wires from the top push, which latter wires go directly through the -floor and ceiling to the automatic burner _A_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 23.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 24.] - -Fig. 24 is the detail of the wiring for the cellar automatic burner -_A_, from the push _P_, and is so clearly shown as not to require -further explanation. - -The secret of success in gas-lighting work is careful wiring. The -platinum tip of the vibrating rod is often bent, either by accidental -blow or by the continual hammering against the tip on the collar. This -often causes an open circuit when the lighting armature refuses to -buzz. Again, soot will form, causing weak action owing to imperfect -contact. Examine, adjust, and clean; here, as in all electrical work, -contacts must be clean. - -In general wiring, use weatherproof office wire, or, better still, -well-made electric light wire. For ordinary house work No. 16 B. & S. -gauge is preferable; smaller wire means higher resistance and less -current at burner. For braided office wire, No. 16 runs about 95 feet -to the pound, No. 18 about 135 feet to the pound. The cheaper grades -of wire without the patent finish or extra insulation are not worth -using; sooner or later trouble will ensue, and once a house is wired, -it is no pleasant job to hunt trouble, especially if the wire was put -on before the plaster. In modern buildings in large cities, the use of -conduit tubes has become general, but the handling of these conduits -comes more under the province of the electric-light wireman and less -within the scope of these pages. - -In wiring new wooden buildings do not draw wires too tight; the wood -may expand and either break wire or cause a weakening of the -insulation. In wiring before the plaster is put on, always leave a -good length free, so it will not be covered up by the plasterers. - -The wire used on the gas fixture is of a special kind, being made for -the purpose. It is made in two sizes, No. 22 and No. 24 B. & S. gauge, -and with three windings of cotton, three outer layers of cotton and -one of silk, or three windings of cotton which is soaked in fireproof -preparation, and then wound with silk. - -As the piece used is generally short, these small sizes are sufficient -in carrying capacity. After wiring up a fixture, this fine wire can be -tied on to the pipes, etc., with thread, and a good coating or two of -shellac varnish applied. When this is dry, the thread can be removed -and the shellac will hold the wires on to the fixture. On no account -finally connect up the battery to a circuit when shellacking the wire. -Wait until the shellac is thoroughly dry and _hard_--at least half a -day, if possible. - -White lead is generally used at the joints where the burner screws -into the fixture, but tinfoil wrapped round the joint will give good -service. It prevents leaks and ensures a good contact. - -The ground connection at the battery must be first-class; do not be -content with just wrapping a few turns of wire around the pipe in the -cellar (assuming the battery is in the cellar), but clean and scrape -the pipe; clean at least two feet of the wire, wind it tightly and -evenly on the pipe and _solder_ it. There is a pipe-clamp made which -is clamped on the pipe and the wire attached to that, but it must be -properly put on a clean surface. - - -WIRING FINISHED HOUSES. - -In wiring finished houses, especially wooden ones, the wires can be -run along skirting boards, and often pushed out of sight in the space -between the floor and the skirting. This is quite permissible, as the -wires, unlike electric-light wires, carry no dangerous current; but -waterproof wire becomes preferable, as the water used in washing a -floor will often creep under and rot the insulation. In going -upstairs, wires can often be run in the fluting of a moulding along -the stairway, and be quite inconspicuous; but wherever possible, fish -the wires up inside the wall. The main thing to be considered in -wiring is that the wires are large enough, well insulated, all joints -well made and taped and put where there is no danger of injury. Rats -have a habit of gnawing paraffin-coated insulation, and it is well to -run such in metal tubes. In joining or splicing wires, do it in a -thorough manner, and solder if possible. Never use the old bell-hanger -joint--the one in which the ends of the wires are merely looped -together. Strip insulation and scrape or sandpaper bright about three -inches of each wire to be spliced. Then, placing the bare wires across -each other about three-quarters of an inch from the insulation, -tightly wind the loose bare ends of each around the bare inside -portion of the one it is being spliced to. A touch of solder will -prevent trouble from oxidation, after the adhesive tape has been -wrapped on. Attention to details like these will often ensure the -satisfactory working of the job. - -A handy tool for gas-lighting wiring is shown in Fig. 25. One end is -bored out to fit the small nuts on the ratchet and pendant burners, -and the other is filed flat for use as a screwdriver. - -[Illustration: FIG. 25.] - -A case may arise where there is electric light on the same chandelier -as the gas lights, and that an insulating bushing has been screwed in -between the fixture and the pipe. In this case it will be necessary to -run two wires to each burner, the pipe common return being now -unavailable. Another scheme is to interpose an insulating bushing -under each burner; then the second or return wire need only be run -from the burner to the gas pipe _outside_ the main bushing. But the -local fire-insurance rules must first be consulted. - -Most ceiling gas fixtures will admit of the fixture wire being run -inside the brass shell, which makes a neater job. But the very best -of insulation must be used, and great care be taken that it be not -abraded. It should be shellacked or otherwise insulated before use. -The electric-light fixture wires are admirable for use here if there -is room. - -For concealed work in a finished house, locate the position of the -fixture under the floor of the room above by measuring both in the -room where the fixture is and in the room above. Then cut out a piece -of the floor, drill up from underneath through the fixture -plaster-rose with a fine drill, and push the fixture wire up. The main -wire can be laid under the carpet, or along the floor-crack in the -upstairs room. - -In wiring up wall-fixtures, push-buttons, etc., it is often possible -to fish the wire up from the floor by punching a hole at the fixture -and inserting a piece of chain (made for the purpose), attached to a -long and stout thread. Then drill into the skirting near the floor -plumb underneath the first hole and fish for the chain with a piece of -wire having a hook on the end of it. Where fixtures have brass -rosettes, these can be removed by (generally) unscrewing the fixture, -_but first shut off the gas_ at the meter, or plug the hole; this may -seem unnecessary advice, but experience warrants its being given. When -the chain is fished out, a piece of wire can be attached to the thread -and pulled through in turn. In most cases its point of exit at the -fixture can be concealed by the rosette, through a hole in which it -passes. Take care that the edges of this hole do not cut the -insulation. Care must be taken at every step in gas-lighting wiring. - -In wiring up a push-button, screw all wires tightly under their -respective binding screws, and then cover wherever possible with -adhesive tape. As the wires must be somewhat loose to allow of the -connections being made at the back of the push-button at the wall, -they will have to be carefully pushed into the hole, and if they are -not tightly held by screws, trouble will result. It is a good plan, -when using fine enough wire, to make a sort of eye at the end of the -wire and pass the screw through this, instead of merely giving the -wire end a turn around the screw and then driving the screw home. Of -course washers should be used wherever an ordinary screw holds a bare -wire. - - -AUTOMATIC BURNER OPERATED BY DOOR. - -One of the uses to which an automatic burner can be put is in -conjunction with an electric door-spring, lighting when the door is -opened, but preferably extinguished by independent push. In this case, -a form of trip spring should be used which would only make contact -during a portion of the travel of door. Such a trip is shown in Fig. -26. - -_A_ is automatic burner; _C_, the primary coil; _B_, the battery; _T_, -a swinging trip piece of brass hinged in brass plate, _P_, which is -screwed over the door in such manner that the door opening in -direction of the arrow will cause the trip _T_ to strike against the -spring _S_, and make contact. This spring is insulated from the plate -_P_ by the hard rubber block _R_. - -On the door being opened, the trip will make contact long enough to -light the burner and will then fall back as the door passes. On -shutting the door, the trip will be raised and will fall as the door -passes, but will not make contact. Or, if so desired, it can be made -to operate a second contact to extinguish the burner by fixing a -second insulated spring so it will be pressed when the top of trip -makes a downward movement--as when the door passes it in shutting. - -[Illustration: FIG. 26.] - -Various applications of automatic burners in connection with burglar -alarms will suggest themselves, but in these cases the utmost care -must be taken that the apparatus is in good working order; failure to -light might cause the room to be filled with gas, and serious results -ensue. - -For those persons who use gas stoves and are mechanically inclined, an -arrangement of an alarm clock with an automatic burner will enable -them to light up without getting out of bed, or perhaps even waking -up. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -PRIMARY COILS AND SAFETY DEVICES. - - -To construct a primary coil such as used with pendant or automatic -burners presents no difficulty. The most convenient sizes are those 8 -to 10 inches in length and about 3 inches in diameter. It is quite -common to speak of these coils as _8 or 10 inch coils_; to the -writer's knowledge this has been taken to mean a Ruhmkorff or -double-wound induction coil, giving a free 8 or 10 inch spark. - -[Illustration: FIG. 27.] - -To make such a coil (Fig. 27), proceed as follows: Prepare a spool by -gluing a paper or fibre tube 3/4 inch in outside diameter by about -1-16 inch thick into square or round spool ends three inches square, -one-half inch thick, and having each a centre hole just large enough -to admit of the tube being held tightly. These ends should be firmly -fixed on the tube; a pin or two driven through tube into end will -assist in strengthening the joint. Now wind on the tube about 3 pounds -No. 12 B. & S. cotton-covered magnet wire. This will give about six -layers of 80 turns each, nearly 500 turns in all, a total length of, -say, 150 feet, measuring .25 ohm. The ends of the wire are to be -brought out through holes drilled in the spool ends, and can be fixed -to brass binding posts on those ends. - -Into the paper tube push as many iron wires 8 inches long by No. 22 B. -W. gauge as will fill it. These iron wires can be tightened finally by -driving in at each end, a stout wire nail. - -Although not absolutely necessary, a coat or two of shellac varnish -applied to the windings will make a better insulation. Shellac varnish -is readily made by dissolving one part gum shellac in four parts of -alcohol. For coils which are likely to be in damp places, a good -saturation with insulating compound, such as P. & B. paint, will -render them waterproof. The need for good insulation in these primary -coils is not so urgent as in Ruhmkorff coils, owing to the lower -potential of the current. - -A smaller coil can be made with No. 14 B. & S. wire where the battery -is of higher resistance (or gives less than ten amperes on short -circuit). The remarks on battery selection on another page will be -found to meet application here. - - -AUTOMATIC CUT-OUTS. - -Where there are a number of burners to be installed in different parts -of a house, it becomes desirable to wire in a number of circuits. As -one end of the circuit is already grounded, a second ground will cause -material injury to the battery if not detected in time. It becomes, -therefore, necessary to be able to open a grounded circuit without -affecting all the lights in a house. This is possible with the -multiple circuit arrangement by using a switch, either automatic or -operated by hand. - -The simplest form of danger signal is the relay electric bell -attachment, which device is mounted on the end of the gas-lighting -coil. It consists of an armature which closes a circuit when -attracted by the coil core, in which circuit are included a battery -and electric bell. - -Now when an ordinary pendant or ratchet burner is pulled, it only -sends a momentary current through the coil, enough to magnetize the -core, but not enough to attract the armature sufficiently long for the -bell to ring. But if a short circuit or ground should occur, the -armature is held against the contact long enough to cause the bell to -ring and give warning. In some cases a constant ringing attachment is -added, in which case the bell rings until some one stops it. - - -THE SYRACUSE CUT-OUT. - -This is a most ingenious device for opening a short circuit, depending -on its action upon the sluggish movement of glycerine (Fig. 28). - -A sealed glass tube pivoted near its centre contains a portion of -glycerine sufficient to considerably overbalance it and keep one end -down. A soft iron armature is attached to this tube in such manner -that each time a current flows through a pair of electro-magnets, the -attraction of the armature causes the tube to tilt and the glycerine -flows along to the other end. Now it will be readily seen that if the -tube is only tilted for a second or so, the slow-moving glycerine will -not have flowed sufficiently to the end to overbalance it, but it -requires an attraction of the armature for a considerable period. This -electro-magnet is in circuit with the gas-lighting wires, the tube -being provided with contacts in such manner that, when fully tilted, -the circuit is broken. The momentary jerks imparted to the armature by -the operation of a pendant or automatic burner will not be enough to -permanently tilt the tube and break contact, but a short circuit will -hold the armature tight down, until the increasing weight of glycerine -causes the tube to open the circuit. - -[Illustration: FIG. 28.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 29.] - - -AUTOMATIC SECTIONAL CUT-OUT. - -[Illustration: FIG. 30.] - -This cut-out, Fig. 29, is representative of the class which use -clockwork, and is both simple and reliable. The house circuit is in -series with an electro-magnet which controls a clockwork having a long -pinion shaft. This clockwork starts and runs while the house circuit -is closed, as on operating a burner, but stops when the circuit is -opened and flow of current ceases. The wires leading to different -circuits in the building run through a number of contact springs -mounted on sliding rods, which have teeth cut on the under side (Fig. -30). These rods have soft iron armatures on the opposite ends from the -contact springs, which rest over electro-magnets, also connected to -the house circuits. When the clockwork starts, the pinion shaft -revolves, but does not engage in any of the sliding rods, as they -just clear it. Should a heavy or continuous current pass through one -of the electro-magnets, it attracts the armature on the corresponding -rod (Fig. 31), and the turning pinion engages in the teeth, drawing up -the rod and breaking contact. - -[Illustration: FIG. 31.] - -Fig. 32 is a form of battery protector which works on the gravity -principle. Here each section is governed by a rocking contact, -operated by two glass bulbs partially filled with a volatile fluid -(such as ether), and joined by a glass tube. In one of these bulbs is -a platinum wire which is included in the circuit and heats upon the -passage of a strong or continuous current. If the circuit is closed -too long, the heating of the platinum wire causes the fluid to flow -into the upper bulb, and, as the bulbs are pivoted, the increased -weight of the upper bulb now overbalances the rocker and breaks the -circuit on that section. - -[Illustration: FIG. 32.] - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -LIGHTING OF LARGE BUILDINGS. - - -The jump spark system is used where it is desired to light clusters of -gas jets situated in inaccessible places, or a number of them -simultaneously. The spark from a Ruhmkorff coil, being made by a -contact broken at the coil and not at the burner, can be divided up -among a number of simple burners placed in series. One of the burners -used and known as the Smith jump spark burner is shown in Fig. 33. The -wires from the coil are attached to the electrodes shown on each side -of the burner, and the spark jumps across the gap, situated nearly -over the burner orifice. There is a guard-flange of mica round the -lower part. - -Fig. 34 shows the manner in which the jump spark is applied to a -Welsbach burner. A small porcelain clip carrying the spark-gap wires -is held on the top of the burner chimney. The electrodes project down -into the chimney so that a draught of air cannot carry the stream of -gas away from the spark-gap. - -[Illustration: FIG. 33.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 35.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 34.] - -Fig. 35 shows a burner intended for the stage of a theatre, or where -the lights are located in dangerous and inaccessible places. The -burner is made of porcelain upon which are spun the metal top and -bottom. One electrode is also clamped around it, allowing of -adjustment and better insulation. - -[Illustration: FIG. 36.] - -These burners are used in series, as shown in Fig. 36. _B B B_ are the -burners; _S S_, the secondary wires from the Ruhmkorff coil, _I_; _P -P_, the primary coil wires from battery, opened and closed by means of -the key, _K_. - -It is often possible to place plain burners close enough so that they -can ignite by contagion. In this case one of the plain burners is -removed and replaced by a multiple burner, as above. - -It is customary to allow sixteen burners to one inch of spark, in -which case the spark gaps are adjusted about one-sixteenth of an inch -apart. A coil giving a 2-inch spark would operate 32 burners, but -actually it would be found preferable to omit a few, so as to make -allowance for any slight leak. A spark of over 2 inches is hard to -handle, although often used; it is better to make up a number of -circuits of, say, 30 burners each, and operate them alternately by a -suitable switch. - -The wire used to connect the burners is generally bare, although an -insulated wire is sometimes used. But the electromotive force of a -2-inch spark is so high that it is better to run the wires so they do -not come near anything liable to cause a leak. The remarkable tendency -of these high-tension currents must be most carefully guarded against; -indeed, it is what makes this style of gas lighting so often -unsuccessful. A damp wall, gilt wall-paper, a gas pipe hidden in the -plaster, will often lead off the current. The wires should be at least -50 per cent. further off from any object than the spark length; that -is, a 2-inch spark circuit should be at least 3 inches away from a -wall, and the further the better. It cannot be too strongly urged that -every precaution be taken to keep the wires away from objects other -than their insulators. - -[Illustration: FIG. 37.] - -Fig. 37 shows the special form of insulator used. It is made of the -highest grade glaze filled porcelain, and the screw is passed into it -and holds against the lower end as far away from the wire as possible. - -Glass tubes should be passed over the wires wherever they come near -any metallic object, that is, within sparking distance. - - -EDWARDS' CONDENSER SYSTEM. - -This system differs from the foregoing in that the spark-gaps are -connected in multiple, instead of series, and each burner is provided -with a small but efficient condenser. - -[Illustration: FIG. 38.] - -It prevents trouble should a wire break between burners, in which -event only one burner would be out of commission, whereas in the first -method, the whole number in that series would suffer. It is also more -sure in action and presents less liability of the spark jumping to the -ground. The burner pillars need not be made of porcelain or lava; in -fact, the electrodes can be readily attached to the existing burner. -Fig. 38 is a condenser consisting of a small oval piece of mica, on -each side of which is fastened, with insulating varnish, a -spatula-shaped piece of tinfoil. One foil sheet is attached to the -line, the other to the burner electrode. These condensers must not be -allowed to get wet or their efficiency will be impaired. - -[Illustration: FIG. 39.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 40.] - -Figs. 39 and 40 are the most generally used burners, the wire from the -condenser being attached to the lug or top electrode, which is -insulated from the burner by means of the mica plate to which it is -riveted. The burner pillars are of course grounded through their -being screwed into the gas pipe. The circuit is shown in Fig. 41. _I_ -is the induction or Ruhmkorff coil, in the primary circuit of which is -the key, _K_, controlling the current from the battery, _B_, and -across which is bridged the condenser, _C C_. When the coil vibrator -is used, the condenser _C C_ can be omitted, that of the coil itself -serving instead. _S_ is the wire leading from the secondary terminal -of the coil to the burner condenser, _C_, which, in turn, are -connected to the electrodes on the burners, _P P_, as before noted. -The other secondary wire is grounded preferably to the gas pipe -itself. - -[Illustration: FIG. 41.] - -Where a lot of burners are placed together, as in a ring, it is often -feasible to light them by contagion, one tip only being connected to -the coil circuit, the others lighting from it and conveying the flame -around to the rest. This avoids multiplicity of circuits, or, perhaps, -too many burner gaps on one circuit; but the one burner may fail to -light, whereas, where all are fitted, the chances of failure are less, -especially in the Edwards condenser system. - - -SWITCH FOR JUMP SPARK-LIGHTING. - -In a switch for controlling the current of the secondary coil it will -be evident that the utmost attention must be paid to matters of -insulation. The object of such a switch is to control a number of -circuits; for example, as it is not advisable to put more than 20 to -25 burners on one circuit, a case requiring the lighting of 100 -burners would necessitate some means of passing the current to each -circuit in turn. This is shown in Fig. 42, in which _S_ is a hard -rubber plate, provided with a revolving metal arm and handle, _H_, and -four contact points, _P_, which latter receive the ends of the wires -from the groups of burner condensers _B_ by means of nuts or binding -posts. The wire from the secondary of the coil is run to the -switch-handle, _H_, great care being taken that it does not pass near -to the circuit wires, or contact points. Revolving the switch-handle -connects the secondary wire to each circuit in turn. It will be -noticed that, unlike a battery switch, this one has a large base, long -switch-arm, contact points situated far apart, and every precaution -taken to control the passage of the high-tension current. The base -should always be of rubber or glass. Shellacked-wood, or such -substitutes, are productive of trouble. - -[Illustration: FIG. 42.] - -When it is desired to light automatically a number of burners from a -distance, the Trailer (Fig. 43), is used. This is a switch similar to -above, but the arm is revolved by means of toothed wheels by the -electro-magnet shown on the back. As it is never desirable to -unnecessarily prolong the secondary wires, this device admits of the -switch being put near the circuits, and yet being operated from afar. - -[Illustration: FIG. 43.] - - -RUHMKORFF COIL. - -Fig. 44 shows a diagram of a Ruhmkorff coil, the letters referring as -follows: - -_C_ the iron core, _P_ the primary coil wires, _I_ the insulating tube -between primary _P_ and the secondary coil _S_. In small coils this -may be dispensed with, and a heavy layer of paraffin wax laid over the -primary coil. _D D_ are the ends of the secondary, showing sparking -taking place between a pair of balls (or between the electrodes of a -gas burner); _R_ is a stiff spring fastened to the coil base and -carrying a soft iron hammer, which is attracted toward the iron core, -_C_, when current passes through the primary coil and magnetizes it. -_L_ is a battery, _J_, a condenser, to be more fully described later -on. When the spring _R_ touches the adjustment screw _A_ at _B_, as -they are insulated from each other, contact is made and reference to -circuit will show that the current from battery _L_ flows through -primary coil, magnetizing the core and attracting soft iron hammer on -_R_. As this bends forward, it breaks contact at _B_, the core loses -its magnetism and the spring flies back, to again make contact. This -is repeated many times per second. - -[Illustration: FIG. 44.] - -As a heavy spark occurs at _B_ on the break of contact, the condenser, -_J_, is attached at _M K_. This is a series of insulated tinfoil -sheets, which has the property of nullifying the spark at _B_, and so -preventing the waste of platinum with which both adjustment screw _A_ -and spring _R_ are equipped. - -A Ruhmkorff coil differs from a simple primary coil in three main -points. Two separate coils instead of one; high insulation, and a -primary coil of few turns. In the simple coil we desired -self-induction; here, we desire to avoid it as much as possible. - -The average size Ruhmkorff coil, for jump spark work, would be one -giving a 2-inch spark, specifications for which are as follows: - -_Spool_--Nine inches long by one inch in diameter. End cheeks 4 inches -high by 3 inches wide. - -_Core_--Sufficient soft iron wires, 9 inches long by No. 22 B. W. -gauge as will fill the spool tube. - -_Primary_--Two layers No. 14 B. & S. gauge cotton-covered copper wire. - -_Secondary_--Two and one-half pounds No. 36 B. & S. gauge double -cotton or silk-covered magnet wire wound in four sections (or more -than four sections, if feasible). - -_Condenser_--Seventy sheets tinfoil 4 by 7-1/2 inches; 80 sheets -condenser paper 5 by 8 inches. - - -SPOOL. - -This should be made up of a fibre tube 9 inches in length by about -1/16 inch thick, and should be firmly fixed into the spool ends. If it -be glued in it should also be pinned as well; it is easily possible to -drive in a few screws passing through the tube into the spool ends, -particularly as the soft iron core, being of loose wires, will adapt -itself to the slightly projecting screw-heads. Remember that this -spool must be made strong; if it comes apart during the winding -process, much trouble will ensue, and perhaps all the wires lost or -ruined. For reasons to be seen later, do not affix the right-hand -spool end yet, but have it ready. The core consists of as many fine -iron wires, say of No. 22 B. W. gauge, as can be forced into the tube, -but the core can better be added after the windings are all in; that -is, in such cases where a rigid spool tube is used. - - -PRIMARY WINDING. - -This consists of two layers of No. 14 B. & S. gauge cotton (or silk) -covered copper magnet wire, and should be evenly and tightly laid on. -For winding coils, a lathe is a most handy machine, or the spool can -be mounted on a spindle and rotated by hand. It is not feasible here -to give all details of coil-construction; reference should be made to -the many excellent works on the subject. The two ends are brought out -through holes in the spool ends, as indicated for the simple primary -coil before described. After winding, the wire is to be well basted -with melted paraffin wax until it is saturated, any excess being -scraped off so as to leave a smooth cylindrical surface for the -secondary coil. Half a dozen turns of stout paper or oiled silk is now -to be wound on, and enough paraffin wax added to leave an insulation -at least one-quarter of an inch around the outside of the winding. The -right-hand end of spool, where the end was not attached, will require -a little care that the wire does not run off; but, as only two layers -are to be wound, it is an easy thing to do. - -When the primary coil is finished off, cut three pieces of hard rubber -four inches square, with a central hole just big enough that they may -be slipped on over the primary coil to form divisions into which the -secondary wire goes. These can be fixed equal distances apart by means -of removable wooden blocks, which are taken off as each section is -wound. - - -SECONDARY COIL. - -The secondary coil consists of about 2-1/2 pounds No. 36 B. & S. gauge -silk or cotton-covered magnet wire, wound evenly in layers in the -sections on the primary coil. Before any wire goes into a section, it -must be seen that the division fits tight to the primary coil. It will -be best to pour around the coil some melted paraffin wax so as to form -an insulating ring, and prevent any possibility of the spark creeping -under the section division into the next. The actual operation of -winding presents no difficulty other than those of keeping the wire -from damage and getting as even layers as possible. If each layer is -separated from its neighbor by a strip of paraffined paper, it makes -even winding easier, and better insulation. As to the insulating of -the secondary coil, it can be done in a variety of ways. The coil can -be soaked in molten paraffin until saturated, or the wire can be made -to pass through a dish of molten paraffin while on its way from the -wire reel to the coil. In the latter case the wire must be guided by -means of glass rollers, as the wax would harden rapidly if touched by -the fingers. In connecting up the sections, the similar ends are to be -joined; that is, the inside ends to inside ends, and outside ends to -outside ends, as per diagram (Fig. 45). This will bring two outside -ends free for attachment to binding posts. Fig. 46 shows direction of -winding and connecting the two middle coils, _A C_ being the inside -layers next to primary and _B D_ the outside layers. - -[Illustration: FIG. 45.] - -An outside coat of paraffin wax is now given to the coil and a -wrapping of waxed paper laid on. Then, if desired, a cover of -sheet-rubber or a layer of cloth can be put on over all, to finish the -job. - - -BASE, KEY, AND CONDENSER. - -[Illustration: FIG. 46.] - -The base for a Ruhmkorff coil generally resembles an oblong shallow -box. The coil is mounted on the lid, and the condenser inside the box, -the connections being made on the lower side of the lid. It is -preferable, except for appearance' sake, to make all connections -outside the box, but this is left to the worker's choice. - -[Illustration: FIG. 47.] - -_The Condenser_ is made up of 70 sheets of tinfoil each about 4 inches -by 7-1/2, and 80 sheets of clean white paper 5 by 8 inches placed -alternately, and saturated with paraffin wax. The tinfoil sheets are -laid so that about 1/2 inch projects out of the paper sheets at each -end, the alternate sheets coming out at the same end, and the -projecting pieces being bent together gives the effect of a pair of -tinfoil sheets insulated from each other, aggregating the sum of all -the small ones. - -[Illustration: FIG. 48.] - -The coil can now be attached to the base by means of screws passing -through the lid into the coil ends. If a vibrating contact breaker be -desired, reference to Fig. 44 will show method of connection. Fig. 47 -shows details of a contact breaker of similar design. _R_ is hammer -head of soft iron, _S_ a spring about thickness of clock spring and -3/8 inch wide or more. _B_ is contact point, both spring and -adjustment screw _A_ being fitted with platinum contacts. _C_ is a -check nut, to hold _A_ from turning. _I_ is an adjustment to tighten -or loosen spring _S_, by means of a lug which it carries on its -shaft. It is well insulated from pillar carrying _A_, by the hard -rubber bushing, _I_. - -The condenser is laid in the box under the coil and attached as in -Fig. 44; that is, one set of sheets to the contact pillar, and the -other set to the adjustment screw. - -For gas-lighting work, it is generally preferable to use a contact or -strap key (Fig. 48), instead of a vibrator. The key can be mounted on -coil base, in which case the condenser will be attached in same manner -as for the vibrator. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -HOW TO SELECT BATTERIES FOR GAS LIGHTING. - - -Before entering into a description of the various batteries used in -electric gas lighting, it will be well to briefly consider a few -simple electrical rules bearing upon the subject. - -A current of electricity has _electromotive force_, or _difference of -potential_ figured in _volts_, and _current_ figured in _amperes_. - -For example we will use the _water_ analogy (Fig. 49). Two tanks, _A_ -_B_, on the same level, are connected by a pipe _C_. - -Supposing tank _A_ be filled with water and the pipe, _C_, to be -opened; the water will flow along _C_ into _B_ until the level in each -tank is equal. So long as there is a difference of level, there will -be a pressure in _C_, owing to the water behind it. - -Replacing the tanks _A_ and _B_ by unequally electrified bodies, and -the pipe _C_ by a conductor of electricity, the flow of water is -represented by the tendency of the electrified bodies to equalize -themselves by a flow of current along the conductor, _C_. - -To sum up: The difference of level is now difference of potential, the -pounds pressure along the pipe being expressed as electromotive force -in _volts_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 49.] - -The quantity of water flowing along the pipe is measured, as -electricity, in amperes. As the quantity of water passing in a given -time is regulated by the size of the pipe and its own pressure, so the -quantity of electricity is also regulated. A conductor of electricity -offers resistance to the flow of current according to its sectional -area and the material of which it is composed, this resistance being -expressed in _ohms_. The greater the voltage and lower the resistance, -the more current. This law, and its kindred applications, are -expressed as follows: - - _C = E/R._ - -_C_ is current in amperes, _E_ electromotive force in volts, and _R_ -resistance in ohms. - -Thus a wire with a resistance of 50 ohms would pass 2 amperes with an -electromotive force of 100 volts. To find resistance when other two -factors are known, the formula is - - _R = E/C._ - -In selecting a battery for work, regard must be made to the current -required, and its period of flow. For energizing a gas lighting -primary coil, the current must be large, but is only required -occasionally, the battery standing idle for long periods. In this case -the class called open circuit cells are preferable, as they contain no -strong acids and do not deteriorate to any extent when not in use. Of -such class is the Leclanche-Samson, Monarch, carbon cylinder, and most -so-called dry cells. As the resistance in a conductor affects the -current flow, so it does in a battery cell; the internal resistance of -a battery is determined by its size, proximity of the elements, etc. -Cells with small zincs and porous cups are of high internal -resistance, those with large sheet zincs and big carbon surfaces, of -low internal resistance. As the primary coil used in gas lighting is -never much over one ohm, a cell of low internal resistance should be -selected. But as the wires leading to the burners must be taken into -account, a number of cells should be used to produce enough -electromotive force to overcome the added resistance. Now battery -cells can be arranged in a variety of ways--in series for higher -electromotive force, and in multiple--for greater current. - -[Illustration: FIG. 50.] - -Fig. 50 represents the series arrangement; here the zinc of one cell -is connected to the carbon of the next; this adds the electromotive -forces together and thus gives greater ability to overcome resistance, -but it also adds together the resistance of each cell. Thus 4 cells, -each 2 volts and of one-half ohm internal resistance, would, in -series, have an E. M. F. of 8 volts and an internal resistance of 2 -ohms, current 4 amperes. Fig. 51 shows four cells in multiple, the -zinc of each cell and the carbons of each cell are connected. Here the -result would be but 2 volts, but the internal resistance would be only -one-quarter, viz: one-eighth of an ohm, current 16 amperes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 51.] - -The readiest rule for connecting a battery is to arrange it according -to the resistance of the line or outside wiring. So as we will have to -use house-wiring far exceeding in length that on the coil, and -probably of less diameter. Therefore the series arrangement will be -the one to use, and not less than four cells of a low-resistance -battery. - - -THE LECLANCHE. - -This battery consists of a carbon rod surrounded by granular peroxide -of manganese forming the positive pole and a piece of zinc for the -negative pole, both elements being immersed in a solution of sal -ammoniac (chloride of ammonia). If a wire be run _outside_ the -solution and connecting the carbon and zinc, a current of electricity -flows along it. The chemical action taking place is as follows: The -zinc combines with the chlorine of the solution, liberating free -hydrogen and ammonia. The hydrogen appears at the carbon, where it is -acted upon by the oxygen of the peroxide of manganese. If too much -current is taken from the cell, that is, if the wire or circuit be of -too low resistance, the oxidizing action of the peroxide is not rapid -enough, and a film of hydrogen, which is a poor conductor, forms over -the carbon and increases the resistance of the battery--also setting -up what is termed "local action" (actually, a battery opposing a -battery). - -After a rest, the hydrogen is absorbed, but a cell rarely regains its -pristine activity after too severe demands upon it. The original -Leclanche batteries were imported from France, the home of the -inventor, but of recent years they are made in the United States, -England and Germany. The most important point to be considered in a -galvanic cell is the purity of its active parts. The zincs should be -as near chemically pure as can be obtained; the peroxide of manganese -of the best quality and perfectly free from foreign substances, and -the sal ammoniac the purest that can be manufactured. The actual -difference in work between a battery so constructed, and the average -cheap cell sold at a price to catch the unwise, is tremendous. And -this difference is indicated, not only in work, but when the battery -is at rest. Local action in a cheap battery will exhaust it even when -it is not in circuit, whereas a battery cell of good material will -remain in good order for months without more attention than the -addition of water or sal ammoniac. It has been often remarked that the -batteries made to-day are inferior to those made years ago, but it is -only true of the cheap-priced cells; if a good price is paid and -attention given to securing a well made cell, the output will be as -satisfactory. - -[Illustration: FIG. 52.] - -To set up a Leclanche cell, proceed as follows: Put six ounces of sal -ammoniac into the glass jar; fill the jar one-third full of _clear_ -water and stir. Put in the porous cup and fill the jar with water up -to its neck, pouring a few teaspoonfuls of water into the hole in -porous cup. When the cell is in working condition, the level of the -solution will be found to have receded, owing to absorption by the -porous cup. To prevent the creeping of sal ammoniac up the neck of jar -and on to the terminals of the cell, a layer of paraffin is applied to -neck of jar and porous cup. Should this need renewing, vaseline can be -used, or any heavy grease, care being taken that it does not get on -electrodes or where the wires are to be fastened. When the cell -refuses to work, throw out old solution, wash porous cup, jar and zinc -in warm water, and replace with new solution. There is a limit, when a -new porous cup must be used, but this can be done when cell does not -work after being treated as above. The electromotive force of the -Leclanche cell is about 1.45, and current on short circuit of nearly -one ampere, depending of course on thickness and porosity of porous -cup, size of zinc, and a few other points. - - -THE SAMSON CELL. - -Fig. 53 is one of the Leclanche group, in which a compound carbon -element displaces the earthenware porous cup. This carbon is composed -of two parts, a hollow-fluted lower piece and a threaded top, which -carries the binding post. In the process of manufacture, the top piece -is heated red-hot and plunged into hot paraffin wax, thus ensuring a -complete diffusion of the paraffin throughout the carbon. In this way -the creeping of salt or solution, and consequent corrosion of -electrodes and failure of cell, are avoided. The lower portion is much -more porous than the upper and is filled with a combination of -pea-carbon and peroxide of manganese held in by a plug at the bottom. -This plug can be removed and new depolarizer added. Directions given -by the manufacturers for renewing this element are to hold the lower -end of the carbon over a burner flame until the plug is softened and -can be removed, or to immerse the extreme lower end of the carbon in -boiling water. After refilling, a cork plug can be used. - -[Illustration: FIG. 53.] - -The E. M. F. of the No. 2 size is from 1.40 to 1.47 volts, and -current, on short circuit, of 12 to 16 amperes. The No. 2 Special has -same E. M. F., but current of only 5 amperes, being intended where -strong current is not required but quick recuperation. It will be seen -that this cell is far more suited to electric gas-lighting work than -the simple Leclanche, owing to its great current delivery. - - -THE DRY CELL. - -Of so-called dry cells there are numbers on the market at so low a -price that it does not pay to make one's own. But for those who wish -to do so, the following formula, furnished by Mr. Wm. Roche, of New -Standard battery fame, will be found excellent: - -One pint CLEAR WATER. - -Five ounces sal ammoniac. - -Six ounces zinc chloride. - -Dissolve the sal ammoniac in the water thoroughly. Let stand -twenty-four hours. Then add the zinc chloride, and when cool, will be -ready for use. - - * * * * * - -When you have your zinc cup ready, pour a little wax in the bottom, to -insulate; place a piece of blotting-paper inside cup and laying tight -against the zinc, about three turns. The negative element is prepared -as follows: One pound pure carbon, powdered; one pound black oxide -manganese; mix thoroughly. Then add sufficient of above solution to -hold it together without being plastic, as that would be too wet to -tamp. - -Moisten your paper in the zinc cup thoroughly. Place your stick or -plate of carbon in centre of zinc cup, hold it there central while you -pack in the carbon manganese element all around it; be sure that -carbon manganese, or negative element, does not touch zinc cup. If it -does, your cell will run down quickly. It is a good precaution to have -your paper half an inch higher than cup when in the cup, and soaked -with the solution. Give it a couple of quick taps on the bench; that -will curl the paper in at the bottom and insure against any internal -short circuit. When your cell is filled up, clean all the carbon -element away from the zinc. Seal, and your battery is ready when -you've got the connections on. - -[Illustration: FIG. 54.] - - -THE NEW STANDARD DRY CELL. - -The principal sizes of this cell (Fig. 54) are as follows: - - No. 2--5-7/8 × 2-7/16. - No. 3--3-3/4 × 1-7/8. - No. 5--6 × 2-9/16. - No. 6--6 × 3. - No. 7--7 × 3. - -The electromotive force is 1.5 volts, current of the No. 7 size on -short circuit, 24 amperes. Nos. 2, 5, 6, or 7 are most suitable for -electric gas lighting, either by simple primary coil or jump spark -coil. - - -THE EDISON LALANDE CELL. - -This cell (Fig. 55), gives a large, steady current and is of low -internal resistance, but its electromotive force is not high, being -less than .7 volt on closed circuit. Its output of current varies with -the size, type _S_ being .025 ohm internal resistance and capacity of -300 ampere-hours. The Edison Lalande cell can be applied to electric -gas lighting in cases where a large demand is made upon the battery, -for example in church or theatre lighting. - -Its elements consist of positive plates of amalgamated zinc suspended -on each side of negative plates of black oxide of copper. The -electrolyte is an aqueous solution of caustic soda. A layer of heavy -paraffin oil is poured on top of the solution to prevent the solution -from evaporating and also to keep the soda crystals from creeping up -and over the rim of the jar. - -[Illustration: FIG. 55.] - -To set up an Edison Lalande cell, fill the jar up to the brown mark -with clear water; pour in the soda from the tin box, _and stir_. When -thoroughly dissolved, pour on top of the solution one half-inch layer -of _the oil which is sent with the battery_. Then the elements -attached to the cover can be inserted, and the cell is ready for use. - -Use care not to splash the solution, as it will burn the clothing and -skin. If any does get on, a little animal grease or vegetable oil will -quickly saponify it. - -In the action of this cell the oxide of copper is reduced to metallic -copper and the zincs consumed, it being intended that each element -will require renewal at the same time. Upon picking into the oxide -plate with a sharp-pointed instrument, if the plate is red throughout, -it is exhausted; but, should it show black in its interior, it is -still capable of a little more use, but is preferable to use a new -plate whenever there is but little oxide left. - -Never remove the oxide plates from the battery, and do not allow the -solution to be less than one inch above oxide plates. - - -THE FULLER, OR BICHROMATE CELL. - -Although not often necessary in gas-lighting work, there is at times a -demand for a heavy current, such as in lighting a big building, where -a large coil must be operated. At such times a bichromate of potash -cell becomes of service. One of the types is shown in Fig. 56. _J_ is -a jar containing electropoion fluid described below. _C_ is a carbon -plate immersed in this fluid. _P_ is a porous cup holding the zinc, -_Z_, and being filled with a solution of 18 parts common salt, 72 -parts water, and one ounce mercury. - -[Illustration: FIG. 56.] - -The electropoion fluid for the outer jar is made by one pound -bichromate of potash or soda to one gallon of water, mixing in a stone -vessel. When dissolved, add three pounds commercial sulphuric acid -carefully, a little at a time, and stir the mixture constantly as it -gets hot. Always add the acid to the mixture; never attempt to pour -the mixture into the acid, or trouble will result. The sodium salt is -preferable to the potassium, owing to its greater solubility and its -not forming _chrome alum_--a hard precipitate which sticks to jars, -elements, etc., to their detriment. - -[Illustration: FIG. 57.] - -Fig. 57, a form of battery known as the Grenet battery, is used where -there is no porous cup. The zinc element, _Z_, is mounted on a rod _R_ -passing through the cap _G_ of a glass jar, _J_, and can be raised or -lowered into the electropoion fluid which the jar contains. This is a -good scheme where the battery is liable to stand idle for a long -period. - - -CARE OF OPEN CIRCUIT BATTERIES. - -_Terminals._--Take care that the solutions do not splash over -terminals; keep all terminals and binding post screws clean and -bright. See that all wires are tightly clamped in terminals, also that -their ends are clean. A loose contact is productive of infinite -trouble. Examine connections that elements are in proper relation to -each other. If in multiple, to produce large current--zincs together -and carbons together. If in series, for high electromotive force--zinc -to carbon, throughout battery. - -_Zincs._--See that the zincs are clean; if crystals form, either -reduce strength of solution with water, or scrape zincs clean, and -watch if repeated. Examine screw which holds wire; it often corrodes, -and makes poor contact in the thread. - -A clever device for preserving a rod zinc from the accumulation of -crystals is made by the manufacturers of the Samson cell. It consists -of a thin paper tube which is slipped over the zinc. When the crystals -accumulate so as to impair the cell, the tube is slipped off and a new -one put on. This device increases the internal resistance of the cell -but very slightly. - -_Porous cups and carbons._--Wash in warm water. Carbons can be well -soaked in warm water and dried in _sun_, in a place where they will -not accumulate dust. Porous cups should be well soaked in warm water, -and left to drain in a place exposed to dustless air. Examine binding -post holes and screws. - -_Solutions._--Do not make too strong. Use not more than six ounces, or -more than four ounces avoirdupois, of chemically pure sal ammoniac to -one cell Leclanche. Warm water can be used for making solutions, if -desired. Some persons drop a teaspoonful of acetic acid in the cell; -it is not recommended. If in a place where sal ammoniac cannot be -procured, use temporarily common table-salt in same proportion; -thoroughly well clean battery first. - -Batteries should be kept in a cool dry place. Dry cells should stand -upright, also in a cool place, and an examination made once in a while -of the connections. - - - - - INDEX. - - - PAGE - Acetylene Burner 16 - Argand Automatic Burner 23 - Argand Burner 14 - Automatic Burner 19 - - Batteries, open circuit 2 - Boston Cut-Out 51 - Breaks, to locate 34 - Burner, Acetylene 16 - Burner, Argand 14 - Burner, Argand Automatic 23 - Burner, Automatic 19 - Burner, Bartholdi 21 - Burners, choice of 30 - Burner, Concealed Automatic 24 - Burners, Connecting 26 - Burners, Distribution of 30 - Burner, Gasolene 18 - Burner, Pendant 7 - Burner, Ratchet 10 - Burner, Ring 23 - Burner, Stem 13 - Burner, Smith 56 - Burner, Vibrator 23 - Burner, Welsbach 15 - - Choice of Burners 30 - Clockwork Cut-Out 52 - Coil, Primary 5, 46 - Coil, Ruhmkorff 6 - Coil, Secondary 5 - Connections of Burners 26 - Connections to ground 38 - Contact Breaker 75 - Cut-Out, Boston 51 - Cut-Out, Bulb 54 - Cut-Out, Clockwork 52 - Cut-Out, Syracuse 50 - - Danger of Burners 30 - Defects in Burners 29 - Diagram of Wiring 31 - Door-Trip 43 - - Edwards' Burner 61 - Edwards' Condenser 60 - Edwards' System 62 - - Finished houses, wiring of 38 - Fixtures, wiring of 40 - Frontispiece 31 - Fuller Battery 94 - - Galvanometer 3 - Gasolene Burner 18 - Gas-fixture wire 37 - Grenet Battery 95 - Ground connections 38 - - Hall, Burners for 30 - - Induced Current 3 - Induction, Action of 3 - Insulator 59 - - Jump Spark System 55 - - Key Strap 76 - - Lalande Battery 92 - Leclanche Battery 83 - - Multiple, Batteries in 82 - - Negative pole 2 - - Open circuit batteries 2 - - Pendant Burner 7, 9 - Positive pole 2 - Primary Coils 46 - Push Button, to wire 42 - - Ratchet Burner 10 - Ring Burner 23, 63 - Ruhmkorff Coil 6, 67 - - Samson Battery 87 - Secondary Coil 5 - Section Switch 33 - Series method 57 - Series, Batteries in 82 - Shellac varnish 38 - Smith Burner 55 - Sparks, to produce 1 - Spool 70 - Standard Battery 90 - Stem Burner 13 - Switch, Automatic 66 - Switch, high tension 64 - Switch, Section 33 - Syracuse Cut-Out 50 - System, Edwards' 62 - - Trailer 66 - - Varnish Shellac 38 - Vibrator Burner 23 - - Welsbach Burner 15 - Wimshurst Machine 1 - Winding Coil 74 - Wire for general use 36 - Wire, gas-fixture 37 - Wire, office 36 - Wire, Ruhmkorff Coil 70 - Wiring finished houses 38 - Wiring of Fixtures 40 - Wiring of Push Button 42 - - - * * * * * - - -New Standard Dry Battery - -All sizes for all systems of Bells, Telephones, Burglar Alarms and Gas -Lighting. Prices according to size and quantity. - -New Standard "Autogas" Dry Battery - -For very heavy work. Gas Mobiles, Lights, etc. No. 2 set, weight 27 -lbs., neat oak case, $6.00 per set. - -New Standard Jump Spark Rhumkorff Coils, $12.00 each. - -New Standard Flashlight. - -For use around Gasolene Engines, Automobiles, Launches, Clothes -Closets, etc. $2.00 each. - -This light will positively give equal to fifteen hours actual service. -A $5.00 article for $2.00. - -Complete catalogue for the asking. - - - William Roche, - - Inventor and M'f'r, - - 42 Vesey St., N. Y. City - - Dealer in Battery Materials, - Chemicals, Etc. - - - Have a Look - Into our Store - -when in need of anything in the Electrical line of whatever nature. - -We deal in everything and carry a good stock. - -CATALOGUE ON - - Electric Light Goods, Bells, and Electric House Goods, - Switchboards, &c. Telephones and Supplies. - - J. JONES & SON, - 64 Cortlandt St., New York City. - - -JUMP SPARK COILS - - X-Ray Coils. - - Primary Coils. - - Medical Coils. - - Telephone Coils. - -C. F. SPLITDORF, 17-27 Vandewater St., N. Y. - - -AMERICAN BOOKS. - -=Allen, C. F.= Railroad Curves and Earthwork. A pocketbook for -Surveyors and Engineers. Limp leather, $2.00. - -=Cordeiro, Dr. F. J. B.= The Barometrical Determination of Heights, -Levelling and Hypssometry. Limp leather, $1.00. - -=Goldingham, A. H.= The Design and Construction of Oil Engines, with -full Instructions for their Erecting, Testing, Running and Repairing. -12mo, cloth, $2.00. - -=Kinealy, J. H.= An Elementary Text-Book on Steam Engines and Boilers. -Third edition, cloth $2.00. - -=Kinealy, J. H.= Steam Heating Charts for the use of Architects and -Builders in Estimating the Necessary Heat Required for Buildings. -$1.00. - -=Redwood, I. I.= Lubricants, Oils and Greases. Cloth, $1.50. - - We Mail All Books Postpaid on Receipt of Price. - - ADDRESS: - - SPON & CHAMBERLAIN, - - 12 Cortlandt Street, New York. - - - SMALL ACCUMULATORS - - How Made and Used - - _A Practical Handbook for Students and Young - Electricians_ - - _EDITED BY PERCIVAL MARSHALL, A.I.M.E._ - - Contents of Chapters - - I.--The Theory of the Accumulator. - - II.--How to make a 4-Volt Pocket Accumulator. - - III.--How to make a 32-Ampere-Hour Accumulator. - - IV.--Types of Small Accumulators. - - V.--How to Charge and Use Accumulators. - - VI.--Applications of Small Accumulators, Electrical Novelties, - etc. Useful Receipts. Glossary of Technical Terms. - - 80 pages, 40 illustrations, 12mo, cloth, 50c. - - - THE MAGNETO-TELEPHONE - - ITS CONSTRUCTION, - Fitting Up and Adaptability to Every-Day Use - - _BY NORMAN HUGHES_ - - CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS - -Some electrical considerations: I.--Introductory. II.--Construction. -III.--Lines, Indoor Lines. IV.--Signalling Apparatus. V.--Batteries. -Open Circuit Batteries. Closed Circuit Batteries. VI.--Practical -Operations. Circuit with Magneto Bells and Lightning Arresters. How to -Test the Line. Push-Button Magneto Circuit. Two Stations with Battery -Bells. VII.--Battery Telephone. Battery Telephone Circuit. Three -Instruments on one Line. VIII.--General remarks. Index. - - 80 pages, 23 illustrations, 12mo, cloth, $1.00. In paper, 50c. - - - _EVERYBODY'S BOOK ON ELECTRICITY_ - - PRACTICAL ELECTRICS - - A UNIVERSAL HANDY-BOOK - ON - EVERYDAY ELECTRICAL MATTERS - - FIFTH EDITION - - CONTENTS: - -_Alarms._--Doors and Windows; Cisterns; Low Water in Boilers; Time -Signals; Clocks. _Batteries._--Making; Cells; Bichromate; Bunsen; -Callan's; Copper-oxide; Cruikshank's; Daniel's; Granule carbon; -Groves; Insulite; Leclanché; Lime Chromate; Silver Chloride; Smee; -Thermo-electric. _Bells._--Annunciator System; Double System; and -Telephone; Making; Magnet for; Bobbins or Coils; Trembling; Single -Stroke; Continuous Ringing. _Connections._ _Carbons._ -_Coils._--Induction; Primary; Secondary; Contact-breakers; Resistance. -_Intensity Coils._--Reel; Primary; Secondary; Core; Contact-breaker; -Condenser; Pedestal; Commutator; Connections. _Dynamo-electric -Machines._--Field-Magnets; Pole-pieces; Field-magnet Coils; Armature -Cores and Coils; Commutator Collectors and Brushes; Relation of size -to efficiency; Methods of exciting Field-Magnets; Magneto-Dynamos; -Separately excited Dynamos; Shunt Dynamos; Field-Magnets; Armatures; -Collectors; Brush Dynamo; Alternate Currents. _Fire Risks._--Wires; -Lamps; Danger to persons. _Measuring._--Non-Registering Instruments; -Registering Instruments. _Microphones._ _Motors._ _Phonographs._ -_Photophones._ _Storage._ _Telephones._--Forms; Circuits and Calls; -Transmitter and Switch; Switch for Simplex; etc., etc. - - 135 PAGES. 126 ILLUSTRATIONS. 8VO. - Cloth, 75 cents - - -_SAMPLE COPIES MAILED TO ANY ADDRESS ON RECEIPT OF 8 CENTS._ - -[Illustration: THE MODEL ENGINEER AMATEUR ELECTRICIAN - -A JOURNAL OF MECHANICS AND ELECTRICITY FOR AMATEURS AND STUDENTS - -EDITED BY PERCIVAL MARSHALL] - - -ITS GOOD POINTS. - -Better than any paper of its kind ever published. - -The articles are original and practical. - -The articles are so clearly and simply written and everything made so -plain that it will be found easy to follow the directions and -duplicate the articles described. - -Special articles on Model engines and boilers for yachts, -torpedo-boats and war-ships. - -Designing and building of model yachts and boats. - -Making small tools for model work. - -The building of small gas engines. - -Building screw-cutting and turning lathes. - -Building all kinds of model stationary and locomotive steam engines -and boilers. - -Model engineers and their work. - -Building of all kinds of electrical machines, apparatus, coils, -batteries, telephones, microphones, phonographs, novelties. - -The articles are fully illustrated, principally with detail drawings -to scale. - -New Books, Notes and Queries, Workshop Notes and Hints, Tools and -Supplies, etc. - - -ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, $1.50 POSTPAID - -_Send in your subscription and get your friends to subscribe. Unused -postage stamps will be accepted (not revenue.) Address all -communications to_ - - SPON & CHAMBERLAIN, - - 12 Cortlandt Street, NEW YORK. - - - INDUCTION COILS - --AND-- - COIL MAKING. - - Construction, Operation and Application. - - By H. S. NORRIE. - -Second edition, thoroughly revised and greatly enlarged, and including -25 new illustrations. A good deal of the new matter is devoted to -Medical Coils, Bath Coils, Gas Engine and Spark Coils, Contact -Breakers, Batteries, X-Ray Work, Electric Gas Lighting, and a chapter -on Wireless Telegraphy. - -CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS. - -1. Coil construction, full directions, sizes of wires, &c., &c. 2. -Construction of different forms of contact breakers. 3. Insulating -materials, cements, &c. 4. Construction of various kinds of -condensers. 5. Experiments. 6. Spectrum analysis. 7. Currents in -vacuo. 8. Rotating effects. 9. The application of coils to gas -lighting. 10. Batteries for coils. 11. Secondary Batteries. 12. Tesla -and Hertz effects. 13. X-Rays and radiography. 14. Wireless -telegraphy. Contents. Index. - - 290 pages, 79 Illus. 5 × 6-1/2 in. - - CLOTH, $1.00 - - - Manual of Instruction in - Hard Soldering - WITH AN APPENDIX ON THE - Repair of Bicycle Frames - Notes on Alloys and a Chapter on Soft Soldering - - _BY HARVEY ROWELL_ - -The flame, lamp, charcoal, mats, blow-pipes, wash-bottle, binding -wire, chemicals, borax, spelter, silver solder, gold solder, oxidation -of metals, fluxes, anti-oxidisers, oxidation of cases, the cone, -oxidising flame, reducing flame, heat transmission, conduction, -capacity of metals, radiation, application, the work table, the joint, -applying solder, applying heat, the use of the blow-pipe, joints, -making a ferrule, to repair a spoon, to repair a watch case, hard -soldering with a forge or hearth, hard soldering with tongs, -preserving thin edges, silversmith's pickle, restoring color to gold, -chromic acid, to mend steel springs, sweating metals together, -retaining work in position, making joints, applying heat, preventing -the loss of heat, effect of sulphur lead and zinc, to preserve -precious stones, annealing and hardening, burnt iron, to hard solder -after soft solder. Tables of--specific gravity, tenacity, fusibility, -alloys. - - 66 pages, illustrated, cloth, 75 cents. - - For Soldering Receipts, Cements and Lutes, Pastes, Glues and - such like, _see_ WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. - - - NEW - EDITION "DE LUXE" - ON HEAVY PLATE PAPER - -[Illustration: A SYSTEM OF EASY LETTERING - -BY J. H. CROMWELL.] - - -ITS GOOD POINTS. - -Very easy to learn. - -A rapid method to become a good letterer with a little practice. - -Very easy to lay out a line of words in STRICT PROPORTION, whether it -be on a fence 500 yards long or on a drawing only a few inches across. - -Good for draughtsmen who prefer neat lettering, yet something out of -the ordinary. - -It contains 26 pages of alphabets whose modifications are almost -limitless. - -One of the cheapest in the market. - - This little book will be appreciated by draughtsmen who wish to - use plain letters (and yet somewhat different from the ordinary - run of letters) for the titles on drawings. 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PAGET HIGGS, M.A., D.Sc._ - - FOURTH EDITION - - CONTENTS - -Symbols and the signs of operation. The equation and the unknown -quantity. Positive and negative quantities. Multiplication, -involution, exponents, negative exponents, roots, and the use of -exponents as logarithms. Logarithms. Tables of logarithms and -proportional parts. Transportation of systems of logarithms. Common -uses of common logarithms. Compound multiplication and the binomial -theorem. Division, fractions and ratio. Rules for division. Rules for -fractions. Continued proportion, the series and the summation of the -series. Examples. Geometrical means. Limit of series. Equations. -Appendix. Index. 104 pages, 12mo, cloth, 60c. - - * * * * * - -_See also_ =Algebraic Signs=, Spons' Dictionary of Engineering, No. 2. -40 cts. - -_See also_ =Calculus=, Supplement to Spons' Dictionary, No. 5. 75 -cts. - - -CROSS SECTION PAPER. - - THE HANDY SKETCHING PAD. - -Printed on one side, in blue ink, all the lines being of equal -thickness, with useful tables. Size 8 × 10 inches. Price, 25c. each. -Per dozen pads, $2.50. - - THE HANDY SKETCHING BOOK. - -Made from this paper but printed on both sides. Size of book 5 × 8 -inches, stiff board covers. Price, 25c. each; per dozen books, $2.50. - - SCALE EIGHT TO ONE INCH. - -A large sheet with heavy inch lines and half inch lines, printed in -blue ink. Size of sheet, 17 × 22 inches. Per quire (24 sheets), 75c. - - SCALE TEN TO ONE INCH. - -Size 17 × 22 inches, printed in blue ink, with heavy inch lines and -half inch lines. Per quire (24 sheets), 75c. - - THE ELECTRICIAN'S SKETCHING PAD. - -Size 8 × 10. Scale 10 to 1 in. Price 25c. each. 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Setting up gas engines. Brakes and their use -in ascertaining the power of gas engines. Arrangement of a brake test. -Distribution of heat in a gas engine. Attendance on gas engines. -General remarks. Gas engine oil. Cylinder lubricators. Rules as to -starting and stopping a gas engine. The cleaning of a gas engine. -General observations and specific examination for defects. The engine -refuses to work. Non-starting of the engine. Too much pressure on the -gas. Water in the exhaust pot. Difficulty in starting the engine. -Irregular running. Loss of power. Weak gas mixtures. Late ignition. -Cracks in air inlet. Back firing. Knocking and pounding inside of -engine. Dangers and precautionary measure in handling gas engines. -Precautions when opening gas valves, removing piston from cylinder, -examining with light openings of gas engines. Dangers in starting, -cleaning, putting on belts. =Oil Engines.= Gas engines with producer -gas. Gasoline and oil engines. Concluding remarks. - - 120 pages, illustrated, l2mo, cloth, $1.00. - - - THE FIREMAN'S GUIDE - - A Handbook on the Care of Boilers - - _BY KARL P. DAHLSTROM, M.E._ - - CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS - -=I. Firing and Economy of Fuel.=--Precautions before and after -starting the fire, care of the fire, proper firing, draft, smoke, -progress of firing, fuel on the grate, cleaning out, cleaning grate -bars and ash pan, dampers, firing into two or more furnaces, dry fuel, -loss of heat. - -=II. Feed and Water Line.=--Feeding, the water line, false water line, -defective feeding apparatus, formation of scale, gauge cocks, glass -gauge, the float, safety plug, alarm whistle. - -=III. Low Water and Foaming or Priming.=--Precautions when water is -low, foaming, priming. - -=IV. Steam Pressure.=--Steam gauge, safety valves. - -=V. Cleaning and Blowing Out.=--Cleaning the boiler, to examine the -state of the boiler, blowing out, refilling the boiler. - -=VI. General Directions.=--How to prevent accidents, repairs, the care -of the boiler when not in use, testing boilers, trimming and cleaning -outside. Summary of rules. Index. - - 8vo, cloth, 50 cents. - - - HOW TO RUN - Engines and Boilers - - Practical Instruction for Young Engineers and - Steam Users. - - _BY EGBERT POMEROY WATSON_ - - REVISED AND ENLARGED - - Synopsis of Contents - -Cleaning the boiler, removing scale, scale preventers, oil in boilers, -braces and stays, mud drums and feed pipes, boiler fittings, grate -bars and tubes, bridge walls, the slide valve, throttling engine, the -piston, testing the slide valve with relation to the ports, defects of -the slide valve, lap and lead, the pressure on a slide valve, stem -connections to the valve, valves off their seats, valve stem guides, -governors, running with the sun, eccentrics and connections, the crank -pin, brass boxes, bearings on pins, adjustment of bearings, the valve -and gearing, setting eccentrics, the actual operation, return crank -motion, pounding, the connections, lining up engines, making joints, -condensing engines, Torricelli's vacuum, proof of atmospheric -pressure, pumps, no power in a vacuum, supporting a water column by -the atmosphere, starting a new plant, the highest qualities demanded. - -Water tube boilers, fire tube boilers, why water tube boilers steam -rapidly, torpedo boat boilers, management of water tube boilers, -economy and maintenance of water tube boilers. - - 150 pages, illustrated, 16mo, cloth, $1.00. - - - THE CORLISS ENGINE. - - BY JOHN T. HENTHORN. - - --AND-- - - MANAGEMENT OF THE CORLISS ENGINE. - - BY CHARLES D. THURBER. - - _Uniform in One Volume. Cloth Cover; Price, $1.00._ - - Table of Contents. - -CHAPTER I.--Introductory and Historical; Steam Jacketing. CHAPTER -II.--Indicator Cards. CHAPTER III.--Indicator Cards continued; the -Governor. CHAPTER IV.--Valve Gear and Eccentric; Valve Setting. -CHAPTER V.--Valve Setting continued, with diagrams of same; Table for -laps of Steam Valve. CHAPTER VI.--Valve Setting continued. CHAPTER -VII.--Lubrication with diagrams for same. CHAPTER VIII.--Discussion of -the Air Pump and its Management. CHAPTER IX.--Care of Main Driving -Gears; best Lubricator for same. CHAPTER X.--Heating of Mills by -Exhaust Steam. CHAPTER XI.--Engine Foundations; diagrams and templets -for same. CHAPTER XII.--Foundations continued; Materials for same, -etc. - - Third Edition, with an Appendix. - - - THE SLIDE VALVE SIMPLY EXPLAINED - - BY W. J. TENNANT, ASSO. M.I.M.E. - - REVISED AND MUCH ENLARGED - - BY J. H. KINEALY, D.E. - - CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS: - - I. The Simple Slide. - - II. The Eccentric a Crank. Special Model to Give Quantitative - Results. - - III. Advance of the Eccentric. - - IV. Dead Centre. Order of Cranks. Cushioning and Lead. - - V. Expansion--Inside and Outside Lap and Lead; Advance Affected - Thereby. Compression. - - VI. Double-Ported and Piston Valves. - - VII. The Effect of Alterations to Valve and Eccentric. - - VIII. Note on Link Motions. - - IX. Note on Very Early Cut-Off, and on Reversing Gears in - General. - - _88 Pages._ _41 Illustrations._ _12mo, Cloth, $1.00._ - - - QUICK AND EASY METHODS - OF - CALCULATING - WITH THE SLIDE RULE - - A SIMPLE EXPLANATION OF THE THEORY AND - USE OF THE SLIDE RULE, LOGARITHMS, ETC. - - _With numerous examples worked out._ - - BY R. G. BLAINE, M.E. - - A most reliable, practical and valuable work for the engineer. - - _144 Pages._ _Illustrated._ _12mo, Cloth, $1.00_ - - - THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL - Ammonia Refrigeration - - _A Work of Reference for Engineers and others Employed in the - Management of Ice and Refrigeration Machinery._ - - By ILTYD I. REDWOOD - - CONTENTS - -B. T. U. Mechanical Equivalent of a Unit of Heat. Specific Heat. -Latent Heat. Theory of Refrigeration. Freezing, by Compressed Air. -Ammonia. Characteristics of Ammonia. The Compressor. Stuffing-Boxes. -Lubrication. Suction and Discharge Valves. Separator. Condenser-Worm, -Receiver. Refrigerator or Brine Tank. Size of Pipe and Area of Cooling -Surface. Charging the Plant with Ammonia. Jacket-Water, for -Compressor, for Separator. Quantity of Condensing Water Necessary. -Loss due to Heating of Condensed Ammonia. Cause of Variation in Excess -Pressure. Use of Condensing Pressure in Determining Loss of Ammonia by -Leakage. Cooling Directly by Ammonia. Freezing Point of Brine. Making -Brine. Specific Heat of Brine. Regulation of Brine Temperature. -Indirect Effect of Condensing Water on Brine Temperature. Directions -for Determining Refrigerating Efficiency. Equivalent of a Ton of Ice. -Compressor Measurement of Ammonia Circulated. Loss of Well-Jacketed -Compressors. Loss in Double-Acting Compressors. Distribution of -Mercury Wells. Examination of Working Parts. Indicator Diagrams. -Ammonia Figures--Effectual Displacement. Volume of Gas. Ammonia -Circulated per Twenty-Four Hours. Refrigerating Efficiency. Brine -Figures--Gallons Circulated. Pounds Circulated. Degrees Cooled. Total -Degrees Extracted. Loss due to Heating of Ammonia Gas. Loss due to -Heating of Liquid Ammonia. Calculation of the Maximum Capacity of a -Machine. Preparation of Anhydrous Ammonia. Construction of Apparatus, -etc., etc. - - 150 pages, 15 illustrations, cloth, $1.00. - - - SPONS' $2.50 - MECHANIC'S OWN BOOK, - A PRACTICAL MANUAL. - - PRINCIPAL CONTENTS. - - Mechanical Drawing. (13 pages). - - Casting and Founding. (31 pages). - - Forging and Finishing. (56 pages.) - - Soldering. (26 pages). - - Sheet-Metal Working. (10 pages). - - Carpentry, Woods, Tools, etc. (224 pages). - - Cabinet Making. (36 pages). - - Carving and Fretwork. (13 pages). - - Upholstery. (6 pages). - - Painting, Graining and Marbling. (28 pages). - - Staining, and Gilding. (16 pages). - - Polishing, Varnishing. (26 pages). - - Mechanical Movements. (56 pages). - - Turning and Lathe work. (30 pages). - - Masonry, Stonework, Brickwork, Concrete, etc. (45 pages). - - Plastering, Whitewashing, Paperhanging. (13 pages) - - Roofing, Glazing. (14 pages). - - Bell hanging, Gas fitting. (8 pages). - - Lighting, Ventilation, Warming. (21 pages). - - Foundations, Roads and Bridges, Banks, Hedges, Ditches and - Drains, Water Supply and Sanitation. House Construction, etc. - Size of book 6-3/4 in. by 8-3/4. - - 702 pages, half extra gilt and 1420 illustrations. - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Electric Gas Lighting, by Norman H. 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Schneider - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Electric Gas Lighting - How to Install Electric Gas Ignition Apparatus - -Author: Norman H. Schneider - -Release Date: February 11, 2013 [EBook #42073] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELECTRIC GAS LIGHTING *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Matthew Wheaton and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 42073 ***</div> <div class="figcenter"> <img src="images/cover.jpg" width="400" height="585" alt="" /> @@ -4007,383 +3968,6 @@ House Construction, etc. Size of book 6-3/4 in. by 8-3/4.</p></blockquote> 702 pages, half extra gilt and 1420 illustrations.<br /> </p> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Electric Gas Lighting, by Norman H. Schneider - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELECTRIC GAS LIGHTING *** - -***** This file should be named 42073-h.htm or 42073-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/2/0/7/42073/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Matthew Wheaton and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Electric Gas Lighting - How to Install Electric Gas Ignition Apparatus - -Author: Norman H. Schneider - -Release Date: February 11, 2013 [EBook #42073] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELECTRIC GAS LIGHTING *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Matthew Wheaton and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - ELECTRIC GAS LIGHTING - - - HOW TO INSTALL - - ELECTRIC GAS IGNITING APPARATUS - INCLUDING THE JUMP SPARK - AND MULTIPLE SYSTEMS - - FOR USE IN - - HOUSES, CHURCHES, THEATRES, HALLS, SCHOOLS, - STORES OR ANY LARGE BUILDINGS - - ALSO THE CARE AND SELECTION OF SUITABLE BATTERIES. - WIRING AND REPAIRS - - - By H. S. NORRIE - (NORMAN H. SCHNEIDER) - (_Author of "Induction Coils and Coil Making"_) - - - FIRST EDITION - - - NEW YORK - SPON & CHAMBERLAIN - 12 CORTLANDT STREET - - LONDON - E. & F. N. SPON, LIMITED, - 125 STRAND - - 1901 - - - Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1901 - By SPON & CHAMBERLAIN - in the office of the Librarian of Congress, Washington, D. C. - - - THE BURR PRINTING HOUSE, FRANKFORT AND JACOB STS., N.Y. - - - - -PREFACE - - -The Electric Light possesses the great advantage over gas, in that it -can be turned on or lighted from a distance. The customary means of -igniting gas with a match or taper is both dangerous and often -inconvenient. The inventive genius of modern times has evolved a means -of lighting gas by electricity which is both reliable and easy of -application. It requires no very complicated devices, nor does it -necessitate a deep knowledge of electrical matters for its -installation. The object of the following pages is to enable any one -possessing ordinary mechanical ability to construct much of the -apparatus used, or at least to successfully erect it and keep it in -operation. - -We beg to thank the following firms for the use of illustrations: -Edwards & Co., Mott Haven, New York; A. L. Bogart, New York; Wm. -Roche, New York; The Electric Gas-Lighting Co., Boston, Mass., and The -Manhattan Electrical Supply Co., New York. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I. - - INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. - - Introduction; means of producing sparks; Induction--Simple - induction coils--Ruhmkorff Coils 1 - - - CHAPTER II. - - MULTIPLE GAS LIGHTING. - - Application of induction coils to gas-lighting--Forms of burners - used--Pendant Burners--Ratchet Burners--Stem Burners--Welsbach - Burners--Burners for Acetylene Gas--Burners for - Gasolene--Automatic Burners 7 - - - CHAPTER III. - - CONNECTIONS AND WIRING. - - How to connect up apparatus--Wiring a house--Locating breaks or - short-circuits--Wiring in finished houses--General remarks 26 - - - CHAPTER IV. - - PRIMARY COILS AND SAFETY DEVICES. - - How to make a simple induction coil--Automatic Cut-outs--The - Syracuse Cut-out--Boston Cut-out--Edwards' Cut-out 46 - - - CHAPTER V. - - LIGHTING OF LARGE BUILDINGS. - - Series or Jump Spark System--Burners used--How to Wire--Edwards' - Condenser System--Switches for series lighting--How to make a - 2-inch spark, Ruhmkorff Coil 55 - - - CHAPTER VI. - - HOW TO SELECT BATTERIES FOR GAS LIGHTING. - - Electrical Rules--Electromotive - force--Amperes--Resistance--Selecting a battery--Arrangement of - battery--Series--Multiple--How to get high voltage or large - current--The Leclanche Cell--The Samson Cell--The Dry Cell and - how to make one--The Edison-Lalande Cell--The Fuller Cell--Care - and maintenance of batteries 78 - - - - - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - FRONTISPIECE--COMPLETE WIRING PLAN FOR A HOUSE. - 1 DIAGRAM OF SIMPLE CIRCUIT 2 - 2 DIAGRAM OF SIMPLE CIRCUIT WITH SPIRAL 2 - 3 DIAGRAM OF SIMPLE CIRCUIT WITH SPIRAL AND GALVANOMETER 2 - 4 DIAGRAM OF CIRCUIT WITH IRON CORE 4 - 5 DIAGRAM OF RUHMKORFF COIL 4 - 6 ELEVATION OF RUHMKORFF COIL 6 - 7 PENDANT BURNER 7 - 8 BURNER CIRCUIT 8 - 9 PLAIN BURNER 10 - 10 RATCHET BURNER 11 - 11 STIFF-PULL PENDANT 12 - 12 STEM BURNER 14 - 13 ARGAND BURNER 15 - 14 WELSBACH BURNER 16 - 15 ACETYLENE BURNER 17 - 16 PUSH BUTTON 19 - 17 BARTHOLDI BURNER 21 - 18 BOSTON AUTOMATIC 22 - 19 CONCEALED AUTOMATIC 24 - 20 DIAGRAM WIRING ONE "AUTOMATIC" FROM TWO PUSHES 27 - 21 DIAGRAM WIRING ONE "AUTOMATIC" AND TWO PENDANT BURNERS 28 - 22 SIMPLE SWITCH CONNECTIONS 33 - 23 DETAILS OF AUTOMATIC CONNECTIONS 35 - 24 DETAILS OF CELLAR AUTOMATIC CIRCUITS 35 - 25 NUT WRENCH 40 - 26 AUTOMATIC OPERATED BY DOOR-TRIP 44 - 27 PRIMARY COIL 46 - 28 SYRACUSE CUT-OUT 50 - 29 BOSTON CUT-OUT 51 - 30 DETAILS CUT-OUT ROD--NORMAL 52 - 31 DETAILS CUT-OUT ROD--OPERATING 53 - 32 BULB CUT-OUT 54 - 33 JUMP SPARK BURNER 56 - 34 WELSBACH BURNER FOR SERIES LIGHTING 56 - 35 PILLAR BURNER 56 - 36 CIRCUIT FOR JUMP SPARK GAS LIGHTING 57 - 37 INSULATOR 59 - 38 EDWARDS' CONDENSER 60 - 39 EDWARDS' BURNER 61 - 40 EDWARDS' BURNER 61 - 41 DIAGRAM OF EDWARDS' CONDENSER CIRCUIT 62 - 42 CIRCUIT FOR JUMP SPARK SWITCH 64 - 43 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRAILER 66 - 44 DIAGRAM OF RUHMKORFF COIL CIRCUIT 68 - 45 WINDINGS OF SECTIONS 73 - 46 SECTIONAL DIAGRAM 74 - 47 CONTACT BREAKER 75 - 48 CONTACT KEY 76 - 49 FALL OF POTENTIAL DIAGRAM 79 - 50 SERIES ARRANGEMENT 81 - 51 MULTIPLE ARRANGEMENT 82 - 52 LECLANCHE CELL 84 - 53 SAMSON CELL 87 - 54 NEW STANDARD CELL 90 - 55 EDISON-LALANDE CELL 92 - 56 FULLER CELL 94 - 57 GRENET CELL 95 - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. - - -The enormous number of fires arising from the use of matches, and the -great convenience and freedom from danger of the electric method of -gas lighting, are alone sufficient reasons for the issue of these -pages. - -The veriest tyro in electrical operations knows that electricity will -cause a spark, and most persons are aware that the spark possesses -considerable deflagratory powers, varying with the character of the -spark. In electric gas lighting a spark of the proper character is -passed across a jet of gas and ignites it. Sparks can be produced by -various means: friction, battery current, induction either galvanic or -electro-magnetic, by a Wimshurst or Toepler Holtz machine, or an -induction coil operated by a battery. For our purposes we will -consider only the latter; the former are rarely used, being uncertain -and unwieldy. - -Of batteries there are many kinds, and although all will produce -sparks, yet for electric gas lighting those made for intermittent work -and classed as open circuit cells are to be preferred. Open circuit -batteries, which will be fully described in a subsequent chapter, -include the Leclanche, and most of the so-called "dry" cells. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.] - -If two wires be attached to a cell of battery _B_, one to the carbon -or positive pole and the other to the zinc or negative pole, and their -free ends be tapped together, minute sparks at _C_ will be observed -each time the wires _separate_ (Fig. 1). If now a coil of insulated -wire _S_ be included in the circuit, Fig. 2, upon repeating the make -and break of contact, the sparks will be much increased. This arises -from _induction_, each adjacent turn of wire acting upon its neighbor. -To better understand the action of induction, we will consider the -following examples: Fig. 3. _A_ is a circuit in which is the battery -cell _B_. _C_ is a second circuit lying close to but well insulated -from circuit _A_. _G_ is a galvanometer in which a magnetized needle -swings right or left each time a current is passed through a coil of -wire encircling it. Now, although there is no battery cell in circuit -_C_, yet the needle will swing each time the circuit _A_ is closed or -opened; that is, each time the wire ends are touched together or -separated. This swing of course indicates that a current is passing -through circuit _C_, but as there is no battery or other source of -electrical energy included in it, it is clear that it arises from the -action of the current in circuit _A_. In point of fact, the needle -swings one way when the circuit is closed and the reverse way when it -is opened; but the greater swing on opening the circuit indicates the -greater strength of the _induced_ current at the moment the current -ceases to flow in circuit _A_. Note that these current impulses are -only momentary. In the case of our single coil, Fig. 2, each turn of -wire acted upon itself in a similar manner to the circuit _A_ upon -circuit _C_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.] - -An iron rod or bundle of iron wires, _P_, inserted in the coil, Fig. -4, but carefully insulated from it, will immensely increase the -inductive effects and consequently the spark. This arrangement -constitutes the simple primary coil used in pull-down or pendant and -automatic burners. This spark is often a source of inconvenience; it -appears wherever a circuit including similar coils is made and broken. -In telegraph apparatus at key and relay contacts it is noticeable; in -fact, the writer has used temporarily a pair of electro-magnets from a -telegraph sounder and obtained spark enough to operate a gas lighting -burner. - -To produce a long spark which will jump across an air gap, a more -complicated form of coil is needed, one which more closely corresponds -to the experiment noted in Fig. 3. The simple primary coil has here -another coil of finer wire, _S_, wound on it but carefully insulated -from it (Fig. 5). This second coil, or "secondary," has a vast number -of turns of fine wire as compared with the primary, which has only -comparatively few turns of coarse wire. A primary coil of 40 feet of -No. 14 B. & S. copper wire would be inserted in a secondary coil of -perhaps 16,000 feet of No. 36 B. & S. This secondary coil, in fact all -the apparatus constituting the induction coil, must be most highly -insulated, as the electromotive force of the spark is tremendous, and -it would be liable to pierce its way through and into the internal -winding and so destroy the apparatus. The circuit in the primary is -made and broken either by a hand key or by an automatic -contact-breaker at _C_. With a large coil, the intensity of the spark -at _G_ is such that it will jump an air-gap of from one-eighth of an -inch to over three feet.[1] - - [1] See Norrie, _Induction Coils and Coil-Making_. - -This combination of coils and contact-breaker is generally known as a -Ruhmkorff or intensity coil, and is shown in elevation in Fig. 6. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.] - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -MULTIPLE GAS LIGHTING. - - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.] - -As we have already seen how a spark is exhibited at an interrupted -contact, the means of its application to gas lighting will be -considered. Fig. 7 represents the most generally used kind of electric -gas burner or "pendant burner." Its application is shown in Fig. 8. -The wire _W_ from the coil _C_ is attached to the brass insulated -collar carrying the contact _S_. The other wire from coil _C_ and -battery _B_ is attached to the gas pipe _G_. As the burner is also -screwed into the gas pipe itself, the circuit would be closed were it -not for the gap at _A_ on the burner, caused by the collar carrying -the contact _C_ and wire _W_, being insulated from the burner pillar -_P_. When, however, a pull is given to the burner arm chain so as to -cause the end of the spring _R_ to strike contact _C_ in passing, -contact is made and broken, and a spark passes which ignites the gas -issuing from the burner tip, the gas having previously been turned on. -A piece of chain with a metal ball is attached to the burner arm in -order to pull it down. In this class of burner there are many -different makes differing only in minor details. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.] - -Fig. 9 shows a form of pendant burner which has no platinum contact, -but has a broad lug on the insulated collar which is scraped against -by the spiral spring when the arm is pulled down. It will be seen that -the lug is not held by an insulated collar on the burner top, but is -on the extension of an arm attached to the burner pillar by a large -screw and insulating washers. The circuit wire goes under the smaller -screw seen on the lower part of the contact arm, this forming a -strong and neat form of attachment. - -[Illustration: FIG. 9.] - -Now it has heretofore been necessary to turn on the gas before pulling -the chain of a pendant burner, but as this is not always desirable the -ratchet burner is made. Fig. 10 shows burner carrying a toothed wheel, -which is partly rotated when the arm is pulled down. This wheel is -mounted on the stem of a valve which opens or shuts according to the -point of rotation, and thus shuts off or admits the gas to flow up to -the burner. One pull of the arm turns the gas on; at the same time the -wipe spring touches the contact on burner collar, and the gas lights. -A second pull and the wheel, rotating, turns off the gas. In all -burners of this class a spring is provided to carry the arm up and -back into its original position ready for another pull. Some burners -do not make contact when the arm flies back, thus saving battery -current. - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.] - -Fig. 11 is an improved form of burner wherein the movable electrode -does not pass through the gas flame, neither do the electrodes come in -contact with each other when the gas is being turned off. Reference -to the cut will show a pin protruding from the base of the coiled -spring electrodes, which pin is so arranged as to come in contact with -the short end of the pull-arm. When this pull-arm is pulled down it -pushes up this pin, elongating the spiral spring electrode -sufficiently to make and break contact at the fixed electrode on the -burner collar. This burner can be fitted with a porcelain candle slip -if desired to match the imitation candle burners. - - -STEM BURNERS. - -Objection is sometimes made to the ordinary chain pulls from the fact -that they jar the fixtures, and also are liable to bend the fixture -branches from the strain used in operating the arm. To overcome these -objections the stem style of burner is manufactured (see Fig. 12). -This stem, it will be seen, carries a convenient key at the end, which -is turned either right or left as in an ordinary gas-cock. The moving -contact only makes contact when the gas is being turned on and -lighted. When turning it off, the arm is retracted so as not to touch -the fixed electrode, thus saving battery current. - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.] - -Fig. 13 is a simple lighting attachment for an Argand burner. The -moving lever which carries the pull has a German silver spiral spring -on its top end. This strikes against the lug projecting from the -circuit-wire arm and makes a spark. The lower part of the circuit-wire -arm has a screw and washers for ready attachment, and is strongly and -substantially made. - -[Illustration: FIG. 13.] - -A means of igniting the gas from a Welsbach burner is shown in Fig. -14, and is so simple as to need no further explanation. - - -ACETYLENE BURNERS. - -Owing to the deposits of carbon, it is necessary to construct burners -for acetylene gas in a different and more substantial manner than -those designed for coal gas. - -[Illustration: FIG. 14.] - -The best arrangement is depicted in Fig. 15, which has a pilot-tube -burner as well as the two main tips. On turning the key, gas is -admitted to both main and pilot burners, but the electrode in -breaking contact only ignites the gas at pilot burner, which, in its -turn, acts as a lighter for the main burner. Turning the main burner -out, the pilot light can be left burning if desired, giving a small -light, it being not feasible to turn _down_ the main burner owing to -the before-mentioned carbonization. - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.] - -The orifice of an acetylene burner is much smaller than that of a coal -gas burner, the former burning about one-half foot per hour, against -six or seven feet of the latter. - - -BURNERS FOR GASOLENE. - -The flame from this gas is hotter than that of coal gas, and deposits -so much more carbon that a slight modification is necessary in the -construction of burners for it. The details can be readily seen on -observation of a burner, being simply in the adjustment of the -contacts and their operation. It is better, however, to use a larger -coil and a stronger battery for gasolene gas lighting than would be -needed for coal gas--say, 6 cells of Samson, or large-size New -Standard dry battery and a 10-inch coil having about 4 pounds or more -of wire on it. - - -AUTOMATIC BURNERS. - -[Illustration: FIG. 16.] - -There are several forms of these burners, but the principle of all is -the same. A gas burner protrudes from the top of a brass case which -encloses the actuating mechanism. This mechanism consists generally of -two electro-magnets, the armature of one opening the valve and -allowing the gas to flow, at the same time vibrating a platinum-tipped -rod against an electrode upon the burner collar. This produces a -series of sparks at the burner tip which ignites the gas. A second -magnet is provided which shuts the valve and extinguishes the gas. -Some devices use one electro-magnet to both open and close the valve, -but the majority have double electro-magnets. The circuit is worked -from a push button, Fig. 16, situated wherever desired; pressure on a -white button lights the gas and on a black one shuts it off. - - -BARTHOLDI AUTOMATIC BURNER. - -Instead of a rotating stop-cock, as in other automatics, a gravity -valve is employed in the Bartholdi, which is held to its seat by the -weight of the armature and connecting stem, as shown in figure 17. -When the gas is turned off the valve rests upon its seat, as indicated -in the cut. By a closure of the electric circuit at the turn-on -button, two of the helices _M P_ are energized, causing the armature -_J_ to be lifted, thus, by means of the stem _H_, raising the valve -_G_ from its seat into the dotted position, and opening the gas way so -that the gas may issue to the tip, as shown by the arrows. At the same -time, the top of the valve strikes against the end of the lever _W_, -causing the circuit to be broken at the spark points _T U_, -resulting in a continuous sparking as long as the finger presses the -button. The magnet when raising the armature has also twisted or -partially revolved it, so as to bring the notch _d_ in the armature -over the end of the hook _e_, as shown in the dotted lines. When the -circuit is broken by lifting the finger from the button, the notch -falls into the hook and the valve is locked open. - -[Illustration: FIG. 17.] - -To extinguish the flame, the turn-off button is pressed, when a second -magnet (not shown in cut) lifts the armature and twists it in the -opposite direction, so that when the circuit is broken the armature -falls free to its normal position, closing the valve. - -[Illustration: FIG. 18.] - - -THE ADVANCE AUTOMATIC. - -This automatic burner, Fig. 18, is typical of the class having two -magnets, one to open valve and light gas, and another to close valve -and extinguish the light. It embodies an improvement over the older -types of burners in that the binding posts are mounted on a rubber -strip held by two screws, thus preventing the twisting and loosening -so common heretofore. It also allows of the valve being opened and gas -lighted by means of a match should the battery fail. - - -VIBRATOR BURNER. - -This is an automatic burner which has no valve mechanism, but ignites -the gas only. It is generally placed in a cluster or ring where the -burners are close enough to light by contagion. It is much smaller in -diameter than the regular automatic burners, being but one and -three-quarter inches in diameter. - - -ARGAND AUTOMATIC BURNERS. - -Automatic burners are also made for Argand, but present no radical -difference in construction over the regular type. - - -THE CONCEALED AUTOMATIC BURNER. - -[Illustration: FIG. 19.] - -This automatic, Fig. 19, consists of two iron-clad magnets, placed one -above the other, between which is located a gas valve. Through an -extension of the latter a pin is driven, one end acted upon by the -upper armature to open the valve and ignite the gas, the other by the -lower armature which serves to close the valve and extinguish the -flame. Around the burner is placed a porcelain candle slip of 3/4-inch -diameter and from 4-3/4 inches in length upwards. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -CONNECTIONS AND WIRING. - - -Fig. 20 shows how to connect up an automatic burner with two pushes; -thus one can be downstairs in the hall and the other upstairs, -allowing one to either extinguish or light the gas from either place. -The value of this arrangement is obvious; it allows one to light up -the hall before descending at night, or to put out the gas after one -is safely upstairs. Again, an automatic burner can be put in the -cellar and lighted and extinguished from the head of the -cellar-stairs, saving matches and danger of fire. - -Fig. 21 shows the connections of one automatic burner and two pendant -or rachet burners. _P P_ are the pendent burners, _A_ the automatic -burner, _C_ the primary coil, _S_ the buttons which control the -automatic burner, _M M M_ the cells of battery, of which there -should be at least four, if not six. A low-resistance cell must be -used here, as before mentioned, one that gives not _less_ than 5 -amperes on short circuit. It will be seen here that one side of the -battery is connected to ground (or gas pipe), the circuit being -completed owing to the burners being themselves screwed into the gas -pipe. Care must be taken, however, to first see that no insulating -bushings have been used at the gas fixtures, as is done in wiring for -electric light. In this case a double circuit will have to be run. - -[Illustration: FIG. 20.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 21.] - -In wiring up an automatic burner with two electro-magnets, two wires -are run, one from the black button and one from the white button on -push-plate. Most burners have binding posts inside the case, the wires -running through a rubber-bushed hole in the base. One of the greatest -defects in the old style automatics arose from the two binding posts -being fixed on a hard rubber block, which was held by one screw to the -burner top. This screw got loose at times and the block used to twist, -making it hard to tighten the wires. But improvements have been made -in this direction, the later burners having a block with a projection -which engages in a hole in the cover, and is held by two screws. - -If the push has been set in place, and all wiring done, connect up the -burner, first ascertaining to which binding post the two wires run. -This is done by having one button pressed, the lighting (white) one, -for example, and then touching the binding post with either wire. The -lighting armature will buzz violently when touched, whereas the -extinguishing one only strikes once when contact is made. When only -one person is working, a pin can be wedged in the push so as to keep -the circuit closed. - -In setting up these burners care must be taken not to bend contacts or -alter adjustments, and absolute precaution is necessary that no wires -touch where uninsulated. A cause of trouble is a dirty burner which -does not allow the gas to strike the contact spark. The collar -carrying the second contact may shift, or perhaps become -short-circuited in a pendant or ratchet burner; a strip of asbestos -will remedy this. - - -BURNER DISTRIBUTION. - -In fitting a house with electric lighting burners, the question of -selection is best solved as follows: For the main hall and foot of the -cellar-stairs, use the automatic burner. For other hallways, -dining-room, drawing-room, and bathroom use ratchet burners which turn -on and light gas when chain is pulled. For bedrooms use plain pendant -burners; automatics and ratchets add an element of danger, in that -they may not turn off gas, or may leak. Most of this type on the -market are as reliable as it is possible to make them, but still -accidents will happen. - -The frontispiece shows a diagram of the wiring in a dwelling house of -medium size, dividing it into three sections, each section being -controlled by a switch--either a hand switch or one of the automatic -cut-out switches elsewhere described. The burners are distributed as -follows: - -No. 1 in the front cellar, pendant or ratchet. - -No. 2 in the rear cellar at foot of stairway is an automatic burner -controlled from kitchen above. - -Nos. 3 and 4 ratchet burners on chandeliers in drawing-room and -dining-room. - -No. 5 ratchet or pendant in kitchen. - -No. 6 pendant in bedroom. - -No. 7 ratchet or pendant in bathroom. - -No. 8 pendant in bedroom. - -No. 9 pendant in bedroom. - -Nos. 10, 11, and 12 pendants in bedroom. - -No. 13 automatic burner in hallway operated from pushes in lower and -in upper hallways. - -The articles required for this job are as follows: - -Two automatic burners. - -Three gas lighting push-buttons and bases. Pendant and ratchet burners -according to number of lights in rooms. - -Six cells--open circuit battery. - -One three-lever switch. - -One 8 or 10 inch spark coil. - -Three pounds No. 16 patent finish office wire. - -Two ounces No. 24 gas-fixture wire. - -One pound tinned 3/8" staples. - -Few square inches tinfoil. - -Small roll insulating tape. - -Tools: 4-inch screwdriver, pocket knife, 4-1/2-inch side-cutting -pliers, hammer, piece of sandpaper. - -The simple section switch is shown enlarged in Fig. 22. The wires 1, -2, and 3 are from their respective circuits and terminate at the -switch arms _A A A_. The wire from the battery _B_ and coil _C_ -runs to _each_ switch-stud _S S S_. If trouble shows on the line, -each circuit can be thrown off by moving its switch arm until the -fault is located. If it is not found at once, and the battery is weak, -(test each cell with an ordinary electric bell), open all the circuits -until the battery is recuperated, and disconnect the battery wire -from the switch. Then attach the battery wire to the bell and touch -each switch lever with a wire from the other binding post of the bell. -If there is a short circuit on any section, the bell will ring or -tremble when the arm is touched. - -[Illustration: FIG. 22.] - -On the contrary, if the burners fail to work and no sign of a short -circuit can be thus obtained, it is evident that a wire is broken or -a screw is loose. - -To locate a break, connect up the bell as just described and attach -the testing wire to the switch with all levers closed; this is -actually putting the bell in series with the battery, coil, and -ground. Then hunt for the break. Take a long piece of wire and fasten -one end to a ground pipe. Then touch the other end to the circuit wire -in the cellar as far as you can go, baring the insulation in spots, -but carefully re-insulating it again. If there is no break in the -cellar, the bell will ring loudly at each contact. Next, proceed to -the next floor and repeat the operation, gradually working _away_ from -the battery. As soon as you pass the break, the bell will fail to -respond. Two persons here are better than one, as it may be necessary -to go quite a distance from the bell before finding the trouble. - -Fig. 23 shows details of the wiring from the hall light to the two -push-buttons. A wire is run right down from the top push _T_, middle -connection, past the lower push _L_, where a similar branch joins it, -until it reaches the section switch. The lighting and extinguishing -wires from the lower push run up and are joined on to the similar -wires from the top push, which latter wires go directly through the -floor and ceiling to the automatic burner _A_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 23.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 24.] - -Fig. 24 is the detail of the wiring for the cellar automatic burner -_A_, from the push _P_, and is so clearly shown as not to require -further explanation. - -The secret of success in gas-lighting work is careful wiring. The -platinum tip of the vibrating rod is often bent, either by accidental -blow or by the continual hammering against the tip on the collar. This -often causes an open circuit when the lighting armature refuses to -buzz. Again, soot will form, causing weak action owing to imperfect -contact. Examine, adjust, and clean; here, as in all electrical work, -contacts must be clean. - -In general wiring, use weatherproof office wire, or, better still, -well-made electric light wire. For ordinary house work No. 16 B. & S. -gauge is preferable; smaller wire means higher resistance and less -current at burner. For braided office wire, No. 16 runs about 95 feet -to the pound, No. 18 about 135 feet to the pound. The cheaper grades -of wire without the patent finish or extra insulation are not worth -using; sooner or later trouble will ensue, and once a house is wired, -it is no pleasant job to hunt trouble, especially if the wire was put -on before the plaster. In modern buildings in large cities, the use of -conduit tubes has become general, but the handling of these conduits -comes more under the province of the electric-light wireman and less -within the scope of these pages. - -In wiring new wooden buildings do not draw wires too tight; the wood -may expand and either break wire or cause a weakening of the -insulation. In wiring before the plaster is put on, always leave a -good length free, so it will not be covered up by the plasterers. - -The wire used on the gas fixture is of a special kind, being made for -the purpose. It is made in two sizes, No. 22 and No. 24 B. & S. gauge, -and with three windings of cotton, three outer layers of cotton and -one of silk, or three windings of cotton which is soaked in fireproof -preparation, and then wound with silk. - -As the piece used is generally short, these small sizes are sufficient -in carrying capacity. After wiring up a fixture, this fine wire can be -tied on to the pipes, etc., with thread, and a good coating or two of -shellac varnish applied. When this is dry, the thread can be removed -and the shellac will hold the wires on to the fixture. On no account -finally connect up the battery to a circuit when shellacking the wire. -Wait until the shellac is thoroughly dry and _hard_--at least half a -day, if possible. - -White lead is generally used at the joints where the burner screws -into the fixture, but tinfoil wrapped round the joint will give good -service. It prevents leaks and ensures a good contact. - -The ground connection at the battery must be first-class; do not be -content with just wrapping a few turns of wire around the pipe in the -cellar (assuming the battery is in the cellar), but clean and scrape -the pipe; clean at least two feet of the wire, wind it tightly and -evenly on the pipe and _solder_ it. There is a pipe-clamp made which -is clamped on the pipe and the wire attached to that, but it must be -properly put on a clean surface. - - -WIRING FINISHED HOUSES. - -In wiring finished houses, especially wooden ones, the wires can be -run along skirting boards, and often pushed out of sight in the space -between the floor and the skirting. This is quite permissible, as the -wires, unlike electric-light wires, carry no dangerous current; but -waterproof wire becomes preferable, as the water used in washing a -floor will often creep under and rot the insulation. In going -upstairs, wires can often be run in the fluting of a moulding along -the stairway, and be quite inconspicuous; but wherever possible, fish -the wires up inside the wall. The main thing to be considered in -wiring is that the wires are large enough, well insulated, all joints -well made and taped and put where there is no danger of injury. Rats -have a habit of gnawing paraffin-coated insulation, and it is well to -run such in metal tubes. In joining or splicing wires, do it in a -thorough manner, and solder if possible. Never use the old bell-hanger -joint--the one in which the ends of the wires are merely looped -together. Strip insulation and scrape or sandpaper bright about three -inches of each wire to be spliced. Then, placing the bare wires across -each other about three-quarters of an inch from the insulation, -tightly wind the loose bare ends of each around the bare inside -portion of the one it is being spliced to. A touch of solder will -prevent trouble from oxidation, after the adhesive tape has been -wrapped on. Attention to details like these will often ensure the -satisfactory working of the job. - -A handy tool for gas-lighting wiring is shown in Fig. 25. One end is -bored out to fit the small nuts on the ratchet and pendant burners, -and the other is filed flat for use as a screwdriver. - -[Illustration: FIG. 25.] - -A case may arise where there is electric light on the same chandelier -as the gas lights, and that an insulating bushing has been screwed in -between the fixture and the pipe. In this case it will be necessary to -run two wires to each burner, the pipe common return being now -unavailable. Another scheme is to interpose an insulating bushing -under each burner; then the second or return wire need only be run -from the burner to the gas pipe _outside_ the main bushing. But the -local fire-insurance rules must first be consulted. - -Most ceiling gas fixtures will admit of the fixture wire being run -inside the brass shell, which makes a neater job. But the very best -of insulation must be used, and great care be taken that it be not -abraded. It should be shellacked or otherwise insulated before use. -The electric-light fixture wires are admirable for use here if there -is room. - -For concealed work in a finished house, locate the position of the -fixture under the floor of the room above by measuring both in the -room where the fixture is and in the room above. Then cut out a piece -of the floor, drill up from underneath through the fixture -plaster-rose with a fine drill, and push the fixture wire up. The main -wire can be laid under the carpet, or along the floor-crack in the -upstairs room. - -In wiring up wall-fixtures, push-buttons, etc., it is often possible -to fish the wire up from the floor by punching a hole at the fixture -and inserting a piece of chain (made for the purpose), attached to a -long and stout thread. Then drill into the skirting near the floor -plumb underneath the first hole and fish for the chain with a piece of -wire having a hook on the end of it. Where fixtures have brass -rosettes, these can be removed by (generally) unscrewing the fixture, -_but first shut off the gas_ at the meter, or plug the hole; this may -seem unnecessary advice, but experience warrants its being given. When -the chain is fished out, a piece of wire can be attached to the thread -and pulled through in turn. In most cases its point of exit at the -fixture can be concealed by the rosette, through a hole in which it -passes. Take care that the edges of this hole do not cut the -insulation. Care must be taken at every step in gas-lighting wiring. - -In wiring up a push-button, screw all wires tightly under their -respective binding screws, and then cover wherever possible with -adhesive tape. As the wires must be somewhat loose to allow of the -connections being made at the back of the push-button at the wall, -they will have to be carefully pushed into the hole, and if they are -not tightly held by screws, trouble will result. It is a good plan, -when using fine enough wire, to make a sort of eye at the end of the -wire and pass the screw through this, instead of merely giving the -wire end a turn around the screw and then driving the screw home. Of -course washers should be used wherever an ordinary screw holds a bare -wire. - - -AUTOMATIC BURNER OPERATED BY DOOR. - -One of the uses to which an automatic burner can be put is in -conjunction with an electric door-spring, lighting when the door is -opened, but preferably extinguished by independent push. In this case, -a form of trip spring should be used which would only make contact -during a portion of the travel of door. Such a trip is shown in Fig. -26. - -_A_ is automatic burner; _C_, the primary coil; _B_, the battery; _T_, -a swinging trip piece of brass hinged in brass plate, _P_, which is -screwed over the door in such manner that the door opening in -direction of the arrow will cause the trip _T_ to strike against the -spring _S_, and make contact. This spring is insulated from the plate -_P_ by the hard rubber block _R_. - -On the door being opened, the trip will make contact long enough to -light the burner and will then fall back as the door passes. On -shutting the door, the trip will be raised and will fall as the door -passes, but will not make contact. Or, if so desired, it can be made -to operate a second contact to extinguish the burner by fixing a -second insulated spring so it will be pressed when the top of trip -makes a downward movement--as when the door passes it in shutting. - -[Illustration: FIG. 26.] - -Various applications of automatic burners in connection with burglar -alarms will suggest themselves, but in these cases the utmost care -must be taken that the apparatus is in good working order; failure to -light might cause the room to be filled with gas, and serious results -ensue. - -For those persons who use gas stoves and are mechanically inclined, an -arrangement of an alarm clock with an automatic burner will enable -them to light up without getting out of bed, or perhaps even waking -up. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -PRIMARY COILS AND SAFETY DEVICES. - - -To construct a primary coil such as used with pendant or automatic -burners presents no difficulty. The most convenient sizes are those 8 -to 10 inches in length and about 3 inches in diameter. It is quite -common to speak of these coils as _8 or 10 inch coils_; to the -writer's knowledge this has been taken to mean a Ruhmkorff or -double-wound induction coil, giving a free 8 or 10 inch spark. - -[Illustration: FIG. 27.] - -To make such a coil (Fig. 27), proceed as follows: Prepare a spool by -gluing a paper or fibre tube 3/4 inch in outside diameter by about -1-16 inch thick into square or round spool ends three inches square, -one-half inch thick, and having each a centre hole just large enough -to admit of the tube being held tightly. These ends should be firmly -fixed on the tube; a pin or two driven through tube into end will -assist in strengthening the joint. Now wind on the tube about 3 pounds -No. 12 B. & S. cotton-covered magnet wire. This will give about six -layers of 80 turns each, nearly 500 turns in all, a total length of, -say, 150 feet, measuring .25 ohm. The ends of the wire are to be -brought out through holes drilled in the spool ends, and can be fixed -to brass binding posts on those ends. - -Into the paper tube push as many iron wires 8 inches long by No. 22 B. -W. gauge as will fill it. These iron wires can be tightened finally by -driving in at each end, a stout wire nail. - -Although not absolutely necessary, a coat or two of shellac varnish -applied to the windings will make a better insulation. Shellac varnish -is readily made by dissolving one part gum shellac in four parts of -alcohol. For coils which are likely to be in damp places, a good -saturation with insulating compound, such as P. & B. paint, will -render them waterproof. The need for good insulation in these primary -coils is not so urgent as in Ruhmkorff coils, owing to the lower -potential of the current. - -A smaller coil can be made with No. 14 B. & S. wire where the battery -is of higher resistance (or gives less than ten amperes on short -circuit). The remarks on battery selection on another page will be -found to meet application here. - - -AUTOMATIC CUT-OUTS. - -Where there are a number of burners to be installed in different parts -of a house, it becomes desirable to wire in a number of circuits. As -one end of the circuit is already grounded, a second ground will cause -material injury to the battery if not detected in time. It becomes, -therefore, necessary to be able to open a grounded circuit without -affecting all the lights in a house. This is possible with the -multiple circuit arrangement by using a switch, either automatic or -operated by hand. - -The simplest form of danger signal is the relay electric bell -attachment, which device is mounted on the end of the gas-lighting -coil. It consists of an armature which closes a circuit when -attracted by the coil core, in which circuit are included a battery -and electric bell. - -Now when an ordinary pendant or ratchet burner is pulled, it only -sends a momentary current through the coil, enough to magnetize the -core, but not enough to attract the armature sufficiently long for the -bell to ring. But if a short circuit or ground should occur, the -armature is held against the contact long enough to cause the bell to -ring and give warning. In some cases a constant ringing attachment is -added, in which case the bell rings until some one stops it. - - -THE SYRACUSE CUT-OUT. - -This is a most ingenious device for opening a short circuit, depending -on its action upon the sluggish movement of glycerine (Fig. 28). - -A sealed glass tube pivoted near its centre contains a portion of -glycerine sufficient to considerably overbalance it and keep one end -down. A soft iron armature is attached to this tube in such manner -that each time a current flows through a pair of electro-magnets, the -attraction of the armature causes the tube to tilt and the glycerine -flows along to the other end. Now it will be readily seen that if the -tube is only tilted for a second or so, the slow-moving glycerine will -not have flowed sufficiently to the end to overbalance it, but it -requires an attraction of the armature for a considerable period. This -electro-magnet is in circuit with the gas-lighting wires, the tube -being provided with contacts in such manner that, when fully tilted, -the circuit is broken. The momentary jerks imparted to the armature by -the operation of a pendant or automatic burner will not be enough to -permanently tilt the tube and break contact, but a short circuit will -hold the armature tight down, until the increasing weight of glycerine -causes the tube to open the circuit. - -[Illustration: FIG. 28.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 29.] - - -AUTOMATIC SECTIONAL CUT-OUT. - -[Illustration: FIG. 30.] - -This cut-out, Fig. 29, is representative of the class which use -clockwork, and is both simple and reliable. The house circuit is in -series with an electro-magnet which controls a clockwork having a long -pinion shaft. This clockwork starts and runs while the house circuit -is closed, as on operating a burner, but stops when the circuit is -opened and flow of current ceases. The wires leading to different -circuits in the building run through a number of contact springs -mounted on sliding rods, which have teeth cut on the under side (Fig. -30). These rods have soft iron armatures on the opposite ends from the -contact springs, which rest over electro-magnets, also connected to -the house circuits. When the clockwork starts, the pinion shaft -revolves, but does not engage in any of the sliding rods, as they -just clear it. Should a heavy or continuous current pass through one -of the electro-magnets, it attracts the armature on the corresponding -rod (Fig. 31), and the turning pinion engages in the teeth, drawing up -the rod and breaking contact. - -[Illustration: FIG. 31.] - -Fig. 32 is a form of battery protector which works on the gravity -principle. Here each section is governed by a rocking contact, -operated by two glass bulbs partially filled with a volatile fluid -(such as ether), and joined by a glass tube. In one of these bulbs is -a platinum wire which is included in the circuit and heats upon the -passage of a strong or continuous current. If the circuit is closed -too long, the heating of the platinum wire causes the fluid to flow -into the upper bulb, and, as the bulbs are pivoted, the increased -weight of the upper bulb now overbalances the rocker and breaks the -circuit on that section. - -[Illustration: FIG. 32.] - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -LIGHTING OF LARGE BUILDINGS. - - -The jump spark system is used where it is desired to light clusters of -gas jets situated in inaccessible places, or a number of them -simultaneously. The spark from a Ruhmkorff coil, being made by a -contact broken at the coil and not at the burner, can be divided up -among a number of simple burners placed in series. One of the burners -used and known as the Smith jump spark burner is shown in Fig. 33. The -wires from the coil are attached to the electrodes shown on each side -of the burner, and the spark jumps across the gap, situated nearly -over the burner orifice. There is a guard-flange of mica round the -lower part. - -Fig. 34 shows the manner in which the jump spark is applied to a -Welsbach burner. A small porcelain clip carrying the spark-gap wires -is held on the top of the burner chimney. The electrodes project down -into the chimney so that a draught of air cannot carry the stream of -gas away from the spark-gap. - -[Illustration: FIG. 33.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 35.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 34.] - -Fig. 35 shows a burner intended for the stage of a theatre, or where -the lights are located in dangerous and inaccessible places. The -burner is made of porcelain upon which are spun the metal top and -bottom. One electrode is also clamped around it, allowing of -adjustment and better insulation. - -[Illustration: FIG. 36.] - -These burners are used in series, as shown in Fig. 36. _B B B_ are the -burners; _S S_, the secondary wires from the Ruhmkorff coil, _I_; _P -P_, the primary coil wires from battery, opened and closed by means of -the key, _K_. - -It is often possible to place plain burners close enough so that they -can ignite by contagion. In this case one of the plain burners is -removed and replaced by a multiple burner, as above. - -It is customary to allow sixteen burners to one inch of spark, in -which case the spark gaps are adjusted about one-sixteenth of an inch -apart. A coil giving a 2-inch spark would operate 32 burners, but -actually it would be found preferable to omit a few, so as to make -allowance for any slight leak. A spark of over 2 inches is hard to -handle, although often used; it is better to make up a number of -circuits of, say, 30 burners each, and operate them alternately by a -suitable switch. - -The wire used to connect the burners is generally bare, although an -insulated wire is sometimes used. But the electromotive force of a -2-inch spark is so high that it is better to run the wires so they do -not come near anything liable to cause a leak. The remarkable tendency -of these high-tension currents must be most carefully guarded against; -indeed, it is what makes this style of gas lighting so often -unsuccessful. A damp wall, gilt wall-paper, a gas pipe hidden in the -plaster, will often lead off the current. The wires should be at least -50 per cent. further off from any object than the spark length; that -is, a 2-inch spark circuit should be at least 3 inches away from a -wall, and the further the better. It cannot be too strongly urged that -every precaution be taken to keep the wires away from objects other -than their insulators. - -[Illustration: FIG. 37.] - -Fig. 37 shows the special form of insulator used. It is made of the -highest grade glaze filled porcelain, and the screw is passed into it -and holds against the lower end as far away from the wire as possible. - -Glass tubes should be passed over the wires wherever they come near -any metallic object, that is, within sparking distance. - - -EDWARDS' CONDENSER SYSTEM. - -This system differs from the foregoing in that the spark-gaps are -connected in multiple, instead of series, and each burner is provided -with a small but efficient condenser. - -[Illustration: FIG. 38.] - -It prevents trouble should a wire break between burners, in which -event only one burner would be out of commission, whereas in the first -method, the whole number in that series would suffer. It is also more -sure in action and presents less liability of the spark jumping to the -ground. The burner pillars need not be made of porcelain or lava; in -fact, the electrodes can be readily attached to the existing burner. -Fig. 38 is a condenser consisting of a small oval piece of mica, on -each side of which is fastened, with insulating varnish, a -spatula-shaped piece of tinfoil. One foil sheet is attached to the -line, the other to the burner electrode. These condensers must not be -allowed to get wet or their efficiency will be impaired. - -[Illustration: FIG. 39.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 40.] - -Figs. 39 and 40 are the most generally used burners, the wire from the -condenser being attached to the lug or top electrode, which is -insulated from the burner by means of the mica plate to which it is -riveted. The burner pillars are of course grounded through their -being screwed into the gas pipe. The circuit is shown in Fig. 41. _I_ -is the induction or Ruhmkorff coil, in the primary circuit of which is -the key, _K_, controlling the current from the battery, _B_, and -across which is bridged the condenser, _C C_. When the coil vibrator -is used, the condenser _C C_ can be omitted, that of the coil itself -serving instead. _S_ is the wire leading from the secondary terminal -of the coil to the burner condenser, _C_, which, in turn, are -connected to the electrodes on the burners, _P P_, as before noted. -The other secondary wire is grounded preferably to the gas pipe -itself. - -[Illustration: FIG. 41.] - -Where a lot of burners are placed together, as in a ring, it is often -feasible to light them by contagion, one tip only being connected to -the coil circuit, the others lighting from it and conveying the flame -around to the rest. This avoids multiplicity of circuits, or, perhaps, -too many burner gaps on one circuit; but the one burner may fail to -light, whereas, where all are fitted, the chances of failure are less, -especially in the Edwards condenser system. - - -SWITCH FOR JUMP SPARK-LIGHTING. - -In a switch for controlling the current of the secondary coil it will -be evident that the utmost attention must be paid to matters of -insulation. The object of such a switch is to control a number of -circuits; for example, as it is not advisable to put more than 20 to -25 burners on one circuit, a case requiring the lighting of 100 -burners would necessitate some means of passing the current to each -circuit in turn. This is shown in Fig. 42, in which _S_ is a hard -rubber plate, provided with a revolving metal arm and handle, _H_, and -four contact points, _P_, which latter receive the ends of the wires -from the groups of burner condensers _B_ by means of nuts or binding -posts. The wire from the secondary of the coil is run to the -switch-handle, _H_, great care being taken that it does not pass near -to the circuit wires, or contact points. Revolving the switch-handle -connects the secondary wire to each circuit in turn. It will be -noticed that, unlike a battery switch, this one has a large base, long -switch-arm, contact points situated far apart, and every precaution -taken to control the passage of the high-tension current. The base -should always be of rubber or glass. Shellacked-wood, or such -substitutes, are productive of trouble. - -[Illustration: FIG. 42.] - -When it is desired to light automatically a number of burners from a -distance, the Trailer (Fig. 43), is used. This is a switch similar to -above, but the arm is revolved by means of toothed wheels by the -electro-magnet shown on the back. As it is never desirable to -unnecessarily prolong the secondary wires, this device admits of the -switch being put near the circuits, and yet being operated from afar. - -[Illustration: FIG. 43.] - - -RUHMKORFF COIL. - -Fig. 44 shows a diagram of a Ruhmkorff coil, the letters referring as -follows: - -_C_ the iron core, _P_ the primary coil wires, _I_ the insulating tube -between primary _P_ and the secondary coil _S_. In small coils this -may be dispensed with, and a heavy layer of paraffin wax laid over the -primary coil. _D D_ are the ends of the secondary, showing sparking -taking place between a pair of balls (or between the electrodes of a -gas burner); _R_ is a stiff spring fastened to the coil base and -carrying a soft iron hammer, which is attracted toward the iron core, -_C_, when current passes through the primary coil and magnetizes it. -_L_ is a battery, _J_, a condenser, to be more fully described later -on. When the spring _R_ touches the adjustment screw _A_ at _B_, as -they are insulated from each other, contact is made and reference to -circuit will show that the current from battery _L_ flows through -primary coil, magnetizing the core and attracting soft iron hammer on -_R_. As this bends forward, it breaks contact at _B_, the core loses -its magnetism and the spring flies back, to again make contact. This -is repeated many times per second. - -[Illustration: FIG. 44.] - -As a heavy spark occurs at _B_ on the break of contact, the condenser, -_J_, is attached at _M K_. This is a series of insulated tinfoil -sheets, which has the property of nullifying the spark at _B_, and so -preventing the waste of platinum with which both adjustment screw _A_ -and spring _R_ are equipped. - -A Ruhmkorff coil differs from a simple primary coil in three main -points. Two separate coils instead of one; high insulation, and a -primary coil of few turns. In the simple coil we desired -self-induction; here, we desire to avoid it as much as possible. - -The average size Ruhmkorff coil, for jump spark work, would be one -giving a 2-inch spark, specifications for which are as follows: - -_Spool_--Nine inches long by one inch in diameter. End cheeks 4 inches -high by 3 inches wide. - -_Core_--Sufficient soft iron wires, 9 inches long by No. 22 B. W. -gauge as will fill the spool tube. - -_Primary_--Two layers No. 14 B. & S. gauge cotton-covered copper wire. - -_Secondary_--Two and one-half pounds No. 36 B. & S. gauge double -cotton or silk-covered magnet wire wound in four sections (or more -than four sections, if feasible). - -_Condenser_--Seventy sheets tinfoil 4 by 7-1/2 inches; 80 sheets -condenser paper 5 by 8 inches. - - -SPOOL. - -This should be made up of a fibre tube 9 inches in length by about -1/16 inch thick, and should be firmly fixed into the spool ends. If it -be glued in it should also be pinned as well; it is easily possible to -drive in a few screws passing through the tube into the spool ends, -particularly as the soft iron core, being of loose wires, will adapt -itself to the slightly projecting screw-heads. Remember that this -spool must be made strong; if it comes apart during the winding -process, much trouble will ensue, and perhaps all the wires lost or -ruined. For reasons to be seen later, do not affix the right-hand -spool end yet, but have it ready. The core consists of as many fine -iron wires, say of No. 22 B. W. gauge, as can be forced into the tube, -but the core can better be added after the windings are all in; that -is, in such cases where a rigid spool tube is used. - - -PRIMARY WINDING. - -This consists of two layers of No. 14 B. & S. gauge cotton (or silk) -covered copper magnet wire, and should be evenly and tightly laid on. -For winding coils, a lathe is a most handy machine, or the spool can -be mounted on a spindle and rotated by hand. It is not feasible here -to give all details of coil-construction; reference should be made to -the many excellent works on the subject. The two ends are brought out -through holes in the spool ends, as indicated for the simple primary -coil before described. After winding, the wire is to be well basted -with melted paraffin wax until it is saturated, any excess being -scraped off so as to leave a smooth cylindrical surface for the -secondary coil. Half a dozen turns of stout paper or oiled silk is now -to be wound on, and enough paraffin wax added to leave an insulation -at least one-quarter of an inch around the outside of the winding. The -right-hand end of spool, where the end was not attached, will require -a little care that the wire does not run off; but, as only two layers -are to be wound, it is an easy thing to do. - -When the primary coil is finished off, cut three pieces of hard rubber -four inches square, with a central hole just big enough that they may -be slipped on over the primary coil to form divisions into which the -secondary wire goes. These can be fixed equal distances apart by means -of removable wooden blocks, which are taken off as each section is -wound. - - -SECONDARY COIL. - -The secondary coil consists of about 2-1/2 pounds No. 36 B. & S. gauge -silk or cotton-covered magnet wire, wound evenly in layers in the -sections on the primary coil. Before any wire goes into a section, it -must be seen that the division fits tight to the primary coil. It will -be best to pour around the coil some melted paraffin wax so as to form -an insulating ring, and prevent any possibility of the spark creeping -under the section division into the next. The actual operation of -winding presents no difficulty other than those of keeping the wire -from damage and getting as even layers as possible. If each layer is -separated from its neighbor by a strip of paraffined paper, it makes -even winding easier, and better insulation. As to the insulating of -the secondary coil, it can be done in a variety of ways. The coil can -be soaked in molten paraffin until saturated, or the wire can be made -to pass through a dish of molten paraffin while on its way from the -wire reel to the coil. In the latter case the wire must be guided by -means of glass rollers, as the wax would harden rapidly if touched by -the fingers. In connecting up the sections, the similar ends are to be -joined; that is, the inside ends to inside ends, and outside ends to -outside ends, as per diagram (Fig. 45). This will bring two outside -ends free for attachment to binding posts. Fig. 46 shows direction of -winding and connecting the two middle coils, _A C_ being the inside -layers next to primary and _B D_ the outside layers. - -[Illustration: FIG. 45.] - -An outside coat of paraffin wax is now given to the coil and a -wrapping of waxed paper laid on. Then, if desired, a cover of -sheet-rubber or a layer of cloth can be put on over all, to finish the -job. - - -BASE, KEY, AND CONDENSER. - -[Illustration: FIG. 46.] - -The base for a Ruhmkorff coil generally resembles an oblong shallow -box. The coil is mounted on the lid, and the condenser inside the box, -the connections being made on the lower side of the lid. It is -preferable, except for appearance' sake, to make all connections -outside the box, but this is left to the worker's choice. - -[Illustration: FIG. 47.] - -_The Condenser_ is made up of 70 sheets of tinfoil each about 4 inches -by 7-1/2, and 80 sheets of clean white paper 5 by 8 inches placed -alternately, and saturated with paraffin wax. The tinfoil sheets are -laid so that about 1/2 inch projects out of the paper sheets at each -end, the alternate sheets coming out at the same end, and the -projecting pieces being bent together gives the effect of a pair of -tinfoil sheets insulated from each other, aggregating the sum of all -the small ones. - -[Illustration: FIG. 48.] - -The coil can now be attached to the base by means of screws passing -through the lid into the coil ends. If a vibrating contact breaker be -desired, reference to Fig. 44 will show method of connection. Fig. 47 -shows details of a contact breaker of similar design. _R_ is hammer -head of soft iron, _S_ a spring about thickness of clock spring and -3/8 inch wide or more. _B_ is contact point, both spring and -adjustment screw _A_ being fitted with platinum contacts. _C_ is a -check nut, to hold _A_ from turning. _I_ is an adjustment to tighten -or loosen spring _S_, by means of a lug which it carries on its -shaft. It is well insulated from pillar carrying _A_, by the hard -rubber bushing, _I_. - -The condenser is laid in the box under the coil and attached as in -Fig. 44; that is, one set of sheets to the contact pillar, and the -other set to the adjustment screw. - -For gas-lighting work, it is generally preferable to use a contact or -strap key (Fig. 48), instead of a vibrator. The key can be mounted on -coil base, in which case the condenser will be attached in same manner -as for the vibrator. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -HOW TO SELECT BATTERIES FOR GAS LIGHTING. - - -Before entering into a description of the various batteries used in -electric gas lighting, it will be well to briefly consider a few -simple electrical rules bearing upon the subject. - -A current of electricity has _electromotive force_, or _difference of -potential_ figured in _volts_, and _current_ figured in _amperes_. - -For example we will use the _water_ analogy (Fig. 49). Two tanks, _A_ -_B_, on the same level, are connected by a pipe _C_. - -Supposing tank _A_ be filled with water and the pipe, _C_, to be -opened; the water will flow along _C_ into _B_ until the level in each -tank is equal. So long as there is a difference of level, there will -be a pressure in _C_, owing to the water behind it. - -Replacing the tanks _A_ and _B_ by unequally electrified bodies, and -the pipe _C_ by a conductor of electricity, the flow of water is -represented by the tendency of the electrified bodies to equalize -themselves by a flow of current along the conductor, _C_. - -To sum up: The difference of level is now difference of potential, the -pounds pressure along the pipe being expressed as electromotive force -in _volts_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 49.] - -The quantity of water flowing along the pipe is measured, as -electricity, in amperes. As the quantity of water passing in a given -time is regulated by the size of the pipe and its own pressure, so the -quantity of electricity is also regulated. A conductor of electricity -offers resistance to the flow of current according to its sectional -area and the material of which it is composed, this resistance being -expressed in _ohms_. The greater the voltage and lower the resistance, -the more current. This law, and its kindred applications, are -expressed as follows: - - _C = E/R._ - -_C_ is current in amperes, _E_ electromotive force in volts, and _R_ -resistance in ohms. - -Thus a wire with a resistance of 50 ohms would pass 2 amperes with an -electromotive force of 100 volts. To find resistance when other two -factors are known, the formula is - - _R = E/C._ - -In selecting a battery for work, regard must be made to the current -required, and its period of flow. For energizing a gas lighting -primary coil, the current must be large, but is only required -occasionally, the battery standing idle for long periods. In this case -the class called open circuit cells are preferable, as they contain no -strong acids and do not deteriorate to any extent when not in use. Of -such class is the Leclanche-Samson, Monarch, carbon cylinder, and most -so-called dry cells. As the resistance in a conductor affects the -current flow, so it does in a battery cell; the internal resistance of -a battery is determined by its size, proximity of the elements, etc. -Cells with small zincs and porous cups are of high internal -resistance, those with large sheet zincs and big carbon surfaces, of -low internal resistance. As the primary coil used in gas lighting is -never much over one ohm, a cell of low internal resistance should be -selected. But as the wires leading to the burners must be taken into -account, a number of cells should be used to produce enough -electromotive force to overcome the added resistance. Now battery -cells can be arranged in a variety of ways--in series for higher -electromotive force, and in multiple--for greater current. - -[Illustration: FIG. 50.] - -Fig. 50 represents the series arrangement; here the zinc of one cell -is connected to the carbon of the next; this adds the electromotive -forces together and thus gives greater ability to overcome resistance, -but it also adds together the resistance of each cell. Thus 4 cells, -each 2 volts and of one-half ohm internal resistance, would, in -series, have an E. M. F. of 8 volts and an internal resistance of 2 -ohms, current 4 amperes. Fig. 51 shows four cells in multiple, the -zinc of each cell and the carbons of each cell are connected. Here the -result would be but 2 volts, but the internal resistance would be only -one-quarter, viz: one-eighth of an ohm, current 16 amperes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 51.] - -The readiest rule for connecting a battery is to arrange it according -to the resistance of the line or outside wiring. So as we will have to -use house-wiring far exceeding in length that on the coil, and -probably of less diameter. Therefore the series arrangement will be -the one to use, and not less than four cells of a low-resistance -battery. - - -THE LECLANCHE. - -This battery consists of a carbon rod surrounded by granular peroxide -of manganese forming the positive pole and a piece of zinc for the -negative pole, both elements being immersed in a solution of sal -ammoniac (chloride of ammonia). If a wire be run _outside_ the -solution and connecting the carbon and zinc, a current of electricity -flows along it. The chemical action taking place is as follows: The -zinc combines with the chlorine of the solution, liberating free -hydrogen and ammonia. The hydrogen appears at the carbon, where it is -acted upon by the oxygen of the peroxide of manganese. If too much -current is taken from the cell, that is, if the wire or circuit be of -too low resistance, the oxidizing action of the peroxide is not rapid -enough, and a film of hydrogen, which is a poor conductor, forms over -the carbon and increases the resistance of the battery--also setting -up what is termed "local action" (actually, a battery opposing a -battery). - -After a rest, the hydrogen is absorbed, but a cell rarely regains its -pristine activity after too severe demands upon it. The original -Leclanche batteries were imported from France, the home of the -inventor, but of recent years they are made in the United States, -England and Germany. The most important point to be considered in a -galvanic cell is the purity of its active parts. The zincs should be -as near chemically pure as can be obtained; the peroxide of manganese -of the best quality and perfectly free from foreign substances, and -the sal ammoniac the purest that can be manufactured. The actual -difference in work between a battery so constructed, and the average -cheap cell sold at a price to catch the unwise, is tremendous. And -this difference is indicated, not only in work, but when the battery -is at rest. Local action in a cheap battery will exhaust it even when -it is not in circuit, whereas a battery cell of good material will -remain in good order for months without more attention than the -addition of water or sal ammoniac. It has been often remarked that the -batteries made to-day are inferior to those made years ago, but it is -only true of the cheap-priced cells; if a good price is paid and -attention given to securing a well made cell, the output will be as -satisfactory. - -[Illustration: FIG. 52.] - -To set up a Leclanche cell, proceed as follows: Put six ounces of sal -ammoniac into the glass jar; fill the jar one-third full of _clear_ -water and stir. Put in the porous cup and fill the jar with water up -to its neck, pouring a few teaspoonfuls of water into the hole in -porous cup. When the cell is in working condition, the level of the -solution will be found to have receded, owing to absorption by the -porous cup. To prevent the creeping of sal ammoniac up the neck of jar -and on to the terminals of the cell, a layer of paraffin is applied to -neck of jar and porous cup. Should this need renewing, vaseline can be -used, or any heavy grease, care being taken that it does not get on -electrodes or where the wires are to be fastened. When the cell -refuses to work, throw out old solution, wash porous cup, jar and zinc -in warm water, and replace with new solution. There is a limit, when a -new porous cup must be used, but this can be done when cell does not -work after being treated as above. The electromotive force of the -Leclanche cell is about 1.45, and current on short circuit of nearly -one ampere, depending of course on thickness and porosity of porous -cup, size of zinc, and a few other points. - - -THE SAMSON CELL. - -Fig. 53 is one of the Leclanche group, in which a compound carbon -element displaces the earthenware porous cup. This carbon is composed -of two parts, a hollow-fluted lower piece and a threaded top, which -carries the binding post. In the process of manufacture, the top piece -is heated red-hot and plunged into hot paraffin wax, thus ensuring a -complete diffusion of the paraffin throughout the carbon. In this way -the creeping of salt or solution, and consequent corrosion of -electrodes and failure of cell, are avoided. The lower portion is much -more porous than the upper and is filled with a combination of -pea-carbon and peroxide of manganese held in by a plug at the bottom. -This plug can be removed and new depolarizer added. Directions given -by the manufacturers for renewing this element are to hold the lower -end of the carbon over a burner flame until the plug is softened and -can be removed, or to immerse the extreme lower end of the carbon in -boiling water. After refilling, a cork plug can be used. - -[Illustration: FIG. 53.] - -The E. M. F. of the No. 2 size is from 1.40 to 1.47 volts, and -current, on short circuit, of 12 to 16 amperes. The No. 2 Special has -same E. M. F., but current of only 5 amperes, being intended where -strong current is not required but quick recuperation. It will be seen -that this cell is far more suited to electric gas-lighting work than -the simple Leclanche, owing to its great current delivery. - - -THE DRY CELL. - -Of so-called dry cells there are numbers on the market at so low a -price that it does not pay to make one's own. But for those who wish -to do so, the following formula, furnished by Mr. Wm. Roche, of New -Standard battery fame, will be found excellent: - -One pint CLEAR WATER. - -Five ounces sal ammoniac. - -Six ounces zinc chloride. - -Dissolve the sal ammoniac in the water thoroughly. Let stand -twenty-four hours. Then add the zinc chloride, and when cool, will be -ready for use. - - * * * * * - -When you have your zinc cup ready, pour a little wax in the bottom, to -insulate; place a piece of blotting-paper inside cup and laying tight -against the zinc, about three turns. The negative element is prepared -as follows: One pound pure carbon, powdered; one pound black oxide -manganese; mix thoroughly. Then add sufficient of above solution to -hold it together without being plastic, as that would be too wet to -tamp. - -Moisten your paper in the zinc cup thoroughly. Place your stick or -plate of carbon in centre of zinc cup, hold it there central while you -pack in the carbon manganese element all around it; be sure that -carbon manganese, or negative element, does not touch zinc cup. If it -does, your cell will run down quickly. It is a good precaution to have -your paper half an inch higher than cup when in the cup, and soaked -with the solution. Give it a couple of quick taps on the bench; that -will curl the paper in at the bottom and insure against any internal -short circuit. When your cell is filled up, clean all the carbon -element away from the zinc. Seal, and your battery is ready when -you've got the connections on. - -[Illustration: FIG. 54.] - - -THE NEW STANDARD DRY CELL. - -The principal sizes of this cell (Fig. 54) are as follows: - - No. 2--5-7/8 x 2-7/16. - No. 3--3-3/4 x 1-7/8. - No. 5--6 x 2-9/16. - No. 6--6 x 3. - No. 7--7 x 3. - -The electromotive force is 1.5 volts, current of the No. 7 size on -short circuit, 24 amperes. Nos. 2, 5, 6, or 7 are most suitable for -electric gas lighting, either by simple primary coil or jump spark -coil. - - -THE EDISON LALANDE CELL. - -This cell (Fig. 55), gives a large, steady current and is of low -internal resistance, but its electromotive force is not high, being -less than .7 volt on closed circuit. Its output of current varies with -the size, type _S_ being .025 ohm internal resistance and capacity of -300 ampere-hours. The Edison Lalande cell can be applied to electric -gas lighting in cases where a large demand is made upon the battery, -for example in church or theatre lighting. - -Its elements consist of positive plates of amalgamated zinc suspended -on each side of negative plates of black oxide of copper. The -electrolyte is an aqueous solution of caustic soda. A layer of heavy -paraffin oil is poured on top of the solution to prevent the solution -from evaporating and also to keep the soda crystals from creeping up -and over the rim of the jar. - -[Illustration: FIG. 55.] - -To set up an Edison Lalande cell, fill the jar up to the brown mark -with clear water; pour in the soda from the tin box, _and stir_. When -thoroughly dissolved, pour on top of the solution one half-inch layer -of _the oil which is sent with the battery_. Then the elements -attached to the cover can be inserted, and the cell is ready for use. - -Use care not to splash the solution, as it will burn the clothing and -skin. If any does get on, a little animal grease or vegetable oil will -quickly saponify it. - -In the action of this cell the oxide of copper is reduced to metallic -copper and the zincs consumed, it being intended that each element -will require renewal at the same time. Upon picking into the oxide -plate with a sharp-pointed instrument, if the plate is red throughout, -it is exhausted; but, should it show black in its interior, it is -still capable of a little more use, but is preferable to use a new -plate whenever there is but little oxide left. - -Never remove the oxide plates from the battery, and do not allow the -solution to be less than one inch above oxide plates. - - -THE FULLER, OR BICHROMATE CELL. - -Although not often necessary in gas-lighting work, there is at times a -demand for a heavy current, such as in lighting a big building, where -a large coil must be operated. At such times a bichromate of potash -cell becomes of service. One of the types is shown in Fig. 56. _J_ is -a jar containing electropoion fluid described below. _C_ is a carbon -plate immersed in this fluid. _P_ is a porous cup holding the zinc, -_Z_, and being filled with a solution of 18 parts common salt, 72 -parts water, and one ounce mercury. - -[Illustration: FIG. 56.] - -The electropoion fluid for the outer jar is made by one pound -bichromate of potash or soda to one gallon of water, mixing in a stone -vessel. When dissolved, add three pounds commercial sulphuric acid -carefully, a little at a time, and stir the mixture constantly as it -gets hot. Always add the acid to the mixture; never attempt to pour -the mixture into the acid, or trouble will result. The sodium salt is -preferable to the potassium, owing to its greater solubility and its -not forming _chrome alum_--a hard precipitate which sticks to jars, -elements, etc., to their detriment. - -[Illustration: FIG. 57.] - -Fig. 57, a form of battery known as the Grenet battery, is used where -there is no porous cup. The zinc element, _Z_, is mounted on a rod _R_ -passing through the cap _G_ of a glass jar, _J_, and can be raised or -lowered into the electropoion fluid which the jar contains. This is a -good scheme where the battery is liable to stand idle for a long -period. - - -CARE OF OPEN CIRCUIT BATTERIES. - -_Terminals._--Take care that the solutions do not splash over -terminals; keep all terminals and binding post screws clean and -bright. See that all wires are tightly clamped in terminals, also that -their ends are clean. A loose contact is productive of infinite -trouble. Examine connections that elements are in proper relation to -each other. If in multiple, to produce large current--zincs together -and carbons together. If in series, for high electromotive force--zinc -to carbon, throughout battery. - -_Zincs._--See that the zincs are clean; if crystals form, either -reduce strength of solution with water, or scrape zincs clean, and -watch if repeated. Examine screw which holds wire; it often corrodes, -and makes poor contact in the thread. - -A clever device for preserving a rod zinc from the accumulation of -crystals is made by the manufacturers of the Samson cell. It consists -of a thin paper tube which is slipped over the zinc. When the crystals -accumulate so as to impair the cell, the tube is slipped off and a new -one put on. This device increases the internal resistance of the cell -but very slightly. - -_Porous cups and carbons._--Wash in warm water. Carbons can be well -soaked in warm water and dried in _sun_, in a place where they will -not accumulate dust. Porous cups should be well soaked in warm water, -and left to drain in a place exposed to dustless air. Examine binding -post holes and screws. - -_Solutions._--Do not make too strong. Use not more than six ounces, or -more than four ounces avoirdupois, of chemically pure sal ammoniac to -one cell Leclanche. Warm water can be used for making solutions, if -desired. Some persons drop a teaspoonful of acetic acid in the cell; -it is not recommended. If in a place where sal ammoniac cannot be -procured, use temporarily common table-salt in same proportion; -thoroughly well clean battery first. - -Batteries should be kept in a cool dry place. Dry cells should stand -upright, also in a cool place, and an examination made once in a while -of the connections. - - - - - INDEX. - - - PAGE - Acetylene Burner 16 - Argand Automatic Burner 23 - Argand Burner 14 - Automatic Burner 19 - - Batteries, open circuit 2 - Boston Cut-Out 51 - Breaks, to locate 34 - Burner, Acetylene 16 - Burner, Argand 14 - Burner, Argand Automatic 23 - Burner, Automatic 19 - Burner, Bartholdi 21 - Burners, choice of 30 - Burner, Concealed Automatic 24 - Burners, Connecting 26 - Burners, Distribution of 30 - Burner, Gasolene 18 - Burner, Pendant 7 - Burner, Ratchet 10 - Burner, Ring 23 - Burner, Stem 13 - Burner, Smith 56 - Burner, Vibrator 23 - Burner, Welsbach 15 - - Choice of Burners 30 - Clockwork Cut-Out 52 - Coil, Primary 5, 46 - Coil, Ruhmkorff 6 - Coil, Secondary 5 - Connections of Burners 26 - Connections to ground 38 - Contact Breaker 75 - Cut-Out, Boston 51 - Cut-Out, Bulb 54 - Cut-Out, Clockwork 52 - Cut-Out, Syracuse 50 - - Danger of Burners 30 - Defects in Burners 29 - Diagram of Wiring 31 - Door-Trip 43 - - Edwards' Burner 61 - Edwards' Condenser 60 - Edwards' System 62 - - Finished houses, wiring of 38 - Fixtures, wiring of 40 - Frontispiece 31 - Fuller Battery 94 - - Galvanometer 3 - Gasolene Burner 18 - Gas-fixture wire 37 - Grenet Battery 95 - Ground connections 38 - - Hall, Burners for 30 - - Induced Current 3 - Induction, Action of 3 - Insulator 59 - - Jump Spark System 55 - - Key Strap 76 - - Lalande Battery 92 - Leclanche Battery 83 - - Multiple, Batteries in 82 - - Negative pole 2 - - Open circuit batteries 2 - - Pendant Burner 7, 9 - Positive pole 2 - Primary Coils 46 - Push Button, to wire 42 - - Ratchet Burner 10 - Ring Burner 23, 63 - Ruhmkorff Coil 6, 67 - - Samson Battery 87 - Secondary Coil 5 - Section Switch 33 - Series method 57 - Series, Batteries in 82 - Shellac varnish 38 - Smith Burner 55 - Sparks, to produce 1 - Spool 70 - Standard Battery 90 - Stem Burner 13 - Switch, Automatic 66 - Switch, high tension 64 - Switch, Section 33 - Syracuse Cut-Out 50 - System, Edwards' 62 - - Trailer 66 - - Varnish Shellac 38 - Vibrator Burner 23 - - Welsbach Burner 15 - Wimshurst Machine 1 - Winding Coil 74 - Wire for general use 36 - Wire, gas-fixture 37 - Wire, office 36 - Wire, Ruhmkorff Coil 70 - Wiring finished houses 38 - Wiring of Fixtures 40 - Wiring of Push Button 42 - - - * * * * * - - -New Standard Dry Battery - -All sizes for all systems of Bells, Telephones, Burglar Alarms and Gas -Lighting. Prices according to size and quantity. - -New Standard "Autogas" Dry Battery - -For very heavy work. Gas Mobiles, Lights, etc. No. 2 set, weight 27 -lbs., neat oak case, $6.00 per set. - -New Standard Jump Spark Rhumkorff Coils, $12.00 each. - -New Standard Flashlight. - -For use around Gasolene Engines, Automobiles, Launches, Clothes -Closets, etc. $2.00 each. - -This light will positively give equal to fifteen hours actual service. -A $5.00 article for $2.00. - -Complete catalogue for the asking. - - - William Roche, - - Inventor and M'f'r, - - 42 Vesey St., N. Y. City - - Dealer in Battery Materials, - Chemicals, Etc. - - - Have a Look - Into our Store - -when in need of anything in the Electrical line of whatever nature. - -We deal in everything and carry a good stock. - -CATALOGUE ON - - Electric Light Goods, Bells, and Electric House Goods, - Switchboards, &c. Telephones and Supplies. - - J. JONES & SON, - 64 Cortlandt St., New York City. - - -JUMP SPARK COILS - - X-Ray Coils. - - Primary Coils. - - Medical Coils. - - Telephone Coils. - -C. F. SPLITDORF, 17-27 Vandewater St., N. Y. - - -AMERICAN BOOKS. - -=Allen, C. F.= Railroad Curves and Earthwork. A pocketbook for -Surveyors and Engineers. Limp leather, $2.00. - -=Cordeiro, Dr. F. J. B.= The Barometrical Determination of Heights, -Levelling and Hypssometry. Limp leather, $1.00. - -=Goldingham, A. H.= The Design and Construction of Oil Engines, with -full Instructions for their Erecting, Testing, Running and Repairing. -12mo, cloth, $2.00. - -=Kinealy, J. H.= An Elementary Text-Book on Steam Engines and Boilers. -Third edition, cloth $2.00. - -=Kinealy, J. H.= Steam Heating Charts for the use of Architects and -Builders in Estimating the Necessary Heat Required for Buildings. -$1.00. - -=Redwood, I. I.= Lubricants, Oils and Greases. Cloth, $1.50. - - We Mail All Books Postpaid on Receipt of Price. - - ADDRESS: - - SPON & CHAMBERLAIN, - - 12 Cortlandt Street, New York. - - - SMALL ACCUMULATORS - - How Made and Used - - _A Practical Handbook for Students and Young - Electricians_ - - _EDITED BY PERCIVAL MARSHALL, A.I.M.E._ - - Contents of Chapters - - I.--The Theory of the Accumulator. - - II.--How to make a 4-Volt Pocket Accumulator. - - III.--How to make a 32-Ampere-Hour Accumulator. - - IV.--Types of Small Accumulators. - - V.--How to Charge and Use Accumulators. - - VI.--Applications of Small Accumulators, Electrical Novelties, - etc. Useful Receipts. Glossary of Technical Terms. - - 80 pages, 40 illustrations, 12mo, cloth, 50c. - - - THE MAGNETO-TELEPHONE - - ITS CONSTRUCTION, - Fitting Up and Adaptability to Every-Day Use - - _BY NORMAN HUGHES_ - - CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS - -Some electrical considerations: I.--Introductory. II.--Construction. -III.--Lines, Indoor Lines. IV.--Signalling Apparatus. V.--Batteries. -Open Circuit Batteries. Closed Circuit Batteries. VI.--Practical -Operations. Circuit with Magneto Bells and Lightning Arresters. How to -Test the Line. Push-Button Magneto Circuit. Two Stations with Battery -Bells. VII.--Battery Telephone. Battery Telephone Circuit. Three -Instruments on one Line. VIII.--General remarks. Index. - - 80 pages, 23 illustrations, 12mo, cloth, $1.00. In paper, 50c. - - - _EVERYBODY'S BOOK ON ELECTRICITY_ - - PRACTICAL ELECTRICS - - A UNIVERSAL HANDY-BOOK - ON - EVERYDAY ELECTRICAL MATTERS - - FIFTH EDITION - - CONTENTS: - -_Alarms._--Doors and Windows; Cisterns; Low Water in Boilers; Time -Signals; Clocks. _Batteries._--Making; Cells; Bichromate; Bunsen; -Callan's; Copper-oxide; Cruikshank's; Daniel's; Granule carbon; -Groves; Insulite; Leclanche; Lime Chromate; Silver Chloride; Smee; -Thermo-electric. _Bells._--Annunciator System; Double System; and -Telephone; Making; Magnet for; Bobbins or Coils; Trembling; Single -Stroke; Continuous Ringing. _Connections._ _Carbons._ -_Coils._--Induction; Primary; Secondary; Contact-breakers; Resistance. -_Intensity Coils._--Reel; Primary; Secondary; Core; Contact-breaker; -Condenser; Pedestal; Commutator; Connections. _Dynamo-electric -Machines._--Field-Magnets; Pole-pieces; Field-magnet Coils; Armature -Cores and Coils; Commutator Collectors and Brushes; Relation of size -to efficiency; Methods of exciting Field-Magnets; Magneto-Dynamos; -Separately excited Dynamos; Shunt Dynamos; Field-Magnets; Armatures; -Collectors; Brush Dynamo; Alternate Currents. _Fire Risks._--Wires; -Lamps; Danger to persons. _Measuring._--Non-Registering Instruments; -Registering Instruments. _Microphones._ _Motors._ _Phonographs._ -_Photophones._ _Storage._ _Telephones._--Forms; Circuits and Calls; -Transmitter and Switch; Switch for Simplex; etc., etc. - - 135 PAGES. 126 ILLUSTRATIONS. 8VO. - Cloth, 75 cents - - -_SAMPLE COPIES MAILED TO ANY ADDRESS ON RECEIPT OF 8 CENTS._ - -[Illustration: THE MODEL ENGINEER AMATEUR ELECTRICIAN - -A JOURNAL OF MECHANICS AND ELECTRICITY FOR AMATEURS AND STUDENTS - -EDITED BY PERCIVAL MARSHALL] - - -ITS GOOD POINTS. - -Better than any paper of its kind ever published. - -The articles are original and practical. - -The articles are so clearly and simply written and everything made so -plain that it will be found easy to follow the directions and -duplicate the articles described. - -Special articles on Model engines and boilers for yachts, -torpedo-boats and war-ships. - -Designing and building of model yachts and boats. - -Making small tools for model work. - -The building of small gas engines. - -Building screw-cutting and turning lathes. - -Building all kinds of model stationary and locomotive steam engines -and boilers. - -Model engineers and their work. - -Building of all kinds of electrical machines, apparatus, coils, -batteries, telephones, microphones, phonographs, novelties. - -The articles are fully illustrated, principally with detail drawings -to scale. - -New Books, Notes and Queries, Workshop Notes and Hints, Tools and -Supplies, etc. - - -ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, $1.50 POSTPAID - -_Send in your subscription and get your friends to subscribe. Unused -postage stamps will be accepted (not revenue.) Address all -communications to_ - - SPON & CHAMBERLAIN, - - 12 Cortlandt Street, NEW YORK. - - - INDUCTION COILS - --AND-- - COIL MAKING. - - Construction, Operation and Application. - - By H. S. NORRIE. - -Second edition, thoroughly revised and greatly enlarged, and including -25 new illustrations. A good deal of the new matter is devoted to -Medical Coils, Bath Coils, Gas Engine and Spark Coils, Contact -Breakers, Batteries, X-Ray Work, Electric Gas Lighting, and a chapter -on Wireless Telegraphy. - -CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS. - -1. Coil construction, full directions, sizes of wires, &c., &c. 2. -Construction of different forms of contact breakers. 3. Insulating -materials, cements, &c. 4. Construction of various kinds of -condensers. 5. Experiments. 6. Spectrum analysis. 7. Currents in -vacuo. 8. Rotating effects. 9. The application of coils to gas -lighting. 10. Batteries for coils. 11. Secondary Batteries. 12. Tesla -and Hertz effects. 13. X-Rays and radiography. 14. Wireless -telegraphy. Contents. Index. - - 290 pages, 79 Illus. 5 x 6-1/2 in. - - CLOTH, $1.00 - - - Manual of Instruction in - Hard Soldering - WITH AN APPENDIX ON THE - Repair of Bicycle Frames - Notes on Alloys and a Chapter on Soft Soldering - - _BY HARVEY ROWELL_ - -The flame, lamp, charcoal, mats, blow-pipes, wash-bottle, binding -wire, chemicals, borax, spelter, silver solder, gold solder, oxidation -of metals, fluxes, anti-oxidisers, oxidation of cases, the cone, -oxidising flame, reducing flame, heat transmission, conduction, -capacity of metals, radiation, application, the work table, the joint, -applying solder, applying heat, the use of the blow-pipe, joints, -making a ferrule, to repair a spoon, to repair a watch case, hard -soldering with a forge or hearth, hard soldering with tongs, -preserving thin edges, silversmith's pickle, restoring color to gold, -chromic acid, to mend steel springs, sweating metals together, -retaining work in position, making joints, applying heat, preventing -the loss of heat, effect of sulphur lead and zinc, to preserve -precious stones, annealing and hardening, burnt iron, to hard solder -after soft solder. Tables of--specific gravity, tenacity, fusibility, -alloys. - - 66 pages, illustrated, cloth, 75 cents. - - For Soldering Receipts, Cements and Lutes, Pastes, Glues and - such like, _see_ WORKSHOP RECEIPTS. - - - NEW - EDITION "DE LUXE" - ON HEAVY PLATE PAPER - -[Illustration: A SYSTEM OF EASY LETTERING - -BY J. H. CROMWELL.] - - -ITS GOOD POINTS. - -Very easy to learn. - -A rapid method to become a good letterer with a little practice. - -Very easy to lay out a line of words in STRICT PROPORTION, whether it -be on a fence 500 yards long or on a drawing only a few inches across. - -Good for draughtsmen who prefer neat lettering, yet something out of -the ordinary. - -It contains 26 pages of alphabets whose modifications are almost -limitless. - -One of the cheapest in the market. - - This little book will be appreciated by draughtsmen who wish to - use plain letters (and yet somewhat different from the ordinary - run of letters) for the titles on drawings. The book will also - be valuable and useful to any one who has had no practice in - lettering, as the easy method given for forming the letters will - enable a person to form the letters correctly, and with a little - practice to do so quickly.--_American Machinist._ - - Oblong, 8vo, cloth, 50 cents - - - Workshop Receipts. - - THE MOST COMPLETE - Technical Cyclopedia in 5 Vols. - -=First Series.= =Principal Contents.=--Bronzes, Cements, Dyeing, -Electro-metallurgy, Enamels, Etchings, Fireworks, Fluxes, Fulminates, -Gilding, Gums, Japanning, Lacquers, Marble Working, Nitro-Glycerine, -Photography, Pottery, Varnishes, 420 pages, 103 illus., cloth, $2.00. - -=Second Series.= =Principal Contents.=--Acidimetry, Albumen Alcohol, -Alkaloids, Bitters, Bleaching, Boiler Incrustations, Cleansing, -Confectionery, Copying, Disinfectants, Essences, Extracts, -Fire-proofing, Glycerine, Gut, Iodine, Ivory Substitutes, Leather -Matches Pigments, Paint, Paper, Parchment. 485 pages, 16 illus., -cloth, $2.00. - -=Third Series.= =Principal Contents.=--Alloys, Aluminium, Antimony, -Copper, Electrics, Enamels, Glass, Gold, Iron, Steel, Liquors Lead, -Lubricants, Magnesium, Manganese, Mercury, Mica, Nickel, Platinum, -Silver, Slag, Tin, Uranium, Zinc. 480 pages, 183 illus., cloth, $2.00. - -=Fourth Series.= =Principal Contents.=--Waterproofing, Packing, -Stowing, Embalming, Preserving, Leather Polishes, Cooling Air and -Water, Pumps and Siphons, Dessicating, Distilling, Emulsifying, -Evaporating, Filtering, Percolating, Macerating, Electrotyping, -Stereotyping, Book-binding, Straw-plaiting, Musical Instruments, Clock -and Watch Mending, Photography 443 pages, 243 illus., cloth. $2.00. - -=Fifth Series.= =Principal Contents.=--Diamond Cutting, Laboratory -Apparatus, Filtering, Magic Lanterns Metal Work, Percolation, -Illuminating Agents, Tobacco Pipes, Taps, Tying and Splicing Tackle, -Repairing Books, Netting, Walking Sticks, Boat-Building. 440 pages, -373 illus., cloth, $2.00. - - EACH SERIES has its own Contents - and Index and is complete in itself. - - - The Best and Cheapest in the Market - - ALGEBRA SELF-TAUGHT - - FOR THE USE OF - Mechanics, Young Engineers and Home Students - - _BY W. PAGET HIGGS, M.A., D.Sc._ - - FOURTH EDITION - - CONTENTS - -Symbols and the signs of operation. The equation and the unknown -quantity. Positive and negative quantities. Multiplication, -involution, exponents, negative exponents, roots, and the use of -exponents as logarithms. Logarithms. Tables of logarithms and -proportional parts. Transportation of systems of logarithms. Common -uses of common logarithms. Compound multiplication and the binomial -theorem. Division, fractions and ratio. Rules for division. Rules for -fractions. Continued proportion, the series and the summation of the -series. Examples. Geometrical means. Limit of series. Equations. -Appendix. Index. 104 pages, 12mo, cloth, 60c. - - * * * * * - -_See also_ =Algebraic Signs=, Spons' Dictionary of Engineering, No. 2. -40 cts. - -_See also_ =Calculus=, Supplement to Spons' Dictionary, No. 5. 75 -cts. - - -CROSS SECTION PAPER. - - THE HANDY SKETCHING PAD. - -Printed on one side, in blue ink, all the lines being of equal -thickness, with useful tables. Size 8 x 10 inches. Price, 25c. each. -Per dozen pads, $2.50. - - THE HANDY SKETCHING BOOK. - -Made from this paper but printed on both sides. Size of book 5 x 8 -inches, stiff board covers. Price, 25c. each; per dozen books, $2.50. - - SCALE EIGHT TO ONE INCH. - -A large sheet with heavy inch lines and half inch lines, printed in -blue ink. Size of sheet, 17 x 22 inches. Per quire (24 sheets), 75c. - - SCALE TEN TO ONE INCH. - -Size 17 x 22 inches, printed in blue ink, with heavy inch lines and -half inch lines. Per quire (24 sheets), 75c. - - THE ELECTRICIAN'S SKETCHING PAD. - -Size 8 x 10. Scale 10 to 1 in. Price 25c. each. Per dozen, $2.50. - - THE ELECTRICIAN'S SKETCHING BOOK. - -Made from this paper. Scale 10 to 1 inch. Size of book 5 x 8 inches, -with stiff board covers. Price, 25c. each; per dozen, $2.50. - - Any quantity mailed to any part of the world on receipt of price. - Or Books and Pads Assorted, per dozen, $2.50. - - This paper is _not ruled_. Try it and you will find it - GOOD, ACCURATE AND CHEAP. - - SPON & CHAMBERLAIN, 12 Cortlandt St., - NEW YORK. - - - PRACTICAL HANDBOOK ON - Gas Engines - With Instructions for Care and Working of the Same. - - _BY G. LIECKFELD, C.E._ - - Translated with permission of the Author by - _GEORGE RICHMOND, M.E._ - - WITH A CHAPTER ON OIL ENGINES - - CONTENTS - -Choosing and installing a gas engine. The construction of good gas -engines. Examination as to workmanship, running, economy. Reliability -and durability of gas engines. Proper erection of a gas engine. -Foundation. Arrangement for gas pipes. Rubber bag. Locking devices. -Exhaust pipes. Air pipes. Setting up gas engines. Brakes and their use -in ascertaining the power of gas engines. Arrangement of a brake test. -Distribution of heat in a gas engine. Attendance on gas engines. -General remarks. Gas engine oil. Cylinder lubricators. Rules as to -starting and stopping a gas engine. The cleaning of a gas engine. -General observations and specific examination for defects. The engine -refuses to work. Non-starting of the engine. Too much pressure on the -gas. Water in the exhaust pot. Difficulty in starting the engine. -Irregular running. Loss of power. Weak gas mixtures. Late ignition. -Cracks in air inlet. Back firing. Knocking and pounding inside of -engine. Dangers and precautionary measure in handling gas engines. -Precautions when opening gas valves, removing piston from cylinder, -examining with light openings of gas engines. Dangers in starting, -cleaning, putting on belts. =Oil Engines.= Gas engines with producer -gas. Gasoline and oil engines. Concluding remarks. - - 120 pages, illustrated, l2mo, cloth, $1.00. - - - THE FIREMAN'S GUIDE - - A Handbook on the Care of Boilers - - _BY KARL P. DAHLSTROM, M.E._ - - CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS - -=I. Firing and Economy of Fuel.=--Precautions before and after -starting the fire, care of the fire, proper firing, draft, smoke, -progress of firing, fuel on the grate, cleaning out, cleaning grate -bars and ash pan, dampers, firing into two or more furnaces, dry fuel, -loss of heat. - -=II. Feed and Water Line.=--Feeding, the water line, false water line, -defective feeding apparatus, formation of scale, gauge cocks, glass -gauge, the float, safety plug, alarm whistle. - -=III. Low Water and Foaming or Priming.=--Precautions when water is -low, foaming, priming. - -=IV. Steam Pressure.=--Steam gauge, safety valves. - -=V. Cleaning and Blowing Out.=--Cleaning the boiler, to examine the -state of the boiler, blowing out, refilling the boiler. - -=VI. General Directions.=--How to prevent accidents, repairs, the care -of the boiler when not in use, testing boilers, trimming and cleaning -outside. Summary of rules. Index. - - 8vo, cloth, 50 cents. - - - HOW TO RUN - Engines and Boilers - - Practical Instruction for Young Engineers and - Steam Users. - - _BY EGBERT POMEROY WATSON_ - - REVISED AND ENLARGED - - Synopsis of Contents - -Cleaning the boiler, removing scale, scale preventers, oil in boilers, -braces and stays, mud drums and feed pipes, boiler fittings, grate -bars and tubes, bridge walls, the slide valve, throttling engine, the -piston, testing the slide valve with relation to the ports, defects of -the slide valve, lap and lead, the pressure on a slide valve, stem -connections to the valve, valves off their seats, valve stem guides, -governors, running with the sun, eccentrics and connections, the crank -pin, brass boxes, bearings on pins, adjustment of bearings, the valve -and gearing, setting eccentrics, the actual operation, return crank -motion, pounding, the connections, lining up engines, making joints, -condensing engines, Torricelli's vacuum, proof of atmospheric -pressure, pumps, no power in a vacuum, supporting a water column by -the atmosphere, starting a new plant, the highest qualities demanded. - -Water tube boilers, fire tube boilers, why water tube boilers steam -rapidly, torpedo boat boilers, management of water tube boilers, -economy and maintenance of water tube boilers. - - 150 pages, illustrated, 16mo, cloth, $1.00. - - - THE CORLISS ENGINE. - - BY JOHN T. HENTHORN. - - --AND-- - - MANAGEMENT OF THE CORLISS ENGINE. - - BY CHARLES D. THURBER. - - _Uniform in One Volume. Cloth Cover; Price, $1.00._ - - Table of Contents. - -CHAPTER I.--Introductory and Historical; Steam Jacketing. CHAPTER -II.--Indicator Cards. CHAPTER III.--Indicator Cards continued; the -Governor. CHAPTER IV.--Valve Gear and Eccentric; Valve Setting. -CHAPTER V.--Valve Setting continued, with diagrams of same; Table for -laps of Steam Valve. CHAPTER VI.--Valve Setting continued. CHAPTER -VII.--Lubrication with diagrams for same. CHAPTER VIII.--Discussion of -the Air Pump and its Management. CHAPTER IX.--Care of Main Driving -Gears; best Lubricator for same. CHAPTER X.--Heating of Mills by -Exhaust Steam. CHAPTER XI.--Engine Foundations; diagrams and templets -for same. CHAPTER XII.--Foundations continued; Materials for same, -etc. - - Third Edition, with an Appendix. - - - THE SLIDE VALVE SIMPLY EXPLAINED - - BY W. J. TENNANT, ASSO. M.I.M.E. - - REVISED AND MUCH ENLARGED - - BY J. H. KINEALY, D.E. - - CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS: - - I. The Simple Slide. - - II. The Eccentric a Crank. Special Model to Give Quantitative - Results. - - III. Advance of the Eccentric. - - IV. Dead Centre. Order of Cranks. Cushioning and Lead. - - V. Expansion--Inside and Outside Lap and Lead; Advance Affected - Thereby. Compression. - - VI. Double-Ported and Piston Valves. - - VII. The Effect of Alterations to Valve and Eccentric. - - VIII. Note on Link Motions. - - IX. Note on Very Early Cut-Off, and on Reversing Gears in - General. - - _88 Pages._ _41 Illustrations._ _12mo, Cloth, $1.00._ - - - QUICK AND EASY METHODS - OF - CALCULATING - WITH THE SLIDE RULE - - A SIMPLE EXPLANATION OF THE THEORY AND - USE OF THE SLIDE RULE, LOGARITHMS, ETC. - - _With numerous examples worked out._ - - BY R. G. BLAINE, M.E. - - A most reliable, practical and valuable work for the engineer. - - _144 Pages._ _Illustrated._ _12mo, Cloth, $1.00_ - - - THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL - Ammonia Refrigeration - - _A Work of Reference for Engineers and others Employed in the - Management of Ice and Refrigeration Machinery._ - - By ILTYD I. REDWOOD - - CONTENTS - -B. T. U. Mechanical Equivalent of a Unit of Heat. Specific Heat. -Latent Heat. Theory of Refrigeration. Freezing, by Compressed Air. -Ammonia. Characteristics of Ammonia. The Compressor. Stuffing-Boxes. -Lubrication. Suction and Discharge Valves. Separator. Condenser-Worm, -Receiver. Refrigerator or Brine Tank. Size of Pipe and Area of Cooling -Surface. Charging the Plant with Ammonia. Jacket-Water, for -Compressor, for Separator. Quantity of Condensing Water Necessary. -Loss due to Heating of Condensed Ammonia. Cause of Variation in Excess -Pressure. Use of Condensing Pressure in Determining Loss of Ammonia by -Leakage. Cooling Directly by Ammonia. Freezing Point of Brine. Making -Brine. Specific Heat of Brine. Regulation of Brine Temperature. -Indirect Effect of Condensing Water on Brine Temperature. Directions -for Determining Refrigerating Efficiency. Equivalent of a Ton of Ice. -Compressor Measurement of Ammonia Circulated. Loss of Well-Jacketed -Compressors. Loss in Double-Acting Compressors. Distribution of -Mercury Wells. Examination of Working Parts. Indicator Diagrams. -Ammonia Figures--Effectual Displacement. Volume of Gas. Ammonia -Circulated per Twenty-Four Hours. Refrigerating Efficiency. Brine -Figures--Gallons Circulated. Pounds Circulated. Degrees Cooled. Total -Degrees Extracted. Loss due to Heating of Ammonia Gas. Loss due to -Heating of Liquid Ammonia. Calculation of the Maximum Capacity of a -Machine. Preparation of Anhydrous Ammonia. Construction of Apparatus, -etc., etc. - - 150 pages, 15 illustrations, cloth, $1.00. - - - SPONS' $2.50 - MECHANIC'S OWN BOOK, - A PRACTICAL MANUAL. - - PRINCIPAL CONTENTS. - - Mechanical Drawing. (13 pages). - - Casting and Founding. (31 pages). - - Forging and Finishing. (56 pages.) - - Soldering. (26 pages). - - Sheet-Metal Working. (10 pages). - - Carpentry, Woods, Tools, etc. (224 pages). - - Cabinet Making. (36 pages). - - Carving and Fretwork. (13 pages). - - Upholstery. (6 pages). - - Painting, Graining and Marbling. (28 pages). - - Staining, and Gilding. (16 pages). - - Polishing, Varnishing. (26 pages). - - Mechanical Movements. (56 pages). - - Turning and Lathe work. (30 pages). - - Masonry, Stonework, Brickwork, Concrete, etc. (45 pages). - - Plastering, Whitewashing, Paperhanging. (13 pages) - - Roofing, Glazing. (14 pages). - - Bell hanging, Gas fitting. (8 pages). - - Lighting, Ventilation, Warming. 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